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CASTES AND TRIBES

OF

SOUTHERN INDIA

CASTES AND TRIBES

OF

SOUTHERN INDIA

EDGAR THURSTON,
Superintendent, Madras Government

c.i.e.,

Museum
di

Correspondant Etranger,

Soci^t6 d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante,

Societa

Romana

Anthropologia.

ASSISTED BY

K.

RANGACHARI,
of the

m.a.,

Madras Government Museum.

VOLUME

III

GOVERNMENT

PRESS,

MADRAS

3S
V
X

NOV 17 1966

113S747

CASTES AND TRIBES

OF SOUTHERN

INDIA.
III.

VOLUME

^TT^v^ABBERA.The
i

Kabberas
and

are

caste

of

(^

Canarese
are,"

fishermen

cultivators.

"They
into

Mr.
the

W.

Francis writes,*

"

grouped
of

two

divisions,

Gaurimakkalu or

sons

Gauri

and the Gangimakkalu or sons of Ganga, the goddess of water, and they do not intermarry, Each has its bedagus (exbut will dine together.
(Parvati)

ogamous
in Bellary,

septs),

and these seem to be different

in

the two sub-divisions.

The Gaurimakkalu
chiefly to

are scarce

and belong
in

Mysore.

They seem

to be higher

the social scale (as such things are

measured among
as they
their

Hindus)

than

the

Gangimakkalu,

employ Brahmans as
caste,
in

priests instead of

men

of

own

burn their dead instead of burying them,

hold annual ceremonies

the remarriage of widows.

memory of them, and prohibit The Gangimakkalu were

in all

apparently engaged originally

the pursuits con-

nected with water, such as propelling boats, catching

fish,

and so

forth,

and they are especially numerous

banks of the Tungabhadra."
rivers,
e.o-.,

in

villages along the

Coracles
the

are

still

used on various South Indian

Bhavani, and Tungabhadra.

Cauvery,

Tavernier,

on

* Gazetteer of the Bellarv district.

KABBERA
his
in

way

to

Golgonda, wrote that " the boats employed

crossing the river are like large baskets, covered out-

side with ox-hides, at the

bottom of which some faggots

upon which carpets are spread to put the baggage and goods upon, for fear they should get wet." Bishop Whitehead has recently * placed on record his experiences of coracles as a means of conveyance.
are placed,
"

We

embarked," he writes, "

in

a boat (at

Hampi on
to

the

Tungabhadra) which exactly corresponds

the coracle of the ancient Britons.
large,
It

my

idea of

consists of a very
feet in

round wicker basket, about eight or nine

diameter, covered over with leather, and propelled by

paddles.

As

a rule,

it

spins round and round, but the

fairly straight,

boatmen can keep

do
so, as

it

when exhorted

to

they were on this occasion.

in

Some
sit

straw had

been placed
safer to

the bottom of the coracle, and

we were
it is

also allowed the luxury of chairs to

sit

upon, but
in

on the straw, as a chair

a coracle
I

is

generally in a state of unstable equilibrium.

remem-

ber once crossing a river in the Trichinopoly district in

a coracle, to take a confirmation at a village on the

other side.
It

was thought more

I

suitable to the dignity

of the occasion that

should
I

sit

upon a chair
to

in

the
so.

middle of the coracle, and

All

weakly consented

do

the villagers were assembled to meet us on the

opposite

bank

four policemen

were drawn up as a
band,

guard of honour, and

a brass

brought from

Tanjore, stood ready in the background.

to the shore, the villagers salaamed, the

As we came

guard of honour

saluted, the
'

band struck up a tune faintly resembling See the conquering hero comes,' the coracle bumped

heavily against the shelving bank,

my

chair tipped up,

* Madras Diocesan Magazine, June, 1906.

KABBERA

was deposited, heels up, on my back in the straw We were rowed for about two miles down The current was very swift, and there were the stream. Darkness overtook us, rapids at frequent intervals.
and
.

and

it

was not altogether a pleasant sensation being

in

whirled swiftly over the rapids

our frail-looking boat,

with ugly rocks jutting out of the stream on either side.

But the boatmen seemed to know the

river perfectly,

and were extraordinarily expert

with their paddles."
Missionary,

in steering the coracle

The arrival in 1847 of the American John Eddy Chandler at Madura, when the
in flood,

Vaigai river was

" Coolies

has been described as follows.*

swimming

the river brought bread and notes

in the city.

from the brethren and sisters

three

At

last, after

days of waiting, the

the

new Missionaries
in

safely

reached

mission

premises

Madura.

Messrs.

Rendall and Cherry managed to cross to them, and they

all

recrossed into the city by a large basket boat, eight

or ten feet in diameter, with a

bamboo
to.

pole tied across

outside

the top for them to

hold

on
as In

The

was
were

covered with leather.

held by a dozen

Ropes attached

to all sides
it

coolies

they dragged
recent years,

across,

walking and swimming."

a coracle

has been kept at the traveller's bungalow at Paikara on

the Nilgiris for the use of anglers in the Paikara river.
"

The Kabberas," Mr.

Francis continues,

" are at

present engaged in a number of callings, and, perhaps

consequence, several occupational sub-divisions have arisen, the members of which are more often known by
in

their occupational title

than as either Gangimakkalu or

the village chavadi

Kabberas.

The

Barikes, for example, are a class of

village servants

who keep

(caste

* John S. Chandler, a

Madura Missionary, Boston.

III-i B

KABBERA

meeting house) clean, look after the wants of officials The halting in the village, and do other similar duties.
Jalakaras are washers of gold-dust
dyers,
;

the

Madderu

are

who use
;

the root of the maddi {Morinda citriis

folia) tree

and apparently (the point

one which

have not had time to clear up) the Besthas, who have
often

been treated as a separate caste, are really a sub-division of the Gangimakkalu, who were originally
palanquin-bearers,
but,

now

that these vehicles have

in divers

gone out of

fashion, are
is

employed

other ways.

The

betrothal

formally evidenced by the partaking of

betel-leaf in the girl's house, in the

manner followed by
is
its

the Kurubas.

As among

the Madigas, the marriage

not consummated for three months after

celebration.

The

caste follow the

the dead."

Kuruba ceremony of calling back Consummation is, as among the Kurubas

for three

and Madigas, postponed

household during the
second year, so

months, as

it is

con-

sidered unlucky to have three heads of a family in a

first

year of marriage.

By

the

delay, the birth of a child should take place only in the

that,

during the

first

year, there will be

only two heads, husband and wife.

calling

In the

ceremony of

back the dead, referred to by Mr. Francis, a pot

is

of water

worshipped

in the

house on the eleventh day

to

after a funeral,

and taken next morning

emptied.

some lonely

place,

where

it is

For the following note on the Kabberas of the Bellary district, I am indebted to Mr. Kothandram Naidu. The caste is sometimes called Ambiga. Breaches of caste rules and customs are enquired into by a
panchayat presided over by a headman called Kattemaniavaru. If the fine inflicted on the offender is a

heavy one, half goes

caste people,

to the
it

headman, and half

to the

who spend

in drink.

In serious cases,

KABBERA

the offender has to be purified by shaving and drinking

holy water (thirtam) given

to

him by the headman.

Sexual
before
tolerated,
but,

Both

infant

and adult marriage are practiced.

is

license previous to marriage

that takes place, the contracting couple have to pay a

At the marriage ceremony, the tali is tied on the bride's neck by a Brahman. Married women carry painted new pots with lights, bathe the bride and bridegroom, etc. Widows are remarried with
fine to

the headman.

a ceremonial called Udiki, which

in

is

performed
ties

at night
tali.

a temple by widows, one of

whom

the

No
is

married

men

or

women may

be present, and music

not allowed.
religion the

Divorce is said to be not permitted. In Kabberas are Vaishnavites, and worship

various village deities.

The dead who have

are

are buried.

Cloths

and food are offered

festival,

to ancestors

during the Dasara

excepting those

died a violent death.

to

Some unmarried girls Hulugamma as Basavis

dedicated

the

goddess

(dedicated prostitutes).
in the Bellary
I

Concerning an agricultural ceremony district, in which the Kabberas take part,

"

gather that

on the

first

full-moon day in the

the
agricultural
to

month

of Bhadrapada

(September),
feast

population celebrate

called Jokumara,

appease the rain-god.

The

Barikas (women),

who

are a sub-division of the

caste belonging to the

Gaurimakkalu
live,

section,

Kabbera go round

the town or village in which they

their

with a basket on

heads containing margosa {Me Ha Azadirachtd)

leaves, flowers of various kinds,

and holy ashes.

They

beg alms, especially of the cultivating classes (Kapus),

and, in return for the alms bestowed (usually grain and
food), they give

some of the margosa

and ashes

leaves, flowers,

and

ashes.

The Kapus,

or cultivators, take the

margosa

leaves, flowers,

to their fields, prepare

cholum

KABBILI

6
it.

[Andropog07i Sorghum) kanji, mix these with

sprinkle this kanji, or gruel,
this,
all

and

round

their fields.

After

the

Kapu proceeds
being.

to the potter's kiln in the village

it,

or town, fetches ashes from

and makes a figure of a

placed prominently
in

human

This figure
in

is

some convenient spot

mara, or rain-god.
bringing

the

field,

and
to

is

called Joku-

It is

supposed

have the power of

down

the rain in proper time.

The

figure

is

sometimes

small,

and sometimes

big."

Kabbili. Kabbili
division of Bestha,
is

or Kabliga, recorded as a

sub-

probably a variant of Kabbera.

Kadacchil
of Kollan.

(knife-grinder or cutler).

A sub-division
last or

Kadaiyan. The
lowest,

name, Kadaiyan, meaning

of the
Pallans.

occurs as a sub-division

The

ers

Kadaiyans are described f as being lime (shell) gatherand burners of Ramesvaram and the neighbourhood,
in part recruited

from whose ranks the pearl-divers are

at the

present

day.

On

the

coasts

of

Madura and
work of

Tinnevelly they are mainly Christians, and are said, like

the Paravas, to have been converted through the
St.

Francis Xavier.J

Kadaperi.A sub-division of Kannadiyan. Kadavala (pots). An exogamous sept of Padma

Sale.

Kadi

(blade of grass).

A g5tra of Kurni.
or

Kadir.-^The Kadirs
malai or elephant

Kadans

inhabit the Anai-

hills, and the great mountain range which extends thence southward into Travancore, A night journey by rail to Coimbatore, and forty miles by

* Madras Mail, November, 1905.

+
1905.
4
J.

Hornell.

Report on the Indian Pearl Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar,

Madras Diocesan Mag.,

1906,

KADIR

road

at the

mercy of a

typically obstinate jutka pony,

which
at

landed

me

in

a dense patch

of prickly-pear

{Optmiia Dillenii), brought

Sethumadai, where
of Mr.
I

me

to the foot of the hills

I came under the kindly hospitality H. A. Gass, Conservator of Forests, to whom am indebted for much information on forest and tribal

matters gathered during our

camp

life

at
in

Mount

Stuart,

situated 2,350 feet above sea-level,

the midst of a
after Sir

dense bamboo jungle, and playfully named

his

Mountstuart Grant Duff, who visited the spot during

quinquennium as Governor of Madras. At Sethumadai I made the acquaintance of

I

my

first

Kadir, not dressed, as

leaves, but

hoped, in a primitive garb of

wearing a coloured turban and the cast-off red coat of a British soldier, who had come down the
hill

to carry

up

my camp

bath,

which acted as an excel-

him from the driving monsoon Very glad was I of his services in helping to convey my clothed, and consequently helpless self, across the mountain torrents, swollen by a recent burst of
lent umbrella,
to protect

showers.

monsoon
eral in

rain.

The Kadir

forest guards,
service,

of

whom

there

are sevfor

Government

looked,

except

their

noses, very unjungle-like

by contrast with
(leggings),

their fellow-

tribesmen, being smartly dressed in regulation Norfolk

jacket, knickerbockers,
pattis

buttons,

and

accoutrements.

On

arrival at the forest depot, with its comfortable

bungalows and Kadir settlement, I was told by a native servant that his master was away, as an "elephant done tumble in a fit." My memory went back to the occasion many years ago, when, as a medical student, I took part
in

the autopsy of an elephant, which died in convulsions

at the

London Zoological Gardens.

It

transpired later

KADIR
in the

day that a young and grown-up cow elephant had tumbled, not in a fit, but into a pit made with hands for
the express purpose of catching elephants.

The

story

has a philological significance, and illustrates the difficulty

which the Tamulian experiences

F.

in

dealing with the letter

An

incident

is

still

cherished at

connection with a sporting globe-trotter,

Mount Stuart in who was accre-

dited to the Conservator of Forests for the purpose of

putting him on to "bison" (the gaur, Bos gaurus), and

other big game.

On

arrival at the depot,

he was

in-

formed that

his host

had gone to see the

" ellipence."

Incapable of translating the pigeon-English of the native

butler,

and, concluding that a financial

reckoning was

being suggested, he ordered the servant to pay the

baggage

coolies their elli-pence,

and send them away.

is

To

crusted

Anglo-Indian
elephants.

it

clear

that

ellipence

M. E. Grant Duff tells * the following story of a man, who was shooting on the Anaimalais. In his camp was an elephant, who,
could
only
Sir
in

mean

the middle of the night, began

to

eat

the

thatch

which he was sleeping. His servant in alarm rushed in and awoke him, saying " Elephant,
of the hut, in

Sahib, must, must (mad)."

rolling

The

sleeper, half-waking

and
Tell

over, replied

"

Oh, bother the elephant.

of the

him he mustn't."

The
briefly

salient characteristics

Kadirs

may be

summed up

as follows

short stature, dark skin,

platyrhine.

Men and women

have the teeth chipped.

Women wear a bamboo comb in the back-hair. Those whom I met spoke a Tamil patois, running up the scale
in talking,

and

finishing,

like

a Suffolker, on a higher

note than they

commenced

on.

But

am told

that

some

* Notes from a Diary, 1SS1-S6.

9
of

KADIR

them speak a mixture of debased Tamil and Malayalam. I am informed by Mr. Vincent that the Kadirs have a peculiar word Ali, denoting apparently a fellow or thing, which they apply as a suffix to names, e.g.,

Karaman
Kutti Ali,

Ali,

black

fellow
;

man

with a knife

Mudi Ali, hairy fellow Puv Ali, man with a flower.

:

Among

nicknames, the following occur

tiger,

white mother,

white flower, beauty,

milk,

virgin, love, breasts.

The Kadirs
tation of the

are excellent mimics,

and give a clever imi-

mode

of speech of the

Muduvans, Malasars,

and other

hill tribes.

The Kadirs
without culture.

afford a typical

example of happiness
retain

Unspoiled, by education, the advancing

still

wave

of which has not yet engulfed them, they

manners and customs." Quite was it to hear the hearty shrieks of laughter of the nude curly-haired children, wholly illiterate, and happy in their ignorance, as they played at funerals, or indulged in the amusement of making mud pies, and
of their simple
refreshing

many

"

scampered
ble

off to

their huts

on

my
the

appearance.
life,

The

uncultured Kadir, living a hardy out-door

of appreciating
to

and capaconvinced,

the

full

enjoyment of an
I

" apathetic rest " as perfect

in

bliss,

has,

am

many

ways, the advantage over the poor under-fed

student with a small-paid appointment under Government

as the narrow goal to

which the laborious passing of

existence,

examination tests leads.

Living an
isolated

confined within

the the

thinly-populated jungle,

where

Nature

furnishes
life,

means

of obtaining
little,

all

the necessaries of

the

Kadir

possesses

if

any,

knowledge of

cultivation,

and

objects to doing

work with a mamuti, the instrument

which serves the gardener in the triple capacity of spade, rake, and hoe. But armed with a keen-edged bill-hook

KADIR
he
is

lO

immense.

As Mr.

O. H. Bensley says

"The

axiom that the

less civilised

men

are, the
is

more they are

Give him a
will

able to do every thing for themselves,

well illustrated

by the hill-man, who

simple
bill-hook,

is

full

of resource.

and what wonders he

perform.

He

will build

houses out of etah, so neat and comfort-

able as to be positively luxurious.

He
will

will

bridge a

stream with canes and branches.

of bamboo, a fishing-line out of

He
fibre,

out of bamboo, a carving knife out of etah,

make a raft a comb out

from dry

and

fire

wood.

He
starve,

will find food for

must

you where you think you and show you the branch which, if cut, will

give you drink.

He

will set traps for beasts

and

birds,

which are more

effective than

some of the most elabor-

ate products of machinery."

European, overtaken
fire

by night
roots

in the jungle,

unable to light
fruits,

by

friction or

to climb trees to gather

ignorant of the edible

and

berries,

and

afraid of wild beasts, would, in

ill-

the absence of comforts, be quite as unhappy and

at-ease as a Kadir surrounded by plenty at an official

dinner party.

At the

forest depot the

Kadir settlement consists of

of

neatly constructed huts,

made

bamboo

deftly split

with a bill-hook
the teak tree
travancoricd),
(

in their

long axis, thatched with leaves of

(

Tcctona grandis) and bamboo

off into

Ochlandra

and divided

verandah and compart-

ments by means of bamboo

are essentially

partitions.

But the Kadirs

nomad

in habit,, living in

small communities,

and shifting from place

returned from a morning
expedition.

to place in the jungle,

if

whence
camping
Kadirs

they suddenly re-appear as casually as

stroll

they had only

instead of a long

When
*

wandering

in the jungle, the

Lecture delivered at Trivandrum, MS.

KADIR.

KADIR

make

a rouoh lean-to shed covered over with leaves, and

fire

keep a small
told, fond of

burning through the night, to keep

off

bears, elephants, tigers,

and leopards.

They

are,

am

dogs, which they keep

chiefly as a protection
fire is

against wild beasts at night.

The camp

lighted

by means of a

flint

and the

floss of the silk-cotton tree

(Boiubax malabaricunt), over which powdered charcoal

has been rubbed.
not, in a general

Like the Kurumbas, the Kadirs are

way, afraid of elephants, but are careful

to get out of the

way of a cow with young, or a solitary rover, which may mean mischief. On the day following my descent from Mount Stuart, an Odde cooly woman
killed

was

on the ghat road by a solitary tusker.

for

Fami-

liarity

with wild beasts, and comparative immunity from

accident,
will

have bred contempt

them, and the Kadirs

to elephant land, fears

go where the European, fresh

to tread, or conjures every creak of a

bamboo
I

into the

approach of a charging tusker.

As an example
'Jungle-book,'

of pluck

worthy of a place

in Kipling's

may

cite

the case of a hill-man and his wife, who, overtaken by

night in the jungle, decided to pass

it

on a rock.

As

they

slept,

a tiger carried off the woman.

Hearing her
the
it

shrieks, the sleeping

in the

man awoke, and

followed in pursuit

vain hope of saving his wife.

Coming on

beast in possession of the mangled corpse, he killed

at close quarters with a spear.

Yet he was wholly uncon-

scious that he had performed an act of heroism worthy

of the bronze cross 'for valour.'

The Kadirs

carry loads strapped on the back over the

fibre,

shoulders by means of

instead of on the head in the

plains
;

manner customary among coolies in the women on the march may be seen carrying
utensils

and

the cooking on their backs, and often have a child strapped

on the top of their household goods.

The

dorsal position

KADIR

12

of the babies, huddled up In a dirty cloth, with the ends

slung over the shoulders and held

chest,

in the
it is

hands over the

contrary to the

at

once caught

my

eye, as

usual native habit of straddling the infants across the

loins as a saddle.

Mr.
first

Vincent informs
to the hills, the

me

that "

when

the planters

came

Kadirs were found practically

without clothes of any description, with very few ornaments, and looking very lean and emaciated.
All this,

however, changed with the advent of the European, as

the Kadirs then got advances in hard cash, clothes, and
grain, to induce
tried to

For a few years they work hard, but were failures, and now I do not
to work.

them

suppose that a dozen

on the

hills.
;

employed on the estates They would not touch manure owing to

are

men

caste scruples

they could not learn to prune

and with

a mamoti (spade) they always promptly proceeded to

chop

their feet about in their efforts to dig pits."

like the

The

Kadirs have never claimed,

possess any land on the

Todas, and do not

hills.

But the Government has

hill tribes to collect all
it

declared the absolute right of the

the minor forest produce, and to

sell

to the

Government

through the medium of a contractor, whose tender has

been previously accepted.

produce
in coin at

The

contractor pays for the

rate,

fair

market

and the Kadirs

to supply

barter the

money

so obtained for articles of food with

contractors appointed by

Government
rate,

them

with their requirements at a fixed

a
fair,

which

will leave

but not exorbitant margin of profit to the vendor.

The

principal articles of minor forest

hills

produce of the

Anaimalai

are wax, honey, cardamoms, myrabolams,

turmeric, deer horns, elephant tusks,

ginger, dammer,

and

rattans.

And

rattans are the

of these, cardamoms, wax, honey, and most important. Honey and wax are

--r^
IWH

jiCl'

L^.'=

KADIR.

13
collected at
to
all

KADIR

seasons, and

cardamoms from September

value of the minor produce

November.

The

total

collected, in 1897-98, in the

South Coimbatore division

This sum owing to a good cardamom crop. was exceptionally high An average year would yield a revenue of Rs. 4,000
(which includes the Anaimalais) was Rs. 7,886.
5,000, of
cent.

which the Kadirs receive approximately 50 per They work for the Forest Department on a system

of short advances for a daily

wage

of 4 annas.

And,

at

the present day, the interests of the Forest

Department
have come

and

planters,

who have

acquired land on the Anaimalais,

hill

both anxious to secure

into mild collision.

men

for labour,

Some Kadirs
shikaris.

are

good

trackers,

zoological friend,
little
I,

and a few are good who had nicknamed his

(

small child his "

shikari

"

little

sportsman) was

quite upset because

nise the

hailing from India, did not recog-

word with his misplaced accent. One Kadir, named Viapoori Muppan, is still held in the memory of Europeans, who made a good living, in days gone by, by shooting tuskers, and had one arm blown off by the
bursting of a gun.

He

is

reputed to have been a

much

married man, greatly addicted to strong drinks, and to

have flourished on the proceeds of

present day,
if

his tusks.

At the

a Kadir finds tusks, he must declare the

find as treasure-trove,

and hand

it

over to Government,
15 to

who rewards him at the rate maund of 25 lb. according to

of Rs.

Rs. 25 per

the quality. Government makes a good profit on the transaction, as exceptionally good tusks have been known to sell for Rs. 5 per lb. If the find is not declared, and discovered, the possessor

thereof

is

punished

for theft

according to the Act.

it is,

By an

elastic use of the

word

cattle,

for the

purposes of the

Madras Forest Act, made to include such a heterogeneous

KADIR

14

zoological collection of animals as elephants, sheep, pigs,

goats, camels, buffaloes, horses
fication
recalls

Flying-fox or

and asses. This classimind the occasion on which the Fox-bat was included in an official list of
to
;

the insectivorous birds of the Presidency

and, further,

a report on the wild animals of a certain

district,

which
the

was triumphantly headed with the "wild

long-suffering, but pig-headed country pony.
I

tattu,"

gather, from an account of the process by one

who

had considerable knowledge of the Kadirs, that "they

will only

remove the hives of bees during dark

in
cliffs,

nights,

and never

the daytime or on moonlight nights.

In

removing them from

they use a chain

made of
do so

bamboo

or rattan, fixed to a stake or a tree on the top.

this fragile ladder, will only

The man, going down

play.

while his wife, or son watches above to prevent any foul

They have a superstition that they should always return by the way they go down, and decline to get to the bottom of the cliff, although the distance may be
and the work of re-climbing avoided. For hives on trees, they tie one or more long bamboos to reach up to the branch required, and then climb up. They then
less,

crawl along the branch until the hive

is

reached.

They
larvae,

devour the bee-bread and the bee-maggots or

swallowing the wax as well."
expedition
in

In a note on a shooting
J.

Travancore,

'

Mr.

D. Rees, describing

the collection of honey by the Kadirs of the southern

hills,

says that they " descend giddy precipices at night,

torch in hand, to
their honey.

smoke out the

stout creeper
is

bees,

and take away

A
is

suspended over the

But

abyss, and

it

established law of the jungle that no

in

brother

shall

assist

holding

it.

it

is

more

* Nineteenth Century, 1898.

15
interesting to see

KADIR
feet

them run a ladder a hundred

in

up

the perpendicular stem of a tree, than to watch them

Axe disappearing over a precipice. picker makes a hole in the bark for a

hand, the honeypeg, standing

little

on which he inserts a second peg higher up, ties a longcane from one to the other, and by night for the dark-

ness gives confidence

he

will

ascend the

tallest
I

trees,

and bring down honey without any accident."

been
told,

have

when

how much of truth Kadir goes down the face of

with

know

not, that,

a rock or precipice

in search of honey, he sometimes takes with him, as a precautionary measure, and guarantee of his safety, the

wife of the

man who

is

holding the ladder above.

Often,

Botanist, Mr.

that

it is

when out on the tramp with the late Government M. A. Lawson, I have heard him lament impossible to train arboreal monkeys to collect
fruit

specimens of the

and flowers of

lofty forest

trees,

which are inaccessible to the ordinary man. Far superior to any trained Simian is the Kadir, who, by means of pegs or notches, climbs even the tallest masts of trees
with an agility which recalls to
picture
in "

memory

the celebrated
'

Punch," representing

climbing plants.'
trees,

Habit of For the ascent of comparatively low

alternately

Darwin's

notches are made with a bill-hook,

right
this

and

left,

at intervals of
will

about thirty inches.

To

method the Kadir

not have recourse in wet

slippery,

weather, as the notches are

is

damp and
fact,

and there

the danger of an insecure foot-hold.

An

important ethnographic

and one which

is

significant, is that the detailed description of tree-climbing

by the Dyaks of Borneo, as given by Wallace,'- might have been written on the Anaimalai hills, and would

Malay Archipelago.

KADIR
apply equally well
drove
in,"

l6
in

every detail to the Kadir.

" at

They
about

Wallace writes, "a peg very firmly

upright close to the
first

three feet from the ground, and, bringing one of the long

bamboos, stood
it

it

tree,

and bound

firmly to the

two

pegs by means of a bark cord

and small notches near the head of each peg. One of the Dyaks now stood on the first peg and drove in a
which he tied the bamboo in the same way, and then mounted another step, standing on one foot, and holding by the bamboo at the
third about level with his face,
to

peg immediately above him, while he drove in the next In this manner he ascended about twenty feet, one.

when

the upright

bamboo became

thin

another was

handed up by his companion, and

tying both
this

this

was joined on by

bamboos
neeirly

to three or four of the pegs.

When

was also

ended, a third was added, and shortly

after the lowest

branch of the tree was reached, along

which the young Dyak scrambled. The ladder was perfectly safe, since, if any one peg were loose or faulty,
the strain would be thrown on several others

above

and below

it.

now understood

the use of the line of

I

bamboo pegs

sticking in trees, which

had often seen."

In their search for produce in the evergreen forests

of the higher ranges, with their heavy rainfall, the Kadirs

became unpleasantly familiar with leeches and blue bottle flies, which flourish in the moist climate. And it who had been gored and is recorded that a Kadir, wounded by a bull bison,' was placed in a position of
'

safety while a friend ran to the village to

summon
but, In

help.

He was
in

not

away
flies

for

more than an hour,

that

short time,

had deposited thousands of maggots

the man was brought into begun burrowing into the flesh, camp, they had already and were with difficulty extracted. On another occasion, the wounds, and,

when

KADIR TREE-CLIMBING.

17

kAdir

the eye-witness of the previous unappetising incident

was out alone

in the

forest,

and shot a

tiger

two miles
about two

or so from his camp.

Thither he went to collect coolies

to carry in the carcase,

and was away

flies

for

hours, during which the

story, 'not

had, like the child in the

been

idle,'
I

the skin being a mass of maggots

and

totally ruined.

have

it

on authority

that, like the

Kotas of the

Nilgiris, the

Kadirs

will eat the putrid

and

fly-blown flesh of carcases of wild beasts, which they

come
stick,

across in their wanderings.

To

a dietary which

includes succulent roots, which they upturn with a digging

bamboo
etc.,

seed, sheep, fowls, rock-snakes (python),

rats
(field,

deer,

porcupines,

not house),

wild

pigs,

monkeys,
Cycas

they do credit by displaying a hard, well-

nourished body.
tree,

The mealy
flourishes

portion of the seeds of the

which

on the lower slopes of the

Anaimalais, forms a considerable addition to the menu.

In
its

raw
in

state the fruit

is

said to be poisonous, but

it

is

evidently wholesome

when
baked

cut into slices, thoroughly

soaked
for

running water, dried, and ground into flour

cakes, or
in

making

hot ashes.

Mr. Vincent

writes that, "

during March, April, and May, the Kadirs

have a glorious time.

They
called

usually

manage

to find

some wild sago palms,

of the proper age,

by them koondtha panai,

to the
i

which they cut down close

cut into lengths of about

ground.

They are then

lengthways.

and
very

split

The
a

J feet, sections are then beaten

time with
mallets,

hard

and

for

long

and

become separated

into fibre
in

thoroughly wetted, tied

and powder. The powder is cloths and well beaten with

sticks. Every now and then, between the beatings, the bag of powder is dipped in water, and well strained. It is then all put into water, when the powder sinks, and

the water

is

poured

off.

The

residue

is

well boiled,

ni-2

KADIR
with constant
stirring, and,

l8

of rubber, and of a reddish

cool,

when brown

it is

of the consistency
it is

colour,

allowed to

and then cut

in pieces to

be distributed.

This food

stuff is palatable
is

enough, but very tough."

The Kadir
animals

said to prefer roasting

and eating the

rats,

flesh of

with the skin on.

For catching

jungle-fowl, etc.,

he resorts

to

cunningly devised snares and traps made of

fibre,

bamboo and
are caught

as a substitute for a gun.

fire

Porcupines

by setting
asleep,

to the scrub jungle round

them as they lie them to death.

and thus smoking and burning

thoughts
turn

When
elect,

Kadir
is

youth's

towards

matrimony, he

On

go and give her a dowry by working there for a year. the wedding day a feast of rice, sheep, fowls,
said to

to the village of his bride-

and other

luxuries

is

given by the

parents
is

of the
invited.

bridegroom, to w^hich the Kadir community

The
the

bride

and bridegroom stand

of the bridegroom, while

beneath a pandal
is

(arch) decorated with flowers, w^hich

erected outside

home

dance separately to the music of drum and

bridegroom's mother or sister ties the
tali

men and women fife. The

(marriage

badge) of gold or

silver

round the bride's neck, and her

fingers

father puts a turban

on the head of the bridegroom.

little

The
in

contracting parties link together the

of their right hands as a token of their union, and walk

procession round the pandal.

Then,

sitting

on a reed

mat of Kadir manufacture, they exchange

marriage
tie

betel.

The
of

can be dissolved

for

incompatibility

temper, disobedience on the part of the wife, adultery,

etc.,

without appeal to any higher authority than a

of elders,

council

who pronounce judgment on

manner
in

the

evidence.

As

an illustration of the

which

such a council of hill-men disposes of cases, Mr. Bensley

19
cites the case of a

kAdir
to carry forty

man who was made

basket loads of sand to the house of the person against

whom
the

he had offended.
exercised

He

points out
council.

how

absolute

is

control

by the

Disobedience
this

would be followed by excommunication, and

would

mean being turned out into the jungle, to obtain a living in the best way one could. By one Kadir informant I was assured, as he
squatted on
time," that
it

the
is

floor

of

my bungalow

at

"question

essential that a wife should be a

good

maxim that the way to the heart is through the mouth. How many men in civilised western society, who suffer from marrying a wife wholly
cook, in accordance with a

incompetent, like the

first

Mrs. David Copperfield, to

conduct the housekeeping,

the system of marriage as a

might well be envious of

civil

contract to be sealed
!

or unloosed according to the cookery results

is

Polygyny

indulged
" the

in

by the Kadirs, who agree with Benedick

that

world

must be peopled," and hold more

especially that the numerical strength of their

own

tribe

must be maintained.

The

plurality

of wives

seems
that he

to be mainly with the desire

for offspring, and the father-

in-law of one of the forest-guards informed

me

had four wives

male
child.

living.

The

first

two wives producing

bore him a solitary

no offspring, he married a

third,

who

Considering the result to be an insufficient

contribution to the tribe, he married a fourth, who,

prolific

more

than her colleagues, gave birth to three girls and

In the code of
wife takes precedence over

a boy, with which he remained content.

polygynous etiquette, the

Special
huts

first

the others, and each wife has her

are

own cooking
for

utensils.

maintained

women

during

menstruation and parturition.

that,

Mr. Vincent informs

me

when

a girl

reaches puberty, the friends of the

III-2 B

KADIR

20
is

family gather together, and a great feast

prepared.

All her friends and relations give her a small present of

money, according to their means.

with the family jewelry,
as possible.
hut,

The girl is decorated and made to look as smart

menstrual period, a special

For the

first

called

mutthu

salai or ripe house, is constructed for

;

the girl to live in during the period of pollution

but at
hut,

subsequent periods, the ordinary menstruation

unclean house,
their
is

or

used.

All girls are said to change

names

when

they

reach

puberty.

For
is
it

three

months

after the birth of a child, the

woman

considered
is

unclean.

When
of the

the infant

is

a month old,

named
inter-

without any elaborate ceremonial,

friends

though the female

Sexual

family collect

together.

course ceases on the establishment of pregnancy, and

the

husband indulges

in

promiscuity.

Widows
in

are

not allowed to re-marry,

but

may

live

a state of

concubinage.
till

Women

are said to suckle their children

they are two

or three years old,

and a mother has

lips of
If this

been seen putting a lighted cigarette to the year old baby immediately after suckling it.

a
is

done with the intention of administering a sedative, it is less baneful than the pellet of opium administered by
ayahs (nurses) to Anglo-Indian babies rendered fractious by troubles climatic, dental, and other. The Kadir men
are said to
is

consume large quantities of opium, which

sold

to

them

illicitly.

They
it,

will

not

allow

the

women
the
barren.

or

children

to

eat

and have a

belief that

consumption

women renders them The women chew tobacco. The men smoke
thereof

by

the coarse tobacco as sold in the bazars, and showed a marked appreciation of Spencer's Torpedo cheroots,

which

distributed

among them

for

the purposes of

bribery and conciliation.


21

kAdir
is

The
It
is,

religion of the Kadirs

a crude polytheism,
invisible gods.
reli-

and vague worship of stone images or

as Mr. Bensley expresses
it,

an ejaculatory

gion, finding vent in uttering the

names of the gods and

demons.

The

gods, as enumerated and described to

:

me, were as follows

(i)

Paikutlatha,

a projecting rock

overhanging

a slab of rock, on which are two stones set up on end.

Two

miles east of
(2)

Mount

Stuart.

Athuvisariamma, a stone

enclosure,

ten
It

to
is

fifteen

feet square,

almost level with the ground.

believed that the walls were originally ten feet high, and
that the

mountain has grown up round

is

it.

Within the
Eight

enclosure there
miles north of
(3)

a representation of the god.

Stuart.

Mount

Vanathavathi.

Has no

shrine, but

is

worship-

ped anywhere as an
(4)
tree,

invisible god.

lyappaswami, a stone set up beneath a teak

In the act of worship-

and worshipped as a protector against various

forms of sickness and disease.

ping, a

mark

is

made on

the stone with ashes.

Two

miles and a half from Mount Stuart, on the ghat road to

Sethumadai.
(5)

Masanyatha, a female recumbent figure

in

in stone

on a masonry wall

an open plain near the village of

trial

Anaimalai, before which

by ordeal

is

carried out.

The

goddess has a high repute for her power of detecting

Chillies are

thieves or rogues.

thrown

into a fire in her

name,

and the guilty person

suffers

from vomiting and

diarrhoea.

According to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer,* the Kadirs are " worshippers of Kali. On the occasion of
* Monograph.

Ethnog

Survey of Cochin, No. 9, 1906,

KADIR
the offering to Kali, a

22

number

of virgins are asked to

bathe as a preliminary to the preparation of the offering,

which consists of
honey, and

rice

and some vegetables cooked

sweet pudding.

in

made
is

into a

this preparation

unhusked by these
is

The rice for girls. The offerall

ing

is

considered to be sacred, and

partaken of by

men, women, and children assembled."

When
saluting

Kadirs

fall

sick,

they worship

the

gods by

them with their hands to the face, burning camphor, and offering up fruits, cocoanuts, and betel.
Mr. Vincent
tells

me

that they have a horror of cattle,

and
cow.
in

will not

touch the ordure, or other products of the

" bison,"

Yet they believe that

the body of a

gods occasionally reside and have been known to do

their

puja (worship)
It
is

when
in

a bull has been shot by a sportsman.

noted by Mr. Anantha

Krishna

Iyer

that

wild

elephants are held

veneration by them, but tame ones

are believed to have lost the divine element.

The Kadirs
to visit

are said, during the

Hindu Vishu

festival,

the plains, and, on their way, pray to any image

across.
all

which they chance to come in witchcraft, and attribute

workings thereof.
in
"

They

are believers

diseases to the miraculous

They

arc

mantravadam or magic.

good exorcists, and trade Mr. Logan mentions * that

the Prince of Wales'

the family of famous trackers, whose services in the

jungles were retained for

H.R.H.

(now King Edward) projected sporting tour in the Anamalai mountains, dropped off most mysteriously, one
by one, shortly afterwards, stricken down by an unseen
hand, and
viction

them expressing beforehand their conthat they were under a certain individual's spell,
all

of

and were doomed

to certain death at

an early date.

They

Malabar Manual.

23

KADIR
it

were probably poisoned, but how

of a

was managed remains

at

a mystery, although the family was under the protection

European gentleman, who would

to light

once have
death

brought
occurs

any ostensible

foul play."
or,
if

The Kadir dead

in

are buried in a grave,

the depths of the jungles, with a paucity of

for digging, the corpse
is

hands available

placed in a

crevice between the rocks, and covered over with stones.

The grave

is

dug from

four to five feet deep.

in

There

is

no special burial-ground, but some spot

not far from the scene of death,
is

the jungle,

selected.

band of

music, consisting of

drum and

fife,

plays weird dirges

outside the hut of the deceased, and whistles are blown

when
cloth

it

is

carried

away therefrom.
It is

The

old clothes of

the deceased are spread under the corpse, and a

is

new
on a

put on

it.

tied

up

in

a mat, which com-

pletely covers

it,

and carried

to the burial-ground

bamboo
over
it.

stretcher.

As

it

leaves the hut, rice is

thrown

The funeral ceremony is simple in the extreme. The corpse is laid in the grave on a mat in the recumbent
posture, with the

head towards the

all
it.

east,
it,

and with

split

bamboo and
monument

leaves placed

round

so that not a

particle of earth can touch

No

stone, or sepulchral
spot.

of any kind,

is

set

up to mark the
to heaven,

The
is

Kadir believes that the dead go

the sky, but has no views as to

which

in

what

sort of place

it is.

The

story that the Kadirs eat their dead originated with

it

Europeans, the origin of

being that no one had ever

seen a dead Kadir, a grave, or sign of a burial-place.

The Kadirs themselves

as a joke,
tells

are reticent as to their

disposing of the dead, and the story,

method of which was started

Mr. Vincent

became more

or less believed.

me

that a well-to-do Kadir family will perform the

final

death ceremonies eight days after death, but poorer

KADIR
folk

24
to wait a year or more,
till

have

they have collected

sufficient

money

for the

expenses thereof.

At cock-crow
polli chor,

on the morning of the ceremonies,

is

rice, called

cooked, and piled up on leaves

in

the centre of the hut

tullagu chor,
is

of the deceased.

Cooked

rice, called

then

placed in each of the four corners of the hut, to propitiate the gods,

and

to serve as food for

them and the

Kadirs

spirit

of the dead person.

rice,

At a
is

short distance from the hut,

called kanal

chor,

cooked

for all

who

have died, and been buried.

of the deceased

The

relations

and friends

commence
his

to cry,

and make lamentations,

and proclaim
fictitious.

good

qualities,
so,

most of which are

After an hour or

they adjourn to the hut

of the deceased, where the oldest

man

present invokes

the gods, and prays to

them and

to the

heaped up food.
into the air as
fall to,

A
a

pinch from each of the heaps

gift of

is

thrown

food to the gods, and those present

and

eat heartily, being careful to partake of each of the foodstuffs,

consisting of rice,

meat, and vegetables,

which

have been prepared.

On

certain

Monday
held,

in the

months of Adi and

have bathed

Avani, the Kadirs observe a festival called nombu, during

which a

feast

is

after
oil.

they
It

and

anointed themselves with

was, they say, observed

by their ancestors, but they have no definite tradition as

to
its

origin or significance.
that, at the

It is

noted by Mr. Anantha

presents
caps,
in

Krishna Iyer

Onam

festival,

the

shape of

rice,

cloths,
salt,

coats,

turbans,

ear-rings,

tobacco, opium,

oil

and cocoanuts are distributed

" the

among

the Kadirs by the Forest Department.

to

According

Mr. Bensley,

Kadir has an

air of

calm dignity, which leads one to suppose that he had

some reason

for

having a more exalted opinion of himself

than that entertained for him by the outside world.

25
forest officer

kAdir
had a very high
corner,

of a philanthropic turn

opinion of the sturdy independence and blunt honesty of

the Kadir, but he once
to find

came unexpectedly round a

two of them exploring the contents of his portmanteau, from which they had abstracted a pair of
scissors, a

comb, and a looking glass."

stature,

"

The

Kadirs,"

Mr. (now Sir F. A.) Nicholson writes,* "

rather short
;

are, as a rule,

in

and

deep-chested,

like

most
they

mountaineers
rarely

and, like

many

true mountaineers,

walk with a straight leg. Hence their thigh muscles are often abnormally developed at the expense
of those of the calf

Hence,

too, in part, their dislike to

walking long distances on level ground, though their objection, mentioned by Colonel Douglas Hamilton, to
carrying loads on the plains,
arising from
is

deeper-rooted than that

mere physical

disability.

This objection

is

mainly because they are rather a timid race, and never

feel safe

out of the forests.

is

They have

also affirmed that

the low-country air

very trying to them."

As

a matter

of fact, they very rarely

go down

to the plains,

even as

far as the village of Anaimalai, only fifteen miles distant

from Mount Stuart.

One woman, whom

in

saw,

had

been as

far as

Palghat by railway from Coimbatore, and

the

had returned very much up-to-date

jewelry and the latest barbarity
body-cloth.
in

matter of

imported piece-good
Kadirs,
I

With the
their general

chest-girth

of

the

as

well

as

muscular development,

was very much

impressed.

given

rise

Their hardiness, Mr. Conner writes, f has to the observation among their neighbours

that the Kadir and

Kad Anai

(wild elephant) are

much

the

same

sort of animal.
*

Manual of the Coimbatore

district.
I.

t Madras Joiun. Lit. Science,

1833.

kAdir

26
is

Perhaps the most interesting custom of the Kadirs

that of chipping
all

or

some of the

incisor teeth, both

upper and lower,

not serrated cone.

into the

form of a sharp-pointed, but

is

The

operation, which
file

performed

with a chisel or bill-hook and

tribe skilled therein,

by members of the
girls,

on boys and

has been thus

lies

described.

The

girl to

be operated on

down, and
holds her

places her head against a female friend,

who

head
chips
girl

firmly.

A woman
teeth
till

takes a sharpened bill-hook, and

away the

they are shaded to a point, the

operated on writhing and groaning with the pain.

in

After the operation she appears dazed, and

a very few
last

hours the face begins to swell.

for

Swelling and pain

accompanied by severe headache. The Kadirs say that chipped teeth make an ugly man or
a day
or
two,

woman handsome, and

not been

that a person,

whose teeth have

like a

thus operated on, has teeth

this practice
is

and eats

cow.

Whether

one which the Kadir, and Mala

hit

Vedar of Travancore, have

custom resorted
to

on spontaneously
it is

in

comparatively recent times, or whether

a relic of a

by their ancestors of long ago,

which remains as a stray survival of a custom once more

widely practiced by the remote inhabitants of Southern
India, cannot be definitely asserted, but
latter view.
I

incline to the

A
comb

friendly old

dilated lobes of the ears,

in

woman, with huge discs in the widely and a bamboo five-pronged her back-hair, who acted as spokesman on the

occasion of a visit to a charmingly situated settlement in

a jungle of magnificent bamboos by the side of a mountain stream,

pointed out to me, with conscious pride,

that the huts

were largely constructed by the females,

for

while

the

men worked

the

sircar

(Government).

The

females also carry water from the streams, collect

KADIR BUY WITH CHIPPED TEETH.

27

kAdir

firewood, dig up edible roots, and carry out the sundry

household duties of a housewife.

are
I

Both men and women

baskets,
necklets,
I

clever
told

at

plaiting"

bamboo

etc.

was

one morning by a Kadir man,

whom

met on

the road, as an important item of news, that the

in his

women

settlement were very busy dressing to

come and
St.

see

me

an

event as important to
for

them
at

as the dressing

of a debutante
James'.

presentation

the

Court of

They

eventually turned up without their hus-

bands, and evidently regarded

my methods

as a

huge

joke organised
their children.

for

the

The

hair

amusement of themselves and was neatly parted, anointed

oil,

with a liberal application of cocoanut

with
wild
flowers.

and decked

Beauty spots and

lines

had been

painted with coal-tar dyes on the forehead, and turmeric

powder

freely sprinkled over the top of the

heads of the

married women.

Some had even

sari.

discarded the racrg^ed

life

and dirty cotton cloth of every-day

colour-printed imported

in

favour of a

One
already

bright, good-looking

young

woman,

who had
acted

been

through the
lady-help
in

measuring ordeal,
positions.

as

an

efficient

coaching the novices

in the

assumption of the correct

She very was manifestly proud

Dr.
article

readily grasped the situation,

and

of her temporary elevation to the

rank of standard-bearer to Government.

K. T.
in

Preuss has drawn

1899,
entitled

my

attention to an

Globus,

'Die

Zauberbilder

Schriften der Negrito in Malaka,' wherein he describes

in detail the

designs on the

bamboo combs worn by

the

Negritos of Malacca,
strikingly

women.
trical

them with the similar design on the combs worn by the Kadir Dr. Preuss works out in detail the theory that
and compares
is

the design

not, as

have elsewhere called

it,

a geome-

pattern, but consists of a series of hieroglyphics.

KADIR
The
collection of

28

Kadir combs
that the

in

the

Madras Museum
the

shows very
ventional

clearly

patterns thereon are con-

designs.

The bamboo combs worn by

Semang women
protect

are stated* to serve as talismans, to

them against diseases which are prevalent, or most dreaded by them. Mr. Vincent informs me that,
so far as he knows, the Kadir

combs

are not looked

on as charms, and the markings thereon have no mystic

significance.

A
it

Kadir man should always make a comb,

and present

to his intended wife just before marriage,

or at the conclusion of the marriage ceremony, and the

young men
nicest comb.

vie with each other as to

who can make

the

Sometimes they represent strange articles on the combs. Mr. Vincent has, for example, seen a comb with a very good imitation of the face of a clock
scratched on
It
is
it.

sometimes

difficult

to

distinguish

adolescent

Kadir youths with curly

fringe,

chests covered

by a

cotton cloth, and wearing necklets

made

of plaited grass
I

or glass and brass beads, from girls.

several times caught
in

And
tied

was myself

an erroneous diagnosis of sex.

Many

of the infants have a

charm

round the neck,

;

which takes the form of a dried tortoise foot the tooth of a crocodile mimicking a phallus, and supposed to ward
off attacks

from a mythical water elephant which

;

lives in

the mountain streams

claws.

or

wooden
necklet

imitations of tiger's

One baby wore

made

of the seeds

of Coix Lachryina-Jobi (Job's tears).

Males have the

lobes of the ears adorned with brass ornaments, and

the nostril pierced, and plugged with wood.

The

ear-

lobes of the females are widely dilated with palm-leaf

rolls
*
1906.

or
W. W.

huge wooden

discs,

and they wear

ear-rings,

Skeat and C. O. Blagden.

Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula,

t-

f'^'*r-Y*''

is^cs.-

.-1^?_

KADIR GIRL WEARING CUMU.

29
brass
or
steel

kAdukuttukiravar
finger-rings,

bangles

and

and

bead

necklets.
It is

recorded by Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer that the

Kadirs are attached to the Raja of Cochin

strongest ties of personal affection and regard.

"by the

When-

ever His Highness tours

carry

in

the forests, they follow him,

him from place to place in manjals or palanquins, carry saman (luggage), and in fact do everything for
him.

His Highness

in

return

is

much

attached to them,

feeds them, gives

them

cloths,

ornaments, combs, and

looking-glasses."

The Kadirs
eaters,

will not eat

with Malasars,

who

are beef-

and

will not carry

boots

made

of cow-hide, except

under protest.

Average

stature

1577 cm,; cephalic index 72-9;

Kalle,

nasal index 89.

and Kadale meaning Bengal gram [Cicer arietiiiimi) have been recorded as exogamous septs or gotras of Kurubas and Kurnis.

Kadle. Kadle,

Kadu. Kadu
has

or

Kattu,
as a

meaning wild or jungle,

of
Golla,
Irula,

been

recorded

division

Korava, Kurumba,

and Tottiyan.

Kadu

also

occurs

as an exogamous sept or gotra of the Kurnis. Kadu Konkani is stated, in the Madras Census Report, to mean the bastard Konkanis, as opposed to 1 90 1,

the

God

or

pure

Konkanis.

Kattu

Marathi

is

synonym for the bird-catching Kuruvikarans. In the Malabar Wynaad, the jungle Kurumbas are known as
Kattu Nayakan.

Kadukuttukiravar.
bores a hole
in

A synonym, meaning one who

who perform
the

the ear, for Koravas

operation of piercing the lobes of the ears for various

castes.

KADUPPATTAN

30
accordto

Kaduppattan.The Kadupattans are said,*

ing to the traditional account of their origin,

have

been Pattar Brahmans of Kadu gramam, who became

degraded owing

to

their supporting the introduction of

H. A. Stuart writes.t "at present mostly palanquin-bearers, and carriers of salt, oil, etc. The educated among them
Buddhism.
of this caste are," Mr. follow the profession of teaching, and are called Ezhut-

"The members

tacchan,
in the

i.e.,

master of learning.

Both

titles

are used

same

family.
is

In the Native State of Cochin, the

In British

Kaduppattan
is

a salt-worker.

Malabar he
for

not known

to

have followed that profession

but
it

some

generations

past,

may be

that,

salt

manufac-

ture having long ago been stopped in South Malabar,

he has taken
carriage of

to other

professions,

one of which

is

the

salt.

In

manners and customs Kaduppattans

are described

resemble Nayars, but their inheritance follows the male

line."

The Kaduppattans
follow a modified

by Mr. Logan
of inheritance,

as "

a caste hardly to be distinguished from the Nayars.

They
in

makkatayam system

which the property descends from father to son, but not from father to daughter. The girls are married
before attaining pubert}% and the bridegroom,

who

is

to

be the

girl's

real

husband

in

after

life,

arranges the

dowry and other matters by means

of mediators (enangan).

The

tali is tied

round the

girl's

neck by the bridegroom's

the funeral ceremonies

sister or a female relative.

At

of this class, the barber caste perform priestly functions,

giving directions and preparing oblation

rice.

widow
after

without male issue

is

removed on the
done even
if

twelfth

day

her husband's death from his house to that of her

parents.

own

And

this

is

she has female issue.

1891.

* Gazetteer of the Malabar district.

X

f Madras Census Beport, Manual of Malabar.

31
But,

KAIKOLAN

on the contrary,
she
is

if

she has borne sons to the

to

deceased,

not only entitled

remain at her
in virtue of

husband's house, but she continues to have,

her sons, a joint right over his property."

Madras Census Report, 1901, the Kahars are returned as a Bengal caste of boatmen and fishermen. In the Mysore Census Report, it is noted that Kahar means in Hindustani a blacksmith, and that

Kahar.

In the

those

censused

were immigrants

from

the

Bombay

Presidency.

the Kanakkans (accountants).

in

Kaikatti (one who shows the hand). A division of The name has its origin

a custom, according to which a married

woman

is

never allowed to communicate with her mother-in-law

except by signs.*

KaikOlan. The
Tamil weavers found

Kaikolans are a large caste of

in all

the southern districts,

who

numbers in the Telugu country, where they have adopted the Telugu language. A legend is current that the Nayakkan kings of Madura were not satisfied with the workmanship of the Kaikolans, and sent for foreign weavers from the north (Patnulkarans), whose descendants now far out-number the Tamil weavers. The word Kaikolan is the Tamil
also are found in considerable

equivalent of the Sanskrit Virabahu, a mythological hero,

from

whom

both the Kaikolans and a section of the

Paraiyans claim descent.

The Kaikolans
in

are also called

Sengundar (red dagger)

legend.
"

connection with the following

The people

of the earth,

being harassed by
Siva was
six sparks of

certain demons,

applied to Siva for help.

enraged against the giants, and sent forth

fire

from his eyes.

His

wife,

Parvati,

was frightened,

Manual of

the

North Arcot

district.

KAIKOLAN
and retired
into as
to her

32

chamber, and,

in so

doing, dropped

nine beads from her anklets.

Siva converted the beads

many

females, to each of

whom was

born a hero

with full-grown moustaches and a dagger.

heroes,

with Subramanya at their

These nine head, marched in

command of a The Kaikolans

the demon,

large force, and destroyed the demons.

or Sengundar are said to be the descend-

ants of Virabahu,

one of these heroes.

After killing

the warriors were told by Siva that they

should become musicians, and adopt a profession, which

would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature, and, weaving being such a profession, they
were trained
darkness
curiosity,
if

in

it."

According

to

another version,

Siva told Parvati that the world would be enveloped in

he should close his eyes.

Impelled

by

Parvati closed her husband's eyes with her

hands.

Being

terrified

by the darkness, Parvati ran to

her chamber, and, on the way thither, nine precious stones fell from her anklets, and turned into nine fair
maidens,

embraced them.

enamoured and on that they were pregnant, Parvati uttered a curse that they should not bring forth
with

whom

Siva

became

Seeing

later

children formed in their

wombs.

One Padmasura was

to kill the Asura.

troubling the people in this world, and, on their praying

to Siva to help them, he told

Subramanya

requested Siva not to send Subramanya by and he suggested the withdrawal of her curse. himself, Accordingly, the damsels gave birth to nine heroes, who, carrying red daggers, and headed by Subramanya, went in search of the Asura, and killed him. The word kaikol
Parvati
is

said to refer to the ratnavel or precious

by Subramanya.

dagger carried The Kaikolans, on the Sura Samharam

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

33

KAIKOLAN

day during the

festival of

Subramanya, dress themselves

warriors,

up

to

represent the

nine

and join

in

the

procession.

The name Kaikolan

(hand), and kol (shuttle).
different parts of the

is

further

derived from

kai

The
is

Kaikolans consider the

loom

to represent various

Devatas

and Rishis,
Several

The

thread

said to have been originally

obtained from the lotus stalk rising from Vishnu's navel.

warp;
treadle.

Devas formed the threads, which make the Narada became the woof; and Vedamuni the

Brahma transformed himself

places,

into

the

plank

(padamaram), and Adisesha into the main rope.

In

some

the following sub-divisions of the

:

caste are recognised

Sozhia

Rattu

Siru-tali

(small
;

marriage

badge)

Peru-tali

(big

marriage

badge)

Sirpadam, and Sevaghavritti.

The women

of the Siru
tali

and Peru-tali divisions wear a small and large

respectively.

In religion, most of the Kaikolans are Saivites,

and

some have taken

Vaishnavites.

to

wearing the lingam, but a few are

The

hereditary

headman

of the caste
is,

is

called Peri-

danakaran or Pattakaran, and

as a rule, assisted by

two subordinates
But,
if

entitled Sengili or
is

Gramani, and Oral.

the settlement

a large one, the

headman may
Kaikolans

have as many as nine

assistants.

According

to

Mr. H. A. Stuart,*

" the

who

acknowledge the authority of a headman, or Mahanattan, resides at Conjeeveram, but itinerates among their
and
settling caste disputes.
his decision

villages, receiving presents,

Where

is

not accepted without demur, he

imposes upon the refractory weavers the expense of a

* Manual of the North Arcot district,

iii-'i

KAIKOLAN

34

curious ceremony, in which the planting of a

post takes part.

From

the top of this pole the

bamboo Maha-

nattan pronounces his decision, which must be acquiesced

in

on pain of

excommunication."
I

From
is

information

gathered at Conjeeveram,

learn that there

attached to

the Kaikolans a class of mendicants called Nattukattada

Nayanmar who do not plant, in reference to the fact that, when performing, they fix their bamboo pole to the gopuram of a temple, They are expected instead of planting it in the ground.
Nayanmar.

The name means

the

to

travel

about the country,

and,

if

a caste dispute
is

requires settlement, a council

meeting

convened, at

which they must be present as the representatives of

the Mahanadu, a chief Kaikolan head-quarters at Con-

jeeveram.

If

the

dispute

is

a complicated one, the

all

Nattukattada Nayanmar goes to

the Kaikolan houses,

and makes a red mark with

by order of the headman.
this,

laterite *

on the cloth
it is

in

the

loom, saying " Andvaranai," as signifying that

done
after

The Kaikolans may,

until the dispute
is

not go on with their

work
is

settled,

for the trial of

which a day

fixed.

The Nattukattada

up on a gopuram their pole, which should have seventy-two internodes, and measure at least as

Nayanmars

set

many

feet.

The number

of internodes corresponds to

that of the nadus into

divided.

which the Kaikolan community is Kamatchiamma is worshipped, and the Nattuthe

pole,

kattada

Nayanmars climb up
Finally,

and perform

various feats.

the principal actor balances a

young

child in a tray on a

bamboo, and,
child.

letting

go of the

bamboo, catches the

performance
is

falling

The

origin of the

said to have been as follows.

The demon

Suran was troubling A reddish

the

Devas and men, and was

over Southern India.

formation found

all

35

kaikOlan

advised by Karthikeya (Subramanya) and Virabahu to

desist from

so doing.

He

paid no Keed, and a fight

ensued.

The demon

sent his son Vajrabahu to

meet the

enemy, and he was

slain

by Virabahu, who displayed the

in

different parts of his

body

the following manner.

The

vertebral column was made to represent a pole, round which the other bones were placed, and the guts tightly wound round them. The connective tissues were used The skull was used as a as ropes to support the pole. jaya-mani (conquest bell), and the skin hoisted as a flag. The trident of Virabahu was fixed to the top of the pole, and, standing over it, he announced his victory over the

world.

The Nattukattada Nayanmars

They

claim to be the

descendants of Virabahu.

Their head-quarters are at

ordinarily they

Conjeeveram.
marry.

are regarded as slightly inferior to

the Kaikolans, with

whom

do not

inter-

The Kaikolans have to pay them as alms a minimum fee of four annas per loom annually. Another
class

of mendicant, called Ponnambalaththar,

to

which

is

said

have sprung up recently, poses as true caste

to the Kaikolans,

beggars attached
travel

from whom, as they

solicit

about

the

country,

they

alms.

Some

Kaikolans gave Ontipuli as the name of their caste

beggars.

The

Ontipulis, however, are

Nokkans attached
already indicated,
viz.,

to the Pallis.

The Kaikolan community

is,

as

divided into seventy-two nadus or desams,

forty-

four mel (western) and twenty-eight kil (eastern) nadus.

Intermarriages take place between

members

of seventy-

one of these nadus.

The

great Tamil poet Ottaikuththar

is said to have belonged to the Kaikolan caste and to have sung the praises of all castes except his own.

Being angry on
to

this account, the

Kaikolans urged him

to do,

sing in praise of them.

ni-3 B

This he consented

KAIKOLAN

36

provided that he received 1,008

human

heads.

Seventybut one

one nadus sent the first-born sons

for the sacrifice,

nadu (Tirumarudhal) refused

to

send any.

This refusal

led to their isolation from the rest of the community.

All the nadus are subject to the authority of four thisai

nadus, and these in turn arc controlled by the

at

mahanadu
are
(i)

Conjeeveram, which

is

the residence of the patron

deity

Kamatchiamman. Sivapuram (Walajabad), Kamatchiamman is said

;

The
to

thisai

nadus

east of

Conjeeveram,

where
as

have placed
the

Nandi

guard

(2)
;

Thondipuram, where Thondi Vinayakar was

(3)
;

stationed

Virinjipuram
(4)

to

west,

guarded by

Subramanya

Sholingipuram to the south, watched

over by Bairava.
sub-divided into
(big)

Each of the seventy-one nadus is kilai gramams (branch villages), perur

gramams.
In Tamil works relatis

and sithur

(little)

ing to the Sengundar caste, Conjeeveram

said to be

the mahanadu, and those belonging thereto are spoken of as the nineteen hundred,

who

are entitled to respect

for

from other Kaikolans.

Another name
;

Kaikolans of

the mahanadu seems to be Andavar

but

in practice this

name is confined members of his

sitting at council

to the

headman

of the mahanadu, and

family.

They have

the

privilege

of

meetings with their backs supported

title

by pillows, and consequently bear the

(resting on pillows).

Thindusarndan

At present

there are two sections

of Kaikolans
pettai,

at

Conjeeveram, one living at Ayyam-

and the other at Pillaipalayam.

in

The former

claim

Ayyampettai as the mahanadu, and refuse

Pillaipalayam, which
is

to recognise

the heart of Conjeeveram, as

the mahanadu.
to the Vellore

Disputes arose, and recourse was had

Court

in 1904,

where
claim

it

was decided that

be
called

Ayyampettai

possesses

no

to

the

mahanadu.

Zl

KAIKOLAN
have now abandoned their

Many Kaikolan
ture and trade, and

families

hereditary employment as weavers in favour of agricul-

some of the poorer members of the caste work as cart-drivers and coolies. At Coimbatore some hereditary weavers have become cart-drivers, and some cart-drivers have become weavers de necessitd in
the local
jail.

In every Kaikolan family, at least one girl should be set

apart

for,

and dedicated
be
that, so

to

temple service.
girl or

And

the rule

seems

to

long as this

her descendants,

born to her or adopted, continue to

not dedicated.
But,

live,

another

girl is

when

the

line

becomes

extinct,

another

girl

must be dedicated.
freely

All the Kaikolans deny

caste.

their connection with the

Deva-dasi (dancing-girl)
meals
in

But Kaikolans

take
it

Dasi

houses on

ceremonial occasions, and

cases of genuine Dasis

would not be

difficult to cite

who have

relationship with rich

Kaikolans.

Kaikolan

girls

are

dedication to a temple,
(nattu pottu).

made Dasis either by or by the headman tying

method
is

regular
the
tali

The
it

latter
is

at the present

day

adopted because
to the

considered a sin to dedicate a girl

god

after she has

reached puberty, and because

official

the securing of the requisite

to

certificate for a girl

become a Dasi involves considerable

"It
is

trouble.

said,"

Mr. Stuart writes,* "that, where the

dies,

head of a house
the girls
like a
this
is

leaving only female issue, one of

made

a Dasi in order to allow of her working

man

at the loom, for

so."

no

woman

not dedicated in

manner may do

Of
with a

the orthodox form of ceremonial in connection

girl's

initiation as a

Dasi, the following account

* op.

cit.

ICAIKOLAN

38

was given by the Kaikolans of Coimbatore. The girl The dancing master or is taught music and dancing.
Nattuvan, belongs to the Kaikolan caste, but she

may
At

be instructed
the girl
jewels,
rice).

in

music by Brahman Bhagavathans.

she

the tah-tying ceremony, which should take place after

has reached pubert)^

to stand
is

is

decorated with

and made

on a heap of paddy (unhusked

held before her by two Dasis,

folded cloth

who

also stand

on heaps of paddy.

The

girl

catches
is

hold of the cloth, and her dancing master,

who

seated

behind her, grasping her

in

legs,

moves them up and down

is

time with the music, which

played.

In the course
in

of the day, relations

and friends are entertained, and,

seated astride a pony,
is

the evening, the

girl,

taken
tali,

to the temple, where a

new

cloth for the idol,

the

and various
got ready.
officiating
ties

articles required for

doing puja, have been

The girl is seated facing the idol, and the Brahman gives sandal and flowers to her, and
which has been lying
at the feet of the idol,

the

tali,

round her neck.

black beads.

The

tali

consists of a eolden disc

and

Betel and flowers

are then
is

distributed

among

those present, and the girl

taken

home through
music and

the principal streets.

She continues

to learn

dancing, and eventually goes through a form of nuptial

ceremony.

The

relations are invited for an auspicious

day, and the maternal uncle, or his representative, ties

a gold band on the

girl's

forehead, and, carrying her,

places her on a plank before the assembled guests.

A
new
of
in,

Brahman
sacred
cloths
fire

priest recites the

mantrams, and prepares the

uncle
is

(homam).
girl's
if is

The
mother.

presented with
actual

by the

For the
if

nuptials

a rich Brahman,

possible, and,
invited.
to,

not,

Brahman
is

more lowly
as he
is

status

Brahman

called

next in importance

and the representative of

39
the
idol.
first It is

KAIKOLAN
the

said that,

when

man who
side.

is

to receive

her

favours, joins the girl, a

sword must be placed,

at least for a few minutes,

dies,

by her

When

a Dasi

her body
idol,

is

covered with a new cloth removed

from the
to

and flowers are supplied from the temple,

which she belonged.

till

No

puja
of,

is

performed

in

the

temple

the body

is

disposed

as the idol, being her

husband, has to observe pollution.

Writing a century ago (1807) concerning the Kaikolan Dasis, Buchanan says * that " these dancing

women, and their musicians, now form a separate kind and a certain number of them are attached of caste
;

to

every temple of any consequence.

The

allowances
is

which the musicians receive

small,
yet,

for their public

duty

very
to

morning and evening, they are bound

attend at the temple to perform before the image.

They

must

also receive every person travelling

on account of

the Government,

meet him at some distance from the

town, and conduct him to his quarters with music and

dancing.

All the

handsome
all

girls are instructed to

dance under

and
the

sing,

and are

prostitutes, at least to the

Brahmans.
but, to temples

In ordinary sets they

are quite

common

Company's government, those attached

officers,

of extraordinary sanctity are reserved entirely for the

use of the native

who

are

all

Brahmans, and

who would

turn out from the set any girl that profaned

herself by communication with persons of low caste, or

of no caste at

all,

such as Christians or Mussulmans.

theit is

Indeed, almost every one of these girls

sightly
is

tolerably

taken by some officer of revenue for his

own

special use,

and
his

is

seldom permitted

to

go

to the temple,

except

in

presence.

Most

of these officers have

Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar.

KAIKOLAN
more than one
from a
total

40
wife,
;

and the

women

of the

Brahmans

are very beautiful

but the insipidity of their conduct,

want of education or accomplishment, makes

women to be sought after by all natives with great avidity. The Mussulman officers in particular
the dancing

were exceedingly attached

lavished

to this kind of

company, and
of their
loss,

away on these women a great part

incomes.
the

The women

very

much

regret their

as

Mussulmans paid liberally, and the Brahmans durst not presume to hinder any girl who chose, from amusing an Asoph, or any of his friends. The Brahmans are not near so lavish of their money, especially where it is secured by the Company's government, but trust to
their authority for obtaining the favour of the dancers.

To my

taste,

nothing can be more

silly

and unanimated

than the dancing of the women, nor more harsh and

barbarous than their music.

Some Europeans, however,

from long habit, I suppose, have taken a liking to it, and have even been captivated by the women. Most of them I have had an opportunity of seeing have been very
ordinary
in

their

looks,

very inelegant

in their

dress,

and very dirty

in their
itch,

persons
still

a large proportion of

them have the

and a

larger proportion are most

severely diseased."

Though
the
specially

the Kaikolans are considered to belong to

faction,

left-hand

Dasis,

except

those

who

are

engaged by the Beri Chettis and Kammalans,

Kaikolan Dasis,

are placed in the right-hand faction.

when passing through a Kammalan street, stop dancing, and they will not salute Kammalans or Beri Chettis.

A
tali

peculiar

method of

selecting a bride, called siru

tali),

kattu (tying the small

is

said to be in
to

vogue
marry

among some

Kaikolans.

man, who wishes

his maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter, has to


41
tie

kaikolan

tali,

or simply a bit of cloth torn from her clothing,

fact

round her neck, and report the

the headman.
her,
but,
If

to his parents

and
In

the girl eludes him, he cannot claim

should he succeed, she belongs to him.

the consent of the
signified

some
arms

places,
is

maternal

uncle to a
in his
is

marriage

by his carrying the bride

to the

marriage pandal (booth).

indica.

The
tali

milk-post

made

of

Erythrina

After the
left

has been

tied,
it

the bridegroom

lifts

the bride's

leg,

and places

on a grinding-stone.
to

Widows
if

are stated by Mr. Stuart

be " allowed to remarry

;

they have no issue, but

not otherwise
kola

and,

if

the prevalent idea that a Kaitrue, this

woman

is

never barren be

must seldom

take place."

On
hut
is

the final day of the death ceremonies, a small

erected,

and inside

it

stones,

brought by the
to them.

barber, are set up, and offerings

made

The

following proverbs are current about or

:

among

the Kaikolans

Narrate stories
Kaikolans.

in

villages

where

there are no

Why
This,

should a weaver have a

it

monkey

.'*

has been suggested,* implies that a

monkey

would only damage the work.

On
will

examining the various occupations, weaving

best.
will cut out eight threads.

be found to be the

A
stars.

peep outside

The person who was

too lazy to

weave went

to the

The

Chetti (money-lender) decreases the money,

and the weaver the thread.

The titles

of the Kaikolans are Mudali and Nayanar.

* Rev, H. Jensen.

Classified Collection of

Tamil Froveibs, 1S97.

KAIKOLAN

42
the Kaikolan musicians,
I

Among
fair skin

have seen every

gradation of colour and type, from leptorhine

men with

and chiselled

features,

to

men

very dark and

platyrhine, with nasal index exceeding 90.

The Kaikolans
Tirupati
in

take part in

the annual festival at

" It is,"

honour of the goddess Gangamma.

Mr. Stuart writes,* "distinguished from the majority of

similar festivals by a custom,
to

which requires the people

appear

in

a different disguise (vesham) every morning

and evening.
undergo
up
this

deserves special mention.

The Matangi vesham of Sunday morning The devotee who consents to

in

ceremony dances

front

of an

image or
is is

representation of the goddess, and,

to the proper pitch of frenzy, a

when he
metal wire
It
is

worked
passed

through the middle of his tongue.

this operation causes

believed that

no pain, or even bleeding, and the

is

only remedy adopted

the chewing of a few margosa

{Melia Azadirachta) leaves, and some

kunkumam
is

(red

powder) of the goddess.

This vesham
is

undertaken
in

only by a Kaikolan (weaver), and

performed only

two
the

places

the

house

of

certain

Brahman and
disg-uise
is

Mahant's math.

The

concluding'

that

known

as the perantalu vesham,

Perantalu signifies the

deceased married
their husbands,

women

of a family

who have
is

died before

or,

more

particularly,

the most distin-

guished of such women.

rides round the

This vesham

accordingly

represented by a Kaikolan disguised as a female,

who

town on a horse, and distributes

of the

to the

respectable

inhabitants

place

the

kunkumam,

and flowers of the goddess." For the following account of a ceremony, which took place at Conjeeveram in August, 1908, I am indebted
saffron paste,
* Manual of the North Arcot district.

43
to the

KAIKOLAN

Rev.

J.

H. Maclean.
about eight

"On

a small and very

lightly built car,

feet high,

and running on
It

four

little

wheels, an image of Kali was placed.

it

was

then dragged by about thirty men, attached to

by cords

I saw one of young men two days later. Two cords had been drawn through his flesh, about twelve inches apart. The wounds were covered over with white stuff, said to be

passed through the flesh of their backs.

the

vibuthi (sacred ashes).

class

The

festival

of weavers

calling themselves

was organised by a Sankunram (Senin

gundar) Mudaliars, the inhabitants of seven streets

part of Conjeeveram

the

known

as Pillaipalyam.

amount spent is said to have been Rs. 500. were far from clear in their account of the meanino- of the ceremony. One said it was a preventive of small-pox,
but this view did not receive general support.
it
:

The total The people

Most

said

was simply an old custom what good it did they could not say. Thirty years had elapsed since the last festival. One man said that Kali had given no commands on the subject, and that it was simply a device to make money
circulate.

