Pulp and Paper Industry: Nanotechnology in Forest Industry

Pulp and Paper Industry

Nanotechnology in Forest Industry

Pratima Bajpai

Consultant, Pulp and Paper, India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of Figures

List of Tables

Preface

Acknowledgement

List of Abbreviations

Chapter 1. Introduction

Chapter 2. Raw Materials for Production of Nanocellulose

2.1. Wood, Agricultural Crops, and By-Products

2.2. Bacterial Cellulose

2.3. Animal Cellulose

2.4. Algae

2.5. Tunicate

Chapter 3. Structure and Properties of Cellulose and Nanocellulose

Chapter 4. Production of Nanocellulose

4.1. Chemical Delignification

4.2. Steam Explosion Process

4.3. Electrospinning Technique

4.4. Refining and High-Pressure Homogenization

4.5. Cryo-Crushing

4.6. Grinding

4.7. Chemical and Enzymatic Methods

4.8. Genetically Modified Algae

Chapter 5. Preparation and Properties of Nanocellulose Films

Chapter 6. Characterization of Nanocellulose

6.1. Physical Characterization

6.2. Microscopy Characterization

Chapter 7. Modification of Nanocellulose to Improve Properties

7.1. Formation of Ionic Groups

7.2. Generation of Hydrophobic Surfaces

7.3. Surface Modification by Adsorption

Chapter 8. Applications

8.1. Paper and Paperboard

8.2. Automotive

8.3. Building and Construction

8.4. Textiles

8.5. Biomedical Applications

8.6. Food Industry

8.7. Energy Applications

8.8. Sensors

8.9. Environmental Remediation

8.10. Other Applications

Chapter 9. Commercialization Activities

Chapter 10. Environmental and Human Health Risks

Chapter 11. Challenges and Opportunities

Index

Copyright

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List of Figures

Figure 3.1 Structure of cellulose. 28

Figure 4.1 Nanocellulose. 59

Figure 4.2 Production method of Nanocellulose Generation 1. 59

Figure 4.3 Production method of Nanocellulose Generation 2. 60

Figure 8.1 Effect of nanofibrillated cellulose on tensile index of chemithermomechanical pulp. 107

Figure 8.2 Compression index for virgin kraft liner versus added amount of microfibrillated cellulose. 108

Figure 8.3 Tensile strength of initial paper and paper containing 20% of NanoCell. 112

Figure 8.4A Effect of microfibrillated cellulose content (mg/g dry pulp) on tensile index (Nm/g) showing linear trend line and correlation. Note: 30 min beaten pulp was used and 15 mg/g dry pulp of cationic starch was added to retain the MFC. 113

Figure 8.4B Effect of microfibrillated cellulose content on paper strength showing linear trend line and correlation. Note: 30 min beaten pulp was used and 15 mg/g dry pulp of cationic starch was added to retain the MFC. 113

Figure 8.5 Optically transparent nanofiber paper (left) composed of 15 nm cellulose nanofibers (upper left, scale bar in inset: 100 nm) and conventional cellulose paper (right) composed of 30 mm pulp fibers (upper right, scale bar in inset: 200 mm). 115

Figure 8.6 SEM images of (A) freeze-dried and (B) oven-dried nanofiber sheets. 115

Figure 8.7 (A) Light transmittance of the cellulose nanofiber sheets. The thicknesses of the oven-dried nanofiber sheet were 60 mm before and 55 mm after polishing. (B) The sheet is as foldable as conventional paper. 116

Figure 8.8A Wet tensile index of paper made from delignified softwood fibers treated with poly(amideamine) epichlorohydrin and cellulose nanofibrils (5 mg/g). 119

Figure 8.8B Dry tensile index of paper made from delignified softwood fibers treated with poly(amideamine) epichlorohydrin and cellulose nanofibrils (5 mg/g). 119

Figure 8.9 Increase in tensile index of TMP with CNF. 120

Figure 8.10 Air permeabilities of the base paper. Reference (x), MFC-coated base paper (▲), MFC films (♦). 131

Figure 8.11 Comparison of Young's modulus among starch/glycerol/nanocellulose biocomposite with various commercial polymers (GPa). 143

Figure 8.12 Comparison of strength at yield among starch/glycerol/nanocellulose biocomposite with various commercial polymers (MPa). 144

