Managed Pressure Drilling: Modeling, Strategy and Planning

Index

Chapter 1

Fluid Mechanics Challenges and Technology Overview

The author’s earlier book on annular flow, entitled Borehole Flow Modeling in Horizontal, Deviated and Vertical Wells (Gulf Publishing, 1992), was the first to use boundary-conforming, curvilinear grid systems to host highly eccentric annular cross sections that contained cuttings beds, washouts, and local fractures. That work also addressed related problems—for example, helical flow and steady rotation of Power law fluids in concentric annuli, as well as the role of barite sag in promoting local recirculation zones that dangerously block oncoming mud.

Ten years later, the second edition, renamed Computational Rheology for Pipeline and Annular Flow (Elsevier, 2001), expanded the initial scope to model effects such as borehole axis curvature, flows in noncircular pipe (nonannular) ducts, and half-clogged annular domains. These two works focused on steady, two-dimensional flows without rotation and then single-phase non-Newtonian rheologies without yield stress. Many of the algorithms have been adopted by operating and oil service companies over the past two decades.

The present book, which summarizes major improvements in accuracy, speed, and engineering focus, represents a significant contribution that renders the prior works almost obsolete. Even so, the curvilinear grid technology employed in the early books remains state of the art and thus provides the mathematical foundation for the newer algorithms developed here. Improvements in formulation and solution accuracy are provided, but the new book substantially extends the range of problem-solving capabilities.

The present work gained significant impetus with the award of U.S. Department of Energy Contract No. 08121-2502-01 for Advanced Steady-State and Transient, Three-Dimensional, Single and Multiphase, non-Newtonian Simulation System for Managed Pressure Drilling, administered by the Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America (RPSEA). This award provided the opportunity to integrate past work, tie up loose ends, introduce new extensions, and provide the software platform to bring much-needed algorithms to the industry for deepwater drilling and cementing applications.

Although the prior works are by no means old, at least chronologically, the methods developed therein are often cited as new. However, in the context of this book they are antiquated and entirely replaced by newer algorithms. The methodologies here are described in their entirety so that interested researchers can develop, improve, and extend the models from first principles. They are open source in this sense. To set the stage for the presentations that follow, we explain the limitations behind the previous works as well as extensions that have appeared in papers published up to the late 2000s.

The recent works in Chin and Zhuang (2011a,b,c,d), presented at the American Association of Drilling Engineers (AADE) National Technical Conference and Exhibition in Houston in April 2011; the paper by Chin and Zhuang (2011e), given at the Offshore Technology Conference in Houston in May 2011; and the work by Chin and Zhuang (2010), presented at the CPS-SPE International Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition in Beijing in June 2010, do represent up-to-date contributions. However, the present book provides much more information than is available in the published summaries, in addition to special solutions that have not yet appeared in print.

Challenges in annular flow modeling

The problems confronting borehole flow modeling are numerous. First, the governing partial differential equations are highly nonlinear and difficult to solve: Classical superposition methods do not apply. This is so even for flows without rotation, where a single equation for axial velocity is found. When rotation exists, azimuthal flow coupling generally leads to numerical instabilities, which have only recently been satisfactorily addressed. When multiphase effects are considered, difficulties in the solution process are compounded by the introduction of a convective–diffusive equation for species concentration. Depending on the problem, steady solutions require stable iterative algorithms, whereas transient solutions require robust algorithms admitting larger integration time steps.

Second, annular geometries are complicated. A highly eccentric geometry typical of those encountered in the drilling and cementing of modern deviated and horizontal wells is shown in part (a) of Figure 1.1. A less than ideal annulus is sketched in part (f) of the figure, which indicates a washout, although fractures and cuttings beds are also possible. The governing equations must be solved for practical geometries, and satisfactory coordinate systems provide the key to success. In engineering simulation, solutions for reservoir flow from single wells, for instance, are developed naturally with circular coordinates. Temperatures in rectangular plates, in contrast, are obtained in rectangular coordinates.

Figure 1.1 Real and idealized annular geometry models.

For parts (a) and (f) in Figure 1.1, neither circular nor rectangular variables apply. Therefore, researchers have introduced simplifying methods that render the equations amenable to solution. For instance, the concentric model in part (b) of Figure 1.1 can be solved for steady Power law flows; however, yield stress formulations have so far defied rigorous analysis, with solutions available only for circular pipe flows. Out of necessity, real annuli are crudely modeled by close concentric annular flows.

Equivalent hydraulic radii approaches model the eccentric annulus as an equivalent pipe flow, as suggested in part (c) of Figure 1.1. Such approaches are completely ad hoc and cannot be extended to other situations. Slot flow methods are suggested in part (d) of the figure, in which a narrow eccentric or almost concentric annulus is unwrapped and approximated by a series of parallel plate problems that can be solved. However, circumferential inertia terms cannot be properly modeled, and extensions to transient flow are impossible. Finally, the pie slice methods indicated in part (e) remove some limitations inherent in slot flow approaches. Here, concentric solutions are applied to different slices of the annulus, but, again, the final solution, somewhat crudely, provides only as many simulation options as those available for the concentric annuli—and these are few.