The
St.
it

festival is called

Punter (flower
notification

car)."

In September, 1908, an
in

ofificial

was issued

the Fort

George Gazette
to

to the following effect.

"

Whereas

appears that hook- swinging, dragging of

cars by

men harnessed
festival

them by hooks which pierce

places

their sides,

and similar acts are performed during the

at

Mariyamman
in the

Samayapuram and other

to

Trichinopoly division, Trichinopoly

are dangerous
is

district,
life,

and
the

whereas such acts

human

Governor

in

Council

pleased, under section 144, sub-

section (5), of the

Code

of Criminal Procedure, 1898, to

direct that the order of the Sub-divisional

Magistrate,
acts, shall

dated the 7th August, 1908, prohibiting such

remain

in force until further orders."


KAILA
It
is

44
noted

by Mr.
of

F.

R.

Hemingway *
the

that,

at

Ratnagiri, in the Trichinopoly district,

in

Kaikolans,

performance

vow,

thrust
in

spear

through
their

the

muscles of the abdomen

honour of

god

Sahanayanar.

Kaila (measuring grain exogamous sept of Mala.

in

the threshing-floor).

An

Kaimal. A
signifying power.

title

of Nayars, derived from kai, hand,

Kaipuda. A sub-division of Holeya. Kaivarta. A sub-division of Kevuto. Kaka (crow). The legend relating to the Kaka people is narrated in the article on Koyis. The equivalent Kaki occurs as a sept of Malas, and Kako as a sept

of Kondras.

Kakarla {Momoi-dka Charantio). An exogamous sept of Kamma and Muka Dora. Kakirekka-vandlu (crows' feather people). Mendicants who beg from Mutrachas, and derive their
or

Kakara

name from

the fact that,

when begging, they

tie

round

their waists strings

on which crows', paddy

birds' (heron)

feathers, etc., are tied,

Kakka Kuravan. A
Travancore.

division

of

Kuravas

of

Kakkalan.The
vagrant tribe met with

Kakkalans or Kakkans are a in north and central Travancore,

who

are identical with the

Travancore.
divisions

There are

Kakka Kuravans of south among them four endogamous

called Kavitiyan, Manipparayan, Meluttan, and Chattaparayan, of which the two first are the most important. The Kavitiyans are further sub-divided
into

Kollak Kavitiyan residing

in

central Travancore,

* Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district.


45

KAKKALAN

Malayalam Kavitiyan, and Pandi Kavitiyan or immigrants from the Pandyan country. The Kakkakns have a legend concerning their origin to the effect that Siva was once going about begging as
a Kapaladharin, and arrived at a

which the inhabitants drove him away.

Brahman street, from The offended

god immediately reduced the village to ashes, and the guilty villagers begged his pardon, but were reduced to the position of the Kakkalans, and made to earn their
livelihood

by begging.
iron

The women wear

They
is

and

silver

bangles, and

palunka mala or necklace of variously coloured beads.

are tattooed, and tattooing

members

of other castes
:

one of their occupations, which include the following

Katukuttu, or boring the lobes of the ears.

Katuvaippu, or plastic operations on the

ear,

which

Nayar women and others who wear heavy pendant ear

ornaments often require.

Kainokku or
more

palmistry, in

which the women are

proficient than the men.

Kompuvaippu,

or placing the twig of a plant on any

it

swelling of the body, and dissipating Taiyyal, or tailoring.

by blowing on

it.

Pampatam
are unrivalled.

or snake dance, in which the Kakkalans

Fortune

telling.
is

The

chief object of worship by the Kakkalans

the

rising sun, to

which boiled

rice

is

offered on

Sunday.
at

They have no temples of their own, but stand

distance from
thereof.

some
gods

Hindu

temples,

and worship

the

Though leading a wandering life, they try to be at home for the Malabar new year, on which occasion they wear new clothes, and hold a feast. They do not
observe the national

Onam

and Vishu

festivals.

kakkE

46

The Kakkalans are conspicuously polygamous, and some have as many as twelve wives, who are easily supported, as they earn money by their professional
engagements.

first

marriage must be celebrated on

Sunday, and the festivities last from Saturday to Monday.

Subsequent
Thursday.
a brother,
places the
(coin),

marriages

may

also

be

celebrated

on

On

the night of the day before the wedding,

or other

near relation of the bridegroom,

(alliance)

sambandham
for

by bringing a fanam
rice

material

chewing, and cooked

to

the

marriage pandal (booth).

flung at

Fruit and other things are

him by day the bridegroom arrives

raising the
tali

the bride's people.

at

On

the following

the pandal, and, after

(marriage badge) three times towards

it

heaven, and, invoking a blessing from on high, ties

round the bride's neck.

When

girl

reaches puberty, a

merry celebration
buried.

is

kept up for a week.

is

The dead

are

Inheritance
is

from father to son.

she remarries.

childless

widow
and

a coparcener with the brothers of the deceased,

forfeits this right if

Though
which
is

in the

presence of other castes the Kakkathey have a peculiar language

is

lans speak Malayalam,

used

among

themselves, and

not understood

by others.*

Kakke
of Kurni.

(Indian laburnum

Cassia fistula).

A gotra

Kala. Recorded,
1

in the

Travancore Census Report,

90 1, as a sub-division of Nayar.
(pole-dancer).

Kalaikuttadi Dommara.

Tamil synonym of

Kalal. A Hindustani synonym

* For this note
I

of Gamalla.

am

indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.

47

kAlingi and kalinji

occupational
title

Kalamkotti
Nayar.

(potter).

An
to

of

Kalasi. A name given

people.

Vada fishermen by Oriya

Kalava (channel or ditch). An exogamous sept of Padma Sale. Kalavant. The Kalavants are dancers and singers, who, like o-ther dancing-girls, are courtesans. The name
occurs not only in South Canara, but also
country.
in

the Telugu

Kalinga. A
They

sub-division of Komatis,

who "were

formerly the inhabitants of the ancient Kalinga country.

are considered inferior to the other sub-divisions,
of
their

on account
Subaddhi,

eating

flesh.

Their

titles

are

In the Ganjam Patro, and Manual, they are described as " traders and shopkeepers,

Chaudari." *

principally prevalent in the

Chicacole division.

The

name Kling
sular
India,

or Kaling

is

applied, in the

Malay

countries,

including the Straits Settlements, to the people of penin-

who

trade thither, or are settled in those

regions."

It is

recorded by Dr. N. Annandale that the

{i.e.,

phrase Orang Kling Islam

the

Muhammadan

from

Madras coast) occurs in Patani Malay. Kalingi and Kalinji. There has been some con-

fusion, in

recorded accounts, between these two classes.

the
Kalinjis are

In the

Ganjam Manual,
in that

described as

agriculturists

district,

and,

in

the Vizagapatam

Manual, the
cultivators
in

Kalingas or Kalingulu are stated to be

the Vizagapatam district, and a caste of

Paiks or fighting
Report, 189
1,

men

in

Jeypore.

In
"

the

Census
of

the Kalingis are said to be

is

most numer-

ous

in

Ganjam, but there

a considerable

number

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

KALINGI AND KALINJI

48

them in Vizagapatam also. The word means a native of KaHnga, the name of the sea-board of the Telugu country; the word Telugu itself is supposed by Dr. Caldwell to
be a corruption of Tri-Kalinga.
divisions of the caste are

The

three large sub-

Buragam, Kintala, and Odiya.

In the Kintala sub-division, a

has no male
allowed
in

issue,

but the

widow may remarry remarriage of widows

if
is

she
not

other sub-divisions.
is

The

use of flesh and

alcoholic liquor
their titles."

permitted.
in

Naidu and Chaudari are

1901, the
"

Further,

the Census Report,

:

Kalingis are described as follows

priests

caste of temple
in

and

cultivators,

found

mainly

Ganjam and
to
in

Vizagapatam, whither they are supposed

brought by the KaHnga kings
either Oriya or Telugu.
to

have been

do service

temples, before the advent of the Brahmans.

Hindu They speak

the

They have two sub-divisions, the Kintali Kalingas, who live south of the Langulya river, and the Buragam Kalingis, who reside to the north
of it, and the customs of the two differ a great deal.
is is

There
which

also a third section, called Pandiri or Bevarani,

composed of outcastes from the other two. Except the Mokhalingam in Vizagapatam,* they have headmen called Nayakabalis or Santos. They also
Kalingis of

have priests called Kularazus, each of

spiritual

whom

sees to the

needs of a definite group of villages.

families or vamsas,

They

are

divided into several exogamous gotras, each comprising a

number of

some

of which, such as

Arudra, a lady-bird, and Revi-chettu, the Ficus religiosa

tree, are of totemistic

origin.

Each

section

is

said to

worship

its

totem.
is

Marriage before puberty

is

the rule,

and the caste

remarkable

for the proportion of its girls

under twelve years of age who are married or widowed.

Mokhalingam

is

in

Ganjam, not Vizagapatam.

49

kAlingi and kAlinji

by the Buragam
it.

Widow

marriage

is

not recognised

Kalingis, but the KintaHs freely allow

As

usual, the

ceremonies at the wedding of a widow

at

differ

from those
paste
is

the marriage of a maid.

Some
is

turmeric

placed on a

new

cloth,

which

then put over a pot of

this.

water, and the

ceremony takes place near

it is

The

binding portion of
string to the

the tying of a saffron-coloured

woman's

wrist.

The

Kalingis pay special

reverence to Sri

Radha Krishna and Chaitanya.

Some

of the caste officiate in temples, wear the sacred thread,

and

call

themselves Brahmans, but they are not received

All Kalingis

on terms of equality by other Brahmans.

performed only by the Kintali sub-division.

bury their dead, but sraddhas (memorial services) are

The BuraKalingi

gam women wear heavy

and
glass,
titles

Kalingis do not shave their heads in front.

bangles of brass, silver bell-metal

extending from the wrist to the elbow.

The

of the castes are Naidu, Nayarlu, Chowdari, Bissoyi,

Podhano, Jenna, Swayi, and Naiko."

In the foregoing account, the Oriya-speaking Kalinjis,

and Telugu-speaking The confusion seems

the
Kalinjis
castes.

Kalingis,
to

are

both

referred

to.

have arisen from the

called

fact that

are sometimes

Kalingis

by other

The

Kalingis are essentially Telugus, and are

districts are,

found mainly on the borderland between the

of

Ganjam and Vizagapatam.

the
agricultural
castes,

The
to

Kalinjis

on

the other hand, Oriyas, and

to

seem

be closely allied
Alia,

Doluva,

Bosantiya,

etc.,

like

which they are mainly

agriculturists.

The

Kalinjis can be easily distinguished from the Kalingis,

as

the latter
is

wear the sacred thread.

in

The

following

story

told
caste.

connection

with

the

origin of the

Kalinji

A
in

band of robbers was

a fort near

once upon a

time staying
11

Bhattu

Kunnarade, and

1-4

KALINGI AND KALINJI

molesting the people,

50

who

invited the king of Puri to

come and drive the robbers away.

Among

the warriors

who were
of the

recruited for this purpose,

caste,
in

was a member
robbers.

Khondaito

who, with the permission of

expelling

the

king,

succeeded

the

He

was named by
a stout heart.

the people Bodo-Kalinja, or one having

He

and

his

followers remained in the

Ganjam country, and the Kalinjis The caste is widespread in ants.

thereof.

are their descend-

the

northern

part

There do not seem

Kalinjis, but there
is

to be

any sub-divisions among the

a small
is

endogamous group,

called
in

Mohiri Kalinji.

Mohiri

a well-known division

Ganjam, and Kalinjis who dwell therein intermarry with

others,

and do not form a separate community.

It

has

been suggested that the Mohiri Kalinjis are Telugu

Kalingis,

who have
(star),

settled in the

Oriya country.
e.g.,

Like

other Oriya castes, the Kalinjis have gotras,

(sun),

bano

sukro

sanko (conch-shell),

bhago

(tiger)

and nago

(cobra).

There
sukro,

is

a good deal of confusion

regarding the gotras

in their
is

connection with marriage.

The same

gotra,
in

e.g.,

exogamous
titles

in

some

places,

and not so

others.

Many

occur

among

the

Kalinjis, e.g.,

Borado, Bissoyi,

Bariko,

Behara,

Dolei,

Gaudo, Jenna, Moliko, Naiko, Patro, Podhano, Pulleyi, In some places, the Ravuto, Santo, Savu, Swayi, Guru.
titles

are taken as representing

bamsams

(or

vamsams),

and, as such, are exogamous.

Families as a rule refrain

title.

from marrying Into families bearing the same

For
girl,

example, a
especially
If

Dolei

man
if

will

not marry a

Dolei

their gotras are the same.

But a Dolei may

marry a
is

Pullel,

even

they have the same gotra.

Is

The headman

of the Kalinjis

styled Santo,

and he

assisted by a Patro.

There

is

also a caste messenger,

51
called

KALINGI AND KALINJI

Bhollobhaya.

are said to

For the whole community there be four Santos and four Patros, residing at
is

Attagada, Chinna Kimedi, Pedda Kimedi, and Mohiri.

man who
is

suffering from a

wound

or sore infested by

maggots

said to be excommunicated, and,

to

when he has

recovered,

submit himself before the caste-council

before he

is

received back into the community.

if

Girls are generally married before puberty, and,

a real husband

is

not forthcoming, a maid goes through a

elder sister's husband,

mock marriage ceremony with her

or

some elder

of the

community.
(yStrebhts

bachelor must
tree

be married to the sado

asper)

before

he can marry a widow.

(thuvathuvvi)
brother-in-law,
is

The remarriage

of widows

freely allowed.

widow, who has a

else, until

may

not marry anyone

she has

obtained a deed of separation (tsado patro) from him.

The marriage ceremonies conform

type.

to the standard

Oriya

In

some

places, the

little

fingers of the contract-

ing couple are linked, instead of their hands being tied

together with thread.

On

the fourth day, a Bhondari

rice

(barber) places on the marriage dais some beaten

and sugar-candy, which the bride and bridegroom sell The proceeds of to relations for money and grain.
the sale are the perquisite of the

Bhondari.

On

the

seventh day, the bridegroom breaks a pot on the dais,

and,
as

he

and the bride go away, the brother of

fruits

the latter
at him.

throws brinjal {Solammz Melongend)

cremated.

The dead
after death,

are

as

rule
bitter

On

the

day
piece

food,

made

by the addition of maris

gosa [Melia Azadirachta) leaves,

of bone
is

offered.

carried

away from the burning-ground, and

Daily, until
is

buried under a pipal i^Ficus religiosd) tree.

the tenth day, water
ni-4 B

poured seven times over the spot

KALKATTA
where the bone
handi ceremony
holes.
is

52
is

buried.

On

the tenth day,

if

the

deceased was an elder of the community, the jola-jola

performed with a pot riddled with

occupation

{See Bhondari.)

Kalkatta. An
in

name

for

stone-masons

South Canara.

Kalkatti. Kalkatti, denoting, it has been suggested, those who wear glass beads, is a sub-division of Idaiyan.

The Lingayats among Badagas

called Kalkatti, because they

of the Nilgiri hills are

(the lingam)

hang a stone

from their necks

hills

in

a casket.

Some
name

Irulas of the

same

are also said to go by the

as

Kalkatti.

Kalla.^Recorded
and of Idaiyans
numerous.
in

sub-di\asion

of

Shanan,

localities

where Kalians are most

Kalladi.^The
of the deceased, at a

title

of a

Cheruman who performs

spirit

important duties, and becomes possessed by the

Cheruman funeral. Kalladi Mangan. A synonym of Mondi. Kalladi Siddhan. The name, meaning a beggar who beats himself with a stone, of a class of Telugu

mendicants,
their

who

are very clamorous

and persistent

in

demands

for alms.

The name

is

applied as a term

of contempt for any obstinate and troublesome individual. These beggars carry with them a gourd, have tortoise and cowry shells tied on their elbows, and carry an iron rod, with which they beat an iron ring worn on the hand.

They

present a very revolting spectacle, as they smear

done up so as to resemble vomit, and with the juice of the prickly-pear {Opuntia Dillenii),
their bodies with rice

make people cuts made with

to

believe

that

it

is

blood oozing from

said
to be very

a knife.

They

are

fond of eating crows, which they catch with nets.

{See

Mondi.)

53

KALLAN

Kallamu
Panta Reddi.

(threshing-floor).

An exogamous sept of
Madura
district in

Kalian.

Of the Kalians

of the

the early part of the last century, an excellent account

was written by Mr. T. Turnbull

(1817), from
"

which the

following extract has been taken.

The

Cullaries are

said to be in general a brave people, expert in the use

of the lance
vullaree

and

in

throwing the curved stick called

taddee.

This

weapon
;

is
it

invariably
is

in

use

among

the generality of this tribe

in curvature.

The

w^ord Cullar

is

about 30 inches used to express a thief

it

of any caste, sect or country, but

trace
their

will

be necessary to

progress to
is

that

characteristic distinction
thief,

by which

this race

designated both a

and an

was not altogether exempted from paying tribute to the sovereign of Madura. This race appears to have become hereditary occupiers, and appropriated to themselves various Nauds in differinhabitant of a certain Naud, which

ent parts of the southern countries

territories they

in

each of these

have a chief among them, whose orders

all

and directions they

one

common

character,
is

must obey. They still possess and in general are such thieves

that the

name

very justly applied to them, for they

seldom allow any merchandize to pass through their

hands without extorting something from the owners,
they do not rob them altogether, and
pilgrims,
if

in fact travellers,

Brahmans are attacked and stript of everything they possess, and they even make no scruple In case to kill any caste of people, save only the latter. a Brahman happens to be killed in their attempt to plunder, when the fact is made known to the chief,
and
severe corporal punishment
nals
is

inflicted

on the crimisociety

and

fines

levied,

besides exclusion from

for a period of six

months.

The Maloor

Vellaloor

and

KALLAN

54

Serrugoody Nauds are denominated the Keelnaud, whose

inhabitants of the Cullar race are designated by the
appellation of Amblacaurs.
"

The women
to the

are inflexibly vindictive and furious

on the

least injury,

even on suspicion, which prompts

them

consequences.

most violent revenge without any regard to A horrible custom exists among the

females of the Colleries

arises

when

a quarrel or dissension

between them.

The

insulted

woman

brings her
it

child to the

house of the aggressor, and

kills

at her
is

door to avenge herself

Although her vengeance

attended with the most cruel barbarity, she immediately

thereafter proceeds to a neighbouring village with all

opposed by her neighbours, which gives rise to clamour and outrage. The complaint is then carried to the head Amblacaur,
her goods, etc.
is

In this attempt she

who
their

lays

it

before the elders of the village, and solicits

to

interference

terminate
if

the

quarrel.

In

the

course of this investigation,

sufficient

the husband finds that

evidence has been brought against his wife,

that she had given cause for provocation and aggression,

then he proceeds unobserved by the assembly to his

house,

and brings one of

first killed

his

children,

and,

in

the

presence of witness, kills his child at the door of the

woman who had

much
to

her child at

his.

By

this

mode

of proceeding he considers that he has saved himself

trouble and expense, which would otherwise have

devolved on him.
offence committed

This circumstance
sufficiently

is

soon brought
that the

the notice of the tribunal,

is

who proclaim
avenged.

But, should

this voluntary retribution of revenge not be executed

by the convicted person, the tribunal

limited time, fifteen days generally.
tion of that period,

is

prorogued to a

Before the expira-

one of the children of that convicted

55

KALLAN
is

person must be
all

killed.

At the same time he

etc.,

to bear

expenses
"

for

providing food,

for the

assembly

during those days.

remarkable custom prevails both among the

in

males and females

these

Nauds

to

have their ears

bored and stretched by hanging heavy rings made of

lead so as to expand their ear-laps (lobes)
shoulders.

down

to their

Besides this singular idea of beauty attached

to
is

by them

pendant
that,

ears,

circumstance

still

more

remarkable
a

when merchants

or travellers pass

through these Nauds, they generally take the precaution

to

insure

safe

transit

through these
for

territories

by

counting the friendship of some

individual of the

Naud

by payment of a certain
a young
limits.

fee,

which he deputes

girl to

conduct the travellers safe through the

This sacred guide conducts them along with her

finger to her ear.

will

On

observing this sign, no Cullary

It

dare to plunder the persons so conducted.

in spite of this

some-

times happens,
are

precaution, that attempts

made

to attack the traveller.

The

girl in

such cases
to

immediately tears

one of her ear-laps, and returns

is

spread the report, upon which the complaint

before the chief and elders of the Naud,

carried

who

forthwith

convene a meeting
If

in

consequence
convicted,

at the

Mundoopoolee.*
retaliation

the

violators

are

vindictive

ensues.

The assembly condemns

in

the offenders to have

of their crime,

both their ear-laps torn

and,
if

expiation

otherwise capable, they are punished by fines or By this means travellers generally absolved by money.
obtain a safe passage through these territories.
at the present day,
in

[Even
of
are

quarrels between women of the

lower

castes,

long ears
is

form

favourite

object

* Place of meeting, which

held.

a large tamarind tree, under which councils


KALLAN
attack,

56

and lobe-tearing cases figure frequently

originally

in police

records.*]
"

The Maloor Naud was

by Vellaulers.

inhabited and

cultivated

At a

certain
in the

period

some

Cullaries belonging to Vella

district

Naud

Conjeeveram
cudgels,

proceeded thence on a hunting excursion with

consisting of
short
sticks

weapons
bludgeons,

hand

pikes,

and curved

for throwing,

and dogs.

While engaged in their sport, they observed a peacock resist and attack one of their hounds. The sportsmen,
not a
little

astonished at the sight, declared that this

its

appeared to be a fortunate country, and

courage and bravery.

native

inhabitants and every living creature naturally possessed

Preferring such a country to their

Naud

in

Conjeeveram, they were desirous of establishing

themselves here as cultivators.

To

effect

this,

they

insinuated themselves into the favour of the Vellaulers,

and, engaging as their servants, were permitted to remain
in these

parts, whither

they

in

course of time invited

their relations

and

friends,

and

to

appearance conducted
satis-

themselves faithfully and obediently to the entire

faction of the Vellaulers,

and were rewarded

for their

labour.

Some

time afterwards, the Vellaulers, exercisinflict

ing an arbitrary sway over the Cullaries, began to

condign punishment

for

ofl^ences

and misdemeanours
stirred

committed

in their service.

This

up the wrath

of the Cullaries,

who

gradually acquired the superiority

over their masters, and by coercive measures impelled

them

to a strict observance of the following rules

is^.

That,

if

a Culler was struck by his master in

such a manner as to deprive him of a tooth, he was to pay

a
fine of ten cully

chuckrums (money)

for the offence.

* Gazetteer of the Madura

district.

57
27id.

K ALLAN

That,

if

a Culler happened to have one of

his ear-laps torn, the Vellauler

was

to

pay a

fine

of six

chuckrums.
3^^.

That

if

a Culler had his skull fractured, the

Vellauler was to pay thirty chuckrums, unless he preferred

to

have

his skull fractured in return.

\th.

That,

if

a Culler had his

arm

or leg broke, he

was then

to be considered but half a

man.

In such case

the offender was required to grant the Culler one cullum

of nunjah seed land (wet cultivation), and two koorkums of punjah (dry cultivation), to be held and enjoyed in
perpetuity, exclusive of which the Vellauler
to give the Culler a doopettah (cloth)
wife,

was required
for his

and a cloth

twenty cullums of paddy or any other grain, and

in
if

twenty chuckrums
^th.

money

for expenses.

That,

a Culler was killed, the offender was

required to pay either a fine of a hundred chuckrums, or

be subject to the vengeance of the injured party.

either of these alternatives
afforded, the party injured

Until

was agreed was

to,

and

satisfaction

at liberty to plunder the

offender's property, never to be restored.

"

By

this hostile

mode

of conduct

imposed on

their

masters, together with their extravagant demands, the

Vellaulers were reduced to that dread of the Cullers as

to court their favour,

and became submissive

to their will

and pleasure, so that in process of time the Cullers not only reduced them to poverty, but also induced them to abandon their villages and hereditary possessions, and to emigrate to foreign countries. Many were even murdered
in total

disregard of their former solemn promises

Having thus implacably got rid of their original masters and expelled them from their Naud, they became the rulers of it, and denominated
of fidelity and attachment.
it

by the singular appellation of Tun Arrasa Naud,

KALLAN
signifying a forest only

58

known

to

its

possessors [or tanIn

arasu-nad,

i.e.,

the country governed by themselves].*

short, these Colleries

became so formidable
Allagar

at length

as to evince a considerable ambition, and to set the then

Government
as the

at defiance.

Swamy

they regarded

God
be

of their immediate devotion, and, whenever

their enterprizes
failed to

were attended with success, they never

performance of certain religious

liberal in the

ceremonies to Allagar.

To

this

day they invoke the

do,

name

of Allagar in

all

what they

and they make no

objection in contributing whatever they can

Stalaters
for

come

to their villages to collect

when the money or grain

the

support of the temple, or any extraordinary

ceremonies of the God.

The

Cullers of this Naud, in

the line of the Kurtaukles, once robbed and drove

away

a large herd of cows belonging to the Prince, who, on

being informed of the robbery, and that the calves were

highly distressed for want of nourishment, ordered them
to be drove out of

and

left

with the cows, wherever they

were found.

The

Cullers were so exceedingly pleased

crreat-

with this instance of the Kurtaukle's goodness and

ness of mind that they immediately collected a thousand

cows

(at

one cow from every house)

in the

Naud

as a

retribution,
cattle to

and drove them along with the plundered

Madura.

Whenever

a quarrel or dispute hapin

pens among them, the parties arrest each other

the

name
as

of the respective Amblacaurs,

will

whom

they regard

most sacred, and they

only pay their

homage

to

those persons convened as arbitrators or punjayems to

settle their disputes.

During the feudal system that prevailed among these Colleries for a long time, they would on no
* Gazetteer of the Madura
district.

"

59
consideration permit the then
control
or

KALLAN
Government
to

have any

authority over them. When tribute was demanded, the Cullers would answer with contempt The heavens supply the earth with rain, our cattle
'

plough, and
land.

we labour
is

to

improve and cultivate the

While such

the case,

we
is

alone ought to enjoy

there that
'

the fruits thereof.

What

reason

we should

be obedient, and pay tribute to our equal

"

During the reign of Vizia Ragoonada Saitooputty*

into

a party of Colleries, having proceeded on a plundering

excursion
the

thousand of the

Ramnad Raja's own

district,

carried

off

two

bullocks.

The Raja was

so exasperated that he caused forts to be erected at five

Shevagunga and Ramnad districts, and, on pretext of establishing a good understanding

different places in the

with these Nauttams, he artfully invited the principal

men among
great
to

them, and, having encouraged them by

to

repeatedly conferring

number

marks of his favour, caused a be slain, and a number of their women

to

Ramiserum, where they were branded with the marks of the pagoda, and made Deva Dassies or dancing girls and slaves of the temple. The
be transported
in that

present dancing girls

celebrated island are said to

be the descendants of these

women

of the Culler tribe."

In the eighteenth century a certain Captain

Rumley was
"

sent with troops to check the turbulent Colleries.

He

became the

terror of the Collerie

Naud, and was highly

respected and revered

by the designation of Rumley on record

that,

Swamy, under which

distinguished him."

appellation the Colleries afterwards

It
is

during the

Trichinopoly war,

the

horses

Lawrence were

stolen by

of Clive and Stringer two Kalian brothers.

* Sstupali, or lord of the bridge.

The

title

of the Kajas of Kaninad.

KALLAN

60

Tradition says that one of the rooms in Tirumala

Nayakkan's palace
hooks
chains,
in

at

Madura "was Tirumala's sleeping

night, says a favourite story, a

apartment, and that his cot hung by long chains from

the roof.

One
in

Kalian made a hole

the roof,

swarmed down the

and

stole the royal jewels.

a jaghir (grant of land) to

the
thief,

The king promised anyone who would bring him

the jaghir, and

and the Kalian then gave himself up and

claimed the reward.

The king gave him

then promptly had him beheaded."*

A. Stuart f the Kalians are said to be "a middle-sized dark-skinned tribe found chiefly in the districts

By Mr. H.

of Tanjore, Trichinopoly and Madura, and in the

territory.

Pudukota
derived

The name Kalian

is

commonly
theft.

from Tamil kallam, which means

J

Mr.

Nelson

expresses some doubts as to the correctness of

this derivation, but Dr.

Oppert accepts

it,

and no other
the Kalians

has been suggested.

appears to

The original home of have been Tondamandalam or

the Pal lava

country, and the head of the class, the Raja of Puduk5ta,

is

to this

day called the Tondaman.

There are good

grounds

for believino^ that the

Kalians are a branch of the

Kurumbas, who, when they found their regular occupation as soldiers gone, took to maraudering, and made themselves so obnoxious by their thefts and robberies, that the term kalian, thief, was applied, and stuck to them as a tribal
'

appellation.'

The Rev. W.

Taylor, the compiler of the

Catalogue Raisonne of Oriental Manuscripts, also identifies

the Kalians with the Kurumbas, and Mr. Nelson acIn the census returns,

cepts this conclusion.

Kurumban

is

returned as one of the sub-divisions of the Kalian caste.'

* Gazetteer of the Madura district. t Madras Census Report, 1891.

X Manual of the Madura district. Madras Journ. Lit. Science, 188S-9, G. Oppert.

K ALL AN

"The Chola
writes,* "

country, or Tanjore," Mr.

to

W.

Francis

seems

have been the original abode of the

Kalians before their migration to the Pandya kingdom

after
its

conquest by the Cholas about the eleventh

century A.D.

But

in

Tanjore they have been greatly

influenced by the numerous

Brahmans

there,

and have
ties

taken to shaving their heads and employing Brahmans as

priests.
tali

At

their

weddings also the bridegroom

it.

the

himself, while elsewhere his sister does

in

Their

Madura continue to merely brethren across the border tie their hair in a knot, and employ their own folk to
officiate as their
will

priests.

This advance of one section

doubtless in time enhance the social estimation of

the caste as a whole."

It is

further noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore

that the ambitions of the Kalians have been

district,

assisted "

by their own readiness, especially

district, to imitate

in the

more

advanced portions of the

of

the practices

Brahmans and
customs

Vellalans.
in

Great variations thus occur

in their

different localities,

and a wide gap

exists

between the Kalians of

this district as a

whole and
stated that

those of Madura."
In the

Manual of the Tanjore

district,

it is

" profitable agriculture, coupled with security of property

in land,

has converted the great bulk of the Kallar and

industrious

Padeiyachi classes into a contented and

population.
culture,

They

are

now
if

too fully occupied with agrilitigation,

and the incidental

to think of their

old lawless pursuits, even

follow them.

they had an inclination to

in

The

bulk of the ryotwari proprietors

that richly cultivated part of the

Cauvery delta which

constituted the greater part of the old taluk of Tiruvadi

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

KALLAN
The

62

are Kallars, and, as a rule, they are a wealthy and well-

to-do class.

Kallar ryots,

who

inhabit the villages

in

along the

banks of the Cauvery,

their dress

and
of

appearance generally look quite

the less

like Vellalas.

Some

romantic and inoffensive characteristics of the

Kallars in
recent

Madura and Tinnevelly are found among the immigrants from the south, who are distinguished
general

from the older Kallar colonies by the

of other castes from the south.

term

Terkattiyar, literally southerns, which includes emigrants

The

Terkattiyars are

found chiefly

in the parts of the district

which border on

Pudukota.
all

Kallars of this group grow their hair long

over the head exactly like women, and both

men and

women

enlarge the holes in the lobes of their ears to

rolls

an extraordinary size by inserting

into them."

of palm-leaf

The term

Terkattiyar

is

applied to Kalian,

Maravan, Agamudaiyan, and other immigrants into the Tanjore district. At Mayaveram, for example, it is
applied to Kalians, Agamudaiyans, and Valaiyans.
noted, in the Census Report,
1891, that
It is

Agamudaiyan and Kalian were returned as sub-divisions of Maravans by a comparatively large number of persons. " Maravan
is

also found

among

the sub-divisions of Kalian,

and there can be little doubt that there is a very close connection between Kalians, Maravans, and Agamudaiyans."
"

The

origin of the

Kallar caste,"

Mr.

F. S. Mullaly writes,* "as also that of the

Maravars

and Ahambadayars,

is

mythologically

traced to Indra

and Aghalia, the wife of Rishi Gautama.

is

that Indra and Rishi

Gautama

were,

hand of Aghalia. was the successful one. This so incensed Indra that he
rival suitors for the
*

The legend among others, Rishi Gautama

Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.

63
determined to win Aghalia at
all

KALLAN
hazards, and, by

means
Kalla,

of a cleverly devised ruse, succeeded, and Aghalia bore

him three

sons,

who

respectively took the

names

Marava, and Ahambadya.

The

three castes have the

agnomen Theva or of Thevan (Indra)."

the legend
"

god, and claim to be descendants

According to another version of

left his

once upon a time Rishi Gautama

house to go abroad on business. Devendra, taking advantage of his absence, debauched his wife, and three
children were the result.

When

the Rishi returned, one

of the three hid himself behind a door, and, as he thus

acted like a

thief,

he was henceforward called Kalian.

Another got up a tree, and was therefore called Maravan from maram, a tree, whilst the third brazened it out and stood his ground, thus earning for himself the name This name of Ahamudeiyan, or the possessor of pride. was corrupted into Ahambadiyan."* There is a Tamil By proverb that a Kalian may come to be a Maravan.
respectability he

may develop

into

an Agamudaiyan, and,
Vellala,

by slow and small degrees, become a

he

from which

may rise to be a Mudaliar. "The Kalians," Mr. H. A.

excepting beef,

Stuart writes,! "will eat

flesh,

and have no scruples regard-

ing the use of intoxicating liquor.

They
of

are usually

farmers or field-labourers, but

many

them are em-

ployed as village or other watchmen, and not a few depend for their subsistence upon the proceeds of thefts

and robberies. In Trichinopoly town, householders are obliged to keep a member of the Kalian caste in their
service as a protection against the depredations of these
thieves,

and

any refusal to give

in

to this

custom

invariably results in loss of property.

On

the other

* Madras Review, 1899.

Madras Census Report, 1S91.

KALLAN
hand,
if

64

a theft should, by any chance, be committed in

is

a house where a Kalian

will

employed, the
to

articles

stolen

be

recovered,

and returned

the

owner.

In

Madura town, I am annum is levied on houses

of the
theft."

informed, a tax of four annas per

in certain streets

by the head

Kalian caste
In the

in return

for

protection against

that " the

Kalians,

Census Report, 1901, Mr. Francis records Mara vans, and Agamudaiyans are
is

responsible for a share of the crime of the southern

districts,

which
In

out of
the

all

proportion to their strength

in

them.

1897,

Inspector-General of Prisons

reported that nearly 42 per cent, of the convicts in the

Madura
tah

jail,

jail in

and 30 per cent, of those in the PalamcotTinnevelly, belonged to one or other of these
In Tinnevelly,
in 1894, 131

three castes.

cattle thefts

were committed by men of these three castes against 47 by members of others, which is one theft to 1,497 of the population of the three bodies against one to 37,8t,o of

The statistics of Trichinopoly and Madura were also

the other castes.

their criminality in

bad.

The Kalians

had

until recently a

regular system of blackmail, called

kudikaval, under which each village paid certain fees to

be exempt from

theft.

The consequences
'accidental' fires
in

of being in

arrears with their payments quickly followed in the shape

of cattle thefts and

houses.

In

tion.

Madura The agitation was

caste,

the villagers recently struck against this extorstarted by a

man of the

Idaiyan or

shepherd

which naturally suffered greatly by the

system, and continued from 1893 to 1896."

the agitation
is

The

origin of

said * to have been the anger of certain

of the Idaiyans with a Kalian Lothario,

who

enticed

away

woman

of their caste, and afterwards her daughter, and

* Gazetteer of the

Madura

district.

65

KALLAN

kept both

women

simultaneously under his protection.

is

The

story of this anti- Kalian agitation

told as follows
"

in the Police

Administration Report, 1896.

Many

of

the Kalians are the kavalgars of the villages under the

kaval system.
fees,

Under

that system the kavalgars receive

rent-free land for undertaking to

and

in

some cases

protect the property of the villagers against theft, or

to restore

an equivalent
suffer

in

value for anything

lost.

The

people

who

most

at the

hands of the Kallars are

Their sheep and

the shepherds (Konans or

Idaiyans).

goats form a convenient subject for the Kallar's raids.

They
mail.

are taken for kaval fees alleged to be overdue, and

also stolen, again to be restored on the

payment of black-

The

anti-Kallar
caste,

of the shepherd
villagers

were

held, at

movement was started by a man and rapidly spread. Meetings of which thousands attended. They

took oath on their ploughs to dispense with the services

of the Kallars
;

they formed funds to compensate such

of

them

as lost their cattle, or

whose houses were burnt

to patrol

they arranged for watchmen

the villages at night
to carry the alarm
village,
;

among themselves

they provided horns to be sounded

in

cases of theft from

village
fines

to

and prescribed a regular scale of

to

be

paid by those villagers

sound of the alarm.

places they

who failed to turn out on the The Kalians in the north in many
left their villages,

cases sold their lands, and

but in

some

months crime is said to have ceased absolutely, and, as one deponent put it, people even left their buckets at the wells. In one or the Kalians gathered in large bodies in view two places to overawe the villagers, and riots followed. In one
fight.

showed

For

six

village there

were three murders, and the Kallar quarter was destroyed by fire, but whether the fire was the work
of

Konans
in-5

or Kallars has never been discovered.

In

KALLAN
Auorust, larore
in

66

numbers of
in

vlllao-ers

attacked the Kallars

two
"

villages

the Dindigul division, and burnt the

Kallar quarters."

The

crimes,"

Mr. F.

S.

Mullaly writes,*

" that

Kallars are addicted to are dacoity in houses or on high-

ways, robbery, house-breaking and cattle-stealing.

are usually
called

They

armed with

vellari

thadis or clubs (the so-

boomerangs) and occasionally with knives similar

worn by the inhabitants of the western coast. Their method of house-breaking is to make the breach
to those
in

the wall under the door.

in,

A lad of diminutive size

for the elders.

then

creeps

and opens the door

Jewels worn

by sleepers are seldom touched. The stolen property is hidden in convenient places, in drains, wells, or straw
stacks,

and

is

sometimes returned to the owner on receipt

of blackmail from

him

called tuppu-kuli or clue hire.

The

women seldom
Chettis."
It

join in crimes, but assist the

men

in their

dealings (for disposal of the stolen property) with the

is

noted by the

Abbd Dubois

that

the

Kallars " regard a robber's

occupation as discreditable

neither to themselves, nor to their fellow castemen, for

the simple reason that they consider robbery a duty, and

a right sanctioned by descent.

If

one were to ask of a

Kallar to what people he belonged, he would coolly

answer,
It
is

am

a robber."
in

recorded,

the

Gazetteer of

the

Madura

district, that "

dacoity of travellers at night used to be

the favourite pastime of the Kalians, and their favourite

haunts the various roads leading out of Madura, and

that from

Ammayanayakkanur

to

Periyakulam.

The

method adopted consisted in threatening the driver of the cart, and then turning the vehicle into the ditch so

* op.

cit.

6;
that
it

K ALL AN
were then

upset.

The

unfortunate travellers
to
sit

forced by some of the gang

at the side of the road,

with their backs to the cart and their faces to the

ground, while their baggage was searched for valuables

by the remainder. The gangs which frequented these roads have now broken up, and the caste has practically
quitted

road dacoity for the simpler, more paying, and

office-boxes

less risky business of stealing officials'

and

ryots' cattle.

Cattle-theft

is

now the most popular

{see

calling

among them.
its

They

are clever at handling animals, and

probably the popularity of the jallikats

origin in the

Maravan) has

demands of a

life,

which always included

much

cattle-lifting.

The

stolen animals are driven great

distances (as

much
or

as 20 or 30 miles) on the night of

the theft, and are then hidden for the day either in a
friend's house,

among

hills

and jungles.

The next

night they are taken

Pursuit
is

still

further,

and again hidden.

by

this

time hopeless, as the owner has no idea

even

which direction to search. He, therefore, proceeds to the nearest go-between (these individuals are well-known to every one), and offers him a reward if he
in
will

bring back the

cattle.

This reward

is

called tuppu-

kuli, or

payment

for clues,

and

is

very usually as

as half the value of the animals stolen.

much The Kalian

his

undertakes to search for the

lost bullocks,

returns soon,

and states that he has found them, receives

kuli,

tuppu-

the owner of the property that, if he named, which is usually in some lonely will go to a spot neighbourhood, he will find his cattle tied up there.

and then

tells

This information
will

is

always correct.

If,

on the other

hand, the owner reports the theft to the police, no Kalian

help him to recover his
animals,

and these are

Consequently,

eventually sold in other districts or Travancore, or even

sent across from Tuticorin to
HI-5 B

Ceylon.

KALLAN

68

hardly any cattle-thefts are ever reported to the police.

Where

the

Kalians are most numerous,

the

fear of

incendiarism induces people to try to afford a tiled or

terraced roof, instead of being content with thatch.
cattle are

The
Fear

always tied up

in

the houses at night.

them from being left in the fields, and they may be seen coming into the villages every
of the Kalians prev^ents

evening

in scores,

choking every one with the dust they

kick up, and polluting the village site (instead of manur-

ing the land) for twelve hours out of every twenty-four.

Buffaloes are tied up outside the houses.

Kalians do
value, are

not care to steal them, as they are of

little

very troublesome when a stranger

tries to

handle them,

and cannot travel

of detection

fast or far

enough

to be out of reach

by

daybreak.

The

Kalians'

inveterate

addiction to dacoity and theft render the caste to this

day a thorn

in the flesh of

the authorities.

very large

proportion of the thefts committed in the district are

attributable to them.

Nor

are they

One

of

them defended

his class

ashamed of the fact. by urging that every

bribes, the vakil

other class stole, the

official

by taking

(law pleader) by fostering animosities, and so pocketing

fees,

the merchant by watering the arrack (spirit) and

sanding the sugar, and so on,

and that the Kalians

differed from these only in the directness of their methods.

Round about Melur,

lifting,

the people of the caste are taking

energetically to wet cultivation, to the exclusion of cattle-

with the Periyar water, which has lately been brought there. In some of the villages to the south
of that

drawn up a formal agreement (which has been solemnly registered, and is most
town,

they have

rigorously enforced by the headmen), forbidding theft,

recalling all the

women who have emigrated

to

Ceylon

and elsewhere, and, with an enlightenment which puts

6g

KALLAN

other communities to shame, prohibiting several other

unwise practices which are only too common, such as

the removal from the fields of

cow-dung

for fuel,

and

the pollution of drinking-water tanks (ponds) by step-

ping into them.

their

Hard

things have been said about the

Kalians, but points to their credit are the chastity of

women, the
and

cleanliness they observe in and around

their
is

their villages,
in

marked
I

sobriety.

toddy-shop

a Kalian village

seldom a

financial success."

From
largely

a recent note,*

gather the following additional

information concerning tuppu-kuli.

guilty

"The
many

Kalians are
cases,

of

cattle-thefts.

In

they

return the cattle on receiving tuppu-kuli.

returns do not

The

official

show many of these cases. No cattleowner thinks of reporting the loss of any of his cattle. Naturally his first instinct is that it might have strayed
live

away, being

property.

The

tuppu-kuli

system

generally helps the owner to recover his lost cattle.

He

has only to pay half of

its

real value, and,

when he
is

recovers his animal, he goes

home with

the belief that

he has really made a profitable bargain.

that he got back his animal for use,

There

no

matter for complaint, but, on the other hand, he

is

glad

often at the

most

opportune time.

Cattle are indispensable to the agri-

culturist at all times of the year.

Perhaps, sometimes,

when

the rains

fail,

he

may
is

not use them.

But

if,

after

a long drought, there

a shower, immediately every

agriculturist runs to his field with his plough

and

cattle,

and

tills it.

If,

at

such a time, his

cattle

be stolen, he
be available
will not part

considers as though he were beaten on his belly, and his

means

of livelihood gone.
hire.

No

cattle will

then for

There

is

nothing that he

* IllubliaLed Criminal InvesligalioQ and

Law

Digest,

I, 3,

190S, Vellore.

KALLAN
with, to get

70

back

his cattle.

There
itself,

is

then the nefarious

system of tuppu-kuli offering

to
it,

and he freely resorts

his lost cattle sooner

and succeeds

in getting

back
if

or later.

On
is

the other hand,

a complaint

is

made

to the Village Magistrate or

Police,

recovery by this

channel

impossible.

The

tuppu-kuli agents have their

spies or informants everywhere,

dogging the footsteps

of the owner of the stolen cattle, and of those

likely to help

who

are

him
is

in

recovering
in

it.

As soon
its

as they

know
any

the case

recorded
let

the Police station, they

determine not to
risk,

the animal go back to

owner

at

unless

some mutual
in

friend intervenes,

and works
restoration

mightily for the recovery,

is
is,

which case the restoration

generally

through the pound.

This, too,

Such a
is

prima

facie, cattle-straying,

for only stray cattle are

taken to the pound.

done

after a

good

deal of hard swearing on both sides not to hand over

the offender to the authorities."
In connection with the
'

vellari thadi

'

referred to

above, Dr. Oppert writes * that " boomerangs are used

by the Tamil Maravans and Kalians when hunting deer.

The Madras Museum

collection contains three (two ivory,

one wooden) from the Tanjore armoury.

of the Pudukkottai Raja a stock of
is

In the arsenal

always kept.

Their name

in

wooden boomerangs Tamil is valai tadi (bent

stick)."

Concerning these boomerangs, the

Dewan

of

Pudukkottai writes to
valai tadi
is

me
It is

as follows.

"The

valari or

a short weapon, generally

also

hard-ofrained wood. o
It
is

made of some sometimes made of iron.

crescent-shaped, one end being heavier than the

other,

and the outer edge

is

sharpened.
it

Men

trained in

the use of the

weapon hold

by the

lighter end, whirl

Madras Journ.

Lit. Science,

XXV.

71
it

KALLAN
it

a few times over their shoulders to give

it

impetus,

and then hurl

at.
It
is

with great force against the object aimed

the art of

said that there were experts in

valari,

throwing the
forthcoming

who

could at one stroke despatch

small game, and even man.

in

No
in

such experts are now

instrument
is

the State, though the

reported to be occasionally used

fowl, etc.
Its

hunting hares, jungle

past.

days, however,

must be counted as

Tradition states that the instrument played a considerable part in the Poligar wars of the last century.

But

it

now reposes peacefully

ants of the
plied
it

in the

households of the descend-

rude Kalian and Maravan warriors,

in

who

with such deadly effect

relic of

the last century, pre-

served as a sacred

a chivalric past along with

other old family weapons in their puja room, brought out and scraped and cleaned on occasions like the Ayudha

puja day (when worship

is

paid to weapons and impleits

ments of industry), and restored to

immediately afterwards."

place of rest

which were returned in greatest numbers at the census, 1 89 1, were Isanganadu

of the Kalians,
(or

The sub-divisions

Visangu-nadu), Kungiliyan, Menadu,

" in

Nattu, Pira1901,

malainadu, and Sirukudi.

it

In the Census Report,

is

recorded that

Madura

the Kalians are divided

into ten
in

main endogamous divisions * which are territorial origin. These are (i) Mel-nadu, (2) Sirukudi-nadu,
(5) Pakaneri, (6)
(7)

(3) Vellur-nadu, (4) Malla-kottai nadu,

Kandramanikkam
devi,
(8)

or Kunnan-kottai nadu,

Kanda-

Puramalai-nadu,

Palaya-nadu.
section
is

The

(9) Tennilai-nadu, and (10) headman of the Puramalai-nadu

by Idaiyans (herdsmen), but what the connection between the two castes may be
said to be installed
*
I

am informed

thai only Mel-nadu, Sirukudi, Mella-kottai,

and Puramalai

are endogamous.

K ALLAN
is

72

not clear.

The

termination nadu means a country.

further

These

sections

are

divided

into

exogamous
Vadakkuand street),

sections called vaguppus.

The Mel-nadu Kalians have

(east

three sections called terus or streets, namely,

teru

(north

street),

Kilakku-teru

Terku-teru (south

street).

The Sirukudi

Kalians have

vaguppus named

after the

gods specially worshipped by

Kalians the names of these

each, such as Andi, Mandai, Aiyanar, and Viramangali.

Among
sections
puli

the Vellur-nadu

seem merely

fanciful.
tiger),

Some

of them are Vengai

puli

(cruel-handed

Vekkali

(cruel-legged

Sami puli (holy tiger), Sem puli (red tiger), Sammatti makkal (hammer men), Tiruman (holy deer), and Sayumpadai tangi (supporter of the vanquished army). A section of the Tanjore Kalians names its sections from sundry high-sounding titles meaning King of the Pallavas, King of Tanjore, conqueror of the south, mighty ruler, and so on." Portions of the Madura and Tanjore districts are
tiger),

divided into areas

known
Nelson,

as nadus, a
is

name which,
applicable

as
to

observed
Kalian
Nattan,

by Mr.

specially

tracts.
is

In each nadu a certain caste, called the

the predominant factor in the settlement of

social questions
livinof

which

arise

within the nadu.

among the various Round about Devakotta

castes
in

the

Sivaganga zamindari there are fourteen nadus, representatives of which meet once a year at Kandadevi, to
arrange for the annual
to
festival at the

temple dedicated

Swarnamurthi

Swami.

The

four

nadus

Unjanai,

Sembonmari,

Iravaseri,

and Tennilai

in the

same zaminconsidered

dari constitute a group, of

which the

last is

the chief nadu, whereat caste questions must

for settlement.

come up

constitute

For marriage purposes these four nadus an endogamous section, which is sub-divided

n
into

KALLAN

septs

or

karais.

Among^ the Vallambans these

But,

karais are exogamous, and run in the male Hne.

among

the

Kalians,

the

karai

is

recognised only in
is

connection with property.

certain tract of land

the

property of a particular karai, and the legal owners

thereof are

members

of the

same

karai.

When
The

the land

has to be disposed

of,

this can only

be effected with the

Nattar
kilai

consent of representatives of the karai.

Kalians of Sivaganga have exogamous septs called

or branches, which, as

among

the Maravans, run in the

female

line,

i.e.,

a child belongs to the mother's, not the

In

father's, sept.

some

castes,

and even among Brahrule,

it

mans, though contrary to

for a

strict

is

permissible

man to marry his sister's daughter. This is not possible among the Kalians who have kilais such as
those referred
the
girl,
to,

because the maternal uncle of a

all

girl,

and her mother

belong to the same sept.

sister

But the children of a brother and

because they belong to different
respective mothers.
Subban
(Kurivili kIlai).

may

marry,

kilais, i.e.,

those of their

Pachchai
(Arasiya
kIlai).

Karuppan, son
(Arasiya kilai)

Ellamma, daughter
(Arasiya kilai)

Raman
(Pesadan
kilai)

Minachi
(Arasiya kilai)

In the above example, the girl

Minachi may not

marry Karuppan, as both are members of the same kilai. But she ought, though he be a mere boy, to marry

Raman, who belongs

to a different sept.

KALLAN
It is

74

noted*

that,

among

the Sivaganga Kalians,

"

when a member
kilai

of a certain kilai dies, a piece of

cloth should be given to the other male

same

by the heir of the deceased.

If her

new member of the The cloth thus

her husband
will

obtained should be given to the sister of the person

obtaining
will
it.

brother

fails to

do

so,

consider himself degraded,

and consequently

divorce her."

Round about Pudukkottai and

Tanjore,

exogamous septs called pattaperu, and they adopt the sept name as a title, e.g., Muthu Udaiyan, Karuppa Tondaman, etc. It is noted,
the Visangu-nadu Kalians have
in the

Gazetteer of the Tanjore

district,

that the sube.g.,

divisions of the Kalians are split into groups,

(wolfish), Singattan (lion-like), etc.
It is

Onaiyan

a curious fact that the Puramalai-nadu Kalians

practice the rite of circumcision.

The

origin of this
t

custom

is

uncertain, but

it

has been suggested

that

it is

a survival of a forcible conversion to

a section of the

Muhammadanism

of

downfall of

Kurumbas who At their kingdom.

fled

northwards on the
carried on

the time appointed for

is

the initiatory ceremony, the Kalian youth

the shoulders of his maternal uncle to a grove or plain outside the village, where betel
is

distributed
is

among

those

who have

assembled, and the operation

performed by
site,

a barber-surgeon.

En

7'OtUe

to

the selected

and

throughout the ceremony, the conch shell (musical instrument)

It is
is

blown.

The youth

is

presented with

new

cloths.

noted, in the Gazetteer of the

Madura

district, that

"

every Kalian boy has a right to claim the hand of his

paternal aunt's daughter in marriage.

This aunt bears

Similarly,

the expenses connected with his circumcision.

the maternal uncle pays the costs of the rites which are

Madras Census Report,

1891.

t Manual of the Madura

district.

75

KALLAN

observed when a girl on the girl as a bride

attains maturity, for he has a claim

for his son.

The two ceremonies

all

are performed at one time for large batches of boys and

girls.

On

an auspicious day, the young people are

in their best,

feasted,

and dressed

and repair

to a river or

tank (pond).

The mothers

of the girls

make lamps

of

plantain leaves, and float

them on the water, and the boys

It is stated, in

are operated on by the local barber."

the
tali,

on which the
is

Census Report, 1901, that the Sirukudi Kalians use a Muhammadan badge of a crescent and
engraved.
In connection with marriage

star

among

the Kalians,

it

is

noted by Mr. S.
feast,

M.

Natesa Sastri * that

"at the

Mattupongal

towards evening, festoons of aloe fibre

and cloths containing coins are tied to the horns of bullocks and cows, and the animals are driven through the streets with tom-tom and music. In the villages, especially those
inhabited by the Kalians in

maiden chooses as tied and brought to her the cloth

fiercest
bull.

Madura and Tinnevelly, the her husband him who has safely untied to the
let

horn of the
with
their

The

animals are

loose

horns containing valuables, amidst the din of tom-tom and

harsh music, which

terrifies

and bewilders them.

They

crowd.

and are purposely excited by the young Kalla will declare that he will run and this is sometimes a risky after such and such a bull pursuit and recover the valuables tied to its horn.
run madly about,

The Kalian

considers

it

a great disgrace to be injured

while chasing the bull."

poet of the early years of the present

Pillai,t

era,

quoted
"

by Mr. Kanakasabhai

describes this custom as

practiced by the shepherd

*

castes in those days.

Hindu

Feasts, Fasts, and Ceremonies, 1903.

1904.

The Tamils eighteen hundred years ago,

KALLAN
large area of ground
Is

"J^

enclosed with palisades and

strong fences.
bulls with

Into the enclosure are brought ferocious

sharpened horns.

On

a spacious

loft,

over-

looking the enclosure, stand the shepherd

girls,

whom

they intend to give away

in

marriage.
first

The shepherd

youths, prepared for the fight,

pray to their gods,

whose images are placed under

trees, or at

old banian or peepul

watering places.

They then deck themselves

flowers of the

with garlands

made

of the bright red

kanthal, and the purple flowers of the kaya.

At a

signal

given by the beating of drums, the youths leap into the

enclosure, and try to seize the bulls,

which, frightened
to

by the noise of the drums, are now ready

charge

anyone who approaches them.

a
bull,

Each youth approaches

But the
bulls rush

which he chooses to capture.

furiously, with tails raised,

heads bent down, and horns

levelled at their assailants.

Some
tails.

of the youths face

the bulls boldly, and seize their horns.

aside,

and take hold of their

Some jump The more wary young

fall

men

cling to the animals

till

they force them to

is

on

the ground.

Many

a luckless youth

now thrown down.

Some
upon

escape without a scratch, while others are trampled

or gored by the bulls.

Some, though wounded

bulls.

and bleeding, again spring on the

that day's fight.
fight
is

A few,

who

suc-

ceed in capturing the animals, are declared the victors of

over.

The elders then announce that the bullThe wounded are carried out of the encloto immediately, while the victors

sure,

and attended

and

the brides-elect repair to an adjoining grove, and there,

forming into groups, dance joyously before preparing for

their marriage."

In an account of marriage

among

the

Kalians,
in

Mr.
the

Nelson writes that

opinion
of a

" the
is

most
one

proper alliance

Kalian

between a man and the

"J"]

KALLAN
an individual have

daughter of
there

his father's sister, and, if

such a cousin, he must marry her, whatever disparity

may

be between their respective ages.

if

boy of

fifteen

must marry such a cousin, even

if

she be thirty

or forty years old,

her father insists upon his so doing.

Failing a cousin of this sort, he must marry his aunt or

his niece, or

any near
this

relative.

If his father's

brother has

a daughter, and insists

refuse
;

and

upon him marrying her he cannot whatever may be the woman's age.
is

One

of the customs of the western Kalians

It

specially
is

curious.

constantly happens that a

six,

woman

the wife

of ten, eight,

or two husbands,

who

are held to be the

fathers jointly

and severally of any children that may be

still

born of her body, and,

children

grow up

they,

for

more curiously, when the some unknown reason,

be, but of eight

invariably style themselves the children not of ten, eight

or six fathers as the case
six

may

and two,

and two, or four and two

place,

fathers.

When

a wedding-

takes

the sister of the bridegroom goes to the

house of the parents of the bride, and presents them with

twenty-one Kali fanams (coins) and a
cloth,

and, at the

same time, ties some horse-hair round the bride's neck. She then brings her and her relatives to the house of the bridegroom, where a feast is prepared. Sheep are killed, and stores of liquor kept ready, and all partake of the good cheer provided. After this
the bride and bridegroom are conducted to the house of

the

latter,

and the ceremony of an exchange between

them of
formed.

vallari thadis or

boomerangs
is

is

solemnly perin

Another
rice

feast
is

then given

the

bride's

house, and the bride

presented by her parents with

one markal of

and a hen.

husband

to his house.
it

She then goes with her Durinor the first twelve months
for the wife's parents to

after marriage,

is

customary

KALLAN
invite the

78
pair to stay

with them a day or two on the

occasion

of any

feast,

and to present them on their

departure with a markal of rice and a cock.

At the

time of the

first

Pongal

feast

after the

marriage, the

presents customarily given to the son-in-law are five

markals of

rice, five

loads of pots and pans, five bunches

of plantains, five cocoanuts, and five lumps of jaggery

(crude sugar).
side.

divorce

is

easily obtained

on either

A
if

husband

dissatisfied with his wife

can send her

away

he be willing at the same time to give her half

of his property, and a wife can leave her husband at will

upon forfeiture of forty-two Kali fanams. A widow may marry any man she fancies, if she can induce him to

make her
In

a present often fanams."

the

connection with
that,

foregoing account,

am

informed
a married

among

the Nattar Kalians, the brother of

woman must
rice,

give her annually at Pongal a

present of

a goat, and a cloth until her death.

The
fast

custom of exchanging boomerangs appears to be

becoming
still

a tradition.

But, there
valari tadi,

is

common

saying
bride."

current "

Send the

and bring the

is

As
tali

regards the horse-hair, which

mentioned as being
that, as

tied

round the bride's neck,

is

gather

a rule, the

suspended from a cotton thread, and the horse-

hair necklet

may be worn by

girls prior to

puberty and
is

marriage, and by widows.

This form of necklet

also

worn by females of other castes, such as Maravans, Puramalai Kalian Valaiyans, and Morasa Paraiyans. women can be distinguished by the triangular ornament, which is attached to the tali string. It is stated, in the
Gazetteer of the

Madura

district, that "

attained maturity, she puts

when a girl has away the necklace of coloured

woman.
This

beads she wore as a

let,

child,

and dons the horse-hair neck-

which

is

characteristic of the Kalian

79

KALLAN
if

she retains

till

death,

even

she becomes a widow.

for

The

richer

Kalians

substitute

the horse-hair

necklace of

many

strands of fine silver wire.

In Tiru-

mangalam, the women often hang- round their necks a most curious brass and silver pendant, six or eight inches
long,

and elaborately worked."

noted
in the

It is

Census Report, 1891, that as a

In Tamil the
'

token of divorce "a Kalian gives his wife a piece of

straw in the presence of his caste people.
'
'

expression to give a straw means to divorce, and to take a straw means to accept divorce." In their marriage customs, some Kalians have adopted the Puranic form of rite owing to the influence of Brahman purohits, and, though adult marriage is the rule, some Brahmanised Kalians have introduced infant
'

marriage.

To

this the

Puramalai section has a strong

child a present

objection, as, from the time of marriage, they have to

give annually
of fowls,
rice,

till

the birth of the

first

a goat, jaggery, plantains, betel, turmeric,

and condiments.

By

adult

marriage the time during

which
less

this

present has to
is

be made

is

shortened, and In

expenditure thereon

incurred.

connection

with the marriage ceremonies as carried out by some

Kalians,
I

gather that the consent of the

girl

maternal

uncle of a
betrothal

to

her marriage
the
father

is

essential.

For the

ceremony,

and

maternal uncle

of the future bridegroom proceed

to the girl's house,

where a feast is held, and the date fixed for the wedding written on two rolls of palm leaf dyed with turmeric or red paper, which are exchanged between the
maternal uncles.

On

the wedding day, the sister of the

bridegroom goes to the house of the bride, accompanied by women, some of whom carry flowers, cocoanuts, betel
leaves,

turmeric,

leafy twigs

of Sesbania grandiflora.

KALLAN
paddy (unhusked

80
rice), milk,

and gh!

(clarified

butter).

A
is

basket containing a female cloth, and the

in

tali

string

wrapped up

a red cloth borrowed from a washerman,

given to a sister of the bridegroom or to a

woman

belonging to his sept.

On

the

way to

the bride's house,

two ofthe women

blow chank shells (musical instrument).

to say that he belongs to Indra

The

bride's people question the bridegroom's party as to

his sept,

and they ought

kulam, Thalavala nadu, and Ahalya gotra.

The
round

brideto be
is

groom's

sister,

taking up the
present,

tali,

passes
the

it

touched by

all

and

ties

string,

which

decorated with flowers, tightly round the bride's neck

amid the blowino- of the conch

conducted to the home
married couple

shell.

The

bride

is

then

of the bridegroom, whence they

return to her house on the following day.

sit

The newly
out "
killa,

on a plank, and coloured rice-balls or

coloured water are waved, while

ilia, ilia
;

women

yell
is

killa, ilia, ilia."

is

This ceremony

called kulavi

idal,

and

sometimes performed by Kalian

women

during the tali-tying.

The
district.

following details relating to the marriage cerein the

monies are recorded

"

Gazetteer of the Tanjore

the

The

arrival

of

bridegroom has been

described as being sometimes especially ceremonious.

Mounted on a horse, and attended by his maternal uncle, he is met by a youth from the bride's house, also mounted, who conducts the visitors to the marriage booth. Here
he
is

given betel leaves, areca nuts, and a rupee by the

bride's father,

and

his feet

are

washed

in

milk and

water, and adorned with toe-rings by the bride's mother.

The

tali

is

suspended from a necklet of gold or

is

silver

instead of cotton thread, but this

afterwards changed

to cotton for fear of offending the

lamp

is

often held by the bridegroom's sister, or

god Karuppan. A some

KALLAX CHILDREN WITH DILATED EAR-LOBES.

KALLAN
being
it

married woman, while the

thus cause an evil omen.

tali is

tied.

This

is left

unlighted by the Kalians for fear

should go out, and

The marriage tie is in some Even a woman who has borne localities very loose. her husband many children may leave him if she likes,
on condition that she pays

to seek a second husband,

him her marriage expenses. In this case (as also when widows are remarried), the children are left in the late
husband's house.
in these matters
is

The freedom

of the Kalian

women

noticed in the proverb that, " though

there

may be no
or that "

thread in the spinning-rod, there will

always be a

(tali)

thread on

the

neck of a
fail,

Kalian

woman,"

though other threads

will

the thread

of a Kalian

woman

never do so."
is,

By some Kalians
first

pollution

on the occasion of the

menstrual period, observed for seven or nine days.

the sixteenth day, the maternal uncle of the girl
rice.

On

brings a sheep or goat, and

decorated, and
sits

She

is

bathed and

on a plank while a vessel of water,

filled

coloured

rice,

and a measure

with paddy with a

it,

style bearing a betel leaf struck

on

are

waved before
woman, conit

her.

Her

head, knees, and shoulders are touched with

cakes, which are then thrown away.

ducting the

girl

round the plank, pours water from a

falls

vessel on to a betel leaf held in her hand, so that

on the ground

at the four cardinal points of the

compass,

which the

girl salutes.
is

A
month

ceremony

generally celebrated in the seventh

of pregnancy, for which the husband's sister prerice).

pares pongal (cooked

The pregnant woman

sits

on a plank, and the rice is waved before her. She then stands up, and bends down while her sister-in-law pours
milk from a betel or pipal [Fiats religiosa) leaf on her
back.

feast brings the

ceremony

to a close.

Among

ni-6

KALLAN

82

the Vellur-nadu Kalians patterns are said * to be drawn

on the back of the pregnant

milk
is

poured over them.

woman with rice-flour, and The husband's sister deco-

rates a grindstone in the

same way, invokes a blessing

on the woman, and expresses a hope that she may have

a male child as strong as a stone.

When

a child

is

born

in

a family, the entire family

observes pollution for thirty days, during which entrance

into a temple
is

forbidden.

Among

the Nattar Kalians,

named at any time after they are But, among the Puramalai Kalians, a firsta month old. child is named on the seventh day, after born female
children are said to be

the ear-boring ceremony

has

been performed.
on
festive occasions,

" All

Kalians," Mr. Francis writes,* "put

on sacred ashes,
but

the usual

mark

of a Saivite,

they are nevertheless generally Vaishnavites.

are usually buried, and
it is

The dead

said that, at funerals, cheroots

smoke while the when a ceremony proceeds." death occurs in a family, to put a pot filled with dung or water, a broomstick, and a fire-brand at some place where
are handed round, which those present

Some

Kalians are said,t

three roads meet, or in front of the house, in order to

prevent the ghost from returning.

It is

recorded, in the Gazetteer of the

Madura

district,

that

"the

Kilnad

Kalians

usually

bury their dead.

Lamps

are periodically lighted on the tomb,

and

it

is

The Piramalainad division whitewashed annually. If a woman dies when with child, usually burn the dead. and placed alongside her on the the baby is taken out,
pyre.

This,

it

may be

noted,

is

the rule with most castes

relations

in this district, and, in

some communities, the

afterwards put up a stone burden-rest by the side of a

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

+ Gazetteer of the Tanjore district.

83
road, the idea bein^ that the

KALLAN
with her burden,
lightened of
originally

woman died

and so her
theirs.

spirit

rejoices to see others

Tradition says that the caste

came
done

from the north.

The
;

dead are buried with their faces

and,

laid in that direction

when puja

is

to

Karup-

panaswami, the caste god, the worshippers turn to the

north."

According to Mr. H. A. Stuart* "the Kalians are

nominally Saivites, but
religious belief
is

in reality the

essence of their
is

devil-worship.

Their chief deity

of Madura.

Alagarswami, the god of the great Alagar Kovil twelve

miles to the north of the town

To

this

temple they make large offerings, and the Swami, called

Kalla Alagar, has always been regarded as their
peculiar deity."
to

own

The

Kalians are said by Mr. Mullaly

and consult their household gods " Two flowers, the one before starting on depredations.
observe

omens,

red and the other white, are placed before the

idol,

a
is

symbol of their god Kalla Alagar.

the

The white
two
flowers,

flower
is

emblem

of success.

child of tender years

told

to pluck a petal

of one of the

and the

undertaking rests upon the choice made by the child."

In like manner,

when

a marriage

is

contemplated

among
idol

the Idaiyans, the parents of the prospective bride and

bridegroom go to the temple, and throw before the

a red and white flower, each wrapped
small child
If the
is

in

a betel

leaf.

A
con-

then told to pick up one of the leaves.

it

one selected contains the white flower,

connection with the Alagar Kovil,
are to be taken, the person

is

sidered auspicious, and the marriage will take place.

In
that,
I

gather t

when oaths
is

who
and,

is

to

swear

asked to worship

Kallar Alagar,

with.

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

f Madras Mail, 1908,

ni-6 B

KALLAN
a parivattam (cloth

84

worn

as a

mark

of respect in the

presence of the god) on his head, and a garland round

his neck, should

stand on the eighteenth step of the

:

eighteen steps of Karuppanaswami, and say

before

"

swear
that
I

Kallar

Alagar and Karuppannaswami

have acted
falsely,

rightly,

and so

on.

If
;

the person swears

if

he dies on the third day

fate."

truly the

other

person meets witb the same

It

bull

was noted by Mr. M. J. Walhouse,* that " at the games (jellikattu) at Dindigul, the Kalians can alone
and consult the presiding
deity.

officiate as priests,

On

this occasion they hold quite a Saturnalia of lordship

and arrogance over the Brahmans."

the Gazetteer of the

It

is

recorded, in
''

Madura

district, that

the keen-

ness

of the

more

virile

sections

of

the
is

community

(especially the Kalians), in this

game,

extraordinary,

many villages, cattle are bred and reared specially for it. The best jallikats are to be seen in the Kalian country in Tirumangalam, and next come those in Melur and Madura taluks." [See also Maravan.) It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district,
and, in
that

Karuppan

is

*'

essentially the

especially of the Kalians of the

parts, his shrine
is

god of the Kalians, Melur side. In those

Kusavans.
in

usually the Kalians' chavadi (assembly

place).

His

priests are usually Kalians or

Alagarswami

(the

beautiful

god)
is

is

held

special

veneration by the Kalians, and

the Kallar Alagar.

often popularly called

The men

of this caste have the

right to drag his car at the car festival, and,

when he
is

goes (from Alagar Kovil) on

his visit to

Madura, he

dressed as a Kalian, exhibits the long ears characteristic

of that caste, and carries the boomerang and club, which

* Ind. Ant,, III., 1S74.

85

KALLAN
It is

were of their old favourite weapons.

Kalian dacoits invoke his aid

whispered that
are setting out

when they
if

on marauding expeditions, and,

therein,

they are successful

gains
into

put part of

their

ill-gotten
is
I

the

offertory (undial) box,

which

kept at his shrine."

indebted to the Rev.
is

For the following note

J.

am
is

Sharrock.

"

The chief temple

of the Kalians

about

ten miles west of Madura, and

dedicated to Alagar-

swami, said to be an incarnation of Vishnu, but also said

to be the brother of Minatchi (the fish-eyed or beautiful

daughter of the Pandya king of Madura).

see

Now Minatchi
we
and the
spirit

has been married by the Brahmans to Siva, and so

Hinduism wedded

to Dravidianism,

of compromise, the chief

by the Brahmans, carried to

great
carried,

annual
in

festival,

method of conversion adopted its utmost limit. At the the idol of Alagarswami is
to the

the

month of Chittra (April-May),

temple of Minatchi, and the banks of the river Vaiga

swarm with two

proportion of

to three lakhs * of worshippers, a large

whom

are Kalians.

At

this festival, the

Kalians have the right of dragging with a rope the

car of Alagarswami, though other people
later

may

join in

on.
is

As Alagarswami
offered to

is

a vegetarian, no blood
is

sacrifice

him.

This

probably due to
in

the

influence

of

Brahmanism,
their

for,

their

ordinary

ceremonies, the Kalians invariably slaughter sheep as

sacrifices to

propitiate

bold and thievish instincts,

to steal a god,
if

True the Kalians do not

deities.
will

to

their

hesitate
in

they think he

be of use to them

their predatory excursions,!

and are not afraid

to dig

up the coins or jewels that are generally buried under an idol. Though they entertain little dread of their
*
t

lakh

= a hundred thousand.
the theft of Laban's teraphim by Rachel.