Figure 8.13 Use of nanocellulose in increasing tensile strength (MPa). Note: Tensile strength of PVC compared with PVC filled with 15% of NanoCell powder. 144

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Nano and the Nanomaterial 2

Table 1.2 Demand for Nanocellulose by Market in 2017 3

Table 1.3 Specific Advantages of Nanocelluloses 5

Table 1.4 Actual Situation: Nanocellulose Production 6

Table 1.5 Major Competitors 6

Table 1.6 Comparison of Nanocellulose Properties With Other High-Strength Materials Cost 6

Table 1.7 Types of Nanocellulose 8

Table 2.1 Sources of Nanocellulose 16

Table 3.1 Methods for Characterization of Nanocelluloses 31

Table 3.2 Nanocellulose Films vs. Different Materials 36

Table 3.3 Geometrical Dimensions, Crystallinity, and Mechanical Properties of Some Cellulose Nanoparticles 36

Table 4.1 Type of Functional Groups and DS After Chemical Pretreatments 56

Table 4.2 Energy Consumption in the Production of Innventia Nanocellulose 60

Table 5.1 Mechanical Properties of MFC Films Prepared From Different Raw Materials 74

Table 7.1 Advantages of Surface Modification 91

Table 8.1 Potential Nanocellulose Markets and Applications (High-Volume Markets, Worldwide, Reasonable Estimate) 106

Table 8.2 Effect of Nanocellulose on Paper Strength Properties 108

Table 8.3 Application Strategies of Mixing of Nanocellulose into a Papermaking Furnish 110

Table 8.4 Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Nanopaper 117

Table 8.5 Applications for Nanopaper 117

Table 8.6 Examples of the Variety of Functions of Nanomaterial Products in the Automotive Industry 149

Table 8.7 Desired Properties of the Material by the Automotive Industry 150

Table 8.8 Application of Modified Bacterial Cellulose and Its Composites in Food Industry 170

Table 9.1 Nanocellulose Producers (Nonexhaustive) 214

Table 9.2 Nanocellulose Production Volume 214

Table 10.1 Bioassays Used for Determining the Toxic Potential of Nanocrystalline Cellulose 223

Table 10.2 Literature on Nanocellulose Safety 225

Preface

Nanotechnology shows enormous promise to bring about fundamental changes and remarkable benefits to the forest products industry. The forest products industry is in a unique position to tap this enormous potential. By using nanotechnology materials and components in its processes and products, it can produce new high-performance consumer products from lignocellulosic-based raw materials in a safe and sustainable way, and also upgrade its processes. The industry intends to become a producer of novel/unique sustainable nanomaterials to replace nonsustainable materials produced from fossil fuels. Use of nanocellulose in nanocomposites will permit the production of lighter-weight materials for replacing metals and plastics with extensive application in the forest products and other industries. Nanotechnology is a fairly new area of research and development. The range of applications for nanotechnology is enormous. The potential for nanotechnology development in the forest products industry has become apparent and realizable over the last decade. Nanotechnology provides a means for developing wood-based materials and improving forest-based materials that could be important contributors to the forest-based economy. Also, new processes developed through nanotechnology are expected to revolutionize the forest industry in wood-based products, pulp, paper, fiber-based products, wood composites, and functional lignocellulosics. Currently, the greatest volume potential for use of cellulose nanomaterials is in paper and packaging applications. Other potentially high-volume uses are in the construction, automotive, personal care, and textile sectors. Some of the important companies operating in the market for cellulose technology include US Forest Service Products Laboratory, Stora Enso Ltd., Georgia Tech, Grenoble INP-Pagora, Melodea, Nippon Paper, Polynew, Inc., Verso Paper, SUNY-ESF, Oji Paper, UPM-Kymmene Ltd., and Daicel Chemical Ltd. This book covers the latest scientific and technical advances in the area of nanotechnology in the forest sector, providing information on recent developments, structure and properties, raw materials, and methods for the production of nanocellulose, along with their characterization and application in various industries with an analysis of both challenges and opportunities with respect to environmentally sound technologies and consumer concerns, such as health effects. It also identifies the key barriers to innovation and the breakthroughs required to make nanocellulosic materials viable alternatives in the important sectors.

