Manufacturing Process I

203

3.4

EXTRUSI N

Extrusion may be defined as the forming of a material under compression, so that it is f~ced to flow out of a confined space through a suitable opening called the "die". Usually, extrusion is used for producing cylindrical bars and tubes. However, products like tooth-paste tubes, solid and tubular stocks with relatively complex sections can also be manufactured by extrusion process readily extrudable metals, like aluminium. Extrusion is generally a hot working process because of large forces required. However, cold extrusion is possible for many metals. The extrusion processes may be classified mainly into four categories1) 2) 3) 4) Direct or Forward Extrusion Indirect or Backward or Inverted Extrusion Extrusion-Forging Impact Extrusion

DIRECT EXTRUSION Figure 3-22a illustrates the process of direct extrusion. In this process a hot metal billet is placed in the container of the press and then forced through the die by the hydraulically driven ram which advances into the container. Thus metal flow through the die occurs in the same direction as that of the ram movement.
CONTAINER HOllOW RAM

(a) Direct Extrusion Fig. 3-22. Methods of extrusion

(b) IndirectExtrusion

The main advantage of this process is that it is the most simplest process and hence the greatest tonnage of extruded metal cross-sections is produced by this method. However, in this process since there is relative motion between the container wall and the billet, frictional forces are high and requires more power for operation. Also there is possibility of "extrusion defect" in this method.

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Manuiacturing Process I

IN IIitECT EXTRUSI N Figure 3-22b shows the process of indirect extrusion. In this process the die is carned by the hollow ram, which causes extrusion of the hot billet to take place in a direction opposite to that of the ram movement. Some times, it is better to use a fixed ram with die and move the container and billet. It can be seen that in indirect or backward extrusion the movement of the ram and the product are in opposite directions. In.this method since there is no relative movement between the billet and the container wall, less mechanical energy is wasted in overcoming the frictional forces between the two. Hence, this process requires lesser power as compared to the direct extrusion process However, the process is complicated because of the hollow ram and reverse motion of the product. EXTRUSION FORGING This method is combination of extrusion and forging. An example of this process is the manufacture of poppet valves for intemal combustion engines. These valves can be made in single operation from a heated steel slug in a press, as shown in figure 3-23. The heated steel slug is partly extruded through the die by the application of pressure from the punch to form the shank of the valve, but sufficient metal is retained in the die to form the head. The punch is then raised and the valve is ejected from the die. The operation is very simple and fast, and carried out at high temperature (about 11aaC).

DIE

YPUNCH Wi

Fig. 3-23. Extrusion forging

All the above 3 methods viz., direct extrusion, indirect extrusion and extrusion forging are all hot extrusion processes. . IMPACT EXTRUSION This is a cold extrusion process, similar to backward extrusion but carried out at higher speeds. It is generally employed for the production of light metal collapsible and disposable tubes like tooth paste tubes, grease tubes, medical ointment containers, etc.

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205

Fig. 3-24. Impact extrusion

This process uses heavily constructed mechanical presses. The arrangement of die and punch in such a press is shown in figure 3-24. A small unheated slug of metal is placed in the die cavity and the punch is driven rapidly into the die cavity. As there is no more place for the metal deformation in the cavity, the metal is forced upwards through the gap between the punch and the die, forming a tube shaped part. As the punch is raised the extrusion is removed by an automatic stripping mechanism. Advantages of impact extrusion 1) The process is simple and economical. 2) It is most suitable to produce collapsible tubes. 3) Production cost is comparatively low. 4) Surface finish is very good. 5) The production rate is very high. Limitations 1) Its use is limited to soft metals like lead, tin, aluminium and copper. 2) Tool wear is more because of cold working. 3) The structure and the foundation is to be very strong and rigid to withstand high impact forces. .' 4) Lubrication is difficult in this process. Applications This process is more suitable for the production of disposable tubes in lead, tin and aluminium, used as containers for a wide range of domestic and industrial materials like shaving cream, tooth paste, medical tube, grease containers, and milk containers.

