Introduction to Design of Building Structures

Table

1

Design Concepts

1.1INTRODUCTION

1.1.1Objectives

The aim of the structural engineer is to produce safe and economical structures that meet stated functional and aesthetic requirements. The major goal of these notes is to serve as an introduction to structural design. This includes an introduction to the concepts of design, load determination and distribution.

1.1.2What is a structure?

A structure can be defined in a building context as a device or a physical object for channeling its self-weight and loads resulting from its use to the ground. A structure can be visioned as an organization of positioned elements in space in which the character of the whole dominates the inter-relationship of the parts.

1.1.3Types of structures

There are many types of structures to meet different functional and aesthetic requirements, physical and economical constraints and comply with regulations, codes and standards. The basic types of structures are:

1- Frame Structures (Figure 1.1a): The system consists of an assemblage of linear members beams and columns) connected by rigid or semi-rigid connections. It can be planar (2- dimensional) or space (3 dimensional). The skin or the envelope is not usually considered to resist loads other than its self-weight and to transfer local lateral loads to the main framing system. Contribution of partitions and infill walls in the lateral load resistance is usually ignored.

2- Wall Structures (Figure 1.1b): The system consists of wall arranged in the two orthogonal directions. These walls carry vertical loads from floor slabs and lateral loads from wind or earthquakes. These walls act as vertical diaphragms interacting and connected by horizontal floor diaphragms.

3- Shell Structures (Figure 1.1c): The surfaces act as the main load-carrying system. External vertical loads are mainly carried by membrane axial forces making the system capable of spanning large spans with thin members.

Figure 1.1 Types of structures

Other types of structures include dams, cable and net structures and air-supported structures. Structures can also be classified as:

1- Horizontal-span structure systems such as floors, roofs and bridges

2- Vertical building structure systems such frame, wall, core structures, etc.

The following are the factors that affect the choice of material to be used for the structural system:

•Economy/availability

•Architectural and structural functions

•Fire resistance

•Rigidity

•Maintenance

•Availability of materials

•Familiarity with materials, design and construction

This book concentrates on the analysis and design of frame (reinforced concrete and steel) and wall (reinforced concrete masonry) structures.

1.2THE DESIGN PROCESS

1.2.1Design Steps

The design process follows well-defined steps or tasks:

1- Selection of type and layout of the structure

2- Define the structural system and its behavior under load

3- Determine the loads on the structure

4- Define the main structural member components and their supports

5- Determine internal forces and moments in the structural members

6- Define the criteria for member design (i.e. codes and specifications)

7- Select member sizes and connections and provide details of design

8- Check the performance of the structure under service loads (drift, vibration, cracking)

9- Final review (especially the assumed dead loads) and redesign if necessary

10- Documentation

1.2.2Guiding Principles

The following are the guiding principles for design of building structures:

. To assist the team to develop the best concept

. To integrate all architectural, structural and environmental requirements

. To provide a safe design

. To provide an economical design

. To present the design in a clear manner

. To make a profit

1.2.3Structural Design Criteria

The criteria for the design of building structures include the primary consideration of

1- Strength: It is generally based on limiting stresses in individual elements. Ultimate limit state provides an adequate means of assessing the safety margins against overloading and understrength. For high-rise buildings large vertical loads exist and the need for high strength materials becomes apparent.

2- Serviceability: to ensure acceptable vertical deflection of floor slabs and beams under gravity loads and lateral deflection (drift) of the lateral load resisting systems such as frames and shear walls under wind and/or earthquake loads. Interstory drift is typically limited to 0.5% for achieving stability (the P-∆ effect), integrity of nonstructural elements and comfort of occupants. Other serviceability limit states include limits on crack width for control of corrosion and achieving durability.

3- Ductility: It is the ability of members and the structure as a whole to undergo large inelastic deformation while maintaining resistance to loads. The higher the ability of inelastic deformation the less the induced inertia forces during earthquakes.

4- Stability: Stability of members is rarely a consideration in design, but the overall stability of the structure as a whole (against overturning) needs to be checked, particularly for tall buildings.

1.2.4Integration with Other Requirements

The structural requirements have to be integrated with other requirements for a successful project. Other important requirements are:

. Aesthetic requirements

. Environmental requirements (such as thermal, moisture, etc.)

. Construction requirements

1.3STRUCTURAL RESPONSE

Structures respond to applied loads by deforming thereby dissipating energy through the development of internal forces. Structural response is a function of load intensity and type, characteristics of the structure (shape, dimensions, material, detailing) and type of foundation and soil.

To understand the response of a structural member to loading one has to examine the relationship between the applied load and the resulting deformation. Figure 1.2 shows a typical load-deflection curve for two structures, A and B. Initially, the structure responds elastically to loading (linear relationship between load and deflection-the slope of the line is called "stiffness"). For Structure A sudden failure takes place without any inelastic deformation and this undesirable behavior is referred to as "brittle behavior". Structure B, on the other hand, reaches its yielding elastic limit-end of the straight line) and then undergoes large inelastic deformation with small increase in capacity (stiffness is dramatically reduced) until failure takes place. This desirable behavior is referred to as "ductile behavior". In seismic areas, it is crucial to have a ductile behavior to be able to absorb energy through inelastic deformation which will result in reduction of the induced inertia forces.

Figure 1.2 Idealized response of a structural element to loads

Typical examples of brittle behavior are plain concrete and unreinforced masonry. Typical examples of ductile response include under-reinforced concrete beams, slabs and steel beams.

Structure as whole acts as a cantilever under lateral loads. Overall stability of the structure should be checked. There are three main instability failures: overturning, sliding and uplift. Types of instability failures are shown in Figure 1.3 along with methods to prevent such failures.

Figure 1.3 Overall structural response

Structures, in addition to their response to applied loads, they also respond to other effects such as temperature, creep and shrinkage and moisture expansion. These effects result in volume change over time. Provisions must be made for these effects in the form of expansion/contraction joints and control joints. Structural joints should be located at intervals that minimize the buildup of the restrained volume change stresses and at point of discontinuity and geometric changes (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Expansion and contraction joint locations

Dividing complex shaped structures into simple rectangles will result in simple structures that are easy to predict their behavior and easy to design.

1.4STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RELIABILITY

There are three main reasons why safety factors should be incorporated in structural design:

1- Variability in resistance

. Variability of material strength (Figure 1.5)

. Variability of dimensions and locations of members

. Simplifying assumptions in design

2- Variability in loading, see Figure 1.6

3- Consequences of failure

. Potential loss of life

. Cost of replacement

. Cost of lost time and revenue

Safety factors are based on a probabilistic approach. Safe and unsafe combinations of loading are shown in Figure 1.7. The term Y=R-S in Figure 1.7 is called safety margin. In this figure the shaded area represents the probability of failure. Because of economical reasons there will be always a very small probability of failure (typically 5%).

Figure 1.5 Example of variability in strength (flexural strength of reinforced concrete beams)

Figure 1.6 Example of variability in loading (live loads in buildings)

Figure 1.7 Safety margins

Reliability is the ability of a system or component to perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reliability presents ways in which products fail, the effects of failure and aspects of design, manufacture, maintenance and use which affect the likelihood of failure.

Figure 1.8 shows the pressures that lead to the overall perception of risk. Reliability engineering has developed in response to the need to control these risks