Acknowledgement

Some excerpts taken from Bajpai Pratima, Nanocellulose in Paper and Board Pira Technology Report, Smithers PIRA, U.K. (2011) with kind permission from Smithers Pira, UK, the worldwide authority on the Packaging, Print and Paper supply chains

List of Abbreviations

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

A general background in the area of nanotechnology in forest sector is presented in this chapter. Nanotechnology provides a means for developing wood-based materials and improving forest-based materials that could prove to be important contributors to the forest-based economy. Nanotechnology could transform the forest products industry in virtually all aspects, ranging from production of raw materials to new applications for paper products and composites. New processes developed through nanotechnology are expected to revolutionize the forest industry in wood- and fiber-based products, pulp, paper, wood composites, and functional lignocellulosics.

Keywords

Forest sector; Forest-based economy; Lignocellulosics; Nanotechnology; Paper; Pulp; Wood composites

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field of applied science and technology. It draws from several disciplines including chemical engineering, material science, chemistry, physics, biology, colloidal science, and electrical engineering. It is the creation of useful/functional materials, devices, and systems through control of matter on the nanometer length scale and use of novel properties—physical, chemical, biological—and phenomena at that length scale. Nanotechnology is an emerging area that is expected to revolutionize the use of materials in the 21st century (Mohieldin et al., 2011). The relatively crude and unsophisticated technologies on which we are dependent will be replaced with highly efficient and environmentally friendly nanotechnologies (Wegner and Jones, 2009). The discovery of novel materials, phenomena, and processes at the nanoscale, along with the development of new experimental and theoretical techniques for research, provide opportunities for the development of nanostructured materials and innovative nanosystems (Bhushan, 2010).

North America is expected to hold the majority market share in the global nanotechnology and nanomaterials market over the next 7  years due to the presence of majority of nanotechnology companies paired with high research and development investments (Grand View Research, 2012). Asia Pacific is estimated to show high growth over the forecast period, attributing to favorable government subsidies and increasing investments in the nanotechnology and nanomaterials field in this region.

Nanotechnology deals with matter on the atomic and molecular scale in the size range of 1–100  nm. One nanometer (1  nm) is one-billionth of a meter (1  m) (Table 1.1) or 80,000 times thinner than a human hair, roughly the distance from one end to the other of a line of five neighboring atoms in an ordinary solid (Bruus, 2004). To put this size in perspective, a writing paper sheet is about 100,000  nm thick; 10 hydrogen atoms laid in a row are 1  nm wide (Ramsden, 2009). According to Wegner and Jones (2006), at the 1  nm scale and below, quantum mechanics rules, and at dimensions higher than 100 nm, classical continuum mechanics, physics and chemistry dictate properties of matter between 1 and 100 nm scale, a hybrid exists and interesting things are expected to happen. Particles and matter at these dimensions show unique and novel physical and biological properties that are dissimilar to those displayed by particles at larger dimensions. This is significant for research and development due to the reason that these novel particle properties can lead to several innovative applications in a number of disciplines. For most people, it is difficult to imagine how small a nanometer is. A red blood cell is about 8000  nm wide. DNA is approximately 1–2  nm (McCrank, 2009). There are also manmade nanoparticles such as carbon and buckyballs that are 1–10  nm. Carbon nanotubes are molecular carbon allotropes that are cylindrical, and buckyballs are molecular carbon allotropes that are spherical and are composed of 60 carbon atoms.

Table 1.1

Nano and the Nanomaterial

Nano

1  nm  =  10−⁹  m

1  nm  =  1/100,000 of human hair

Nanomaterial (European Commission)

A natural, incidental, or manufactured material containing particles in an unbound state or as an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range 1–100  nm.

The potential for nanotechnology development in the forest sector has now been realized (Moon et al., 2006). Nanotechnology provides a means for developing wood-based materials and improving forest-based materials, which could be important contributors to the forest-based economy. Nanotechnology could transform the forest products industry in nearly all aspects, which range from production of raw materials to novel applications for paper products and composites (Atalla et al., 2006). New processes developed through nanotechnology are expected to revolutionize the forest industry in wood- and fiber-based products, pulp, paper, wood composites, and functional lignocellulosics (Atalla et al., 2006).