Compare

Genesis,

XXXI,

19.

KALLAN
own

86

village gods, they are often afraid of others that

far

they meet

from home, or

in the

jungles

engaged
their
that, if

in one of their stealing expeditions.

when they are As regards

own

village gods, there

is

a sort of understanding

they help them

in their thefts,

they are to have

fair

share of the spoil, and, on the principle of honesty

thieves,

among
fices

the bargain

is

always kept.

At the
sacri-

annual festival for the village

deities,

each family
is

a sheep, and the head of the victim while the body

is

given to the
the

pujari (priest),

taken

home by
feast.

donor, and partaken of as a

at least of the

communion

Two
:

elements of totem worship appear here

there

is

the shedding of the sacrificial blood of an innocent

to

victim

appease the wrath of the totem god, and

feasting together which follows
join
in
it.

the

common

The
but of

Brahmans sometimes

these

sacrifices,

course take no part of the victim, the whole being the

perquisite of the pujari, and there
is

no

common

partici-

pation in the meal.

When

strange deities are met with

it is

by the Kalians on their thieving expeditions,

to

usual

make

vow

that, if the

adventure turns out well, part

left

of the spoil shall next day be

at the shrine of the

god, or be handed over to the pujari of that particular

deity.

They

are afraid that,

if

this

precaution be not

taken, the

god may make them

blind, or cause

be discovered, or

may go

so far as to

them to knock them down,

If

and leave them

the deity, or

to bleed to death.

they have seen

been particularly frightened or otherwise

specially affected

by these unknown gods, instead of

After a few days they

leaving a part of the body, they adopt a more thorough

method

of satisfying the same.

return at midnight to
of course
is

make

a special sacrifice, which

pujari,

conducted by the particular

whose
rice,

god

is

to be appeased.

They

bring a sheep with

8;
curry-stuffs

KALLAN
give a

and

liquors, and, after the sacrifice,

considerable

share

of

these

dainties,

together

with

the animal's head, to the pujari, as well as a

money
is

for

making the puja (worship)

in water,

for

them.

sum of Some

of the ceremonies are worth recording.

First the idol

is

washed

and a sandal spot

put on the

forehead in the case of male deities, and a

spot in the case of females.
the neck, and the bell
all
is

kunkuma

Garlands are placed round

rung, while lamps are lighted

about.

Then

the deity's

name

is

repeatedly invoked,

accompanied by beating on the udukku. This is a small drum which tapers to a narrow waist in the middle, and is held in the left hand of the pujari with one end close to his left ear, while he taps on it with
the fingers of his right hand.

Not only

is

this primitive

music pleasing to the ears of his barbarous audience, but, what is more important, it conveys the oracular communications of the god himself By means of the

end of the drum placed close to

his ear, the pujari

is

enabled to hear what the god has to say of the predatory

excursion which has taken place, and the pujari (who,
like a clever

gypsy, has taken care previously to get as

of what has

much information
retails all that

happened as possible)
is

has occurred during the exploit to his

In case his information

wondering devotees.
plete,

incom-

he

is

easily able to find out,

little

by a few leading

questions and a
people,
that the
all

cross-examination of these ignorant

that he needs to impress

all

them with the idea

god knows
at
it is

about their transactions, having

plundering bout.
to

been present
sacrifices,

their

At

all

such
water
being

common custom
if it will

pour a
itself,

little

over the sheep, to see

shake

this

invariably a sign of the deity's acceptance of the animal

offered.

In

some

sacrifices,

if

the sheep does not shake

KALLAN
itself, it is

88
rejected,

and another substituted

it

for

it

and,

in

some cases (be

little

whispered,

when

the pujari thinks

it

the sheep too thin and scraggy), he pours over

only
If,

water,

and so demands another animal.

is

however, the pujari, as the god's representative,

fied,

satis-

he goes on pouring more and more water

itself,

till

the

half-drenched animal has to shake

its

and so signs
forth in

own

death-warrant.

All

who have ventured

the night to take part in the sacrifice then join together

in the

communal meal.

An

illustration of the value of

may here be quoted, to show how little value may be attached to an oath made in the presence of a god. Some pannaikarans (servants) of a Kalian landsacrifices

owner one day

denied the
god,
theft,

stole

a sheep,
village

for

which they were

brought up before

the

munsif

When

they

the munsif took

(the

them

to their village

Karuppan
let off.

black brother),

and made them

swear

in its presence.

They

perjured themselves again,

and were

Their master quietly questioned them

afterwards, asking

them how they dared swear so

god, and to this they replied
'

falsely

before their

own

While

we were

swearing,

we were mentally
'

offering a sacrifice

to him of a sheep
out), to pacify

(which they subsequently carried double crime of stealing and

him

for the

perjury."

As
of the

a typical example of devil worship, the practice

Valaiyans and
district is

Kalians of

Orattanadu
odiyan

in

the

Tanjore

described by Mr. F. R. Hemingway.*

" Valaiyan

houses have generally an

in

(Odma

Wodier) tree
believed to

the backyard, wherein the devils are

live,

and among Kalians every

street has

a tree for their accommodation.

They
district.

are propitiated

* Gazetteer of the Tanjore

89
at least
itself,

KALLAN

once a year, the more virulent under the tree

rest in the house, generally

and the

on a Friday

or

Monday.

Kalians attach importance to Friday in Adi

(July and August), the cattle Pongal day in Tai (January

and February), and Kartigai day

in

(November and December).

cooks
rice in the backyard,

month Kartigai man, with his mouth

the
it

covered with a cloth to indicate silence and purity,

and pours

out in front of

the tree, mixed with milk and jaggery (crude sugar).

Cocoanuts and toddy are also placed there.

or

These are
and

offered to the devils, represented in the form of bricks

mud images
is

placed at the foot

alight.

of the tree,

camphor

set

sheep

is

then brought and

slaughtered, and the devils are supposed to spring one

after another

from the tree into one of the bystanders.

This man then becomes filled with the divine afflatus, works himself up into a kind of frenzy, becomes the

mouthpiece of the

spirits,

pronounces their

satisfac-

tion or the reverse at the offerings,

and gives utterance

to cryptic phrases, which are held to foretell

evil

good
they

or

fortune

to

those

in

answer to

whom
The

are

made.

When
in

all

the devils in turn have spoken and

vanished, the

man
the

recovers his senses.

devils are

worshipped

same way

in the houses,

except that

no blood

is

shed.

All alike are propitiated

by animal
to

sacrifices."

The Kalians
first

are stated by Mr.

Hemingway
of two kinds.

be

very fond of bull-baiting.

This

is

The
and

resembles the

game played by
all

other castes, except

that the Kalians train their animals for the sport,

have regular meetings, at which

gate.

the villagers congretill

These begin

at Pongal,

and go on

the end of

May.

The

sport

is
it

called tolu

madu

(byre bull).

The

best animals for

are the

Pulikkolam bulls from the

KALLAN

90

Madura district. The other game is called pachal madu (leaping bull). In this, the animals are tethered
to a long rope,

and the object of the competition

it

is

to
is

throw the animal, and keep

down.

bull

which

good

at the

game, and
in

difficult to

throw, fetches a very-

high price.
It is

noted

the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district,

that

" the

Kalians

have

village

caste

panchayats
places they

(councils) of the usual kind,

but

in

some

are

discontinuino^

these in imitation of the Vellalans.

at
sit

According to the account given

Orattanadu,

the

members of Ambalakaran

families

by hereditary right
in

as Karyastans or advisers to the

headman

each

village.

One

of these households

is

considered superior to the

others,

and one of

karan) proper.
villages

members is the headman (AmbalaThe headmen of the panchayats of

its

which adjoin meet

on matters

to

form a further panchayat

to

them generally. In Kalian villages, the Kalian headman often decides disputes between members of other lower castes, and inflicts
to decide
fines

common

on the party

at fault."

In the Gazetteer, of the

Madura district,
hills.

it is

recorded

that " the organization of the Kilnad Kalians differs from that of their brethren

beyond the

Among

the

former, an hereditary headman, called the Ambalakaran,

rules in almost every village.
at

He

receives small fees

to

domestic ceremonies,
nut,

is

entitled

the

first

betel

and

and

settles caste disputes.

Fines

inflicted are

credited to the caste fund.

The western Kalians

decidino"

are

under a more monarchial

called

rule,

an hereditary headman

Tirumala Pinnai Tevan

most
(with

caste

matters.

He

is

said to get this hereditary

name from
three

the fact that his

co-adjutors) by

ancestor was appointed

King Tirumala Nayakkan, and given

91

KALLAN MUPPAN
If

many

insignia of office including a state palanquin.

his decision,

any one declines to abide by

nication
is

excommu'

pronounced by the ceremony of

which consists
for his
in

placing

the thorn,'

laying

a thorny branch

across the threshold of the recalcitrant party's house,

to signify that, to ruin

contumacy, his property

will

go
of

and be overrun with jungle.

The removal

the thorn, and the restitution of the sinner to Kalian

society

can only be procured by abject apologies to

usual

Pinnai Tevan."

Ambalakaran (president of an assembly), but some, like the Maravans and Agamudaiyans, style themselves Tevan (god) or
title

The

of

the

Kalians

is

Servaikkaran (commander).*

Kallankanadoru

(stone).

sub-division

of

Komati, said to be descended from those who sat on the

stone (kallu) mantapa outside the Penukonda

Kanya-

kamma

temple,

when

the question whether to enter the

fire-pits or

not was being discussed by the caste elders.

Kalian Muppan.
1901, Kalian

In
is

the

Madras Census Report,

Muppan

returned as "a sub-caste of the

Malabar Kammalans, the members of which are stoneworkers."

the

correspondent writes to

me

that,

" while

Kammalans are a polluting and polyandrous class, Muppans are allowed to enter the outside enclosure of temples. They do not remarry their
the Kalian

widows, and are

strictly

monogamous.
before

Their purohits
marriages.
the

are Tamil barbers,

who

officiate at their

The
conch-

barber

shaves

the

bridegroom

wedding
that of

ceremony.
shell all the

The purohit has also to blow the way from the bridegroom's house to

the bride."

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

KALLANGI

92
Kalkotti are also those by

The names Kalian and

Kallangi.

which the Malabar stone-masons are known.

and Kallaveli (Kalian's fence) are fanciful names, returned by Pallis at times of census. Kallasari (stone-workers). The occupational name

Kallangi

of a sub-division of Malayalam

Kammalans.
of

Kallatakurup.

sub-division

Ambalavasis,
play

who

sing

in

Bhagavati

temples.

They

on a

stringed instrument, called nandurini, with two strings

and a number of wooden stops glued on handle, and a wooden plectrum.

to the long

Kallu
Kallukoti

(stone).

A sub-division of Ganiga and Odde.

is

(stone-mason)

a sub-division of Malabar

Kammalans, who work

Kallukatti.

in stone.

It

is

noted,

in

the Gazetteer of the

South Canara
granite
is

district,

that " a grinding stone

made
It
is

of

an

article peculiar to

South Canara.
flat

semicircular, oval-shaped block with a

bottom, and a
It

round hole
as to

in

the middle of the surface.

has another

oval-shaped block, thin and long, with one end so shaped

fit

into the hole in the larger block.

These two
rice,

tOQ^ether

make what
is

is

known
for

as the ocrindinCT-stone of

the district, which

used for grinding curry-stuff,

wheat,

etc.

Mill-stones

pounding grain are

articles,

also

made
is

of granite.

Formerly, a class of people called

Kallukattis used to

make such

but the industry

Mile-stones,
for

now taken up by

other castes as well.

slabs for temple door-frames, idols

and other figures

temple purposes are also made of granite." Kallur. Recorded, in the Travancore
Report,
1

Census

90 1, as a name
(stone
village).

for

the

Pulikkappanikkan

sub-division of Nayar.

Kalluri
Medara.

An

exogamous sept of

93

KAMBALATTAN

Kal Tacchan

(stone-mason).

sub-division

of

Kammalan. Kalti (expunged). A degraded Paraiyan is known Amongst the Paraiyans of Madras, Chingleas a Kalti.

put and North Arcot, the rule

Is

that a
is

man who does

formally excom-

not abide by the customs of the caste

municated by a caste council.

He
i.e.,

then joins "those at

those

Vinnamangalam
himself,

"

near Vellore,

who

have, like

been driven out of the

(eagle's

caste.

Kalugunadu
Kaluthai
of Odde.

country).

An A A

exogamous
sub-division

sept of Tamil goldsmiths in the

Madura

district.

(possessors of donkeys).

Kalyanakulam (marriage
officiate as

people).

fanciful

name

returned by some Mangalas at times of census, as they

musicians at marriages.
Kurni.
in the

Kamadi (tortoise). A gotra of Kamakshiamma. Recorded,

is

North Arcot

Manual, as a sub-division of Vaniyan.

Kamakshiamma
She

the chief goddess worshipped at Conjeeveram.

and Minakshi Amma of Madura are two well-known Both names are goddesses worshipped by Saivites.

synonyms of

Parvati, the wife of Siva.

(foolish).

Kamati

carpenters, and also of

name sometimes applied to a sub-division of Okkiliyans, who

bricklayers.
is

are said to have abandoned their original occupation of

cultivating land, and

become

Kambalam.The name Kambalam

Chakkiliyan,
etc.),
is

applied to a

group of nine castes (Tottiyan, Annappan, Kappiliyan,

because at their council meetings a
spread, on which
is

blanket (kambli)

placed a brass

vessel (kalasam) filled with water,

flowers.
iySee

and decorated with

Tottiyan.)

Kambalattan.A synonym

of Tottiyan.

KAMBAN

94
title

Kamban. A
belonged.

of the Occhans, to which caste

the great Tamil epic poet

Kamban

is

reputed to have

Kambha.^Kambha
or post,

Kambhapu, meaning a pillar has been recorded as an exogamous sept of

or
collectively concerning the

Madiga and Komati.

Kamma.-^Writing
Francis states * that "

mas, Kapus or Reddis, Velamas, and Telagas,

all

KamMr. W.

four of these large castes closely

resemble one another

in

appearance and customs, and

off

seem
are

to

have branched

from one and the same

Dravidian stock.

Originally soldiers by profession, they

agriculturists

now mainly
in

and

traders,

and some of

them

the north are zamindars (land-owners).

The

Razus,

who now

claim to be Kshatriyas, were probably

descended from Kapus, Kammas, and Velamas. The Kammas and Kapus of the Madura and Tinnevelly
districts

seem

to

have followed the Vijayanagar army

south, and settled in these districts

when

the

Nayak
are less

Governors were established

strict in their

there.

Their women

deportment than those of the same castes

further north, the latter of reputations,

whom are very

case
of one

careful of their

and,

in

the

section

of the
like

Kammas,

are actually gosha

(kept in

seclusion)

Musalmanis."
Various
stories

are

current,

which point to the

the ear-ornament,

common ancestry of the The word Kamma in Telugu means

such as
is

Kammas, Kapus, and Velamas.

According to one legend

worn by women.

"the Rishis, being troubled by Rakshasas, applied to Vishnu for protection, and he referred them to Lakshmi.

The goddess gave them

a casket containing one of her

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

95
ear ornaments (kamma), and enjoined
it

KAMMA
them
to worship

hundred years. At the expiry of that period, a band of five hundred armed warriors sprang up from
for a

the casket, who, at the request of the Rishis, attacked

and destroyed the

to

giants.

After this they were directed

engage

in

agriculture,

being

promised

extensive

estates,

and the consideration paid to Kshatriyas.

They

accordingly

became possessed of large territories, such as Amravati and others in the Kistna, Nellore and other districts, and have always been most successful

agriculturists."*

Some Kammas, when questioned by Mr. F. R. Hemingway in the Godavari district, stated that they
were originally Kshatriyas, but were long ago persecuted

by a king of the family of Parikshat, because one of them

him a bastard. They sought refuge with the Kapus, who took them in, and they adopted the customs of their protectors. According to another legend, a
called

valuable ear ornament, belonging to Raja Pratapa Rudra,

fell

into the

hands of an enemy,

whom

a section of the

Kapus
feat

boldly attacked, and recovered the jewel.

This
title

earned for them and their descendants the

Kamma.

Some

of the

Kapus ran away, and they

(veli,

are

reputed to be the ancestors of the Velamas

they

away).

At the time when the Kammas and Velamas formed a

single caste,

observed the

Muhammadan gosha
kept
in

system,

whereby the women

are

seclusion.
for

This was, however, found to be very inconvenient

their agricultural pursuits.

to

abandon

it,

They accordingly determined and an agreement was drawn up on a

Those who signed
it

palm-leaf

scroll.

are said to have

to

become Kammas, and those who declined

* Manual of the North Arcot

do so

district.

KAMMA
Velamas, or outsiders.
is

96

One meaning of the word kamma

is

the palm-leaf

roll,

such as

used to produce dilatation

story,

of the lobes of the ears.

According to another

there once lived a king, Belthi Reddi by name,

who had

a large number of wives, the favourite

among whom he
were

appointed Rani.

The

other wives, being jealous, induced

their sons to steal all the jewels of the Rani, but they

caught

in the act

by the king, who on the following day

her jewels, which she could not produce.
the

asked

his wife for

Some

of the sons ran away, and gave origin to

;

Velamas

others

restored

the

kamma,

and

became

Kammas.
lost

Yet one more story. Pratapa Rudra's wife her ear ornament, and four of the king's captains
in

were sent
jewel,

search of

it.

Of

these,

one restored the

;

and

his

descendants became

Kammas

the second
;

attacked the thieves, and gave origin to the Velamas

the third ran away, and so his children

became the

ancestors of the Pakanatis

and the fourth disappeared.

Illuvellani, Godajati,
It

According to the Census Report, 1891, the main subdivisions of the

Kammas are Gampa,

Kavali, Vaduga, Pedda, and Bangaru.

that there are

would seem

two main endogamous

sections,

Gampa
is

(basket) Chatu, and

to

Goda
the
in

(wall) Chatu.

Chatu
is

said

mean a

screen or hiding place.

sections,

Concerning the origin

story
told.

of these

following

Two

sisters were bathing happened to pass by.

girls hid

a tank (pond),

when a king
wall.

To

hide themselves, one of the

behind a basket, and the other behind a

of the two sisters

The descendants

became the Gampa

and Goda Chatu Kammas, who may not intermarry by reason of their original close relationship. According
to another legend, after a desperate battle,

some members
to

of the caste escaped by hiding behind baskets, others

behind a

wall.

The terms

Illuvellani

and Pedda seem

97
be synonymous with Godachatu.
section were gosha,

KAMMA
The women
of this
in public,

and not allowed to appear

and even

at the present

day they do not go out and work

Illuvellani indicates those

freely in the fields.

The name

who do not go (vellani) out of the house (illu). The name Pedda (great) refers to the superiority of the section. Vaduga simply means Telugu, and is probably a name given by Tamilians to the Kammas who live amongst them. The name Bangaru is said to refer to the custom of the women of this sub-division wearing only gold nose ornaments (bangaramu). The Godajati sub-division is
said to be

most numerously represented

Illuvellani
in

and Chingleput, the

Anantapur.

North Arcot Kistna, Nellore and

in
is

The

Kavali

sub-division

practically

confined to the Godavari, and the Pedda to the Kistna

district.

The Vaduga Kammas

are found

chiefly

in

Coimbatore.
In his note on the Kammas of the Godavari district, Mr. Hemingway writes that " in this district they are

divided into Kavitis, Eredis,

Gampas or Gudas, Uggams,

are,

and Rachas.
ally

These

names

according to

local

accounts, derived from curious household customs, gener-

from traditional methods of carrying water.

Thus,

the Kavitis will not ordinarily carry water except in

pots on a kavidi, the Eredis except on a pack-bullock,

the

Uggams

except in pots held in the hand, and not on

the hip or head, the Rachas except in a pot carried by

two persons.
a basket.

The Gampa women, when they

first

go

to
in

their husbands' houses, take the

It is

customary presents

said that these practices are generally

observed

at the present day."

Writing

concerning

the

Iluvedalani

(Illuvellani)

Kammas,
that
" a
1 1

the editor of the Kurnool

Manual (1886)
the district.

states

few families only exist

1-7

in

The


KAMMA
women
are

98
kept
in
strict

gosha.

They

consider

it

beneath them to spin thread, or to do other work.

sub-division of this caste Hves in Pullalcheruvu,
families,

whose

work at the spindles, like other women of the country. Another class of indoor Kammas resides about Owk. They are apparently descendants of the Kammas, who followed the Naiks from Guntur to
also gosha,

Gandikota

in

the

sixteenth

century.

They

are

now
field.

reduced, and the females work, like Kapus, in the

The Gampas
by
their

are distinguished from the indoor

Kammas

women wearing
shoulder."

the cloth over the right, instead

of the

left

As with other Telugu castes, there are, among the Kammas, a number of exogamous septs or intiperu, of
which the following are examples
Anumollu, Dolichos Lablab.
Tsanda, tax or subscription,
Jasthi, too
:

Palakala, planks. Kasturi, musk.

much.

Baththala, rice.

Mallela, jasmine.

Karnam, accountant.
Irpina, combs.
gangeticiis,

Lanka, island.

Thota

kijra,

Amarantus

Gali, wind.

Komma,

horn, or branch of a tree.

field.

Dhaniala, coriander.

Cheni, dry

The Kammas
Kurunollu,
Vallotla,

also have gotras such as Chittipoola,

Kulakala,

Uppala,

Cheruku

(sugar-cane),

and Yenamalla.
matters affecting the community have to be

When
bles.

decided, a council of the leading

But, in

members thereof assem-

some places, there is a permanent headman, called Mannemantri or Chaudri. The Kammas will work as coolies in the fields, but will, on no account, engage themselves as domestic
servants.
"

They

are," the

Rev.

J.

Cain writes,* " as a

rule a fine well-built class of cultivators, very

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

proud and

99
exclusive,

KAMMA
life.

and have a great aversion to town

Many

of them never allow their wives to leave their compounds,

and

it

is

said that

many never do

field

work on Sundays,
district,

but confine themselves on that day to their house-work."

" If," a "

correspondent writes from the Kistna

in

you ask
be a

a village whether so-and-so

*

is

a Brahman,

and they say

will

No.
or

He

is

an asami (ordinary man),' he

If

you ask how many pay income-tax in a village, they may tell you two Baniyas (merchants), and two Samsari-vallu, i.e., two prosperous
Kapu.

Kamma

Kamma
"

ryots."

The Kammas

are stated

by Mr. H. A. Stuart*

to

be

most industrious and

intelligent cultivators,

who, now
all rivals

that gosha has been generally abandoned, beat

out of the field

a
a

fact

which

is

recognised by several

proverbs, such as

Kamma

vani chetulu kattina nilavadu

(though you

tie

Kamma's

hands, he will not be quiet)

Kamma vandlu cherite kadama jatula vellunu (if Kammas come in, other castes go out) Kamma variki bhumi
;

bhayapadu tunnadi

(the earth fears the

Kammas), and
proud,

many

others to the

same

effect.

In addition to being

industrious

and well-to-do

they are very

an

instance of which occurred in the Kistna district,

when

the

Revenue Settlement

Officer

offered

them

pattas,

in which they were simply called Naidu without the They refused on this account to honorific ending garu.

accept them, and finally the desired alteration was made,

as they proved that
all

of their caste were considered

entitled to the distinction.

they are not so particular,

their

North Arcot, however, though some refuse to have

In

head shaved, because they scruple to bow down Besides Vishnu the Kammas worship before a barber.

Manual

of the North Arcot district.

III-7 B

KAMMA

lOO

Ganga, because they say that long ago they fled from Northern India, to avoid the anger of a certain Raja, who had been refused a bride from among them. They were
pursued, but their women, on reaching the Mahanadi,

prayed
for

for a

passage to Ganga,
river.

who opened
Crossing,

a dry path
all

them through the

in a dholl

they

hid

themselves

[Cajanus

iiidicus) field,

and thus

escaped from their pursuers.

marriages, they
tie

For

this reason, at their

a bunch of dholl leaves to the north-

eastern post of the wedding booth, and worship

Ganga

before tying the

tali."

Among
groom
bride,
is

the

Kammas
is

of the Tamil country, the bride-

said to be

sometimes much younger than the

on record of a wife of twenty-two years of age, who used to carry her boy-husband on her
hip, as

and a case

a mother carries her child.*

in

parallel

is

to be

found

Russia,

where not very long ago grown-up

to

women were

to be seen carrying about boys of six,

whom
white,
cloths.

they were betrothed. t

Widow

remarriage

is

not

permitted.

Widows

of the

Goda chatu

section wear

and those of the

Gampa

chatu section coloured

Prior to the

betrothal ceremony,

female ancestors,

Vigneswara, and the

worshipped.

Grama Devata
home

(village deities) are

near relation of the future bridegroom

of the future bride.

proceeds, with a party, to the

On

their

way

thither,
in

they look for omens, such as the

crossing of birds

an auspicious direction.

Immesplit

diately on the occurrence of a favourable

omen, they

burn camphor, and break a cocoanut, which must

in

two with clean ed^es. One half is sent to the would-be bridegroom, and the other taken to the
* Madras Census Report, 1891.
t Hutchinson.

Marriage Customs

in

many

lands, 1897.

lOI
bride's

KAMMA
cocoanut
till

house.

If the

first

does not

split

properly,
is

others are

broken
the

the wished-for result

is

obtained.

When

girl's

house

reached, she

demands the sagunam (omen) cocoanut.

filled

Her

lap

is

with flowers, cocoanuts, turmeric, plantains, betel

leaves and areca nuts, combs, sandal paste, and coloured

powder (kunkumam).
Marriage
is

The wedding day

it

is

then

fixed.

generally celebrated at
but,
if

the house of the

bridegroom,

is

a case

of

kannikadhanam
is

(presenting the girl without claiming the bride's price),

at the

house of the
the petta

bride.

The
the

bride-price

highest in

the

Gampa

section.

On

first

day of the marriage

rites,

performed.

mugada sangyam, The new cloths for

or box-lid

ceremony

is

the bridal couple, five

plantains, nuts, and pieces of turmeric, one or

two combs,

four rupees, and the bride-price in

money

or jewels, are

placed in a box, which

contracting couple.
laid

is

placed near the parents of the

contents of the box are then

The

out on the

lid,

and examined by the sammandhis

(new relations by marriage).

groom, saying
"

The

bride's father gives

betel leaves and areca nuts to the father of the bride-

The girl is yours, and the money mine." The bridegroom's father hands them back, saying " The girl is mine, and the money yours." This is repeated three times. The officiating purohit (priest)
then announces
given
in

daughter is to be and the promise is made before the assembled Deva Brahmanas, and in the presence of light, Agni, and the Devatas. This ceremony is binding, and, should the bridegroom perthat

the

man's

marriage to

so-and-so,

chance die before the bottu (marriage badge) is tied, she becomes, and remains a widow. The milk-post is
next set up,
the marriage pots are arranged, and the
is

nalagu ceremony

performed.

This consists of the

KAMMA

102
oil,

annointing of the bridal couple with

the shoulders with turmeric
paste.
flour, or

and smearing

Acacia Concinna

A
in

barber pares the nails of the bridegroom, and

simply touches those of the bride with a

mango

leaf

some places this rite is omitted by A small wooden framework, called the Gampa section. with cotton threads wound round it, is generally dhornam,
dipped
milk.

In

tied to the

marriage pandal (booth) by a Tsakali (washerat a

man) not only

also

marriage

among

the

Kammas, but
After the

among

the Balijas,

Kapus, and Yelamas.

return of the bridal couple from bathing, the bridegroom

is

decorated, and taken to a specially prepared place

or

within

outside

the

house,

to

perform

Vira-gudi-

mokkadam,
it

or worship of heroes in their temple.

At

the spot selected a pandal has been erected, and beneath

three or five bricks, representing the heroes (viralu), are

set up.

The

bricks are smeared with turmeric paste, and

In front of the bricks an equal

painted with red dots.

number

of pots are placed, and they are worshipped by

breaking a cocoanut, and burning camphor and incense.

The bridegroom then

the pots three times.

prostrates himself before the bricks,

and, taking up a sword, cuts

some lime

fruits,

and touches

In former days, a goat or sheep

was
the

sacrificed.

The hero

worship, as performed by the

Goda

section, differs from the section.

above

rite as

practiced by

Gampa

Instead of erecting a pandal, the

G5das go to a pipal (Ficiis religiosa) tree, near which one or more daggers are placed. A yellow cotton thread is wound three or five times round the tree, which is
worshipped.
fruits

are cut.

As a substitute for animal sacrifice, lime The hero worship concluded, the wristwho
is

threads of cotton and wool (kankanam) are tied on the

bride and bridegroom,

taken to the temple after

in

he has bathed and dressed himself

new

clothes.

On

103

KAMMA
fire,

his return to the booth, the purohit lights the sacred

and the contracting couple

sit

side by side on a plank.

They then
ties the

stand, with a screen spread

between them, and

the bridegroom, with his right big toe on that of the bride,
bottu round her neck.
dais,

They then go three times

is

round the
together.

with the ends of their cloths knotted

bottu of the

The

Gampas

a concave disc of

gold, that of the

Godas a

larger

fiat disc.

On the

followis

ing day, the usual nagavali, or sacrifice to the

offered,

Devas

and a nagavali bottu (small gold

disc) tied.

All

the relations
in

make

presents to the bridal pair,

life.

who

indulge

mock

representation of domestic
is

On

the third
wrist-

day, pongal (rice)

offered to the pots,

and the

threads are removed.

Like the

Palli

bridegroom, the

Kamma

bridegroom performs a mimic ploughing cereat the

mony, but

house instead of at a tank (pond).

filled

He

goes to a basket

with earth, carrying the iron bar

of a ploughshare, an ox-goad, and rope, accompanied by

the bride carrying in her lap seeds or seedlings.

While
and
will
first-

he pretends to be ploughing, his

not
let

sister stops him,

him continue

till

he has promised to give his

in

born daughter to her son

marriage.

The marriage pots

During
not take
it

are presented to the sisters of the bridegroom.

the marriage celebration, meat must not be cooked.

Among
place
is
till

the

Kammas, consummation does

three months after the marriage ceremony, as

considered unlucky to have three heads of a family in

first

a household during the

year of marriage.

By

the

delay, the birth of a child should take place only in the

second year, so

that,

during the

first

year, there will

it

be
is

only two heads, husband and wife.

In like manner,

noted by Mr. Francis *

that,

among

the Gangimakkulu

Gazetteer of the Bellary

district.

KAMMA

104
till

and Madigas, the marriage is not consummated months after its celebration.

three

When

a pregnant

woman

is

delivered,

twigs

of

Balanites Roxburghii are placed round the house.

The dead
burnt.

are usually cremated.

is

As

the

moment

of

death approaches, a cocoanut

broken, and camphor

together.

The thumbs and great A woman, who is

The
corpse
is

toes of the corpse are tied

left

a widow, exchanges

betel with her

his

dead husband, and the

women

put rice into

mouth.
bier,

carried to the burning-ground

on a

with the head towards the house.

When

it

approaches a spot called Arichandra's temple, the bier

placed on the ground, and food
corners.
"
I

is

is

placed at the four

Then
first
I

a Paraiyan or Mala repeats the formula

am

the

born

{i.e.,

the representative of the oldest

at the outset.
I I

caste).

wore the sacred thread

(or

am
its

Sangu Paraiyan
Arichandra.

Reddi-Mala).

was the patron of

it

Lift the corpse,

and turn

round with

head towards the smasanam (burning-ground), and

towards the house."

feet

When

the corpse has been laid on

it,

the pyre, the relations throw rice over

and the chief

mourner goes three times round the pyre, carrying on his shoulder a pot of water, in which a barber makes holes. During the third turn he lights the pyre, and throwing

down

the pot, goes off to bathe.

is

On

the following day,

a stone
his last,

placed on the spot where the deceased breathed

his clothes are put close to
it.

and

The women
cooked

pour milk over the stone, and

rice,

offer milk, cocoanuts,

betel,

etc.,

to

it.

These are taken by the males

to the burning-ground.

When

Arichandra's temple

is

reached, they place there a small quantity of food on a

leaf.

At the burning-ground, the

leaf.

fire

is

extinguished,

and the charred bones are collected, and placed on a

plantain

Out

of the ashes they

make an

effigy

on

I05

KAMMA
offered on

the ground,

to
is

which food

is

four leaves,

one of which

placed on the

abdomen

of the figure, and

it.

the other three are set by the side of

The

first

of

these is taken by the Paraiyan, and the others are given to a barber, washerman, and Panisavan (a mendicant caste). The final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) are

performed on the sixteenth day. They commence with the punyaham, or purificatory ceremony, and the giving
of presents to Brahmans.

Inside the house, the dead

person's clothes are worshipped by the

women.
in

The

widow
bottu
is

is

taken to a tank or well, where her nagavali

removed.

This usually wears out

a very short

new one is worn for the purpose of the death ceremony. The males proceed to a tank, and make an
time, so a
effigy

on the ground, near which three small stones are

set up.

On
rice,

these libations of water are poured, and

vegetables,
etc.,

cooked

are

offered.

The

chief

mourner then goes into the water, carrying the effigy, which is thrown in, and dives as many times as there have been days between the funeral and the karmandhiram.

The ceremony

closes with the

Brahmans and agnates.

bottu
is

making of presents to the Towards evening, the widow sits

first

on a small quantity of rice on the ground, and her marriage removed.

The Kammas perform a

annual

ceremony, but not a regular sradh afterwards.*

As
of

regards their religion, some

Kammas

are Saivites,

others Vaishnavites.

Most of the

Saivites are disciples

Aradhya Brahmans, and the Vaishnavites of Vaishnava Brahmans or Satanis. The Gampas reverence Draupadi, Mannarsami, Gangamma, Ankamma, and Padavetiamma; the Godas Poleramma, Veikandla Thalli (the thousandeyed goddess) and Padavetiamma.

* Gazetteer of the Ananlapur district.

KAMMA

I06
(ear ornament).

Kamma
Motati Kapu.

An

exogamous sept of

Kammalan

(Tamil).
to
in

The original form of the name

e.g.,

Kammalan appears
both of which occur

have been Kannalan or Kannalar,

Tamil poems,

Thondamandala

Satakam and Er Ezhuvathu, attributed to the celebrated Kannalan denotes one who rules the poet Kamban. one who gives the eye. When an image is made, eye, or Towards its consecration takes place at the temple.
the close of the ceremonial, the

Kammalan who made

to those

it

comes forward, and carves out the eyes of the image.

The name
articles,

is

said

also to

refer

and open the eyes of the people,

who make i.e., who make

articles pleasing to the eyes.

very interesting account of the netra mangalya, or

ceremony of painting the eyes of images, as performed by craftsmen in Ceylon, has been published by Mr. A. K.

Coomaraswamy.* Therein he writes that most important ceremony connected with

and decoration of a vihara (temple), or with

''

by

far the

the building
renovation,

its

was the actual netj^a mangalya or eye ceremonial. The ceremony had to be performed in the case of any image, whether set up in a vihara or not. Even in the case of flat paintings it was necessary. D. S. Muhandiram, when making for me a book of drawings of gods according
to the

Rupavaliya,

left

the

eyes to be subsequently

inserted on a suitable auspicious occasion, with

some

simpler form of the ceremony described.

"
'

Knox

has a reference to

the subject as follows.

will

Some, being devoutly disposed,

whereof they

make
charge.

the image

of this god (Buddha) at their

own

For the
the

making

must bountifully

reward

* Mediaeval Sinhalese Art.

lo;

KAMMALAN
it is

Founder.

Before the eyes are made,

not accounted a

god, but a lump of ordinary metal, and thrown about the

shop with no more regard than anything

the eyes are to be made, the artificer
gratification,

else.

But,

is

to

have a

when good

besides

the

first

agreed

upon

reward.

The
then,

eyes being formed,

it is

thenceforward a god.

And

being brought with honour from the workman's

it

shop,

is

dedicated by solemnities and sacrifices, and

its

carried with great state into

shrine or
it.'

little

house,
pupils

which

is

before built and prepared for

"

The

of the eyes of a series of clay votive offerings, which

were specially made

potter's

for

me, were not painted at the

house, but in the verandah of the traveller's bungalow where I was staying. The Tamil Kammalans are divided into three endogamous territorial groups, Pandya, Sozia (or Chola),

and

Kongan. The Pandyas live principally Madura and Tinnevelly districts, and the Sozias
districts,

in

the

in

the

Trichinopoly, Tanjore,

Chingleput, North and South

Arcot

chiefly in the

and Madras. The Koneas are found Salem and Coimbatore districts. In some
still

places, there are

origin.

further sub-divisions of territorial

Thus, the Pandya Tattans

are

divided

into

Karakattar, Vambanattar, Pennaikku-akkarayar (those on the other side of the Pennaiyar river), Munnuruvittukarar (those of the three hundred families),
forth.

and so
septs,
e.g.,

They

are further divided into

exogamous
from places,

the

names

of which
Musiri,

are

derived

Perugumani,

Oryanadu,
are

Thiruchendurai,

and

Kalagunadu.

The Kammalans
sections, viz.,

made up of five occupational Tattan (goldsmith), Kannan (brass-smith),

Tac'chan (carpenter), Kal-Tac'chan (stone-mason), and Kollan or Karuman (blacksmith). The name Panchala,

KAMMALAN
which
is

io8

sometimes used by the Tamil as well as the

classes,

Canarese artisan
occupations.

has reference to the fivefold

The

various sections intermarry, but the

in

goldsmiths have, especially

with the blacksmiths.
will

towns, ceased to intermarry

claiming, as

The Kammalans,
to

be seen

later

on,

be Brahmans, have adopted

five sections

Brahmanical g5tras, and the

have

five

g5tras called Visvagu, Janagha, Ahima, Janardana, and

Ubhendra,
gotras,
it

after certain Rishis (sages).

is

Each

of these

said,
it.

has

twenty-five subordinate

gotras

attached to

The names

of these, however, are not

forthcoming, and indeed, except some individuals

act as priests for the

who
have

Kammalans, few seem

to

any knowledge of them.

In their marriages the

Kam-

malans closely imitate the Brahmanical ceremonial, and

the ceremonies last for three or five days according to

the

ineans of the
is

parties.

The

parisam,

or

bride's

money,

paid, as

among

other non-Brahmanical castes.

Widows
betel,

are allowed the use of ordinary jewelry and

is

which

not the case

among Brahmans, and

they

the feasts

make the usual fasts, or observe commonly observed by Brahmans. The Kammalan caste is highly organised, and its oroanisation is one of its most interesting!' features. Each
are not compelled to of the five divisions has at
its

head a Nattamaikkaran or
officer,

headman, and a Karyasthan, or chief executive

division.

under him, who are elected by members of the particular

Over them

is

the Anjivittu

Nattamaikkaran

(also
jati

known

as Ainduvittu Periyathanakkaran or Anji-

Nattamaikkaran),

tives

who is elected by lot by representachosen from among the five sub-divisions. Each
chooses ten persons to represent
it

of these
election.

at

the

These ten again

select

one of their number,

who

is

the local Nattamaikkaran, or one

who

is

likely to

KAMMALANS,

109

K AM M ALAN
meet on an
of

become

so.

The

five

men

thus selected
at

appointed day,

with the castemen,

the temple of

the caste goddess the five

Kamakshi Amman.
slips,

The names

men

are written on five slips of paper, which,

together with some blank

shrine of the goddess.

are thrown before the

A
is

child,

taken at random from

the assembled crowd,

made
is

to pick

up the

slips,

and

he whose name

first

turns up

proclaimed as Anjivlttu
is

Nattamaikkaran, and a big turban

the caste priest.
is

tied

on his head by
Kattaradu, and

This

is

called

Uruma

symbolic of his having been appointed the general head

of the caste.

Lots are then drawn, to decide which of

the remaining four shall be the Anjivittu Karyasthan

of the newly-elected chief.

At the conclusion of the

first

ceremony, betel leaf and areca nut are given

the

to

new

officers,

then to the local

spectators.
is

officers,
this,

and

finally to

the assembled

With
the

the installation

ceremony, which

called pattam-kattaradu,
for

comes
is,

to
if

an end.
necessary,

The money
is

expenses thereof

taken from the funds of the temple, but a

generally

special collection

made

for the

occasion,

and
full

is,

it

is

said,

responded to with
is

alacrity.

The
are

Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran

theoretically invested with

all

powers over the

caste,

and

members thereof
is

expected to obey his orders.

of
civil

He

the final adjudicator

and matrimonial causes. The divisional heads have power to decide such causes, and they report their

decisions to the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran,

who

generally

confirms them.

If,

for

any reason, the parties concerned

do not agree

to abide

by the decision, they are advised

one of the established courts.

to take their cause to

The

Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran has at times to nominate, and

always the right to confirm or not, the selection of the

divisional heads.

In conjunction with the Karyasthan

kammAlan
and the
local heads,

iio

he

may

appoint Nattamaikkarans
places,

and Karyasthans to particular powers to them. This is done

is

and delegate

his

in places

where the caste

In this con-

represented in considerable numbers, as at Sholavandan

in

and Vattalagundu

the

nection, a quaint custom

who
the

The Pallans, known as " the sons of the caste " in villages of Madura and Tinnevelly districts, are called together,
noted. are
is

Madura may be

district.

and informed that a particular village

about to be con-

verted into a local Anjivlttu Nattanmai, and that they

must possess a Nattamaikkaran and Karyasthan for themselves. These are nominated in practice by the Pallans,
and the
nomination
is

confirmed

by

the

Anjivlttu

Nattamaikkaran.

From

that day, they have a right to get

new ploughs from the Kalians free of charge, and give them in return a portion of the produce of the land. The local Nattamaikkarans are practically under the
control of the

Karyasthan of the Anjivlttu Nattamaik-

bound down this official, who possesses great power to and influence with the community. The local officials may be removed from office by the Anjivlttu Natta,maikkaran or his Karyasthan, but this is rarely done, and only when, for any valid reason, the sub-divisions insist on it. The mode of resigning office is for the Nattamaikkaran or Karyasthan to bring betel leaf and areca nut, lay them
karan, and, as the phrase goes, they are "
"

the words of

before the Anjivlttu Nattamaikkaran, or his Karyasthan, and prostrate himself in front of him. There is a

tendency

for the various offices to

become

hereditary,

provided those succeeding to them are rich and respected

by the community.
his

The

Anjivlttu Nattamaikkaran

is

entitled to the first betel at caste weddings,

even outside

own jurisdiction.

His powers are

in striking contrast

with those of the caste Guru,

who

resides in Tinnevelly,

Ill

kammAlan

and occasionally travels northwards. He purifies, it is said, those who are charged with drinking intoxicating
liquor, eating flesh, or crossing the sea,
if

such persons

subject themselves to his jurisdiction.

If

they do not, he

does not even exercise the power of excommunication,

which he nominally possesses.

a Grihastha or householder.
to castemen,

He is not He marries

a Sanyasi, but
his

daughters
in

though he refrains from eating

are, as a rule,

their

houses.

The dead
to.

buried in a sitting posture,

is

but, at the present day,

cremation

sometimes resorted
other non-BrahIt
is

Death

pollution, as

among some

manical castes, lasts for sixteen days.

usual for a

Pandaram
first

to officiate at the death ceremonies.

On

the

day,

the corpse

Is

anointed with

oil,

and given

a soap-nut bath.

On

the third day, five lingams are

in the four

made
is

with mud, of which four are placed

corners at
fifth

the spot where the corpse was burled, and the

to

Food Is distributed on the fifth day Pandarams and the castemen. Sradh (annual death ceremony) is not as a rule performed, except in some of
placed in the centre.

the larger towns.

The Kammalans
Brahman
favourite
religion,

profess

the

Saiva

form

of the

and reverence greatly

Pillalyar,

the

son of Siva.

few have come under the

however, has
its

Lingayat influence.
special

The

caste,

own

goddess

spoken of as
all

Kamakshi Amma, who Is commonly VrlththI Daivam. She is worshipped by

She is represented by the firepot and which the castemen work, and presides
all

the sub-divisions, and female children are frequently

after her.

named

bellows-fire at

over them.

On

auspicious occasions, the

first

betel

and dakshina (present of money) are

and sent to the pujari

set apart in her

name,

(priest) of the local

temple dedicated

KAMMALAN
to her.

112
In

Oaths are taken

her name,

and disputes

affecting the caste are settled before her temple.

There
is

also elections to caste offices are held.

The

exact connot

nection of the goddess

Kamakshi with the

caste

There is, however, a vague tradition that she was one of the virgins who committed suicide by throwing herself into a fire, and was in consequence deified.
known.

(grama devata) are worshipped, and, though the Kammiilans profess

Various
village

goddesses

also
to

be

vegetarians, animal sacrifices are offered to them.

Among

these deities are the Saptha

Kannimar

or seven virgins,

Kochade Periyandavan, and Periya Nayanar. Those who worship the Saptha Kannimar are known by the name of Madavaguppu, or the division that worships the mothers. Those who revere the other two deities mentioned are called Nadlka Vamsathal, or those descended
from

men who, through

the

seven virgins,

attained
to

eternal bliss.

corruption of

Kochade Periyandavan is said Or Jate Periya Pandyan, meaning

be a

the great

Pandya with the single lock. He is regarded as Vishnu, and Periya Nayanar is held to be a manifestation of Siva. The former is said to have been the person who invited the Tattans (who called themselves Pandya Tattans) to
settle in his

kingdom.

It is

traditionally stated that they

in the

emigrated from the north, and settled

Tinnevelly
districts.

Madura and
honour of

An
is

annual festival

in

Kochade Periyandavan
expenses
raised
in

held in these districts, for the

subscription
festival
is

connection with which a

the five sub-divisions.

among
is

The

lasts

over three days.

deified king

On

the

first

day, the image of the

anointed with water, and a mixture of the

integrifolid),

juices of the

mango, jak {^Artocarpus

and

plantain, called
is

muppala

pujai.

On the

second day, rice

boiled,

and offered

to the god, and,

on the

last day,

113

KAMMALAN
This
festival
is

a healthy ram
to be
evils

is

sacrificed to him.

said

held, in order to secure the caste as a

whole against

that
kill,

might overtake

it.

Tac'chans (carpenters)

whenever they commence the woodwork of a new house, and smear

usually
or cut the ear of a or sheep,

ram

the blood of the animal on a pillar or wall of the house.

The Kammalans
claim

claim to be descended from Visvain

karma, the architect of the gods, and,

to be superior
to

some
the

places,
latter

Brahmans,
five sons,

calling

Go-Brahmans, and themselves Visva Brahmans.

Visva-

karma

is

said to have

had

Silpa, Tvashtra,

and Daivagna.

named Manu, Maya, These five sons were

the originators of the five crafts, which their descendants

severally follow.

Accordingly, some engage in smithy

work, and are called

Manus

others, in their turn, devote

These are named Mayas. Others again, who work at stone-carving, are known as Those who do metal work are Tvashtras, and Silpis. those who are engaged in making jewelry are known as
their attention to carpentry.

Visvagnas or Daivagnas.
origin of the

According

to

one story of the

Kammalans, they are the descendants of Hence the issue of a Brahman and a Beri Chetti woman. the proverb that the Kammalans and the Beri Chettis
are
one.

Another

story,
is

recorded in the Mackenzie

all

manuscripts, which
is

current

over the Tamil country,

briefly as follows.

In the

town of Mandapuri, the

all

Kammalans

of the five divisions formerly lived closely

united together.

They were employed by

sorts of

people, as there were no other artificers in the country,

and charged very high rates for their wares. They This offended the kings feared and respected no king.
of the country,
in

which the
in-8

who combined against them. As the fort Kammalans concealed themselves, called
all

Kantakkottai, was entirely constructed of loadstone,

KAMMALAN

14
it.

the weapons were drawn away by

The king then

promised a big reward to anyone who would burn down

the
fort,

and

at length the

Deva-dasis (courtesans) of
this,

a temple undertook to do

and took betel and nut

in signification of their promise.

The king

built a fort

for

them opposite Kantakk5ttai, and they

attracted

the

Kammalans by their singing, and had children by them. One of the Deva-dasis at length succeeded in extracting from a young Kammalan the secret that, if the fort was
surrounded with varaghu straw and
set

on

fire,

it

would

be destroyed.

The king ordered

Kammalans

that this should be done,

and, in attempting to escape from the sudden conflagration,

some

of the

lost their lives.

Others

reached the ships, and escaped by sea, or were captured

and put

to

death.
in

In consequence of this,

artificers

ceased to exist

the country.

One pregnant Kammalan

in

woman, however, took refuge

Chetti,
his

the house of a Beri

and escaped decapitation by being passed off as daughter. The country was sorely troubled owing to
deal.

the want of artificers, and agriculture, manufactures, and

weaving suffered a great

to

One

of the kings wanted

know if any Kammalan escaped the general destruction,

and sent round his kingdom a piece of coral possessing a tortuous aperture running through it, and a piece
of thread.

big reward was promised to anyone

in

who

should succeed

passing the thread through the

coral.
in the

At

last,

the boy born of the

Kammalan woman
it.

Chetti's house undertook to do

He

placed the coral

over the mouth of an ant-hole, and, having steeped the

thread
hole.
in sugar, laid

The

ants

some distance from the took the thread, and drew it through
it

down

at

the coral.

The

king, being pleased with the boy, sent

to do.

him

presents,

and gave him more work

This he
satisfied

performed with the assistance of his mother, and

115 the king.

kammAlan

The
for

king,

having sent
of his birth.
for

however, grew suspicious, and, the Chetti, enquired concerning the

boy's parentage.

The Chetti thereon detailed the story The king provided him with the means
large scale,

making ploughshares on a

and got him

gifts of

married to the daughter of a Chetti, and made

land for the maintenance of the couple.

The

Chetti
five

woman
caste.
tar,

bore him

five

sons,

who
title

followed the

branches of work

now

carried out by the

Kammalan
They now
of
to

The king gave them

other,

the

of Panchayudhat-

or those of the five kinds of weapons.

and,

intermarry with each

as children of the

Chetti caste, wear the sacred thread.

the caste

The members
to have

who

fled

by sea are said

gone

China,

or,

according to another version, to Chingala-

dvlpam, or Ceylon, where Kammalans are found at the In connection with the above story, it may present day.

be noted

that,

though ordinarily two

different castes

do

not live in the same house, yet Beri Chettis and

Kam-

There is a close connection between the Kammalans and Acharapakam Chettis,

malans so
live together.

who
dead

are a section of the Beri Chetti caste.

;

Kammalans

and Acharapakam Chettis interdine

in a sitting
is

both bury their

posture

and the

used by both

alike in size

(marriage badge) and make, and unlike that

tali

used by the generality of the Beri Chetti

caste.

The

Acharapakam Chettis
and are considered
Chettis
to

are

known

as

Malighe Chettis,
children,

be the descendants of those Beri

the

who brought up
with them.

intermarried

Kammalan Even now, in

the notice

and
of

the

city

Madras, when the Beri Chettis assemble

action

for the trans-

of caste

business,

summoning
etc.,

the

meeting excludes the Malighe Chettis, who can neither

vote nor receive votes at elections, meetings,
iii-Sb

of the

KAMMALAN
right to.
It
is

ii6

Kandasami temple, which every other Beri Chetti has a

may be noted

that the Deva-dasis,

whose treachery

said to have led to the destruction of the

Kammalan
The

caste,

were Kaikolans by

caste,

and that

their illegitimate

children, like their progenitors,

became weavers.
or

weavers of South India, according to old Tamil poems,

were formerly included

caste.
"^

in the

Kammiyan

Kammalan

Several inscriptions show that, as late as 1013

A.D., the

Kammalans were

treated as an inferior caste,

and, in consequence, were confined to particular parts of

villages. t

later inscription gives

an order of one of

the Chola

kings that they should be permitted to blow

" It

conches, and beat drums at their weddings and funerals,

wear sandals, and plaster difficult," Mr. H. A. Stuart

low position held by the

their

houses. J
" to

is

not

writes,

account
for
it

for the

Kammalans,

must be

remembered

that, in

those early times, the military castes

in India, as elsewhere,

looked

labour, whether skilled or

down upon all engaged in otherwise. With the decline

it

of the military power, however,

ful caste like
its

was natural

that a use-

the

Kammalans should

generally improve

position,

and the reaction from

their long oppression

has led them to

make

the exaggerated claims described

above, which are ridiculed by every other caste, high

or low."

The

claims here referred to are that they are

descended from Visvakarma, the architect of the gods,

and are Brahmans. From a note by Mr. F. R. Hemingway,

that

gather

the

friendship

between the Muhammadans and

each other mani (paternal uncle)

Kammalans, who

call

* Maduraikanchi, Line 521. t E. HuUzsch. X Ibid. Ill,

i,

South Indian Inscriptions,

47, 1899.

II,

i,

44, 46, 1891.

Madras Census Report,

1S91.

Il7
" originated in the fact that a holy

KAMMALAN
Muhammadan, named the house of a Kam-

Ibrahim Nabi, was brought up

in

malan, because his father was afraid that he would be

killed

by a Hindu king named Namaduta, who had been

which was about to
grave his
befall his

advised by his soothsayers that he would thus avoid a

disaster,

kingdom.

The
in
is

Kammalan
exchange.

dauohter to the father of Ibrahim

told

Another story (only

castle,

by Kammalans)

to the effect that the

magnetic
the

Kammalans were once living in a called Kanda Kottai, which could only
it it

be destroyed by burning

with varagu straw

and that

Musalmans captured

by sending Musalman pros-

titutes into the town, to

wheedle the secret out of the

Kammalans. The friendship, according to the story, sprang up because the Kammalans consorted with the Musalman women."
to

The Kammalans belong to the left hand, as opposed the rioht hand faction. The orioin of this distinction
is

of castes
version,
it

lost

in

obscurity,

but,

according to one

arose out of a dispute between the

Kammalans

and Vellalas.

The

latter

claimed the former as their Jati-

pillaigal or caste

dependents, while the former claimed

the latter as their

own dependents.

The

fight

grew

so fierce that the Chola king of Conjeeveram ranged

these two castes and their followers on opposite sides,

and enquired
those
king,

into their claims.

The Kammalans, and

left

who

sided with

them, stood on the

their
allies

of the
right.

and the Vellalas and

is

on the

The king

said to have decided the case against the

in different directions.

Kammalans, who then dispersed

According to another legend, a Kammalan who had two sons, one by a Balija woman, and the other by his

was unjustly slain by a king of Conjeeveram, and was avenged by his two sons, who killed the
wife,

Kammalan

KAMMALAN
head and used

fi8

king and divided his body.

his
it

The Kammalan

son took

as a weighing pan, while the Balija

son made a pedler's carpet out of the skin, and threads

out of the sinews for stringing bangles.

A quarrel
in,

arose,

because each thought the other had got the best of

the division, and
all

the other castes joined

and took

Right hand dancing-girls, temples, and mandapams, are still in existence at Conjeeveram, and elsewhere in the Tamil country. Thus, at Tanjore, there are the
the side of either the
left

Kammalan

or the Balija.

and

Kammala

Tevadiyals, or dancing-girls.

As

the

Kam-

malans belong to the left-hand

at their houses.

section, dancing-girls of

the right-hand section will not perform before them, or

Similarly, musicians of the right-hand

section will not play in

days,

Kammalan
not

houses.

In olden
in

Kammalans were

allowed to ride

palanIf

quins through the streets of the right hands.

did,

they

a riot was the result.

Such
at

riots

were

common
to

during the eighteenth century.

Thus, Fryer refers

one of these which occurred

their

Masulipatam, when

the contumacy of the Kamsalas (Telugu artisans) led to

being put down by the other castes with the aid of

the Moors.

The Kammalans

call

themselves Achari and Paththar,

which are equivalent to the Brahman titles Acharya and Bhatta, and claim a knowledge of the Vedas. Their

own

priests officiate at marriages, funerals,

and on other

ceremonial occasions.

which they usually

They wear the sacred thread, don on the Upakarmam day, though

some observe the regular thread investiture ceremony. Most of them claim to be vegetarians. Non-Brahmans do not treat them as Brahmans. and do not salute them Their women, unlike with the namaskaram (obeisance).
those of other castes, throw the end of their body-cloth

119

KAMMALAN

over the right shoulder, and are conspicuous by the nose

ornament known as the

nattu.

In connection with the professional calling of the

Kammalans, Surgeon-Major W. R. Cornish writes

follows.*

as

"The

artisans,

who

are smiths or carpenters,

usually bring up their children to the

same

pursuits.

It

might have been supposed that the hereditary influence

in the course of generations

would have tended

it

to excelso.
is

lence in the several pursuits, but

has not been

Ordinary native work

form.

in

metal,

stone,

and wood,
ot late

coarse and rough, and the designs are of the stereotyped

The improvement

in handicraft

work

years

has

been entirely due to European

influence.

The

constructors of railways have been great educators of

artisans.

The

quality

of stone-masonry,

brick-work,

carpentry, and smith-work has vastly improved within

the last twenty years, and especially in districts where

railway works have been in progress.
silver smiths of

The gold and

and making

Southern India are a numerous body.

in setting

Their chief employment consists

native jewellery.

Some

of their designs are ingenious,

but here again the ordinary work for native customers

is

often noticeable for a

want of

finish,

and, with the

exception of a few articles

markets, there
is

made

for

the

European
artists

no evidence of progressive improve-

ment

in

design or execution.

That the native

is

are capable of improvement as a class

their skill

evident from

and ingenuity

in

copying designs set before

them, and from the excellent finish of their work under

European supervision but there must be a demand for highly finished work before the goldsmiths will have
;

generally improved.

The wearers

of jewellery in India

* Madras Census Report, 1S71.

KAMMALAN

120
article,

look more to the intrinsic value of an

than to the
that there

excellence of the design or workmanship.

is

So

very

little

encouragement
in

for artistic display."

collection

of silver jewelry at the

The Madras Museum,

which was made

artistic
skill

connection with the Colonial and

Recently,

Indian Exhibition, London, 1886, bears testimony to the

of the
silversmiths.

Colonel

Townshend, Superintendent of the Madras Gun Carriage Factory, has expressed his opinion* that "good as the

Bombay

smiths are, the blacksmiths of Southern India

are the best in Hindustan, and the pick of

them run

English smiths very

of outturn."

close, not

only

in skill,

but in speed

Anyone who has seen

Southern India,
idea of the
carpenters.
is

the

celebrated temples

of

for

example, the Madura and Tanjore

temples, and the carving on temple cars, can form

skill

some

of South

Indian
"

stone-masons and

The

following note on idols and idol-makers

article. f

taken

from a recent

The

idol-maker's

craft, like

most

of the other callings in this country, is

hereditary one, and a

workman who has earned some

Sthapathi,
as

reputation for himself, or has had an ancestor of renown,

is

a made

man.

The

he

is

called

in

Sanskrit, claims high social rank

atives

among

the represent-

of the artisan castes.

heavy sacred

He

does not

Of course he wears a thread, and affects Brahman ways of living. touch flesh, and liquor rarely passes down
eye and steady
calling.
first

his throat, as he recognises that a clear

hand are the

essentials of success in his

in

There are two

sorts of idols

every temple, mula-

vigrahas or stone idols which are fixed to the ground,

and utsavavigrahas or metal

idols

used

in processions.

New

Asiatic Review, Jan. 1907.

t Madras Mail, 1907.

121

KAMMx\LAN

In the worst equipped pagoda there are at least a dozen

idols
for,

of every variety.

They do duty

for generations,

though they become black and begrimed with oil and ashes, they are rarely replaced, as age and dirt but
add
to
their
sanctity.

But
or

now and then they

get

desecrated for some reason, and fresh ones have to be

installed in their stead
;

it

may be

that extensions are

made

in

the temple, and godlings in the

its

Hindu Pantheon,
till

not accommodated within

precincts
It is

then, have to

be carved and consecrated.

the
his

on such occasions that

full

hands of the

local

Sthapathi are

of work, and In the larger

workshop

is

as busy as a bee-hive.

temples, such as the one at Madura, the idols in which

are to be counted by the score, there are Sthapathis on

the establishment receiving fixed emoluments.

Despite

the smallness of the annual salary, the office of temple

Sthapathi

is

an eagerly coveted one,

for,

among other privihaving his

leges, the fortunate individual enjoys that of

workshop located
Besides, he
is

in the

temple premises, and thereby

is

secures an advertisement that

not

to be despised.

not debarred from adding to his pecuniary

outside

resources by doing
idle.

work when

his

hands are
is

Among- stone
whose

imagoes, the larcrest

demand

for

representations of Ganapati or Vignesvara (the elephant

god),

popularity
at least

extends

throughout
found

India.

Every hamlet has

most unlikely must be
so,

one

little

temple devoted to
in

his exclusive worship,

and

his shrines are

the

places.

Travellers

who have had

of

occasion
district

to pass along the

sandy roads of the Tanjore

with
the idols

familiar

the

o-od

of the

protuberant paunch, which they pass every half mile or

reposing under the shade of avenue trees with an air
other idols called into being for the purpose of

of self-satisfaction suffusing their elephantine features.

Among

KAMMALAN
wayside installation
those
of
Viran,
offerings of liquor,
in

122

Southern India, may be mentioned

godling,

the

Madura Mariamma,

who

requires

the small-pox goddess,

and the

evil spirit Sangili

Karappan.

Representations

are also carved of nagas or serpents, and installed by the dozen round
giosa).

the village asvatha tree {Fiats reli-

Almost every week, the mail steamer to Rangoon takes a heavy consignment of stone and metal idols commissioned by the South Indian settlers in Burma for purposes of domestic and public worship. The
usual posture of mulavigrahas
figure of
is

a standing one,

the

Vishnu

in

the Srirangam temple, which repre-

sents the deity as lying

exception to this
four feet,
tions.

rule.

down at full length, being an The normal height is less than

some

idols,

however, being of gigantic propor-

Considering the very crude material on which

the

he works, and the primitive methods of stone-carving

which he continues
polish.
toil

to

favour,

expert craftsman

achieves quite a surprising degree of smoothness and

It

takes

him several weeks of unremitting

satisfies

to

produce a vigraha that absolutely

I

his

critical eye.

have seen him engaged

for

hours at a

stretch on the trunk of Vignesvara or the matted tuft

of a Rishi.

The

casting of utsavavigrahas involves a

of stone

greater variety of process than the carving

figures.

The

substance

usually

employed

is

com-

pound of brass, copper and lead, small quantities of silver and gold being added, means permitting. The required fio-ure is first moulded in some plastic substance, such as

wax
clay

or tallow, and coated with a thin layer of soft wet

clay, in
is

which one or two openings are

is

left.

When

the

dry, the figure

is

placed

in

kiln,

and the red-hot

poured into the hollow created by the running out of the melted wax. The furnace is then
liquid metal


123
extinguished, the metal
clay coating removed.
left

KAMMALAN
and
solidify,

to cool

and the

crude approximation to the

is

image required
with
file

is

thus obtained, which

till

improved upon
is

and

chisel,

the

finished product

a far

more
in

artistic article

than the figure that was enclosed

thus seen that every idol
is

within the clay.

It is

made
if

one piece, but spare hands and

feet are supplied,

desired.

Whenever

necessary,

the

priest) conceals the limbs with cloth

inserting at the proper places are held in position by

little

Archaka (temple and flowers, and, pieces of wood which

screws on

numerous
fit

bits of string,

the spare parts, so as to

idol is to

in

with the posture that the

assume during any

in

particular procession."

An

association, called the

Sabha, was established

Visvakarma Kulabhimana the city of Madras by the

objects

Kammalans
and
in

in

1903.

The

thereof

were the
intellectual

advancement of the community as a whole on

guarding the
interests, welfare

industrial lines, the provision of practical

measures

and prospects of the

schools and

community, and the improvement of the arts and sciences

peculiar
to

them by opening
etc.

industrial

workshops,

Of proverbs relating to the artisan classes, the following may be noted The goldsmith who has a thousand persons to
:

answer.
job,

This
to
in

in reference to

the delay in finishing a

owing

his

taking

more orders than he can

of fine

accomplish

a given time.

gold,

The goldsmith knows what ornaments are i.e., knows who are the rich men of a place.
It

must

either be with the goldsmith, or in the pot

i.e.,
it

in

which he melts gold,

will
is

be found somewhere
search of something

in the house.

Said to one

who

in

that cannot be found.

kammAlan
Goldsmiths put
If,

124
inferior
it

gold into the refining-pot.

successful,

pour

into a

mould;

if

not,

pour

it

into the melting pot.

The Rev. H. Jensen explains*

it.

that the goldsmith examines the gold after melting

If
it

is

free

from dross, he pours

it

it

into the
pot.

mould

if it

is still

impure,

goes back into the

The goldsmith will even his own mother. Stolen gold may be
in his fire-pot.

steal a quarter of the gold of

either with the goldsmith, or

If the ear of the

cow

of a

Kammalan
in
it.

is

cut

and

examined, some wax

the

will

be found

It is

said that

Kammalan
for gold,

is

in the

habit of substituting sealing-

wax
lan.

and thus cheating people. The proverb warns them not to accept even a cow from a KammaOr, according to another explanation, a

Kamma-

lan

made a figure of Brahman purchased

a cow, which was so lifelike that a

it

as a live animal with his hard-

earned money, and, discovering his mistake, went mad.

Since that time, people were warned
to

examine an
off"

animal
its

offered

for sale

by Kammalans by cutting
is

ears.

variant of the proverb

that,

though you
its

buy a Kammalan's cow only

will

after cutting

ears,

he

have put red wax

they
will

in its ears (so that, if

fiesh).

they are cut

into,

look like red

What
Said of a
fitted for.

has a dog to do

in

a blacksmith's shop
is

man who

attempts to do work he

not

When
he
will raise

the blacksmith sees that the

iron

is soft,

himself to the stroke.

Will the blacksmith be alarmed at the sound of a

hammer

* Classified

Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897, from which

some of the

proverbs quoted are taken.

125

KAMMALAN
in

When
girls.

a child

is

born

a blacksmith's

family,

sugar must be dealt out in the street of the dancing-

This has reference to the legendary relation of

Kaik5lans.
shop,

the

Kammalans and

A
donkeys

blacksmith's
roll

and

the

place

in

which
to

themselves, are alike.

carpenters

The
relegated,

and

blacksmiths
village

are

be
the

i.e.,

to

the part of the

called

Kammalacheri.

What

if

the carpenter's wife has

refer

become a widow

This would seem to

to

the

former

practice of

widow remarriage.

The

carpenter wants (his wood) too long, and the

i.e.,

blacksmith wants (his iron) too short,

a carpenter

can easily shorten a piece of wood,

easily

and a blacksmith can

he buys

hammer

out a piece of iron.

When
is

Kammalan buys
it

cloth, the stuff

so thin that

does not hide the hair on his

(Malayalam). "

legs.

Kammalan
referred to

The Kammalans
like

of

Malabar," Mr. Francis writes,* "are artisans,

those

immediately above, but they take a lower

the

position than

Kammalans and Kamsalas

Brahmans
or

of the

other coast, or the Panchalas of the Canarese country.

They do
thread,

wear the sacred and they accept the position of a polluting caste,
not claim to be

not being allowed into the temples or into

houses.

Brahman

The

highest sub-division

is

Asari, the
at

men

of

which are carpenters, and wear the thread ceremonies connected with house-buildino."
According to Mr. F. Fawcett
of classes of
" the

certain

orthodox number

Kammalans

is

five.

But the artisans do

not admit that the workers in leather belong to the

Madras Census Report, 1901.


KAMMALAN
guild,

126
classes.

and say that there are only four

fifth

According

was composed of coppersmiths, who, after the exodus, remained in Izhuva land, and did not return thence with them to Malabar.* Nevertheless,
to them, the class

Kudi Kammalans. The carpenters say that eighteen families of their community remained behind in
or five-house

they always speak of themselves as the Ayen

Izhuva land.

Some

of these returned long afterwards,

but they were not allowed to rejoin the caste.

are

They

known

as

Puzhi Tachan or sand carpenters, and

eighteen people.

There are four families of this class now living at or near Parpan They are carpenters, but the Asaris treat them gadi.
Pathinettanmar or the
as outcastes."

For the following note on Malabar Kammalans

indebted to Mr. S. Appadorai Iyer.
classes, or

am

The

five

artisan

Ayinkudi Kammalans, are made up of the

Karuman, blacksmiths.
Chembotti
or

following

Asari, carpenters.

Musari, braziers.
Tattan, goldsmiths.

Chempotti,

coppersmiths.
is

The name Chembotti copper, and kotti, he who

to

derived

from
are,

chembu,
according

beats.

They
in

Mr.

Francis,

"

coppersmiths

Malabar,

who

are

They are supposed to be descendants of men who made copper idols for temples, and so rank above the Kammalans in social
distinct

from the Malabar Kammalans.

position,

and about equally with the lower sections of

will not

the Nayars."

The Kammalans
or Tandans.

condescend to eat food

at

the hands of Kurups, Tolkollans, Pulluvans,

Mannans,

But a Tandan thinks

it

equally beneath

See the legendary story narrated in the article on Tiyans,

127
his dio-nity to

KAMMALAN
from a

accept food

Kammalan.

The
in
is

Kammalans believe themselves to be

indigenous

Malabar, and boast that their system of polyandry

the

result of the sojourn of the exiled Pandavas, with their

common

wife

Panchali,

and

their

mother Kunthi,

in

the forest of the Walluvanad division.

the destruction of the Pandavas

They

say that

was attempted in the Arakkuparamba amsam of this division, and that the Tac'chans (artisans) were given as a reward by the Kurus
the enjoyment of Tacchanattukara amsam.
further that the

They

state

Pandus

lived for

some

time at the village

of Bhimanad, and went to the Attapadi valley, where

they deposited their cooking utensils at the spot where

the water
falls

from a height of several hundred

is

feet.

This portion of the river

called Kuntipuzha, and the

noise of the water, said to be falling on the upset utensils,

is

heard at a great distance.

The Kammalans, male and

and
their

female, dress like Nayars,

to those of the

ornaments are almost similar

in

Nayars, with this difference, that the female Tattan

wears a single chittu or ring

are required throughout. of the building.
raised,

the right ear only.

In the building of a house, the services of the Asari

He

it

is

who draws
is

the plan

And, when a door

fixed or

beam
of a

he receives his perquisite.

is

The completion

by a kutti-poosa, For this ceremony, the owner of the house has to supply the
house
signified as a rule

workmen with

at least four goats to

be sacrificed at the

four corners thereof, a

number

of fowls to be killed so

that the blood may be smeared on the walls and ceiling, and an ample meal with liquor. The feast concluded,

the
silk

workmen

receive presents of rings, gold ear-rings,

cloths, of

and other

which the Moothasari or chief

lion's

carpenter

receives

the

share.

"

The

village

KAMMALAN
carpenter,"

128

Mr. Gopal Panikkar writes, * " has to do everything connected with our architecture, such as
fixing poles or wickets at the exact spot

where buildings

are to be erected, and clearing newly erected buildings

and demons that may be haunting them. This he does by means of pujas (worship) performed
of
all

devils

after the completion of the building.

But people have

begun

to

entrust architectural
village carpenter
It is
is

break through the village traditions, and to work to competent hands, when the
found incompetent for the same."
t that " in

noted by Canter Visscher

commencing

the building of a house, the

first

prop must be put up

as possible, and put
;

on the east

side.

The

carpenters open three or four

little

cocoanuts, spilling the juice as

some
will

tips of betel leaves into

them

and, from the

way
for a

these float in the liquid, they foretell whether the house

be lucky or unlucky, whether

it

will

stand
will

long or short period, and whether another

erected on
its site.
I

ever be

have been told that the heathens

say that the destruction of fort Paponetti by our arms

was

foretold

by the builders from these auguries."

is

The

blacksmith

employed

in

the manufacture of

locks and keys, and ornamental iron and brasswork for

the houses of the rich.

hut,

The smithy

is

near the dwelling

and the wife blows the bellows.

The

smith makes

tyres for wheels, spades, choppers, knives, sickles, iron

spoons, ploughshares, shoes for cattle and horses, etc.