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Manufacturing Process-

EXTRUSION EQUIPMENTS Generally, extrusion operations are done in hydraulic presses. These are classified into horizontal and vertical presses, depending upon the directiDn of travel of the ram. Vertical extrusion presses range in capacities from 3 to 20 MN. They give certain advantages over horizontal presses like, easier alignment between the press ram and the tool, higher rate of production, and lesser space area. But, on the other hand, they need high head room and to produce longer extrusions a floor pit is also essential. Vertical presses, produce uniform cooling of the billet and hence symmetrically uniform deformation takes place. In a horizontal press, the bottom of the billet which remains in contact with the container. gets cooled faster than the top surface, and hence may result in non-uniform deformations. Also, in these presses, warping of bars and non-uniform wall thickness of tubes may be resulted. Hence, in commercial applications to produce thin sections vertical presses are used, which produce uniform wall thickness and concentricity in the tubes. Horizontal extrusion presses are used commercially to produce extrusions of bars, and other bigger sections. Usually, horizontal presses of the order of 15 to 50 MN are available. The ram speed in the extrusions presses is also important, since high ram speeds are. required in high temperature operations. Ram speeds of 0.4 to 0.6 m/sec is used for extruding refractory metals, and requires a hydraulic accumulator. For aluminium and copper alloys which are susceptible to hot shortness lower ram speeds are to be used, in which case directly driven hydraulic systems are sufficient. The tooling and dies used in the presses are subjected to high stresses, thermal shocks and oxidation, and hence should be built with strong and robust structure. The ram is highly loaded in compression, and it is protected from the hot billet oya follower pad. Since, extrusion container is subjected to high pressures, it is built in two parts. A liner is shrunk into a massive container to produce compressive pre-stresses in the inside surface of the liner. Since the liner and the follower pad are subjected to many thermal shock and load cycles, they need to be replaced periodically. EXTRUSION DIES Two types of extrusion dies are generally used - flat faced die and conical die. Flat faced dies (figure 3-25a) are used when the metal entering the die forms a dead zone and shears intemally to form its own die angle. A parallel land on the exit side of the die makes the die stronger and permits reworking of the flat face on the entrance without increasing the exit diameter. Conical dies have a conical entrance as shown in figure 3-25b. These are used for extrusion with sufficient lubrication. Reducing the die angle increases the homogeneity of the deformation and lowers the extrusion pressure, but beyond certain point the friction in the die surfaces becomes very high. Usually, for most operations the optimum half-die-angle is in the range of 45 to 60 degrees.

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Die entrance Die entrance

207

(a)

(b)

Fig. 325. Extrusion dies

,
The other facilities required for extrusion process are billet-heating unit, automatic transfer equipment for the heated billet to the container. Provision for heating the extrusion container may also be required. A hot saw is also necessary to cut-off the extrusion so that discard can be removed from the die. Finally, a runout table is required for holding the extruded product and straightner to correct minor warpage in the product. METAL FLOW, DEFORMATION AND LUBRICATION IN EXTRUSIO The pressure required to deform a metal in extrusion process is largely dependent on the lubrication conditions. Also, mostly the extrusion defects are directly related to the deformation process. ;-igure 3-26 shows the deformation patterns in extrusion. Figure 3-26a indicates the grid pattern in a billet before extrusion. Figure 3-26b shows a nearly homogeneous deformation, which is a feature of well lubricated billet hence low friction, as in indirect and hydrostatic extrusion. Deformation is uniform until close to the die entrance. This is the most desirable type of deformation, which leads to lower extrusion pressure, die wear and minimum defects .

....

