Concrete Portable Handbook

Concrete Portable Handbook

R. Dodge Woodson

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Introduction

Chapter 1. Basic Information

Publisher Summary

Paperwork

Inspection

Special Considerations

Chapter 2. Concrete Materials

Publisher Summary

Aggregates

Water

Steel Reinforcement

Admixtures

Storage of Materials

References

Chapter 3. Durability and Protection

Publisher Summary

Special Exposure Conditions

Corrosion Protection

Chapter 4. Mixing and Placing Concrete

Publisher Summary

Average Compressive Strength

Site Preparation

Mixing Concrete

Depositing Concrete

Curing

Weather Conditions

References

Chapter 5. Concrete Formwork

Publisher Summary

Form Removal

Embedded Items

Construction Joints

Pre-Formed Concrete Products

Chapter 6. Reinforcement

Publisher Summary

Standard Hooks

Condition of Reinforcement Materials

Reinforcement Spacing

Bundling Bars

How Much Coverage is Needed?

Column Support

Some Spiral Facts

Ties

Structural Integrity

Chapter 7. General Design Consideration

Publisher Summary

Analysis

Length of Spans

Columns

Live Load Assumptions

T-Beam Construction

Joist Construction

Finished Flooring

Chapter 8. Requirements for Strength and Serviceability

Publisher Summary

Design Strength

Complicated Calculations

Local Practices

Common Sense

Chapter 9. Inspecting In-Place Concrete

Publisher Summary

Plans and Specs

Judging the Site

Quality of Installation

Cracked Concrete

Crack Activity

Crack Occurrence

Disintegration

Scaling

Dusting

Distortion

Erosion

Seal Failure

Special Cases of Spalling

Delamination

Crack Surveys

Sizing Cracks

Mapping

Joint Inspections

Core Drilling

Underwater Concrete

High-resolution Acoustic Mapping System

Side Scanner

Other Means of Underwater Testing

Laboratory Work

Chemical Analysis

Physical Analysis

Nondestructive Testing

Other Considerations

Chapter 10. Concrete Failure

Publisher Summary

Unintentional Loads

Chemical Reactions

Corrosion

Freezing and Thawing

Settlement and Movement

Shrinkage

Fluctuations in Temperature

Chapter 11. Concrete Repair Preparation

Publisher Summary

Compressive Strength

Modulus of Elasticity

Thermal Expansion

Bonding

Drying Shrinkage

Creep

Permeability

Planning A Repair

Manufacturer’s Data

Chapter 12. Removal and Repair

Publisher Summary

Removal Methods

Blasting

Crushing

Cutting

Impacting Methods

Boom-Mounted Concrete Breakers

Spring-Action Hammers

Hand-Held Impact Breakers

Hydromilling

Rotary-Head Milling

Pre-Splitting

Chemical Agents

Piston-Jack Splitters

Plug-Feather Splitter

Prep Work

Reinforcing Steel

Anchors

Chapter 13. Rehabilitation Work

Publisher Summary

Prestressing Steel

Autogenous Healing

Conventional Placement

Crack Arrest Techniques

Drilling and Plugging

Drypacking

Fiber-Reinforced Concrete

Flexible Sealing

Gravity Soak

Chemical Grouting

Hydraulic-Cement Grouting

High-Strength Concrete

Jacketing

Judicious Neglect

Polymer Overlays

Polymer Coatings

Polymer Concrete

Polymer Impregnation

Polymer Injection

Pre-Cast Concrete

Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete

Rapid-Hardening Cement

Roller-Compacted Concrete

Routing and Sealing

Shotcrete

Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete

Chapter 14. Maintenance Matters

Publisher Summary

Stains

Stain Removal

Cleaning Details

Coatings and Sealing Compounds

Chapter 15. Specialized Repairs

Publisher Summary

Rehabbing Lock Walls

Cast-in-Place

Blasting Lock Walls

Anchors

Concrete Placement

Shotcrete

Preplaced-aggregate Concrete

Pre-cast Concrete

Cutoff Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Applications

Underwater Repairs

Geomembrane Work

Roller-compacted Concrete

Chapter 16. Problem Solving

Publisher Summary

Bad Design Data

Chemical Attack

Alkali–Aggregate Reaction

Freezing

Moving Water

Cavitation

The Roundup

Chapter 17. Code Requirements

Publisher Summary

Concrete Selection

Compressive Strength

Field-Cured Specimens

Putting Concrete in Place

Mixing Concrete

Placing Concrete

Curing

Form Design

Form Removal

Embedded Items

Construction Joints

Reinforcement

Column Reinforcement

Connections

Spirals

Ties

Shrinkage

Structural Integrity Requirements

Live Loads

T-Beams

Joist Construction

First Step

Chapter 18. How Much Do You Know?

