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Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics: With Reviews of Applications in Space Propulsion, Magnetic Fusion and Space Physics
Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics: With Reviews of Applications in Space Propulsion, Magnetic Fusion and Space Physics
Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics: With Reviews of Applications in Space Propulsion, Magnetic Fusion and Space Physics
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Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics: With Reviews of Applications in Space Propulsion, Magnetic Fusion and Space Physics

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Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics provides an accessible introduction to the understanding of high temperature, ionized gases necessary to conduct research and develop applications related to plasmas. While standard presentations of introductory material emphasize physics and the theoretical basis of the topics, this text acquaints the reader with the context of the basic information and presents the fundamental knowledge required for advanced work or study. The book relates theory to relevant devices and mechanisms, presenting a clear outline of analysis and mathematical detail; it highlights the significance of the concepts with reviews of recent applications and trends in plasma engineering, including topics of plasma formation and magnetic fusion, plasma thrusters and space propulsion.
  • Presents the essential principles of plasma dynamics needed for effective research and development work in plasma applications
  • Emphasizes physical understanding and supporting theoretical foundation with reference to their utilization in devices, mechanisms and phenomena
  • Covers a range of applications, including energy conversion, space propulsion, magnetic fusion, and space physics
LanguageEnglish
Release dateAug 4, 2015
ISBN9780128018002
Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics: With Reviews of Applications in Space Propulsion, Magnetic Fusion and Space Physics
Author

Hai-Bin Tang

Dr. Hai-Bin Tang is Professor of Aerospace Science and Technology, and Vice Dean of the School of Astronautics at Beihang University, China. His research interests include plasma and fluid physics, electric propulsion and space propulsion systems, numerical modeling, and experimental measurement.

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    Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics - Hai-Bin Tang

    Introduction to Plasmas and Plasma Dynamics

    With Reviews of Applications in Space Propulsion, Magnetic Fusion and Space Physics