Third, yield stress effects have introduced significant difficulties in obtaining solutions that are consistent with reality. In flows with nonvanishing yield stress, plug flows are found that move as solid bodies; they are embedded in the sheared flows we are accustomed to. For flows in circular pipes, simple formulas are available for plug radius, volumetric flow rate, and so on. For eccentric annuli, plug zone size and shape are generally unknown, so solutions to this important problem cannot be obtained at all. Even if plug zone location and geometry are available, mathematical issues associated with matching regional solutions across internal boundaries are overwhelming.

Finally, we cite issues associated with utility and user friendliness. Even if all of the problems just described can be solved, they must be solved quickly and stably with minimal trial and error. Results must automatically display in three-dimensional color graphics and movies. Computational and engineering expertise should not be required to obtain practical solutions. Simple definitions of annular geometry, rheological properties, and run-time inputs such as flow rate or pressure gradient and pipe axial and rotational speed are all that should be required. Only when such conditions are fulfilled will the models find real use.

Simulation challenges met and exceeded

We are pleased to report that the difficulties just cited have been overcome through combined use of rigorous mathematics and state-of-the-art numerical analysis. In addition, careful emphasis and focus on graphical interfaces and ease-of-use issues promise to make the algorithms relevant to modern drilling, cementing, and deepwater applications requiring immediate answers. These require fast solutions operable at field offices and rig sites. The applications are demanding because they require methods that work the first time and every time. As suggested earlier, we explain in the following paragraphs the limitations behind older models (including the author’s) versus the newer models to set the stage for the remainder of this book.

While Borehole Flow Modeling, Computational Rheology, and several company algorithms do model eccentric annuli using the author’s curvilinear grid systems, past transformed differential equations neglected partial derivatives of the (variable) apparent viscosity because they led to numerical instabilities. This approximation has been removed.

In the author’s prior models, plug zone size and shape were determined by a shock-capturing method that did not always satisfy conservation laws. The new method, using an extended Herschel-Bulkley constitutive relation, recognizes that real fluids vary continuously and do not solidify suddenly. Computations therefore reach into the plug zone, and plug size, shape, and interfacial gradients and details are calculated iteratively as part of the solution. The approach mirrors the author’s prior aerospace approaches in gas-dynamic shock capturing. In high-speed aerodynamics, shockwaves (or pressure discontinuities) can form at wing surfaces. In the late 1970s, the author employed the so-called viscous transonic equation to naturally compute evolving shocks that satisfy physical conservation laws and standard thermodynamic and entropy constraints without partitioning the flow into multiple domains. A similar approach was undertaken here.

Steady rotating pipe flow modeling for eccentric problems is beset with numerical instability problems that have not been satisfactorily addressed. Although a limited number of papers do report solutions, they are lacking in numerical detail and the models do not appear to be available for general use. The present approach, which is robust and numerically stable, calculates steady rotating pipe flow solutions as the asymptotic limit of a transient problem. Many steady and transient applications are given in this book.

Steady, single-phase models with rotation have not been generally addressed in the literature—and unsteady methods hosted on curvilinear grids are even rarer. Here we provide the first such algorithms for annular borehole flow. These represent more than the obvious ∂/∂t appendages to steady flow operators and simple time integration. Contradictory and confusing issues were addressed. Prior to 1990, mathematical solutions and field observations indicated that the effect of pipe rotation was increased flow rate (for a given pressure gradient) due to shear thinning; equivalently, when volumetric flow rate is prescribed, rotation leads to a weaker pressure gradient. Subsequent to that period, field observations were completely opposite: Pipe rotation decreases flow rate for the same applied pressure gradient. These contradictions have been cited often in industry discussions, and the fact that field observations do not represent controlled experiments does not help.

Our work has provided a simple explanation for the apparent contradictions. In the early work, concentric annuli were the main focus in vertical well applications. For such problems, the effects of rheology appear only through shear thinning, and this is responsible for the reduced resistance observed. In recent publications, the focus lies in deviated and horizontal wells where eccentricities can be large. Although shear thinning is nonetheless present, the loss of symmetry introduces certain nonlinear convective terms to the governing equations that modify the effective pressure gradient. When these terms are included in the model, post-1990s conclusions are computed naturally; they are consistent with pre-1990s observations for concentric annular flow. The calculations are operationally significant in managed pressure drilling because pipe rotation now provides additional means for pressure control at the drillbit.

Conventionally, borehole pressures are adjusted by changing dynamic friction using different pump rates (a procedure that may not be safe, since sudden pump transients are involved); by altering mud rheology and weight (a process that is slow); or simply by adjusting the surface choke. In our work, we demonstrate that drillstring rotation can affect pressures significantly without the limitations just indicated, thus providing an important tool useful in navigating narrow pressure windows often found in ultra-deepwater drilling.

Transient, three-dimensional, multiphase flow modeling is important to modern drilling and completions. The work of Savery, Darbe, and Chin (2007), with laboratory validations reported in Deawwanich et al. (2008), Nguyen et al. (2008), Savery et al. (2008), and Savery, Chin, and Babu Yerubandi (2008), describes a successful and flexible computational scheme used to solve the fully coupled equations governing axial and azimuthal velocities and species concentration.