Publisher Summary

True or False Quiz

Multiple-Choice Questions

Correct Answers for True–False Questions

Correct Answers for Multiple-Choice Questions

Chapter 19. Working with Code Requirements

Publisher Summary

Lax Jobs

Strict Code Enforcement

Safety

Fees

Know Your Inspectors

Local Jurisdictions

Common Sense

Chapter 20. Avoiding On-the-Job Injuries

Publisher Summary

Very Dangerous

General Safety

Clothing

Jewelry

Eye and Ear Protection

Pads

Tool Safety

Power Mixers

Co-Worker Safety

Chapter 21. Worksite Survival

Publisher Summary

Open Wounds

Splinters and Foreign Objects

Eye Injuries

Scalp Injuries

Facial Injuries

Nose Bleeds

Back Injuries

Legs and Feet

Hand Injuries

Shock

Checklist of Shock Symptoms

Burns

Heat-Related Problems

Appendix I: Background Facts and Issues Concerning Cement and Cement Data

Preface

Units of Measurement

Contents

Part 1: Overview of Hydraulic Cements

References Cited in Part 1

Glossary of Terms

Links to Other Sources of Information on Cement and Concrete

Part 2: Issues Related to Cement Industry Canvasses and Data Interpretation

Appendix II: Concrete Pavement Technology Update

Concrete Overlays—An Established Technology With New Applications

Precast Pavement Technology— Moving Forward Fast

MEPDG Development Continues

Ongoing Surface Characteristics Research Activities

CPTP Update — New Products and Recent Activities

COMPASS—Concrete Mixture Performance Analysis System Software

Concrete Pavement Research Roadmap Tracks Underway

FHWA Cooperative Agreements to Advance Concrete Pavement Technologies

National Conference on Preservation, Repair, and Rehabilitation of Concrete Pavements

Appendix III: Foundry Sand Facts for Civil Engineers

Foundry Sand Facts for Civil Engineers

Forward

Acknowledgements

Table Of Contents

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Foundry Sand

Chapter 2: Foundry Sand in Structural Fills and Embankments

Chapter 3: Foundry Sand in Road Bases

Chapter 4: Foundry Sand in Hot Mix Asphalt

Chapter 5: Foundry Sand in Flowable Fills

Chapter 6: Foundry Sand in Portland Cement Concrete

Chapter 7: Foundry Sand in Other Engineering Applications

Appendix IV: Increasing the Quality of Concrete and Concrete Related Products

INCREASING THE QUALITY OF CONCRETE AND CONCRETE RELATED PRODUCTS

PURPOSE OF ASSIGNMENT

BACKGROUND

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

FIELD ACTIVITIES TO ACHIEVE PURPOSES

TASK FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE ACTIVITY

ANNEXES

ANNEX I – FIELD TRIP REPORTS

ANNEX II - STANDARDS AN D TEST METHODS NEEDING TRANSLATION AND DISTRIBUTION

ANNEX III– RECOMMENDED QUALITY CONTROL TESTING AND FREQUENCIES

ANNEX IV–FIELD VISIT PHOTOGRAPHS

Appendix V: Concrete and Masonry Construction OSHA 3106 1998 (Revised)

Contents

What Does Osha’s Concrete and Masonry Standard Cover?

What are the Key, New Changes to The Standard?

What are the components Of The new Standard?

What are the General Requirements of the Standard?

What are the Requirements for Cast-in-Place Concrete?

What Other help can Osha Provide?