(a)

"-

-/
(b)

--(e)

Fig. 326. Metal flow I defonnation in extrusion

Figure 3-26c represents the deformation with increased container-wall friction (with insufficient lubrication). The grid patterns severely distorted in the comers of the die indicate the formation of a "dead Zone", where the metal undergoes least deformation. The friction at

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Manufacturing Process .\

the container-billet interface results in concentrated flow towards the centre. This is a common feature of direct extrusion and extrusion with insufficient friction. This situation may also arise when the billet surface is chilled by the cold walls of the container. A good lubricant for hot-extrusion should have a low shear strength and high temperature stability. For hot-extrusion of steel and nickel-based alloys the common lubricant is molten glass. To use this lubricant, the billet is heated in an inert atmosphere and coated with glass powder and then put into the container. The glass coating serves both as the lubricant and as a thermal insulation to reduce the heat losses at the containerwalls. Also, a glass pad IS placed at the face of the die. and acts as the main source of lubricant for the metal getting deformed. The glass film formed around the metal under extrusion will be around 25 micron thick. which also depends on the temperature of the billet and the ram speed. For better results of the extruded products, the lubncant film should be continuous and complete.

DEFECTS IN EXTRUDED PRODUCTS

The important defects that occur in an extrusion process are discussed here.

a) Extrusion Defect
This isthe most common defect in extrude defol.mation Ofthe of the metal, ma be u oducts. This is caused due to inhomogeneous lubrication at the container-bi let interface
0 insufficient

or due to chilling of the metal at the container walls. Because of this. the hot metal at the centre bille.!..!:!!oves faster than the periphery of the billet"is extruded and the d~d
0

outer metal zone extends down~ he.billet moves to s

After about two-thirds the centre and extrudes known as the 'extrusion Wit

er

surtace.of

through the die. The oxide skin from the outer surface thus gets into whJb..aLlse th~nal eip'ing and is generall -defect'. The tendency for the formation of the extrusion defect is higher

the internal surface and form ox~ringers greater wall friction

Formation of extrusion defect

In direct extrusion, that must be travelled high frirtion between the billet and the container and the greater distance by particles near the ram surface result in non uniform flow of metal. required, its skin becomes in the container chilled relative Thus the hot core is more easily [Figure 3-27(i)]. As

Even if the billet is heated above the temperature extruded, extrusion than the chilled proceeds

to its core by contact with the cold walls of the container. skin which tends to remain

the outside skin begins to buckle [Figure 3-27(ii)] and is ultimately drawn metal [Figure 3-27 (iii) and (iv)], so that the resultant rod is badly portion of its rear length. between the billet and the container results to that in the direct

into the stream of extruded 'piped' over a considerable In indirect extrusion, in less turbulence extrusion

the absence of movement

in the not yet extruded part [Figure 3-26b], as compared

process. This results ill reduced extrusion defect.

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0'

'209

(iv)
Fig. 3-27. Fonnation of extrusion defect

lhere are various ethods of overcoming the extrusion detect. Une me extr~lon operation 0

Fig. 3-28. Fonnation of skull

c) Surface Cracking S ace cracks of different types may be formed in extruded products ba the nature of deformatiOn. These are formed .as- a result of longitudinal tensile stresses as the extrusion Rasses through the die. In hot extrusion, cracking is usually inter-granular an IS associated with hot shortness. The major and common cause of fhis de ect is the nigh ram

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Manufacturing Process I

given extrusion

---

HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION The recent development in extrusion forming processes is the 'Hydrostatic Extrusion'. In this process, the billet is surrounded by a liquid on all sides except at its front end which is pointed and passes through a cone-shaped die, as shown in Figure 3-29. The liquid transmits pressure applied to the ram. This pressure not only forces the billet forward into the die but also compresses the billet circumferencially, since there is no friction between the billet and the container much lowerworking loads are required than in normal direct extrusion, and hence no chance for extrusion defect. The working fluid used is the mineral oil to which ,10% of the high pressure lubricant molybdenum disul- phide is added

. ~t"--.......,=--=~n~.,-_sealing " ring High

pressure

liquid ,~~~-T--7'--Billet

~j;-+.-r-r-r-,~-

Die ring

V //l_~r-T'-:-- Sealing

Fig. 3-29. Hydrostatic extrusion

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Advantages ./

211

1) Materials with limited ductility can be extruded. 2) There is no friction between the billet and the container 3) Because of the absence Disadvantages.)./" 1) Only cold extrusion 2) Construction 3) Suitable
IS

and hence requires less power. of extrusion defect.

of friction. there is no possibility easily.