These he takes to the nearest market, and sells there. In some places there are clever smiths, who make
excellent chellams (betel boxes) of brass, and there
is

one man
pens.

at

Walluvanad who even makes stylographic

* Malabar and

its

Folk, 1900.

f Letters from Malabar.

129

K AM M ALAN
and makes
for
all

The Musari works

of household
utensils,
is

in bell-metal,

kinds

and large vessels

cooking
with
In

purposes.

He

an adept at making such

articles

the proper proportions of copper,

lead and brass.

some of
cooking

the houses of the wealthier classes there are

utensils,

which cost nearly a thousand rupees.

Excellent bell-metal articles are

made

at Cherpalcheri,
is

and Kunhimangalam
for its bell-metal

in

North Malabar

celebrated

lamps.

The

importation of enamelled
in

and aluminium

vessels,

and lamps made

Europe, has

made such
declining.

inroads into the metal industry of the district

that the brazier and blacksmith find their occupation

The
worn by
It is

o'oldsmith
Malaialis.

makes all kinds of Sfold ornaments His lot is better than that of the

other artisan classes.

noted

report that "

Calicut,

Malabar Marriage Commission's among carpenters and blacksmiths in the

in the

Walluvanad and Ponnani

taluks, several brothers

have one wife between them, although the son succeeds

the father amongst them."

Polyandry of the fraternal

type

is

said to be

most prevalent among the blacksmiths,

and have to
economy.

who

lead the most precarious existence,

strictest

observe the
tali-kettu

As

with the Nayars, the

kalyanam has

to be celebrated.

For

this the

parents of the child have to find a suitable manavalan

or bridegroom

by the consultation of horoscopes.

is

An

auspicious day
to the

fixed,

manavalan.

and new cloths are presented The girl bathes, and puts on new

clothes.

She and the manavalan are conducted to a pandal (booth), where the tali-tying ceremony takes place. This concluded, the manavalan takes a thread from the new cloth, and breaks it in two, saying that his union with the girl has ceased. He then walks away
111-9

KAMMALAN
without looking" back.

130

When a Kammalan
for

contemplates

matrimony, his parents look out

a suitable bride.

They are received by the girl's parents, and enquiries are made concerning her. The visit is twice repeated, and, when an arrangement has been arrived at, the village
astrologer
is

summoned, and the horoscopes

It is

of the
if

contracting parties are consulted.

sufficient

the

horoscope of one of the sons agrees with that of the

girl.

The

parents of the sons deposit as earnest money, or

four, eight, twelve, or
in

achcharapanam,
the village
bride,

twenty-one fanams
presented to the
the sons.

according to their means,

;

the presence of the artisans of

is

and a new cloth (kacha)

which the
girl,

who

thus becomes the wife of

all

are instances in

after

There the achcharam

clothes

marriage,

is

immediately taken to the husband's house.

All the brother-husbands, dressed in

new

and

decorated with ornaments,

with a new palmyra leaf

in

umbrella
house,

in the

hand,

come

procession to the bride's

where they are received by her parents and and escorted to the marriage pandal. The bride and bridegrooms sit in a row, and the girl's parents give them fruits and sugar. This ceremony is called mathuram kotukkal. The party then adjourns to the house
friends,

of the bridegrooms where a feast

is

held, in the course

is

of which a ceremony called pal kotukkal

performed.
in a vessel,

The

priest of the

Kammalans

takes

some milk

and pours it into the mouths of the bride and bridegrooms, who are seated, the eldest on the right, the others During the in ord-er of seniority, and lastly the bride.
nuptials

the

parents of the bride have to present a

water-vessel, lamp, eating dish, cooking vessel, spittoon,

and a vessel

for

drawing water from the

well.

The

eldest brother cohabits with the bride

on the wedding

day, and special days are set apart for each brother.

131

KAMMALAN
the

There seems
that, the

to be a belief

among

Kammalan women

more husbands they have, the greater

If

their happiness.

will be one of the brothers, on the ground

of incompatibility of temper,
is

brings a

new

wife,

she
In

privileged to cohabit with the other brothers.

cases, a girl will
five,

some

have brothers ranging

in

age

from twenty-five to

whom

she has to regard as

her husband, so that by the time the youngest reaches

puberty she
has to

and a young man perform the duties of a husband with a woman

well over thirty,

may be

who

is

twice his age.

w^oman becomes pregnant before the achchara kalyanam has been performed, her parents are obliged
If a

to satisfy the

community
their

that her condition

by a man of
girl.

own
is

caste,

was caused and he has to marry the

is

If the paternity

cannot be traced, a council

turned out of the caste.

held,

and the woman

In the
is

sixth or eighth

month

of pregnancy, the

woman

taken

where the first confinement takes During her stay there the pulikudi ceremony is The husbands come, and present their wife performed.
to her mother's house,
place.

with a

new

cloth.

branch of a tamarind tree

is

planted in the yard

of the house, and, in the

presence of
gives

the relations, the brother of the pregnant

woman

mixed with the juices of the tamarind, Spondias mangife^'a and Hibiscus^ to drink. The customary feast then takes place. A barber
her conji
(rice

gruel)

woman (Mannathi)
day

acts as midwife.

On

the fourteenth

after childbirth,

the Thali-kurup

sprinkles

water
with

over the woman, and the Mannathi gives her a newly-

washed cloth

to wear.

Purification concludes

bath on the fifteenth day.

placed in
111-9 B

On
and

the twenty-eighth day

place.

the child-naming ceremony takes

is its

The
it

infant

father's lap,

in front of

are set a

KAMMALAN
measure of
leaf.

132

and paddy (unhusked rice) on a plantain brass lamp is raised, and a cocoanut broken.
rice

The worship named after

sixth
place.

of Ganesa takes place, and the child

its

is

grandfather or grandmother.
rice-giving
life

In

the

month the choronu or

In the
first

year of the

ceremony takes of a boy the ears are

In the case of a

pierced,
girl,

and gold ear-rings

inserted.

the ear-boring ceremony takes place in the sixth or

seventh year.

The

right nostril of girls

therein.
in

is

also bored,

and mukkuthi worn

It
is

recorded,

the Gazetteer of Malabar, that,

"amongst
is

Kammalans,

the

betrothal
If

similar to that of the Tiyans.

to

ceremony is more than one brother

her mother asks

be married, to the same

girl,

how many bridegrooms

there are,

and

replies

that

there are mats and planks for so many.

Cohabitation

sometimes begins from the night of the betrothal, the eldest brother having the priority, and the rest in
order of seniority on introduction by the bride's brother.

becomes pregnant, the formal marriage must be celebrated before the pregnancy has advanced At the formal marriage, the bridegrooms six months.
If

the

girl

are received by the bride's mother and brothers

two

planks are placed before a lighted lamp, before which

the

bridegrooms

and the
bride
is

bride's

brothers

prostrate
cloth,

themselves.

The

dressed in a

new

and

brought down by the bridegroom's

sweetmeats.
"

sister

and fed with

Next day all the bridegroom's party visit the Tandan of the bride's desam (village), who has to give them arrack (liquor) and meat, receiving in his turn a
present of two fanams (money).
is is

The

next day the bride

again feasted in her house by the bridegrooms, and

given her dowry consisting of four metal plates, one

133
spittoon, one kindi (metal vessel),

KAMMALAN
and a bell-metal lamp.
of the parties and

The whole
their

party then goes to the bridegroom's house,

titles

where the Tandan proclaims the

desam.
All the brothers

who

are to share in the

marriage

sit in

a row on a mat with the bride on the

all

extreme
of
all

left,

and

drink cocoanut milk.

is

The presence
sufficient
if

the bridegrooms
for the

essential at this final ceremony,

it is

though
eldest

preceding formalities

the

is

present."

The Kammalans burn

bury the young.

the

corpses

of adults, and
is

Fifteen days' pollution

observed,

and

at

the

expiration thereof the

Thai kiirup pours

water, and purification takes place.

On
is

the third day

collected,

the bones of the cremated corpse are

and

placed in a

new earthen
(makes

pot,

which

buried in the
of the sons

grounds of the house of the deceased.

performs
beli

One

offerings),

(hair-growing) for a year.

and observes diksha The bones are then carried to

in
in

Tirunavaya
Perur
in

in

Ponnani, Tiruvilamala

Cochin
the

territory,

Coimbatore, or Tirunelli

Wynad, and
If

thrown into the river. A final the sradh memorial ceremony

deceased was skilled
thereto,
his ghost
is

beli is
is

performed, and
the

celebrated.

in sorcery,

believed to

was due haunt the house, and

or his death
it,

trouble the inmates.

To appease

the village washerand,

man (Mannan)
means of members
murthi or
be
his

is

brought with his drums,

by

songs, forces the devil into one of the

of the household,
evil
spirit
is

who

is

made

to say

what

possesses him, and

how

it

should

satisfied.

It

then appeased with

the sacrifice of

a fowl, and drinking the juice of tender cocoanuts.

further
to
it

demand

in

must have a place consigned the house or grounds, and be worshipped once
is

that

it

a year.

Accordingly, seven days

later,

a small stool


KAMMALAN
representing the deceased
1 34

is

placed in a corner of one of

the rooms, and there worshipped annually with offerings

of cocoanuts, toddy, arrack, and fowls. of In the grounds

some houses

small shrines, erected to the

seen.

memory

of

the dead,

may be

These are opened once a

year,

and offerings made

as

to them.

The Kammalans worship

Thikutti,
Parakutti,

various minor deities, such

Bairavan,

Kala

and

others.

Some
the

only worship stone

images erected under trees

annually.

They have barbers of their own, of whom Mannan shaves the men, and the Mannathi the

women.

These individuals are not admitted into the Mannan caste, which follows the more honourable profession of washing clothes. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the following sub-castes of Malabar Kammalans are recorded Kalian Muppanand Kallukkotti (stone-workers), Kotton (brass-smith), Pon Chetti (gold merchant), and PuliIn the Cochin Census Report, 1901, it asari (masons).
:

is

stated

that
viz.,

" the

Kammalans

are divided

into six

sub-castes,

Marasari (carpenter), Kallasari (mason),

Kollan
(blacksmith),

Musari
smith),

(brazier),

Tattan (gold-

and Tolkollan (leather-worker).

five interdine,

the
is

first

and intermarry.

Of these six, The Tolkollan

earlier stages
is

considered a degraded caste, probably on account

its

of his working in leather, which in

an unholy substance.
allow
the

The
even

other sub-castes do
to

not

Tolkollans

touch them.

Among
by other
not
generally

the Marasaris are included the Marasaris proper and

Tacchans.

The Tacchans

are looked upon

castes in the group as a separate caste, and are

allowed to touch them.

follow the

All the sub-castes

makkathayam law of inheritance, but there are some vestiges of marumakkathayam also among them.

135

KAMMALAN
Kuruppu, who are
their

There

is

a sub-caste called

barbers and priests.

They
work

officiate as priest at

marriage

and funeral ceremonies.

shrine of temples for

When
in

they enter the interior

connection with the image

of a god, or with the temple flagstaff, the Asari and

Musari temporarily wear a sacred thread, which

privilege.

is

a rare

Their approach within a radius of twenty-

four feet pollutes Brahmans.

building,

On

the completion of a

the Marasari,

Kallasari and

Kollan perform

certain

pujas,

and

sacrifice

a fowl or sheep to drive

to

out the

demons and
the
I

devils

which are supposed

on
the

have
of

haunted the house

till

then."

For
"

following

note

Kammalans

Travancore,

am

indebted to Mr. N. Subramania Aiyar.

The

titles

of the Malayalam

Kammalans

are Panikkan

The word Panikkan means a worker, and Kanakkan is the title given to a few old and respectable Kammalas in every village, who superintend the work of others, and receive the- highest remuneration.
and Kanakkan.
It is

their business to sketch the plan of a building,

rite.

and

preside at the vastubali

Many

Tamil Kammalans

have

naturalised

themselves on the west coast,

and

speak Malayalam.

Between them and the Malayalam

Kammalans neither intermarriage nor interdining obtains. The latter are divided into five classes, viz., Asari or
Marapanikkan (workers
(workers
in stone),
in

wood), Kalian or Kallasari

Musari (braziers and coppersmiths),

in iron).

Tattan (goldsmiths), and Kollan (workers

these the Jatinirnaya and
a
sixth
class,
is

To

Keralaviseshamahatmya add

the
to

Tacchan or Irchchakollan,
fell

whose

occupation

trees
as

Tacchans are

also

known

saw timber. The Villasans (bowmen), as they

and
for

were formerly required to supply bows and arrows the Travancore army.

KAMMALAN
classes of

36
five

Epigraphic records point to the existence of the

Kammalans

in

Malabar

at least as early as

the beginning of the ninth century A.D., as a Syrian

Christian grant refers to

them

as Aimvazhi

Kammalas.

There

is

a tradition that they were brought to Kerala

by Parasu Rama, but left in a body for Ceylon on being pressed by one of the early Perumal satraps of Cranganur to marry into the washerman caste, after they had
by a special arrangement of the marriage shed trapped to death a large number of that obnoxious community.

The King

was requested, as an act of international courtesy, to send back some of the Kammalans. As, however, they were loth to return to their former persecutor, they were sent in charge of some
of Ceylon

by Canter Visscher, who writes as follows. "In the time of Cheramperoumal, a woman belonging to the caste of the washermen, whose
in detail

Izhavas, who formed The legend is given

the military caste of the island.

house adjoined that of an Ajari (the carpenter

being occupied as usual
in

caste),

washing a cloth

in

water

mixed with ashes (which is here used for soap), and having no one at hand to hold the other end of it, called to a young daughter of the Ajari, who was alone in the house, to assist her. The child, not knowing that this was an infringement of the laws of her caste, did as she was requested, and then went home. The washerwoman was emboldened by this affair to enter the Ajari's house a few days afterwards and, upon the latter demanding angrily how she dared to cross his threshold, the woman answered scornfully that he belonged now to the same caste as she did, since his daughter had helped
;

to hold her cloth.

The

Ajari, learning the disgrace that

had befallen him,

killed the

washerwoman.

Upon

this,

her friends complained to Cheramperoumal,

who espoused

137
their cause,

KAMMALAN
;

and threatened the carpenters

whereupon

the latter

combined together

to take refuge in Ceylon,

where they were favourably received by the King of Candy, for whom the Malabars have great veneration.

Cheramperoumal was placed

could build a house or

in

great embarrassment
in his

by their departure, having no one

dominions who

make

a spoon, and begged the

King of Candy
no
in

to

send them back, promising to do them

but asked the king to send them

injury.

The

Ajaris would not place entire confidence

these

promises,

with two Chegos (Chogans) and their wives, to witness

Cheramperoumal's conduct towards them, and

them.

to protect

The king granted

their request, with the stipula-

tion that on all high occasions, such as

weddings and

deaths and other ceremonies, the Ajaris should bestow

three measures of rice on each of these

Chegos and
;

their descendants as a tribute for their protection

custom which
afford

still

exists.

If
still

the Ajari

is

too poor to

the

outlay,

he
of

is

obliged
is

to

present the

requisite
to

quantity
;

rice,

which

then given back

him again
"

the privilege of the

Chegos being thus

maintained.

The Kammalans

are to

a few of them which language several works on architecture are

have a certain

some extent educated, and knowledge of Sanskrit, in

to

be

found.

Their houses, generally known as

kottil,

are only

low thatched sheds.

intoxicating liquors.

They

eat fish and flesh, and drink

is

Their jewelry

like that of the

Nayars, from whom, however, they are distinguished by

not wearing the nose ornaments mukkutti and gnattu.

Some

in

Central Travancore

wear
is

silver

mukkuttis.

Tattooing, once very common,

" In

going out of fashion.

timber work the Asaris excel, but the Tamil

outstripped the Tattans in gold and

Kammalans have

KAMMALAN
silver

138

work.

The
rite

house-building of the Asari has a

^uasi-reWglous aspect.

When

a temple

is built,

there

is

a preliminary
priest

known

as anujgna,
force from

when

the temple
after

transfers

spiritual

the image,

which a cow and

calf are
is

taken thrice round the temple,

to enter within for the

and the Kanakkan

purposes of work.
front of the

invited

The cow and calf are let loose in carpenter, who advances, and commences
the completion of a building, an offering
is

the work.

On

known

as

vastubali

made.

Vastu

is

believed

to

represent the deity

who
it.

presides over the house, and

the spirits inhabiting the trees which were felled for the

purpose of building

To appease
demon
is

these supernatural

powers, the figure of a

drawn with powders,

to

and the Kanakkan,

Bhadrakali,
offers

after

worshipping his tutelary deity

animal sacrifices

him

in

non-

Brahmanical houses, and vegetable

shrines and homes.

sacrifices in

Brahman

and decrepit carpenter enters within the new building, and all the doors thereof The Kanakkan from without asks whether are closed.
old

An

he has inspected everything, and

shortcomings,
jubilant cry
is

is

prepared to hold

himself responsible for any architectural or structural

and he

replies
all

in

the affirmative.

then raised by

the assembled Asaris.

Few

carpenters are willing to undertake this dangerous

it

errand, as

is

supposed that the

short

are sure to

make

dissatisfied demons work of the man who accepts

the responsibility.

The

figure
until

is

next effaced, and no

auspicious

one enters the house

milk-boiling.
'*

the

hour

of

Vilkuruppu or Vilkollakkuruppu, who used formerly

for the

to

supply bows and arrows

Malabar army, are

the recognised priests and barbers of the Kammalans.

They

still

make and

present bows and arrows at the

139

KAMMALAN

Onam
trained

festival.

In

some places the Kammalans have

members

of their

own

caste

to

perform the
unlike the

priestly offices.

The Malayala Kammalans,

Tamils, are not a thread-wearing class, but sometimes

put

on a thread when they work in temples or at images. They worship Kali, Matan, and other divinities.
Unlike the Tamil Kammalans, they are a polluting
but,
class,

when they have

their

working tools with them, they

are less objectionable.

In

some

places,

as in

South

Travancore, they are generally regarded as higher in

rank than the Izhavas, though this

"

is

not universal.

The tali-kettu ceremony is cancelled by a ceremony called vazhippu, by which all connection between the tali-tier and the girl is extinguished. The wedding
same as that of the Izhavas, and is known as the minnu (that which shines). The system of inheritance is makkathayam. It is naturally curious that, among a makkathayam community, paternal polyis

ornament

exactly the

andry should have been the rule till

says Mateer,
is
'

lately.

'

The

custom,'

of one

woman
castes.

having several husbands

Several
brothers
single

sometimes practiced by carpenters, stone-masons, and

of

individuals

other

living
for

together

are

unable

to

support

wife
all.

each, and take one,

who

resides with

them

The
in

children

are

reckoned to belong to each brother

succession in the order of seniority.'

But

this, after all,

admits of explanation.

If
is

only the

marumakkathayam
it

system of inheritance
necessary institution
times, and

taken, as

should be, as a
in

in

a society

living

troublous

among

had duties and

line,

risks

community whose male members which would not ordinarily permit

of the family being perpetuated solely through the male

and not indicating any paternal uncertainty as some theorists would have it and if polyandry, which is much
;

KAMMARA

140

more recent than the marumakkathayam

inheritance,
is

system

of

recognised to be the deplorable result of

indigence,
bestiality,

individual

and

national,

and not of sexual

there

is

no

difficulty in

understanding

how a

makkathayam community can be polyandrous. Further, the manners of the Kammalars lend a negative support to the origin just indicated by the marumakkathayam
system of inheritance even

among

the Nayars.

The

work of the Kammalars was within doors and at home, not even in a large factory where power-appliances may
lend an element of risk, for which reason they found
it

quite possible to keep up lineage in the paternal line,

which the fighting Nayars could not possibly do.

the fact

And

that the marumakkathayam system was ordained

only for the Kshatriyas, and for the fighting races, and
not for the religious and industrial classes, deserves to

be specially noted
section of the

in this

connection."
are
the

Kammara. The Kammaras

blacksmith

Telugu Kamsalas, whose services are in great demand by the cultivator, whose agricultural implements have to be made, and constantly repaired. It
is

noted, in the Bellary Gazetteer, that "until recently

the manufacture of the huge shallow iron pans, in which

was a considerable industry at Kamalapuram. The iron was brought by pack bullocks from Jambunath Konda, the dome-shaped hill at the Hospet end of the Sandur range, and was smelted and
the sugar-cane
is

boiled,

worked by men of the Kammara

caste.

Of

late years,

the cheaper English iron has completely ousted the

country product, the smelting industry

is

dead, and the

Kammaras

confine themselves to

making and mending

the boilers with English material.

of their own, dedicated
to Kali, in

They have a temple

the village, where the

worship

is

conducted by one of themselves."

The name

141

KAMSALA

Kammara, meaning outside blacksmiths, is applied Kamsala blacksmiths, who occupy a lowly position, to and work in the open air or outside a village.*
Baita

Kammiyan.

Kampa
Yerukala.

A Tamil name An (bush of

thorns).

for blacksmiths.

exogamous sept of

Kampo. In
the

the Manual of the

Ganjam

district,

Kampos

are described as Oriya agriculturists.

1901, the

In

the Madras Census Report, as an Oriya form of Kapu.

Savaras,

name
is

is

taken

Kampu

the

who have adopted

the customs of the

name for Hindu

Kampos.

The Kamsalas, or, as they are someKamsaras, are the Telugu equivalent of the times Tamil Kammalans. They are found northward as far

Kamsala.
called,

as

Berhampore

in

Ganjam.

According

to tradition, as

narrated In the note on Kammalans, they emigrated to

the districts in which they

now

live

on the disruption

of their caste by a certain king.

The Kamsalas

of

Vizagapatam, where they are numerically strong, say that, during the reign of a Chola king, their ancestors
claimed equality with
king,
fled

Brahmans.

This offended the

and he ordered their destruction. The Kamsalas northward, and some escaped death by taking shelter

with people of the

Ozu

caste.

As an acknowledgment
some of them have
Lakkozu, Kattozu,
such as
e.g.,

of their gratitude to their protectors,

Ozu added
Patozu, etc.

to their

house-names,

The Kamsalas have

lans,

territorial sub-divisions,
etc.

Murikinadu, Pakinadu, Dravida,

they have
five

Like the

Kamma-

occupational sections, called Kamsali

(goldsmiths), Kanchari or Musari (brass-smiths), Vadrangi

Madras Census Report, 1901.

KAMSALA
(carpenters),

142

and KasI or Silpi (stone-masons). In a note on the Kamsalas of the Godavari district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes that " they recognise two main divisions, called Desayi (indigenous) and Turpusakas (easterns) or immigrants from Vizagapatam.

They

sometimes
as gotras.

speak
Thus,

of their

occupational
is

sub-divisions

Sanathana

the iron, Sanaga, the

wooden, Abhonasa,

the brass, Prathanasa, the stone,

and

Suparnasa, the gold gotra."

Intermarriage takes place

between members of the

and do not care

different sections, but the gold-

smiths affect a higher social status than the blacksmiths,

to interdine or intermarry with them.

They have taken

to calling

themselves Brahmans, have

adopted Brahmanical gotras, and the Brahmanical form They quote a number of well-known of marriage rites.
verses of the Telugu poet Vemana,

who
and

satirised the

Brahmans
Sanskrit
treatises

for

their

shortcomings,

refer

to

the

Mulastambam and Silpasastram, which are on architecture. They trace their descent from
Visvakarma
first
is

Visvakarma, the architect of the gods.

said to have had
five sons, of

whom

the

was Kam-

His wife was Surelavathi, the daughter The second was Vadlacharyudu. The of Vasishta. third was Rudra or Kamcharacharya of the Abhamaracharya.

vansa gotra, whose wife was Jalavathi, the daughter

was Kasacharyudu His wife was Gunavati, the of the Prasnasa gotra. daughter of Visvavasa. The fifth was Agasalacharya or Chandra of the Suvarnasa gotra, whose wife was Saunati, Visvakarma had the daughter of Bhrigumahamuni. also five daughters, of whom Sarasvathi was married
of Paulasthya Brahma.
fourth
to

The

Brahma, Sachi Devi to Indra, Mando Dari to Ravana, and Ahalya to Gautama. Since they were married

to the devatas, their descendants acquired the title of

143

KAMSALA
umbrella,

Acharya.

The

use

of the

sacred

thread,

golden

staff,

the insignia of Garuda, and the playing of

It
is

the bheri were also allowed to them.

recorded

by the Rev,
castes

J.

Cain* that "the so-called right-hand

to

object

most strongly
to get

the

Kamsalilu being

carried in a palki (palanquin), and three years ago

some

of

them threatened

up a

little riot

on the occasion

of a marriage in the Kamsali caste.

They were deprived

the
safety

of this opportunity, for the palki was a borrowed one,

and

its

owner,

more

anxious

for

of his

property than the dignity of the Kamsali caste, recalled

the loan on the third day.

ringleader of the dis-

contented was a Madras Pariah.

The Kamsalilu were

formerly forbidden to whitewash the outside of their

houses, but municipal law has proved stronger in this
respect than Brahmanical prejudice."

The Kamsalas of Ganjam and Vizagapatam do not make such a vigorous claim to be Brahmans, as do those further south. They
the use of alcoholic liquor, and have no gotras.
also have sub-divisions

rear poultry, partake of animal food, do not prohibit

They

among them, which do

not wear

the sacred thread, and work outside the village limits.

Thus, the Karamalas are a section of blacksmiths, who

do not wear the sacred thread.

Similarly,

the Baita

Kammaras

are another section of blacksmiths,

who do
work

not w^ear the thread, and, as their

outside the village.

name

implies,

In Vizagapatam, almost the only

castes which will consent to receive food at the hands of

Kamsalas are the humble Malas and Rellis. Even the Tsakalas and Yatas will not do so. There is a popular saying that the Kamsalas are of all castes seven visses (viss, a measure of weight) less.

* Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

KAMSALA

144

In 1885, a criminal revision case

came before the

High Court

of Madras, in which a goldsmith performed

abishekam by pouring cocoanut-water over a lingam. In his judgment, one of the Judges recorded that " the facts
found are that
ist

accused, a goldsmith by caste, on the

night of the last Mahasivaratri, entered a Siva temple

at

Vizagapatam, and performed abishekam,

i.e.,

poured

cocoanut-water over the lingam, the 2nd and 3rd accused

(Brahmans) reciting mantrams (sacred formulae) while he did so. Another Brahman who was there expostulated with I St accused, telling him that he, a goldsmith,
had no right to perform abishekam himself, upon which
I

St

accused said that

fit

it

was he who made the

abishekam.

idol,

and

he was
raised,
I

to

perform

An
up,

outcry being

some other Brahmans came

in

and objected to
for the

St

accused performing abishekam, and he was turned

out,

and some ten rupees spent

ceremonies

purification of the idol.

The

2nd-class Magistrate con-

victed the

I St accused under sections 295 and 296, Indian Penal Code, and the 2nd and 3rd accused of abetment.

All these convictions were reversed on appeal by the

District

Magistrate.

There was
in

certainly

no evidence

that any of the accused voluntarily caused disturbance

to an

assembly engaged

the performance of religious

worship or religious ceremonies, and therefore a conviction under section 296 could not be supported.
to support a conviction under section 295,
it

In order

would be
the
so,

necessary for

the prosecution to prove (i) that

'

accused

'

defiled

the lingam, and (2) that he

did

knowing that a class of persons, viz., the Brahmans, would consider such defilement as an insult to their
religion.
It

may be noted

that the

ist

accused

is

person of the same religion as the

therefore,
if

Brahmans, and,
it

the act be an insult at

all,

was an

insult to

145
his

KAMSALA
was the

own

religion.

The

act of defilement alleged

performance of abishekam, or the pouring of cocoanutwater over the lingam. In itself, the act is regarded
as an act of worship
that the defilement
is

and meritorious, and

understand being

alleged to consist in the fact that

the ist accused was not a proper person

not

Brahman

to

perform such a ceremony, but that he

ought to have got some Brahman to perform it for him." The other Judge (Sir T. Muttusami Aiyar) recorded
that " in
for

many temples
it,

in this Presidency,

it is

not usual

worshippers generally to touch the idol or pour

except through persons

cocoanut-water upon

who

are

specially appointed to

do

so,

and enjoined
If the

to

observe

special rules of cleanliness.

accused knew that

is

the temple,

in
if

the case

before

us,

one of those

temples, and

he did the act imputed to him to ridicule

in

openly the established rule

regard to the purity of

it

the lingam as an object of worship,

might then be
notions of

reasonably inferred that he did the act wantonly, and

with the intention of

insultins: the reliofious

the general body of worshippers.

refers to

The Sub-Magistrate
regard to the accused's
also

no

specific

evidence
I

in

knowledge of the usage.

in

may

observe
worship.

that,

certain temples attended

by the lower
an act
of

classes, the

slaughtering
if

of
act

sheep
is

is

But,

the

same

done

in

other temples to which

it

other classes resort as places of public worship,

is

generally regarded as a gross outrage or defilement."

The High Court upheld

Magistrate.

the decision of the District

Each occupational sub-division of the Kamsalas has a headman styled Kulampedda, and occasionally the five headmen assemble for the settlement of some important
question of general interest to the community.
Ill-

10

KAMSALA

146
to

Kamsala may, according

claim
his

the custom called

menarikam,
marriage.
is

maternal uncle's
"

daughter

in

The
first

following account of the wedding rites

given

in the

Nellore Manual.

The

relations of the

bridegroom

go

to the bride's parents or guardians,

and ask their consent to the proposed union. If consent is given, a day is fixed, on which relations of the bride-

groom go

to the bride's house,

where

all

her relations

are present with cocoanuts, a cloth for the bride, betel,

turmeric, etc.

On

the

the dower

is settled.

same occasion, the amount of The bride bathes, and is adorned

etc.,

with flowers, turmeric,

and puts on the new cloth

articles

brought

for her,

and she receives the

for

which the

bridegroom's party have brought.

On

the auspicious

day appointed
palanquin.

the

marriage, the relations of the

bride go to the bridegroom's house, and fetch him in a

Brahman

is

sent

for,

who performs

the

ceremonies near the dais on which the bride and bride-

groom

are seated.

After

the recital

of the mantras

(hymns) before the young couple, he sends for their The bridegroom then ties a uncles, and blesses them.
pilgrim's cloth

upon him, places a brass water-pot on

is

his

head, holds a torn umbrella in his hands, and starts out

from the pandal (booth), and says he

pilgrimage to Benares,
after him,

going on a

when

the bride's brother runs

will

and promises that he

give his sister in

marriage,

swearing thrice to this

effect.

The

bride-

groom,

satisfied

with this promise, abandons his pretended

journey, takes off his pilgrim cloths, and gives them,

with the umbrella, to the Brahman.

The

couple seat

themselves

on the

dais,

and

the Brahman,

having

repeated some mantras, gives a sacred thread to the bride-

groom

to place over his

shoulders.

He

then blesses

the mangalasutram (marriage badge corresponding to

147
the Tamil
ties
it

KAMSALA
to the bridegroom,
his
sister

tali),

and hands
bride's

it

who
other

round the

neck,
it

or

elderly matron seeing that

bride's father

is

properly

tied.

The

comes forward, and, placing

other

his daughter's

right hand

in

the bridegroom's right, pours water on

ceremonies are exactly similar to those practiced by the Brahmans." Girls are invariably
them.
married before puberty.
remarry, and divorce
is

The

Widows
either

are

not allowed to

not recognised.

The Kamsalas
Lingayats.

are

Madhvas,

Saivites,

or

All revere
is

the caste

goddess

Kamakshi

Amma, who

represented by each sub-division in a

special manner.

Thus

the Kanchara represents her by

the stone on which he beats his metal work, the orold-

smith by one of his implements, and the blacksmith

by

his bellows.

On

the eighteenth day of the Dasara

is

festival,

an annual

festival

celebrated in honour of the

goddess.

The dead
recent years,

are buried in a

seated posture, but, in

to cremation.

some Kamsalas have taken

the

The death

rites closely follow

Brahmanical form.
are

Death pollution is observed for twelve days. In the Vizagapatam district, some artisans
engaged
in the

They manuEuropean clients fancy articles, such as chessboards, photograph frames, card-cases, trinket boxes, and so on, from tortoise-shell, horn, porcupine quills, and ivory. The industry is in a flourishing state, and
ivory-carving industry.
"

facture for

has won

many medals

at exhibitions.

It

is

stated to

have been introduced by Mr. Fane, who was Collector of the district from 1859 to 1862, and to have then been

developed by the Kamsalis, and

men

of other castes

who

eventually took
is

it

up.

The

foundation of the fancy

is

articles

usually sandal-wood, which

imported from

ni-io B

KAMSALA
Bombay.

148

Over

this

are laid porcupine quills split in

'bison,'

half and placed side by side, or thin slices of

buffalo, or stag horn, tortoise-shell, or ivory.
is

The
is

ivory

sometimes

laid

over the horn or

shell,

and

always
key-

either cut into geometrical patterns with a small

hole saw, or etched with designs representing gods and

flowers.

then
like

The etching is done with black wax is melted into the

and the

a small

tool,

and
with

design with a tool

off

a soldering iron, any excess being scraped

chisel,

result is polished with a leaf of Fictis

asperrima (the leaves of which are very rough, and used

as a substitute
for

sand-paper).

This gives a

black

design (sgraffito) on a white

ground.

The horn and

porcupine quills are obtained from the Agency, and the

tortoise-shell

and ivory mainly from Bombay through

the local Marvaris.

The
;

designs employed both

stiff,

in

the

etching and fret-work are

in

and suited rather

in its careful

to

work

metal than in ivory

and the chief merit

lies

of this
finish

Vizagapatam work perhaps

carved now, but,
in

rare quality in Indian objects of art.

the Calcutta

The ivory is rarely Museum and elsewhere,

may be

seen samples of the older Vizagapatam work,

which often contained ivory panels covered with scenes

from holy
writ,

executed
title

in

considerable relief."*
is

The
Achari.

caste

of the Kamsalas

usually Ayya,
title

but, in recent times, a

good many have taken the

The two begging castes Panasa and Runja are stated by Mr. Hemingway to be exclusively devoted to the Kamsalas. " The former," he writes, " are said to be
out-castes from the

Komati sub-division of
it

that name.
said they

Formerly

in

the service of the Nizam,

is

* Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district.

149

KANAKA

were disgraced by him, and driven to accept food of a degradinsf nature from a Kamsala. The Kamsalas
accordingly

took them under

their

protection.

The

Runjas are said to have been specially created by Siva. Siva had killed a giant named Ravundasura, and the
giant's

dying request was that his limbs might be turned

into musical instruments,

and a special caste created

created.

to

play them at the celebration of Siva's marriage.

The

Runjas

were the

caste

The god

ordered

Viswakarma, the ancestor of the Kamsalas, to support

them, and the Kamsalas say that they have inherited
the obligation."
It
is

recorded, in the Kurnool Manual, that " the

story goes that in

Golkonda a

tribe of

Komatis named

Bacheluvaru were imprisoned for non-payment of arrears

of revenue.

Finding certain
in

men

of the artificer caste,

who passed by
got
it

the street, spit

into their

chewed betel-nut, they mouths, and begged the artificers to

get them released.

arrears,

The

artificers pitied

them, paid the

and procured their

release.

It

was then that

the Kamsalis fixed a vartana or annual house fee for the maintenance of the Panasa class, on condition that

they should not beg alms from the other castes."

Kamukham

(areca-nut

Ai^eca Catechu).

tree

or kothu of Kondaiyamkottai Maravan.

Kamunchia. Recorded,
Report,
1

in

the

Madras Census
sept

90 1, as a very small class of Oriya cultivators.

{Pongamia glabra). of Koravas and Thumati Gollas.

use the
oil

Kanagu

An exogamous
The
latter

may

not

obtained from the seeds of this

tree.

The

equivalent Kanagala occurs as an

exogamous sept of

Kapu.

Kanaka. An exogamous
Nilgiris.

sept of Badagas of the

KANAKKAN

150
is

Kanakkan. Kanakkan
thereof, in the

a Tamil accountant caste,

In

corresponding to the Oriya Korono.

an account

North Arcot Manual, Mr. H. A. Stuart

writes that they are " found chiefly in the districts of

North Arcot, South Arcot, and Chingleput. The name derived from the Tamil word kanakku, which means an account. They were employed as village accountants by the ancient kings. In the inscriptions the word Karanam or Kanakkan occurs very often, and their title is invariably given as Velan, which is possibly a contracted form of Vellalan. These accountants of the Tamil districts seem to be quite distinct from those of Ganjam and other Telugu provinces (see Korono), some of whom claim to be Kshatriyas, or even Brahmans. It is true
is

that the

Karnams themselves

claim to be the sons of

Brahma, but others maintain that they are the offspring

of a Sudra

woman by
divisions,

a Vaisya.
Sir
(Sri),

The

caste

is

said to

have four
Solia.

Sarattu, Kaikatti, and

The

Sir

Karnams

are

considered of highest

rank, and are generally the most intelligent accountants, though they are sadly deficient when compared with the

Brahmans who perform the duty of keeping the village accounts above the ghats. The Kai-katti Karnams (or Karnams who show the hand) derive their name from
a peculiar custom existing
daughter-in-law
is

among them, by which

never allowed to speak to her mother-

in-law except by signs.

The reason may perhaps be

of

surmised.

The members
They wear

the

four

divisions
is

can-

not intermarry.

In their customs the caste

some-

what
of

peculiar.

the thread, disallow liquor-

drinking,

flesh-eating,

and widow

remarriage.
are

them worship

Siva, but there

Most some who are

Their
title

Vaishnavites, and a very few are Lingayats."

is Pillai.

In the records relating to the Tamil country,

151

KANAKKAN
Kanakka
For
it

Conicopoly, Conicoply, Canacappel, and other variants

appear as a corrupt form

example,
is

of

Pillai.

in

the records of Fort St.

" the

George, 1680,

noted that

Governour, accompanyed with the

Councell and several persons of the factory, attended

the Company's Peons, 300 of Pedda Naigue, the Cancoply of the the Washers, the Towne and of the grounds, went the circuit of Madras ground, which was described by the Cancoply of It is recorded by Baldaeus (1672) that the grounds."

by

six files of soldyers,

Xaverius set everywhere teachers called Canacappels.*

The

title

Conicopillay

is

still

applied to the examiner

of accounts by the Corporation of Madras.

down in the Village Officers' Manual that Karnam, who is entrusted with the keeping of village accounts, is subordinate to the Head of the villao-e. He
It is laid

" the

should help and advise the

way.

He

is

the clerk of

Head of the village in the Head of the village

every
in his

capacity of village munsif and magistrate.

He

has to
it

prepare reports, accounts, statements,

necessary to put
in

etc.,

which

is

writing."

When

sudden or un-

natural death takes place within the limits of a village,

the

Karnam takes down in writing the evidence of persons who are examined, and frames a report of the whole proceedings. He keeps the register of those who are confined, or placed in the stocks by the Head of the
village for offences of a trivial nature,

such as using
It
is

abusive language, or petty assaults or affrays.

the

Karnam who keeps

of the price of
all

the revenue accounts, and registers

kinds of grain, strangers

passing

or re-passing through the village, births and deaths,

cattle

and

mortality

when

cattle

disease,

e.g.,

anthrax or

Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson.


KANAKKAN
rinderpest, exists.
to take
1

52
it is

Further,

the duty of the

Karnam

proper care of Government survey instruments, and, when revenue survey is being carried out, to satisfy
himself that the village and
field

boundary marks are

properly erected.
In their marriage and death ceremonies, the

Kanak-

kans closely follow the Tamil Puranic type as observed by Vellalas. The Kaikatti section, however, has one peculiar custom. After the marriage ceremony, the girl
is

kept inside the house, and not allowed to move about

two or three days. She is considered some kind of pollution. It is said that, in former times, she was confined in the house for forty days, and, as occupation, had to separate dhal (peas) and rice, which had been mixed together.
freely, for at least

to be under

The

following proverbs are not complimentary to

official,
is

the Kanakkan, who, as an influential village

not always a popular individual

Though babies are want a Kanakka baby.

sold for a pie each,

we do

not

Wherever you meet with a Kanakka child or with a crow's young one, put out its eyes. In Travancore, Kanakkan is a name by which Kammalans are addressed, and a prefix to the name of Todupuzha Vellalas. It further occurs, on the west coast, as a sub-division of Cheruman or Pulayan. For the following note on the Kanakkans o f the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha
Krishna Aiyar.*

The Kanakkans belong to the slave even now attached to some landlords.

castes,

and are

In the taluks
I

of Trichur, Mukandapuram, and Cranganur, where

* Monograph, Eth. Survey of Cochin, No.

4,

1905.

153

KANAKKAN
I

obtained
they are

all

my

information about them,

learnt that

(slaves) of Chittur Manakkal Perumanom near Trichur, and they Nambudiripad at owe him a kind of allegiance. The Nambudiri landlord told me that the members of the caste, not only from

the

Atiyars

almost

all

parts of the State, but also from the British

taluks of Ponnani,

Chowghat, and even from

i.e.,

Calicut,
in

come to him with a Thirumulkazhcha,

token of their allegiance.

a few annas

This

fact

was

also confirmed

by a Kanakkanar (headman) at Cranganur, who told me that he and his castemen were the slaves of the same
landlord, though, in disputes connected with the caste,

they abide by the decision of the local Raja.

In the

event of illness or calamity in the family of a Kanakkan,

an astrologer (Kaniyan), who

cause
thereof of the

is

consulted as to the

and remedy, sometimes reminds the members

negligence
in

their allegiance

to

the

landlord, and suggests the advisability of paying respects

him (Nambikuru) with a few annas. On the Puyam day in Makaram (January- February), these people from various parts of the State present themselves in a body
to

with a few annas each, to

own

their allegiance to him.

The

following story

is

mentioned by him.
to

One

of his

ancestors
rulers

chanced to pay his respects

one of the

of the State,
in

when the

residence of the Royal

arriving near the town,

Family was

Cochin.

On

the boat capsised in a storm, but

was

luckily saved

by

the bravery of a few rowers of this caste.

The
to

Raja,
of his
enlist

who witnessed
palace,

the

incident
valour,

from a window

admired

their

and desired

some Kanakkans into his service. There are four endogamous sub-divisions among the Kanakkans, viz., Patunna, the members of which formerly worked in salt-pans, Vettuva, Chavala, and

KANAKKAN
Parattu.
(kiriyam),

154
is

Each of these

further sub-divided into clans

A
uncle,

which are exogamous. young man may marry the daughter of

but
is

his

maternal
places.

this

is

not

permissible

in

some

Marriage

both infant and adult, and

at

may be

celebrated

by Patunna Kanakkans and thirteenth years of a

kans

any time between the tenth

while the Vettuva Kanak-

girl,

may

celebrate

it

only after girls attain puberty.

They often choose the bridegroom beforehand, with the intention of performing the ceremony after puberty.

When
for

a girl attains maturity, she

is

kept apart

in

part of the house on the score of pollution, which lasts

She bathes on the fourth day. On the morning of the seventh day seven girls are invited, and they accompany the girl to a tank (pond) or a river. They all have an oil bath, after which they return home. The eirl, dressed and adorned in her best, is seated on a
seven days.

plank

in

a conspicuous part of the hut, or in a pandal

for the

(booth) put up
vessel
full

time

in front

of

it.

small

of

paddy

(nerapara),

a cocoanut, and

lighted lamp, are placed in front of her.

Her Enangan
for

begins his musical

tunes,

and continues
girl

an hour or

two, after which he takes for himself the above things,

while his wife,

who

has purified the

by sprinkling

cow-dung water, gets a few annas for her service. It is now, at the lucky moment, that the girl's mother ties the The seven girls are fed, and given tali round her neck.
an anna each. The relations, and other castemen who are
invited, are treated to a

sumptuous dinner.

The

guests

as they depart give a few annas each to the chief host,

to

meet the expenses of the ceremony and the

feast.

This old custom of mutual help prevails largely among

* Unhusked

rice.

155
the Pulayas also.

KANAKKAN
now
privileged to enter

The

girl

is

the kitchen, and discharge her domestic duties.

The

parents of the bridegroom contribute to the ceremony a

small packet of jaggery (crude sugar), a muri (piece of
cloth),

some
is

oil

and incha {Acacia

the girl

Intsia), the soft fibre

is

of which

used as soap.
If

This contribution
is

called

bhendu nyayam.

married before puberty,

and she attains her maturity during her stay with her husband, the ceremony is performed in his hut, and the
expenses are met by the parents of the bridegroom,
while those of the bride contribute a share.

When

a Vettuva

Kanakka
of

girl

comes of
is

age, the

headman (Vatikaran)
in the

the

caste

informed.
girl's

He

comes, along with his wife, to help the

parents
girls are

performance of the ceremony.

Seven

invited.

Each
as she
in

of them breaks a cocoanut, and pours the

water on the

girl's
is

head.

Water

is

also
is

poured over

her.

As soon
in

thus bathed, she

allowed to remain

a room, or

a part of the hut.

Near her are placed

full

a mirror made of metal, a vessel of paddy, a pot

water, and a lighted lamp.

of

The young man who

is

has

been chosen as her husband

girl,

invited.

He

has to

climb a cocoanut tree to pluck a tender cocoanut for the

and a

cluster of flowers.

He

then takes a meal

in

the

girl's hut,

and departs.

The same proceedings

it

are

repeated on the fourth day, and, on the seventh day, he

takes the cluster of flowers, and throws

on water.
old,

As soon

as

a young
girl

man

is

sufficiently

his
is

parents look out for a

as his wife.

When

she

chosen, the negociations leading to marriage are opened

by the father of the bridegroom, who, along with his brother-in-law and Enangan (relations by marriage), goes to the house of the bride-elect, where, in the
midst of relations and friends previously
assembled.

KANAKKAN
money
is

56

the formal arrangements are made, and a portion of the

bride's
is

also paid.

The

auspicious day for the

and the number of guests to be There is also an entertainment for invited is fixed. A similar one is also held at that are assembled. those These people are too the hut of the bridegroom-elect. poor to consult the local Kaniyan (astrologer) but, if it

wedding

settled,

is

known that the couple were born on the day of the

constellation, the

same

match

is

at

once rejected.

On

the day chosen for the celebration of the marriage, the

bridegroom, neatly dressed, and with a knife and stylus,

sets

out from his

hut,

accompanied by

his

parents,

and men of his village, to the hut of the bride, where they are welcomed, and seated on mats in a pandal (booth) put up for the occasion. The bride, somewhat veiled, is taken to the pandal and
uncles, other relatives,

seated alono- with the brideorroom, and to both of them

a sweet preparation of milk, sugar and plantain

is

fruits

given,

to establish the fact that they

wife.

have become

There is no tali-tying then. The As they take guests are treated to a sumptuous dinner. leave of the chief host, each of them pays a few annas
husband and meet the expenses of the ceremony. The bridegroom, with the bride and those who have accompanied him, returns to his hut, where some ceremonies are gone
to

through, and the guests are well

fed.

The bridegroom

and bride are seated together, and a sweet preparation is given, after which the parents and the maternal uncle
of the former, touching the heads of both, says "
son,

My
that

my

daughter,

my

nephew,

my

niece,"

meaning

the bride has become a

member

of their family.

They

throw
wife.

rice

on

their

heads as a token of their blessings

the couple live together as
is

on them.
In

After

this,

man and

some

places, marriage

performed by proxy.

157

KANAKKAN

young Vettuva Kanakkan cannot marry by proxy. Neither can the tali-tying ceremony be dispensed with. If a woman has abandoned herself to a member of
is

a lower caste, she

Christian or

put out of caste, and becomes a

Muhammadan.

Adultery

is

regarded with
a Thituram
preside at

abhorrence.

All minor offences are dealt with by the

in

headman, whose privileges are embodied

(royal order),

according to which he

may

marriage,

funeral,

and other ceremonies, and obtain

for his services.

a small fee as remuneration

use a
stick,

a stylus, and a knife lined with

He may gold. He

may wear
umbrella.
for

a white coat, turban and ear-rings, and use an

He may

also construct a shed with six posts

marriage ceremonies.

He

has to pay a tax of ten

Chittur Manakkal
the Cranganur

annas to the Sirkar (Government).

Nambudiripad
Raja

in the taluk of Talapilly,

in the taluk of

Cranganur, and His Highness the

in the settlement of

Maharaja exercise absolute powers

disputes connected with this and other castes.

The Kanakkans
witchcraft.

believe

in

magic,

sorcery,

and

Persons
they

who

practice the art are very rare

among them.
whenever

They go
require

to a Panan, Velan, or Parayan,

his
services.

They

profess

Hinduism, and worship Siva, Vishnu, Ganapathi, and

Subramania, Mukkan, Chathan, Kandakaranan, and the
spirits

of their ancestors are also adored.

Vettuva

Kanakkans do homage to Kappiri and Virabhadran also. Chathan cannot be worshipped at Cranganur, as he is
opposed to the
sacrifices

local deity.

Wooden

or brass

images of
regular

their ancestors are kept in their huts, to

whom

are

oftered

on Karkadagom, Thulam,
In
their

and
often

Makaram

Sankranthis.

compounds
tree,

is

seen a raised platform beneath a

placed a few

on which are
of the

stones representing the images

KANAKKAN

158

demons whom they much fear and respect. Sacrifices are offered to them on leaves. Patunna Kanakkans invariably bury their dead.

The
the

funeral rites are similar to those observed

by other

low castes.

Death

pollution lasts for fifteen days.

On
are

sixteenth morning,

the

hut and
relatives

compound

swept and cow-dunged.

are invited, and bring
feast.

The

and castemen
stuffs for

some

rice

and curry

Along with the chief mourner (the son of the deceased) and his brothers, they go to the nearest tank The Enangan of the family purifies or river to bathe. them by the sprinkling of cow-dung water. They return home, and those assembled are treated to a grand
dinner.

The son observes

the diksha (mourning) either

for forty-one days, or for a

whole year,
celebrated.

after

which a

grand

feast called

Masam
are

is

employed in fishing in the backwaters, cutting timber and floating it on bamboo rafts down rivers flooded during the monsoon, boating, pumping out water from rice fields by means of waterwheels, and all kinds of agricultural labour. They were at one time solely engaged in the manufacture
of salt
in

The Kanakkans

from

the backwaters.

Women
and

are
in

engaged

making

coir

(cocoanut fibre)

agricultural

labour.

\^ettuva

cultivating,

Kanakkans are engaged in cocoanut and making lime out of shells. They are
in

very

skilful

climbing cocoanut trees

for

plucking

cocoanuts.

The Kanakkans
the higher castes,

take food prepared by

members

of

Mappillas.
at

and by Kammalans, Izhuvas, and They have a strong objection to eating

VelakkaPanans.
Velans,

the

hands of Veluthedans (washermen),

(barbers),

thalavans

and Kaniyans.

Pulayas, Ulladans, and Nayadis have to stand far

away

159

KANCHUGARA
to

from them.
of 48
feet

They themselves have

from high
caste

keep

at a distance

Hindus.

They

pollute

Izhuvas by touch, and Kammalans and Valans at a

short distance.

They cannot approach

but take part
in

the temples of
of

the

higher castes,
in rural

the festivals

temples

parts.

At Cranganur, they can come

is
it,

as far as the kozhikallu, which

a stone outside the

temple

at a short distance

from

on which fowls are

of Nayars,

offered by low caste people.

Kanakku.^A

prefix to the

name

e.g.,

Kanakku Raman Krishnan, and also adopted by the Todupuzha Vellalas of Travancore.

as a prefix

Kancharan.A Malabar
which
is

caste, the occupation

of

the manufacture of brass vessels.

Kanchera. Kanchera

and Kanchari are names of

the Telugu section of metal-workers.

Kanchimandalam

Vellala.

A name assumed by
exogamous
sept
of

Malaiyalis of the Salem hills, who claim to be Vellalas who emigrated from Conjeeveram (Kanchipuram).

Kanchu
Kuruba.

(bell-metal).

An

Kansukejje

(bronze bell)

occurs as a sub-

division of Toreya.

Kanchugara.
Panchala, the

In the
is

Madras and Mysore Census

Reports, Kanchugara

recorded as a sub-division of

members
described

of which are workers in brass, of South by Mr. H. A. Stuart* as "a

copper, and bell-metal.

The Kanchugaras
They
are

Canara are

Canarese caste of brass- workers.

the Vaishnava sect, and pay special

Hindus of reverence to Venis

katramana of Tirupati.
of the

Their spiritual guru

the head

Ramachandrapuram math.

A man

cannot marry
the ordinary

within his

own

gotra or family.

They have
district.

Manual of the South Canara

KANDAPPAN

l6o
Girls

system of Inheritance through males.

Bant)
used.

must be
is

married before puberty, and the dhare form of marriage

(see
is

The marriage
is

of

widows
in

not

permitted, and divorce

allowed only

the case of are

women who have

either

proved unchaste.
or

The dead

cremated,
officiate

buried

in

recumbent posture.

Brahmans
is

as their priests.

The

use of spirituBell-metal

ous liquors, and flesh and

largely used for

fish is permitted.

making household

utensils,

such as
are

lamps, goglets, basins, jugs, etc.

facturing these articles
is

The

process of manu-

as follows.

The moulds

made
being

of clay, dried and coated with

left

wax

to the thickness

of the articles required, and

to dry again, a hole

made in them so as to allow the wax to flow After this has been done, the molten out when heated. metal is poured in. The moulds are then broken, and
the articles taken out and polished."

Kandappan. Kandulu (dal

sept of Yerukala.

A sub-division of Occhan. Cajamis An exogamous

:

indices).

Kandikattu (dal soup) occurs as an

exogamous sept of Medara.

word Kangara means servant, and the Kangaras (or Khongars) were orginally village watchmen in the Vizagapatam Agency tracts, corresponding to the Kavalgars of the Tamil country. They are described as follows by Lieutenant J. Macdonald Smith, who was Assistant Agent to the Governor in Jeypore " A Khongar, it in the sixties of the last century. seems, is nothing but a Kavilgar or village watchman.

Kangara.

The

That these people, in many parts of India, are little better than a community of thieves, is pretty well known, and what was the true nature of the system in Jeypore was very clearly brought to light in a case which was
committed to

my

Court.

It

was simply

this.

Before

l6l

KANGARA

we

entered the country, the entire police and magisof a taluk

terial authority

was lodged

in the

revenue

ameen

or renter.

Whenever

a theft occurred, and the

property was of sufficient importance to warrant the

trouble and expense, the traveller or

householder, as

the case might be, resorted at once to the ameen,

(if

who
him

sufficiently feed

by the complainant) forthwith sent

of the quarter, and desired
be.

for the

Head Khongar

to recover the

goods, whatever they might

well

The

Khongar generally knows very

where

to

lay his

hand on the property, and would come back with such portion of it as the urgency of the ameen's order seemed
to require,

while the zeal of that functionary of course

varied

in

each case, according to the extent of the

gratification the complainant

This

is

the

breadth, as

seemed disposed to give. Khongar system of Jeypore in its length and proved at the trial referred to. Wherever
itself.

a taluk
falls

is

taken up by the Police, the system of course

of

down

As

for the

Khongars, they willingly

enlist

in our

village

constabulary,

and are proving

themselves both intelligent and fearless."

Officers {1845-61)

The Meriah

remarked that the former Rajas of

Jeypore, and their subordinate chiefs, retained in their

numbers of professional robbers, called Khongars, whom they employed within the Jeypore country, and in the plains, on expeditions of rapine and
service great

bloodshed.

The Khongars were

among

generally Paidis by caste, and

their descendants are even

now
in

the

most notorious
Their

the dacoits of the Vizagapatam district. the

methods are thus described Vizagapatam district (1907).

Gazetteer of the

"

Like the Konda Doras,

they have induced some of the people to employ watch-

men

of their caste as the price of immunity from theft.

lU-II

KANGAYAN
They
and

62

are connected with the

Dombus
are
in

of the

Gunupur

taluks,

who

even worse.

Rayagada These
fifty

people dacoit houses at night

armed gangs of

or

more, with their faces blackened to prevent recognition.

Terrifying the villagers into staying quiet in their huts,

they force their way into the house of some wealthy

person

(for

choice the local

the

Sondi,

liquor-seller

and
an

sowcar *

usually

only

man worth

looting

in

Agency

village,

and a shark who gets

off

little

pity from his

neighbours when forced to disgorge),

rape the women, and go

tie

up the men,

with everything of value.

Their favourite method of extracting information regarding concealed property

is

to sprinkle the

house-owner

with boiling

oil."

Kangayan.A
Travancore.

division

of

Idaiyans

settled

in

Kaniala

(land-owners).

Kanigiri (a hill in exogamous sept of Medara.

A sub-division of Vellala. the Nellore An

district).

Kanikar.

The Kanikars, who are commonly known

Till recently they

as Kanis, are a jungle tribe inhabiting the mountains of

South Travancore.
of sending
all

were

in

the habit

their

women

into the seclusion of the

dense jungle on the arrival of a stranger near their But this is now seldom done, and some settlements.

modern times settled in the vicinity of towns, and become domesticated. The primitive short, dark-skinned and platyrhine type, though surviving, has become changed as the result of contact metamorphosis, and many leptorhine or mesorhine individuals above
Kanikars have
in

middle height are to be met with.

r_*

Money-lender.

63

KANIKAR
Nasal index.

Stature.

AV.

MAX.
170-3

MIN,
150-2

AV.

MAX,
105
90-

MIN.
72-3 70-8

Jungle

...

155-2

84-6
81-2

Domesticated

I5S7

170-4

148

The Kanikars
and
truthful.

are said to be characterised by a high

standard of honour, and to be straightforward, honest

They

are good trackers and fond of sport,

and

in clearing forest

paths they have hardly any equals.

Their help and guidance are sought by, and willingly

given to any person
the forests.

who may have

to travel

through

The jungle Kanikars have no permanent

shift

abode, but

about from one part of the forest to another.

Their

composed of lowly huts built of bamboo abandoned when they suffer from fever, and or are harassed by wild beasts, or when the soil ceases
settlements,
reeds, are
to be productive.

The settlements are generally situated,

hill

away from the

their

tracks of elephants, on steep

slopes,

which are terraced and planted with useful trees.

system of cultivation the Kanikars
forest,
first

In

clear a

patch of

and then

set fire to

it.

sown with hardly any previous

tillage.

The ground is When, after two

and follow the

or three years, the land diminishes in productiveness,

they move onto another part of the

patch of ground after another
the Kanikars have

forest,

same rough and ready method of cultivation.

is

Thus one
agricultural

used

for
is

purposes, until a whole tract of forest

cleared.

But
this

now

to a large extent

abandoned

kind of migratory cultivation, because, according to the

forest rules, forests

may

not be set

fire

to or trees felled

at the unrestricted pleasure of individuals.

They

culti-

vate various kinds of cereals and pulses, as well as tapioca

III-II B

KANIKAR
{Manikot
ganja
utilissima),

164

sweet potatoes {IpomcEa batatas),

(Indian hemp), and tobacco.

a forest block assigned to
it

Each settlement
for cultivation, with
interfere,
fell,

now has

which other tribes are not allowed to

wherein the Kanikars are allowed to

and and

clear,

grow their way of tax

in

crops.
to

They do

not pay anything in the

the Government.
visit

Once a year they go

a group to
"

the Maharaja at Trivandrum, and

he

always receives them most kindly, accepting the

in

nuzzur they offer

the shape of the

fruits,

bamboo

plantain
hill

with large though few

rice,

a parcel of Muttucheri

bamboo joints containing different varieties of honey, and virukachattam or a parcel of civet. The customary modes of court address, and the prescribed court etiquette are alike unknown to them, and the Maharaja, pleased
with their simplicity and unaffected homage, rewards

them with presents of cloth, money, salt, and tobacco, with which they return satisfied to their jungle home." The Rev. S. Mateer notes that he had difficulty in
persuading the Kanikars to part with a sucker of the

bamboo

plantain, as they fancied

it

must be reserved

for

the use of the Maharaja alone.

Some Kanikars
estates,

are engaged as coolies on planters'

and cutting bamboos for contractors, others in the manufacture of bows and Heated arrows arrows with blunt or barbed iron heads. are used by them, for hitting elephants which invade
or in felling timber
their sugar-cane or other crop,

from the safe protection

sticks
in tall trees

of a hut

built

on a platform of

of

branches or bamboo covered with leaves of Ochlandra

Travanco7Hca or other large leaves.
these huts, which are called
it
'

In connection with

anamadam

(elephant huts),

has been said

'

that " the hills

Bison {Bosga2irtts), bears,

abound with game. and sambar [Ce7'vus zmicolor)

l6s
are
frequently

KANIKAR

met with, while elephants and tigers are so numerous that the Kanikars are in some parts compelled to build their houses high up in trees. These primitive houses are quickly and easily constructed. The walls are made of bamboo, and the roof is thatched
with jungle leaves.
feet

They

are generally built about

fifty

above the ground, and are securely fastened to the branches of a substantial tree, and a crude ladder of

bamboo connects them with the ground.

inmates are safely housed
is

When
the

all

the

for the

night,

ladder

removed

aloft

out of the reach of elephants, who,

mischievously inclined, might remove the obstruction,

and leave the Kanikars to regain terra firma the best way they could." Sometimes a single bamboo, with the
shoots on the sides cut short, does duty for a ladder.
It

has been said

that,

when

the crops are ripening, the

Kanikar watchmen are always at home in their arboreal houses, with their bows and arrows, and chanting their
wild songs.

Sometimes the blunt end of an arrow is used as a twirling stick in making fire by friction, for which purpose sticks made of Grewia tili^folia, etc.,
In making
fire,

are also used.

the Kanikars " procure

is soft,

two pieces of wood, one of which

the end of the other, which
is

and contains a

small hole or hollow about half an inch deep to receive

a hard round stick about

eighteen inches long, and as thick as an ordinary ruler.

The Kanikar
it

takes this stick between the palms of his

it

hands, keeping
in

in

a vertical position, with the end of

to,

the hollow referred

and produces a quick rotary

slight pressure causes the
fluff,

and reverse motion, and with

friction necessary to

produce a quantity of

w^hich

soon ignites."

The Kanikars

are

collect honey, wax,

employed by the Government to ginger, cardamoms, dammar, and

kAnikar

i66

elephant tusks, in return for a small remuneration

as kutivaram.

known

Other occupations are trapping, capturing

tigers,

or killing elephants,

and wild

pigs,

and making

wicker-work

articles of

bamboo

or rattan.

The Rev.

S.

Mateer mentions having seen a wicker bridge, perhaps a hundred feet long, over which a pony could pass. A
tiger trap
is

said to be a

huge

affair

made

of strong

wooden
as bait.

bars, with a partition at

one end

for a live goat

The
it.

timbers thereof are supported by a spring,

fall

which, on a wild beast entering, lets

a crushing

weight on

The Kanikars wander

honey, and a resident
in

all

over the

hills in

search of
"
I

Travancore writes that

have
side,

seen a high rugged rock, only accessible on one

the other side being a sheer precipice of several hun-

dred

feet,

and

in its

deep crevices scores of bees'

for generations,

nests.

Some

of

them have been there

periodically

and the
feats
in

Kanikars perform

most daring

endeavouring to secure

at least a portion of the

honey.

On

this precipice

have seen overhanging and fluttering

in the

breeze a rattan rope,

made

in rings

and strongly

linked together, the whole forming a rope ladder several

hundred
top

feet long,

and securely fastened

to a tree at the

Only a short time ago these people made one of their usual raids on the honey
of the
precipice.
'

rock.'

One

of the tribe descended the rope ladder for a

considerable distance, with a basket fastened to his back

to receive the honey,

and carrying with him torch-wood

with which to smoke the bees out of the nests. arrived at his goal two hundred feet from the

Having
top,

and
he
a

over three hundred feet from the ground below,

ignited the torch, and, after the usual smoking process,

which took some

little

time to perform, the bees

made

hurried exit from the nests, and the Kanikar began the

l67

KANIKAR

work of destruction, and with every movement the man and the ladder swayed to and fro, as if the whole thing would collapse at any moment. However, all was safe, and, after securing as much honey as he could conHand veniently carry, he began the return journey.
and
foot

he went up ring after ring until he reached

the top in safety, performing the ascent with an air of

nonchalant ease, which would have done credit to any

steeple jack."

The honey

is

brought

for sale in

hollow

bamboo

joints.

Sometimes Kanikars come into Trivandrum, bringing with them live animals for the zoological gardens. The word Kanikaran means a hereditary proprietor of land. There is a tradition that there were once two hill kings, Sri Rangan and Virappan, whose descendants emigrated from the Pandyan territories beyond Agastya-

kutam under pressure from a superior

returned to the low country.
current

force,

and never
is

The
"

following legend

among

the

Kanikars.

The

sea

originally

covered everything, but

back, and leave bare
all

God caused the water to roll Then Parameswara the hills.

and Parvati made a man and woman, whose descendants were divided into fifty-six races, and multiplied exceedingly, so that a sore

famine invaded the land.

In those

days

men were

hunters, and lived by snaring animals

fruits off

There was no corn, for men did not know how to sow rice, and cultivate it. The cry of the famine-stricken reached Parameswara and Parvati, and they visited the earth in the form of a pair of hamsam (the bird which carries Brahma), and alighted on a kanjiram tree. While seated there, the god and goddess noticed a pair of dragon-flies, which paired together, and they too, their hearts swelling with love, embraced each other, and, taking pity on mankind,
and plucking wild
the trees.

kAnikar

i68

willed that a field of rice should sprout on the low-lying

land near the sea-shore.

The Paraiyans and

prosperous.

Pulayans,
to taste
in

who

witnessed the rice growing, were the

crop,

first

of the

and
far

became

This was

Malabar, or the

north of Travancore.

The Maharaja,

hearing of the new grain, sent seven green parrots to go

on a journey of discovery, and they returned with seven

These the Maharaja placed in a granary, and gave some to the Paraiyans to sow, and the grain miraculously increased. But the Maharaja wanted to know how it was to be cooked. The parrots were accordingly once more brought into requisition, and they flew away, and brought back eighteen varieties of cooked rice which a Paraiyan's wife had prepared. Then the Maharaja, having got some rice prepared by his cooks, fell to and eat heartily. After eating, he went into the yard to wash his hands, and, before drying them on a cloth, wrung his right hand to get the last drops
ears of rice.

of water

off.

valuable gold ring with three stones

fell

was never The Maharaja was sore distressed by his recovered. Parameswara, as some recompense, caused to loss, but, grow from the ground where the ring fell three trees which are very valuable in Travancore, and which, by the sale of their produce, would make the Maharaja wealthy and prosperous. The trees were the dammar tree, the resinous gum of which is useful in religious
therefrom, and,
itself

burying

in

the dust,

ceremonies, the sandal-wood tree so widely used for

its

perfume, and lastly

the bamboo, which

is

so useful

and
as

necessary to the well-being of the Kanikars."

The

sub-divisions

among
which

the Kanikars are

five

known

illams or families, of

are said to be endo-

gamous, and

five

exogamous.
brother-in-law

The former
illams,

are called
latter

Machchampi

or

and the

l69

KANIKAR
They
are

Annantampi
mountains
nat), etc.

or brother illams.

named
{e.g.,

after

{e.g.,

Palamala, Talamala), places

live

Vella-

The Kanikars who

south of the Kodayar

it,

river cannot

marry those living north of

the river

forming a marital boundary.

Among
faced),

names of Kanikars are Parapan (broadChanthiran (moon), Marthandan (sun), Muntan

the

(dwarf),

Kaliyan

(little

Kali),

(blue)

and Karumpi

(black).

Madan (a deity), Nili The first name is somelive.

times that of the settlement in which they

For
etc.

example, the various Mullans are known as Kuzhumbi

Mullan, Anaimalai Mullan, Chembilakayam Mullan,

The Kanikars

live

together

in

small communities

under a Muttakani or headman, who wields considerable

influence over them,

and enjoys various perquisites.

all

He
social

presides over tribal council meetings, at which

questions are discussed and settled, and fixes the time

for clearing the jungle,

sowing the seed, gathering the

etc.

harvest, worshipping the gods,

inflicted are

Fines

which are

spent in propitiating the gods.

of the Kanikars
is

The language

a dialect of Malacall

yalam, with a large admixture of Tamil, which they

Malampashai or language of the

hills.

The
the

system of inheritance
is

among

those

who

live in

hills

makkathayam (from

father to son).

But a

moiety of the personal property goes to the nephews.

With those who

and nephews.

live in the plains,

is

an equal distribution
the sons

of their self-acquired property

If there are

made between

no sons, the nephews inherit

entitled to maintenance.
is

the property, the

widow being

The
a

chief object of worship

said to be Sasthan, a

forest god.

But the Kanikars also make offerings to

of
deities,

variety

including

Amman,

Poothathan,

Vetikad Pootham, Vadamala Poothathan, and Amcala.

kAnikar
They
or

170
it

have,

has

been

said,

" certain

spots,

trees

rocks,

where
offer

their

relations

or

friends

have met
periodically

with some unusual good luck or calamity, where they

generally
their prayers.

Here they

assemble, and pray that the catastrophe that had befallen

a comrade

may

not

fall

on them, or that the blessings

which another had received may be showered on them." Generally in February a festival called kodai is held,
whereat the Kanikars assemble.

Goats and fowls are

sacrificed, and the pujari (priest) offers boiled rice and

meat

to the sylvan deities in a consecrated place.

to

The

festival,

which many come from the low country,

winds up with drinking and dancing.

musical instruments include a reed
flute

The Kanikar
or clarionet,

and men dance

hands
in

to the music, while the

it.

women

clap their

time with

gods twice a year, in the On the morning of the celebration, every family takes
rice

The Kanikars worship their months of Minam and Kanni.

of the headman.
is

and

plantains

to

the dwelling

With
men,

the exception of a small quantity which

is

set

aside, the rice

husked and ground

to

Hour by boys or

after bathing
rice
is

and washing
to

their

hands and
fields,

feet.

The

taken to a clearing

in

the

whither a

Kanikar who knows how

after bathing.

invoke

the deity comes

He

lays out a

are laid.

and spreads on each leaf a These are covered over with a plantain
little rice,

row of plantain leaves, on which plantains

leaf,

on which rice is sprinkled. then burns incense, carries

places
their
it

The
it

officiating

Kanikar

round the trophy, and

in front thereof.

All do obeisance by raising

hands to their foreheads, and pray for a fruitful Sometimes the officiating Kanikar becomes harvest.
inspired
like

a Velichapad,

and gives expression

to

oracular utterances.

At the

close of the ceremony, a

171
distribution of the rice

KANIKAR
place.

and plantains takes

rice

When

the land
is

is

to

be

cleared for cultivation, the

headman

invited to attend,

and some
hand.

and cocoanuts are

first

presented to him, which he offers up, and clears a small

portion with his

own

On

the

appearance of
in

the ears of grain, the Kanikars spend two nights

drumming, singing, and repeating mantrams

and put up a
for the

at the field,

tattu or platform

on four sticks as a shrine

rice,

spirits,

to

whom
At

they offer raw

harvest time

tender

cocoanuts, flowers, etc.

rice, plantains,
hill

sweetmeats, and flowers are offered to the various

Pey, the boundary flag demon, and others.

demons, Purcha Mallan Pey, the cat giant, Athirakodi

For the following note on a Kanikar harvest festival A. P. Smith.* It I am indebted to an article by Mr. was performed in propitiation of the Baradevata, or household gods of a house in the neighbourhood, the The ceremony is compresiding deity being Madan. monly called the feeding ceremony, and should be carried
out just before the harvesting of the grain commences.
"

The

officiating

Kani

is

generally

an

elderly

and

influential

man, who professes inspiration and knowledge

asleep.

obtained

when

The

articles necessary to

perform

the ceremony are called Paduka or sacrifice, and Ashta-

mangalyam. Paduka is for the adult gods or manes, male or female, called Chava, and Ashtamangalyam is for the virgins who have died, called Kanyakas. A temporary pavilion or pandal had been erected in
front of the house,

and from the canopy long streamers

with
their

of tender cocoanut leaves, bunches of plantains, and

tender

cocoanuts,

husk

on,

were hung.