Glossary

OSHA-Related Publications

States with Approved Plans

OSHA Consultation Project Directory

OSHA Area Offices

OSHA Regional Offices

Appendix VI: Glossary of Abbreviations

1101.2 Metric Units

Appendix VII: Common Definitions

Appendix VIII: Industry Resources

Glossary

Index

Copyright

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

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© 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Woodson, R. Dodge (Roger Dodge), 1955-

Concrete portable handbook / R. Dodge Woodson.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-12-382176-8 (alk. paper)

1. Concrete—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.

TA439.W584 2011

624.1’834—dc23

2011016242

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at: www.elsevierdirect.com

Printed in the United States of America

11 12 13 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Typeset by: diacriTech, India

Dedication

This book is dedicated to my daughter, Afton, and her new husband, Giovanni. May Mr. and Mrs. Sinclair enjoy a healthy, happy, productive marriage for their future years.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the following sources for providing art and illustrations contained in this book: The United States Government; BigStock Photos.

About the Author

R. Dodge Woodson is an internationally known best-selling author who has written in excess of 100 nonfiction books. He is a licensed general contractor and a licensed master plumber who has built as many as 60 single-family homes a year. In addition to being a builder, he is a well-known remodeling contractor and plumbing contractor who has owned his own businesses since 1979. Additionally, Woodson is accredited as an expert witness and does consulting on construction and plumbing litigations. He lives in a remote part of Maine on 150 acres and enjoys being surrounded by nature and wildlife. Outdoor photography is his passion.

Introduction

Are you looking for a comprehensive guide to working with concrete? If so, you have found it. Take a moment to scan the table of contents. You will quickly see that this is a true handbook for concrete professionals.

R. Dodge Woodson is an internationally known expert in the field of construction. He has written dozens of professional reference books and worked for over 30 years in the field as a contractor and tradesman. Additionally, attorneys call upon Woodson to serve as an expert witness in cases involving construction matters. Without a doubt, Woodson is an authority in the field of construction.

Do you want to see case studies that provide proof of concrete performance? It is here. Are you involved in new construction? Check out the first half of this book. The second half will walk you through the repair and rehabbing techniques of concrete. Open the pages, it is all here.

Chapter 1

Basic Information

Publisher Summary

This chapter discusses how the American Concrete Institute® (ACI) sets forth local code requirements for carrying out construction in a given area. ICC codes are based around the ACI requirements for both structural concrete and reinforced concrete applications. Essentially, the ACI requirements are the foundation of most building codes. ACI regulations do not apply to the installation or design of structural concrete slabs cast on stay-in-place, composite steel form decks. Areas subject to seismic risk levels are commonly governed by the local building code in conjunction with the ACI recommendations. Earthquake-resistance building principles are generally adopted from the ACI. Code office inspections of concrete installations are required to assure that minimum standards are met. Workmanship is a key factor in the success of concrete construction. On the rare occasions when a building code official is not available in a region, inspections may be done by qualified, registered design professionals or qualified inspectors. Sometimes, a situation arises where a system designer wishes to stray from the traditional code requirements. When this is the case, design specifications can be brought to the attention of a local code officer. It may be necessary for special approvals to be requested from a board of examiners who are appointed by building officials.

American Concrete Institute; board of examiners; code requirements; deflection limits; inspections; inspectors; International Code Conference; load factors; permit; post tensioning; prestressing forces

Outline

Paperwork 1

Inspection 2

Special Considerations 3

This chapter introduces the basic information needed for minimum standards of good practice for concrete work. It goes on to answer these questions: Who controls the codes that you will work with? Where are the minimum standards of good practice for concrete work found? Regulations set up by The American Concrete Institute are discussed and explained. Permit approval requirements are listed and the inspection process and its components are reviewed. Special tips for the concrete professional are scattered throughout the chapter.

Who controls the codes that you are to work with? Where are the minimum standards of good practice for concrete work found? Your local code enforcement office will mandate the code requirements in your personal jurisdiction. It is very likely that your local code requirements will be based on the recommendations and requirements set forth by the American Concrete Institute® (ACI).

I talked with people at the International Code Conference (ICC) and confirmed that the ICC codes are based around the ACI requirements for both structural concrete and reinforced concrete applications. Essentially, the ACI requirements are the foundation of most building codes.

There are some exceptions to the coverage of the ACI recommendations. For example, soil-supported slabs are often exempt from the rules of the ACI, but this is not always the case. If a slab transmits vertical loads or lateral forces from other portions of a structure to the soil, the slab requirements can be tied to the ACI regulations.

ACI regulations do not apply to the installation or design of structural concrete slabs cast on stay-in-place, composite steel form decks.