    Thomas M. York

    York Scientific Consultants

    Hai-Bin Tang

    Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (BUAA), Beihang University

    Table of Contents

    Cover image

    Title page

    Copyright

    Dedication

    Preface

    Acknowledgments

    Chapter 1. The Plasma Medium and Plasma Devices

    Introduction

    Plasmas in Nature

    Plasmas in Laboratory/Device Applications

    Chapter 2. Kinetic Theory of Gases

    Introduction

    Basic Hypotheses of Kinetic Theory

    Pressure, Temperature, and Internal Energy Concepts

    Kinetic Theory and Transport Processes

    Mathematical Formulation of Equilibrium Kinetic Theory

    Chapter 3. Molecular Energy Distribution and Ionization in Gases

    Introduction

    Molecular Energy

    Ionization in Gases

    Chapter 4. Electromagnetics

    Introduction

    Electric Charges and Electric Fields—Electrostatics

    Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields—Magnetostatics

    Conservation of Charge

    Faraday's Law

    Ampere's Law

    Maxwell's Equations

    Forces and Currents due to Applied Fields

    Plasma Behavior in Gas Discharges

    Illustrative Applications of Maxwell's Equations

    Chapter 5. Plasma Parameters and Regimes of Interaction

    Introduction

    External Parameters

    Particle (Collision) Parameters

    Sheath Formation and Effects

    Plasma Oscillations and Plasma Frequency

    Magnetic Field Related Parameters

    Electrostatic Particle Collection in (Langmuir) Probes

    Chapter 6. Particle Orbit Theory

    Introduction

    Charged Particle Motion in Constant, Uniform Magnetic (B→) Field

    Particle Motion in Uniform Electric and Magnetic Fields

    Particle Motion in Spatially Varying (Inhomogenous) Magnetic Fields

    Particle Motion with Curvature of the Magnetic Field Lines

    Particle Motion in Time-Varying Magnetic Field

    Particle Trapping in Magnetic Mirrors

    Adiabatic Invariants

    Chapter 7. Macroscopic Equations of Plasmas

    Introduction

    Electromagnetic Energy and Momentum Addition to Plasmas

    Conservation Equations of Magnetofluid Mechanics

    Single Fluid Equations of Magnetofluid Mechanics

    The MHD Approximations

    Similarity Parameters

    Chapter 8. Hydromagnetics—Fluid Behavior of Plasmas

    Introduction

    Basic Equations of Continuum Plasma Dynamics

    Transport Effects in Plasmas and Plasma Devices

    Kinematics (and Dynamics) of Magnetic Fields in Plasmas

    Magnetohydrostatics

    Hydromagnetic Stability

    Waves in Plasma—Propagation of Perturbations

    Fluid Waves and Shock Waves in Plasma

    Chapter 9. Plasma Dynamics and Hydromagnetics: Reviews of Applications

    Introduction

    Plasma Acceleration and Energy Conversion

    Plasma Thrusters

    Magnetic Compression and Heating

    Wave Heating of Plasmas

    Magnetic Fusion Plasmas

    Space Plasma Environment and Plasma Dynamics

    Appendix A. Conversion between MKS and Gaussian System

    Appendix B. Definite Integrals – Maxwellian Distribution Functions

    Appendix C. Nomenclature

    Appendix D. Problems

    Index

    Copyright

    Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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    Copyright © 2015 Thomas M. York. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

    No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

    This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

    Notices

    Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

    Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

    To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

    A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

    British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

    A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

    ISBN: 978-0-12-801661-9

    For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/

    Publisher: Joe Hayton

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    Printed and bound in the United States of America

    Dedication

    In dedication:

    To our wives, Mary and Yan Liu:

    They shared the vision and the journey.

    Preface

    The study of plasmas—ionized gases which are generally electrically neutral—emerged as an important topic because of the importance of the subject in energy, communications, space exploration, and defense applications. Intense interest in the subject emerged from astrophysics¹ and study of thermonuclear processes² in the 1950s. While the subject matter foundation is inherently physical science, development and construction of devices of a broad variety require interpretation to the engineering applications. This process was assisted in the 1950s with the publication of two comprehensive volumes on Gas Discharge Physics

    The material presented here has been organized and found useful in instruction and research over a period of many years. One of the authors (TMY) first began dealing with the unique aspects of high temperature and high energy gases as a result of the work on reentry theory and experiments with shock tunnels in the 1960s. This was not an academic endeavor per se, but the study grew out of the need to build physical devices that had to meet real needs. Following periods of research were motivated by problems of space propulsion, magnetic fusion, laser fusion, and space physics. The second author (HBT) has been similarly motivated in the need to understand the physical interactions in real devices. As with the study of all fluids, behaviors of plasmas are complex, and without simple observational models, understanding comes with the combination of precise experimental evidence and appropriate theoretical and computational models. Experience has taught that the conception of principles and their application in directed research efforts based on anecdotal results from either experiment or theory have proven to be ineffective. Therefore, this material is presented in the context that there is a need for a framework of knowledge that can guide the student and researcher in the examination and exploration of the intricate and exquisite behaviors that occur in gases which are influenced by high temperatures and electric and magnetic fields.

    It is clearly intended that this serves as introductory text for those approaching the study of ionized gases. It is not intended as a text in plasma physics or as a reference for gas discharge applications; there are a number of excellent works on those subjects, and they are given as references. It is intended to provide an introduction based on physical concepts and straightforward mathematical treatment so that the reader will gain a comprehensive exposure to the basis, techniques, and problems encountered in plasma studies and applications. Physical understanding is paramount; the work always points to further study and research on any subject of interest. For the students, there are a number of new areas of physics that need a basic foundation for the engineering applications. This work presumes an undergraduate degree involving fluid and thermal engineering or in physics, and the text attempts to extend this into the introductory domains of atomic physics, electricity and magnetism, and quantum mechanics. This background is necessary in order that the ultimate effort of applications of plasma principles does not remain in the framework of simple substitution in available equations. The coverage of kinetic theory is extended into regimes of transfer and transport of internal particle energies. Electricity and magnetism coverage emphasizes not only Maxwell's equations, but the application and effects of those equations to physical experiments and devices that utilize plasmas. The equations of fluid mechanics are extended to include electromagnetic energy and momentum components, but a serious attempt is made to develop understanding of the complex fluid mechanical behaviors that result when interactions include plasma physics and transport processes. This complex behavior is made more intractable by the occurrence of both collisional and collisionless behavior in plasma devices. The authors believe that sound preparation for work with plasmas involves detailed consideration of specific plasma devices and phenomena. The applications and examples are taken from plasma accelerators/thrusters, compression/heating devices including magnetic fusion, and space physics descriptions of magnetospheres/ionospheres. The solution of numerous problems in the future involving energy, electronics, communications, and transportation fields will involve understanding plasmas and plasma dynamics. We hope this work will assist those who will face these challenges.