4) High speed steel and cast iron can be extruded

possible. is complicated.

and workina mechanism

only for limited shapes.

THE EXTRUSION OF TUBES Tubes can be produced by extrusion, using either a hollow billet or a solid billet. In order to extrude a tube, a mandrel should be passed axially through the billet so that its tip lies in the aperture of the die thus forming an annular gap through which the metal is extruded. Figure 3-30(i) shows how a tube can be extruded usmg a hollow cast or bored billet. Here the mandrel is fixed to the end of the ram and passes though a hole in the pressure pad. VVhen the extrusion begins. the tip of the mandrel moves into the mouth of the die just before pressure is exerted on the billet. The mandrel can be fitted as shown in Figure 3-30(ii). In this the mandrel is floating and better concentricity of the resultant tube is obtained.
PressurePad FixedMandrel

Fig. 3-30. Extrusion of tubes from hollow billet.

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Manulacturing Process I

The production of hollow billets is expensive and the internal bore may be oxidized while heating, resulting in inaccessible and invisible defects in the finished tube. Therefore. a method for the production of tubes by solid billets is advantageous. In this process the solid billet is first pierced by a mandrel and then extruded by the ram pressure. Generally, the mandrel is actuated by a separate press, moves coaxially with the ram, and is independent of its motion [Figure 3-31 a & b]

Fig. 3-31. Extrusion of tubes from solid billets

THE HOOKER PROCESS This is a special extrusion process, similar to direct method, but employs impact extrusion under cold working conditions. Hooker extrusion is generally carried out in a crank press. Figure 3-32 shows the arrangement of punch and die in a Hooker process. In this usually preformed cupped blank is placed in the die and as the punch descends, metal is forced down between the body of the punch and the die. This produces a tubular extrusion as shown in figure.

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213

Extruded shell

(iii) (i) (ii) Fig. 3-32. Extrusion by Hooker process

This process is useful for the production of small brass cartridge cases, copper tubes for radiators and heat exchangers. and other short tubular components. This process is restricted to soft materials like lead, tin, aluminium and copper.

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Manulacturing Process .\

3.5
Drawing drawing,

DRAWING OF RODS. WIRES & TUBES

process and involves pulling the material to be drawn through

is a cold working

a hole in a hard steel or carbide block called "die" and reduce the diameter of the material.ln tensile forces are applied by way of pulling the rod at the exit end of the die. Plastic forces arising from the reaction of the metal at the die surface. drawing operations is called If a upon the, diameterofthe using any mandrel, drawn product. When a hollow it is called "tube sinking". flow is caused by compression "Bar, rod orwire tube is drawn mandrel/rod drawing" through

The process of reducing the diameter of a material by successive depending a die without

is used to support the inside diameter of the tube, it is called "tube drawing" used for the

Only highly ductile materials can be cold drawn. Drawing is generally manufacture of wires but it is also useful for bar and tube manufacture .

Though the principles of drawing of bars, rods and wires are same, the equipments used are different. Rods, bars and tubes which cannot be coiled but to be kept straight, are manufactured on drawbenches. The rod is pointed with a swager, passed through the die, and clamped to the jaws of the drawhead. The drawhead is driven by mechanical or hydraulic means. Drawbenches can be of capacities upto 1 MN and 30 m of runout, and draw speeds are ranging from 150 to 1500 mmlsec. Wires are those products which have diameter less than 5 mm and can be coiled easily. It uses a coil of hot-rolled rod. Instead of drawbench, it consists of a circular bull block which coils the drawn wire as it pulls it through the die. The capacities depend on the number of dies and the draw speeds are in the range of 10-30 mlsec.