Areas subject to seismic risk levels are commonly governed by the local building code in conjunction with the ACI recommendations. Earthquake-resistance building principles are generally adopted from the ACI.

Paperwork

There are a host of requirements that must be met prior to the approval of a permit and these documents must bear the seal of a registered engineer or architect. Common elements required as part of an official submittal may include, but not be limited to, the following:

• Name and date of issue of the code requirements used to determine drawings and specifications

• Any supplement to the code used in the design and specifications

• Specified compressive strength of concrete at stated ages

• Each section of the structure has a compressive strength of concrete at stated stages of construction

• Specified strength or grade of reinforcement

• Size of all structural elements, reinforcement, and anchors

• Location or specified structural elements, reinforcement, and anchors

• Provision for dimensional changes that may result from creep, shrinkage, or temperature

• Magnitude of prestressing forces

• Location of prestressing forces

• Anchorage length of reinforcement

• Location and length of lap splices

• Types of mechanical and welded splices of reinforcement to be used

• Location of mechanical and welded splices of reinforcement to be used

• Details and location of all contraction or isolation joints specified for plain concrete

• Minimum compressive strength of concrete at the time of post tensioning

• Stressing sequences of post-tensioning tendons

• Statements pertaining to slabs on grade that are designed as structural diaphragms

Calculations that pertain to the design of concrete applications are filed with the drawings and specifications for a job when permit application is made. Computer-generated information is normally acceptable for calculations.

If model analysis is used, the process should be performed by an experienced engineer or architect.

Inspection

Code office inspections of concrete installations are required to assure that minimum standards are met. Workmanship is a key factor in the success of concrete construction. The best materials and designs will be inadequate if they are not used properly in an installation. On the rare occasions when a building code official is not available in a region, inspections may be done by qualified, registered design professionals or qualified inspectors.

Tip

Records of inspections are usually required to be kept by the inspecting engineer or architect for two years beyond the completion of construction.

When inspectors review a site location there are a number of components included in a proper inspection. The following list outlines common objectives reviewed during an official inspection:

• Quality of concrete materials

• Proportions of concrete materials

• Strength of concrete materials

• Construction methods and materials of forms

• Removal of forms and reshoring

• Placement of reinforcement and anchors

• Mixing concrete

• Placing concrete

• Curing of concrete

• Sequence of erection and connection of precast members

• Tendon tensioning

• Significant construction loadings on completed concrete structures

• General progress and workmanship

Tip

Ambient temperature changes below 40°F or above 95°F require that a record be kept of all concrete temperatures and any and all protection given to concrete during placement and curing.

Special Considerations

Sometimes a situation arises where a system designer wishes to stray from the traditional code requirements. When this is the case, design specifications can be brought to the attention of a local code officer. It may be necessary for special approvals to be requested from a board of examiners who are appointed by building officials. This board is typically made up of qualified engineers.

The board will consider testing procedures, load factors, deflection limits, and similar types of pertinent data.

Chapter 2

Concrete Materials

Publisher Summary

This chapter presents an overview of Portland cement and concrete. Portland cement is a general term used to describe a variety of cements. Because they are hydraulic cements, they will set and harden by reacting chemically with water through hydration. Hydraulic cements are the binding agents in concretes and most mortars and are thus common and critically important construction materials. Hydraulic cements are of two broad types: those that are inherently hydraulic, and those that are pozzolanic. Portland cement is the most commonly manufactured and used hydraulic cement in the United States and the world. It is manufactured through the blending of mineral raw materials at high temperatures in cement rotary kilns. Rotary kilns produce an intermediate product called clinker. Clinker is ground to produce cement. Portland cement manufacturing is a two-step process beginning with the manufacture of clinker followed by the fine grinding of the clinker with gypsum and other additives to make the finished cement product. Grinding can occur on site or at offsite grinding plants. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimated that in 2005 approximately 97.5 million metric tons (Mt) of Portland plus masonry cement was produced at 113 plants in 37 states in the United States.

admixture; aggregates; ASTM standards; cement; cementitious material; concrete; fly ash; non-potable water; Portland cement; pozzolans; steel reinforcement

Outline

Aggregates 16

Water 16

Non-Potable Water 16

Steel Reinforcement 17

Admixtures 17

Storage of Materials 18

Concrete materials are a key element in concrete construction and an in-depth discussion is presented in this chapter. An exhibit titled Overview of Portland Cement and Concrete outlines the uses and make up of Portland cement and other types of building materials. Aggregates, types of water used to mix with the concrete, steel reinforcement, and admixtures and their ASTM standards are all discussed. The chapters ends with instructions for storing these materials.