    ¹ Alfven, H., 1950. Cosmical Electrodynamics. International Monographs on Physics. Clarendon, Oxford.

    ² Proceedings of the 2nd United Nations Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1958.

    ³ Flugge, S. (Ed.), 1956. Handbuch der Physik, Gas Discharges I: vol. 21; and II, vol. 22. Springer, Berlin.

    Acknowledgments

    A work of this type and extent has drawn its integrity from a number of contributors in a number of ways. For both authors, each of us owes a debt to some exceptional teachers who opened our vision to understanding thoughts, concepts, and goals that became a driving force. We have gained immeasurably from coinvestigators on research projects, colleagues in research laboratories and in universities. We have gained insights from the unique relationships with our students in the process of defining and executing their research accomplishments. These individuals are too numerous to name and recognize here.

    For the first author (TMY), it is appropriate to recognize the contribution of his academic affiliation with Professor Bob Jahn at Princeton University; in the formative period of his PhD work, he was encouraged to pursue a broader academic inquiry into the scientific foundations of his research activity.

    For the second author (HBT), it is real pleasure to acknowledge the idea and understanding of plasma and plasma propulsion from Professor Yu Liu at Beihang University who not only gave encouragement but also shared his keen insight into the best way to present difficult concepts at the beginning of the author's research.

    In the preparation of the specific document, the authors are appreciative of the help at BUAA of Dr. Chaojin Qin, who transformed written text equations into precise document form. An extensive contribution was made by Mengdi Kong (MS candidate), who prepared numerous drawings and confirmed the details of the mathematical developments that are presented.

    Finally, in a work of this extent, the reader will find the inevitable error; for this the authors assume complete responsibility.

    Chapter 1

    The Plasma Medium and Plasma Devices

    Abstract

    This chapter provides an introduction to the existence of ionized gases and plasma in nature and in devices that are in common use and new devices that are being developed. With the exception of our near-Earth environment, ionized gases are common in the universe. The electrical properties of plasma allow utilization in energy transfer and in force applications in unique ways. Plasmas in nature are generally of low pressure and high temperature. Laboratory devices can generate plasmas with low and high pressures and low and high temperatures. Existing devices that utilize plasmas are identified, and some applications that promise future revolutionary developments are discussed.

    Keywords

    Electric discharges; Fusion; Ionized gases; Magnetosphere; Solar plasma; Space propulsion

    Introduction

    The world in which we function is consistent with our physical characteristics defined by mass, volume, and energy. Our natural environment is benign—a gaseous atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen at pressures of 10⁵  N/m², temperatures of 0–40  °C, and particle densities of 10²⁵ m−³. We are continuously receiving radiant energy from the Sun at a rate of about 300  W/m², in a 24-h cyclical pattern due to the Earth's rotation, which is modified by the annual cycle of the Earth's orbital motion around the Sun.

    In the course of history, we have observed in our local environment exceptional natural displays of energy that demonstrate the existence of forces and energies well beyond our control. The Sun itself is clearly of a very high temperature and is capable of transient, powerful eruptions. Storms in the atmosphere display enormous wind power; electrical lightning strikes generating shock waves and creating local temperatures that can ignite combustion. Polar latitudes evidence dynamic geophysical scale displays of light that inspire awe and require understanding. All these natural events demonstrate and testify to the high-energy excitation of our gaseous atmosphere in response to geophysical electric and magnetic field-based mechanisms. In fact, in the total physical world, with the exception of the near-Earth environment, the medium we exist in is composed of high-energy particles with electric charges, and they are in incessant motion, sometimes directed and sometimes random. In short, the physical universe is largely composed of plasma.