Nanotechnology seeks to develop materials and structures that show novel and significantly improved physical and chemical properties and functions because of their nanoscale size, whereas nanoscience seeks to understand these new properties (Wegner and Jones, 2006; Wegner, 2012). Recent developments in analytical techniques have helped us to understand the structures of materials in detail. In addition to size, these nanomaterials must show special properties and characteristics, which are different compared to the bulk material properties. Nanotechnology will become a critical driver of global economic growth and development in the near future. This broad multidisciplinary field is already providing glimpses of exciting possibilities, enabling materials, devices, and systems that can be engineered and fabricated at the nanoscale. Using nanotechnology to produce nanomaterials with unique properties is expected to revolutionize the technology and industry. The purpose of nanotechnology is to manipulate the materials to obtain a special function. Nanotechnology is used in the recent years in a wide range of applications; pulp and paper is one of the applications (Chauhan and Chakrabarti, 2012). In recent years, research has been carried out worldwide on the use of nanotechnology in many areas of technology. The number of publications in the area of nanotechnology has increased several times since 1978.

Nanotechnology promises to improve our lives, as the range of application for nanotechnology is enormous (Moon et al., 2006; Klemm et al., 2006; McCormnick, 2010; Ankerfors and Lindström, 2007, 2009; Hamada et al., 2010; Dufresne, 2012, 2013; Hashim et al., 2009; Lin et al., 2012). Nanotechnology has been applied to many products that are existing in the market, for example, certain sunscreens, sports equipment, clothing, electronics, and packaging are nano-based (Hult et al., 2010; Nogi et al., 2009; Rodionova et al., 2011; Schlosser, 2010; Zou, 2010; McCrank, 2009). Several consumer products using nanotechnology are known to exist. Nanotechnology has sparked much attention in a wide range of disciplines from electronics to material science. Information sharing between the various associated disciplines will be important in order to benefit from nanotechnology applications. Furthermore, lessons learned from biotechnology can help integrate nanotechnology into society and avoid public distrust (McCrank, 2009).

Table 1.2

Demand for Nanocellulose by Market in 2017

Pulp and paper (14%)

Composites (30%)

Paints, films, and coatings (15%)

Rheological modifiers (8%)

Filtration (8%)

Medicine and life sciences (7%)

Aerogels (5%)

Construction (4%)

Oil (2%)

Based on Futures Markets Inc, (FMI) 2012. The Global Market for Nanocellulose to 2017. Edinburgh, Lothian EH74NA, United Kingdom, p. 66.

Future Markets Inc. (2012), a technology consultancy based in Britain, estimated in their report, published in October 2012, the demand for nanocellulose by market in 2017 (Table 1.2)

The major applications for micro- and nanofibrillated celluloses are thickening agents in the food and cosmetics industry, automotive composites, construction materials, porous materials, bionanocomposites, paper and board, functional surfaces and films, functional additives, additives for coatings, paints, lacquers, and adhesives, pigments, and inks. The conservative estimate for nanocellulose production in 2017 is 1667 tons per year, and the optimistic estimate is twice the amount, 3548  tons/year.

The forest products industry depends on a vast renewable resource base to produce a wide range of products that are indispensable to our modern society. Emerging nanotechnologies offer the potential for developing new approaches for producing engineered wood- and fiber-based materials (Atalla et al., 2006; Dufresne, 2012, 2013). They can also enable the development of a wide range of new wood-based materials and products that offer cost-effective substitutes for nonrenewable materials, which can be used in the manufacture of metallic, ceramic, or plastic products (Atalla et al., 2006). Research and development in nanotechnology is critically important to the sustainable and economical production of the new generations of forest based materials, which will meet the needs of society and improve forest health. Research and development is also contributing to the further expansion of the biomass-based economy (Atalla et al., 2006).

Nanotechnology can be utilized to tap the enormous undeveloped potential that trees possess as photochemical factories producing rich sources of renewable raw materials utilizing water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide (Wegner and Jones, 2009). The utilization of carbon dioxide in the production of these raw materials provides a carbon sink for this greenhouse gas. By exploiting this potential, nanotechnology can provide several benefits that extend well beyond fiber production and development of new materials and also into the areas of sustainable production of energy, storage, and utilization. Nanotechnology, for example, may provide novel approaches for obtaining and utilizing energy from sunlight based on the operation of the plant cell. New methods to produce chemicals, energy, and other innovative products and processes from this renewable domestic resource base will help in addressing the important issues (Atalla et al., 2006).