The work models miscible mixing and predicts, for example, diffusion thicknesses as a function of cross-sectional location, time scales required for different mixing processes, and the locations of nonplanar interfaces separating multiple fluid slugs. However, the method described is extremely intensive in computation and memory. Using boundary layer approximations, equally accurate solutions are obtained in Chapters 8 and 9 of this book that are orders of magnitude faster and therefore suitable for job-planning applications.

For managed pressure drilling applications where the details of interfacial mixing are not important, pressure profiles along the borehole (and, in particular, at the drillbit) as functions of time can be obtained in minutes. For cementing applications, the ability to zoom in in order to examine interfacial mixing details is provided. Unlike the 2007 model of Savery et al., however, computations require only inputs associated with just two contiguous fluids, thus ensuring fast solutions that can be easily repeated for multiple what if analyses. Rapid access to answers ensures relevance to job-planning activities.

Why computational rheology?

Students accustomed to steady Newtonian fluid mechanics are familiar with obvious rules of thumb. But when petroleum applications are encountered, these must be abandoned without suitable or useful replacements. We offer numerous examples.

• For Newtonian flows with stationary boundaries, doubling the pressure gradient doubles the flow rate, while doubling the viscosity halves the volumetric flow. In fact, many solutions contain the simple lumped parameter 1/μ dp/dz, where μ is viscosity and dp/dz is pressure gradient. These observations are not true for non-Newtonian flows, and analogous scaling laws do not exist.

• In Newtonian fluid flow problems, barring dependencies on pressure and temperature, viscosity is a constant throughout the entire domain. This is not true of non-Newtonian flows, where the apparent viscosity varies throughout the cross section and also depends on pressure gradient or volumetric flow rate. Thus, while intrinsic parameters like n and K can be inferred from viscometer readings, instrument readings for viscosity are largely irrelevant for applications in which, say, the same fluid is flowing in a real borehole annulus.

• For steady concentric Newtonian annular flows, axial and azimuthal velocity fields completely decouple despite the nonlinearity of the Navier-Stokes equations. Axial velocities depend on applied pressure gradient and not on rotational rate, while azimuthal velocities depend on rotational rate and not on pressure gradient. This is not the case for non-Newtonian flows, even in concentric applications, because the apparent viscosity function depends on both velocities. Thus, for example, laboratory and field observations obtained for Newtonian flows are completely inapplicable to non-Newtonian flow, and any expense incurred is wasted.

• While it is not obvious without studying the governing equations, the time scales associated with, for instance, flowline startup and shutdown or time to steady state in rotating pipe applications, are completely different for Newtonian versus non-Newtonian flows.

It is clear from these examples that no simple methods exist for non-Newtonian flow prediction except for well-validated computational methods. This book develops a wealth of proven algorithms that, importantly, have been integrated for convenient use within a software framework.

Broad principles and numerical consistency

Truisms, such as death and taxes, are often difficult to prove. Such truisms are to be found in annular flow—for instance, for the same applied pressure gradient and pipe and hole diameters, higher borehole eccentricities move greater amounts of fluid whatever the rheology. Another apparent truism is found for concentric rotating flows—rotation reduces resistance because of shear thinning and increases flow rate. And for most eccentric annular cross sections, rotation seems to decrease flow rates because axial pressure gradients are altered in subtle ways. There are most likely exceptions to such truths and others. We are gratified that flow simulation results seem to be consistent with them. More important, however, is that predictive means are now available to provide numbers and, of course, appropriate guidance when truths are not so true.

What we’re not

Although this book focuses on a wide range of problems, it is important to summarize and, if necessary, briefly explain those issues not covered in addition to technical areas that the simulators do not address.

• Secondary flows in pipes and annuli are not investigated (e.g., Taylor vortices are not studied).

• The simulators do not model gas kicks.

• Pressure and temperature effects on fluids, while important operationally, are not addressed because they can only be determined from empirical measurement. We assume that rheological properties for the particular downhole environment are available and go with those inputs.

• Present turbulence-modeling methods are highly empirical and do not fit within the predictive framework of the software research. Thus, conventional models are not included, although an analogy to small n rheologies is developed in some detail.

• Swab-surge effects critically affect drilling operations. A significant portion of our research and software development focused on accurate modeling of yield stress fluids in complicated annular domains. The work addressed constant density applications. Transient compressible effects are also important in practice (i.e., water hammer effects), but these are reserved for future investigation.

What we can solve and more

No research or software development effort is ever complete, and ours is no exception. Since 2010, six papers have been presented by the author at various conferences, and audiences have raised common questions. We repeat these together with our remarks.

How well validated is the methodology? Early single-phase flow checks are reported in Borehole Flow Modeling, and pipeline validations are given in Computational Rheology. The transient, three-dimensional, multiphase flow references cited earlier give experimental details with photographs for non-Newtonian, rotating, annular flows obtained at a major university.

Are torque and drag calculations possible? Calculations can be performed with simulator output, but they are not yet part of any automated postprocessing