    This work is an introduction to the properties and behavior of that electrically active medium and of some of the devices that have been developed to utilize the characteristics of energy and force transfer with the plasma. Plasma is a medium that includes species of charged particles, and plasma dynamics is the description and analysis of force generation and energy transfer with that medium. The important characteristic of gaseous plasmas is their physical makeup, which allows reaction to electric and magnetic fields, particularly and including the conduction of current. There is a conceptual similarity of plasmas with solid electrical conductors whereby flowing electrons and electromagnetic waves move through static ions in response to electric and magnetic fields. The charged plasma particles develop organized (collective) behavior due to interaction with large numbers of nearby charged particles. Due to the energy equilibrium but mass differences of plasma component species, there is the occurrence of local electric field generation, which is the beginning of a complex interplay of particle motion and electric and magnetic fields. These behaviors are the ingredients that allow unique device performance using plasmas.

    With our relatively recent discovery (and still developing knowledge) of atomic structure, electrical charges and currents, electric and magnetic fields, and electromagnetic radiation, we have begun the process of defining and controlling particle behavior to develop new devices to serve our needs. Particularly in the last 50  years, we have seen the application of such knowledge to create devices with enhanced capability in light and power generation, communications, scientific diagnostics in the physical and biological sciences, and space exploration (National Research Council, 1995). This work introduces the student and researcher to the basic mechanics of the particle interactions inherent in devices that utilize charged particles and presents the framework for understanding their further application in new devices.

    Plasmas in Nature

    General Description

    A general representation of plasmas that are observed in nature is presented in Figure 1.1.

    The plasma regions are identified by their properties of particle density and particle temperature.

    The Solar Plasma

    It can be identified that gases in the solar system occur over the range of 10³³  p/m³ and 10⁷  K in the solar core to 10⁹  p/m³ and 10⁵  K in the Earth's aurora (Kivelson and Russell, 1993). Both these extremes in properties represent plasmas that have important physical characteristics and if produced in the laboratory can be utilized in practical devices. It can be seen that lightning, which occurs at atmospheric pressure conditions, is typified by temperatures of 10,000  K or more.

    Figure 1.1  Property domains of plasmas occurring in space and natural environment. Adapted from web site: http://www.cpepphysics.org/fusion_chart_view.html, Contemporary Physics Educ. Project (2010), with permission.

    As the solar plasma and its energies are so significant in our environment, it is useful to identify as a reference the orders of magnitude of a set of specific properties and parameters relative to the Earth. The plasma in the interplanetary system originates from the Sun. The Sun has a mass of 2  ×  10³⁰  kg, diameter of 1.4  ×  10⁶  km, and a composition of 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. The thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium produces a core temperature of 1.6  ×  10⁷  K and a corona temperature of 5  ×  10⁶  K. This plasma of the Sun escapes in all directions and expands into all regions of the solar system. At the Earth radius from the Sun the particle proton and electron densities are about 10 cm−³, with proton temperature of 4  ×  10⁴  K and electron temperature of 1.5  ×  10⁵  K, and most importantly a solar wind flow speed of about 400  m/s. The interaction of this flowing plasma with the Earth's magnetic field produces the hypersonic flow field of the asymmetric magnetosphere (Bothmer, 1999), as shown in Figure 1.2.

    Plasmas in Laboratory/Device Applications

    General Description

    Because of the potential for application in new revolutionary devices that can extend our capabilities in a number of technologies (Charles, 2009), the behavior of ionized gas plasmas has been explored over a broad range of densities and temperatures, steady state and transient conditions, small and large size scales, power levels and sources, and geometries. Laboratory devices have been constructed for basic scientific research studies (McCracken and Stott, 2005) and as test beds for product development (Cappitelli and Gorse, 1992). As with any new technology, the identification of operating principle is basic and the definition of scalability of the principle is critical to expand the operating range. A schematic display of some of the general types of plasma devices that have been developed are presented in Figure 1.3. General indications of plasma length scales are shown with respect to plasma charge separation (upper left), particle mean free path (λ), and geophysical size (lower right).

    Figure 1.2  Schematic of the solar plasma and the Earth's magnetosphere structure. Adapted from European Space Agency, ESA (2006) with permission.

    Figure 1.3  Schematic of plasma density and temperature in various types of plasma devices. Adapted from Sheffield (1975). Plasma Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation. Academic, New York.