Branches of areca nuts and flowers adorned the posts

* Malabar Quarterly Review, 1905.

kAnikar
and
betel
spots.
pillars.

172

Small heaps,

consisting

of boiled

rice,

paddy, a tender cocoanut, a sprig of areca flowers, and

were placed on plantain leaves

in

seven definite

The

officiating Kanikar,

after

formally getting
spectators,

the

permission

of

the

assembled

and
the

especially of one

who subsequently appeared on

to

scene as the chief dancer, began a monotonous chant

in

what appeared

be a mixed language.

It

was

understood to be a history of the beginning of earthly

kings, a record of the
life

and doings of departed

for,

souls,

whose protection was prayed

souls of those persons for

and a prayer
benefit the

for the

whose

ceremony

and again the feelings of the narrator or singer would overcome him,

of propitiation was in progress.

Now

and

he

would

indulge

in

shout or
for

in

emphatic

gesticulations.

This went on

about three or four

hours, punctuated at intervals by the firing of petards

or old smooth-bore guns,

and the

shrill

cries

of the

women.

Before the chanting terminated, a large heap

of the red flowers of Ixora coccinea (thetti pu), about a

yard square at the base, had been raised

of the pandal, and
it

in the centre

was

prettily

picked out with areca

horrible sound of a

flowers in artistic designs.

The

human

voice roaring like a wild beast aroused every one

to a sense of activity.

From behind

the hut

came the

man
hair
like

already mentioned, very

primitively

clothed, his

hanging

loose, his eyes staring,

and what appeared

foam

at

his
sit,

mouth.

He

distances, leap,

agitate his

would stand, run short body, and dance, keeping

so.

step to the rhythmic

and muflled beating of the drum.

minutes or
Suddenly, with a

This he did

for ten

shout, he dived into the hut specially set apart as the

feeding place of the god Madan, and presently appeared

with two long sticks adorned at their ends with

bells,

173

KANIKAR

which emitted a jingling sound. The frenzy of motion, ecstatic, unregulated and ungovernable, was apparently
infectious, for a

of the scene,

young man, hitherto a silent spectator gave a shout, and began to dance wildly,

throwing up his arms, and stepping out quite actively.

This encouragement stimulated the original performer,

and he caught a man standing near by the neck, thrust

the stick with the bells into his hand, and he thereupon
started

dancing as

well.

In about ten

minutes there

were some half a dozen wild dancing dervishes, shouting,

gesticulating, revolving,
state of excitement.

and most certainly

in

an

abnormal
heap of

A dying

but

still

glowing

and ashes became the centre of attraction, for the chief dancer danced over the fire, and sent the sparks flying, and scattered the wood, and evoked the
fire

admiration and eulogies of the crowd.

perspiration, spotted with ashes, wild,

Streaming with
dishevelled and

exhausted, the chief dancing demoniac stepped under

the pandal, and finally sat himself before the heap of red
flowers,

and tossed the blossoms over

bath.

his
in

head
this

in

a kind

of shower

He

was assisted

by the old

Kanikar and other bystanders.

his christening

little

boy was brought

before him, and he called the lad by a name.

ceremony,

from that time.

This was assumed the name The chief dancer then stood up, and
for the lad
in

appeared to be
rooster

still

a possessed state.
its

fine old

was brought, and

to the dancer,

throat cut.

handed
audibly.

who

applied his lips

It was then to the gaping

wound, and drained the blood, swallowing the

fluid

Before relinquishing his hold of the bird, he swayed and fell on the ground in what seemed to be a swoon. This indicated that the sacrifice had been acceptable, that the propitiation was perfected, and that
all

the wishes of the persons interested in

them would

KANIKAR
be granted.

174

The crowd then

set to eating

and druiking

the sacrificial elements, and dispersed."

Both adult and who had married

that this
is

infant marriage are practiced.

infants,'

Those

'

on being questioned, stated

the safest course, as grown-up brides some-

times run away to their parents' house, whereas younger

girls

get accustomed to their husbands' home.

within a

On

fixed day,

month of the marriage ceremony,

four Kanikars,

accompanied by a boy carrying betel

leaves and areca nuts, go to the

home of

the future bride,

and present them and

to the families of the settlement.

all

On

the wedding morning,

assemble at a pandal (booth),

the bridegroom distributes pan-supari (betel leaf and

areca nuts).

His

sister

then brings forward the bride,

and the bridegroom presents her with a cloth, which she Bride, bridegroom, and a young boy, then puts on.
stand on a mat beneath the pandal, and the bridegroom
ties the

minnu (marriage badge) round the neck of the

she
is

bride
the

if

an

infant.

If

she

is

an adult, he places
it is

minnu

in front of

her neck, on which

is

tied

by

his

sister.

plantain leaf

then placed

in front of the

bridal couple,

and curry and

rice served thereon

by

their

The two women then take hold of the bride's and press it seven times towards her husband's head, This ceremony concluded, the young boy shoulders. takes a small quantity of the curry and rice, and puts bridegroom seven times. The it in the mouth of the
mothers.

bridegroom's younger brother then

the bride.

gives a morsel to

The

ceremonial

terminates with

feast.

The dowry
grain,
offers

includes billhooks, brass vessels, choppers,

and pulses.

The headman,
to
wife.

according to Mateer,

some advice management of his

the

husband

concerning the
of his discourse
:

The heads

are arranged under the following heads

teaching

by

175
words,
pinching,
if

kAnikar

and blows, and casting the woman

is

away

at last,

she

not obedient.

In the remarriage of

widows, the bridegroom simply gives the

her family, takes her to his

woman

a pair
of

of cloths, and, with the consent of the male

members

home.

During the seventh month of pregnancy, a woman has to perform a ceremony called vaguthu pongal.

Seven pots are placed on seven hearths, and, when the rice placed therein has boiled, the woman salutes it, and According to Mateer " the all present partake thereof. ceremony practised on the occasion of pregnancy is
called

vayaru pongal, when boiled

First they

rice

is

offered

to

the sun.
setting
it

mould an image of Ganesha, and,

in a suitable place, boil the rice.

rice,

To

this they
rice,

add

for

an offering aval or flattened

plantain
fruits,

parched

cakes,

young cocoanuts, and tender

same palm, with the flowers of the areca then commences dancing, and He waves the offerings to the repeating mantrams. On first giving rice to a child, a feast is held, and sun.
leaves of the

palm.

The headman

an offering presented to the jungle demons." Concerning the death ceremonies, Mateer writes that " when any one is taken ill, the headman is at once
consulted.

He
is

visits the

sick

person, and orders two

to be performed.

drumming and singing ceremonies

whole night
spent
in

dancing, singing, drumming, and

prayers for the recovery of the patient.

consist of tapioca, flour

The

offerings
articles.

and cocoanuts, and other

After some time the headman, with manifestations of demoniac possession, reveals whether the sufferer will
die or not.
If

the former, he repeats a

mantram (kudumi
This being a sign
their

vettu mantram, or formula on cutting off the top-knot),

and cuts

off the sick

man's kudumi.

of approaching death, the relatives

and others pay

KANIKAR
last visits to

176
the sick.

After death, a mixture of ganja

and cocoanut, is put into the mouth of the corpse by the son and nephews, and it is
rice,

(Indian hemp), raw

buried at some distance from their abode, mantrams

being repeated
cremated.

over

it.

Occasionally

the

corpse

is

The

relatives bathe before returning

home,
till

and cannot take any of the produce of their lands

the death pollution
will attack
is

removed, fearing that wild beasts

them
is

or destroy their crops.

To

this

end a

small shed
day.

built outside their clearing

on the third

Three measures of rice are boiled, and placed in a cup or on a plantain leaf inside the shed. Then all bathe, and return home. On the seventh day all this is
repeated, the old shed being pulled down, and a

new
they

one put up.

sprinkle
finally

On

returning

to

their

dwelling,

cow-dung on their houses and in the yard, which removes the defilement. People in better circum-

stances

make

a feast of curry and rice for

is

all

present."

The cow-dung

sprinkled with leafy twigs of the

or jak tree, or flower stalks of the areca palm.

mango The

ashes, after cremation, are said to be collected in a pot

or

leaf,

and thrown into the nearest stream or

in

river.

An
is

annual ceremony,
held, at

commemoration

of ancestors,

which

rice is boiled

and offered up.

do not belong
to the pol-

The

Kanikars, like the Irulas and Yanadis of the

countries,

Tamil and Telugu

luting classes.

Pulayans, Kuruvans, and

Vedans are

not allowed to approach them.

The

dietary of the jungle

Kanikars includes wild

fowls,

pigs, deer, porcupines, hares,

monkeys,
fish,

sheep and

goats, parakeets, doves, tortoises,

crabs, peacocks,

tigers (said to taste like black monkey), owls, squirrels

field rats, in

and

addition to
will

many

vegetable products of the

'

forest.

They

not eat beef or the flesh of

bison.'

KANIKAR.

177

KANIKAR

Some Kanikars

are tattooed on the forehead with a

crescent and dot, or a vertical stripe.

that their ancestors wore a garment

The Kanikars saymade of jungle fibre,

which has been replaced by a cotton loin-cloth. " Both men and women," Mr. M. Ratnaswami Aiyar writes, " wear on the neck numerous strings of red beads and rings made of shells, which hang down to the abdomen
in the

case of the

women.

The men wear

ear-rings of

brass or silver.
iron,

The women wear bangles

of brass and
fingers.

and a number of brass rings on the

The

men

bear suspended from one of their shoulders a cloth

bag containing two

keep their

more partitions, vilangupetti or box containing

or

in

which they
from
the

betel, tobacco,

and chunam.

They

carry,

too,

suspended

shoulder, a cane basket wherein they place their day's

crop of grain or roots, or any other food obtained by

them.

They

attach

to their waist-string

or

cloth

billhook and knife, and carry their

bows and arrows

the Kanikars from

slung on their shoulders.

Whenever

the different kanis or settlements have to be gathered

together for a

elsewhere on a

common common

meeting, or for going together

purpose, a messenger amongst

message with a knot of fibres of creepers, which serves as a symbol of call. The knotted fibre is passed on from one kani to It is thus another till the required assembly is secured.

them

carries from one kani to another the

that

secured

my

Kanikars to present them to their

Excellencies Lord and

Lady Curzon."
in this article
'

For most of the information contained

I

am

indebted to Mateer's

Native Life

in

Travancore,'

an article by Mr, Ratnaswami Aiyar,* and notes by

Mr. N. Subrahmani Aiyar.

* Indian Review, III, 1902.

III-I2

KANI KURUPPU

178

Kani Kuruppu. Kani Razu. A

Barbers of the Kaniyans.

name,
denoting
fortune-telling

Razus, sometimes used as a synonym by Bhatrazus, in whose songs it occurs. The name Kani-vandlu, or fortune-tellers, occurs as a synonym ofYerukala.
spelt and pronounced Kanisan Malayalam corruption of the Sanskrit a in Malabar, Ganika, meaning an astrologer. The word was originally Kani, in which form it invariably appears in Malayalam works and Tamil documents. The honorific suffix
is
'

Kaniyan. Kaniyan,

an has been added subsequently.

'

The two
title

titles,

generally applied to Kaniyans, are

Panikkar and Asan.

in

The
in

former

is

said to be a
it

common
to

Malabar,

but

Travancore

seems

be

The word Panikkar comes from The fact pani, or work, viz., that of military training. that most of the families, who own this title at present,
restricted to the north.

were once teachers of bodily exercises,

only from the

is

evident not

name

kalari, literally

a military school, by

which

their

houses are usually known, but also from the

Keralolpatti,

of the caste.
is

which assigns military training as a duty Asan, a corruption of the Sanskrit Acharya,
title

common

among Kaniyans

in

South Travancore.

Special

titles,

such as Anantapadmanabham, Sivasan-

karan, and Sankili, are said to be possessed by certain

families in the south, having

been conferred on them by

in the

kings in olden times.

Some Kaniyans

north enjoy

the surname of Nampikuruppu.

Kaniyans are divided into two endogamous sections, The occupations viz., Kaniyar and Tinta (or polluting). of the latter are umbrella-making and spirit-exorcising,
while the others remain astrologers, pure and simple.

few families, living at Alengad, are called Vattakan

Kaniyans, and are believed to have come there on the

179

KANIYAN

eve of Tipu Sultan's invasion. The women of the KaniAccording to yans proper do not eat with them.
tradition, eight sub-septs are said to

have existed among

the Kaniyans, four of which were

known

as kiriyams,

and four as illams. The names of the former are Annavikkannam, Karivattam, Kutappilla, and Nanna of the latter Pampara, Tachchazham, Netumkanam, and Ayyar;

kala.

These

divisions were once

endogamous, but

this

distinction has

now

disappeared.

In a note on the Kaniyans of the Cochin State,* Mr.

Anantha Krishna Iyer writes that " there is some difference in the social status between the Kaniyans of the southern, and the Kalari Panikkans of the northern parts
L. K.

of the State.
status,
is

The

latter profess a

kind of superiority
kalaris.

in
It

on the ground that the former have no

also said by the latter that the occupation of the former

was once that of umbrella-making, and that astrology as There a profession has been recently adopted by them.
is

at

present neither

intermarriage,

nor

interdining

between them. The Kaniyans pollute the Kalari PanikIn connection with the old village kans by touch." organisation in Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore, Mr.

Anantha Krishna Iyer

writes further that

all

"

every tara

or kara (village) consisted of

castemen below Brahall

mans, especially the Nayars of

living in a

classes,

more or

less

community, the Kammalans, Izhuvans, Panans,

living further apart.

Mannans, and other castemen

every such village
in

For

the northern part of the State, there

kalari (gymnastic

was also a Kalari Panikkan, with a

or military school), where the
chiefly the Nayars,
feats,

young men
in all

of the village,

were trained

kinds of athletic

and

in

arms.

The

institution of the kalaris has

* Monograph, Ethnog. Survey, Cochin.

in-i2 B


KANIYAN
now
1

80

disappeared, though the building remains in

some

and the Panikkans are now mainly astrologers and village schoolmasters. According to their own
places,

statement,
established

Parasurama, the great coloniser of Kerala,

kalaris

throughout the kingdom, and ap-

pointed them as the masters to train Sudra young

in all kinds of feats

men

(one thousand and eight

in

number),

for the protection of the

country against foreign invaders.

The Nayars, who

then formed the fighting race, were

In memory of this, mostly trained by the Panikkans. the Kalari Panikkans of the northern portions of the

and of South Malabar, profess even now a preceptorship to the Nayars, and the Nayars show them some respect, being present at their marriages and other
State,

ceremonies.

The Pannikkans

say that the

Nayars
a few

obtained their kalaris from them.

There are
the

still

among the Panikkans, here and there, fit men various feats. The following are
some
of

to teach young

names of

them

(i)

Pitichu

Kali.

Two

persons play on their

drums (chenda), while a third person, well dressed in a kacha, and with a turban on his head, and provided with a sword and shield, performs various feats in harmony It is a kind of sword-dance. with the drum beating.
(2)
is
is

Parishathalam Kali.

large pandal (booth)

erected in front of the house where the performance

to take place,

and the boys below sixteen, who have been previously trained for it, are brought there. The performance takes place at night. The chenda, maddha1am, chengala, and elathalam (circular bell-metal plates
slightly
in the

concave

in

the middle) are the instruments used

performance.
the

After the performance, the boys,

trained, present themselves before

whom

Asan has

him, and remunerate him with whatever they can afford.

l8l

KANIYAN
all

Parties are organised to give this performance on

auspicious occasions in rural districts.

(3)

Kolati.
in

Around a
a
circle,

lighted lamp, a

number of
in

persons stand
length,

each with a stick a foot

and as thick as a thumb, in each hand. They begin to sing, first in slow time, and gradually in rapid measure. The time is marked by each one hitting his Much neisrhbours' sticks with his own on both sides.
dexterity and precision are required, as also experience

combined action and movements, lest the amateur should be hit by his neighbours as the measure is
in

accelerated.

The songs

are invariably in praise of

God

or man."

The Kaniyans, according to one tradition, are Brahman astrologers, who gradually lost their position, as
their predictions

became
"

less

and

less accurate.

Concern-

ing their legendary history, Mr.

writes as
follows.

Anantha Krishna Iyer

Once, says one of these legends,

when the god Subrahmanya, son of Siva, and his friend were learning astrology, they knew that the sound of a lizard close by foreboded some evil to the mother of the former. The friend practiced some magical rite, which
averted the
evil.

His mother, who had been

*

in

a state

of unconsciousness, suddenly

and asked the son

looked
at.

woke up as if from slumber, Kany-ar,' i.e., who it was that she

the son replied that she was look-

To which

ing at a Kaniyan (astrologer).

that the umbrella, the
stick,

The Kaniyans

still

believe

the holy ashes,

and the

purse of cowries, which form the paraphernalia of a

Kaniyan nowadays, were given by Subramanya.

following
is

The

another tradition regarding the origin of

In ancient times,
it is

the caste.

said,

Panans, Velans,

and Kaniyans were practicing magic, but astrology as a profession was practiced exclusively by the Brahmans.

KANIYAN
There
lived a

182

famous astrologer, Thalakkaleth Bhattathe most renowned of the astrologers

a son whose horoscope he cast, and
live

thiripad,

who was

of the time.

He had

from

it

he concluded that his son would

to find

long.

Unfortunately he proved to be mistaken,

died.

for

his

son

Unable

out the error in his calculation

and prediction, he took the horoscope to an equally famous astrologer of the Chola kingdom, who, awate of the cause of his advent, directed him to adore some deity that might aid him in the working out of his
predictions.

Accordingly he came to the Trichur temple,

where, as directed, he spent

the deity.

some days
in

in

devotion to
in astrology,

Thereafter he worked wonders

and became so well known

Travancore, that he
tion of the rulers,

Malabar,

Cochin, and

commanded the who invited him

respect and admirato cast horoscopes,

For so doing he was liberally rewarded. One day a Brahman, hearing that his guru at Benares was seriously ill, consulted the Bhattathiripad whether and how he would be able to see him before his death. The Brahman astrologer directed him to go to the southern side of the Trichur temple, where he would see two persons coming towards him, who might gratify his desire to see his preceptor. These persons were reaily the servants of Yama (the god of death). They asked him to touch them, and he at once found The Brahman was himself at the side of his teacher. asked who had directed him to them, and, when he told them that it was the renowned Brahman astrologer, they cursed him, saying that he would become an outThis fate came as no surprise to the astrologer, caste. for he had already perceived from an evil conjunction of the planets that disgrace and danger were impending. To try to avoid the sad fate which he foresaw, he left

and make predictions.

83

KANIYAN
on a boating excursion
night was dark, and
it

his

home and

friends,

and

set out

in a river close by Pazhur.

The

was midnight when he reached the middle of the stream. A severe storm, accompanied by rain, had come on, and He was swept away to an the river was in flood. and scrambled ashore in torrents of unknown region,

when he saw a light in a house near where he landed, and he made for it in an exhausted condition. On reaching it, he lay down in
rain

and

in darkness,

the verandah at the gate of the house,

musing on the
his affectionate

untoward events of the night, and on

family

whom

he had

left.

The
it

hut belonged to the

family of a Kaniyan,* who, as

happened, had had a

left

quarrel with his wife that day, and had

his

hut.

Anxiously expecting her husband's return,

the

wife

opened the door about midnight, and, seeing a man lying in the verandah, mistook him for her husband.

The man was

he
in turn

so wrapt in his thoughts of his

for his wife.

mistook her

When

the

home that Brahman

woke up from his slumber, he found her to be a Kaniya woman. On looking at the star in the heavens to
saw that the prediction become an outcaste had been fulfilled. that he would He accepted the degradation, and lived the rest of his days with the Kaniya woman. She bore him several
calculate the precise time, he
sons,

whom

in

due course he educated

in

the lore of

his profession,

and

for

tained an important place in the

astrologers (Ganikans).
It is

whom, by his influence, he obHindu social system as

said that, according to his

instruction, his body, after his death, was placed in a coffin,

and buried
is still

in

the courtyard of the house.

is

The

spot

shown, and an elevated platform

constructed,

* According Lo another version of the legend,

it

was the

liut

of a Tiyan,

KANIYAN
with a thatched roof over
at all

184
it.

Hghted lamp
in front

is
it

placed
astroit

times on the platform, and

of

logical calculations

and predictions are made,

for

is

believed that those

will

who made such

spirit

calculations

there

have the aid of the

of their dead

Brahman
birth.

ancestor,
tell

who was so

learned in the science that he could

of events long past,

and predict even future

the following incident

As an
CTiven.

instance of the

last,

may be

Once the

orreat

Brahman

ascetic

VilwamanKrishna
for

galath Swamiyar was suffering severely from pains in the stomach,

relief
friend,

when he prayed

to the divine

Finding no remedy, he turned to a Brahman a Yogi, who gave him some holy ashes, which

he took, and which relieved him of the pains.

He

mentioned the

fact to his

beloved god Krishna, who, by

the pious adoration of the ascetic, appeared before him,

when he

would have three births in the With world instead of one which was destined for him. an eager desire to know what they would be, he consulted
said that he

the Bhattathiripad,

would be born first as a rat-snake (Zamenis mucosus), then as an ox, and thirdly as a tulsi plant [Ocimum sanctuiii), and that he
said that he

who

would be along with him

in

these births.
It
is

With great
said

pleasure he returned home.

also

that

the

astrologer himself was born as an ox, and was in this

form afterwards supported by the members of his family.

The

incident

is

said to

have taken place

at Pazhur,

eio-hteen miles east of

family are called

The members of the Pazhur Kaniyans, and are w^ell known

Ernakulam.

throughout Malabar, Cochin and Travancore, for their predictions in astrology, and all classes of people even

now

resort to
in

them
the

for aid in predictions.

The

Kalari

Panikkans

northern parts of the Cochin State

have a

different

account of the origin of the caste.

85

KANIYAN

Once, they say, a sage and astrologer, named a Ganikan, was making prediction to a Sudra regarding his future As this was done by him when in an uncleanly destiny.
state,

he was cursed by the Saptharishis (seven sages).

are reputed to be his descendants
all

The Panikkans who

below Brahmans."

are ordained to be teachers and astrologers of

castes

According to another legendary account, there were Kaniyans before the time of Bhattatiri, but their astroTalakulogical attainments are connected with him.
lattu

was one of the earliest astrologers of renown, being the author of Muhurtapadavi, and lived There is a tradition, in the fourth century A.D.
Bhattatiri

believed by the Kaniyans south of Neyyattenkara, that

their

ancestor was descended

from

the

union
saint,

of

Gandharva woman with Kani, a Brahman

lived in the western ghats.

who

Their grandson propitiated

the god

Subrahmanya presiding over astronomy, and acquired the surname Nalika from his never-ceasing
truthfulness.

Some

of the southern Kaniyans even at

the present day

call

themselves

Nali.

According to
desperately in

another legend, Parameswara and his wife Parvati were

living happily together,

when Agni
save Agni,

fell

love with the latter.

Eventually, Parameswara caught

to

them together, and,

that

Parvati suggested

he

should
this,

hide

himself

inside

her

body.

On

Agni doing
agony,

Parvati

became very indisposed, and

at

Parameswara, distressed
shed
tears,

seeing his
fell

wife rolling in

one of which
into a

on the ground,

and became turned

asking for some
torch.

man, who, being divinely

over a blazing
in

born, detected the cause of Parvati's indisposition, and,

incense, sprinkled
it

Agni, seeing his opportunity, escaped

relief.

the

smoke, and Parvati had instant

For

this service,

KANIYAN

86

Parameswara blessed the man, and appointed him and his descendants to cure diseases, exorcise demons, and
foretell events.

The Kaniyans

of Malabar have been connected by

tradition with the Valluvans of the

Tamil country, who

are the priests, doctors, and astrologers of the Pallans

and Paraiyans.
east

According to
to the

this tradition, the

modern

Kaniyans are traced

Valluvans brought from the

in

by a Perumal who ruled over Kerala

latter are believed to

The

350 M.E. have become Kaniyans proper,

while the old Kaniyans of the west coast descended to

the rank of Tinta Kaniyans.

The

chief of the Valluvans

so brought was a Yogi or ascetic, who, being asked by a

Nambutiri concerning a missing

correctly that the lost ring
in the

article at

Pazhur, replied
in

had been placed

a hole

bank of the Nambutiri's tank (pond), and was

are easily recognised by their punc-

consequently invited to settle there permanently.

The Kaniyans
tilious

cleanness of person and clothing, the iron style

into the waist, the

and knife tucked

its

palm umbrella with

their

ribs holding

numbers of horoscopes,

low

artistic

bow, and their deliberate answers to questions put to

them.
in

Most of them are intelligent, and well versed Malayalam and Sanskrit. They are, however, not a
manual labour,
hereditary
in

flourishing community, being averse to

and

depending

for

their

living

on

their

profession.

There are no more conservative people Travancore, and none of them have taken kindly
western education.
orthodox

to

In their clothing they follow the

fashion.

Malabar
loose,

The

dress

of the

males

seldom hangs

being tucked

in in

token of humility.

The Kaniyan, when wanted

chest,

in his professional capacity,

presents himself with triple ash marks of Siva on his

arms,

and forehead.

The woman's ornaments

8;

KANIYAN
Fish and flesh are not
as those of

resemble those of the Izhuvans.

forbidden as food, but there are

many families,

Pazhur and Onakkuru, which strictly abstain from meat. Marriage between families which eat and abstain from
flesh
is

not absolutely forbidden.

flesh

But a wife must give

up eating
astrology.

immediately on entering the house of her

vegetarian husband.

The

profession of the Kaniyans

is

Marco

Polo, writing as early as the thirteenth

it

century about Travancore, says that

was even then

Barbosa, at the
"

pre-eminently the land of astrologers.

beginning of the sixteenth century, has a detailed reference to the Kaniyans, of

learn
letters

whom

he writes that

they

and astronomy, and some of them are great astrologers, and foretell many future things, and
form judgments upon the births of men.
great persons send
to call

Kings and

them, and come out of their

palaces to gardens and pleasure-grounds to see them,

and ask them what they desire

and return
to those that
;

to

know
in

and these
a few days,

people form judgment upon these things

may may they approach the king's person on account of being low people. And the king They are great diviners, and is then alone with him.
asked of them, but they
not enter the palaces

nor

luck,

pay great attention to times and places of good and bad which they cause to be observed by those kings
;

and great men, and by the merchants also and they take care to do their business at the time which these
astrologers advise them, and they do the

voyages and marriages.

gain
a great deal."
alludes in

And by

these

same in their means these men

Buchanan, three centuries later, the same glowing terms to the prosperity of

the Kaniyans.

He

notes that they are of very low caste,

a Nambutiri coming within twenty-four feet of one being obliged to purify himself by prayer and ablution. " The

KANIYAN
Kaniyans," he writes,
"

l88
possess

almanacks, by which

they inform people as to the proper time for performing

ceremonies or sowing their seeds, and the hours which

are fortunate or unfortunate for any undertaking.

When

persons are sick or

in trouble, the

Cunishun, by perform-

ing certain ceremonies in a magical square of 12 places,

discovers what spirit
is

the cause of the

evil,

and also
possess
devils."
"

how

it

may be

appeased.

Some Cunishuns
later that

mantrams, with which they pretend to cast out

Captain Conner notes twenty years

Kan-

neans derive the appellation from the science of divination,

which some of

their sect profess.

The Kannean
all

fixes the propitious

moment

for

every undertaking,
to

hysterical affections being

supposed

be the visitation
incantations

of

some

troublesome

spirit.
it."

His

are

believed alone able to subdue

The Kaniyans
all

are practically the guiding spirits in

the social and domestic concerns of Travancoreans,

and even Muhammadans and Christians do not fail to profit by their wisdom. From the moment of the birth
of an infant, which
is

noted by the Kaniyan for the pur-

pose of casting

its

horoscope, to the

moment

of death,

the services of the village astrologer are constantly in

requisition.

He

is

invariably consulted as to the cause

of

all

calamities,

satisfy the people.

and the cautious answers that he gives " Putro na putri," which may either

mean no son
is

but a daughter, or no daughter but a son,

jocosely referred to as the type of a

Kaniyans answer,
" It

when questioned about

would be
single
difficult,"

the sex of a child in utero.

Mr. Logan writes,* "to describe a

life

important occasion in everyday

is

when

the

Kanisan

not at hand as a guiding

spirit,

foretelling

* Malabar Manual.

89

KANIYAN

aucky days and hours, casting horoscopes, explaining the

cause of calamities, prescribing remedies for untoward

events,

and physicians (not physic)

or
trees

for

sick persons.

Seed cannot be sown, Kanisan has been consulted beforehand.

planted,

unless

the

He

is

even

asked to consult his shastras to find lucky days and

moments
the head.

for setting out

on a journey, commencing an
occasions
as
births,

enterprise, giving a loan, executing a deed, or shaving

For such

Important

marriages, tonsure, investiture with the sacred thread,

and beginning the A, B, C, the Kanisan is of course His work In short mixes him up with the Indispensable.
gravest as well as the most trivial of the domestic events
of the people, and his influence and position are corre-

spondingly great.

The
all

astrologer's finding, as one will

solemnly assert with

due reverence,

Is

the oracle of

God
be

himself, with the justice of

which everyone ought to

his dictates

satisfied,

and the poorer classes follow

unhesitatingly.
for his services,

There
and

is

no prescribed scale of fees

respect he
Is

in this

like the native

physician and teacher.

rarely
to the

Those who consult him, however,

come empty-handed, and the gift is proportioned means of the party, and the time spent in serving
If
is

him.
as
it

no

fee

is

given,

the Kanisan does not exact

characteristics,

it,

one of

his

professional

and a

matter of personal etiquette, that the astrologer should

be unselfish, and not greedy of gain.

fixed scale of fees

On
The

public occa-

sions, however, and on important domestic events, a

is
is

usually adhered

to.

astrologer's

most busy time

the year his
lucrative

from January to July, the period of

from being an
lies in
life

harvest and of marriages, but in the other six months of

is

far

idle

life.

His most
recording

business

casting horoscopes,

the events of a man's

from birth to death, pointing

KANIYAN
out dangerous periods of

190
life,

and prescribing rules and

individuals for the purpose

ceremonies to be observed by
calamities of dangerous times.

of propitiating the gods and planets, and so averting the

He

also

shows favourable
leaf, sets forth in

junctures for the

commencement

of undertakings, and the

grantham or book, written on palmyra

qualities,

considerable detail the person's disposition and mental

as affected

by the position of the planets

in

All this is a work of of birth. There are few members of respectlabour, and of time. able families who are not thus provided, and nobody

the zodiac at the

moment

grudges the
astrologer.

five to twenty-five

rupees usually paid for a

horoscope according to the position and reputation of the

Two

things are essential to the astrologer,

namely, a bag of cowry shells {^Cyprcea moneta), and an

almanac.

When any one comes

to consult him, he quietly

sits down, facing the sun, on a plank seat or mat, mur-

muring some mantrams or sacred verses, opens his bag With his right of cowries, and pours them on the floor. hand he moves them slowly round and round, solemnly
reciting

meanwhile a stanza or two

in praise of

his

guru or teacher, and of

his deity, invoking their help.

He

then stops, and explains what he has been doing, at

the same time taking a handful of cowries from the heap, and placing them on one side. In front is a diagram drawn with chalk on the floor, and consisting of twelve

compartments

(rasis)

one

for

each month

in the

year.

Before commencing

operations

with the diagram,

he

selects three or five of the cowries

highest up in the

heap, and places them in a line on the right-hand side.

[In an account before me, three cowries and two glass
bottle-stoppers are mentioned as being placed on this

These represent Ganapati (the belly god, the remover of difficulties), the sun, the planet Jupiter,
side.]

191

KANIYAN
own guru
gives
or

Sarasvati (the goddess of speech), and his

preceptor.

To

all

of these the astrologer

due
the

obeisance, touching his ears and the ground three times

with both hands.

The

cowries are next arranged

in

compartments of the diagram, and are moved about from compartment to compartment by the astrologer, who quotes meanwhile the authority on which he makes the
moves.
Finally he explains the result, and ends with

again worshipping the deified cowries,

ing the operation as spectators."

who were

witness-

According to another

account,* the

"pours his cowries on the them in the palm of his right ground, hand, while repeating mantrams (consecrated formulae), he selects the largest, and places them in a row outside the diagram at its right hand top corner. They represent the first seven planets, and he does obeisance to them, touching his forehead and the ground three times
astrologer
and, after rolling

with both hands.

planets
in
is

The

relative

position

of the nine

then worked out, and illustrated with cowries

the diagram."

At the
of the

chal (furrow)

ceremony

in

Malabar, on the eve

new
is

agricultural year, " every

visited
for

Hindu house
rice,

in

the

district

by the Kanisans of the respective

a modest present of
forecast of the

desams, who,

vegetables
prospects,

and which

oils,
is

makes a

season's
leaf).

engrossed on a cadjan (palm

This

is

called the

Vishu phalam, which

is

obtained by comparing
is

the nativity with the equinox.

Special mention

made

therein as to the probable rainfall from the position

of the planets

highly prized
irrigation

information in a district

where there are no

for water." t

works or large reservoirs

* Gazetteer of the Malabar t C. Karunakara Menon.

district.

Madras Mus.

Bull.,

V,

2,

1906.


KANIYAN
The
by other
192
is

science of astrology
castes,

studied and

practiced
is

but the Kani house of Pazhur

the

most celebrated.

Numerous

stories

are related of the

astrological skill of the

Pazhur Kaniyans, of which one

relates to the planets Mercury and Venus, who, arriving

at the

house of one of the Kaniyans, were asked by him

to wait at the gate.

He

then jumped into a neighbourto

ing well, to conduct

some prayers with a view

at that true.

keeping
believed

them there permanently.

to

In this task he succeeded, and

even today a prophecy made

be certain of turning out
In

out-house

is

addition

to

astrology,

the

Kaniyans

practice

sorcery and exorcism, which are strictly the occupation

of the Tinta Kaniyans.
are driven
dance).

out

is

The known as
is

process by which devils

kolamtullal
(a

peculiar

troupe of Kaniyans, on being invited to a

house where a person

suspected of being possessed

representing

by a

devil,

go there wearing masques

Gandharva, Yakshi,

Bhairava, Raktesvari, and other and dressed up in tender cocoanut leaves. demons, Accompanied by music and songs, they rush towards

the affected person,

who
is

is

seated in the midst of the

spirit.

assembly, and frighten away the evil

cure of disease, which

For the

considered as incurable by

ordinary methods of treatment, a form of exorcism called

kalapasamtikkuka, or the removal of the rope or

influence,
is

evil

resorted

to.

In this,

two Kaniyans take

of

the stage, and play the parts of Siva and Yama, while a third
recites
in

song the

story

the

immortal

Markandeya.

"The
"

Pannikar's astrology," Mr. F. Fawcett writes,*

he

will tell you, is

divided into three parts

Madras Mus. Bull., II,

3,

igoi.


193
(i) Ganita,

KANIYAN

which treats of the constellations. (2) Sankita, which explains the origin of the constellations, comets, falling- stars, and earthquakes.
(3)

Hora, by which the

Panikkar,

fate of
in

man
the

is

explained.

"

The

who

follows

footsteps of

his forefathers, should

have a thorough knowledge of

astrology and mathematics, and be learned in the Vedas.

He

should be sound in mind and body, truthful, and

patient.

He
;

should look well after his family, and

:

should worship regularly the nine planets

the

Suryan,
Budhan,
Jupiter

sun

Chandran, moon
;

Chovva, Mars
or
;

Mercury
two
last,

Vyazham,
;

Guru,

Brihaspati,
;

Sukran, Venus

Sani, Saturn

Rahu

and Ketu.

The

though not visible, are, oddly enough, classed They are said to be two as planets by the Panikkar. parts of an Asura who was cut in two by Vishnu. The
Panikkars also dabble
possession a
in

magic,

and

have

in

my

Panikkar.

number of yantrams presented to me by a They should be written on a thin gold, silver,

is

or copper plate, and

written on gold

worn on the person. A yantram the most effective. As a rule, the

little

yantram

is

placed in a

cylinder-case

made

of silver,

fastened to a string tied

round the waist.

Many

of

these are often worn by the same person.

is

The yantram
or paper.
I

sometimes written on cadjan (palm

this kind in
It is

leaf),

have one of

my

collection, taken

from the

neck of a goat.

common

to see

them worn on the

arm, around the neck."

The

following examples of yantrams are given by

:

Mr. Fawcett

Aksharamdla.

Fifty-one

letters.

Used
letter

in

conits

nection with every other yantram.

Each
it

has

own meaning, and does

itself this

not represent any word.

In

yantram

is

powerless, but

gives

life

to all

ni-13

KANIYAN
others.
It

194

must be written on the same plate as the

other yantram.
Sulini.

For
Sulini.

protection against sorcery or devils,

and

to secure the aid of the goddess.

Mdha
through the
eats infants.

To
wear

prevent

all
is

kinds of
Pulatini,

harm

devils, chief of

whom

he who

Women

it

to avert miscarriage.

Ganapati.
fear

To increase To enable
his

knowledge, and put away

possessor to please his

and shyness.
Sarasvati.
its

listeners,

and increase

knowledge.
a whole
it

Santdna gopalam.
Krishna.
children.
It

As

represents Sri

Used by barren women, so

that they

may
is

bear

may be

traced on a metal plate and worn

eaten.

in the usual

way, or on a slab of butter, which

is

When

the latter method

adopted,

it

is

repeated on

forty-one consecutive days, during which the

well as the Panikkar,

woman,

as

Navva.
cloth,

and

tied

may not have sexual connection. Drawn in ashes of cow-dung on a new round the waist. It relieves a woman in
(to climb a horse).

labour.

Asvarudha
it

A person wearing

is

able to cover long distances easily on horseback,

and he can make the most refractory horse amenable by It will also help to cure cattle. tying it round its neck. "The charms," Mr. Fawcett explains, "are entirely inoperative, unless accompanied in the first place with
the mystic
rite,

which

is

the secret of the Panikkar."

Many

Kaniyans used formerly to be village school-

masters, but, with the abolition of the old methods of

teaching, their

number

is

steadily decreasing.

Some

of

them are
sion

clever physicians.

Those who

have no preten-

by making palm-leaf umbrellas, which gives occupation to the women. But the industry
to learning live

195
is

KANIYAN

fast

declining before the competition of umbrellas

imported from foreign countries.

The Kaniyans worship

moon, Ganesa
Baghavati.
is

the

sun,

the

planets,

the

and

On

Subramanya, Vishnu, Siva, and each day of the week, the planet, which
it,

believed to preside over

is

specially
is

worshipped

by an elaborate process,
through
for at least three

which

compulsorily gone

become
It is
all

proficient in

weeks after a Kaniyan has astrology, and able to make calcu-

lations for himself

generally believed that the supreme authority in

social matters affecting the

Kaniyan

rests in British
to, in

Malabar with the Yogi already referred

Cochin

and North Travancore with the head of the Pazhur house, and in South Travancore with the eldest member
of a house at

Manakkad

in

Trivandrum, known by the

however,
the
spiritual

name

of Sankili.

Practically,

These Kannalmas are much respected, and well paid on festive occasions by every Kaniyan house. They and other
judgment on persons guilty of adultery, commensality with lower castes, and other offences, and
elders
sit

headmen, called Kannalmas, are independent.

in

inflict

punishments.
observe both the tali-kettu ceremony

The Kaniyans
before puberty,
is

and

sambandham
father,

after

that

event.

Inheritance

through the

and the eldest male of

a family has the

management
is

of the ancestral estate.

Fraternal polyandry

said to have been

common

in

olden times, and Mr.

Logan observes
in

that,

" like the

Pandava brothers, as they proudly point

sans used formerly to have one wife
several brothers, and this custom
is

out, the

Kani-

common among
observed by

still

some

of them."

There

is

no

restriction to the

marriage

of widows.
ni-13 B

KANIYAN

196

Concerning polyandry, Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer

states that
**

among

the Kaniyans, as well

If

as

among

Panikkans, polyandry largely prevails.

the young

woman

is

intended to be the wife of several brothers, the

eldest brother goes to the bride's house, and gives her

the cloth, and takes her

home the next day along with her parents and relations, who are all well entertained. The young woman and the brothers are seated together,
is

and a sweet preparation

that

given to them, which signifies

common wife of all. The Muppan (Nayar headman of the village) also The guests depart, and the declares her to be such.
she has become the
Kalari

bridegroom (the eldest brother) and the bride are invited

to

what

they

call

virunnu-oon (sumptuous meal)

in

the house of the

latter,

where they stay

for

a few days.

The bridegroom then

returns

home with

the wife.

The

other brothers, one after another, are similarly entertained along with the bride at her house.

The brothers
by
astrolin

cannot afford to live together for a long time, and they

go from place
ogy.

to place, earning their livelihood

is

Each brother
;

at

home only

for a

few days

each month

hence practically the

If several of

woman
in

has only one

to

husband

at a time.

them happen

be at

home
by

together for a few weeks, each

in

turn associates

with the woman,

accordance with the directions given

their mother."

The Kaniyans follow high-caste Hindus as regards many of their ceremonies. They have their namebestowing, food-giving and tuft-making ceremonies, and
also a superstitious rite called ittaluzhiyuka, or exorcism
in child-birth

on the seventh or ninth day

after the birth

of a

child.

A Kaniyan's

education begins in his seventh

year.
to the

In the sixteenth year a ceremony, corresponding

upanayana of the higher

castes,

is

performed.

197

KANIYAN

For forty-one days after, the Kannalma initiates the young Kaniyc'n into the mysteries of astrology and witchcraft. He is obliged to worship Subramanya, the tutelary god of the caste, and abstains from meat and liquor. This may be taken as the close of his Brahmacharya stage or Samavartana, as marriage cannot take
place before the observance of this ceremony.

On the subject of religion,

writes that " the Kalari

Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer

Panikkans and the Kaniyans are

It is said that their kalaris

generally Saivite worshippers, but are not disinclined to

the worship of Vishnu also.

are forty-two feet long, and contain the images of forty-

two

deities.
:

The

following are the most important of

them

Subrahmanya,

Sastha, Ganapati,

Virabhadran,

Narasimha, Ashtabairavas, Hanuman, and Bhadrakali.

Some

of their kalaris, which were seen by me, contained

stone and metal images of these gods.

Every night a
their worship.
first

lamp is lighted in front of them During the Mandalam (forty days)

for

from the

of

Vrischikam to the tenth of Dhanu (14th November to 25th December), the senior member of the Panikkans
family bathes early in the morning, and performs his

pujas to

all

the gods,

making

offerings of boiled rice,

plantains and cocoanuts.

last

On

the fortieth day,

i.e.^

the

day of the Mandalam, a grand puja is performed individually to every one of the deities in the kalari,
and
rise,

this lasts for twenty-four hours,

from sunrise to sunthe grand puja per-

when

offerings of boiled rice, parched rice, sheep

and fowls are also given.

formed once
in the

This

is

course of the year.

Besides

this,

some of their deities command their special reverence. For instance, Subrahmanya is adored for the sake of
astrology, Sastha for wealth
also

and
in

offspring.

They

are

worshippers

of

Sakti

any of her

following

KANIYAN
manifestations,

198

namely,

Bala,

Thripura,

Mathangi,
is

Ambika, Durga, Bhadrakali, the object of which

secure accuracy in their astrological predictions.

to

Further,

every
offers,

member
after

of the caste proficient in astrology daily

his

an early bath,

prayers

to

the

seven

planets.

Among

the minor deities

whom

they worship,

are also Mallan, Mundian,

Muni and Ayutha Vadukan,

the

first

three of which they worship for the prosperity

of their cattle, and the last four for their success in the
training of

young men
in their

in athletic feats.

These

deities

are represented by stones placed at the root of

some

shady tree

They also worship the spirits of their ancestors, on the new-moon nights in Karkadakam (July-August), Thulam (October-NovemThe Kalari ber), and Makaram (December-January).
compounds.
Panikkans celebrate a kind of
female ancestors.
feast to the spirits of their

This

is

generally done a few days

before the celebration of a wedding in their houses, and

probably intended to obtain their blessings for the happy married life of the bride. This corresponds to
is

the performance of Sumangalia Prarthana (feast for the

spirits

of departed

virgins

and married women) per-

formed by Brahmans
in a village, special

in their families.

At times when

small-pox, cholera, and other pestilential diseases prevail

pujas are offered to

Mariamma

(the

small-pox demon) and Bhadrakali, who should be propitiated.

On

these occasions, their priest turns Velichapad

if

(oracle),
tellinor

and speaks to the village men as

by

inspiration,

them when and how the maladies

children,

will subside."

Kaniyans were formerly buried, but are now, excepting

young

cremated

in

a portion of the grounds of

the habitation, or in a spot adjacent thereto.

The

ashes

are collected on the fourth day, and deposited under

water.

In

memory

of the deceased, an annual offering

199
of food
is

KANIYAN

made, and an oblation of water offered on

or Kani

every new moon.

The Potuvans
of the

Kuruppus are the barbers

It
is

Kaniyans, and have the privilege of being in

only

attendance during marriages and funerals.

after

they have sprinkled water

the same

in the

houses of polluted
In
fact,

Kaniyans that they again become pure.

Potuvans stand
as the
in

the

relation to the

Kaniyans
are not

Marans

to the Nayars.

The Potuvans
keep

expected to shave the Tlnta Kaniyans.

The Kaniyans
that distance

are

said to

at a distance

of

twenty-four feet from a

Brahman

or Kshatriya, and half

dis-

from a Sudra.

The corresponding

tances for a Tinta Kaniyan are thirty-six and eighteen

feet.

This

restriction
it.

is

not fully observed in TrivanIt

is

drum, and south of

noted

by Mr. Anantha

Krishna Iyer that, on marriage occasions, a

standing close beside him, and yet there

Nayar gives
no pollution.

a gift of a few annas and betel leaves to the astrologer,

is

The Malayalam proverb

Nayars give dakshina
refers to this fact.
ical

"

On

marriage occasions the

(gift),

almost touching the hand,"

temples.
in

The Kaniyans cannot enter BrahmanThey will not receive food from Izhavans,
Kaniyans.
It
is

except
is

a few villages in central Travancore, but this

a regular practice with the Tinta

believed that the Kaniyans proper have no objection to

receiving sweetmeats from Kammalans.

The Kaniyans have been summed up as a law-abiding people, who not infrequently add agriculture to their
avocations of village doctor, prophet, or demon-driver,

and are popular with Christians and Muhammadans as

well as with Hindus.*

This account

is

mainly from an article by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.

KANNADA
The
late

200

Mr. Pogson, when Government astronomer,

used to say that his principal native assistant was an

astronomer from lo a.m. to

5 P.M. to 10 A.M.

5 p.m.

and an astrologer from

has,
at

Kannada.
torial

Kannada

(Kanarese)

recent
terri-

times of census, been returned as a linguistic or

division of various classes,
e.g.,

Agasa, Bedar,

Devanga,

Holeya,

Koracha,

Kumbara,

Samagara,

Rachewar, and Uppiliyan.

Kanna Pulayan. Described

better

Richards * as Pulayans of Travancore,

by the Rev. W. J. who wear rather

the

and more

artistically

made aprons than

to

Thanda

Pulayan women.

Kannaku.

prefix

the

name

of Nanchinat

Vellalas in Travancore.

Kannan.A
Kannadiyan.
up
t

sub-division of

Kammalans, the mem-

bers of which do braziers' work.

The Kannadiyans have been summed

from
is

as

"immigrants

the

province of Mysore.

Their traditional occupation

service,

said to have

been military

although they follow, at the present day, different

pursuits in different districts.

They

are usually cattle-

breeders and cultivators in North and South Arcot and

Chingleput, and traders

of

in

the southern districts.

Most

them are Lingayats, but a few are Vaishnavites." "They are," it is stated,| " in the Mysore State known At their weddings, five married women are as Gaulis. selected, who are required to bathe as each of the most important of the marriage ceremonies is performed, and are alone allowed to cook for, or to touch the happy
couple.

Weddings

last eight days,

during which time

sit

the bride and bridegroom must not

* Ind. Ant., IX, 1880.

on anything but
district.

t Manual of the North Arcot

X Madras Census Report, 190 1.

201

KANNADIYAN
in

woollen blankets."
district

Some Kannadiyans
to

the Tanjore

are

said

be weavers.

For

the following
district
I

account of the Kannadiyans of the Chingleput

am

indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

About twenty miles from the city of Madras is a big tank (lake) named after the village of Chembrambakam,
which
tank
of
is
is

close by.

occupied,

The fertile land surrounding this among others, by a colony of Lingayats,

rule,

whom

each household, as a

owns several acres of

utilize

land.

With

the cultivation thereof, they have the further

occupation of cattle grazing.

They
it

the products

of the cow in various ways, and

milk, butter

supplies

them with

and curds,

in

the last two of which they

carry on a lucrative trade in the city of Madras.

The

sold by them are very highly appreciated by Madras Brahmans, as they have a sour taste caused by keeping them till fermentation has set in. So great is the demand for their curds that advances of money are

curds

made
and
if

to them,
is

and regular delivery

is

thus

secured.

Their price
higher
" local."

higher than that of the local Madras curds,

a Lingayat buys the latter and sells them at the

rate,

he

is

decisively

stigmatised as

being a

They

will

not even touch sheep and goats, and

believe that even the smell of these animals will

make

cows and buffaloes barren.

at

Though the chief settlement of the Lingayats is Chembrambakam, they are also to be found in the
they number, in the Chingleput
district,

adjacent villages and in the Conjeeveram taluk, and, in

all,

about four

thousand.

The Lingayats have no

came
to the

idea

how

their forefathers

Chingleput

district.

Questioned whether
in

they have any relatives

in

Mysore, many answered

the affirmative, and one even pointed to one in a high

KANNADIYAN
official

202

position as a close relation.

Another

said that

the Gurukkal or
for the

Jangam

(priest)

is

one and the same

man

Mysore Lingayats and themselves.

third told

me

of his grandfather's wanderings in Mysore, Bellary,

and other places of importance to the Lingayats. I have also heard the story that, on the Chembrambakam
Lingayats being
disputes

divided

into

two

factions

through
union.

among

the local caste-men, a Lingayat priest

came from
These few

Mysore, and brought about their

facts suffice to

show

that the Lingayats are

emigrants from

Mysore, and not converts

district.

from the

indigenous populations of the

the date of their immigration
can, with
?

But what as to
which

The

earliest date

any show of reason, be ascribed thereto seems

to be

towards the end of the seventeenth century, when

Chikka Deva Raja ruled over Mysore. He adopted measures against the Lingayats violent repressive insurrection, which they for quelling a widespread His had fomented against him throughout the State.
measures of
priesthood
financial
its

reform

deprived the

Lingayat
its

of

local

leadership

and much of
best be

pecuniary
in

profit.

What

followed

may

stated

the words of Colonel Wilks,*

the

Mysore

historian.

"

Everywhere the inverted plough, suspended from the

its

tree at the gate of the village,

place of assembly for

of insurrection.

whose shade forms a inhabitants, announced a state

to
till

Having determined not

the land,

the husbandmen deserted their villages, and assembled

some places like ment in others as

in
;

fugitives seeking a distant

settle-

rebels breathing revenge.

Deva

Raja, however,

was too prompt

in his

Chikka measures
Before

to admit of any very formidable combination.

* Historical Sketches, Mysore.

203

KANNADIYAN

proceeding to measures of open violence, he adopted

a plan of perfidy and horror, yielding to nothing which

we

find recorded in the annals of the

most sanguinary
all

people.
priests to

An

invitation

was sent

to

the

Jangam

meet the Raja

at the great

temple of Nunjen-

god, ostensibly to converse with him on the subject of

the

refractory

conduct of their followers.

Treachery

was apprehended, and the number which assembled was estimated at about four hundred only. A large pit
had been previously prepared
in

a walled enclosure,

connected by a series of squares composed of tent walls

with the canopy of audience, at which they were received

one

at a time, and, after

making

their obeisance,

were
the
in

desired to retire to a place where, according to custom,

they expected to

find

refreshments

prepared

at

expense

of the

Raja.

Expert executioners

were

waiting in the square, and every individual in succession

was so

skilfully

beheaded and tumbled

to those

into

the pit

as to give no alarm

who

followed,

and the
without

business of
interruption
sent for the

the

public

audience
Circular

went

on

or suspicion.

orders had
all

been
the

destruction

on the same day of

Jangam Mutts (places of residence and worship) in his dominions, and the number reported to have been destroyed was upwards of seven hundred

....

This notable achievement was followed by the operations

of the troops,
tinct

chiefly

cavalry.

The

orders were dis-

and simple

to
;

charge without parley into the

down every man wearing an orange-coloured robe (the peculiar garb of the Jangam
midst of the
to cut
priests)."

mob

How

far

the

husbandmen

carried out their threat of

it

seeking a distant settlement

distance of time, to determine.

is

impossible, at

this

If

the theory of religious

KANNADIYAN

204

persecution as the cause of their emigration has not an

air of certainty
If

about

it,

it is

at least plausible.
is

the beginning of the eighteenth century

the

earliest,

the end of that century

for the

is

the latest date that

can be set down

Lingayat emigration.

That

century was perhaps the most troublous one in the

modern

history

of India.
I

repassing the ghats, and

Armies were passing and have heard from some old

are
in

gentlemen

that

the

Chingleput Lingayats, who

mostly shepherds, accompanied the troops

capacity of purveyors of milk and butter.

the humble

Whatever the causes of their emigration, we find them in the Chingleput district ordinarily reckoning the Mysore, Salem and Bellary Lingayats as of their own stock. They freely mix with each other, and I hear
contract marital alliances with one another.

They speak

the

Kannada (Kanarese) language the language of Mysore and Bellary. They call themselves by the name

of Kannadiyans or Kannadiyars, after the language they

speak, and the part of the village they inhabit

KannaKavadiga

dipauliem, or village of the Kannadiyars.

In parts of

Madras

they

are

known

as

Kavadi and

(=bearers of head-loads).

Both men and women are possessed of great stamina. Almost every other day they walk to and fro, in all
seasons,

butter and curds in Madras.

carry on
their

more than twenty miles by road to sell their While so journeying, they
heads a curd pot
or
four
in

a rattan basket

containing three

Madras measures of curds, besides another pot containing a measure or so of butter. Some of the men are Qrood acrobats and gymnasts, and I have seen a very old man successively break in two four cocoanuts, each placed on three or
four crystals of

common

salt,

leaving the crystals almost

205
intact.

KANNADIYAN

And
fifty

have heard that there are men who can

so break

cocoanuts

perhaps an

exaggeration for a

considerable number.

In general the

termed beautiful, and, in Mysore, the Lingayat

are,

women may be women

by common consent, regarded as models of feminine

beauty.

These Lingayats are divided into two classes, viz., Gauliyars of Damara village, and Kadaperi or Kannadiyars proper, of Chembrambakam and other places.

The Gauliyars

carry their curd pots in rattan baskets

the Kannadiyars in

bamboo

baskets.

Each
in

class has its

own

beat in the city of Madras, and, while the majority

of the rattan basket

men

traffic

mainly

Triplicane, the

bamboo basket men

carry on their business in George-

town and other localities. The two classes worship the same gods, feed together, but do not intermarry. The
rattan
is

considered superior to the

Both sections are sub-divided into exogamous septs or bedagagulu, of which the meaning,
with a few exceptions,
of Ettgenia Jambolana,
e.g.,

bamboo section. a large number of

bear,

split cane,

and

fruit

is

not clear.

Monogamy

appears to be the general rule

among
not

them, but polygamy to the extent of having two wives,

the second to counteract the sterility of the
rare.
first, is

Marriage before puberty

is

the rule, which must

not be transgressed.

And

it is

common

thing to see

small boys grazing the cattle,

who

are married to babies

hardly more than a year old.

Marriages are arranged

by the parents, or through intermediaries, with the tacit approval of the community as a whole. The marriage

ceremony generally
lies

lasts

about nine or ten days, and,

to lessen the expenses for the individual, several fami-

club together and celebrate their marriages simulAll the preliminaries such as inviting

taneously.

the

KANNADIYAN
wedding guests,
community, who
of agent
is

2o6
etc.,
is

are attended to by the agent of the

called Chaudri.

The appointment
is

hereditary.

The
in

first

day of the marriage ceremony

employed

the erection of the booth or pandal.

On

the following

day, the bodice-wearing

ceremony

is

performed.

The

bride and bridegroom are presented with

new

clothes,

which they put on amid general merriment.

tion with this ceremony, the following

In connecstory

Mysore
Sultan

may

not

be out of place.

When Tipu

once saw

a Lingayat

woman

selling curds in the street without

off of

a body cloth, he ordered the cutting

her breasts.

Since then the wearing of long garments has come into

use

among the whole female population of Mysore. The third day is the most important, as it is on

that

day that the Muhurtham, or tali-tying ceremony, takes

place,

comes

off

and an incident of quite an exceptional character amid general laughter. A Brahman (generally
is

a Saivite)
that he
is

formally invited to attend, and pretends

so.

unable to do
so,

But he

is,

with

mock

gravity,

pressed hard to do

and, after repeated guarantees of

good

faith,

he

finally

consents with great reluctance and

misgivings.

On

his arrival at the marriage booth, the

is

headman

of the family in which the marriage

taking

place seizes him roughly by the head, and ties as tightly

as possible five cocoanuts

to the

kudumi, or lock of

hair at the back of the head, amidst the loud,

though

not real, protestations of the victim.

All those present,

is

with

all

seriousness, pacify him, and he

cheered by

the sight of five rupees, which are presented to him.

he readily accepts, together with a pair of new and pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts). cloths Meanwhile the young folk have been making sport of
This
gift

him by throwing

at his

new and

old clothes big

empty

207
brinjal fruits [Solantim

KANNADIYAN
filled

Melongena)

with turmeric

powder and chunam (lime). He goes for the boys, who dodge him, and at last the elders beat off the youngsters
with the remark that
" after all

he

is

a Brahman, and

ought not

to

be

trifled

with
is

in this

way."

The Brahman
in

then takes leave, and

heard of no more

connection
has a
to the

with the wedding

conclusion that

rites.

The whole ceremony

it,

decided ring of mockery about

it

and leads one

is

celebrated more in derision than in

It is

honour of the Brahmans.

Lingayats
will

a notorious fact that the

not even accept water from a Brahman's

hands, and do not, like

many

other castes, require his

services in connection with marriage or funeral cere-

monies.
the

The practice of tying cocoanuts to the hair of Brahman seems to be confined to the bamboo section.
is

But an equally curious custom

section.

observed by the rattan

invited to the weddino-

The

villao^e

barber

is

and the

infant bride

and bridegroom are seated naked

provided with some ghl
(clarified

before him.

He

is

butter) in a cocoanut shell,

it

and has

to sprinkle

some of

on the head of the couple with a grass or reed.

He

is,

however, prevented from doing so by a somewhat

cruel contrivance.
is

big stone (representing the linga)

suspended from
fro

his

neck by a rope, and he

is

is

kept

nodding to and

by another rope which

pulled by
off,

young

lads behind him.

Eventually they leave

is

and
of

he sprinkles the ghl, and

the stone the barber

dismissed with a few annas,

pan-supari, and the remains of the ghi.

is

By means

for the

moment turned

into a

Lingayat.

The officiating priest at the marriage ceremony is a man of their own sect, and is known as the Gurukkal. They address him as Ayyanavaru, a title generally
reserved for Brahmans in Kannada-speaking districts.

KANNADIYAN
The main

2o8

items of expenditure at a wedding are the

musician, presents of clothes, and pan-supari, especially

the areca nuts.

that
it

One man, who was

for

not rich, told

me

cost him, for a marriage, three

maunds
for

of nuts,

and that guests come more

them than
fit

the meals,

which he characterised as not

for dogs.

Widow
that

remarriage

is

permitted.

But

it is

essential

the contracting

parties

should be widower and

widow.
all

the elders countenance

is

For such a marriage no pandal is erected, but it by their presence. Such a

marriage

known

as naduvittu
It is

tali,

because the

tali is

tied in the mid-house.

usually a simple

affair,

finished in a short time after sunset instead of in

and the day

time.

The

offspring of such marriages are considered

as legitimate, and can inherit.

But remarried couples

e.g.,

are disqualified from performing certain acts,

the

distribution of pan-supari at weddings, partaking in the

harathi ceremony, etc.

The

disqualifications attaching

to remarried people are, by a curious analogy, extended

to

deformed persons, who

are, in

some

cases, considered

to be

widowers and widows.

the ordinary names of males are Basappa^
;

Among

Linganna, Devanna, Ellappa, Naganna

and of females
all

Ellamma, Lingi and Nagamma.

entitled to the honorific Saudri
;

It

is

said that
title is

are

but the

specially

reserved for the agent of their sect.

nicknames are Chikka and and elder brother), Andi (beggar), Karapi (black woman),

Among common Dodda Thamma (younger

Guni (hunch back). In the Mysore Province the most becoming method of addressing a Lingayat is to call
him Sivane. and Saudri.
Their usual
titles

are Ravut, Appa, Anna,

The child-naming ceremony

is

a very important one.

in

Five swords with limes fixed to their edges are set

KAXNADIYAN.

209

KANNADIYAN
By each

a line with equi-distant spaces between them.

sword are placed two plantain

fruits,

a cocoanut, four

dried dates, two cocoanut cups, pan-supari, and karamani

[Vigna Catiang) cakes.

kinds of vegetables and

In front of the swords are also

placed rice-balls mixed with turmeric powder, various

fruits,

curds and milk.

Opposite
in front

each sword

five leaves are

spread out, and

sits.

of

each leaf a near relation of the family

The

chief

woman

of the house then brings five pots

for the

full

of water,

and gives to each man a potful jangama linga which he wears.

secrated

worship of the
the water

She

also brings con-

cow-dung ashes.
it

The men pour

in the left

over the linga, holding

hand, and smear

both the linga and their faces with the ashes.

The

woman

then

meal, at

and the guests partake of a hearty the conclusion of which the woman reappears
retires,
full

with five vessels

their hands.

of water, with which they

wash
and

The

vessels are then broken, and thrown

on a dung-heap.

After partaking of pan-supari

chunam

(lime),

each of the

men

ties

up some of the

food in a towel, takes one of the swords in his hand, and

leaves the house without turning back.

The headman

of the family then removes the limes from the swords,

and puts them back

evening the child
is

in

their

scabbards.
this

The same
ceremony,
is

named.
held

Sometimes
even
after

which
year

is

costly,

is

the child

old.

When
to

a death takes place, information

is

sent round

the

relations
sticks
in

and castemen by two boys carrying

their

little

hands.

Under the

instructions

of a priest, the inmates of the house begin to

make

arrangements

for

the funeral.

The

corpse

is

washed,

and the

priest's feet

are also washed, and the refuseis

water on the ground

in-14

poured over the corpse or into

KANNADIYAN
its

2lo
certain sections of Lingayats
it

mouth.

Among

is

customary,

contrary to the

usual

invite the friends

and

relations,

Hindu practice, to who have come for the

is

funeral, to a banquet, at
It is said

which the priest

shared by the

a guest.

that the priest, after partaking of food, vomits

it,

a portion of
family.

which

is

members
is

of the

These

practices

do not seem

to be followed

by

the Chingleput Lingayats.

second bath
corpse

given to

the corpse, and then the nine orifices of the body are closed with cotton or cloth.
as in
life,

The

is

then dressed

and,

if it

be that of a

priest, is

robed

in the
it,

characteristic orange

tawny

dress.

Before clothing

the consecrated cow-duno- ashes are smeared over the

forehead, arms, chest, and abdomen.
like a car,

The
its

bier

is

made

such as

is

seen in

temple processions on the

occasion of car festivals.

To

each of

four

bamboo
it

posts are attached a plantain tree and a cocoanut, and

is

decorated with bright flowers.

is

In the middle of the

is

bier

wooden

plank, on vvhich the corpse

set in a sit-

ting position.

The

priest touches the

dead body three

or four times with his right leg, and the funeral cortege,

accompanied by weird village music, proceeds to the burial-ground. The corpse, after removal from the bier,
is

placed in the grave in a sitting posture, facing south,

with the linga, which the

the mouth.
is
is

man had worn

during

life,

in

Salt, according to the means of the family,

thrown

into the

grave by friends and relations, and

life

it

considered that a man's

not do

this small service for

They quote
even
for

the

proverb

**

would be wasted if he did a dead fellow-casteman. Did he go unserviceable

"

a handful of

mud

The grave

is

filled

in,

and four

lights are placed at the corners.

The

priest,

standing over the head of the corpse, faces the lamps, with branches of Leucas aspera and Vitex Negundo at

211
his feet.

KANNADIYAN

cocoanut
"

is

broken and camphor burnt, and

(or

the priest says the dead

Lingannah

whatever the name of

man may be), leaving Nara Loka, you have gone to Bhu Loka," which is a Httle incongruous, for Nara Loka and Bhu Loka arc identical. Perhaps the
latter
is

a mistake for Swarga Loka, the abode of bliss

Possibly,

of Brahmanical theology.

Swarga Loka

is

not

mentioned,

because

it

signifies
!

the abode of Vishnu.

!

Then

the priest calls out

is

Oogay Oogay and

the funeral

ceremony

at

an end.

On

their

return

home

the

corpse-bearers, priest, and sons of the deceased, take

buttermilk, and apply
side of the back.
it

with the right hand to the

(the sacred bull)
set
is

left

Nandi

made

of mud, or bricks and

grave.
position.

mortar, and

up over the
in

Unmarried

girls

and boys are buried

a lying

of

From enquiries made among the Lingayats Chembarambakam, it appears that, when a death has
is

occurred, pollution

observed by the near relatives

and, even

if

they are living at such distant places as

Bellary or Bangalore, pollution must be observed, and

dissolved by a bath.

Basava attached no importance

Jatray

to pilgrimages.

The
call

Chingleput Lingayats, however, perform what they

{i.e.,

pilgrimage), of which the principal cele-

bration takes place in Chittra-Vyasi (April-May), and

is

called Virabhadra Jatray,

The bamboo
come

Lingayats of
rice,

Chembarambakam send

word, with some raw

to the

rattan Lingayats of Kadaperi to

to the festival

on

a fixed day with the image of their god Virabhadra.

The
of

Gauliyars of Kadaperi and other villages accord-

ingly proceed to a tank on the confines of the village

Chembrambakam, and send word

call

that they have

responded to the

of their brethren.

The

chief

men

of the village, accompanied by a crowd, and the village in-i4B

KANNADIYAN

212

musicians, start for the tank, and bring in the Kadaperi

guests.

After a feast

all retire for

the night, and get up

at 3 A.M. for the celebration of the festival.

Swords are
is

unsheathed from their scabbards, and there

noise from trumpets and pipes.

a deafening
of Vira-

The images

bhadra are taken

in

procession to a tank, and, on the

way

thither, the idol bearers

and others pretend that they

are inspired, and bawl out the various

names of the god.

that the people

Sometimes they become so frenzied

and wrists with a big needle, such as
is

break cocoanuts on their foreheads, or pierce their neck

used in stitching ones

gunny

bags.

Under

this treatment the inspired

calm down.

All along the route cocoanuts are broken,

to as

and may amount

many

as four hundred, which

become

the perquisite of the village washerman.

is

When
On
the

the tank

reached,

pan-supari

and

kadalai [Cicer

arietimim) are distributed

return journey,

among

the crowd.

the village washerman has to spread

over.

dupatis (cloths) for the procession to walk

At

about noon a hearty meal

is

partaken

of,

and the cereof the

mony

is

at

an end.

After a few days, a return celebration

takes place at Kadaperi.

The Virabhadra images

two sections, it may be noted, are regarded as brothers. Other ceremonial pilgrimages are also made to Tirutani, Tiruvallur and Mylapore, and they go to Tiruvallur on
and make offerings They do not to Vira Raghava, a Vaishnava deity. observe the feast of Pongal, which is so widely celebrated
days, bathe in the tank,

new moon

throughout Southern India.

the cattle bolted, and the

It

is

said that the cele-

bration thereof was stopped, because, on one occasion,

them never returned.

men who went The Ugadi, or new

in pursuit of

year

feast, is

observed by them as a day of general mourning. They also observe the Kama festival with great eclat, and one

213

KANNADIYAN
Kama.

of their national songs relates to the burning of

When

singing

it

during their journeys with the curd-pots,

they are said to lose themselves, and arrive at their

destination without

knowing the distance that they have

marched.
In addition to the grand Virabhadra festival, which
is

celebrated

annually,

the

Ariservai

festival

is

also

observed as a great occasion.

This

is

no doubt a Tamil
It

rendering of the Sanskrit Hariservai, which means the

service of Hari or worship of Vishnu.
is

strange

that

Lingayats should have this formal

it

worship of

Vishnu, and

must be a

result of their environment, as

they are surrounded on

all

sides

by Vaishnavite temples.

months before the festival a meeting of elders is convened, and it is decided that an assessment of three pies per basket shall be levied, and the Saudri
six
If a house has treasurer of the fund. two or more baskets, i.e., persons using baskets in their trade, it must contribute a corresponding number of
is

More than

made honorary

three pies.
family,
tion,
is

In other words, the basket, and not the

the unit in their

communal
is

finance.

An

invita-

Thadans (Vaishnavite dramatists) near Conjeeveram, asking them

accompanied by pan-supari,
on the
last

sent to the

to attend the festival

Saturday of Paratasi,
are consecrated to
at

the four Saturdays of which

month

Vishnu,

The Thadans
and

arrive in

due course
for

Chemfestival.

brambakam, the centre of the bamboo section of the

Lingayats,
Invitations

make arrangements
fast

the

are sent to five persons of the Lingayat

community, who

from morning

till

evening.

About
and

8 or 9 P.M., these five guests,

who perhaps

represent

priests for the occasion, arrive at the pandal (booth),

leaves are spread out before them, and a meal of rice,

dhal {CajantLs indicus) water, cakes, broken cocoanuts.

KANNADIYAN
etc.,
is

214
to

served

them.

But,

instead

of partaking

thereof,

they

sit

looking towards a lighted lamp, and

close their eyes in meditation.

to their

They then

quietly retire

homes, where they take the evening meal.

the village

After a torchlight procession with torches fed with ghi

(clarified butter)

washermen come
11 r.M,

to the

pandal, and collect together the leaves and food, which

have been

left

there.

About

the villagers repair

where a dramatic performance of Hiranya Kasyapa Natakam, or the Prahallada Charitram, is held
to the spot

during

five alternate nights.

The

latter play is

based on a

favourite story in the Bhagavatha,

it

and

it is

strange that

should be got up and witnessed by a community of Sai-

vites,

some of whom (Vira Saivas) are such extremists

that they would not tolerate the sight of a Vaishnavite at

a distance.

The Chembrambakam Lingayats appear

(worship) to the village deity,

to join the

other villagers in the performance of the annual puja

Namamdamma, who
off
is

is

worshipped
disease.

in

order to

ward

cholera and cattle

One mode
its

of propitiating her
entrails

by

sacrificing
in
is

a goat, collecting

and placing them

skin,

a pot,

with

its

mouth covered with goat

village,

which

taken
pot
is

round the

and buried

in

a corner.

The
it

called Bali Setti,

it is

and he who comes

in front of

while
to be

being carried through the

streets, is

supposed

sure to suffer from serious illness, or even die.

sacrifice,
filling

The

of the pot,
all

and

its

carriage through

the streets, are

performed by low class Occhans

assert

and Vettiyans.
will not attack
faithfully,

The Chembrambakam Lingayats

any of
their

that the cholera goddess has given a promise that she

community, and keeps

it

and none of them die even during the worst

cholera epidemics.

215

kAppiliyan

Kanni

(rope).

Kapata.

A name An Kappala
(frog).

A gotra of Kurni.
for

rag-wearing Koragas.

exogamous sept of Madiga,

and sub-division of Yanadis, who are said to be frogeaters. It is also a gotra of Janappans, who have a
legend
that,

when some

of their family were fishing, they

caught a haul of big frogs instead offish.