Advantages of Drawing Process

1) Ductile materials can be drawn down to very small diameters and to exact sizes. 2) The surface finish of a cold drawn product is superior to that of a hot rolled or extruded material. 3) Mechanical properties can be easily controlled by controlling the degree of cross sectional reduction in the final cold drawing operation. 4) Operation is simple compared to other processes. 5) There is no problem of surface defects as drawing is a cold working process.

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215

ROD DRAWING The process involves cleaning the materials, pointing the rod and actual drawirg in a die. This operation is explained below. Cleaning Before Drawing For steel rods that are previously hot rolled or extruded. surface cleaning IS required. For this. the material is immersed in a dilute solution of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. This is called as 'Pickling'. This removes any scale, oil. grease etc., present on the material surface. It is then washed with water and dipped in an emulsion of slaked lime and water. This neutralizes the acid and excess lime dries on the material surface and forms a base to absorb the minerai oil or grease, whichever is the lubricant. Soap can be also be used as lubricant, but results in dull surface of the finished product. Pointing or Tagging the Rod and Drawing Since the rod is drawn in straight lengths, the operation carried out on a drawn-bench which must be long enough to accommodate the length of the rod required. A draw-bench consists of a die held rigidly in steel frame and a 'dog' which grips the end of the rod and pulls it through the die. The dog runs on rails to the required length of the rod. To operate the bench the end of the rod must be pointed or 'tagged'. For this purpose. the rod is first forced through the die so that it projects out of the die. This projected part IS rigidly held by the dog (jaw) of the draw bench and pulled by the moving chain. driven either mechanically or hvdraulically.
Drawing carriage

Draw bench

../ Fig. 3-33. Arrangement of rod drawing

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Manufacturing Process 1 .

Figure 3-33shows the simple arrangement of rod drawing operation. In this the die is kept immersed in a lubricant while drawing the rod, such a process is called "wet drawing". Instead, if the die is kept in open and grease or soap powder is used as lubricant, it is called as "dry drawing". WIRE DRAWING Wire drawing starts with hot rolled 'wire rod'. Similar to rod drawing. the rod IS first cleaned by pickling and washed. It is then coated with lime or plated WIth thin layer of copper or tin. The lime neutralizes any acid, and serves as an absorber and carrier of the lubricant during dry drawing. The lubricant may be either grease or soap powder. For wet drawing operation the die itself is immersed in a lubricant. The schematic of wire drawing operation is shown In figure 3-34.

Fig. 3-34. Wire drawing

Jaws

For drawing of fine wire a large number of draw blocks are used, with the wire passing through a number of dies until it is reduced to its final size in one continuous operation (Figure 3-35). For fine wires reductions per pass of 15 to 25% are used, while for coarse wires the reductions per pass may be 20 to 50%. In drawing operations, depending upon the metal and the reductions, intermediate anneals may be required to restore ductility. Patenting of Steel Wire High carbon steels (above 0.25% C) in the hot rolled condition generally possess insufficient ductility for drawing to fine wires, and if drawn the product will be too brittle for use. Therefore, a heat treatment process known as 'patenting' is generally used, both before drawing and as a final treatment for the drawn product. Patenting is a high temperature austempering process, in which the wire is heated above its upper critical temperature (around 975C) and then rapidly cooled in a lead bath maintained at around 530C. In the double lead bath patenting process, the wire passes continuously through a lead bath maintained above the upper critical temp. of the wire. then through a second cooler lead bath. This treatment gives a tough bainitic structure to the wire, which is responsible for increasing the yield strength and retaining sufficient ductility for considerable deformation.