Concrete materials are obviously a key element in concrete construction, and building officials have the power to require testing of any of these concrete materials. The purpose of this testing is to ensure that all of the materials meet the quality specified when applying for a permit. The results of these tests are generally required to be available for review for at least two years after construction is completed.

When it comes to discussing approved types of cement, specifications and standards will come from the American Standard Testing Methods (ASTM).

Exhibit: Overview of Portland Cement and Concrete

Overview of Portland Cement and Concrete

Although the terms cement and concrete are often used interchangeably, cement is actually an ingredient of concrete. Cements are binding agents in concretes and mortars. Concrete is an artificial rock-like material, basically a mixture of coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), fine aggregate (sand), cement, air, and water. Portland cement is a general term used to describe a variety of cements. Because they are hydraulic cements, they will set and harden by reacting chemically with water through hydration.

Current (2004) world total annual production of hydraulic cement is about 2 billion metric tons (Gt), with production spread unevenly among more than 150 countries. This quantity of cement is sufficient for about 14–18 Gt/year of concrete (including mortars), and makes concrete the most abundant of all manufactured solid materials. The current yearly output of hydraulic cement is sufficient to make about 2.5 metric tons per year (t/year) of concrete for every person worldwide (van Oss, 2005).

Cement and Cement Manufacturing

Hydraulic cements are the binding agents in concretes and most mortars and are thus common and critically important construction materials. Hydraulic cements are of two broad types: those that are inherently hydraulic (i.e., require only the addition of water to activate), and those that are pozzolanic. The term pozzolan (or pozzolanic) refers to any siliceous material that develops hydraulic cementitious properties in the presence of lime [Ca(OH)2]. This includes true pozzolans and latent cements. The difference between these materials is that true pozzolans have no cementitious properties in the absence of lime, whereas latent cements already have some cementitious properties, but these properties are enhanced in the presence of lime. Pozzolanic additives or extenders can be collectively termed supplementary cementitious materials (SCM; van Oss, 2005).

Portland cement is the most commonly manufactured and used hydraulic cement in the United States (and the world). It is manufactured through the blending of mineral raw materials at high temperatures in cement rotary kilns. Rotary kilns produce an intermediate product called clinker. Clinker is ground to produce cement. By modifying the raw material mix and, to some degree, the temperature of manufacture, slight compositional variations in the clinker can be achieved to produce Portland cements with varying properties.

Similar varieties of Portland cement are made in many parts of the world but go by different names. In the United States, the different varieties of straight Portland cement are denoted per the ASTM Standard C-150 as:

• Type I: general use Portland cement. In some countries, this type is known as ordinary Portland cement.

• Type II: General use Portland cement exhibiting moderate sulfate resistance and moderate heat of hydration.

• Type III: High-early-strength Portland cement.

• Type IV: Portland cement with low-heat hydration.

• Type V: Portland cement with high sulfate resistance.

For Types I, II, and III, the addition of the suffix A (e.g., Type IA) indicates the inclusion of an air-entraining agent. Air-entraining agents impart a myriad of tiny bubbles into the concrete containing the hydrated cement. This offers certain advantages to the concrete, such as improved resistance to freeze-thaw cracking. In practice, many companies market hybrid Portland cements; Type I/II is a common hybrid that meets the specifications of both Types I and II. Another common hybrid is Type II/V.

Blended Cements

Blended cements (called composite cements in some countries) are intimate mixes of a Portland cement base (generally Type I) with one or more SCM extenders. The SCMs make up about 5–30% by weight of the total blend, but can be higher.

In blended cements, the SCMs (or pozzolans) are activated by the high pH resulting from the hydroxide ions released during the hydration of Portland cement. The most commonly used SCMs are volcanic ashes called pozzolana, certain types of fly ash (from coal-fired power plants), ground-granulated, blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) — now increasingly being referred to as slag cement — burned clays, silica fume, and cement kiln dust (CKD). In general, incorporation of SCMs with Portland cement improves the resistance of the concrete to chemical attack, reduces the concrete’s porosity, reduces the heat of hydration of the cement (not always an advantage), potentially improves the flowability of concrete, and produces a concrete having about the same long-term strength as straight Portland cement-based concretes. However, SCMs generally reduce the early strength of the concrete, which may be detrimental to certain applications (van Oss, 2005).