    Categories of Device Plasmas

    There are a number of ways to classify the different types of devices that generate and utilize the unique characteristics of plasmas. Historically, devices for generating light were most basic, and fluorescent discharge tubes have been in use for over 100  years. Gas discharge vacuum tubes (Cobine, 1957) for voltage and signal modification in communication devices enabled advances that changed society. However, perhaps the most effective criteria for classifying devices are that shown in Figure 1.3: the density and temperature ranges of the plasma are as follows:

    1. Relatively low-temperature, higher pressure plasmas

    a. Flames

    b. Gas dynamic plasmas (incl. reentry)

    c. Shock tube plasmas

    d. Laser-target plasmas

    e. Electric arc plasmas

    2. Lower pressure, higher temperature plasmas

    a. Discharge tubes

    – Fluorescent lights

    – Plasma screen displays

    – Laser source plasmas

    – High-power switching devices

    b. Space propulsion thrusters

    – Ion, Hall, MPD thrusters

    3. High-density, high-temperature plasmas

    a. Magnetic fusion power experiments

    b. Laser target implosion experiments

    References

    Bothmer V. Solar corona, solar wind, structure, and solar particle events. In: Proceedings of ESA Workshop on Space Weather-1998, ESTEC. The Netherlands: Noordwijk; 1999:117–126.

    Cappitelli M, Gorse C. Plasma Technology: Fundamentals and Applications. New York: Plenum; 1992.

    Charles C. Plasmas for spacecraft propulsion. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 2009;42:163001.

    Cobine J.D. Gaseous Conductors: Theory and Engineering Applications. New York: Dover; 1957.

    Contemporary Physics Education Project, CPEP. Characteristics of Typical Plasmas. 2010 Retrieved from: http://www.cpepphysics.org/fusion_chart_view.html (accessed 15.06.15).

    European Space Agency, ESA. Solar Wind Buffets Earth's Magnetic Field. 2006 Retrieved from: http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2003/05/Solar_wind_buffets_Earth's_magnetic_field (accessed 15.06.14.).

    Kivelson M, Russell C. Introduction to Space Physics. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press; 1993.

    McCracken G.M, Stott P.E. Fusion: The Energy of the Universe. London: Elsevier; 2005.

    National Research Council. Plasma Science: From Fundamental Research to Technological Applications. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 1995.

    Sheffield J. Plasma Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation. New York: Academic; 1975.

    Chapter 2

    Kinetic Theory of Gases

    Abstract

    This chapter begins with a definition of idealized molecular behavior that incorporates classical momentum and energy conservation. The gas laws at standard conditions are derived and explained within this formalism. The transport phenomena of viscosity, conduction, and diffusion are similarly treated. Statistical concepts are introduced to establish a mathematical basis for deriving macroscopic properties. The velocity (Maxwellian) distribution function is derived from physical laws and with the introduction of entropy as an important descriptive variable of state. Average values of molecular speeds are derived. The extension of the ideal molecular model as the basis for describing real gases is discussed.

    Keywords

    Equilibrium distribution function; Kinetic theory; Pressure; temperature, and energy relationships; Transport processes (viscosity, conduction, and diffusion)

    Introduction

    In the study of the mechanics and energetics of fluid flow, normally the fluid is considered to be a continuous medium (continuum), describable by properties such as density, temperature, pressure, and viscosity. For example, energy is defined as CVT0. Since the basic problem is that of the interchange of a large amount of energy in and out and fluid systems, we must look at what a fluid is in the small (microscopically) as well as in the large (macroscopically) so that we can understand what energy is (what its forms are), and how it can change when added to or removed from a fluid. The energy exchange is central, and the effects of the energy exchange are secondary.

    Kinetic theory originated in an attempt to explain and correlate the familiar physical properties of gases on the basis of molecule behavior (perfect gas law as stated for imperfect gases, viscosity, conduction, and diffusion).

    Basic Hypotheses of Kinetic Theory

    Basic Hypotheses (Present, 1958)

    1. Molecule hypothesis—"matter is composed of small discrete units known as molecules: that the molecule is the smallest quantity of substance that retains its chemical properties, that all molecules of a given

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