Nanotechnology is expected to fundamentally change the way materials and devices are being produced. The ability to produce and obtain nanoscale building blocks with accurately controlled size and composition and assemble them into large structures having unique properties and functions will bring a revolution in the segments of the materials manufacturing industry (Wegner and Jones, 2006). Nanotechnology can bring many benefits: stronger, lighter, and multifunctional materials; innovative devices based on new principles and architectures; and utilization of molecular/cluster manufacturing, which takes benefit of assembly at the nanoscale level for a given end use. New structures not previously observed in nature are achievable. Nanotechnology has applications across almost all economic sectors, allowing the development of new critical enabling science with broad commercial potential, such as nanostructured materials, nanoelectronics, and nanoscale-based manufacturing processes. It is expected that nanotechnology will have the most significant impact in the traditional industries, who will be able to leverage the large amount of fundamental research currently underway.

Nanotechnological applications are the highest in the packaging segment. This is followed by electronics, plastics, cosmetics pharmaceuticals, paper coating, and others (Anon, 2009; Coughlin, 2009; Moon et al., 2006; Klemm et al., 2006; McCormnick, 2010; Ankerfors and Lindström, 2007, 2009; Turbak et al., 1983). Paper is a material made of cellulosic fibers, obtained mainly from wood, certain grasses, and rags processed into flexible sheets or rolls. Cellulose is a high molecular weight polymer. It contains beta-D-glucopyranose units and is the principal structural element and significant constituent of the cell wall of trees and plants. Cellulose has the empirical formula (C6H10O5)n, where n is degree of polymerization. The pulp and paper industries aim to use all the components available in wood and wood-based materials. New methods for producing these materials, including nanodimensional cellulose fibrils, macromolecules, and nanominerals, will be required in order to use the methods developed for other nanomaterials as platforms for producing new wood-based materials and products (Chauhan and Chakrabarti, 2012). Nanotechnology holds the promise of changing almost all of the processes by which wood and paper products are now being produced, transforming the sector from a resource-based to a knowledge-based industry having much greater prospects for long-term stability.

Nanotechnology has found an immediate spot on agendas of industry leaders and policymakers (Schulte, 2005). The nanotechnology is important because of the following reasons (Kamel, 2007; Theodore and Kunz, 2005):

1. less space, faster, less material, and less energy

2. most efficient length scale for manufacturing

3. novel properties and phenomena

Cellulose/lignocellulose have great potential as nanomaterials because they are renewable, abundant, have a nanofibrillar structure, self-assemble into well-defined architectures, and can be made multifunctional (Wegner and Jones, 2006). Cellulose is a biodegradable material with low cost, low density, and excellent mechanical properties occurring in wood, cotton, hemp, and other plant-based materials, and serves as the most important reinforcing phase in plant structures. Cellulose is also produced by bacteria, algae, and tunicates. In spite of its relative chemical simplicity, the morphological and physical structure of native cellulose in higher plants is very complex and heterogeneous. Moreover, cellulose molecules are closely associated with lignin and other polysaccharides and in the plant cell walls, resulting in more complex morphologies (Siró and Plackett, 2010).

The interest in nanocellulosic materials is increasing due to their exceptional properties profile (Table 1.3). Nanocellulose has very interesting properties. Cellulosic nanomaterials can be used as either primary or secondary reinforcements in polymer matrix composites. This is visible, on one hand, by the significant increase in scientific publications during the last decade and, on the other hand, by the upscaling activities of several companies and research institutes in North America, Asia, and Europe. FP Innovations in Canada estimates the market to be about $250  million in North America by the year 2020 according to Researchandmarkets.com. Table 1.4 shows the actual situation of nanocellulose production, and Table 1.5 shows main competitors.

Table 1.3

Specific Advantages of Nanocelluloses

Natural, abundant, renewable, biodegradable

Biocompatible

High strength and modulus

High aspect ratios

High surface area

Chemical functionality and modification

Dimensional stability

Lightweight material, builds network structure

High reactivity, barrier properties

Production does not interfere with the food chain

As natural nanoscaled material, nanocellulose possesses characteristics, which are different from the traditional materials, including special morphology and geometrical dimensions, high specific surface area, crystallinity, rheological properties, liquid crystalline behavior, alignment and orientation, mechanical reinforcement, surface chemical reactivity, barrier properties, biodegradability, biocompatibility, lack of toxicity, etc. On the basis of these special properties, both nano-enhanced and completely new nano-enabled products have been envisioned, which range from bulk applications such as composite reinforcement, paper additive, or rheological modifier, to high-end applications such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and functional material (Osterberg and Cranston, 2014). Table 1.6 shows comparison of nanocellulose properties with other high strength materials. Cellulosic nanomaterials are useful as primary or secondary reinforcements in polymer composites.