Consequently,
I

members

of this gotra will

not injure frogs.

have

seen frogs hanging up

for sale in the

Cochin bazar.

Kappiliyan.
thals, as

The

Kappiliyans, or

Karumpurath-

they are sometimes called, are Canarese-speaking

farmers,
velly.

who
It is

are found chiefly in

noted, in the

Madura and TinneManual of the Madura district,

;

that
it

"a few
to be

of the original Poligars were Canarese

and

is

under their auspices.

able class

presumed that the Kappiliyans immigrated They are a decent and respectof farmers. Their most common ao-nomen is
that they

Koundan (or Kavandan)." Some Kappiliyans say

came south
river,

six

or

seven generations ago, along with the Urumikkarans,

from the banks of the Tungabhadra

another tradition,

because the

Tottiyans tried to ravish their women.

According to similar to that current amono- the

Tottiyans, " the caste was oppressed by the

Musalmans
bridging an

of the north, fled across the Tungabhadra, and was saved

by two pongu {Pongavtia

travelled, says the legend,

glabi^d)

trees

unfordable stream, which blocked their escape.

They

through Mysore to Conjeeveram, thence to Coimbatore, and thence to the Madura

district.

The

stay at

Conjeeveram

is

always emphasised,
has shrines

and

is

supported by the

fact that the caste

dedicated to Kanchi Varadaraja Perumal."*

* Gazetteer of the

Madura

district.


KAPPILIYAN
2i6
the

The Kappiliyans are one of castes, who are so called because,

meetings, a kambli
(blanket)
is

nine

Kambalam
is

at their

caste council

spread,
filled
is

on which

placed a kalasam (brass vessel)

with water, and

closed by

decorated with flowers.

leaves and a cocoanut.

Its

mouth

mango

According" to the Gazetteer of

the Madura district, they are "split into two endogamous sub-divisions, namely the Dharmakattu, so called

because, out of charity, they allow widows to marry one

more husband, and the Munukattu, who permit a woman

to have three

husbands

in succession."

They

are also

said to recognise,

Vokkiliyan

(cultivator),

among themselves, four Muru Balayanoru

sub-divisions,

(three bangle

people), Bottu Kattoru (bottu tying people), Vokkulothoru, to the last of

refer.

which the following notes mainly

They have a

large

number
:

of

exogamous

septs,

which are further divided into exogamous sub-septs, of

which the following are examples

Sept.

Sub-sept.

Hennu

(female) Basiri.

B^si"y'^^

iGandu
f Loddu.

(male) Basiri.

Palingi Loddu.

Kolingi Loddu.

Lodduvoru

Uddudhoru ( Phaseolus Mimgo,

1-adiaius).

var.

Huniseyoru (tamarind people).

Mottuguni.

Manaloru, sand people.

One exogamous
as
objects,
I

sept

is

called
after

Ane

(elephant),

and

names of sub-septs, named

animate or inanimate

may mention

Hatti (hamlet), Arane (lizard)

and

Puli (tiger).

217

KAPPILIYAN
headman some places,

The
called

affairs of

the caste are regulated by a

In

Gauda, assisted by the Saundari.

the assistance of a Pallan or

is

Maravan

called Jadipillai,

sought.

Marriage
of married

is,

as a rule, adult, and the

tali

common emblem
dispensed with.

life

the

or bottu

is

day of the marriage ceremonies, the bride and bridegroom are conducted, towards evening, to the
the
first

On

houses of their maternal

sandal and turmeric paste,

uncles.

There the nalagu

ceremony, or smearing the body with Phaseolus Mttngo,

is

performed, and the uncles

place toe-rings on the feet of the contracting couple.

On
is

the following day, the bride's price

is

paid,

and

betel

distributed, in the presence of a

Kummara, Urumik-

karan, and washerman, to the villagers in a special order

of precedence.
in

On

the third day, the bridegroom goes

bride,

procession to the house of the

and

their

fingers are linked together by the maternal

uncles.

uncle or

For

this reason,

the day

is

called

Kai Kudu-

kahodina, or hand-locking day.

It is

noted,

in

the Gazetteer of the

Madura

district,

that " the binding portions of the marriage

ceremony

are the donning by the bride of a turmeric-coloured cloth

sent her

by bridegroom, and of black glass bangles

(unmarried girls

may
his

only wear bangles

made

of

lac),

and the linking of the couple's

right
to

little fingers.

man's
is

marry

paternal

aunt's

daughter

so

rigorously insisted upon that, as

ill-assorted

among

the Tottiyans,

matches are common.

too young to
fulfil

woman, whose

husband
is

is

the duties of his position,

allowed to consort with his near relations, and the

his.

children so begotten are treated as

[It is said that

if

woman

does not suffer

in reputation,

she cohabits
is

with her brothers-in-law.]

Adultery outside the caste

KAPPILIYAN

punished by expulsion, and, to show that the woman is thenceforward as good as dead, funeral ceremonies are
solemnly performed to some trinket of hers, and this
afterwards burnt."
is

At the
outside
it

first

menstrual period, a
in

girl

remains under

pollution for thirteen days,

in

a corner of the house or

land (mandai).
If

the village

common

she

remains within, her maternal uncle makes a screen, and,

if

outside, a

temporary

hut, and, in return for his services,

receives a hearty meal.

On

the thirteenth day the girl

bathes in a tank (pond), and, as she enters the house,

has to pass over a pestle and a cake.

Near the entrance,

some food is placed, which a dog is allowed to eat. While so doing, it receives a severe beating. The more
noise
it

makes, the better

If the

is

the

omen

for

a large family
it

of children.

poor brute does not howl,

bear no children.
is

is

supposed that the

thread,

girl will

cotton

dyed with turmeric,

if

tied

round her neck by a

is

married woman, and,

she herself

married, she puts

on glass bangles. The hut is burnt down and the pots she used are broken to atoms. The caste deities are said to be Lakkamma and
Vira

Lakkamma, but they

septs

also worship other deities,

such as Chenraya, Thimmappa, and Siranga Perumal.

Certain

seem

to

have particular
is

deities,

whom

they worship.
Dasiriyoru, and

Thus Thimmaraya

reverenced by the

Malamma by the Hattiy5ru. The dead are as a rule cremated, but children, those who have died of cholera, and pregnant women, are
buried.
burial,

In the case of the

last,

the child

is,

before
funeral
lines

removed from the mother's body.

Fire
is

The

ceremonies are carried out very much on the

those of the Tottiyans.

of

carried to the burning

ground by a Chakkiliyan.

On

the last day of the death

219

KAPPILIYAN

ceremonies (karmandiram) cooked food, fruits of Solanum xantkocarpimi, and leaves of Leucas aspera are
placed on a tray, by the side of which a bit of a culm
of Saccharum

arundinaceum,
it,

with leaves of Cynodon

deposited.

Dactylon twined round

is

The

tray

is
is

taken to a stream, on the bank of which an effigy

made, to which the various

small quantity thereof
is

articles

are

offered.

placed on arka

{Calotropis
the return

giganted) leaves, to be eaten by crows.

On

journey to the house, three men, the brother-in-law or father-in-law of the deceased, and two sapindas (agnates)
stand in a row at
before
right
'a

certain spot.

cloth

is

stretched

them as a screen, over which they place their These a washerman touches thrice with hands.

Cynodon leaves dipped in milk, cow's urine, and turmeric The washerman then washes the hands with water. All the agnates place new turbans on their water.
heads, and go back in procession to the village, accom-

panied by a Urimikkaran and washerman, who must be

present throughout the ceremony.

For the following note on the Kappiliyans of the

Kambam
which
cattle.
is

valley, in the

Madura

district,

am

indebted

to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

According

to a tradition

original

among them, they migrated from their home in search of new grazing ground for their The herd, which they brought with them, still
current

lives in its

descendants
well

in the valley,

which are

small,

active animals,
It is

known
fifty

for their trotting powers.

about a hundred and

in

strong,

and

is

called devaru

avu

Canarese, and thambiran

madu

in Tamil,

both

meaning the sacred herd. The cows are never milked, and their calves, when they grow up, are not used for any purpose, except breeding. When the cattle die, they are buried deep in the ground, and not handed

KAPPILIYAN

220

over to Chakkiliyans (leather-workers).

bulls
It is

One

of the
bull.

goes by the name of pattada avu, or the king selected from the herd by a quaint ceremonial.

On
offer

an auspicious day, the castemen assemble,

incense, camphor, cocoanuts, plantains,

and

and betel
is

to the

herd.

Meanwhile, a bundle of sugar-cane

placed in
to see

front thereof,

and the spectators eagerly watch

it

which of the bulls will reach

does so
is

first.

The

animal which

caught hold
flow^ers,

of,

daubed with turmeric, and

installed as the

decorated with
It is

and

king

bull.

styled

Nanda Gopala,

or Venugopalaswami,
is

after

Krishna, the divine cattle-grazer, and

adoration by the caste.

an object of

To meet

the expenses of the

ceremony, which amount to about two hundred rupees,

a subscription
is

raised

among them.

The king

bull

has a special attendant, or driver, whose duties are to

graze and worship
section of the
it.

He
is

belongs to the Maragala

caste.

Endar sub-division of the

appointed
in

When

he

dies,

successor

the

following

manner.
is

Before the assembled castemen, puja (worship)

offered to the sacred herd,

and a young boy,

"

upon

whom

the god comes," points out a

man from among

the Maragalas,

who becomes
Is

the next driver.

He enjoys

the inams, and

to the

the custodian of the jewels presented

king

bull in

former days, and of the copper plates,

in
its

whereon grants made

name

are engraved.

As

many

as nine of these copper grants were entrusted to

the keeping of a youthful driver, about sixteen years

old, in 1905.

Most

of

them record grants from unknown

a king of Gudalur,
is

kings.

One Ponnum Pandyan,

bull.

recorded as having made

presents to the
Ballala

grants of land,

and other
from

Others record

gifts of land

Raya and Rama Rayar. Only the names of the years are recorded. None of the plates contain the saka

221
dates.
hills

KAPPILIYAN

Before the annual migration of the herd to the

is

during the summer, a ceremony

is

carried out, to

determine whether the king bull

in favour of its

going.

Two

plates,

one containing milk, and the other sugar,

Unless, or until the bull

are placed before the herd.

has come up to them, and gone back, the migration

does not take place.

The

driver, or

some one deputed

which
is

to represent him, goes with the herd,

accom-

panied by most of the cattle of the neighbouring villages.

The

driver

is

said to carry a pot of fresh-drawn milk

within a kavadi (shrine).

On
is

the day on

return journey to the valley

which the commenced, the pot is

opened, and the milk

state.

is

said to be found in a hardened

is

slice

thereof

cut

off,

and given
in

to

each
It is

person who accompanied the herd to the

believed that the milk
tion, if the

hills.

would not remain

good condiinjuriously

sacred herd had been in any

its

way

affected during

sojourn there.

recruited by certain calves

The sacred herd is dedicated as members thereof

by people of other castes in the neighbourhood of the These calves, born on the ist of the month valley.
Thai (January-February),
are

dedicated to

the

god

Nandagopala, and are known as sanni pasuvu.

slightly torn.

They
or

are branded on the legs or buttocks, and their ears are

They

are

not

used

for

ploughing

milking, and cannot be sold.

They

are added to the

sacred herd, but the male calves are kept distinct from
the male calves thereof.

Many

miracles are attributed

fight

to the successive king bulls.

During the

between
which
bull

the Tottiyans and Kappiliyans at Dindigul, a king bull

left

on the rock the permanent imprint of

believed to be visible.
castes, at
its

its

hoof,

is still

At a subsequent quarrel
Dombacheri, a king
course,

between the same

made the sun

turn back in

and the shadow

KAPU
is
still

222
pointed under a tamarind tree beneath which

For the assistance rendered by the bull on this occasion, the Maragalas will not use the wood of the tamarind tree, or of the vela tree, to which
arbitration took place.

the bull was

tied,

either for fuel or for house-building.

The Kappiliyans have

by taxing
all

recently (1906) raised Rs. 11,000

of the caste in the Periyakulam

members

taluk for three years, and have spent this

sum

in building

roomy masonry quarters

fees are levied
cattle,

at

Kambam
is

for the

sacred herd.

Their chief grievance at present

on their
is

same grazing animals as on mere ordinary

that the

which, they urge,

equivalent to treating gods as

equals of men.
"

In the settlement of caste affairs, oaths

are taken within the enclosure for the sacred herd.

Local tradition at
of the

Kambam

(where a large proporsays

that
in

tion

people

are

Kappiliyans)
caste,

the

Anuppans, another

Canarese
in the

were

great arose

strength here in olden days, and that quarrels

between the two bodies,

of the Kappiliyans,

course of which the chief

killed.

Ramachcha Kavundan, was

dying breath he cursed the Anuppans, and thenceforth they never prospered, and now not one of

With
them
cha's

his

is left is

in the

town.

A
;

fig tree

to the east of the

village

shown body was

as

marking the place where Ramachburned near it is the tank, the

;

Ramachchankulam

and under the bank of

this is his

math, where his ashes were deposited." *

Kapu. The Kapus

in the

or Reddis are the largest caste

Madras Presidency, numbering more than two and are the great caste of cultivators, farmers, and squireens in the Telugu country. In the Gazetteer of Anantapur they are described as being the great
millions,
* Gazetteer of the

Madura

district.

223
land-holding"
in

KAPU
districts,

body

in the

Telugu

who

are held

much

respect as substantial, steady-going yeomen, and

next to the Brahmans are the leaders of Hindu Society.

In the Salem
provident.

Manual

it is

stated that "the Reddis are

They spend their money on the land, but are They are always well dressed, if they not parsimonious. afford it. gold ornaments worn by the women can The Their houses or the men are of the finest kind of gold.
are always neat and well built, and the Reddis give the
idea of
(grain
race."
:

good substantial
Eleusine

ryots.

They

live chiefly
fine,

on ragi

Coracana), and are a

powerful
"

Of proverbs

relating to the hereditary occupation

of the Reddis, the following

may be
"

quoted.

Only a

Reddi can

cultivate the land,

even though he has to

drink for every clod turned over."

Those are Reddis

"

who

get their living by cultivating the earth,"

The

Reddi who grows arika [Paspalum strobiculatuvi) can have but one cloth for man and wife."
"

The term Kapu," Mr. H.

A. Stuart writes,* " means

a watchman, and Reddi means a king.

The Kapus

or

Reddis (Ratti) appear to have been a powerful Dravidian

tribe in the early centuries of the Christian era, for they

have

left

traces of their presence at various places in

almost every part of India.

Though

their

power has

been put down from time to time by the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, and the Bellalas, several families of zamindars

came

into existence after the captivity of Pratapa

Rudra

of Warrangal in A. D. 1323 by the

Muhammadan emperor

Ghiyas-ud-din Toghluk."

Writing
ing the
that

in

the Manual of the Salem district concern-

Kongu kingdom, the Rev. T. Foulkes states "the Kongu kingdom claims to have existed from
^Madras Census
Report, 1891.

KAPU

224
era,

about the commencement of the Christian

and

to

have continued under

to nearly the end of

own independent kings down the ninth century A.D., when it

its

was conquered by the Chola kings of Tanjore, and annexed to their dominions. The earliest portion of
the

Kongu

Chronicle (one of the manuscripts of the

collection) gives a series of short notices of

Mackenzie
previous to

the reigns of twenty-eight kings

its

who
:

ruled the country

conquest by the Cholas.

distinct dynasties

These kings

belonged to two

the earlier line was

of the solar race, and the later line of the Gano-a race.

The

earlier

dynasty had a succession of seven kings

of the Ratti tribe, a tribe very extensively distributed,

which has

at various periods left its

mark throughout

almost every part of India.

reference to

This

is

probably the earliest

them

as a ruling power,

southern

situation in
in

and it is the most which they ever held dominion.

parts

They

disappear

these
;

about the end of the

second century A.D.

to them,

and, in the next historical references

them high up in the Northern Dakkan, kingdoms conquered by the Chalukyas amongst the about the fourth century A.D. soon after they first crossed the Nerbudda. In the Kongu Chronicle they
find

we

are stated to be of the solar race

of this tribe accordingly trace

and the genealogies

to

them up

Kusha, the

second son of Rama, the hero of the great solar epic of but their claim to this descent is not the Hindus
;

undisputed.

They

are,

however,

sometimes

said

to

be of the lunar race, and of the Yadava tribe, though this latter statement is sometimes confined to the
later Rathors."

According to the Rev. T. Foulkes, the

found under various forms,
Rahtor, Rathaur,
e.g.,

name
Iretti,

Ratti

is

Irattu,

Radda,
etc.

Rashtra-kuta,

Ratta,

Reddi,

KAPU.

225
In a

kApu
Mr.
J.

note on the Rashtrakutas,

F.

Fleet

writes * that "

we

find that,

from the

first

appearance of
fifth

the Chalukyas in this part of the country, in the

century A.D., the Kanarese districts of the

Bombay

Presidency were held

interruption of their

by them, with short periods of power caused by the invasions of

about the early part or the middle of the eighth century A.D. Their part of the country then ceased entirely sway over this
to
for a time.

the Pallavas and other kings,

down

This was due to an invasion by the RashtraIt is difficult

kuta kings, who, like their predecessors, came from the

north
first

....

to say

when
in

there was

a Rashtrakuta kingdom.
of the family are
inscriptions.
I,

The

earliest notices that

we have
Chalukya

contained

the western
tell

Thus, the Miraj plates

others,

us

that Jayasimha

restored the fortunes of the Chalukya

dynasty by

defeating,

Rashtrakuta family,

among who was

one Indra of the

the son of Krishna, and

;

who possessed an army

there
is

of eight hundred elephants

and

little

doubt that Appayika-Govinda, who, as

we

are told in the Aihole Meguti inscription,

the north and invaded the Chalukya

came from kingdom with his

II,

troops of elephants, and was repulsed by Pulikesi

also

belonged to this same dynasty.

that in the

It

is

plain, therefore,

fifth and sixth centuries A.D. the Rashtrakuta was one of considerable importance in central or dynasty

in

northern India.

The

later inscriptions state that the

Rashtrakutas were of the Somavamsa or lunar race, and

were descendants of Yadu.

to look

Dr. Burnell seems inclined upon the family as of Dravidian origin, as he

'

gives

'

Rashtra

as an instance of the Sanskritising of

it

Dravidian names, and considers

to be a mythological

* Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the

Bombay

Presidency.

III-15


KAPU
perversion for
*

226
Ratta
,'

which

is

the same as the Kanarese

is

and Telugu

Reddi.'

Dr. Biihler

unable to record

any opinion as

to 'whether the Rashtrakutas

were an

Aryan Kshatriya, i.e., Rajput race, which immigrated into the Dekkan from the north like the Chalukyas, or a Dravidian family which was received into the Aryan community after the conquest of the Dekkan. The earliest inscriptions, at any rate, show them as coming
from the north, and, whatever

word Rashtrakuta
official

is

used

in

may be their origin, as the many inscriptions of other

i.e.,

dynasties as the equivalent of Rashtrapati,

as an

word meaning 'the headman or governor of a

district,'
it

country or
of
it

appears to

me

that the selection

as a dynastic

name

implies that, prior to attaining

independent sovereignty, the Rashtrakutas were feudal

chiefs

under some previous dynasty, of which they have

a

not preserved any record."

It is

common

saying
all

among

the

Kapus
rice,

that they

can easily enumerate

the varieties of
all

but

it

is

impossible to give the names of

the sections into

which the caste

is

split up.

Some

say that there are

only fourteen of these, and use the phrase Panta padnalagu kulalu, or Panta and fourteen sections.

The

following

sub-divisions

are
:

recorded

by Mr.

Stuart * as being the most important

Ayodhya, or Oudh,

where Rama

is

reputed to

The sub-division is found in Madura and They are very proud of their supposed Tinnevelly. connection with Oudh. At the commencement of the
have
lived.

marriage ceremony, the bride's party asks the bridegroom's

who they Ayodhya Reddis.

* Loc.
cit.,

are,

and the answer

similar question

is is

that they are

then asked by

and Manual of the North Arcot

district.

227

kApu

the bridegroom's party, and the bride's friends reply that

they are Mithila Reddis.

The chief Tel ugu trading caste. Many of the Balijas are now engaged in cultivation, and this accounts for so many having returned Kapu as their main caste, for Kapu is a common Telugu word for a
Balija.

ryot or cultivator.

It is

not improbable that there was

once a closer connection than now between the Kapus and Balijas.

Bhumanchi (good
Desur.
called Desur,

earth).

Possibly residents originally of a place

though some derive the word from deha,

body, and sura, valour, saying that they were renowned

for their courage.

Gandi Kottai. Found in Madura and Tinnevelly. Named after Gandi Kota in the Ceded districts, whence
they are said to have emigrated southward.

Gazula (glass bangle makers).

the Balijas.

sub-division of

They

are said to have two sections, called

Naga
to

(cobra) and Tabelu (tortoise), and, in

their

some

places,

keep

women

gosha.
to

in

Kammapuri. These seem some places, pass as Kapus.

Kammas, who, Some Kammas, for

be

who have settled themselves Kapu or Reddi.

example,

in the city of

Madras,

call

Morasa.

sub-division of the Vakkaligas.

Verala icche Kapulu, or Kapus

have a custom which requires

born
in

The who give the fingers, that, when a grandchild is

joints of the third

a family, the wife of the eldest son of the grandlast

father

must have the

two

and

fourth fingers of her right hand amputated at a temple of Bhairava.

Nerati,

Nervati, or

Neradu.

Most numerous

in

Kurnool, and the Ceded

III-15 B

districts.

kApu
Oraganti.
salt-pans.

228
Said to have formerly worked
in

the
of

The

name

is

possibly

corruption

Warangal, capital of the Pratapa Rudra.

Pakanati.

Those who come from the

eastern

country (prak nadu).

Palle.
in

In

some

places, the Pallis

who have

settled

the Telugu country call themselves Palle Kapulu, and

give as their gotra

Jambumaha Rishi, which is the gotra of the Pallis. Though they do not intermarry with the Kapus, the Palle Kapulu may intcrdine with them. Panta (Panta, a crop). The largest sub-division
of
all.

Pedaganti or

Pedakanti.

named
word
is

after a

place called Pedagallu.

By some said to be By others the

and
turns his eyes

said to be derived from peda, turned aside,

eye,

kamma
tion
is

indicating one

who

away
are

from the person

that
it

who speaks

to him.

Another sugges-

means

stiff-necked.

The Pedakantis

said to be

known by
"

their arrogance.
is

The
Records.*

following legend

narrated in the Baramahal

On

a time, the

Guru

or Patriarch

came

near a village, and put up in a neighbouring grove until

he sent
approach.

in

Dasari to apprize his sectaries of his

The

Dasari called at the house of one of

them, and announced the arrival of the Guru, but the

master of the house took no notice of him, and, to avoid

away through the back door of the which is called peradu, and by chance came to house, the grove, and was obliged to pay his respects to the Guru, who asked if he had seen his Dasari, and he
the Guru, he ran

answered that he had been

all

day from home.

On

which, the Guru sent for the Dasari, and

demanded the

* Section III, Inhabitants, Madras Government Press, 1907.

2 29

KAPU

reason of his staying away so long, when he saw the master of the house was not in it. The Dasari replied
that the person
that,

was

at

home when he went

fled
true,

there, but

on seeing him, he

through the back door,

he surnamed him the which the Guru finding Peratiguntavaru or the runaway through the back door,

now
and

corruptly called

Perdagantuwaru, and said that he

visit,

would never honour him with another

his

and that he

descendants should henceforth have no Guru or

Patriarch."

Pokanadu (poka, areca palm Areca Cateclm). Kapus from a foreign (veli) country. Velanati.
:

Yerlam.
"

The

last

division,"
all,

Mr. Stuart writes.

" are

the

most peculiar of
descent.

and are partly of Brahmanical

The

story goes that a

Brahman

girl

named

Yerlamma, not having been married by her parents in childhood, as she should have been, was for that reason turned out of her caste. A Kapu, or some say a Besta
and to him she bore many In children, the ancestors of the Yerlam Kapu caste. consequence of the harsh treatment of Yerlamma by
man, took compassion on
her,

her parents and caste people,

all

her descendants hate

Brahmans with a deadly

hatred,

and look down upon

them, affecting also to be superior to every other caste.

They

any caste whatever, or even to take chunam (lime for chewing with betel) from any but their own people, whereas
are most exclusive, refusing to eat with

Brahmans will take lime from a Sudra, provided a little curd be mixed with it. The Yerlam Kapus do not employ priests of the Brahman or other religious classes even for their marriages. At these no homam (sacred fire) ceremony is performed, and no worship offered to
Vigneswara, but they simply ascertain a fortunate day


kApu
230
to tie the

and hour, and get an old matron (sumangali)

tali

to the bride's neck, after

which there

is

feasting

and

merry-making."

The Panta Kapus

are said to be divided into two

viz.,
;

tegas or endogamous divisions,

Muduru Kapu (ripe or old Kapu) or Letha Kapu (young or unripe Kapus). A subdivision called Konda (hill) Kapus is mentioned by the
Rev.
J.

Perama Reddi or and Katama Reddi

Cain * as being engaged

in

in cultivation

and the

timber trade
river {see

the eastern ghats near the Godavari

Konda

Dora).

Akula

(betel-leaf seller)

was

returned at the census, 1901, as a sub-caste of Kapus.

In the Census Report, 1891,
vator),
is

Kapu

(indicating culti-

given

as

sub-division

of

Chakkiliyans,
It

Dommaras, Gadabas, Savaras and

cultivators in the

Telis.

further

Some Maratha Telugu country are known as Are Kapu. The Konda Doras are also called Konda Kapus. In the Census Report, 1901, Pandu is returned as a Tamil synonym, and Kampo as an Oriya form of Kapu.
occurs as a sub-division of Mangala.

Reddi

is

the usual

title

of the Kapus, and

is

is

the

title

by which the village munsiff

called in

the Telugu

country, regardless of the caste to which he

may

belong.

Reddi

also occurs as a sub-division of cultivating

Linga

Telugu Vadukans or Vadugans in the Tamil It is further given as country, Velamas, and Yanadis. a name for Kavarais engaged in agriculture, and as a title of the Kallangi sub-division of Pallis, and Sadars. The name Sambuni Reddi is adopted by some Palles
Balijas,

engaged as fishermen. As examples of exogamous septs among the Kapus,

the following

may be

cited

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.


231
Avula, cow.
Alia, grain.

kapu
Mekala, goats.
Kanugala, Ponganiia glabra.

Bandi, cart.
Barrelu, buffaloes.

Mungaru, woman's
Nagali, plough.

skirt.

Dandu, army.
Gorre, sheep.

Tangedu, Cassia auriculata.

Udumala, Varanus

bengalensis.

Gudise, hut.

Varige, Setaria italica.

Guntaka, harrow.
Kodla, fowl.

Yeddulu,

bulls.

Yenuga, elephant.

At Conjeeveram,
totemistic septs, of
Magili

some Panta Reddis

have

true
:

which the following are examples {Pandamis jascicularis). Women do not, like women
has been

of

other castes, use the flower-bracts for the purpose of adorning themselves.

A man

known

to refuse to

purchase some bamboo

mats, because they were tied with the fibre of this tree.

Ippi {Bassia longifolia).

The

tree,

and

its

products,

must not

be touched.

Mancham
food.

(cot).

They avoid

sleeping on cots.

Arigala {Paspalum scrobiculatum).

The

grain

is

not used as

Chintaginjalu (tamarind seeds).

or used.

The

seeds

may

not be touched,

Puccha
eaten.

{Citriillus vulgaris;

water melon).

The

fruit

may not be

The
beg

Pichigunta vandlu, a class of mendicants

who

chiefly from

Kapus and

Gollas, manufacture pedi-

grees and gotras for these castes and the

Kammas.

Concerning the origin of the Kapus, the following legend is current. During the reign of Pratapa Rudra,
the wife of one Belthi Reddi secured by severe penance

brilliant ear

ornament (kamma) from the sun.

for his
it,

This was

stolen

by the King's minister, as the King was very

it

anxious to secure

wife.

Belthi Reddi's wife

told her sons to recover

but her eldest son refused

to have anything

to

do with the matter, as the King

was involved

in

it.

The second son

likewise refused,

KAPU
and used
secure
it,

232
foul

language.

The

third son

promised to

and, hearing this, one of his brothers ran away.

Finally the ornament was recovered by the youngest

son.

The Panta Kapus

son,

are said to be descended from

the eldest

the

Pakanatis

from the second, the

Velamas from the son who ran away, and the Kammas
from the son

who secured The Kapus are said

the jewel.
to

have originally dwelt

in

During the reign of Bharata, one Pillala his sons deceived the King by appropriating all the grain to themselves, and giving him The fraud was detected by Rama when he the straw.
Ayodhya.

Mari Belthi Reddi and

assumed charge of the kingdom, and, as a punishment,

he ordered the Kapus to bring Cucurbita (pumpkin)
fruits

for

the sradh (death ceremony)

of

Dasaratha.

They

accordingly cultivated the plant, but, before the

ceremony took place, all the plants were uprooted by Hanuman, and no fruits were forthcoming. In lieu thereof, they promised to offer gold equal in weight to that of the pumpkin, and brought all of which they
were possessed.
This they placed
in

the scales, but

it

was not
which
it

sufficient to

counterbalance a pumpkin against

was weighed.

weight, the

To make up the deficiency in women removed their bottus (marriage Kapu

Since that time

badges), and placed them in the scales.

women
It is

of the Motati and Pedakanti sections have sub-

stituted a cotton string

dyed with turmeric

for the bottu.

is

worthy of notice that a similar legend

the Vakkaligas (cultivators)

current

among

of Mysore, who,
to

instead of giving up the bottu,

seem

have abandoned

the cultivation of the

Cucurbita plant.

The exposure

of the fraud led Belthi Reddi to leave

of his wives

Ayodhya with one

and seventy-seven

children, leaving behind

thirteen wives.

In the course of their journey, they had

PAXTA KAPU.

233
to cross the Silanadi (petrifying river), and,
if

KAPU
they passed

through the water, they would have become petrified. So they went to a place called Dhonakonda, and, after worshipping Ganga, the head of the idol was cut off, and

brought to the river bank.

The

waters, like those of the

Red Kapus crossed on dry ground. In commemoration of this event, the Kapus still worship Ganga during their
Sea in the time of Pharaoh, were divided, and the
marriage ceremonies.
vellers

After crossing the river, the tra-

came to the temple of Mallikarjuna, and helped the Jangams in the duties of looking after it. Some time afterwards the Jangams left the place for a time, and placed
the temple in charge of the Kapus.

On

their return, the

it

Kapus

refused to hand over charge to them, and

was

decided that whoever should go to Nagalokam (the abode

of snakes), and bring back

Naga

Malligai (jasmine from

snake-land), should be considered the rightful

owner of
went
in

the temple.

The Jangams, who were

skilled in the art

of transformation, leaving their mortal frames,

search of the flower in the guise of

spirits.

Taking

advantage of
bodies
for

this,

the

Kapus burnt
spirits

the bodies of the

Jangams, and, when the

returned, there were no

them to enter. Thereon the god of the temple became angry, and transformed the Jangams into
crows, which attacked the Kapus,
of Oraganti Pratapa Rudra.

who
this

fled to the

country

As

King was a Sakti

worshipper, the crows ceased to harass the Kapus,

settled

who

down

as cultivators.

Of the produce
this

of the land,

nine-tenths were to be given to the King, and the

Kapus

were to keep a

tithe.

At

time the wife of Belthi

to be born.

Reddi was pregnant, and she asked her sons what they

would give
all

to the son

who was about

poet,

They
child

promised to give him half their earnings.

into a learned

The

grew

man and

and one day carried

KAPU
water to the
field

234

where

his brothers

were

at work.

The

vessel containing the water was only a small one, and

enough water for all. But he prayed to Sarasvati, with whose aid the vessel was always filled up. Towards evening, the grain collected during the day was heaped together, with a view to setting apart the share for the King. But a dispute arose among the brothers, and it was decided that only a tithe should be given to him. The King, being annoyed with the Kapus for not giving him his proper share, waited for an opportunity to bring disgrace on Belthi Reddi, and sought the assistance of a Jangam, who managed to become After some time, he the servant of Belthi Reddi's wife. picked up her kamma when it fell off while she was asleep, and handed it over to Pratapa Rudra, who caused it to be proclaimed that he had secured the ornament as
there was not

a preliminary to securing the person of

eldest

its

owner.

The

son
in

of Belthi

Reddi, however,

recovered the

kamma

a fight with the King, during which he car-

ried his youngest brother

on

his back.

From him

the

Kammas

are

descended.

The Velamas

are descended

from the sons

who

ran away, and the

Kapus from those

lasts,
I

who would

neither fight nor run away.

first

Pollution at the

menstrual ceremony

am

Every day, both morning and evening, a dose of gingelly (Sesamum) oil is admininformed, for sixteen days.
istered to the girl, and,
is

if it

produces much purging, she

treated with buffalo ghi (clarified butter).

is

On

alter-

nate days water

poured over her head, and from the

neck downwards.

The

cloth

which she wears, whether

new

or old,

becomes the property of the washerwoman.

day the meals consist of milk and dhal {Cajetc.,

On

the

first

amts indicus), but on subsequent days cakes,

allowed.

are

235

KAPU

In their marriage ceremonial, the Panta Reddis of the South Arcot and Salem districts appear to follow the

Brahmanical form.
is

In the Telugu country, however,

the

it

pradhanam or betrothal day, the party of the bridegroom-elect go in procession under a canopy (ulladam), attended by musicians, and matrons carrying betel, cocoanuts, date and plantain fruits, and
as follows.

On

turmeric on plates.
the

As soon

as they have arrived at

courtyard of the future bride's

house,

she seats

herself
little

on a plank.

Brahman purohit moulds a

it

turmeric paste into a conical mass representing

is

Vigneswara (the elephant god), and

worshipped

by the

girl, in front

of

whom

the trays brought by the

women

are placed.
on,

which she puts

She is presented with a new cloth, and a near female relation gives her
up
in

three handfuls of areca nuts, a few betel leaves, and the

bride-price and jewels tied

a turmeric-dyed cloth.
in

All

these things the girl

deposits

her lap.

The
betel,

fathers of the contracting couple then

exchange

with the customary formula.

the
girl

money mine
mine."

"

and

"

The girl is yours, and The money is yours, and the

"

Early on the wedding morning the bride-

groom's party, accompanied by a purohit and washerman

(Tsakala),

go
is

to fetch the bride from her house.

The
Odina
the

milk-post

set up,

and
or,

is

usually

made

of a branch of

Mimusops hexandra
Wodier.

in

the Tamil country,

On

the conclusion of the marriage

rites,

Odina post is planted in the backyard, and, if it takes root and flourishes, it is regarded as a happy omen for the newly married couple. A small party of Kapus, taking with them some food and gingelly (Sesamtim)
oil,

proceed

in

procession

beneath a canopy to the

house of a washerman (Tsakala), in order to obtain froni him a framework made of bamboo or sticks over which

KAPU
cotton

236
threads are

wound (dhornam), and the Ganga The food is presented idol, which ii kept in his custody. Receiving to him, and some rice poured into his cloth. find the dhornam these things, he says that he cannot
idol

and
oil.

without a torch-light, and demands gingelly

is

This

given to him, and the Kapus return with

idol to the

the

washerman carrying the dhornam and

marriage house.
thereto,

When

they arrive at the entrance

red coloured food, coloured water (arathi) and

idol,

incense are waved before the

which

is

taken into a
is

room, and placed on a

then asked to
tie

settle of rice.

The washerman

the

dhornam

to the pandal (marriage

booth) or roof of the house, and he demands some paddy,

which
he
ties

is

heaped up on the ground.

Standing thereon,
next proceed to the

the dhornam.

The people

houses of the goldsmith and potter,

and bring back

the bottu (marriage badge) and thirteen marriage pots,

on which threads (kankanam) are tied before they are removed. A Brahman purohit ties the thread round

The pots are The placed in the room along with the Ganga idol. bottu is tied round the neck of a married woman who The contracting is closely related to the bridegroom.
one
pot,

and the Kapus round the

rest.

couple are seated with the ends of their clothes tied

together.

barber comes with a cup of water, and a

is

tray containing rice dyed with turmeric

floor.

placed on the

number
silver or

of

men and women

in

then scatter rice

over the heads of the bride and bridegroom, and, after

waving a
it

copper coin

front of them,

throw

into the barber's cup.

The

barber then pares the

finger

and toe

nails of the

bridegroom, and touches the

razor.

toe nails of the bride with his

They then go
oil

through the nalagu ceremony, being smeared with

and Phaseolus Mungo paste,

and bathe.

After the bath

237

KAPU

the bridegroom, dressed in his wedding finery, proceeds

to the temple.

As he

him a

pair of shoes,

given food placed in

Madiga hands which he puts on. The Madiga is At the a basket on eleven leaves.
leaves the house, a

temple worship
panegyrist),

is

performed, and a Bhatrazu (bard and

has accompanied the bridegroom, ties

who

a bashingham (chaplet) on his forehead.

From

this

moment
on
his

the Bhatrazu must remain with the bridegroom,

as his personal attendant, painting the sectarian marks

forehead, and carrying out other functions.

In

like

manner, a

waits on the
" is that the

Bhogam woman (dedicated prostitute) "The tradition," Mr. Stuart writes, bride.
Bhatrazus were a northern caste,

which
A.D.).

was

first

invited south

by king Pratapa Rudra of the

(i

Kshatriya dynasty of Warrangal

295-1 323

After the downfall of that kingdom they seem to have

become court bards and panegyrists under the Reddi and Velama feudal chiefs." From the temple the bridegroom and his party come to the marriage pandal, and, after food and other things have been waved to avert
the evil eye, he enters the house.
brother-in-law washes his
feet,

On

the threshold his

and

sits

thereon

till

he

has extracted some

money

or a

cow

as a present.
dais,

The

bridegroom then goes

bride
is

to the

marriage

whither the

conducted, and stands facing him, with a screen

interposed between them.

Vigneswara

is

worshipped,

and the wrist threads (kankanam) are

tied on, the bride-

groom placing his right foot on the left foot of the bride. The bottu is removed from the neck of the married woman,
passed round to be blessed, and tied by the bridegroom

on the bride's neck.

with

The
is

bride

is

lifted

up by her
sit

maternal uncle, and the couple sprinkle each other

rice.

The

screen

removed, and they

side

by
is

side with the ends of their cloths tied together.

Rice

KAPU

238

thrown over them by those assembled, and they are

made

to gaze at

the pole star (Arundati).

The

pro-

ceedings terminate by the pair searching for a fingerring and pap-bowl in one of the pots
filled

with water.

On

the second day there

is

is

feasting,

and the nalagu

ceremony
at

again performed.

On

the following day,

the bridegroom and his party pretend to take offence

some thing which is done by the bride's people, who follow them with presents, and a reconciliation is Towards evening, a ceremony called speedily effected.
nagavali, or sacrifice to the Devatas,
bridal
pair,
is

performed.

The

with the Bhatrazu and

dais.

Bhogam woman,

occupy the
to

The Brahman
is

purohit places on a

tray ajconical

mass of turmeric representing Vigneswara,

done.

whom

puja (worship)

He

then places a
its

brass vessel (kalasam)

filled

with water, and with

mouth
on a
the
the

closed by a cocoanut, on a settle of rice spread

The kalasam is worshipped as representing The Brahman invokes the blessing of all Devatas.
tray.

Gods and Devatas, saying

sits

"

Let Siva bless the pair,"

" Let Indra bless the pair," etc.

near relative of the

bridegroom
betel leaves

by the side of the purohit with plenty of

nuts.

and areca

After each

God

or

Devata

has been mentioned, he throws some of the nuts and

leaves into a tray, and, as these are the perquisites of the

may repeat the same name three or four The Kapu then makes playful remarks about the times. greed of the purohit, and, amid much laughter, refuses to
purohit,

he

put any more leaves or nuts in the tray.

front of him, and, with

This ceremonial

concluded, the near relations of the bridegroom stand in

hands crossed, hold over

leaves
in

his

head

two brass
is

plates,

into

which a small quantity of milk

poured.

Fruit,

betel

and areca nuts (pana recognised order of

supari) are next distributed

239
precedence.

KAPU
is

The

first

presentation

made
is

to the

house

god, the second to the family priest, and the third to the

Brahman

purohit.

If

a Pakanati

Kapu

present, he

must receive

his share

immediately after the Brahman,

and before other Kapus, Kammas, and others. Before it is presented to each person, the leaves and nuts are touched by the bridegroom, and the hand of the bride
is

placed on them by the

the

Bhogam woman.
idol,

Kapu wedding,

Ganga
is

At a Panta together with a goat and

rice,

a kavadi (bamboo pole with baskets of

leaves and areca nuts),

cakes, betel

pond or temple. The washerman, dressed up as a woman, heads the procession, and keeps on dancing and singing
carried in procession to a
till

the destination

is

reached.

The

idol is

placed inside

a rude triangular hut made of three sheaves of straw,

and the
it.

articles

brought

in

the baskets are spread before

On

the heap of rice small lumps of flour paste are

placed,

and these are made

into lights

by scooping out
and
it is

cavities,

and feeding the wicks with ghi (clarified butter).

is

One

of the ears of the goat

then

cut,

brought

near the food.

This done, the lights are extinguished,

and the assembly returns home without the least noise. The washerman takes charge of the idol, and goes his way. If the wedding is spread over five days, the Ganga idol is removed on the fourth day, and the customary mock-ploughing ceremony performed on the fifth. The
marriaee ceremonies close with the removal of the threads

from the wrists of the newly married couple.

the Panta
is

Among
idol

Redd is

of the Tamil country, the

Ganga

taken

in

procession by the washerman two or three

days before the marriage, and he goes to every Reddi

house, and receives a present of money.

The
"

idol is
till

then set up in the verandah, and worshipped daily

the conclusion of the marriage ceremonies.

Among

KAPU
young woman
of a

240
Dr.
J.

the Reddis of TInnevelly,"

of sixteen
or

Shortt writes,

" a
is

twenty years of age

frequently married to a boy of five or six years, or even

more tender age. After marriage she, the wife, lives with some other man, a near relative on the maternal side, frequently an uncle, and sometimes with the boy -husband's own father. The progeny so begotten When he comes of are affiliated on the boy-husband. age, he finds his wife an old woman, and perhaps past So he, in his turn, contracts a liaison child-bearing. with some other boy's wife, and procreates children."

The custom

has doubtless been adopted in imitation of

the Maravans, Kalians, Agamudaiyans, and other castes,

the

among whom the Reddis have settled. In an account of Ayodhya Reddis of Tinnevelly, Mr. Stuart writes
that
it is

stated that " the

tali

is

peculiar, consisting of

a number of cotton threads besmeared with turmeric,

without any gold ornament.

They have a proverb

is

that

he who went
returned."

forth to procure a tali

and a cloth never

This proverb

based on the following

legend.

In days of yore a Reddi chief was about to be

married, and he accordingly sent for a goldsmith, and,

desiring

make a splendid tali, gave him the price The smith was a drunkard, and of it in advance. neglected his work. The day for the celebration of the marriage arrived, but there was no tali. Whereupon
him
to

the old chief, plucking a few threads from his garment,

twisted them into a cord, and tied

the bride, and this

it

round the neck of

became a custom.*

In the Census Report, 1891, Mr. Stuart states that

he was informed that polyandry of the fraternal type

exists

among

the

Panta Kapus,

but

the

statement

J.

F. Kearns.

Kalyana shatanku.

241
requires verification.
of this custom, and
it
I

KAPU

am

unable to discover any trace

appears that Reddi Yanadis are

employed by Panta Reddis as domestic servants. If a Reddi Yanadi's husband dies, abandons, or divorces And, in the case his wife, she may marry his brother. of separation or divorce, the two brothers will live on
friendly terms with each other.

In the Indian

Law Reports*
affiliation of

it

is

noted that the

custom of illatom,t or

a son-in-law, obtains

among
no

the Motati

Kapus

in

Bellary and Kurnool, and

the Pedda

Kapus

in Nellore.

He who

has at the time daughter,

son, although

he

may have more than one

is

and whether or no he

hopeless of having male issue,

may

exercise the right of taking an illatom son-in-law.

this son-in-law stands in

For the purposes of succession

sons, takes

the place of a son, and, in competition with natural-born

an equal share. J

According to the Kurnool Manual (1886), "the Pakanadus of Pattikonda and Ramallakota taluks allow
a

widow
tali,

to take

a second husband from

among

the

caste-men. the

She can wear no signs of marriage, such as

is

glass bangles, and the like, but she as well as

her husband

allowed to associate with the other caste-

men on

equal terms.

Their progeny inherit their father's

property equally with children born in regular wedlock,

but they generally intermarry with persons similarly
circumstanced.

Their marriage with the issue of a

is,

regularly married couple

is

however, not prohibited.

It
is

matter

for regret that this privilege of

remarrying

* Madras Series, IV, 1882

VI, 1883.

t lUatakaru, a bride's father having no son, and adopting his son-in-law.

J See further C. Ramachendrier.

Collection of Decisions of

High Courts
Madras,

and the Privy Council applicable to dancing-girls, illatom

1892.

affiliation, etc.,

IH-16

kApu
much
abused, as
it

242

among

quently

extends to

Not unl'repregnant widows also, and so

the Linga Balijas.

widows

live in adultery

with a caste-man without fear

of excommunication, encouraged by the hope of getting

herself united to

him or some other caste-man

In

in

the

event of pregnancy.

many

cases,

caste-men are

hired for the purpose of going through the forms of

marriage simply to relieve such widows from the penalty

of excommunication

from caste.
with

The man

so

hired

plays the part of husband for a few days, and then goes

away

in

accordance

his

secret

contract."
is

The

abuse of widow marriage here referred to

said to be

uncommon, though it is sometimes practiced among Kapus and other castes in out-of-the-way villages. It is further noted in the Kurnool Manual that Pedakanti Kapu women do not wear the tali, or a bodice (ravika)
to cover their breasts.

And

the tight-fitting bodice

is

said*

to

be
and,

"far less

universal in Anantapur than

{e.g.,
it

Bellary,

divisions of

among some castes the Kapus and Idigas),

certain

subafter

is

not

worn

the

first

confinement."

In the disposal of their dead, the rites

among

the

Telugu country are very similar to those The Panta Reddis of the of the Kammas and Balijas. Tamil country, however, follow the ceremonial in vogue amonor various Tamil castes. The news of a death in the community is conveyed by a Paraiyan T5ti (sweeper). The dead man's son receives a measure contaaning a light from a barber, and goes three times round the

Kapus

of the

corpse.

At the burning-ground the

barber, instead of

the son, goes thrice round the corpse, carrying a pot

containing water, and followed by the son,

who makes

Gazetteer of the Anantapur district.

243
holes therein.
is

kApu
The
In

The stream

of water which trickles out

sprinkled over the corpse.

barber then breaks

If

the pot Into very small fragments.

the fragments

were

large,

water might collect

them, and be drunk

by birds, which would bring sickness (pakshidhosham) on children, over whose heads they might pass. On the day after the funeral, a Panisavan or barber extinA guishes the fire, and collects the ashes together.

washerman brings a basket containing various

a plant of Leucas aspej'a
Is

articles

required for worship, and, after puja has been performed,

placed on the ashes.

pot,
to

The

bones are collected

or consigned

in a

new

by parcel-post
Ganges.

and thrown into a river, an agent at Benares, and

Vaishnavltes and
deities,

thrown

Into the

By
as

religion the

Kapus

are both

Saivites,

and they worship a variety of

such

Thallamma, Nagarapamma, Putlamma, Ankamma, Muneswara, Poleramma, Desamma. To Muneswara and

Desamma

pongal

(cooked

rice)

is

offered,

and

buffa-

loes are sacrificed to

Poleramma.
Is

Even

Matano-I, the

goddess of the Madigas,

worshipped by some Kapus.

a

At
Its

purificatory ceremonies
Is

Madlga Basavi woman,

called MatangI,

and cleanses the house or inmates from pollution by sprinkling and spitting
sent
for,

out toddy.

From an
In the "

interesting note * on agricultural ceremonies

Is

Bellary district, the following extract

taken.

On

the

first

full-moon day In the

month of Bhadra-

pada (September), the agricultural population celebrate a feast called the Jokumara feast, to appease the rain-god. The Barikas (women), who are a sub-division of the

Kabbera caste belonging

to the

Gaurlmakkalu

section,

* Madras Mail, Nov. 1905.

III-16B

KAPU
go round the town or
a basket on their

244
village in

which they

live,

with

heads containing margosa [Melia

alms,
especially of the
cultivating

Azadirachta) leaves, flowers of various kinds, and holy

ashes.

They beg

classes (Kapus), and, in return for the alms

bestowed

(usually grain and food), they give

leaves, flowers,

some

of the

margosa
mix round

and ashes.
cholam
this,

The Kapus
(millet
:

take these to
gruel,
all

their fields, prepare

Sorghum)

them with
their fields.

it,

and sprinkle the kanji or gruel

After

the
it,

Kapu proceeds

to the potter's

kiln, fetches

ashes from
is

and makes a and

is

figure of a

human

being.

This figure

placed prominently in some concalled to have the

venient spot in the

rain-god.
It is

field,

supposed

Jokumara or power of bringing

is

down
small,

the rain in proper time.

The

figure

sometimes

and sometimes
is

big.

second kind of Jokumara

muddam, or outlining of rude representaThese tions of human figures with powdered charcoal. are made in the early morning, before representations
worship
called

the bustle of the day commences, on the ground at cross-

roads and along thoroughfares.

these figures are paid a
or in kind.

The
rain

figure

who draw small remuneration in money represents Jokumara, who will

Barikas

The

bring
him.
in

down

when

insulted

by people treading on
the

Another kind of Jokumara worship also prevails

district.

this

When

rain

fails,

Kapu

females

model a figure of a naked human being of small size. They place this figure in an open mock palanquin, and

go from door
lecting alms.

to door singing indecent songs,

and
a

col-

They

continue this procession for three

in
field

or four

days,

and then abandon the figure

adjacent to the village.

of this

The Malas then

take possession

abandoned Jokumara, and in their turn go about sineinof indecent songs and collecting alms for three or

245
four days, and then throw
it

KAPU
This

away in some jungle.

also believed to bring

form of Jokumara worship

plenty of rain.

is

down

There

is

another simple superstition

among

these

Kapu

females.

When

rain
it

fails,

the

Kapu
new

females catch hold of a frog, and

tie

alive to a

winnowing fan made of bamboo.

On

this fan, leaving

the frog visible, they spread a few margosa leaves, and

go singing from door

bath.

to

door

Lady

frog

must have her

her at
least.'

Oh
there
the

rain-god, give a

little

water

for

This means that the drought has reached such a stage

that
is

not even a drop of water for the frogs.

sings this song, the

When

Kapu woman
little
is

woman
it

of

the house brings a

the frog which

water in a vessel, pours

over

left

on the fan outside the door, and

of the house
is

gives

some

alms.

The woman

satisfied

that such an action will soon bring

In the
part,
is

down rain in torrents." Kapu community, women play an important

in

except

matters connected with agriculture.

effect that,

This

accounted for by a story to the

when they

came from Ayodhya, the Kapus brought no women with them, and sought the assistance of the gods in providing them with wives. They were told to marry women who were the illegitimate issue of Pandavas, and the women
consented on the understanding that they were to be
given the upper hand, and that menial service, such
as husking

paddy

(rice),

cleaning vessels, and carrying

water,

should be done for them.

They

accordingly

employ Gollas and Gamallas, and, in the Tamil country, Pallis as domestic servants. Malas and Madigas freely
enter

Kapu houses

for the

purpose of husking paddy,

in

but are not allowed into the kitchen, or room

the household gods are worshipped.
In

which

some Kapu houses, bundles of ears of paddy may be seen hung up as food for sparrows, which are held

KApU
in esteem.

246

The hopping

of sparrows

is

said to resemble
is

the gait of a person confined in fetters, and there

legend that the Kapus were once

sparrows set them at

themselves.
It

liberty,

in chains, and the and took the bondage on

has been noted * by Mr. C. K. Subbha Rao, of

the Agricultural Department, that the Reddis and others,

who migrated southward from

"

the

Telugu country,

occupy the major portion of the black cotton soil of the Tamil country. There is a strange affinity between the Telugu cultivators and black cotton soil so much so
;

that,
in

if

a census was taken of the owners of such

soil

the

Tamil

districts

of Coimbatore,

Trichinopoly,

Madura, and Tinnevelly, ninety per cent, would no doubt prove to be Vadugars (northerners), or the descendants
of Telugu immigrants.

So great

is

the attachment of
that the Tamilians
offered paradise to

the

Vadugan to the black cotton soil mock him by saying that, when god

the Vadugan, the latter hesitated, and enquired whether there was black cotton soil there." In a note on the Pongala or Pokanati and Panta

Reddis of the Trichinopoly district, Mr. F. R. Heming" Both speak Telugu, but they way writes as follows.
differ

from each other

in their

customs, live in separate

parts of the country, and will neither intermarry nor

interdine.

The Reddis

will not eat

on equal terms with

any other Sudra caste, and will accept separate meals

only from the vegetarian section of the Vellalas.

They
of them

are generally cultivators, but they had formerly rather a

bad reputation
castes,

for crime,

and

it is

said that

some

are receivers of stolen property.

Like various other

they have beggars, called Bavani Nayakkans,

* Madras Mail, 1905,

247
attached to them,

KApU

who beg from no other caste, and whose presence is necessary when they worship their The Chakkiliyans are also attached to caste goddess.
them, and play a prominent part
the Panta sub-division.
in the

marriages of

Formerly, a Chakkiliyan was

deputed to ascertain the status of the other party before the match was arranged, and his dreams were considered
as

omens

of

its

desirability.

He was also honoured at the

marriage by being given the first betel and nuts. Nowadays he precedes the bridegroom's party with a basket
of
fruit, to

announce

its

coming.

Chakkiliyan

is

also

often deputed to

The

caste goddess of the Reddis

is

accompany a woman on a journey. is Yellamma, whose

in

temple

at

Esanai

Perambalur, and she

is

reverenced

by both Pantas and Pongalas.

The

latter

observe rather

gruesome

rites,

including the drinking of a kid's blood.

The man

Pantas also worship Rengayiamman and Polayamwith peculiar ceremonies.

The women

are

the

principal worshippers, and, on one of the nights after

Pongal, they unite to do reverence to these goddesses,

a part of the

ritual consisting in

exposing their persons.

the

With

this

may be compared
in

Sevvaipillayar
Vellala

rite

celebrated

honour of Ganesa by

woman

{see Vellala).

Both divisions of Reddis wear the sacred

Neither of them allow divorcees or

thread at funerals.

widows

to

marry again.

The women

of the

two divisions

can be easily distinguished by their appearance.

The

Panta Reddis wear a characteristic gold ear-ornament

called
rubies,

kammal, a

flat

nose-ring studded with

inferior

and a golden wire round the neck, on which both and the pottu are tied. They are of fairer comthe plexion than the Pongala women. The Panta women
tali

are allowed a great deal of freedom, which

is

usually

ascribed to their dancing-girl origin, and are said to rule

KApU
their

248

husbands

in a

manner

rare in other castes.

They
it

are often called devadiya (dancing-girl) Reddis, and

said that,

is

though the men of the caste receive hospitality

from the Reddis of the north country, their

not invited.

women
and

are

Their chastity

is

said to be

frail,

their

lapses easily condoned by their husbands.

The Pongalas
themselves,

are equally lax about their wives, but are said to rigor-

ously expel girls or widows

who misconduct

and their seducers as

well.

However, the Panta men

is

and women

treat each other with a courtesy that

prob-

ably to be found in no other caste, rising and saluting

each other, whatever their respective ages, whenever

they meet.

The

purification

ceremony

for a

house defiled

by the unchastity of a maid or widow is rather an elaFormerly a Kolakkaran (huntsman), a borate affair.
Tottiyan, a priest of the village goddess, a Chakkiliyan,

The Tottinow sometimes dispensed with. The Kolakkaran and the Bavani Nayakkan burn some kamacchi grass
and a Bavani Nayakkan had to be present.
is

yan

{Andropogon Sckcenanihns), and put the ashes

pots of water.

in

three

The Tottiyan then worships The members

a
circle,

Pillayar

(Ganesa)

in the

form of some turmeric, and pours the

of the polluted

turmeric into the water.

household then

sit

in

while

the

Chakkiliyan

carries a black kid

round the

circle.

He

is

pursued by

the Bavani Nayakkan, and both together cut off the

animal's head, and bury
to tread
it.

The

guilty parties have then

is

on the place where the head

is

buried,

and the

turmeric and ash water

poured over them.

have

This cerepanchayats

mony rather resembles The Pantas are said

(council),

the one performed by the Oralis.

to

no

caste

whereas the Pongalas recognise the authority

called

of officers

Kambalakkarans and

Kottukkarans

who uphold

discipline."


249

KARAITURAI
relating to

The
the

following are
:

some of the proverbs

all.

Kapus

The The The The

ter

Kapu

protects

Kapu's

difficulties

are

known only

to god.

Kapu dies from even Kapu knows not the

{i.e.,

the want of food.

distinction

between daughfor him).

and daughter-in-law

both must work

The Karnam
Kapu's death.

(village accountant) is the cause of the

The Kapu goes

of the Raja).

not to the fort

{i.e.,

into the presence

modern variant

is

that the

Kapu goes

not to the court (of law).

While the Kapu was sluggishly ploughing, thieves

stole the

rope

collars.

The year the Kapu came in, the famine came too. The Reddis are those who will break open the soil
fill

to

their bellies.

When

the unpracticed Reddi got into a palanquin,

to side.

it

swung from side

his face to the

The Reddi who had never mounted

tail.

a horse sat with

The Reddi
Karadhi.
Holeyas.

fed his

dog like a horse, and barked himself. name sometimes given to Mari

Karadi (bear). An exogamous sept of Tottiyan. Karaikkatar, or KarKaraikkat. Karaikkat, katta, meaning those who waited for rain, or, according to another version, those who saved or protected the Some clouds, is an endogamous division of Vellala. Tamil Malayalis, who claim to be Vellalas who emigrated

to the hills from

Conjeeveram, have,
Vellala.

at times of census,

returned themselves as Karaikkat Vellalas.

Karaiturai (sea-coast) by some Pattanavans.

name assumed

karaiyAlan
Karaiyalan
vans, also taken

250
(ruler of the coast).

title

of

Mara-

by some Idaiyans.
for

Karaiyan. A name
live

Tamil sea-fishermen, who

Palles

(karai). The fishing section of the known as Palle Kariyalu. See Pattanavan. Karalan. In the Census Report, 1891, the Karalans

on the coast
is

(rulers of clouds) are returned as a tribe of hunters

cultivators found in the hills of

and Salem and South Arcot. In the Report, 1901, Karalan is given as a synonym for Vellala in Malabar, and also as a name for Malayalis.
the census, 1901,
hills

At
roy

many

of the Malayalis of the Sheva-

in the

Salem

district

returned themselves as

Vellalas and Karalans.

And

the divisions returned by

Periya, and Perianan,
{q.v.).
is

the Karalans,

e.g.,

Kolli, Pacchai,

connect them with these Malayalis

Karepaku. Karepaku
Koravas,

or Karuvepilai

name

for

who hawk

for sale leaves of the curry-leaf plant

{^Murray a Kcenigii).

Karichcha.
Report,
1

Recorded,

in

the Travancore Census

901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Karimbarabannaya
mous
sept of Kelasi.

(sugar-cane sept).

An exogaThey
are

Karimpalan. The Karimpalans

"

are a small hunt-

ing and cultivating forest tribe in Malabar.

punam

(shifting)

cultivators,

hewers

of wood, and
in all

collectors of wild pepper,

hills

and are found

the foot

north of the Camel's

H ump.

(hair knot),

and are said to

in the

They wear the kudumi follow the marumakkatayam

female
line,

system of inheritance
perform the
to
tali

but they do not

kettu ceremony.

have the power of exorcising

They are supposed the demon Karuvilli,

possession by

whom

takes the form of fever." *

* Gazetteer of the Malabar district.

251

KARNABATTU

Kariya. A sub-division of Kudubi. Karkadabannaya (scorpion sept). An exogamous

sept of Bant.

Karkatta.
sept of Mala.

A synonym of Karaikattu The

Karnabattus, or

Vellala.

Karna. A

sub-division of Golla, and an

exogamous

Karnabattu.
are a
district.

Karnabhatus,
in

Telugu weaving

caste,

found chiefly

the Godavari

The

story goes that there once lived a king,

who

ruled over a portion of the country

district,

now

included in this

and was worried by a couple of demons, who carried off some of his subjects for their daily food. The
king prayed Siva
for

deliverance from them, and the god,

being gratified at his devotion to him, produced nine

persons from his ears, and ordered them to slay the

demons.

This they

did,

and

their descendants are the

Karnabhatus, or ear soldiers.

By

religion,

the Karna-

battus are either ordinary Saivites or Lingayats.

When

girl

reaches maturity, she remains under a pollution for

sixteen days.
officiates at

Early marriage

is

the rule, and a

Brahman

weddings.

The

dead, as

gayats, are buried in a sitting

among other Linposture. The caste is

organised

in the

place, there is

same manner as the Sales, and, at each a headman called Kulampedda or JatiSales.

pedda, corresponding to the Senapathi of the

They weave

coarse cloths, which are inferior in texture

to those manufactured

by Patta Sales and Silevantas.

In a note on the Karnabattus, Mr. F. R.

Hemingway

writes that " though a low caste, they forbid the remar-

riage of widows.

But the remark

in the
is

Census Report
not true of the
that they would

(1901) that they abstain from meat

Karnabattus questioned,
eat even pork.

who admitted
is

Their special deity

Somesvara,
of

whom

they unite to worship on the

new-moon day

Pushyam


KARNA SALE
(January-February).
idol

252

made

for the
it

The god is occasion. The

represented by a

mud
it

pujari (priest) throws

sits

flowers over

in

token of adoration, and

before

with his hands outstretched and his mouth

closed until

one of the flowers falls into his hands." The Karnabattus have no regular caste
their

titles,

but

sometimes the elders add Ayya or Anna as a

name.
Sale.

suffix to

Karna

The

Kama

Sales

are

a caste of

Telugu weavers, who are called Seniyans in the Tamil They seem to country, <?.,^., at Madura and Tanjore. have no tradition as to their origin, but the name Karna would seem to have its origin in the legend relating to These are, in the community, both the Karnabattus. Saivites and Vaishnavites, and all members of the
Illabatbthini sept

are Vaishnavites.

They

are said to

have only one gotra,

Kasi (Benares), and numerous

exogamous

septs, of

which the following are examples:

Kodavili, sickle.

Vasthrala, cloth.

Rudrakshala, seeds of Ehcocarpus Ganitriis.

Thadla, rope.
Thatichettu, palmyra palm.

Mandha,
herd.

village

common

or

Dhoddi, court-yard.
Thippa, rubbish-heap.

In

some

places, the office of

headman, who

is

called

Setti, is

hereditary.

He

is

assisted

by a Pedda Kapu,

and Nela Setti, of whom the latter is selected monthly, and derives his name from the Telugu nela (month). In their marriage ceremonial, the Karna Sales closely
follow the

Padma

Sales, but they have

(sacred thread
to Benares),

rite),

no upanayanam or Kasiyathre (mock pilgrimage

for worship,

have twelve pots brought

other Telugu castes,

and

no pot-searching.

As among

when

girl

reaches
in the

puberty, twigs of Strychnos

Nux-vomica are placed

253
special hut erected for the occasion.
fifth

KARNATAKA

On

the third or

day, the girl's relations

come
rice

to her

cloth

canopy (ulladam), carrying

This
rice),

rice
is

house under a soaked in jaggery

(crude sugar) water.

called

dhadibiyam

(wet

and

is

placed in a heap, and, after the waving

distributed,

of coloured
leaves

water,

with pan-supari (betel

and areca nuts), among those present. The dead are carried to the burial-ground in a car, and buried, after the manner of Lingayats, in a sitting
posture.

Jangams
caste deity

officiate at funerals.
is

The
on

Somesvara.
in the

Some Kama

Sales
it
it

wear the lingam, but are not particular about keeping

their person,
at meals,

leaving

it

house, and wearing

when

and on important occasions. Concerning the Lingayat section of the community, Mr. H. A. Stuart
as
follows.*
"

writes,

The Lingayats resemble

customs, in
all

the

Linga Balijas

in all their

respects, except

that they recognise sutakam, or pollution,

remove
Balijas,

it.

They

freely eat in

and bathe to the houses of all Linga

but the latter will not eat with them.

They

entirely disregard the spiritual authority of the

Brahmans,

recognising priests
or Pandarams.

among

the Linga Balijas, Jangams,

In the exercise of their trade, they are

distinguished from the Kaikolans in that they sometimes

weave

in silk,

which the Kaikolans never do."

Like the

Padma

Sales, the

Kama

Sales usually only weave coarse

cotton cloths.

See Korono. Karnam (accountant). An

Karnam.
territorial

exogamous

sept

of

Kamma. Karnataka.'The

name

of a sub-division

of Handichikka and Uppara.

It is

also the

name

of a

* Manual of the North Arcot

district.


kAro panikkar
sub-division of

254

Madhva and Smarta Brahmans who speak

as opposed to

the Kanarese language,

the

Desastha

Brahmans, who are immigrants into Southern India from

the Maratha country.

Karo Panikkar. A
Malabar.
"

class

of temple servants in
is

The Karo Panikkar

Nayar woman.
in

said to be

descended

from the union of Vettakorumagan (the

God

of hunting)
is

and a

Kiriyattil

His occupation

to act

as Vellichapad or oracle divine ancestor." *

temples dedicated to his

Karpura
used to

synonym of Uppiliyans, who manufacture camphor (karpura).

Chetti.
Kartavu, meaning agent or doer,
It
is

Karta. Kartaand
is

an honorific

title

of Nayars and Samantas.

also

the

name
said,

for the chief

mourner

at funerals of

Nayars and

other castes
it is

on the west coast.

Kartakkal, denoting,

governors, has been returned, at times of census

by

Balijas claiming to

be descendants of the Nayak

kings of

Madura and Tanjore.

(those of the sharp sword).
In the

Karukku-pattayar

Census Report, 1891, the division Karukku-mattai (petiole of the palmyra leaf
sub-division of Shanan.

with serrated edges) was returned.

said
to

Some Shanans
of

are

have

assumed the name

(black mountain).

Karukku-mattai

Vellalas.

Karumala
of Kanikar.

An

exogamous sept

Karuman.

sub-division of

Kammalans, who do
the caste

blacksmith's work.

Karumpuraththal. A synonym for adopted by some Kappiliyans.

* Gazetteer of the Malabar
district.

name

255

KASI
recorded, in the

Madras the term Karumpurattan is Census Report, 1901, of Karu-aruttar, which means the said to be a corruption

Karumpurattan.

It

is

that "

Annihilators, and to have been given to the caste because

they are the descendants of a garrison of Chola Vellalas,

who
fort,

treacherously allowed an

enemy

to enter the

Tanjore

and annihilate the Raja and

* that

his family.
is

Winslow,

Karumpuram and Karumpurattan may thus mean

however, says
is,

a palmyra tree,t

a palmyra man, that

a toddy-drawer.

In the enumeration schedules, the

name was
is

often written

Karumpuran.

If this

etymology

correct, this caste

It is

must originally have been Shanans

or Iluvans.

said to have

come from

the village of

Tiruvadamarudur in Tanjore, and settled in the northThe caste has seven sub-castes, eastern part of Madura.
called after seven
it

nadus or villages
In
its

in

Madura,
etc.,

in
it

which
closely

originally settled.

ceremonies,

follows the Ilamagams.

Its title is Pillai."

Karutta

(dark-coloured).

Recorded,

at the

Madras
soil

census, 1891, as a sub-division of Idaiyans,

also returned Karuttakkadu,

who have

meaning black cotton

for the

or regur.

Karuva Haddi.A name

of Haddis.

scavenging section

Karuvan.
Report,
1

A corrupt form of Karuman.

in the

Karuvelam. Recorded
90 1,

Travancore Census
occupational

as a sub-division of Nayar.
(butcher).

Kasayi
name.

Muhammadan

Kasi

(Benares).

A gotra of Medara and Kama Sale.

is

Tamil and English Dictionary, 1862.

+

The word,

in this
is

sense,

said

to occur in a

Tamil work named Pingala

leaf

Nikandu.

Karuku

Tamil

for the serrated

margin of the

petiole of the

palmyra palm.

KASI

256
for

Kasi. A name
Kamsalas.

the

stone-mason section of
sept of Badaga,

Kasturi (musk).
obtained from the

An

exogamous
of the

Kamma, Okkiliyan, and Vakkaliga.

musk glands
deer, Moschiis moschiferus.

Indian

musk

is

Himalayan muskof Irulas of the

life

Kasuba
Nilgiris,

(workmen).

section

who have abandoned jungle

in favour of

working on

planters' estates or elsewhere.

Kasukkar.The
sub-division of Chetti.

name, derived from kas, cash, of a

Kasula Padma Sale.

razus,

(copper coins).

An

exogamous sept

of

Kasyapa. A
Khatris,

Brahmanical g5tra adopted by Bhat-

and Tontis.
(crab).

Kasyapa was one of the

seven important Rishis, and the priest of Parasu Rama.

Katakam

Katal Arayan. Katari (dagger

Golla, Mutracha,

See
:

An exogamous sept of K5mati.

Valan.
katar).

An

exogamous

sept

of

and Yerukala.

The dagger

or poig-

nard, called katar, has " a solid blade of diamond section,

the handle of which consists of two parallel bars with a

cross-piece joining them.

The hand

grips the cross-

piece, and the bars pass along each side of the wrist."*

Katasan. Recorded

t as " a small caste of basket-

makers and lime-burners in the Tinnevelly district. It has at least two endogamous sub-divisions, namely, Pattankatti

and Nittarasan.
are buried.

The dead
is

Widows are allowed to remarry. The social position of the caste

above that of the Vettuvans, and they consider themselves polluted if they eat food prepared by a Shanan.
But they are not allowed
Yule and Burnell.

to

enter

Hindu temples,

Hobson-Jobson.

t Madras Census Report, 190 1.

257

kaththiravAndlu

they worship devils, and they have separate washermen and barbers of their own, all of which are signs of
inferiority.

Their

title

is

Pattamkatti, and Kottan

is

also used."

Kaththavaraya.

A synonym

for

Vannan, derived

from Kaththavaraya, the deified son of Kali, from

the Vannans trace their descent.

whom

Kaththe
Kaththi
and Madiga.

(donkey).
(knife).

An exogamous sept of Madiga.

exogamous sept of Devanga

An

Kaththiri (scissors). An exogamous sept of Devanga, and sub-division of Gadaba. Kaththiravandlu (scissors people). Concerning

this section of the criminal classes,

Mr. F.
is

S.

Mullaly
Nellore

writes to

me

as follows.

"

This

purely a

name

for this class of professional pick-pockets.

The

appellation seems to have

been given to them from

the fact that they frequent fairs and festivals, and busy

railway platforms, offering knives and scissors for sale.

And, when an opportunity presents

for

itself,

they are used

etc.

cutting

strings of beads, ripping

open bags,
of

Several of these light-fingered gentry have been found

with small scissors

in their

mouths.

Most

them wear
(to act

shoes of a peculiar shape, and these form a convenient

receptacle for the scissors.
Bits of

broken glass

as knives) are frequently found in their mouths.

different districts they are
tions,

In

known by
in

different appella-

North Arcot and parts of Cuddapah Golla Woddars, Donga Woddars, and Muheri Kalas in Cuddapah, Bellary, and Kurnool Pachupus in Kistna and Godavari Alagiris, Ena or Thogamalai Koravas in the southern districts. Indivi;

such as Donga Dasaris

duals belonging to this class of thieves have been traced,

since the opening of the East Coast Railway, as far as
111-17

KATHTHIRAVANDLU
Midnapore.