Blended cements can be prepared at a cement plant for sale as a finished blended cement product or can be blended into a concrete mix. Most of the SCM consumption by U.S. concrete producers is material purchased directly for blending into the concrete mix. Concrete producers in the United States buy relatively little finished blended cement.

The designations for blended cements vary worldwide, but those currently in use in the United States meet ASTM Standard C-595, C 989, or C-l 157. ASTM Standard C-595 defines several types of blended cements. The main designations include (van Oss, 2005):

• Portland blast-furnace slag cement (IS): Contains 25–70% GGBFS.

• Portland-pozzolan cement (IP and P): Contains a base of Portland and/or IS cement and 15–40% pozzolans.

• Pozzolan-modified Portland cement (I(PM)): The base is Portland and/or Type IS cement with a pozzolan addition of less than 15%.

• Slag-modified Portland cement (I(SM)): Contains less than 25% GGBFS.

• Slag cement (S):¹ GGBFS content of 70% or more. Type S can be blended with Portland cement to make concrete or with lime for mortars; the latter combination would make the final cement a pozzolan-lime cement.

Chemical Composition of Portland Cement

Modern straight Portland cement is a very finely ground mix of Portland cement clinker and a small amount (typically 3–7%) of gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) and/or anhydrite (calcium sulfate). Cement chemistry is generally denoted in simple stoichiometric shorthand terms for the major constituent oxides. Table 2.1 provides the shorthand notation for the major oxides in the cement literature. It also shows the typical chemical composition of modern Portland cement and its clinker. For clinker, the oxide compositions would generally not vary from the rough averages shown by more than 2–4%. The oxide composition of Portland cement would vary slightly depending on its actual gypsum fraction or whether any other additives are present.

Table 2.1

Chemical Shorthand and Composition of Clinker and Portland Cement

Source: van Oss, 2005.

*Based on clinker shown plus 5% addition of gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O).

Mineralogy of Portland Cement and Its Clinker

The major oxides in clinker are combined essentially into just four cement or clinker minerals, denoted in shorthand: tricalcium silicate or alite (C3S), dicalcium silicate or belite (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A), and tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). These formulas represent averages, ignoring impurities commonly found in actual clinker. It is the ratios of these four minerals (and gypsum) that determine the varying properties of different types of Portland cements. Table 2.2 provides the chemical formulas and nomenclature for the major cement oxides as well as the function of each in cement mixtures.

Table 2.2

Typical Mineralogical Composition of Modern Portland Cement

Source: van Oss, 2005.

As indicated in Table 2.2, some of the minerals in clinker serve different functions in the manufacturing process while others impart varying final properties to the cement. The proportion of C3S, for example, determines the degree of early strength development of the cement. The ferrite mineral’s (C4AF) primary purpose, on the other hand, is to lower the temperature required in the kiln to form the C3S mineral, and really does not impart a specific property to the cement. Table 2.3 presents the common mineralogical compositions of Types I through IV cements and the unique properties of each type.

Table 2.3

Typical Range in Mineral Composition in Portland Cements

Source: van Oss, 2005.

*Range of minerals is empirical and approximate rather than definitional.

**High-early strength is typically achieved by finer grinding of Type I cement.

Physical Properties of Portland Cement

Portland cement consists of individual angular particles with a range of sizes, the result of pulverizing clinker in the grinding mill. Approximately 95% of cement particles are smaller than 45 μm, with the average particle around 15 μm. The fineness of cement affects the amount of heat released during hydration. Greater cement fineness (smaller particle size) increases the rate at which cement hydrates and thus accelerates strength development. Except for AASHTO M 85, most cement standards do not have a maximum limit on fineness, only a minimum. The fineness of Types I through V Portland cement are shown in Table 2.4 (Kosmatka, 2002). Values are expressed according to the Blaine air-permeability test (ASTM C 204 or AASHTO T 153), which indirectly measures the surface area of particles per unit mass.