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217

Fig. 3-35. Continous wire drawing DIES FOR DRAWING Figure 3-36 shows the important hole, with smooth working carried in by the work. The tapered portion BC is the actual working surface where plastic deformation takes place, and hence must be carefully designed and prepared. The angle of taper is critical, and depends both on the material used for the die and the metal to be drawn. Its surface should be polished to reduce friction to a minimum. The section CO is cylindrical, the die wears, specifications. which must be of adequate length, since the working part of of the wire will remain within features of a wire drawirlg die. It consists of a tapered surface of high strength and wear resistance. The bell-mounted

entrance AB of the die will never be in contact with work, but serves as a reservoir for lubricant

and C moves nearer to 0, but the diameter

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Manufacturing Process 1

Fig. 3-36 .. Wire drawing die

Portion DE is called as 'relief. Its function is to provide reinforcement for the working section of the die and prevent the circular edge from breaking or pulling away. Die Materials Dies can be made from a variety of materials, like chilled cast iron, high carbon steels and alloy steels. Carbon and alloy steel dies have the advantage that they can be forged so that . as the die hole wears to an extent where the resulting wire is over size, the hole can be hammered up and then reamed to the correct size. Chilled cast iron dies are used for the production of low quality materials. Tungsten carbide dies are widely used nowadays because of their long life. As tungsten carbide is expensive and also some-what brittle, only the working part of the die is made from tungsten carbide and this is held in a mild steel block. The schematic arrangement of a carbide die held in a mild steel block is shown in Figure 3-37.

Fig. 3-37. Tungsten-carbide

die

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219

In addition to long life, tungsten-carbide dies consume less power due to lesser friction and result in a fine surface finish of the product. The initial cost of the tungsten carbide die is considerably higher than that of a steel die and holes cannot be hammered as they wear. Instead they can be used to the next working size. Optimal Cone Angle, Dead Zone Formation-and Shaving

In a drawing die, when the cone angle is too small, the length of contact between the wire and the die is more and causes high frictional losses. If the cone angle is large, distortion of the material will be more, resulting in many surface defects. But, there exists a cone angle in between, which results in minimum draw force for a given reduction, called 'Optimal Cone Angle'. This optimal cone angle depends upon the reduction, the lubrication and materials involved.

DIE

DIE

DIE
a) Sound now
b) Dead zone formation

c) Shaving

Fig. 3-38. Effects of cone angle in drawing

Figure 3-38 shows the effects of cone angle In drawing operation. VVhenthe cone angle is optimum, sound flow of metal occurs (Figure 3-38a). VVhenmaterial is drawn through dies with cone angles above 'that of optimal angle, the meta1shears within itself to develop a dead metal zone adhering to the die, which no longer takes part in the metal flow (Figure 3-38b). This phenomenon is called as "Dead zone formation". When the dead zone material doesn't adhere to the die but starts to move backward, with peeling off as in metal cutting operation. This is called 'Shaving' in drawing operation. Shaving will occur with too large cone angles, and the core of the billet no longer deforms, but moves through the die with no change in diameter and with exit velocity same as the entrance velocity (Figure 3-38c).

220
Effect of Back Pull in Drawing

Manufacturing Process -\

Back pull is the force that is exerted in the direction opposite to that of draw pull in a drawmq process. Back pull exists mainly due to frictional forces acting on the draw blocks of multiple drawing machines. A back pull materially increases the drawing force. However. a minimum amount of back pull is desirable, due to the following reasons. It reduces the wall pressure in the die, and reduces the friction, thus die wear is appreciably decreased. This increases the die life. TUBE DRAWING Tube drawing is similar to wire drawing and uses draw benches and dies. However. to reduce the wall thickness and to control the inside dia, the inside surface of the tube must be supported while drawing. This is accomplished by inserting a mandrel or plug inside the tube positioned at the die throat. The mandrel may have either a cylindrical or tapered cross section. Hence, there are basic methods of tube drawinga) b) c) d) Sinking or drawing without a mandrel Plug drawing or drawing with a fixed mandrel Drawing with a.floating mandrel Drawing with a moving mandrel

a} Tube sinking or Drawing without a Mandrel Tubes which have wall thickness greater than the diameter can be drawn without a mandrel. Reductions of up to 35% can be obtained in steel tubes by this method, which is known as "tube sinking" (see figure 3-39). One end of the tube is swaged so that can be threaded through the die and drawn similar to a rod.