258
is
is

An

important way of identifying them

the fact that everyone of them,

male and female,

branded
eyes

at the corners of the

eyebrows and between the

in childhood, as

a safeguard against convulsions."

I

For the following additional information

debted to an
official

am
"
I

in-

of the Police department.

am

not aware of these people using any particular shoes. They use sandals such as are generally worn by ryots

and the lower

classes.

These they get by

stealing.

They pick them up from houses during the daytime, when they go from house to house on the pretence of
begging, or they steal them at nights along with other
property.
in different

These sandals are made in different fashions districts, and so those possessed by Kathiras

are generally of different kinds, being stolen from various

parts of the country.

They have no shoes of any pecuKathiras do liar make, nor do they get any made at all. not generally wear any shoes. They walk and run faster with bare feet. They wear shoes when walking through
the jungle, and entrust them to one of their comrades

when walking through the open country. They sometimes throw them off when closely pursued, and run In 1899, when we arrested one on the highroad, away.
he had with him
kinds and
sizes,

five or six pairs of

shoes of different
satisfactorily for

and he did not account

I

being
that

in

possession of so many.

subsequently learnt

some supernumeraries were hiding in the jungle close to the place where he was arrested. " About marks of branding on the face, it is not only
Kathiras, but almost
all

nomadic

tribes

who have

these

marks.

As

the gangs

move on exposed

to changes of

weather, the

children sometimes get a disease called

sandukatlu or palakurkura.

They

generally get this

first

disease from the latter part of the

year up to the

259
fifth

KATIKE

year.

The symptoms

are similar to those which

It is

children sometimes have at the time of teething.

when

children get this disease that they are branded on

the face between the eyebrows, on the outer corners of

the eyes, and sometimes on the belly.

The brand-marks
circular,

on the face and corners of the eyes are

and those

on the

belly generally horizontal.

The

circular brand-

marks are made with a long piece of turmeric, one end of which is burnt for the purpose, or with an indigocoloured cloth rolled like a pencil and burnt at one end.

The

marks are made with a hot needle. Similar brand-marks are made by some caste Hindus on
horizontal

their children."

Thomas I am indebted for specimens of the chaplet, made of strips of rolled pith, worn by Kaththira women when begging, and of the cotton bags, full of false pockets, regularly carried by both men and
Mr.
P. B.

To

women,

in

which they secrete the

little

sharp knife and

other articles constituting their usual equipment.

In his " History of Railway thieves," Mr.

M. Paupa
chadavs,

Rao Naidu,
and,
at
if

writing about the pick-pockets or Thetakars,

says that " most of them wear shoes called

the articles stolen are very small, they put

them

receptacles

once into their shoes, which form very convenient from their peculiar shape and, therefore,
;

when

a pick-pocket with such a shoe on

is

suspected of
first,

having stolen a jewel, the shoes must be searched

then the mouth and the other parts of the body."

Kaththula (sword). An exogamous sept Katige (collyrium). A gotra of Kurni. Katikala (collyrium). An exogamous

of Yanadi.

sept

of

Devanga.

Katike.The
111-17 B

Katike or Katikilu are butchers

in the

Telugu country, concerning

whom

it

is

noted, in the

KATIKE
Kurnool Manual, that
or
"

260

some are

called Sultani butchers,

Hindus

Kurnool.
customs."

Nabob of They observe both Mussalman and Hindu

forcibly circumcised

by the
the

late

correspondent

in

Kurnool

district

informs
classes,

me
one

that the butchers of Kurnool belong to three

selling
beef,

and the others mutton.

Of

these, the

first

Khasayi, as

Muhammadans, and are called Gayi they deal in beef. The other two are called
are
i.e.,

respectively Sultanis and Surasus,

the circumcised

and uncircumcised.
of two
brothers,

Both claim

to

be the descendants
following
is

and

have

the

tradition

concerning their origin.

relished

the

idea

of taking

Tipu Sultan mutton

said not to have

at

the hands of

Hindus, as they would not perform Bismallah at the

time of slaughtering the sheep.

He accordingly ordered
Being the
forcibly

both the brothers to appear before him.

manager of the
circumcised.

family, the elder went,

and was

On

hearing the news, the younger brother

of the former are

absconded.

The descendants
latter
force,

Muham-

madans, and of the

a

Hindus.
the
elder
all

As he was made
brother and his
the

Muhammadan by
did

descendants

not

adopt

Muhammadan

manners and customs.

to mosques, dress like

Till recently

they did not even

allow their beards to grow.

At the present day, they go Muhammadans, shave their heads,

descendants
of

and grow beards, but do not intermarry with the true

Muhammadans.
brother
still

The

the

younger

call

themselves Ari-katikelu, or Maratha

Hindu religion, and follow Hindu manners and customs. Though they do not eat with Muhammadans or Sultanis, their Hindu brethren shun them because of their profession, and their intimacy
butchers, profess the

with Sultanis.

am

informed

that,

at

Nandyal

in the

Kurnool

district,

some Maratha

butchers,

who observe

26l
purely

KATORAUTO
Muhammadan
same

Hindu customs,

are called by

names.
district

The

Tahsildar of the Sirvel taluk in the

states that,

prior to the reign of the father of

Ghulam Rasul Khan,

of the Marathas,

the

dethroned

Nawab

of Kur-

nool, the butcher's profession

was solely

in the

hands

some

of

whom

were, as stated in the

Manual, forcibly circumcised, and became a separate

butcher caste, called Sultani.

There are two

viz.,

sections

among

these Sultani butchers,

Bakra (mutton) and

Gai Kasai (beef butcher).

conversion to the
in the

Similar stories of forcible

religion are prevalent

Muhammadan
in

Bellary district, where the Kasayis are mostly

converted Hindus, who dress

possess
e.g.,

Muhammadan names
connection
with

Hindu style, but with Hindu terminations,

the
I

Hussainappa.
In

butchers,

may quote

the

following extract from a petition to the

Madras on the subject of a

butchers in
respectfully

1907.
to

"

Governor of strike among the Madras We, the residents of Madras, beg

bring to your Excellency's notice the

inconvenience and hardship

we
is

are suffering owing to

city.

the strike of the butchers in the

of the supply of mutton, which
the diet of non-Brahmin Hindus,
Christians, Parsis, Eurasians

The

total failure
in

an important item

Muhammadans, Indian

and Europeans, causes a

deprivation not merely of something to which people

have become accustomed, but of an article of food by which the health of many is sustained, and the want of which is calculated to impair their health, and expose

them

to

diseases,

against

which they have hitherto

for

successfully contended."

Katorauto.
to claim to

name

the

offspring of

maid
said

servants in the harems of Oriya Zamindars,

who are

be Kshatriyas.

KATTA

262

Katta. Katta or Katte, meaning a bund, dam, or embankment, has been recorded as an exogamous sept or gotra of Devanga and Kurni.

Kattelu
of Boya.

(sticks or

faggots).

An

exogamous sept

Kattira. A sub-division of Gadaba. Kattu. See Kadu. Kattukudugirajati. The name, meaning

the caste

which

allows

living

together

after

marriage of an

informal kind, recorded * as the caste

(Vfedars) of Salem, derived from a

name of Turuvalars custom among them,

which authorises temporary matrimonial arrangements.

Kattu Kapari (dweller in the forest). Said to be name for Irulas or Villiyans. The equivalent Kattu a Kapu is, in like manner, said to be a name for Jogis. Kattu Marathi. A synonym of Kuruvikaran. Kaudikiaru. Kaudikiaru or Gaudikiaru is a title

of Kurubas.

Kavadi.
Kabadi
is

In

the

Madras Census
is

Report,

1901,

returned as the

wood-cutters.

Kavadi
carry

name of a class of Telugu the name of a division of

to

Perumalswami Kavadi or Kavadiga Tirupati on a pole (kavadi). further the name given to Kannadiyan curd-sellers
Koravas,
offerings

who

at
is

in

Madras, who carry the curds

in

pots as head-loads.
at

Kavalgar (watchman).

Recorded,

times
title

of
of

census, as a sub-division of Ambalakaran, and

Nattaman, Malaiman, and Sudarman.

Kavali
is

The

equivalent

recorded as a sub-division of the

Kammas.

The

Kavalis, or watchers, in the

Telugu country, are

said to be generally

Lingayat Boyas.f

The Telugu
village kaval

Mutrachas are also

called Kavalgar.

The

* Manual of the Salem

district.

Madras Census Report,

1901.

263

KAVARAI
is

system

in the

southern districts

discussed

in the

note

on Mara vans.

more than nine thousand people returned themselves as Kavandan or

the census, 1901,

Kavandan. At
is

Kaundan, which

title

of

Konga

Vellalas,

and many
Palli,

other castes, such as Anappan, Kappiliyan,

Sem-

badavan, Urali, and Vettuvan.

to the

The name

corresponds

Canarese Gauda or Gaunda.

(a sage).

Kaundinya

A Brahmanical gotra adopted

exogamous sept of Gangadi-

by Razus and Bhatrazus.

Kavane

(sling).

An

kara Holeyas.

Kavarai.^Kavarai is the name for Balijas (Telugu who have settled in the Tamil country. The name is said to be a corrupt form of Kauravar or Gauravar, descendants of Kuroo of the Mahabaratha, or
trading caste),
to

be the equivalent of Gauravalu, sons of Gauri, the

wife of Siva.

Other suggested derivatives are

the

(a)

corrupt form of

Sanskrit

Kvaryku,

badness or
;

reproach, and Arya,

krit

i.e.,

deteriorated Aryans

(d)

Sansi.e.,

Kavara, mixed, or Kavaraha, a braid of

as

hair,

a mixed class,

many

of the
;

Telugu professional
Kavarai or Gavaras,

prostitutes belong to this caste

(c)

buyers or dealers

in cattle.

The Kavarais call themselves Balijas, and derive the name from bali, fire, jaha sprung, i.e., men sprung from
fire.

Like other Telugu castes, they have exogamous

pagadala
(coral),
(cart), simaneli, etc.

septs, e.:, tupaki (gun), jetti (wrestler),

bandi

The Kavarais
district,

of Srivilliputtur, in

the Tinnevelly

are believed to be the descendants of a few

families,

which emigrated thither from Manjakuppam

of Tirumal

(Cuddalore) along with one Dora Krishnamma Nayudu.

About the time

Nayak, one Ramaswami

KAVARAI
Raju,

264
five

was Dora Krishnamma, was reigning near Manjakuppam. Dora Krishnamma, who was of wandering habits, having received some money from his mother, went to Trichisons, of

who had

whom

the youngest

nopoly, and,

when he was seated

in

the main bazar, an

elephant rushed into the

in its career,

street. The beast was stopped and tamed by Dora Krishnamma, to escort

whom

to his palace

Vijayaranga Chokkappa sent his

While they were engaged in conversation, news arrived that some chiefs in the Tinnevelly district refused to pay their taxes, and Dora

retinue and ministers.

Krishnamma volunteered
Srivilliputtur he

to s^o

and subdue them.

Near

passed a ruined temple dedicated to

if

Krishna, which he thought of rebuilding

he should

succeed

in

subduing the

chiefs.

When he reached Tinneto Srivilliputtur,

velly, they,

without raising any objection, paid their dues,

and Dora Krishnamma returned

settled there.

and

Their marriage ceremonies are based on the type

common
to the

to

many Telugu

castes, but those

who belong

Simaneli sept, and believe themselves to be direct

descendants of Krishnamma, have two special forms of

ceremonial,
viz.,

Krishnamma

perantalu,

and the carrying

of pots (gurigelu) on the heads of the bride and bride-

groom when they go to the temple before the Kasiyatra ceremony. The Krishnamma perantalu is performed on the day prior to the muhurtam (tali-tying), and consists in the worship of the soul of Krishnamma, a married woman.

A new cloth is purchased and presented to a married woman, together with money, betel, etc., and she is fed
before the
rest.
all

It is practically

a form of sradh cere-

mony, and

the formalities of the sradh, except the

fire)

homam

(sacred

and repeating of mantras from

This
is

the Vedas, are gone through.

very commonly

265

KAVARAI

observed by Brahmans, and a few castes which engage The main idea a Brahman priest for their ceremonies.
is

the propitiation of the soul of the dead married

woman.

If

such a

woman

dies

in

a family, every ceremony of

an auspicious nature must be preceded by sumangaliprarthana, or worship of this married woman (sumangali).

Orthodox females think that, if the ceremony is not perAnother custom, formed, she will do them some harm. now dying out, is the tying of a dagger to the waist of
the bridegroom.

Madura district, the Kavarais are described * as being " most commonly manufacturers and sellers of bangles made of a particular kind of earth, found only Those engaged in in one or two parts of the district.
In the
this traffic usually call

themselves Chettis or merchants.

of Nayakkan.

When

otherwise employed as spinners, dyers, painters,

like,

and the

they take the

title

It

is

customary with these, as with other

Nayakkans,

to

wear the sacred thread

but the descendants of the

Nayakkan

kings,

who
to

are

now

living at Vellei-kuricchi,

do not conform
dation,

this
in

usage,

on

the

ground that

they are at present

a state of impurity and degrato

and consequently ought not emblem."

wear the sacred

The bulk
bear the
title

of the Kavarais in Tanjore are said f "to

Some that are engaged in trade, more especially those who sell glass bangles, are called Settis, and those who originally settled in agriculture are called Reddis. The title of Nayak, like Pillai, Mudali, and Setti, is generally sought after. As a rule, men of the Palli or cooly class, when they enter the
Nayak.

Government

service,

and shepherds, when they grow

Manual of the Madura

district.

f Manual of the Tanjore district.

KAVUTHIYAN

266

rich in trade or otherwise,

assume

this title,

wear the

namam
rais

(the trident

mark

on the forehead emblematic

of the Vaishnava persuasion), and call themselves Kavaor Vadugars,

less point to

though they cannot speak Telugu, any part of the Telugu country as

much

the seat of their forefathers."

One

of the largest sub-divisions of the Kavarais

is

Valaiyal, the

Tamil equivalent of Gazula, both words

or lac bangle.*

meaning a glass
follows in the

Kavuthiyan.

The

Kavuthiyans are described as

"

Gazetteer of Malabar.

They
;

are barbers

who
as

serve the Tiyans and lower castes

title

they are also

sometimes given the

midwives.

Kurup.
to

Their females act

several
sections,

There

seem

be

distinguished by the affix of the

name

of the castes

which they serve, as

Tacchakurup,

for instance

Tacchakavuthiyan or

and Kanisakavuthiyan, appropriated to the service of the Asaris and Kanisans respectively
;

while the barbers

who

serve the Izhuvans are

known
But

both as Aduttons, Vattis, or Izhuva Kavuthiyans.

whether

all

these should be regarded as offshoots of

caste, or as

one main barber

degraded sections of the

difficult

castes which they serve, the Kavuthiyans proper being

only barbers to the Tiyans,

it is

to determine.

The

Naviyan or Kavuthiyan section of the Veluttedans, as well as the Kavuthiyan section of the Mukkuvans, are admittedly but degraded sections of
fact that the

these castes,
It is

makes the second the more probable

view.

also to be noticed that the Kavuthiyans, in the north

at

least,

follow

female

line),

marumakkattayam (inheritance in the while the Taccha and Kanisa Kavuthiyans

follow the other principle of descent."

* Madras Census Report, 1S91.

26;

kAyasth
are

Kayalan.The
Muhammadans,
living at

Kayalans

Tamil-speaking

closely allied to the

in

Marakkayars and

Kayalpatnam
shells,

Tinnevelly.
in

Many

of

them
glass
etc.

have settled as merchants

beads,

Madras, and
Tirupati,

sell

cowry

dolls

from

toys,

Some
travel

are money-lenders to the lower classes, and others

about from village to village

cloths,

selling, for

cash or
articles.

credit rates,

brass vessels,

and other

They

are

sometimes called Arumasaththukadankarar,

is

or six months' debt people, as this

the time usually

allowed for

payment.
expected to

At

Kayalpatnam, a

Kayalan

husband

is

live in his father-in-law's house,

and, in connection with this custom, the following legend

is

narrated.

in

The chiefman of the town gave his daughter marriage to a man living in an adjacent village. One
cobra.

evening, she went to fetch water from a tank, and, on her

She could not move her foot, lest she should be bitten, so she stood where she was, with her water-pot on her head, till she was discovered by her father on the following morning. He killed the snake with the kitti (tweezers) and knife which he had with him, and told the girl to go with him to his house. She, however, refused to do so, and went to her husband's house, from which she was subsequently taken to that

way back, trod on a

of her father.

The

kitti

is

an instrument of

torture,

consisting of two sticks tied together at one end, between

which the fingers were placed as

in

a lemon squeezer.

With

this instrument, the fingers

were gradually bent

until

backwards towards the back of the hand,

sufi"erer,

the

no longer able to endure the excruciating pain,

yielded to the
of guilt.

demands made on him

to

make

confession

Kayasth. Kayasth
of Bengal.

or Kayastha

is

the writer-caste

See Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal.

 A
KAYERTHANNAYA
268

Kayerthannaya {St7ycknos Nux-vomica sept). An exogamous sept of the Bants and Shivalli Brahmans
in

South Canara.

Kayila

(unripe

fruit).

An

exogamous

sept

of

Orugunta Kapu.

Keimal

(kei,

hand, as an

emblem

of power).

sub-division of Nayar.

Kela. A
banks, whose
often

small class of Oriya jugglers and mounte-

women,

like the

Dommara
is

females, are

prostitutes.

The name

derived

from

keli,

dancing, or khel to play.

Kelasi.

For the following account of the Kelasi or

I

barber caste of South Canara,

am

indebted to a note

on the barbers of Tuluva by Mr. M. Bapu Rao.*

caste

The
like

name

is

derived

from

kelasa,

work.

In

manner, the Canarese barbers of Bellary and Dharwar

call

themselves Kashta Madovaru, or those

difficult task.

who perform

the

The
or

barbers of South Canara are of different castes

sub-castes

according to the language they speak,

or the people for

(i) the

whom

they operate.

Thus

there are

Tulu Kelsi (Kutchidaye, man of the hair) or Bhandari (2) the Konkani Kelsi or Mhallo, who must
; ;

have migrated from the north

or

(3)

the Hindustani Kelsi

Hajams

(4) the
;

Lingayat Kelsi or Hadapavada (man

Mappilla (Moplah) barber Vasa
;

of the wallet)

(5) the

(6) the Malayali barber Kavudiyan and even Telugu and Tamil barbers imported by the sepoy regiments

until

recently stationed at Mangalore.

class in

Naturally the

Tulus form the bulk of the

among them

a section

known

There is as Maddele, employed by

Tuluva.

palm-tappers, and hence considered socially inferior to

* Madras Christ. Coll, Mag., 1894.

269
the Bhandari,

KELASI
classes.

who

is

employed by the higher

called Parel

[The Billava barbers are

Madivala.]
If

Madiali or Pare!

a high caste barber operates for a

man

of

lower caste, he loses his caste thereby, and has to pay

a
fine,

or in

some other way expiate

his offence before

he gains re-admission into his community.

Pariahs in

these parts have no separate caste of barbers, but any-

one among themselves may try his

skill

on any head.

Mappilla barbers are employed only by the

Muham-

madans.

Even

do not

live in

in their own community, however, they commensality with other Mappillas; though

gradations of caste are not recognised by their religion.

The

barber

is

not ambitious enough to claim equality

of rank with the Bant, the potter, the piper, the weaver,
or the oilmonger
;

but he shows a decided disposition to

regard himself as above the level of the fisherman or

the palanquin-bearer.
inferiority,

The

latter often disclaim

any such
they dis-

and

refer to the circumstance that

charge
in

huge umbrella marriage processions, and shouldering the gods in

the
functions

of carrying the

religious

processions.

They argue
the

that

their

rivals

perform an operation,

defilement of

which

can

only be wiped off by bathing the head with a solution of

sacred earth taken from besides the roots of the tulsi
plant (yOcimum sanctum).
ever,
it

In justice to the barber, howto

must be mentioned that he has most Sudras.

his.

perform

certain priestly duties for

essential at

His presence is two of the ceremonies observed by castes

professing to be superior to

At the name-giving
round the
of a higher
is

ceremony a Tulu barber has

waist of the child, and
caste than himself.

to tie a thread

name

it,

among Sudras

[At the present day, the Bhandari

said to receive his fee for tying the thread,

though he does

not actually perform the

act.]

Again, on the death of a

KELASI

?70
fire
is

high caste Sudra, the barber has to carry the cremation ground, though the funeral pyre

to the

lighted

by the relations of the deceased.

at certain other rites

He

also has to assist

connected with funeral obsequies,

such as purifying the house.

[The

collection of fragments of bones from the ashes,

heaping up the ashes, and cleaning the spot where the

corpse was burnt, are the business of the Kelasi.
duties

he

performs

for

Morlis,

These Bants, Gattis, and

an object of intense

Vodaris.

The Bhandari

or Kelasi

is

hatred to Konkani women,

who

call

them by abusive

names, such as fellow with a burnt face, miserable wretch,

widow-maker,

etc.]
in

South Canara has invented several At stories concerning the origin of his first progenitor. the barber had not yet been created, Siva a time when was a bachelor, spending his time in austere devotions, and allowing his hair to grow into long matted locks.
barber

The

A time

came when he became bent on matrimony, and

he thouo^ht that the hirsute condition of his face would not be appreciated by his bride, the young daughter of
the king of the mountains.
the barber was created to
It

was

at this juncture that

bridegroom, and the

make Siva a good-looking Brahman to officiate at the marriage

occasion cast into
the sea

ceremony.

According to another legend, a Gandharvato be turned into a rock.

born

woman was on one

by

irate

Brahma, and doomed

Moved by
relented,

her piteous entreaties,

however,

Brahma

and ordained that she should be restored to human form when Parasurama should happen to set This came to pass when Parahis foot upon the rock.

surama thrust back

the waters of the western sea in

order to create the western coast.

The re-humanised
in

woman thereupon

offered

her thanksgivings

such

271

KELASI

words that the great Brahman hero asked She begged a son, her to beg any boon she wished. who should in some way remind generations to come
winning

Brahman who had reclaimed her from The boon was thereupon granted that she should give birth to sons, who would not indeed be Brahmans, but who would perform functions analogous to those performed by Brahmans. The
of the great
her inanimate state.

barber thus discharges certain priestly duties for Sudras,

and cleanses the body even as the Brahman cleanses the soul and the defilement caused by the razor can be removed only by the smearing of mud and water, because the barber's female progenitor was a rock recovered out
;

of water.

The primary occupation

always bring
a large
in

of the

barber does not

it

a sufficient income, while

leisure.

leaves
if

him

amount of

This he spends,
is

possible,

in agricultural labour, in

which he

materially assisted
in

by

his female relations.

to
fall

Barbers residing

towns hold
Their

no land
earnings

back upon, but their average monthly

from
five

range

to

seven

rupees.

brethren in the villages are not so busy plying the razor,

so they cultivate land as tenants.

One

of the blessino-s

conferred by Parasurama
starve.

is

that the barber shall never

When
has to
tie

a child

is

born, a male
its

member

of the family
it

a thread round

waist,

and give

a name.

The

choice of a name often depends upon the day of the week on which the child was born. If it is born on a Sunday it is called, if a boy, Aitha (Auditya, sun), or, if a
girl,

Aithe

if

on a Monday,
or

Some
;

or

Somu

if

on a

Tuesday,
or

Angara

Angare

if

on a

Wednesday,

Budara or Budare, changed among Pariahs into Mudara Mudaru if on a Thursday, Guruva or Guruvu if on
; ;

KELASI
a Friday,

272

Tukra (Shukra) or Tukru

Taniya (Sanlya) or Tanlyaru.

on a Saturday, Other names which are

;

If

common
to

are Lakkana (Lakshmana), Krishna,

Subba,

and Korapulu (Koraga woman).

whether the child
latter case, the

Those who can afford do so often employ a Brahman priest to ascertain

is

born lucky or unlucky

is

and, in the

barber

advised to offer something to

the tutelary deity or the nine planets, or to propitiate

the village deity,

if it

is

found that the child

the
first

is

born

under
child

its evil
is

eye.

No
if

lullaby should be
for
first

sung while the

done with a

being rocked

time in a cradle,
is

perhaps because,

the very

rocking

may be envious of the rejoicing, some human joy, and mar the happiness. The initiation of a boy into the mysteries of his
show of
evil spirit

hereditary profession takes place between the tenth and

the fourteenth year.

In very rare cases, nowadays, a

boy

is

sent to school

between the sixth and eighth year.

These occasions are marked by offerings of cocoanuts and plantains to the village deity. With boys marriage takes place between the sixteenth and twenty-fifth year, with girls before or after puberty. Matches are made by selection on the part of the parents. Lads are sometimes allowed to choose their own brides,
but their choice
as
it

is

subject to the approval of the parents,

must necessarily be in a joint family. Bridegrooms have to pay for their brides a dowry varying from twenty to fifty rupees, and sometimes as much as a hundred rupees. Deformed girls, however, fetch no price on the
;

other hand, they have to pay some pecuniary inducement

to

the bridegroom.

Widows
is

are allowed, and,

when

young, encouraged to remarry.

dition of a valid marriage

The most

essential con-

that the contracting parties

should belong to different baris or balis (exogamous

273
septs).

KELASI

As examples of the names of these balls, the Bangaru (gold), Salia (weaver), following may be cited Uppa (salt), Kombara (cap made of areca palm leaf),
:

Karimbara (sugar-cane).

Horoscopes are not consulted

for the suitability or future prosperity of a match, but the

day and hour, or lagnam of a marriage are always fixed

by a Brahman
stars.
in

priest with reference to the conjunction of

lasts for three days,

The marriage

and takes place

in

the house of the bridegroom.

This

is

accordance

with the primitive conception of marriage as a bringing

away by

force or procuring a bride from her parents,

rather than with

the current

Brahman
girl

idea

that

the

bridegroom should be invited, and the

given away as

a present, and committed to his custody and protection.

The marriage ceremony

figures or mandala.

takes place in a pandal (booth)

on a raised or conspicuous place adorned with various

The

pair are

made

to sit

on a bench,

and rice
being

is

sprinkled on their heads.

A barber then shaves

the chin and forehead of the bridegroom, the hair border

in

the form of a broken pointed arch converging

upwards.

He

also touches the bride's cheeks with the

razor, with the object of kale, the stain

removing what

is

called

monetha

on the

face.

The

full

import of this cereof age at the time

mony

is

not clear, but the barbers look upon the act as

If a girl
it is

purificatory.

has not

come

of marriage,
If

done on the occasion of the nuptials.

in

she has, the barber,

addition to touching the cheeks

with the razor, goes to her house, sprinkles

some water
At

over her with a betel

in

leaf,

and makes her touch the pot

in her

which

rice is to

be cooked

husband's house.

the bridegroom's house, before the assembled guests,

elders,

and headman of the

caste, the

man and

the girl are

linked together in the marriage bond by having water

(dhare) poured on their joined hands.
in-i8

Next, the right

KELASI
hands
of

274
the
pair

being

joined

(kaipattavane),

the

bridegroom leads the bride to her future home.

Soon
if it

after a

death occurs, a barber

is

summoned, who
it

sprinkles water on the corpse, and touches

with a razor

be of a male.

In every ceremony performed by him,

the barber must have recourse to his razor, even as the

do without his kusa grass. The rich burn their dead, and the poor bury them. Persons
priest cannot

Brahman

dying of infectious diseases are always buried.

the clothes on and about
it

Prior to

the removal of the corpse to the cremation or burial

ground,

all

it,

with the exception

foot, are

of one cloth to cover

from head to

removed
the pyre

and distributed
or

to Pariahs,

who have prepared

dug

the grave.

Before the mourners return from the

cemetery, they light four lamps in halves of cocoanuts,

and leave them burning on the

chief mourner
or

spot.

Coming home,

the

places

in

the hands of the

Gurukara
the funeral

headman
This

of the caste a jewel or other valuable article

all

as a security that he will duly perform

rites.
is

termed savuotti dipuna.

The Gurukara,

in

the presence of the relations and friends assembled,

its

returns the same, enjoining

to perform the requisite rites,

recipient to be prepared even with the proceeds of

the sale of the pledged article

if

necessary.

The

eleventh

day

is

the savu or principal mourning day, on which the

elders of the caste, as well as the friends

headman and
and

relations of the deceased

ought to be present.

On

the spot where the deceased expired, or as near thereto

as possible, an ornamental square scaffolding
is

erected,

and covered with cloth coloured with turmeric. The ground below the scaffolding is covered with various and flowers and green leaves are strewn on it. Each mourner throws on this spot handfuls of cooked uncle, rice, coloured yellow and red, and cries out " Oh
figures,
!

275
I

KELASI
I

cry murrio," or

"Oh!

father,

cry murrio," and so on,

accordino" to the relationship in

to the mourner.

which the deceased stood

is

This ceremony
In
well-to-do

called murrio korpuna,

it

or

crying

alas.

families

is

usual

to

accompany
rice
is

this with devil-dancing.

On

the twelfth day,

offered to crows, the original

spirits of the

belief apparently

being that the

deceased enter into birds or

beasts, so that food given to these

may happen

to reach

and propitiate them.

On

the night of the thirteenth

day, the relations of the deceased set apart a plantain

leaf for the spirit of the departed, serve
it,

cooked
in

rice

on

and, joining their hands, pray that the soul

its

gathered unto

ancestors,

and

rest

peace.

may be The

anniversary of the death, called agel,

is

celebrated by

placing cooked rice on two plantain leaves placed over

sacrificial twigs,

and burning incense and waving lamps

is

before

it.

This

called

soma dipuna.
is

The

family god of the barber

Krishna of Udipi, and

is

the high-priest to
(religious ascetic),

whom
who

he pays homage

the Saniyasi

for the

time being worships that

is

god.

The same

high-priest

also the final court of

appeal from the decisions of the village council of the

barbers in matters relating to caste and religion.

The

powers which are ever present

which he always dreads and
village
his

to the barber's

mind, and

tries to propitiate, are the

demons, and the departed

spirits of

members

of

own family. If a child falls ill, he hastens to Brahman seer, to learn who is offended, and how
should be appeased.
If his

the
the

spirit

cow does not

eat hay,

he anxiously enquires to which demon he should carry

a cock.
If

the rain

fails

or the crops are poor, he hies

to the nearest deity with cocoanuts, plantains,

and the

tender spikes of areca.

In case of serious illness, he

undertakes a vow to beg from door to door on certain

ni-i8 B

KELASI
days,

276

and convey the money thus accumulated to Tirupati.

slit in

In his house, he keeps a small closed box with a

the
lid,

through which he drops a coin

at

every pinch of

misfortune, and the contents are eventually sent to that

holy place.

The affairs of the community are

of elders.
there
is

regulated by a council

In every village, or for every group of houses,

an hereditary Gurukara or headman of the

barbers,

who

is

assisted by four Moktesars.

If

any of

these five authorities receives a complaint, he gives notice

to the others,
in

and a meeting

is

arranged to take place

a difference of opinion,

some house.

When

there

is

the opinion of the majority decides the issue.

decision cannot be arrived
at,

When

the question
If this

is

referred to the

council of another village.

does not settle the

point at issue, the final appeal lies to the

Swami
into
It

of the

the Udipi temple.

The

council

inquires

alleged
declares

offences against caste, and punishes them.

what marriages are

valid,

preserves discipline within

and what not. It not only the community itself, but

the pipers refuse to

takes notice of external affairs affecting the well-being

of the community.

Thus,

if

make

music

at their

marriage processions, the council resolves

Disputes concerning

that no barber shall shave a piper.

civil

rights were once submitted to these councils, but,

as their decisions are not

now

binding, aggrieved parties

seek justice from courts of law.

Punishments
cation

consist

of compensation

for

minor
If

offences affecting individuals, and of fine or

if

excommunithe

the offence affects the whole community.

trial,

accused does not attend the

he may be excomIf the

municated

for

contempt of authority.
temple

person
fine,

seeks re-admission into the caste, he has to pay a

which goes

to the treasury of the

at Udipi.

The

77

KELASI
fine,

presiding

Swami

at

the shrine accepts the

and
for-

issues a writ authorising the re-admission of the penitent

offender.

The headman
to the

collects
if

the
is

fine

to

be

warded

Swami, and,

he

guilty of

any malten,

practice, the

whole community, generally called the

may
like,

take cognisance of the offence.

Offences against

marriage relations, shaving low caste people, and such

are
all visited

with

fine,

which
is

is

remitted to the

Swami, from

whom

purification

obtained.

The power

of the village councils, however, has greatly declined in

recent years, as the class of cases in which their decision

can be enforced

is

practically very small.

The Tulu
(in the
is

barbers, like

many other

castes on the west-

ern coast, follow the aliya santana system of inheritance

female

line).

The

tradition in

South Canara

that this,

and a number of other customs, were im-

posed upon certain castes by Bhutala Pandya.

story relates
that

The

Deva Pandya, a merchant of the Pandya kingdom, once had some new ships built, but before they put to sea, the demon Kundodara demanded a human sacrifice. The merchant asked his wife to
spare one of her seven sons for the purpose, but she
refused to be a party to the sacrifice, and went

away with

her sons to her father's house.

The

merchant's sister

thereupon offered her son.

Kundodara, however, was

so very pleased with the appearance of this son that

he spared his
Pandya, and

life,

and made him a king, whose sway

This king was called Bhutala
of

extended over Tuluva.

he,

being directed by Kundodara, imposed

upon the people the system

nephew

inheritance.

The barber is changing with the times. He now seldom uses the old unfoldable wooden-handled razor
forged by the village blacksmith, but has gone in for

what he

calls

Raja

sri

(royal fortune

corruption of

KEN
Rodgers)
return
razors.

278

He
it

believes that he
his
lot

is

polluted by the

operation which

is

to perform, and,

on his

home from

his

morning round, he must bathe and

and Kenja (red ant) have both

put on washed clothes.

Ken. Ken

(red)

been recorded as gotras of Kurni. Kenna. A division of Toda.

Kepumari.
Arcot,
that

It is

noted, in the Gazetteer of South

several

" the

Kepumaris are one of the

foreign communities from other districts,

swell the total of the criminal classes in

who

help to

South Arcot.
Chingleput
at

Their head-quarters
district,

is

at Tiruvallur in the

but there

is

a settlement of

them

Mariyan-

kuppam

(not far from Porto Novo),

at

Kunisampet in commit much the same class of crime as the Donga Dasaris, frequenting railway trains and crowded gatherings, and they avert suspicion by their respectable appeardetachment
ance and pleasant manners. Their house-language is Telugu. They call themselves Alagiri Kepumaris. The

and another large French territory. They

etymology of the second of these two words

from doubt, but the
first

is

not free

of

them

is

said to be derived

from Alagar, the god of the Kalians, whose temple at the foot of the hills about twelve miles north of Madura

town

is

a well-known place of pilgrimage, and to

whom

these people, and other criminal fraternities annually offer

a share of their ill-gotten gains."

Information concerning

the criminal methods of these people, under the

name
Notes

Capemari,

will

be found

in

Mr. F.

S. Mullaly's

'

on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.' Kerala. Defined by Mr. Wigram* as "the western coast from Gokarnam to Cape Comorin, comprising

Malabar Law and Custom.

279
Travancore,
Canara."

KEVUTO
and
part

Cochin,

Malabar,

of

South

Kere

(tank).

Kesari

(lion).

A gotra of Kurni. A gotra of Kurni.

fascicularis).

Kethaki {Pandanus
sept of Stanika.

An

exogamous

Kethri.
Report,

See Khatri.
is

Kevuto. It
1

recorded,

in

the

Madras Census

89 1,

that " the

Kevutas are the fisherman caste

Besides fishing

of Ganjam, and they are said to be the descendants of

the Kaibartas, a fishing caste of Bengal.

in

rivers,

canals and lakes, they ply boats and cata-

marans, and some are also traders.

Uriya Brahmans
the
fifth

and Bairagis are

child-birth
till

their priests.

From

day

after

the twenty-first, the Uriya

the Bhagavata Purana in the house,

Brahmans read and on the last day

girls

they give a

name
veil

to the child.

The married

and

widows put a
of doors."

over their faces whenever they go out

are low in the social scale, but not a

The Kevutos
polluting

lowing
Jonka,

caste. They apparently recognise the folendogamous sub-divisions Bhettiya, Bilva,

:

Khottia,

Koibarto or Dasa, Liyari, Chuditiya,

these the Thossas are cultivators, the

and Thossa.
Liyaris

Of
a

make
rice).

preparation

of
in

fried

rice (liya),

and

the Chudityas are

engaged

parching grain (chuda,

parched
the

By

reason of their change of oocupation,

Liyaris

distinct

and Chudityas have practically become castes, and some deny that there is any con-

nection between them and the Kevutos.

Telugu people
I

sometimes
that

call
is

the Chuditiyas Neyyalu, and a street in

am

told

there

Parlakimedi almost wholly

that they are of the

inhabited by Kevutos,

who say

Neyyalu

caste.

KHADI
Of

280
gotras which occur

among the Kevutos, nago bhago (tiger), and kochipo (tortoise) are the most common. They also have exogamous septs or bamsams, among which are gogudiya (bells) and nolini (bamboo carrier). The titles which occur in the caste are Behara, Sitto, Torei, Jalli, Bejjo, and Paiko. The marriage rite is performed at night, and the
(cobra),
bride's father ties a gold

bead (konti) on the neck of the

The Kevutos worship especially Dasaraj and Gangadevi. The latter is worshipped at the Dasara
bridegroom.
festival,

and, in

some

places, fowls

and goats are

sacri-

ficed

in

her

honour.

In

the

neighbourhood

of the

Chilka lake,
liberty,

the goats are not sacrificed, but set at

to graze

and allowed

on the Kalikadevi

hill.

There is a belief that animals thus devoted to Gangadevi do not putrify when they die, but dry up. In the Vizagapatam Agency tracts, the Kevutos are
said to be notorious for their proficiency in magic

and

necromancy.

Khadi.
ghatiyal,

A sub-division of
name,

Telli.

Khadiya. A
term of reproach

said

to

be

derived

from

meaning a person possessed, and used as a

for Kudumis of Travancore. Khajjaya (cake). An exogamous sept of Vakkaliga. Kharvi. The Kharvis are described, in the South Canara Manual, as " Marathi fishermen, who migrated The to this district from the Bombay Presidency. name Kharvi is said to be a corrupt form of the Sanskrit They are hardworking but thriftless, and kshar, salt. much given to drink, chiefly toddy. They are sea-

fishermen and good

sailors,

and also work as domestic

servants and labourers.

They employ Havik Brahmans The to perform their marriage and other ceremonies. head of the Sringeri Math is their spiritual teacher."

28

KHARVI
and

The Kharvis
cultivators,

are Konkani-speaking fishermen

in

found

the

Kundapur

taluk

of South

Canara.

Those who are not engaged

in fishing

always
it

wear the sacred thread, whereas the fishermen wear

for

seven days from the Sravana Hunnami, or full-moon

day of the month Sravana (August-September), and then remove it. All are Saivites, and disciples of the
Sringeri mutt.

Ajai

Masti and

deities specially worshipped by them.

Nagu Masti are They follow

the

the

makkala santana law of inheritance (from father to son). Their headmen are called Saranga or Patel, and these

names are used

of the
styled

as

titles

by members of the families

the headman
is

headmen.

The

assistant to

Naik or Naicker. For the performance of the marriage ceremonial, The dhare Shivalli or Kota Brahmans are engaged.
[see

form of marriage
few points of
decorate the

Bant)

is

observed, but there are a

detail,

which may be noted.

inside

Five

women
she

bride

her house just

before

comes to the marriage pandal (booth), and tie on her neck a gold bead (dhare mani) and black beads. At the
pandal she stands
in front of the
is

bridegroom, separated

from him by a screen, which

stretched between them.

Garlands of

tulsi
is

(^Ocimum sanctum) are exchanged,

removed.

and the screen

tied

Bashingams (chaplets) are

bridal pair at the outset of

on the foreheads of the

are cremated,
river.

the ceremonial, and are worn for five days.

The dead

and,
But,

in

most

cases,

the

ashes are thrown into a

among
day,

the orthodox,

they are taken to Gokarna, and thrown into the river

at

that
to

place.

On

the

eleventh

presents

are

made

Brahmans
is

after purification.

On
to

the following

day, food

offered on

two leaves

the soul of the

deceased.

KHASA
One
of the leaves
is

282

thrown

into

water, and

the

other given to a

cow
is

or bull.
J.

Khasa.^It
"

noted by the Rev.

rich people,

Cain * that

members

of this caste are found chiefly in attendance

on zamindars and other

and report says

that they are not unfrequently their illegitimate children."

Khasa is synonymous with Adapapa {q.v.). Khasgi. Marathas, of whom a few families constitute the aristocracy in the

Khatri. The Khatris

t as " silk

Sandur

State.

are described by Mr. Lewis

Rice

weavers,

who

in

manners,

customs,

and language are akin

intermarry with them,
together.

to Patvegars, but they

do not
eat

although the

two castes

The

Katris claim to be Kshatriyas, and quote

as their authority.

Renuka Purana
Rama,
five

The legend

is

that,

during the general massacre of the Kshatriyas by Parasu

women, each of whom was big with

child,

escaped, and took refuge in a temple dedicated to Kali.

When
out

the children

came
of

of age, their marriages

were
their

celebrated,

and

their

mothers prayed
livelihood.

to Kali to point

some means

In

answer

to

supplications, the goddess

gave them looms, and taught

them weaving and dyeing.

The

Katris claim descent

from these refugees, and follow the same trades."

The
sasbss,
is

following note relates to the

Khatris of Consilk

jeeveram, where most of them trade in

thread, silk

and

dye-stuffs.

Some

deal in

used by native females as a

human hair, which chignon. By reason of

their connection with the silk industry, the Khatris are

called Patnulkaran

by other

castes.

The

true

Patnul-

karans are called Koshta by the Khatris. The Khatris give Bhuja Raja Kshatriya as their caste name, and
* Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

t Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer.

283

KHATRI

some say

that they are the descendants of one Karta

Virya Arjuna of the

human

race.

Their

tribal deity is

Renukamba, the mother

pongal (boiled
the

of

Parasu

Rama,

to

whom

rice) is offered,

and a goat

sacrificed in

month of Thai (January-February). They have exogamous septs, such as Sulegar, Powar, Mudugal, Sonappa, Bojagiri, etc., and have adopted the same
Brahmanical gotras as the Bhats or Bhatrazus,
e.g.,

Gautama,

Kasyapa,
is

Vasishta,

and

Bharadwaja.
Bhat,

At-

tached to them

caste

beggar, called

who
a

comes round

at long intervals.

He

is

said to

keep the

genealogies of the Khatri families.

He

ties a flag to

post of the house at which he intends to claim a meal,

and,
after

partaking thereof,

he receives information

concerning the births and marriages, which have taken

place
in

the

family

since

his
after

last

visit.

Girls

are

married

both
is

before

and

puberty, and

infant

marriage

fashionable
is

at

the

present

day.

remarriage of widows

permitted, but a divorced

The woman

may not marry again so long as her husband is alive. A man may not marry the widow of his brother, or of an agnate. The custom of menarikam, by which a man may marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is proFamilies belonging to one sept may give their hibited. daughters in marriage to men of another sept, from
which, however, they are not allowed to receive girls
as

wives

for

their

sons.

For example, a man of a

but

Sulegar sept

may

give his daughters in marriage to

sept,

men

of

the

Powar

may

not

take

Powar

girls as

wives
is

for his sons.

But a certain

elasticity in

the rule
certain

allowed, and the prohibition ceases after a

of generations by arrangement with the
last

number

Bhat.

The marriage ceremonies

over seven days.

On the first day,

the deity Bharkodev,

who

is

represented

KHATRI

284

by seven quartz pebbles placed in a row on plantain leaves, is worshipped with offerings of fruit, etc., and a goat is sacrificed. The blood which flows from its cut neck is poured into a vessel containing cooked rice,
of which

seven balls are made, and offered

to

the

pebbles.

Towards evening some

of the rice

is

thrown

to the four cardinal points of the compass, in order to

conciliate evil spirits.

On

the second day, the house

is

thoroughly cleansed with cow-dung water, and the walls

are

whitewashed.

The

eating

of meat

is

forbidden

until the marriaofe

ceremonies are concluded.

The
of

third

day

is

devoted to the erection of the marriage pandal

(booth)

and milk-post,

and

the

worship

female

ancestors (savasne).

Seven married
they are

women are

selected,

and presented with white ravikes (bodices) dyed with

turmeric.

After
feast,

bathing,

sumptuously

fed.

Before the
bride's

the bridegroom's and sometimes the

river,

mother, goes to a well, tank (pond) or

carrying on a tray a
silver

new woman's

cloth,

on which a

embossed on it is placed. Another silver plate of the same kind, newly made, is brought by a goldsmith, and the two are worshipped, and then taken to the house, where they The bridegroom and his party go in are kept in a box.
plate with a female figure

procession through the streets

in

which their fellow

castemen

live.

When

they reach the house of the bride,

her mother comes out and waves coloured water to avert

the evil eye, washes the bridegroom's eyes with water,

and presents him with

milk.

betel

and a vessel

filled

with

The

bride

is

then conducted to the bridegroom's

house, where she takes her seat on a decorated plank,

and a gold or silver ornament called sari or kanti is placed on her neck. She is further presented with a new cloth. A Brahman purohit then writes the names

285

KHATRI

of the contracting parties, and the date of their marriage,

on two pieces of palm

over to their fathers.

leaf or paper,

which he hands
the per-

The day
for

closes with

formance of gondala puja,

is

which a device (muggu)

white

made on

the ground with yellow, red, and

brass vessel
is

powders.

A
is

set in the centre thereof,

and four earthen pots are placed at the corners.

(worship)
the beating of a pair of large cymbals.
day, the bridal couple bathe,

Puja

done, and certain stanzas are recited amid

On

the fourth

and the bridegroom is invested with the sacred thread. They then go to the place where the metal plates representing the ancestors are kept, with a cloth thrown over the head like a hood,
and some milk and cooked
rice are placed

near the plates.

On

their

way back

they, in order to avert the evil eye,

place their right feet on a pair of small earthen plates tied

together, and placed near the threshold.

The

bride's

mother gives the bridegroom some cakes and milk, after partaking of which he goes in procession through the
streets,
is

and a further ceremony

the pandal, where

for averting the evil

eye

performed

in front of the bride's

house.

This over,
his

he goes to

his feet are

washed by

father-in-law,
fruit,

who

places in his hands a piece of plantain

over which his mother-in-law pours some milk.

bride and bridegroom then
tali

The

go

into the house,

the latter ties the

on the neck of the former.

is lifted

where During
screen

the tying ceremony, the couple are separated by a cloth

screen, of
is

which the lower end

sit

up.

The

removed, and they

over
their

facing each other with their

is

bashingams (forehead chaplets) in contact, and rice thrown

heads

by
on.

their

relations.

The
are,

Brahman hands

the contracting couple the wrist-threads

tie

(kankanams), which they

These threads
earlier

among

most

castes,

tied at

an

stage

in

the

KHATRI
marriage ceremonies.

286

On

the

fifth

day, seven betel nuts

are placed in a row on a plank within the pandal, round

which the bride and bridegroom go seven times.

At the

end of each round, the

former, and sweeps

latter lifts

the right foot of the

nuts.

off

one

of the

For every

marriage, a fee of Rs. 12-5-0 must be paid to the head-

man

of the caste, and the

money

thus accumulated

is

spent on matters such as the celebration

of festivals,

which

affect the entire

community.
time.

If the fee is

not paid,

the bride and bridegroom are not permitted to go round

the plank the

seventh

On

the sixth

day,

the
is

bride receives presents from her family, and there

procession at night.
the bride
is

On
I

the last day of the ceremonies,

to her

handed over
says "

mother-in-law by her

mother,
knife.

who

am

giving you a melon

and
bride

a
is

Deal with them as you please."

rice

The

taken inside the house

by the mother-in-law and shown

into
full.

some pots containing

which

she dips her

right hand, saying that they are

The

mother-in-law

then presents her with a gold finger-ring, and the two

eat together as a sign of their

new

relationship.

The dead
dies, his

are cremated, and,

is

when a married man

corpse

carried on a palanquin to the burning-

ground,
laid

Near the pyre it is on the ground, and the widow places her jewelry
widow.

followed by the

and glass bangles on the chest. be carried by the sons-in-law

nomination of the bearers
of the deceased person
is

The
if

corpse

should
the

possible,

and

indicated by the eldest son

making a mark on their shoulders with ashes. On the third day after death, the milk ceremony takes place. Three balls of wheat-flour, mixed with honey and milk, are prepared, and placed respectively on the spot where the deceased breathed his last, where the bier was laid on the ground, and at

28;
the place where the corpse
is

KHATRI
burnt, over

was

which milk which

poured.

The

final

death ceremonies (karmandhiram)

till

are observed on the seventh or tenth day,

time the eating of flesh

is

forbidden.

The headman
is

of the Khatris,

who

is

called Gramani,

elected once a month, and he has an assistant called

Vanja,

who is appointed annually. The Khatris are Saivites, and wear

of Marathi.

the sacred thread,

but also worship various grama devatas (village deities).

They speak a dialect e.g., Dharma Sa.

Kethree
divided
into
is

The

caste

title is

Sa,

described, in the

Vizagapatam Manual, as
in

"the caste of the Zamindar's family

sixteen
classes.

Jeypore.
the

It

is

They wear

paieta

(sacred thread), and the Zamindar used formerly to sell the privilege of wearing it to any one who could afford Pariahs were excluded from to pay him twelve rupees.

purchasing the privilege."

The Khatri
tracts
in

agriculturists
are,

Vizagapatam

Agency Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao

of the Jeypore

informs me, entirely distinct from the weaving Khatris

of the south.

Surya (Sun),

They are divided into four septs, viz., Bhag (tiger), Kochchimo (tortoise), and
Girls are married before puberty,
officiates at their marriages,

Nag

(cobra).

and an

Oriya Brahman

instead of

the customary Desari.

in the

They do

not, like other castes

Agency

tracts,

give fermented liquor (madho) as

part of the jholla tonka or bride-price, which consists of

rice,

a goat, cloths, etc.

The marriage ceremonies

are

performed
the

at the bride's house.

sacred

thread for
it

These Khatris put on the first time when they are

life.

married, and renew

from time to time throughout

They

are

fair

skinned, and speak the Oriya language.

Patro.

Their usual

title is

KHINBUDI
Khinbudi
(bear).

288

A sept of Rona.
name
for

Khodalo.- vS^^

Bavuri.

Khodikaro.
floor,

Pandltos, derived from

the stone (khodi), with which they write figures on the

when making

astrological calculations.

Khodura. The name is derived from khodu, bangle. The Khoduras, Mr. Francis writes,* are " manufacturers of the brass
ordinarily

and bell-metal

bangfles

worn by the lower

is

class

and rines Odiyas. Their

headman
is

called

are deputies

Nahako Sahu, and under him there called Dhoyi Nahako and Behara. There
first

a fourth functionary styled Aghopotina, whose peculiar

is

duty
those

said to be to join in the

meal taken

by

who have been excommunicated, and subsequently

titles

readmitted into the caste by the caste panchayat (council).

quaint custom exists, by which honorific

like

Senapati,

Mahapatro, Subuddhi,
to

etc.,

are sold by the

panchayat

any man of the caste who covets them, and

said that the original

the proceeds sent to Puri and Pratabpur for the benefit

of the temples there.
of the caste
It is

was Orissa, and that it came to with Purushottam Deva, the Maharaja of Puri. In I am its general customs it resembles the Badhoyis."
informed that the

home Ganjam

name
first

of the fourth functionary should

leaf

be Aghopotiria, or
served
first

man,

i.e.,

the

man who

is

at a public dinner.

Khoira.
1901, as a

Recorded,

in the

Madras Census Report,

low caste of Oriya cultivators.

Report, 1901, eleven

Khoja.^In the Madras Census

Khojas are recorded as belonging
of traders from

to a

Mussalman

tribe

Bombay.
* Madras Census Report, igoi.

289

KHOJA

For the following note on the Khojas of Southern India, I am indebted to an article by Dr. J. Shortt.* "The true Kojahs, or eunuchs, are not numerous in
Southern India.

They

are chiefly to be

seen in the

houses of wealthy Mussalman nobles, by whom they are placed at the head of their zenanas or harems.

The Kojahs
Kojahs;
(2)

are properly divided into two classes

Hijras.

(i)

Sometimes Hindus, Sudras, and

to the operation (of cas-

Brahmans subject themselves

tration), of their

own accord from

a religious impression.

Others, finding themselves naturally impotent, consider

it

necessary to undergo the operation, to avoid being

born again at
state.

a future birth

in
is

the

same

helpless

The

operation of castration

generally performed

by a

class of barbers,

sometimes by some of the more

in the following

intelligent of the

eunuchs themselves,

The patient is made to sit on an upturned new earthen pot, being previously well drugged with opium or bhang. The entire genitals being seized by the left hand, an assistant, who has a bamboo lath slit in the centre, runs it down quite close to the pubis,
manner.
the
slit

firmly

embracing the whole of the genitals

at

the root,
it

when

the operator, with a sharp razor, runs

down along

the face of the lath, and removes penis,

in

testicles

and scrotum

one

swoop,

leaving a
boiling

large

clean open

wound

behind, in which

gingelly

{Sesamum indicum) oil is poured to staunch the bleeding, and the wound covered over with a soft rag steeped in

warm

oil.

This
is

is

the only dressing applied

daily,

to

the
is

wound, which
with conjee

renewed

while the patient

confined in a supine position to his bed, and lightly fed

(rice gruel), milk, etc.

During the operation,

* Journ. Anthrop. Inst., II, 1873.

ni-19

KHOJA
the
patient
is

290

urged to cry out

times.
classes, the
in

'

Din

'

(the faith

in

Mahomet) three " Of the two

created

Kojahs are the

to

artificially-

eunuchs,

contradistinction

the

Hijras

(impotents) or natural eunuchs.

Some

years ago there

were three Kojahs

wives,

head of the State prison or Royal Mahal at Vellore, in charge of some of the
at the

descendants, and
Sultan.

other

female connections of
highly
respected,

Tippoo

These men were

held charges of considerable trust, and were

Muham-

madans by
zenana
habit

birth.

Tales were often repeated that the

and adopted girls) were in the them naked, and poking fun at There were two Kojahs in the their helplessness. employ of the late Nabob of the Carnatic. They were both Africans. On the death of the Nabob, the Government allowed one of them a pension of fifteen
(slaves

women

of stripping

rupees a month.

"The second
be impotent.

class,

Hijras or natural eunuchs as they

arc termed, are not

so, strictly

speaking, but are said to

birth,

While some are naturally so from

in

others are impressed with a belief

childhood, and are

dressed up in women's clothes,

taught to ape their

it

speech and manners, whilst a few adopt

in after-life.

as a profession

They
is

are chiefly Mussalmans.

The

hair

of the head

put up as in women, well oiled, combed,

and thrown back, tied into a knot, and shelved to the left side, sometimes plaited, ornamented, and allowed to hang down the back. They wear the choice or short
jacket, the saree or petticoat,

and put on abundance of

nose, ear, finger,

and toe

rings.

They

cultivate singing,

play the dhol (a drum), and attitudinise.

They go about
[Such a group

the bazaars in groups of half a dozen or more, singing

songs with the hope of receiving a

trifle.


291
I

KHOJA

saw at Sandur, who, on hearing that I wished to photograph them, made tracks for another place. E. 7".] They are not only persistent, but impudent beggars,
singing
filthy,

obscene, and abusive songs, to compel the

them something. Should they not succeed, they would create a fire and throw in a lot of chillies, the suffocating and irritative smoke producing violent coughing, etc., so that the bazaarmen are compelled to yield to their importunity, and give them a trifle to get rid of their annoyance. While such were
bazaarmen
to give

the pursuits in the day, at nightfall they resorted to

debauchery and low practices by hiring themselves out

to a dissipated set of

Moslems, who are

in

the habit of

resorting to these people for the purpose, whilst they

intoxicate themselves with a preparation

termed majoon,
from
ragi

being a confection of opium, and a drink termed boja,

a
species of country

beer

manufactured

[Eleitsine

Cor ac and), which also contains bhang (Indian

In addition to this, they

hemp).

smoke bhang. The met with in most of the towns of Southern India, more especially where a large proportion of Mussalmans is found."
Hijras are
In Hyderabad, castration used to be performed at

about the age of sixteen.

in the

A
sit

pit,

31

feet deep,

was dug

ground, and

filled

with ashes.

After the opera-

tion,

the patient had to

for three

on the ashes, with crossed

operation was performed,

legs,

days.

The

under the influence of narcotics, by a Pir

the Khoja community.
I

the

head of
at the

am

informed by Mr. G. T. Paddison

that,

annual festival of the Gadabas of Vizagapatam, thorns

are set on a swing outside the shrine of the goddess.

On

these the priest or priestess

is

sits

without harm.

If

the priest

masculine, he has been

made

neuter.

But,

in-19 B


KHOND
if

292
is

the village

not fortunate enough to possess a eunuch,

the ceremony.

notes were recorded by me on the occasion of an interview with some eunuchs living in the city of Madras
:

woman performs The following

Hindu, aged about

developed.
Is

Generative organs feebly a natural eunuch. Speaks and behaves

30.

like a female.

Keeps a

stall,

at

which he

sells cakes.

Goes out singing and dancing with four other eunuchs,

and earns from ten annas
are, in

to a rupee in a night.

There

Madras, about thirty eunuchs, who go about Others keep shops, or are employed as dancing.
domestic servants.

One
Madras

well

acquainted

with the
a boy
is

Hindu eunuchs

of

stated that,

when

born with ill-developed

is

genitalia, his unnatural condition

a source of anxiety
feels shy,

to his parents.

As he grows up he

and

is

made

fun of by his companions.

Such boys run away

from home, and join the eunuchs.

sing and dance, and carry

They

are taught to

on abominable practices.
they dress up as dancing-

They
girls,

are employed by dancing-girls, to decoy paramours

to them.

For

this purpose,

At times of census, they return themselves as males engaged in singing and

and go about the
streets.

dancing.

See Kangara. Kichagara. A small

Khongar.

Khond.^^"^^ Kondh.

class

of Canarese

basket-

makers and beggars. The name is said to be derived from kichaku, meaning an imitative sound, in reference
to the incessant noise which the Kichagaras

make when
for

begging.

Kidaran
y^lam

(copper

boiler).

synonym

Mala-

artisans.

293

KIMEDI

Kilakku Teru

(east street).

A section of Kalian.

Killavar.- A sub-division of Tottiyan. Killekyata. The Killekyatas are a Marathi-speaking people,

who amuse

villagers with their marionette

shows
travel

Telugu and Canarese countries. " They round the villages, and give a performance wherin the

ever they can secure sufficient patronage.

take the form
of money, or
oil

Contributions
foot-lights."*
Sastri writes,!

for the

"Their
" is

profession,"

Mr.

S.

M. Natesa

enacting religious dramas before the village public

their

(whence

name,
is

meaning
is

buffoon).

The

black

kambli (blanket)
village chavadi, or

their screen,

and any mandapa or

their stage.

open house

Night

is

the time for giving the performance.

They

carry with

them pictures painted in colours on deer skins, which are well tanned, and made fine like parchment. The
several parts of the picture representing the

human

or

animal body are attached to each other by thin iron

wires,

and the parts are made to move by the assistance

of thin

bamboo

splits,

and thus the several actions and

Their pictures are
in

emotions are represented to the public, to the accom-

paniment of songs.
very
fairly painted,

most cases

with variety and choice of colours.

for representation

The
the

stories

chosen

are generally from

Ramayana and
call

the Mahabharata, which they how-

Ravanyakatha and Pandavakatha the stories of Ravana and the Pandavas." The dead are buried in
ever
a seated posture.

Some
tattooers.

of the

women
local

are

engaged as professional
for

Kimedi.A
Parlakimedi.

name

Koronos who

live

at

Gazetteer of the Anantapur district.

f Indian Review, VII, 1906.

KINDAL

294

Kindal (basket-maker). A sub-division of Savara. Kinkila (the koel or cuckoo). A gotra of Kurni. Tiie cuckoo, named Eudynainis konorata, is the bird,

whose crescendo
Kinthali.

cry, ku-il, ku-il, is trying to the

nerves

during the hot season.

A sub-division of the Telugu

A
sept
of

Kalingis.

Kira

(parrot).

Gadaba.
an

Kira

also

occurs as a sub-division of Sondi.

Kiraikkaran.-^Kiraikkaran

is

occupational

name, denoting those who cultivate kirai {Ainarantics). The Kiraikkarans are stated, in the Census Report,
1

90 1, to be usually Agamudaiyans

in

Coimbatore.

name is given by TamilKempati Okkiliyans of Coimbatore, a Canarese people who migrated thither from Kempati in Mysore. The majority of them cultivate kirai and other edible vegetables, but some are petty
gathered, however, that the

speaking people to the

traders or fishermen.

Some

of their marriage divisions

are

named
Kirata

after deities, e.g.,

is

Masani and Viramashti, and

one division

called Jogi.

(hunter).

name assumed by
or

Bedars,

Ekaris,

and other

classes.

Kirganiga.
mills.

Kirganiga

Kiruganiga

is

the

of a sub-division of Ganigas,

who express
of

oils in

name wooden
the

Kiriyam.

sub-division

Nayar.

Also

Malayalam word
Kiriyattil.

for

house name or sept.

A sub-division of Nayar. Kizhakathi. Recorded, the Madras

in

Census

Report,

89 1, as a sub-division of Paraiyan.

The word

means

easterner,
call

and a Paraiyan of North or South

a Paraiyan of Madras by this name.

Arcot would

Koalaka

(arrow).

An exogamous sept of Jatapu.

295

KODIYAL

Kobbiriya. A sub-division of Domb. Kochattabannaya. Kochattabannaya

or

Kojjais

rannaya (jak

tree,

Artocarpus integrifolia, sept)

an

exogamous sept

of Bant.

Kochimo

(tortoise).

A sept

of Oriya Gaudo, Bo-

santiya, Bottada,

Konda Dora,

Mattiya, and Omanaito.

in the

Kochuvalan.

Recorded,
name

Travancore Census

Report, 1901, as a

for Ulladans.

Kodaketti (umbrella
Panan.

tying).

sub-division

of

Kodavili
Sale.

(sickle).

An

exogamous sept of
(cloth- weavers).

Kama
sub-

Kodekal Hata-kararu
division of

Devanga.
(cock).

Kodi

An

exogamous sept

of Kapu.

Tho-

rika occurs as a sept of Jatapus,

who

are said to revere

a species of fowl called thorika kodi, and Kodi Kandla

(fowl's eyes) as a sept of

Boya.

Kodikkal.
meaning

Kodikkal, Kodikkar, or Kodikkalkaran,

man,
is

betel vine

the occupational

name

of a

sub-division of Vellalas,

who
1

cultivate the
it

betel

and of Labbai Muhammadans vine. In the Census Report,

90 1,

is

noted that those

who gave

this as the

name
and

of their caste returned their parent tongue as Tamil,

their title as
Pallis.

Nayakkan, and were therefore clubbed with Kodikkal is further a sub-division of the Shaderive the
its

nans,

who

name from

kodi, a flag,

and give
however,

flag-bearer as

significance.

Other

castes,

make it to mean who were betel

synonym

a betel garden, in reference to Shanans

vine growers.

Kodikkal Pillaimar

is

of the Senaikkudaiyans, indicating Pillaimars

who

cultivate the betel vine.

Kodiyal.

A sub-division of Kudubi.

KODLA
Kodla. Kodla
(fowl)

296
has been
recorded
as

an

exogamous sept of Tsakala, and Kodla bochchu (fowl's feathers) as an exogamous sept of Kapu. Kodu. A form of Kondh. Also a sub-division of

Konda Razu. Kohoro.

A form of Kahar.
Koya.
of the royal treasury).

Koi. ^^^

Koibarto. A sub-division of Kevuto.

Koil Pandala (keeper

One

of the divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore.

Koil

Tampuran.The

following note

is

extracted

from the Travancore Census Report,

1901. The Koil Tampurans form a small community, made up of the

descendants of the immigrant Kshatriya families from

certain parts of

Malabar lying
are also

to the north of

Travancore
Pantalas.

and Cochin.
In
early

They

known

as Koil

records,

the term

Koviladhikarikal appears
tradition connects the

to have been used.

Immemorial

Koil Tampurans with Cheraman Perumal, and goes to

say that their original settlement was Beypore.

About
settle in

300 M.E. a few male members were invited to

of the Travancore Royal House,

Travancore, and form marital alliances with the ladies

known then
built
for
all

as

the
at

Venat

Svarupam.

Houses

were

them

Kilimanur, six miles from Attingal, where

the female

members

of the Royal Family resided.

In

M.E.

963,

eight persons

three

males and

five

females

from

the

family of Aliakk5tu, oppressed by the invasion of Tipu

Sultan, sought shelter in Travancore.

Maharaja

Rama

Varma
of the

received them kindly, and gave them the palace

Tekkumkur

Raja,

who had been subjugated by

site

Rama
still

lyen Dalawah.

This

in

recognised as Nirazhikkottaram.

Changanachery is In 975 M.E. one

of the five ladies removed to Kirtipuram near Kantiyur

297

KOIL TAMPURAN

(Mavelikara taluk), and thence to a village called

in

Gramam

same taluk. Another shifted to Pallam in the Kottayam taluk, a third to Paliyakkara in Tiruvalla, and a fourth, having no issue, continued to live at Changanachery with the fifth lady who was the youngest in the family. Raja Raja Varma Koil Tampuran, who married Rani Lakshmi Bai, sovereign of Travancore from 985 to 990 M.E. was the eldest son of the lady that stayed
the
at

Changanachery.
as

Their present house at that place,

Lakshmipuram Kottaram, was named after the Koil Tampuran's royal consort. Raja Raja Varma's
sister

known

gave birth

to three daughters

and two

sons.

The
in

eldest daughter

and sons removed to Kartikapalli

in 1046, to

1040,

and thence,

Anantapuram

in

Haripad.

In

04 1,

the second
in Tiruvalla,

daughter and issue removed to

while the third continued to live
there

Chemprol
at

Changanachery.

seven families
Kilimanur,

came into existence of Koil Tampurans, namely those of

Anantapuram,
Pallam,

Thus

Changanachery,

Chemprol, Gramam, and Paliyakkare.

Some

time after

1040 M.E. (A.D. 1856), three more families, viz., those of Cherukol, Karamma, and Vatakkematham, immigrated

from North Malabar.

The
relations,

Koil

Tampurans

are

all

regarded

as

blood

and observe birth and death pollutions like Dayadis among Brahmans. They follow the matriarchal system of inheritance. Nambutiri Brahmans marry their ladies. Their religious ceremonies are the same as
those of Nambutiris,
of food and drink.

whom

they resemble

in

the matter
is

Their caste government

in

the

hands of the Nambutiri Vaidikans.

Their
ceremonies
are
the
usual

Brahmanical

Samskaras
etc.

Gatakarma,

Namakarana,

Annaprasana,

Regarding the Namakarana, or naming, the only

KOIL TAMPURAN
noteworthy
fact
is

298
that the first-born male always goes

by the name of Raja Raja Varma.

sixteenth year of age.

The Upanayana,
Upa-

or investiture with the sacred thread, takes place in the

On

the morning of the

is

nayana, Chaula or the tonsure ceremony

It is

performed.

formally done by the Nambutiri priest in the capa-

city of

Guru, just as the father does to his son

left

among

Brahmans, and afterwards

Maran.

to be

completed by the

The

priest

invests
fire

the boy with the thread,

and, with the sacrificial

as lord

and witness,

initiates

him

in the

Gayatri prayer.

The

Koil

Tampurans

are to

repeat this prayer morning, noon and evening, like the

Brahmans, but are

occasion.

to

do so only ten times on each

priest.

On

the fourth day, the boy listens to a few

Vedic hymns recited by the

There

is

not the

prolonged course of severe discipline of the Brahmanical

Brahmachari, which the Nambutiris so religiously

observe.

The

Samavartana,
fifteenth day.
is

or

pupilage

stage,

is

performed on the
the case of the
intercedes,

The ceremony

of pro-

ceeding to Benares

then gone through.

Just as in

Brahmans, a would-be father-in-law and

settle in life as a Grihastha.

and requests the Snataka (past Brahmachari)

priest then steps in to

to bless his daughter,

The Nambutiri
his

remind the boy of

dharma

(duty) as a Kshatriya, and gives

him a sword

symbolic of his pre-ordained function

in society.

The marriage of a Koil Tampuran does not present many peculiar features. One item in the programme, During all called Dikshavirippu, may be referred to.
the four days of the marriage, the bride
special room,
is

confined to a
it

where a white cloth with a carpet over

fioor,

is

spread on the

and a lamp burns day and night.

is

The

ceremonial bridegroom

either an Aryappattar or

a Nambutiri,

now

generally a Nambutiri.

Of

course,

299
the marriage
at the
is

KOLAYAN

a mere ceremonial, and the bridegroom

ceremony is not necessarily the spouse of actual life. His death deprives her of the right to wear the tali, and makes her an Amangali (an inauspicious At sraddhas person) for all socio-religious purposes.
(memorial service
for the

dead), the Tampuratti with

her married husband alive faces the east, and one that has lost him has to look in the direction of Yamaloka
(south).

Mr.
recently,

Ravi Varma, the celebrated

artist,

who

died

was a Koil Tampuran

of Kilimanur, an exten-

sive village assio^ned to his ancestors rent-free for the

military services they

had rendered
cloth).

to the State in times

of trouble.*

Kokala (woman's
Golla.

An

exogamous

sept

of

Kokkara. Recorded,
Kokkundia.

in

the Travancore

Census

Report, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Kola
Medara.
Kolari.

(ear

See Kukkundi. of corn). An

exogamous sept

of

See Kolayan. A name of Sondis. Kolalo

(arrack-seller).

Kolata Gudiya. A name

agriculture.

for

Gudiyas engaged
the

in

Kolayan.

It

is

recorded,

in
is

Madras Census
in

Report, 1901, that

"the caste

found chiefly
in

the

Kasaragod taluk
part of Malabar.
Its traditional

of

South Canara, and

the northern
called Urali.
it

In South Malabar,
is

it is

occupation

herding cows, and

claims

the privilege of supplying milk and ghee to certain

Hindu temples, but

at present

most of

its

members

are

* See Ravi Varma, the Indian Artist.

Indian Press, Allahabad.

KOLAYAN
masons.
It

300
has two endogamous sections,
"

Ayan

or

(Eruma, a cowbuffalo). It is further noted, in the same report under the heading Eruman, that " the people of the caste were originally buffalo drivers and keepers, and still follow
their traditional occupation
in

Kol-Ayan, and Mariyan or Eruman

the Kasaragod taluk of

South Canara.
bricklayers."

In North Malabar, they are masons and

The masonry work

of temples

is

done by

Kolayans.

The name Kolayan

has been said to be derived from

Golla and Ayan, meaning cowherd.

Golla

is,

however,

a Telugu word not used

in the

Malayalam country.

Members
sections

of the tw^o sections, Kolayan and

Eruman
of both

(or Eruvan), are said not to intermarry.

Women

may

affect

sambandham

(alliance) with Nayars.

Children born of such unions are regarded as somewhat

inferior to those

born of Kolayan parents, and are not

allowed to worship at the temples.

The

priests of the

Kolayans are called Muthavan or Poduvan, and are

usually elected

by Rajas.

Kolayan

girls

go through the mangalam

or tali-kettu

ceremony before they reach puberty. On an auspicious day fixed by the Kanisan (astrologer), the girl sits on a plank in the middle room of the house, and four lamps
are placed near her.