Table 1.4

Actual Situation: Nanocellulose Production

Production at lab scale in kilogram batches;Number of manufacturing facilities that has or are building plants in order to increase production to upwards of multiples tons per day.

Production: increased by 1000% in 2  years will increase by a further 500% by 2017.

Based on Siqueira, S., 2013. Developments in nanotechnology as opportunities for pulp and paper industry and valorization of biomass, BioMatPack – Winter Training School Organized Within the Framework of COST Action FP1003 December 11th – 13th 2013.

Table 1.5

Major Competitors

Multinational pulp and paper producers (eg, Borregaard, UPM, Stora Enso, Daicel, Oji Paper, Suzano Pulp and Paper, etc).

Small- to medium-size nanocellulose producers (eg, CelluForce, Innventia, Melodea, BioVision Technologies, Inc., etc.).

Government-funded laboratory pilot scale producers/university research centers (USDA Forest Service, University of Maine, Pagora, CTP, EMPA, Luleå University of Technology, etc.).

Based on Siqueira, S., 2013. Developments in nanotechnology as opportunities for pulp and paper industry and valorization of biomass, BioMatPack – Winter Training School Organized Within the Framework of COST Action FP1003 December 11th – 13th 2013.

Table 1.6

Comparison of Nanocellulose Properties With Other High-Strength Materials Cost

Based on Wegner, T., 2012. Seminar at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov 2012.

The extraction of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) from plants, bacteria, and some animals is leading to a wide array of worldwide research to use these nanomaterials in product applications (Hubbe et al., 2008; Klemm et al., 2011; Ioelovich and Leykin, 2004; Ioelovich, 2008). CNFs can be used as reinforcing agents in composites due to their high strength properties, availability, relative low cost, and/or CNCs due to their superior high-strength properties, renewability, high surface area, light weight, and unique photonic characteristics. Currently, research and development is taking place within academia, industry, and government agencies in different laboratories all over the world to study, characterize, and use these highly complex cellulosic nanomaterials. Nanocellulose contains unique structures and self-assembly features that can be used to develop novel nano-enabled green products. A specific example is use of cellulosic nanomaterials in lightweight, high-performance composites. Such type of nanocellulose-enabled composites could eventually replace carbon fiber mats and strands by weaving cellulose-derived nanomaterials and fiber into mats. This could lead to replacement of the nonrenewable and fossil-based materials currently used to make automotive parts, such as dashboards, seats, and even body panels or frames. The world may not be yet ready to step back into a wooden airplane, but surely the day will come when aircraft will have fuselage components and wings containing lightweight high-performance nanocellulose-enabled composites. Fiberglass is a common composite in sporting goods, boats, bike frames, and even the bodies of some sports cars. Fiberglass cannot be made transparent and is a heavy material for a composite. Replacing fiberglass mat with nanocellulose-containing mat could lead to new lighter-weight materials and finally, the replacement of nonrenewable products with sustainable and renewable cellulosic materials.

Another important feature of cellulosic nanomaterials is their compatibility with human tissue, as evidenced by a number of research studies focused on their use as a tissue scaffold (Wegner et al., 2013).

Nanocelluloses may be classified in to three main subcategories (Table 1.7). The three major types of nanocellulose—microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), nanocrystalline cellulose, and bacterial nanocellulose—are found to differ in their dimensions, preparation methods, and functions. Cellulose nanofibers can be extracted from different types of plant sources. The mechanical separation of plant fibers into smaller elementary constituents has typically required high energy input, but certain chemical and/or enzymatic fiber pretreatments have been developed to solve this problem (Siró and Plackett, 2010). A challenge associated with the use of nanocellulose in composites is the lack of compatibility with hydrophobic polymers, and several chemical modification methods have been explored in order to address this issue.

Table 1.7

Types of Nanocellulose