-o~_
[J
Fig. 3-39. Tube sinking Fig. 3-40. Drawing with a fixed mandrel

b) Plug Drawing or Drawing with a Fixed Mandrel In this method, the mandrel or plug is short in length, and is held in position in the mouth of the die by means of a tie-rod attached to it and to a fixed support at the opposite end of the draw-bench, similar to wire drawing. The rod is detachable, so that it can be drawn backwards and aside in order that the tube shell can be threaded over it.

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221

The tagged end of the tube is then pushed through the die and gripped by the dog while the back end of the mandrel rod is anchored to its support. The tube is then drawn through annulus formed between the die opening and the mandrel as shown in figure 3-40. This method can be used to draw longer tubes since the mandrel is fixed. c) Drawing with a Floating Mandrel For tubes of small diameter, drawing with fixed mandrel requires a very fragile mandrel rod Also, the length of the tube that can be drawn is limited by the leng1l\of mandrel rod. However. in such cases, a floating mandrel can be used and there Will be no limit to the length of the tube drawn. The contour of the plug is so designed that the plug adjusts itself to the correct position during drawing (Figure 3-41). This method is suitable for the manufacture of small dia tubes in which the wall thickness is greater than the bore.

Fig. 3-41. Drawing with a floating ma'ndrel

Fig. 3-12. Drawing with a moving ",andrel

d) Drawing with a Moving Mandrel In this method the mandrel used is made of heat treated alloy steel rod equal in length to the finished tube and having a diameter equal to the bore of the tube. The rod is not fixed to the draw bench, but moves through the die along with the tube as shown in Figure 3-42. In this method the frictional loss is low, and there is geed lubricatini effect. But in this method there is problem of stripping the mandrel from the drawn tube, and also limited to.tubes below 6 mm diameter. DEFECTS IN DRAWN WIRES AND RODS Defects in drawn wires and reds can be due to. two reasons - one, the defects in the starting material itself, like seams, slivers, pipe, scale, etc.; two, improper deformatien precess like excessive drawing without patenting treatment, without the use of proper lubricant, etc. The most common drawing defect in wires and rods is centre burst or chevro.n crackinq, which is also. called "cupping".

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Manufacturing Process !

These are the internal cracks developed as a result of secondary tensile stresses which usually occur with large values of h/L ratio (i.e, ratio of mean thickness to the length of the deformation zone). Acco'tdin~ to upper bound analysis, the cupping fracture occurs due to low die angles (IX.) at low reductlens. The other common defect in drawn products is the surface cracks. These result mainly from heavy die friction in ~xtrusion. This can be due to two reasons - lack of lubricaticn and excessive drawing with the loss of ductility. The defects resulting from oxide layers and seams on the basic materials are the inclusion of these unwanted materials into the surfaces of the drawn products. All these defects can be avoided by the use of proper lubrication, low h/L ratio, frequent patenting and cleaning of the raw material before drawing. RESIDUAL STRESSES IN RODS, WIRES AND TUBES Two different types of residual stresses are introduced in cold-drawn rods and wires. The extent of residual stress induced depends mainly on the amount of reduction. For reductions per pass of less than 1%, the longitudinal residual stresses are compressive at the surface, and tensile at the axis, the radial stresses are tensile at the axis and drop off to zero at the free surface, while circumferential stresses are same as the longitudinal residual stresses. In the case of larger reductions the residual stress distribution is the reverse of the above case. In this, the longitudinal stresses are tensile at the surface and compressive at the axis, the radial stresses are compressive at the axis and the circumferential stresses follow the same pattern as the longitudinal stresses. The first type of residual stress pattem is usually noticed in drawing operations where the deformation is localised in the surface layers. In tubes produced by tube sinking, the longitudinal residual stresses are tensile on the outer surface and compressive on the inner surface of the tube. The residual stresses in the circumferential direction follow the same pattern, while the stresses in the radiaf direction are negligible. Residual stresses in tubes produced by drawing over a plug and mandrel are similar to that of tube sinking. However, in this case, a substantial reduction in the level of residual stress can be achieved by tandem drawing, in which a small reduction (2%) is to be produced by a second die immediately following the main reduction.