Her
ties

father throws rice

tali

and flowers

over her head, and

her neck.
in the

the

(marriage emblem) on
four girls, are fed

The

girl,

four

women, and

middle room.
rice,

On

the following day, a priest

(Vathiyan) places

paddy (unhusked rice), tender cocoanut, betel leaves and areca nuts, before the girl. Men and women of the priest's family wave rice, cocoaetc.,

nuts,

in

front

of her both

in

the morning and

afternoon.

Finally, towards evening, a

rice

Vathiyan

woman
out

waves the

and other

articles

thrice,

calling

30I
" Kolachi, Kolachi,

KOLI

Kolachi."

The

girl

may

then leave

the middle room.

At the

first

menstrual period, a

girl is

under pollution
is

for three days.

On

the

first

day, a cloth (mattu)

given

to her by a washerwoman, and on the fourth day she receives one from a Malayan woman.

The dead

are usually cremated.

Daily,
is

until

the

twelfth day of the death ceremonies, food

offered to

the spirit of the deceased,

on a dais

set

up outside
day,
all

the house, by the relatives.

On

the

fifth

the

agnates are purified by the Vathiyan sprinkling water

over them.

On

the twelfth day, the Vathiyan draws

the image of a

man
rice,

with vibuthi (sacred ashes) on the

last.

spot where the deceased breathed his

figure,

Near the

cooked

vegetables,

etc.,

are placed.

The

chief

mourner

offers these to the

in his cloth.

a bundle of them

dead person, and makes Going outside the house,

his foot, while

he kicks the dais already referred to with

the Vathiyan holds one hand, and his relations the other

hand or arm. He then bathes in a tank (pond) or river, while his hands are held in like manner. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the K5lis Koli.

are described as being " a

Bombay
;

caste of fishermen

and boatmen in South Canara also a low class of Bengal weavers found in Ganjam." The Kolis who were investigated in Ganjam are an Oriya-speaking
class,

who
in

are apparently

Telugu people who have

weavers
of coarse

settled
cloths,
titles

the

Oriya

country as

traders,

and

agriculturists.

They have Oriya

village
deities

such as

Behara.

They worship

(Takuranis), are Saivites, and none of

them have been

converted to the Paramartho form of Vishnavism.

The

caste council, puberty and death ceremonies, are based

on the

common Oriya

type, but the marriage rites are

KOLIYAN

302

an interesting blend of the Oriya and Telugu types of

ceremonial.

Telugu marriage post, but made of Streblus asper wood, is set up, and nine kinds
the usual
it.

Thus

of grain are placed near

is

bottu (marriage badge)

tied

on the neck of the bride by the bridegroom, and

the hands of the contracting couple are united (hasthagonthi) as

among the Oriyas. Koliyan.The Koliyans

are

summed

up,

in

the

Madras Census Report, weaver caste, the members of which were originally Paraiyans, but now do
not eat or intermarry with that caste."

1901, as " a

They

are largely

found

in

the

Tanjore and Madura

districts,

and are

divided into various nadus

(settlements).
to

(territories)

and kuppams

Those

at Pattukottai, for

example, belong

Ambu

Nadu, and are sub-divided

into five

kuppams.

Many

of the Koliyans are engaged in weaving coarse

field

white cloths, while some work as

labourers.
title,

As

some Paraiyans have Samban

title

(Siva) as their

so the

of the Koliyans

is

Isan (god).

At times
life,

of marriage,

the names of persons must not be mentioned without

this title, e.g.,
is

one who

is,

in

everyday

called

Ponnan
first

addressed as Isa Ponnan.

An
day,
sp.)

interesting

point

in
girl

connection with the

is

puberty ceremonial of a

that,

on the sixteenth

when she bathes, a withe of a creeper (Dalbergia, made into a loop, is passed round her body by a
is

barber from head to foot thrice, without touching her.

If this

not done,

it

is

believed that the girl

is

not free

from pollution.

There are two forms of marriage ceremony, called chinna (little) and periya (big) kalyanam. The former is resorted to by those who cannot afford the more
elaborate ceremonial.

The

sister of the

bridegroom

is

sent to the house of the bride on an auspicious day.

303

KOLIYAN

She there ties the tali (marriage badge) on the bride's neck, and conducts her to the house of the bridegroom.

Women who

are thus married

marriage of their children.

may More

not take part

in

the

especially, they

may
In

not decorate them with garlands and flowers, unless

they have themselves performed the sadangu

this,

rite.

which

is

usually carried out a day or two before

sit

the child's marriage, the husband and wife

on planks,

and, after being decorated, and the performance of

offerings (arathi), the former ties the tali

wave
wife's

on his

neck.

In the periya kalyanam, the bridegroom goes on a

horse to the bride's house, where he

brother,

who

is

also

on horseback.

met by her They exchange

is

garlands, and proceed to the marriage pandal (booth).

The

bridesrroom

receives

from the bride's

father

cocoanut, and the bride seats herself on a bench.

The
on

bridegroom

g-ives

her the cocoanut, and

ties the tali

They then exchange garlands, and their her neck. All these items must be fingers are linked together.
performed as quickly as possible,
saying that the
tali

in

accordance with a

should be tied without dismounting

is

from the horse, which one

tied,

riding.

Before the

tali is

the contracting
in

couple go through the sadangu

is

ceremony,

which a loop of cotton thread

foot,

passed

over them from head to

without touching them.

Then

the kankanams, or wrist threads, are tied on their

wrists.

The

milk-post and marriage pots are set up

within the pandal, and the bride and bridegroom prostrate

themselves before them, and salute their maternal uncles,

parents and relations, and lastly the musicians.
sion of which hands are
six

The

day's proceedings terminate with a feast, at the conclu-

washed within the house. For days the bride and bridegroom pay visits to each

KOLLAKAR

304

Other alternately, and, on the seventh day, the wristthreads,

marriage pots,

and
other

milk-post are removed.

auspicious

During

marriage

and

ceremonies,

coloured water, into which leaves of Bauhinia variegata

are thrown, are

waved

(arathi).

On
deities,

ceremonial occasions, and at times of worship,

the Koliyans put on Saivite sect marks.

Among

other

they

worship

Aiyanar,

Pattavanswami,

and

Pothiamman.

The dead
the

are burnt, and the body

is

placed in a

seated posture with fingers and toes tied together.

On

way

to the

burning-ground, a widow goes round the

corpse, and breaks a pot containing water.

after the funeral,

On

the day

the calcined bones are collected, and

arranged so as to represent a
food
is

human

figure,

to

which

offered.

The

final

death ceremonies (karman-

dhiram) are performed on the sixteenth day.

mass of

cooked

rice,

vegetables, and meat,

is

placed within an

enclosure, round which the relations

Kollakar. of this community

kars, or

go in tears. There are about seven hundred members

at

Cochin, to which place the Kolla-

people of Kollam, are said to have come from

in

Ouilon (Kollam)

Travancore one or two centuries ago.

The

majority of the

men work

as

coolies

on

board
of the

steamers, and a few as fishermen.

The women

poorer classes twist rope and

sell fish,

while the others

make lace.
ment, and,

A
in

few hold appointments under the Govern1907,

two had passed the Matriculation They are examination of the Madras University. Roman Catholics, and are said to have been converted They marry among to Christianity by the Portuguese.
themselves.

The

Kollakars are also found at Calicut,

Cannanore, Mahe, and Tellicherry, and are mainly occupied in fishing, rope-making, and making fishing-nets.

305

KOLLAR
tailors,

few at Tellicherry are employed as carpenters,

and petty shopkeepers.

Kolla Kurup.

The Kolla
at
first

Kurups of Malabar are

of,

described, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, as a sub-caste

or a caste allied to, the

Kammalans.

two professions, which

incongruous, shampooing or

They combine seem strangely massage, and the construc"

sight

tion of the characteristic leather shields of Malabar.

But

the two arts are intimately connected with the system of

combined physical training, as we should now call it, and exercise in arms, which formed the curriculum of the kalari (gymnasium), and the title Kurup is proper to castes
connected with that institution."
a valid divorce.
"

Among
is

Kolla Kurups,

the following symbolical ceremony

stitute

necessary to conthe wife's

The husband and

brother stand east

and west respectively of a lighted

yard of the woman's original home.

lamp placed

in the

The husband
sister's

pulls a thread
"

from

his cloth,

and approaches
'

the lamp, and breaks the thread saying

accharam.'

Here

is

your

KoUan."The

blacksmiths are iron-workers

among

" These Malabar Kollans," the Malayalam Kammalans. Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,* "are said to practice fraternal

polyandry to a greater extent even than the rest of the

Malabar artizan
(fire)

castes.

Kollans are divided into (i) Ti

(big)

Kollan,
(4)

(2)

Perum

Kollan,

(3)

Tiperum

Kollan,

Irumbu
Kollan

(iron)

Kollan.

Kadacchil

(knife-grinders)

There are also and Tol Kollan

status,

(leather-workers).

These

are

of

inferior

on
of

account of the nature of their professions."

Kollar.-"A section of Tottiyan, the

which
is

full

name

Yerrakollavaru or Yerrakolla Tottiyar.

Kollar

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

III-20

KOLLI
is

306
form of GoIIa, to which caste the

a corrupt Tamil

Tottiyans trace their descent.

Kolli

(fire-brand).

sub-division

of

Kadu

Kurumba.
Kolli
(a hill-range, the Kollimalais).

A sub-division
who go

of Malayalis.

Komali (buffoon). Komanandi. A

An exogamous sept of Odde.

sub-division
of Andis,

about naked, except

for

a small loin cloth (komanam).

Oriya blacksmiths. See Badhoyi. Komati. The Komatis form the great trading caste
Komaro.
of the

Madras Presidency, and are found

State,

in

almost
in

all

the districts thereof.

Mysore

They are further found Bombay Presidency, Berar,

far

the

Central

Provinces,

and as

north-west as

Baroda.

Their

wide distribution accounts

ceremonials.

for the great variety

which
social

prevails in the minor details of the religious

and

The name Komati By some it is ways.

fox-minded.

has been derived

in

many

different

said to be from ko-mati,

meaning

This has reference to the cunning of the

Komatis

in business,

and

is

undoubtedly the outcome of

customers.
is

their unpopularity with

their

The phrase
said to be

Komatiguttu (the secrecy of a Komati)

a

common

one.

Others

say that

it

is

from go-mati,
Others,

meaning the possessor of cows, one of the ordained

duties of Vaisyas being the protecting of cows.
ao"ain,

say that

it is

from go-mati, meaning cow-minded.

modern

redaction of the

Kanyaka Purana,

the sacred

book of the Komatis, gives this derivation. According to this work, the Komatis did severe penance, and were
consequently invited to
live in

heaven.
rise

Their continued

absence from

this

world gave

to serious trouble, to return thither for

and Vishnu accordingly asked them

307
the

KOMATI

good of mankind. They, however, refused to do Vishnu then called for Siva, and asked him to so. Siva brought a cow, and directed induce them to return.
the Komatis to get into
its

all

right ear.

From

there

they saw gloriously decorated towns, with magnificent

temples, pleasure gardens,
to live in them.
etc.,

and begged permission

But, almost
In

Siva assented, and they speedily began

to

march

off to their

diately, a

new abodes. huge conflagration came

in their trouble.

immeview, and began

consented on

to

overwhelm them.

Terror-stricken, they cried out to

Siva to help them

He

condition that they would return to the mortal world.

This they accordingly

conflagration as a

did.

Siva gave them the

name

of Gomati, because they exhibited as

much

fear at the

cow would when anything untoward happened. Yet another derivation of KomatI is go-mati, meaning sprung from the cow In accordance with the

above legend, or cow-gored In reference to the story that the ancestors of the Komatis commingled In a
cow-shed, where a pregnant
cow.

woman was gored by

a
Is

The

derivation ku-mati,

grammatically impossible.

meaning evil-minded. The Komatis are said

live in large
river.

to

have originally
the

lived,

and

still

numbers on
of the
local

banks of the Godavarl

One

names thereof is Gomati or Gomtl, and the Sanskrit Gomati would, in Telugu, become corrupted into
KomatI.

The Komatis everywhere speak Telugu, and are devoted to their mother-tongue. There is a common proverb among them, "Telugu theta, Aravam adhvanam,"
meaning that Telugu Is easy (has an easy flow), and Tamil is wretched. " Of all Dravidlan languages," Mr. Henry Morris writes, " Telugu Is the sweetest and most musical. It Is exceedingly mellifluous, and sounds
III-20 B


KOMATI
harmonious even
illiterate.
It

308
in the

mouth of the most vulgar and

has justly been called the Italian of the

Komatis are clever at learning languages other In the Tamil and Canarese districts, than their own.
East."

they are conversant with the languages thereof, and

in

Ganjam and Vizagapatam Agencies, they speak the Kondh and

they speak Marathi.
In

Bombay

the

Savara languages very

fluently.

As
same

a commercial caste, the Komatis have a secret

is

trade language of their own, which

all

substantially the

over the country.

It

will

be seen from the

tables given

how complete
they
will

their numerical tables are,

ranging,
rupees.

as
It

do,

from

one

pie

to

a thousand
is

be observed that the rupee

thelupu, which
in like

repre-

sented by the word

Tamil trading castes

(white)
:

means white. Some manner call the rupee velle

I.

Pie

table.

PIES,

PIES

Nakili batu

Ke

batu

...
.-.

Rayam Rayam

batu
nakili batu

...

4
5

Kevu

nakili batu

2.

AnniI

table.

ANNAS,

ANNAS

Thfpi kamanalu
Nakili ana

...
... I

i
*

Uddulam analu Uddulam nakili

Kungidu analu
Sulalu analu

analu..

3i
4
12

Kev ana
Kevan
nakili

ana
...

...

li
2

...

Rayam

analu

trident

The word sulalu is connected with trisiilam, the emblem of Siva, and sometimes used to denote

three annas.

309
3.

KOMATI
table.

Rupee
RS.

RS.

Thapi thelupu
Nakili
,,

i i
I

Mulam
Maram

galalu

...

Thipanam

galalu
...

50 60
70

Ke Rayam Uddulam
Do.

galalu
,,

,,

Thamam
Navaram

80
90 100
...

thelupu
nakili thelupu.

galalu

3i
4
5

Panam thelupu Mulam Thipam Maram

,, ,,

Ke savalu Rayam savalu

Uddulam Panam

200

savalu
,,

300

6
7

400 500 600

700

,,

Mulam
Thipanam

,,

Thamam
Navaram
Galam

,,

8
9

,,

,,

,,

10

Maram Thamam
Navaram
Galam

,,

,,

800
900
1,000

Rayam galalu Uddulam galalu Panam

4.

20

30

40

Varaham {pagoda)

table.

Ke makaram Rayam makaram Uddulam Panam Mulam

,,

Thipanam makaram

Maram

,,

Thamam
Navaram Galam
is

,,

10

A common
it

saying

that,

if

you commence
will

at galam,

will

be settled at mulam,

or, in plain

language, begin
five.
"

at ten

varahams, and the bargain

be closed at

When
it

one man says to another

strike the bargain.
to
If a

means

and another says

him

"

Dotu Komati is the purchaser, Dot ko," it means take it.

is

"

or " Dotra,"

The Komatis
among

are a highly organised caste.

In each

place where they are settled there

the Kalinga Komatis,
is

a Pedda Setti, who,

as Puri Setti or
also a

known
there
is

Senapathi.

Among

the

latter,
is

headman

for several villages,

who

styled Kularaju or Vaisyaraju.

Each Pedda

Setti is assisted

by a

Mummadi

Setti,

who

KOMATI

310

assembles the castemen for the settlement of important

questions,

by

fines,

excommunication,

etc.

There

is

further a caste guru

Bhaskaracharya, whose duties are

more

religious than social.

Komatis have recourse

to

the established Courts of Justice only as a last resort.

They

are consulted by other castes in the settlement of

their disputes,

and

it

must be said

to their credit that

testi-

their decisions are usually sound,

and bear ample

mony to the confidence which is placed in them. The Komatis are, broadly speaking, divided into two great sections, called Gavara and Kalinga. The former
live as far

north of Vizianagram, and are then replaced

by the

latter.

The Gavaras

or Gauras are said to be so

called because,

by following the caste goddess Kanyathe

to

kamma
vam
version,

into the fire-pits, they maintained

gaura-

or social status of the caste.

According

another

they are so called because they revere Gauri

(Parvati), the consort of Siva,

goddess Kanyakamma. who live in the old Kalinga or Kling country, which
extended roughly from Vizagapatam to Orissa.
are forbidden to settle

whose incarnation was the The Kalinga Komatis are those

They

beyond Ramatirtham, a place of

pilgrimage close to Vizianagram.

their ancestors lived at

The

story goes that

Bimlipatam,
place close to

well
it

Padmanabham, the hill close to known from the battle which took
794,

and there sustained great losses. Hence the place was deserted, and has ever since been regarded as inauspicious. The Komatis have since that
in
1

time not resided at any place from which the

hill

can
at

be seen.
eastward.

In

fact,

they

make

their first

appearance

Chipurupalli, and increase in

numbers as we go north-

The Kalinga Komatis believe themselves to

to their emigration from their original

be Gavara Komatis, who became separated from the

main stock owing

311

KOMATI

home.

Their meat-eating habit has, they say, widened

the breach which separates the two divisions.

While the Kalinga Komatis form a

division by themselves, the Gavaras have

fairly

compact become more

and more sub-divided.

territorial,

Their sub-divisions are either

occupational, or religious in character.

Thus
in

there are

Penukonda and Veginadu Komatis, of whom

the
district,

the former belong to the town of Penukonda

Godavari

and the

latter

to the

Vegi or Vengi

country, the former

district.

name

of part of the

modern Kistna
Traivarnikas

Again,

there

are

Trinikas

or

(third caste people),

who

are invariably Vaishnavas, and

in

to

which section a good many of the Komatis

the city

of

Madras belong.
in

Lingadhari

Komatis are
a

found

mostly

the Vizagapatam, Godavari, Guntur and Kistna

districts.

They wear

the lingam in

gold or silver

casket.

Besides these, there are the Siva, Vaishnava,

last are

and Madhva Komatis, of which the

in

mostly found

the Bellary district.

Of
:

occupational sub-divisions,

the following

may be noted
;

Nune
;

(oil)

Nethi
;

(ghi,

Dudi (cotton) Uppu (salt) Gone clarified butter) Lastly, there are (gunny-bag) Gantha (torn cloth).
;

other divisions, of which the origin dates back to the

Kanyakamma, the caste goddess. Thus, there are those who entered the fire-pits with Kanyakamma, and those who did not. The former are known as
time of

Vegina, and the latter as Beri, which

corruption of Bedari, meaning those
fear.

is

said
fled

to be a

who

through

All

Gavara K5matis are said to be descended from

entered the hre-pits.

those

who

The

majority of the

Komatis of the Sandur State, in the Bellary district, belong to the Kallankanadavaru section, which is said to be descended from those who sat on the stone (kallu)

mantapa outside the Penukonda Kanyakamma temple,


KOMATI
when
312

the question whether to enter the fire-pits or not

elders.

was being discussed by the caste

The mutual
Kalingas do
intermarriage

relations

between the various suband

the
objection
to

divisions vary much.

Broadly speaking, Gavaras and

several causes.

not
is

intermarry,
to

due

The

former,

according to the caste Purana, gave their lives to their

goddess, while the latter did not.

Moreover, the former

drinks,

do not partake of animal food and spirituous

whereas the
latter do.

Lingadharis and ordinary Saivites

intermarry, as also do Saivites and

Madhvas.

Gavaras
but such

and

Traivarnikas

occasionally

intermarry,

marriages are looked

like the Kalingas,

down upon.

eat animal food.

The Traivarnikas, The occupational

Socially,

sub-divisions neither intermarry nor interdine.

the Gavaras are held in the highest esteem, while the

Beris are regarded as the lowest in the social scale.

The
nated

sub-divisions are split up into septs, which are

of a strictly

exogamous

character.

in totemistic belief

seems

to

That these origibe supported by what

All the

remains of these beliefs at the present day.

ous, the

sub-divisions contain such septs, which are very numer-

many as a hundred and twenty having been collected. The tendency for a long time
names
of as

past has been to reduce the

two, to represent the

number
It

to a

hundred and

number
all

of families

which followed

Kanyakamma

to the fire-pits.

enumerate the names of

would be tedious to these septs, from which the

:

following, with the corresponding totems, are selected

(fl)

Plants.

Munikula

...

...
... ...

Kg2^%\ {^Sesbania grandiflora).

Amalaka

or Usiri

Amalaka

or Usiri {Phyllanthiis Emblica).

Anupa

or Anupala

Knu^^la. {Dolichos Lablab).

Tulasi {Ociminn sancium).

Tulasi or Tulashishta.

313
(a) Plants

KOMATI
cont.
indica).

Chinta,

Chinty a, or

Chinta {Tatnarindus

Varachinta.

Vakkala

Vakkalu {Areca

Catechii).

Puchcha
Padma-sista
...

Puchcha

i^Citrullus Colocynihis).

Kamala
Aranta

Padma (red lotus). Kamalam (white lotus).

Arati {Afusa sapientuni
:

plantain).

Thotakula

Thotakura
...

{Atnaraiitiis, sp.).

Uthakula

Uththareni {Achyranthes aspera).

Mandu
Dikshama
Venkola
Sauna

...

Mamadikaya {Mangifera
Drakshapandu
(grapes).

indica).

Vankaya {Solanum Melo?tgena

,

brinjal).

Samanthi {Chiysanthejnum indiaim).

{b)

Animals.

GosTla,

Sathya Goslla,

Cow.
Elephant.
Buffalo.

and Uthama GosTla.

Asthi
... ...

Enupa
Ghonta
Ananta

...
...

Horse.

Cobra.
Bee.

Bhramada

or

Bhra-

{c)

Heavenly
Sun.

bodies.

Arka or Surya
Chandra,
Sishta,

Chandra
Suchandra,

Moon.

or

Vannavamsam.

It

may be observed

that the totems are variously

termed gotram, vamsam, and kulam.

is

in imitation of the

The first of these Brahman gotras. Vamsam is the

Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and

bams

of the

Agency

tracts of

the Godavari districts.

The name means bamboo, and

is

denotes a family, whose branches are as countless as

those of a bamboo.

Kulam

used as the equivalent of

KOMATI
group or family.
to them.

314

usual way, and no secret

The totem objects are revered in the is made of the reverence shown
it is

In regard to plant totems,

stated that,

if

the totem objects are not strictly treated as tabu, delin-

quents

will

be born as insects for seven generations.

is

But an exception

allowed.

person

who wishes

to

eat the forbidden plant

may do

so by annually performing

the funeral ceremonies of the totem ancestor at Gaya, the great

Hindu place

of pilgrimage

where obsequial

ceremonies to ancestors are performed.

In recent times, the Komatis have claimed to be the

Vaisyas mentioned

in the

Vedic Purusha-sukta.

Accord-

ingly, the totems have been arranged under the different

Brahmanical gotras, whose pravaras have been appropriated.

Thus, Munikula and four others are grouped

is

under Madgalya Rishi gotra, whose pravara

for all

given

the

five.

Similarly,

Vakkala kula and another

;

kula

come under Vayavya Rishi Ghonta kula under Goupaka Rishi Arati, Arisishta and a few others under Atri Rishi Anupa kula under Agasthya Rishi, and so on. It is said that the totem names are secret names (sanketa namamulu) given by Kanyakamma, in order that the bearers thereof may be distinguished from those who did
;

not take up her cause.

All sub-divisions of the caste,

in

however, have these septs

In the northern parts of

common. the Madras Presidency, the

either

sept

is

further sub-divided into sections called intiperulu

(house names).

These are

named

after

some

distinguished ancestor, or the place where the family

once lived before emigrating

to

their

present abode.

These

intiperulu are purely

exogamous.
maternal uncle's daughter

A
in

Komati can claim

which

his

marriage, in accordance with the custom of menarikam.

rigidity with
this right is exercised is testified

The

315

KOMATI

by the sacred book of the caste

the
it

Kanyaka Purana.
said, the

On

their descent

from heaven,

is

Komatis

settled in eighteen towns (ashta dasapuramulu), which

had been

built

by Visvakarma under the orders of Siva.

said to be situated in a tract of country

These towns are

the

sixty-four yojanas in extent,

and bounded on the east by

sea,

Gautami (Godavari), on the south by the

in

on the

west by the Gostani, and on the north by the Ganges.

Of these, Penukonda,
was the capital. In swami (dedicated to
cated to Vishnu).
it

the

modern Godavari

district,

are the temples of Nagariswara-

Siva),

Its

and Janardhanaswami (dediPedda Setti was Kusama Sreshti,

and

was Kusamamba. He performed Putra Kameshti sacrifice, and was blessed with a son and
his

wife

daughter.
the
or

The former was named Virupaksha, and latter Vasavambika (Vasavakanya, Kanyakamma, Kanyaka Parameswari). The girl was possessed
Vishnu Vardhana, the son of

of indescribable beauty.

Vijayarka of the lineage of the moon,

at

who had

his capital

Rajamundry, while on a pleasure tour round

it

his

dominions, halted at Penugonda, on learning that

ruled

was
him.

by

Setti

Rajas,

who
arrival

paid no

tribute

to

Being informed of his

elders,

by

their boys, the caste

headed by Kusuma
in

Setti,

welcomed him, and

took him

procession through the town.

Then

the

women

of the place

waved
love.

arathi before him.

them was the

king instantly

beautiful
fell in

Vasavambika, with

Among whom the

and
in

He

proposed to her father

that he should give her in marriage to himself,

return obtain the gift of half of his kingdom.

Sreshti protested,

Kusuma

and said that the

sastras

were against

such a union.

The

king, through his minister, threathis town, take

ened that he would plunder

him

prisoner,

and, with the riches of the place, carry off his daughter,

KOMATI
and marry
prayed
for

316
her.

The

Setti

chief and his compatriots

time to think over the matter, and retired.

a meeting of the castemen, at

The

chief then called

it

was decided that they should make a false promise to the king that they would give the girl in marriage to him, and send him off with a dinner, to
which
return to

Penugonda
months.

for the

marriage after the lapse of a

boys of the town
to

couple

of

Meanw^hile, the

assembled, and resolved that the dinner ought not

given.

be

They informed

their elders of this resolution,

and

were commissioned to induce the king to leave the town without it. This they did, with the ambiguous promise
that,
if

they did not give the

girl in

marriage to him, they

would kill themselves. On this, the king went off towards his capital, and Kusuma Setti called a caste meeting of the
eighteen towns, at which various proposals were made.

One proposed

that
if

the

girl

should not be given

in

marriage, and that,

the king
off.

he should be driven
should give the

came to claim her hand, Another proposed that they

it

girl to

the king, and save themselves

from

ruin.

Others suggested that

would be best

to

marry the king to a substituted

coveted
to
girl,

girl,

to secrete the

or to bribe the ministers to induce the king

his intention of

abandon

marrying

her.

The

last of

these proposals was adopted, and a few elders were sent

to

Rajamundry,
that,

to

negociate the

affair.

They

first

argued

though they promised

to give the girl in

fear of the

marriage, the promise was

king's anger,

made through

and they could not give the

girl in contra-

vention of the rule of menarikam.

The

king, in his fury,

ordered that the troops should immediately besiege the

eighteen towns, imprison the inhabitants
geons, and carry off the girl in a palanquin.
in

dark dunthe

On this,

envoys heavily bribed the ministers, and begged them

317

KOMATI

But the king not to march the army on their towns. would not yield, and sent his troops on Penugonda.

The envoys

returned home, and narrated their sad

tale.

further meeting of the castemen

was

called at the
it

instance of Bhaskaracharya, the caste guru, and

was

resolved that

all

who wished

to maintain the caste rule of

to kill

menarikam should prepare

fire-pits.

themselves

in

burning

The

majority fled rather than comply with the

resolution.

Those, however,
in the fire-pits in

who determined

to sacrifice
in

themselves

were 102 gotras

number,

and they assembled

Sreshti to

induce his

and asked Kusuma daughter (who was only seven

council,

years old) to die with them.

To this

she consented, and

showed
of Siva.

herself in her true form of Paramesvari, the wife

On

this,

the Setti chief returned to his casteto get

men, who asked him

king.

103 fire-pits ready in the

western portion of the town before the arrival of the

These were accordingly dug, and decorated with

festoons and plantain trunks at the four corners.

Then

the heads of the 102 gotras assembled, with their wives,

in

the courtyard of the temple of Nagaresvaraswami,

where Vasavambika was symbolically married to the god. The headmen then tied on vira kankanams
(heroes'

wrist-threads),

and marched

in

a body, with

Vasavambika,

to the fire-pits.

There they gave counsel

to their children that they should not ask voli (bride-

price) for the marriage of their daughters, or

cate their secrets to females, or allow

communikarnams (village
universally

accountants), rulers, unbelievers, or

those

abused into

their

homes.

They

further counselled

them

to give their daughters in marriage to the sons of their

paternal aunts,

even though they

should be black-

skinned, plain, blind of one eye, senseless, or of vicious

habits,

and though

their horoscopes did not agree,

and

KOMATI
the
if

omens were

inauspicious.

They were warned

families.

that,

they failed

in so doing,
fall

they would lose their riches,

and misfortune would

full

on their

Moreover,

power was given to the castemen to excommunicate the delinquents, and put them outside the town limits.
If

the transgressors subsequently repented, they w^ere,

after the lapse of six

res),

months, to be sent to Kasi (Bena-

bathe

in

the Ganges,

and return

to their

home.

There they were

to openly express their regret for their

past conduct, fast the whole day, feed Brahmans, and

present them with three

hundred cows, and hear the

night.

Mahabharatha during the

they were again to
fast,

On

the following day,

present two hundred cows to

Brahmans and

feast

them,

and hear the Ramayana

once

during the night.

On

the third day, they were

more to fast, present a hundred cows, and hear the Bhagavatam during the night. On the fourth day, they were again to feast Brahmans, and worship Nagaresvaraswami of Penugonda, and thus purge themselves from
the sin of contravening the rule of menarikam.

But

they were not bound to follow the

aunt's son

rule, if

the paternal

was

totally blind, deaf, insane, stricken with

idiot, leper,

disease, a eunuch, thief,

dwarf, or immoral,
girl.

or

if

an old man or younger than the

to

The

children

were further advised

respect, at the time

of their

marriage, the families whose heads went as envoys to

the king at Rajamundry, and the boys

who made
made

false

promises to the king, and induced him to withdraw to

his capital.
gifts to
pit.

The heads

of the families then

various

Brahmans, and asked Vasavambika

to enter the

In her true form of Paramesvari, she blessed those

gotras which had resolved to follow her, and announced

that those
caste.

who had

She

would be nameless and without then declared that, immediately Vishnu

fled

319

KOMATI
his

Vardhana entered Penugonda,

from his neck.
Finally,

head would

fall

severed

she invoked Brahma not to

create thenceforth beautiful girls in the caste in which she

was born, and prayed that in future they should be short of stature, with gaping mouth, disproportionate legs, broad ears, crooked hands, red hair, sunken eyes, dilated
eye-balls,

insane looks, broad noses and wide nostrils,

hairy body, black skin, and protruding teeth.

She then
into
their

jumped

into

her

pit,

and immediately afterwards the

with their wives,
fell

heads of the 102 gotras,

respective pits,

and were reduced to ashes.

On

the

morrow, Vishnu Vardhana started on his journey from

Rajamundry to Penugonda. Brahmans portended evil, and a voice from heaven said that he would lose his
life.

An

evil spirit

obstructed him, and

it

rained blood.

Liehtnine struck men, and numerous other signs of imArrived at Penugonda, Vishnu was informed that the castemen and VasaVardhana vambika had been burnt in the fire-pits. Stunned by the news, he fell from his elephant, and his head was severed from his body, and broke into a thousand pieces. His broken head and body were carried by his followers to Rajamundry, and cremated by his son Raja

pending

evil occurred.

Raja Narendra.
of

Then
Pedda

the

latter pacified the citizens

Penugonda, and appointed Virupaksha, the son of

Sreshti,
Setti of the towns.

Kusuma
visited

The

102

families performed funeral rites for their

dead parents,
in

Kasi and Ramesvaram, and built a temple

at

honour of Vasavambika
placed an image
afterwards.
in

Penugonda,

in

which they
it

her name, and worshipped

ever

Popular versions of the story here related from the

Purana are
live.

told all over

Southern India, where Komatis

is

One

of the most singular of these

narrated by

KOMATI
Bishop Whitehead.*
that, in

320
"

The

story,"

he writes,

"

goes

ancient days, there was a bitter hatred between

the Komatis,

who

claim to belong to the Vaisya caste,

and the Mlechas or barbarians. When the Komatis were getting worsted in the struggle for supremacy, they
requested Parvati, the wife of Siva, to come and deliver

them.

It

so

happened

that

about that time Parvati

Komati caste, who was exceedingly beautiful. The Mlechas demanded that she should be given in marriage to one of their own people, and the refusal of the Komatis led to severe fiehtinof, in which the Komatis, owing to the presence of the avatar of Siva among them, were completely victorious, and was incarnate as a
girl of the

almost exterminated their enemies.

After their victory,

the Komatis entertained doubts as to the chastity of the

and compelled her to purify herself by passing through fire. This she did, and disappeared in the fire,
girl,

resuming her

real

shape as Parvati, and taking her place

beside Siva in heaven.

Her
to

last

words were a comher,

if

mand

to the

Komatis

worship

they wished

their caste to prosper."

It is

impossible to identify with certainty the Vishnu

There are as many as eleven individuals of that name known in Eastern Chalukyan history. The Purana refers to Vishnu Vardhana, the son of Vijayarka, who had his capital at Rajamundry. His son, according to the same authority, was Raja
Vardhana of the Purana.
Raja Narendra.
scripts,

According to the Mackenzie manu-

the town of Rajamundry was founded by a king

Vijayaditya Mahendra,

named
fied.

who has

not been identi-

Vardhana VI, who ruled between 918 and 925 A.D., was the first to
Dr. Fleet
is

of opinion that Vishnu

* Madras

Museum

Bull., V. 3,

1907.

KO-MATI.


32
1

KOMATI
therefore, called himself

occupy, and re-name

it.

He,
II,

Rajamahendra.
sor

Amma

who

970 A.D., bore the same

tide.
"jz

ruled between 945 and His brother and succes-

was Danarnaya (970

A.D.).

Passing over the

when the country was in the hands of the Cholas, we come to the reign of Saktivarman, If we are to believe the the eldest son of Danarnaya, Kanyaka Purana, then we must identify this Saktivarman
hiatus of thirty years,

with

its

Vijayarka.

Saktivarman's successor, according

was Vimaladitya, who must be identified with the Vishnu Vardhana of the Purana. Vimaladitya's son, according to inscriptions, was Raja Raja I, surnamed Vishnu Vardhana VIII. He has been identified with the Raja Raja Narendra of current tradition in the Telugu country, to whom Nannayya Bhatta dedicated his translation of the Mahabharatha. He must also be the Raja Raja Narendra of the Purana. If that is so, we must set down the cardinal incidents mentioned in it to the first quarter of the nth century A.D. The actual spots where the principal events of the tragedy
to inscriptions,

were
halted

enacted

are

still

pointed

out at

Penugonda.

Thus, the
is

garden
said
to

in

which king Vishnu Vardhana

site

be the

on which the hamlet

of Vanampalli (meaning village of gardens) stands at

present.

The

spot where the huge fire-pit for Kanyais

kamma was dug

Nagarasamudram
is

pointed out as having been in

field

Nos. 63/3 and 63/4 to the north of the now non-existent

tank.

The

102

other pits were,

it

said, in the fields

round the bund (embankment) of

is

this tank.

The tank

now under
said to be

cultivation, but faint

still

traces of the

bund are
It

visible.

It

is

about two furlongs to the north-west of the temple of

Nagaresvaraswami.

is

locally believed

that

Kanya-

kamma's

fire-pit

was, on the morning following her tragic

III-3I

kOmati
end, found to contain,

322

among

the ashes, a golden likeness

of herself, which was placed by the side of the image of

Nagareswara, to

whom
it,

she had been married.

Long
in

afterwards, the golden image

was removed, and one

it is

stone substituted for

direction of

in

accordance,

said,

with the

Kanyakamma, who appeared

a dream.
of

to

one of the
inscrip-

townsmen
tions

in

The temple
on
slabs,
is

Nagaresvaraswami has several

into
its

built

prakara,

and elsewhere.
walls.

One
It

of these

on the gateway inside the prakara

giving blessings and

opens with a glowing description of the powers of

in
gifts,

Nagaresvaraswami
refers to

and
built

Penugonda

as one of the eighteen

towns

by Visvakarma, and presented by Siva to the Komatis

as a place of residence.

The

object of the inscription

appears to be to record the restoration by one Kothalinga,

a Komati whose genealogy

is

given, of the great

town (Penugonda), which had been burnt to ashes by a

Gajapathi king.

He

is

also stated to have

made grants
and the

of tanks, wells, and pleasure gardens, for the benefit of

Nagaresvaraswami,
villages of

for

whose

daily offerings

celebration of festivals he provided by the grants of the

Mummadi, Ninagepudi,
all

Varanasi, Kalkaveru,

and Mathampudi,
1488 A.D.,
if

included in the town of Penugonda.

that,

Various inscriptions show

not from
still

from so early a time as

earlier times, the

temple had
Rai

become popular with the Komatis, and got intertwined

with

the

statements

now found

in

the Purana.

Bahadur V. Venkayya, Government Epigraphist, writes to say that the Teki plates found in the Ramachandrapuram taluk of the Godavari district, and published by
Dr. E. Hultzsch,*

may

refer

to

some Komatis.

The

* Epigraphia Indica, VI, 1900-1901.

323
edict contained
in
it

KOMATI

was, according to Dr. Hultzsch,

probably issued about 1086 A.D., and records the grant

of certain honorary privileges on the descendants of a
family of merchants belonging to the Teliki family.

That about the end of the 14th century A.D., the story of Kanyakamma was popular is obvious from the Telugu version of the Markandeya Purana, which was composed by the poet Marana, the disciple of Tikkana, In this Purana, the part author of the Telugu Bharata.
the following episode, which bears a close resemblance
to the story narrated in the

Kanyaka Purana,
it

is

intro-

duced.

king,

named Vrushadha, while on a hunting

mistaking
for

expedition, killed a cow,

a " bison."

He was cursed by Bhabhravya, the son of a Rishi, who was in charge of it, and in consequence became a Sudra, by name Anaghakara. He had seven sons, a descendant of one of whom was Nabhaga, who fell in love with a
Komati
girl,

and asked her parents

to give her in

mar-

riage to him.

manner as

The Komatis replied much in the same Kusuma Sreshti and his friends did to the
Vardhana
in

ministers of Vishnu

the

Kanyaka Purana.

Their answer
literary
"

will

be found

in

canto

VH,

223, of the

Markandeya Purana, which contains the

tic

earliest authen-

reference to the

name Komati.

In effect
this

they said
universe.

Thou
!

art
;

the ruler of the

whole of

Oh King we
Say,
then,
?

are but poor Komatis living

by

service.
"

how can we
But
all

contract

such a

marriage
father

The
girl,

king was further dissuaded by his

to

and the Brahmans.

oft"

no purpose.

He

carried

the

and married her

in the

rakshasa form

(by forcible abduction), and, in consequence, in accord-

ance with the law of Manu, became a Komati.

He

then
It

performed penance, and again became a Kshatriya.

would seem that

III-21 B

this episode,

which

is

not found in the

KOMATI

324
is

Sanskrit Markandeya Purana,

the incident recorded in the

undoubtedly based on
to

Kanyaka Purana.
adduce
in

There remain only three arguments

in the

support of the suggestion that the chief event narrated

Kanyaka Purana
is

is

worthy of credence.

In the

marriage ceremonies as performed by the Komatis, some

prominence
to

given to certain of the incidents alleged

in

have taken place

setting at

naught the demands

is

of king Vishnu Vardhana.

Such, for instance,

the
is

respect

shown

to

the

bala nagaram boys,

which

referred to later on.

Secondly, there are certain castes

in

which beg only from Komatis,

rendered during
this
critical

return

for

services
history.

period

of their

These are the Mailaris and Viramushtis. The former still carry round the villages an image of Kanyakamma, sing her story, and beg alms of devotees. The Viramushtis are wrestlers, who, by acrobatic performances, delayed, by previous arrangement, the second advance of Vishnu Vardhana, before the Komatis committed
themselves to the flames.
Allied to these castes are the
it is

Bukka Komatis.
belonged to the

Originally,

explained, the

Bukkas

Komati

caste.

When Kanyakamma

threw herself into the

fire-pit,

they, instead of follow-

bukka powder, saffron, and kunkumum prepared by them to her. She directed
ing her example, presented
that they should live apart from the faithful Komatis,

and

live

by

selling the articles

which they offered to

her.

The

Kalinora

Komatis

also have a begro-ar caste attached

to them, called Jakkali-vandlu,

who have nothing

Thirdly,

to
if

do

with the Gavara Komati beggar castes.

we

may
e.g.,

place any faith in the stories told by other castes,

the Jains of South Arcot,

the Tottiyans,

Kappili-

yans, and Beri Chettis, the persecution of their subjects

by

their kings, in the

manner indicated

in the

Kanyaka

325
Purana, seems to have been widely practiced
the country.
to

KOMATI
all

over

And

the

evade the king,

its

method adopted by the Komatis and maintain the menarikam rule,

the

has

counterpart in
still

popular ballad
all

known

as

Lakshmammapata,
Circars,

sung

over

the

Northern

of his wife
their

which gives a graphic description of the murder by a husband, who would not agree to giving
sister's
is

daughter away from his own

son.

Even

now, the sentiment on this subject

so strong that a

man who goes against the rule of menarikam, not only among the Komatis, but among all castes observing it,
is

looked down on.

its

It is

usually described as bending

the twig from

natural course, and, as the twig

in

would

waste away and die

consequence, so would parties to

In 1839, according to the

such marriages not prosper.

Asiatic Journal, a case

Court of Madras,

in

was taken before the Supreme which the plaintiff brought an

action against his uncle for giving his daughter

away

in

marriage, without making him an offer of her hand.

The

Judges were anxious that the matter should be settled

out of Court, but the parties disagreed so entirely that

nothing less than a public

trial

would

satisfy

them.

It

has not been possible to trace the decision of the Court.

The Komatis have

for a

long time been alleged to

in

be connected with the Madigas

a variety of ways.
writes,

"The

Komatis," Mr.

F.

R.

Hemingway

"do

not as a rule deny the fact of this connection.

The

Madigas

are,

indeed, apparently under the protection

of the Komatis, apply to

them

for

help

and obtain loans and other

that either

assistance.

when in trouble, Some Komatis

by a story

explain the connection with the Madigas

Vishnu Vardhana, or

his successor Rajaraja

Narendra persecuted the Komatis, and that they had to fly for refuge to the Madigas. The Madigas took them

KOMATI
in,

326

and hid them, and they say that the present favour
to that caste
is

shown shown
selves

only
in

in

gratitude for the kindness

to themselves

the past.
title

The Komatis them-

do not admit the

Mid-day Madigas (ap-

them by other castes), but explain it by a story that long ago a KSmati killed and ate a cow-buffalo, which was really no cow-buffalo, but the wife of a
plied to

great sage

who had

transformed her into that shape in

order that she might be safe

plation.

when he was

in

contem-

The

saint accordingly

cursed the caste, and

said that they should be Mid-day Madigas for ever more."

It is

possible that the connection

between the KSmatis

and Madigas was originally such as that of the Kamm&lans, Ambattans, and other castes, with Paraiyans,
Vettiyans, and other depressed classes, and that, in later
times, weird stories

were invented by

fertile

brains to
is

explain them away.

One

of these undoubtedly

that

which makes the Komatis the descendants of the issue of a plain Brahman and a handsome Madiga woman.
It
is

said

that

their

bazar,
forest,

which the

managed a sweetmeat Brahman kept in a much frequented

children
told
their
prices,

and, in his absence, pointed with a stick (kol)

to

the plates,

and thereby
(those

without
arose
stick),

polluting

the articles

with the touch.

Hence

the

name K5lmutti

who

pointed with the

to

which became softened down

story runs to the effect that the

Komutti.

Another

Madiga woman, when

child,

she was pregnant with her

cow, and gave birth to
the
it

first

was gored by a

in the

cow-shed.

Hence
gone

arises
by,
it

name Go-mutti,

or cow-gored.
to

In days

was incumbent on the Komatis

bear the marriage

village,

expenses of the Madiga families attached to their

much
in the

in the

same way that the Chakkiliyan Madura district by the Tottiyan caste

is

treated

in return

327
for the services

KOMATI
girl is

he renders when a Tottiyan

In
later

under
this

pollution on reaching maturity.

times,

custom dwindled

payment of the expenses of the marriage of two Madigas, and even this was abandoned in favour of inviting the Madigas to their weddings. In the city of Madras, it would appear
in

some

places * to the

to

have been customary,

in

the eighteenth century, for

the

mangalyam or sathamanam (marriage badge) blessed by an aged Madiga before it

Komatis
to get the

would appear have then been customary to give the sacred fire, used at marriages for the performance of hOmam, to a
tied
bride's neck.

was
to

on the

Further,

it

Madiga, and receive

exist in

it

back from him.

traces

These, and similar customs,

of which

still

some places {e.^., North Arcot), show that the Madiga has some claim on the Komatis. What that claim is is not clear. However, it is reported that, if the Madiga is not satisfied, he can effectually put a stop to a marriage by coming to the house at which it is to be celebrated, chopping away the plantain trunks which decorate the marriage booth, and carrying them off. Similarly, Kammalans invite Vettiyans (or Paraiyans) to
their marriage, and,
if

this

is

not done, there

It

is

the same

right to cut

down

the plantain trunks.

would seem

that the right thus exercised has reference to the right

to the soil

on which the booth stands.

The cutting away

stand there

of the plantain shows that their right to

is

not

recognised.

The

invitation to the

Madiga

or

Vettiyan would thus

refer to

the recognition by the

Komatis and Kammalans

in in

to the lordship of the soil held

castes.

bygone days by these now depressed

Writing

1869 and 1879, respectively, Sir Walter Elliot and

* Rev. J. Cain, Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

KOMATI
Major
J.

328
S. F.

Mackenzie of the Mysore Commission

and nuts by the Komatis

refer * to the presentation of betel

to the Madigas, thereby inviting

their marriages.

them

to be present at

Dr. G. Oppert also refers to the same

risen in the social scale, the

custom. t

Having

Komatis

would naturally wish to give this invitation covertly. Major Mackenzie says that the Komatis in Mysore, in
order to covertly invite the Madigas to the wedding,

went

to the

back of their houses at a time when they

be seen, and whispered into an iron

were not
vessel,

likely to
is

such as

commonly used
words
:

invitation in the following

for

measuring grain, an
house of the
to take

" In the
is

small ones
place.

{i.e.,

Komatis) a marriage

going

are to

The members of the big house {i.e., Madigas) come." The Madigas look on such a secret invian
insult,

tation as

and would,
It is

if

they saw the

inviters,

handle them roughly.

Report,
1

noted, in the

Madras Census

90 1, that

"
is

now-a-days the presentation (of

betel leaf

and nuts)

sometimes veiled by the Komati

the

concerned sending his shoes to be mended by the Madiga

a few days before the wedding, deferring payment
till

wedding day, and then handing the Madiga the leaf and nut with the amount of his bill." According to another account, the Komati of set purpose unbinds the toe-ring of his native shoes (cherupu), and summons the Madiga, whose function it is to make and repair these articles of The Madiga quietly accepts the job, and is paid attire.

more amply than

the

is

perhaps necessary

in

the shape of

pan-supari, flowers, and money.

On
it

the acceptance by
the

Madiga

of the betel and nuts,

" Cherinda,

cherinda"

? i.e.,

has

Komati asks reached you, and the

i.e., it

Madiga

replies "

Cherindi, cherindi",

has reached.

* Trans. Ethnolog. Soc, London, 1869

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1S79.

f Original Inhabitants of Bharathavarsha.

329
Until he replies thus, the
tied

KOMATI
it is

mangalyam cannot,

said,

be

on the bride's neck.

In the Bellary district, betel

leaf and nuts are usually left at night behind the Madiga's

house, in token of the invitation to the wedding.

In the

Godavari

district,

according to
for

Mr. Hemingway, the

for

palmyra leaf baskets before the marriage, and presents him with betel
a

Komati gives an order

Madiga

and nut when

he brings the

baskets.

Still

another

account says that some of the Komatis, just before a

marriage, leave in the backyard of

Madiga houses a few

it

pice and betel close to the cattle-pen, and that

is

whispered that some Komatis use chuckler's

worker's) tools,

(leatherIt is

made

in silver, for worship.

is

also

reported that chuckler's work

pretended to be gone
the

through by some Komatis,

the marriage ceremonies,
at
in

after

completion

of

the backyard of the house

dead of

night, in the presence of caste-people only,

and by preference under a danimma chettu (^Pimica pomegranate). This is known as kulaGranatum
:

charam, kuladharmam,

or gotra puja

(custom of the
figure of a

caste, or worship of the gotras).

The

cow
it

is

made

of flour,

and

into its

stomach they put a mixture of

This,

turmeric, lime, and water, called wokali.

has

been suggested,

is

meant

to represent blood.

After the

cow has been worshipped in due form, it is cut up with instruments made of flour, and intended to represent
those used by cobblers.

To

each family

is

secretly sent

that portion of the cow, which, according to custom, they

are entitled to receive.

Thus, the Kommala-varu receive

the horns, the Gontula the neck, the Karakapala the

hands and temples, the Thonti the hump, the Danta the
teeth, the Veligollu the white nails,

and so

on.

Major

Mackenzie testified to the performance of this ceremony by the caste in Mysore in 1879, and it is recorded from

KOMATI
different parts of the

330

Madras Presidency. The flour, which is thus distributed, is known as nepasani mudda or nepasani unta. The ceremony is still performed in
the city of Madras, on the night of the
fifth

day

if

the

marriage
third

lasts
if
it

over seven days, or on the night of the

lasts

wedding ceremonies are completed in one day, the ceremony is performed even during the day time. The following
over
five

day

days.

If the

details are performed.

A
in

brass vessel (kalasam) and a

cocoanut are set up

the house, and the bride and

bridegroom's parties arrange themselves on each side of

it.

The

vessel

is

decorated, and the cocoanut

is

made
and

to

represent the face of a woman, with eyes, nose, mouth,

etc.,

and adorned with jewelry,

flowers, anilin

tur-

meric powder marks.

party worships the
is

feet of all present.

then made, cut up,

is

young man of the bridegroom's The flour cow and distributed. Cocoanuts are
set

broken, and camphor

vessel.

on

fire,

and waved before the

Mr.

Muhammad

Ibrahim states that families are

names of the various organs of the cow in known There is, he says, a story to the the Godavari district. Komatis killed a cow-buffalo, which effect that some went about as such by day, but became transformed into
by the
a beautiful

woman

under the miraculous influence of a

pious Brahman.

As

a redemption for their

sin,

these

Komatis were ordered by the Brahman to take their names after the various parts of the animal, and as, by
killing the

animal,

they proved worse than Madigas,

In

they were ordered to show respect to these people.

the
is

Kumbum
district,

taluk of the Kurnool district, a flour buffalo

In the

substituted for the cow.

Markapur
of

taluk of the

same
cloths

two elephants are

sit

made

mud, and the

bride and bridegroom

beside them.
to them.

Presentations of

and jewels are then made

The

officiating

33^

KOMATI

purohit (priest) worships the elephants, and the bride

and bridegroom go round them.

Two
"
I

further points of connection

between the Ko-

matis and Madigas are referred to by Major Mackenzie.

find,"
fire

he writes, "that

it

is

the custom to obtain

the

for

burning Kama, the

Indian Cupid, at the

end of the
paid for

HoH

feast

from a Madiga's house.

fire, in

The

Madigas do not object

it."

to giving the
to

fact

they are

This appears
its

be a purely

local custom,
in

and no
to the

trace of

existence has been found

various

parts of the

Madras Presidency.
of

The

other point refers

of the

identification

the

goddess Matangi

Madigas with the Komati goddess Kanyaka Amma. " I cannot," Major Mackenzie writes, " discover the connection between two such different castes as the Komatis and Madigas, who belong to different divisions. The Komatis belong to the lo pana division, while the Madigas are members of the 9 pana.*
been suggested.
the virgin

One

reason has
is

The

caste goddess of the Komatis

Kannika Amma, who destroyed herself rather than marry a prince, because he was of another caste.

She

is

usually represented by a vessel

full

of water, and,
is

before the marriagfe ceremonies are

commenced, she

brought

in

state from the temple, and placed

in the seat

of honour in the house.

their goddess,

The Madigas

claim Kannika as

worship her under the name of Matangi

and object

to the

Komatis taking

their goddess."
is

The
would

Komatis stoutly deny that there between Matangi and Kanyaka Amma, and

any connection
it

seem

that they are independent goddesses.

is

Marriage
officiates.
*
right-

always

infant.

Brahman purohit

Each purohit has a number of houses attached

reference lo the division of South Indian castes into the

The panas have

and left-hand factions.

KOMATI
to his circle,

332

and

his sons usually divide the circle

among
Poly-

themselves on partition, like any other property.

gamy
by the

is

permitted, but only

if

the

first

wife produces no
is

offspring.
first

The
wife,

taking of a second wife

assented to

who,

in

some

cases, believes that, as

the result

of

the

second

marriage,

she herself

will

beget children.

Two

forms of marriage ceremonial are

recognised, one called puranoktha, according to long

established custom, and the other called vedoktha, which
follows the Vedic ritual of
first

Brahmans.

In Madras,

on the

day of a marriage, the contracting couple have an

oil

bath,

and the bridegroom goes through the upanayana

(sacred thread investiture) ceremony.

to

He

then pretends

met by the bride's party, who take him to the bride's house, where the mangalyam is tied by the bridegroom before the homam

go

off to

Kasi (Benares), and

is

(sacrificial

fire).

On

the second day,

is

tinued,

and a caste dinner

is

given.

the gotra puja

is

performed.

On the
fro.

homam is conOn the third day, fourth day, homam

Presents,
called

repeated, and, on the following day, the pair are seated

on a swing, and rocked to and

price)
paid.

katnam, are made to the bridegroom, but no

is

voli (bride-

In the mofussil,* where the puranoktha

is

form of

ceremonial
first

more
day.

common,

ancestors
day,

are

invoked on the
ashtavarga
is

On

the second

the

observed, and the bride and bridegroom

of the principal gods
this day,

worship eight
Pantheon.
is

of

the

Hindu

erected.

On On

the pandal (marriage booth)

the third day, the

officiating

sometimes by the

mangalyam is tied, Brahman purohit, and somethe fourth day, the Brah-

times by the bridegroom.

On

mans
*

of the place are honoured, and, on the following

indicates up-country stations

The mofussil

and

districts, as contra-distin-

guished from the " Presidency " (Madras City).

333
day, in

KOMATI
is

most

places, a festival

held in honour of the

goddess Kanyaka Parameswari. The bride and bridegroom's mothers go to a tank (pond) or river with copper
vessels,

and bring back water

flowers, anilin

at the

head of a procession.
Finally,

The

vessels are placed in a special pandal, and worship-

ped with
or

and turmeric powders.

cocoanuts are broken before them.

On

the next day,

on the same day

if

the marriage ceremonies con-

honour of the Balanagaram boys, or those who helped the Komatis of Penugonda in their trouble with Vishnu Vardhana, is held. Five boys
clude thereon, the festival in

and

girls are bathed,

decked with jewelry, and taken

whence they are conducted to the bride's house, where they are fed. On the following day, the ceremony called thotlu
in procession to the local temple,

puja

is

performed.

doll is

placed

in

a cradle confro.

nected with

two poles, and rocked to and

doll into the

The
bride,

bridegroom gives the

saying that he has to
bride hands
it

hands of the go on a commercial trip.

The

back

to him, with the

remark that she

has to attend to her kitchen work.

On
is

the following

day, the bridal couple are taken in procession, and, in

the Bellary district, a further day

surgi

devoted to the

ceremony.

The

bride

and

bridegroom bathe
return.

together,
girls

go

to the local temple,

and

Then

five

bathe, the five posts of the marriage pandal are

worshipped,

and

the

kankanams
live
in

(wrist-threads)

are

removed from the

of

wrists of the newly-married couple.

Kalinga Komatis, who

the

northern

part

Ganjam, and have forgotten

to

their

mother-tongue,
as

have practically adopted have

the Oriya

customs,

they

depend

mainly

on

Oriya

Brahmans.

At

their marriages, however, they use the

Telugu bottu or

sathamanam.

KOmati

334
remarriage
is

Widow
of this rule.

not
is

permitted
strict in

among any
widow
is

sections of the caste, which

very

the observance

Except among the

Saivites, a

not

compelled to have her head shaved, or give up wearing

jewelry, or the use of betel.

In the south of the

Madras
till

Presidency,

if

little girl

becomes a widow, her mangalis

yam

is

not removed, and her head

maturity.

not shaved

she

reaches

Vaishnava

widows

always

retain

their hair.

Concerning a form of marriage between the living

and the dead, performed by members of this caste if a man and woman have been living together, and the man
dies,

Mr.

Hutchinson writes as follows.*

is
is

"The

sad

intelligence of her man's death

communicated

to her

neighbours, a guru or

ceremony takes

place.

summoned, and the According to a writer who once

priest

witnessed such a proceeding, the dead body of the

man

was placed against the outer wall of the verandah of the house in a sitting posture, attired like a bridegroom, and The the face and hands besmeared with turmeric. woman was clothed like a bride, and adorned with the
usual tinsel ornament over the face, which, as well as the

arms, was daubed over with yellow.

the dead body, and spoke to
it

She

sat opposite

unmeaning words, and then chewed bits of dry cocoanuts, and squirted them on the face of the dead man. This continued for hours, and not till near sunset was the ceremony brought to a close. Then the head of the corpse was bathed, and covered with a cloth of silk, the face rubbed over
in light

with

some red powder,

and

betel leaves

placed

in

the mouth.

Now

she might consider herself married,

started."

and the funeral procession

* Marriage

This

refers

to

Customs

in

Many Lands,

1897.

335
the Vira Saiva or Lingayat
Circars.

KOMATI
Komatis of the Northern

In the

Northern Circars, and part of the Ceded

Districts, the

Vedoktha form of marriage now

is

prevails,

and

its

usage

spreading into the southern districts of

Mysore.

Further, the Komatis perform most of their

in

ceremonies

same form. This, it is contended, is a latter day development by some of the more conservative members of the caste, but it is stated by those who follow it that it is allowed to them by the Hindu sastras During recent years, (law books), as they are Vaisyas.
the
writings and influence of several of the

the latter view has obtained a great impetus through the

members

of the caste,

more prominent between whom and their oppoIt

is

nents a war of pamphlets has taken place.

possible here to

not

go

into details of the dispute, but the

main point seems

is

to be as follows.

On

the one hand,

in

it

denied that there are any true Vaisyas

the Kaliyuga

(iron age).

And

so,

though the Komatis are accorded

the status of Vaisyas in recognition of their being traders,

yet they cannot follow the Vedic form of ceremonial,

which
of the

is

the exclusive right of Brahmans

it,

and, even

if

they ever followed

caste
it

they forfeited

it

after the

break-up

on the death of Kanyakamma.

is

On

the

other hand,

stated that the

Komatis are Dwijas

(twice born), and that they are consequently entitled to

follow the Vedic ritual, and that those

Vedic rights are those who did not

to the fire-pits,

who forfeited the follow Kanyakamma

to the 102

and do not therefore belong

is

gotras.

The

dispute

an old standing one, and nearly

a century ago was taken for adjudication as far as the

Committee of the Privy Council. The question whether the Komatis are entitled to perform their subah and asubah (auspicious, like marriage, and inauspicious.
Judicial

KOMATI
like death)

SS6
ceremonies according to the Vedic form, was

raised by the

Brahmans of Masulipatam
for

in

1817, and

adjudicated upon.*

Disputes had occurred between the

a long time, and disturbances

Brahmans and Komatis

constantly took place.

of Masulipatam Komatis from performing one of the ceremonies, until they had established their right to do

The Magistrate

prohibited

the

so in a Civil Court.

The

appellants thereon sued the

defendants

in

damages

for

impediments made against

by the Vedas, and
the right of

their attending to the rites prescribed

prayed

for

permission to perform them in conformity

with the Vedas.

the Komatis to

The defendants denied

perform, and the fact
the

of their

ever

having performed
Vedas.
trate,

ceremonies appointed by the

the intervention of the Magis-

They admitted
stated that "

and

upwards of two thousand years

ago, the
caste,

Komatis adopted the customs of the Soodra and some of them became Byri Komatis, and
caste people, etc.

Bookha
to a

The

rest of

them, amounting
false

hundred and two gotras, fabricated

gotrams

and called themselves Nagaram Komatis. They fabricated a book called Canniaca Puranam, named
for themselves,

the Bashcara Puntulu Varu their priest, conformed to

that book, performed the sign of the
in a loose

upanayana ceremony
;

manner, and

in the

language of the Puranas

at

the time of marriage,

made marriage ceremony

all

in

seven days contrary to the custom of

erected prolu posts,

castes whatever,

and got the

called

made lumps of dough with flour, same divided among them according to their
and observed the ceremonies
birth,
for

spurious gotrams, at midnight fetched the pot of water

arivany,

ten

days on the occurrence of a

and

fifteen

days on

Moore.

Indian Appeal Cases, Vol. Ill, 359

82.

337
the occurrence of a death.
fathers of the
plaintiffs,

KOMATI
In this manner, the fore-

the other merchants, and the

all

plaintiffs themselves,

had got

ceremonies conducted
past."

for

upwards of two thousand years

which the
plaintiffs, or in

They

cited

instances, in
failed

some

of them, had

previous

attempts to sustain the right

now

claimed, and objected to the form of the plaint as not

sufficiently setting forth the particulars

and nature of the

obstruction for which the plaintiffs claimed compensation.

The

plaintiffs, in their reply,

did not negative or rebut

the specific statements of the defendants, but insisted

generally

on their right
in question.

to

the

performance of the

ceremonies

The

point at issue being not

clear from the pleadings, the parties

were questioned

in

open Court as to the precise object of the action, and the ground on which it was maintained. The plaintiffs stated that their object was the establishment of their right to have the whole of the subha and asubha ceremonies performed
in their

houses by Brahmans

in

the

language of the Vedas, and that they claimed

this right

on the ground of the Sastras. on the defendant's answer

of the Court, and,
iffs

On

this,

the Zilla Judge

framed a hypothetical statement of

for the

facts

and law based

opinion of the Pandit

upon

his opinion, declared the plaint-

entitled to have the ceremonies

performed

for

them

by Brahmans.

Upon

appeal, the Provincial Court for

the northern division remitted the suit to the Zilla Court

to take evidence, and,

upon such opinions of the Pandits which the Provincial Court took upon the same statement
Zilla,

as the

they affirmed the decree, but without costs.

The

Pandits consulted

by them

were

those

of the

Provincial Courts of the northern, centre, southern and

western divisions.

They

all

agreed that

" the

Brahmans

ought not

to perform the

ceremonies

in the

language of

111-22

KOMATI
Vadas added that,
the
decision,
for

338
the Vaisyas."

Three of them

further

in their

opinion, the Judges ought to pass a

awarding that the Komatis are to continue to

rites

perform reHgious
in

according to the rules laid

{i.e.,

down

the book called

Puranam

in

the Puranoktha

form),

as are at present observed

by the corrupt or

degenerate Vaisyas or Komatis and others.

the

On appeal,
decisions

Sudder Dewani Adawlut

lower Courts,
"

reversed

the

of the

having maturely weighed the

law officers of
the

evidence produced, and considered the unbiassed and

concurring opinions of the
Provincial Courts."
four

On

further appeal to the Privy

in

Council, Lord Brougham,

delivering judgment, ob-

served that "the

plaintiffs,

not having, in their opinion,

alleged any case of injury done to

them by the defendants go into evidence, and not having therefore established any case for damages
upon which they were
entitled to
in their suit against the defendants,

no question remained

but of a mere declaration of a right to perform certain

religious ceremonies
;

that,

if

the Courts had jurisdiction

to proceed to the determination of that question in this

suit

(upon which their Lordships guard themselves

judgment), the
plaintiffs

in

their

have not produced

;

suffi-

cient evidence to establish such a right

that,

under

these circumstances,

all

the decrees therefore ought to

be reversed, and the plaint dismissed (the reversal of

the Sudder Court amounts in fact to a dismissal of the
plaint)
;

but

it

is

not,

as

it

ought to

be, a dismissal

without costs

and that

this decision

should be without

prejudice to the existence or non-existence of the right

claimed by the appellants,

such a question

in

any other

suit,

in

which

may be

properly raised."
the sacred thread, and utter the

The Komatis wear

Gayatri and other sacred mantras.

number

of them,

339
at

KOMATI

Adoni
in

in

the Bellary district, refused to be measured

by me

the afternoon, as they would not have time to

bathe, and

remove the pollution by evening. In Telugu dictionaries, the Komatis are given the alternative names
of

Mudava Kolamuvaru

(those

of

the

third

caste),

Vaisyalu, and Nallanayya Todabiddalu (those

who were

begotten from the thighs of Vishnu). As already stated, there are among the Komatis ordinary Saivites, who

daub themselves with ashes Lingayats or Vira Saivas, who wear the linga in a silver casket Ramanuja Vaishna; ;

vites

Chaitanya Vaishnavas, who are confined to the

;

and Madhvas, who put on the sect marks of Madhva Brahmans. The Traivarnikas are a
Kalinga section
special class

among

the Vaishnavas.

They

imitate the

Vaishnava Brahmans more closely than the

and their females,
tie their cloths like

rest.

They,

Brahmans, and the

liquors.

men shave moustaches.

yats,

Unlike the Saivites and Lingafish,

they eat flesh and

and drink spirituous

They
it

will eat in the houses of Satanis, whereas other

Komatis do not

eat in

any but Brahman houses.

But

may be observed

that Velamas, Balijas,

Kammalans,

Ambattans, Vannans, and many other

neither water nor food from Komatis.

castes, will take

This, however,

does

not

prevent
in

them from purchasing the cakes

oil,

prepared
shops.

ghl or

which the Komatis

sell

in

petty

Writing early
refers *

in

the nineteenth century, Buchanan

in

Mysore State between the Komatis and Banajigas, which arose from the former building a temple to their goddess Kanyato

a dispute at Gubbi

the

kamma.
by a

Purnia, the Prime-minister, divided the town

wall, thus separating the

two

parties.

The Komatis

* Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar.

ni-22 B

kOmati
claimed that
it

340

had been the custom

it

for all parties to live

together, and that

rules of caste
for

would be an infringement of the

to be

them

forced

into

a separate

quarter.

The

chief of the Komatis entered the

town

in

procession, on horseback with an umbrella held over his

head.

This assumption of rank was regarded by the

Banajigas with the utmost indignation.

To

such a pitch

did the quarrel reach that, at the time of Buchanan's

visit,

there was a rumour current as to the

necessity

of killing a jack-ass in the street, which

would cause

the immediate desolation of the place.

writes,

"

There

is,"

he

"not a Hindu
night
in
it,

in

Karnata, that would remain

another

unless

by

compulsion.

Even

the adversaries of the party

would think themselves

natives

bound
to

in

honour

to

fly.

This singular custom seems

be

one of the resources upon which the

to

have
or

fallen to resist arbitrary oppression,

and may be

had recourse
is

whenever the Government infringes, considered to have infringed upon the custom
It is

of any caste.
oppression."

of no avail against any other kind of

brief reference
in

may be made

to the part
in

which the
fights

Komatis took,

bygone days,

the

faction

known

as right and left-hand caste disputes.

Some

of

the South Indian castes, including the Komatis, belong

to the former,

and others

to the latter.
let

Those belonging

to the left-hand

would not

those belonging to the

right-hand pass through their streets with their marriage

and other processions.

equally jealous of the

The
left.

right-hand

section

was

The Komatis, who were

in faction

among

the early settlers in the town of Madras in the

disputes on

seventeenth century, were involved

two recorded occasions, once, in 1652 A.D., during the Governorship of Aaron Baker, and later on during that

341
of William Pitt,* in
1

KOMATI
a wedding procession

707.

When

of

members

of one section passed through the streets of

the other section, Pitt

of each
until

summoned twelve
in

of the heads

section,

and locked them up

a room together,

the dispute should be

adjusted.

An agreement

was speedily arrived at, according to which the righthand settled on the west side of the town, now known as Pedda Naikan Pettah, and the left-hand on the east
side, in

what

is

at present called

Mutialu Pettah.
in

The
the

Komatis
All

accordingly are

now mainly found

the

western part of the city of Madras.

over the country,

Komatis venerate the

to

deified virgin
places, they

Kannika Parameswari,
have erected temples.

whom,

in

most

One

of these, at

Tadpatri

in

the Anantapur district, which was in course

is

of construction in 1904,
It

of

more than ordinary

local

interest.

was being

built at

the expense of the

Komatis,
for the

who had
purpose.

raised a subscription

among themselves

The
its

design was
construction.
is

original,

and even arches

which

entered into
it

The

sculpture, with

is

decorated,

quite excellent in design and finish.

Much

of

it

is

copied from the two beautiful temples,

at the place since the

which have existed

Vijianagar dynasty.

days of the
at

Other notable temples are those

in

Penukonda, Vizianagram
pur
in in

Vizagapatam, and Berham-

Ganjam.

Fines collected from erring castemen

still

the Godavari, Guntur and Kistna districts, are

sent to the temple at Penukonda.

various goddesses, in addition to

The Komatis worship Kanyaka Parameswari.

their faith in
saint,

Those who

live in

Vizagapatam "relax

favour of the celebrated

Muhammadan
hill

who

lies

buried by the

Durga on

the top of the

which overlooks
49 Sg.

* See Talboys Wheeler, Madias in the Olden Time, II,

KOMATI
the harbour.

342

Every

vessel, passing the

harbour inwards
potent over
a silver

and outwards, salutes him by hoisting and lowering

its

flag

three times.

He

is

considered

all

the elements in the Bay of Bengal, and

many
by

dhoney

(boat)

is

presented at his

shrine

ship-owners after a successful voyage.

We

Hindu remember

a suit between a K5mati, the owner of a dhoney, and his

Muhammadan

captain,

who was

also the super-cargo,

for settlement of accounts.

In a storm off the coast of

Arakan, the skipper stated that he had vowed a mudupu

or purse of rupees to the Durga,
it

and had duly presented

sets-off,

on his return.

This sum, among other

he

charged to the owner of the

sole contention

vessel, the plaintiff,

whose
dis-

was that the vow had never been

charged

the propriety of conciliating the old Fakir in

Ev^en now, the
the

a hurricane he submissively allowed."

Komatis, though
saint,

no longer boat-owners, revere

to

and make vows

him

for the success of civil suits,

and recovery from

all sorts

of maladies.
for the

The Komatis employ Brahmans

their guru.

performance

of their ceremonial rites, and recognise a

Brahman

as

He

is

after the individual of that

commonly name who

called

Bhaskaracharya,

lived at

Penukonda

prior to the sixteenth century A.D., and translated the

Sanskrit

Kanyaka Purana into a Telugu poem.

to them.
in

He made

certain regulations for the daily

conduct of the Komatis,

and made the 102 gotras submit

an inscription on a copper
plate,

copy of

the possession of

one Kotta Appaya, the Archaka or priest of the Nagareswaraswami temple at Penukonda, is given in the

Mackenzie manuscripts.

It

records a grant (of unknown

date) to Bhaskaracharya, the guru of the Vaisyas, by the

102 gotrams, according to which each family agreed for

ever afterwards to give half a rupee for every marriage.

343

KOMATI
Such doles are
his

and a quarter of a rupee

for

each year.
to

common even
These, Hke

at

the

present day

successors.
is

the original

Bhaskaracharya,

who

consi-

dered to be an incarnation of Brahma, are house-holders,

and not Sanyasis

of them,
in

(religious ascetics).

There are several

country,

different

parts

of

the

one

for

example being at Penukonda, and another near Hospet,

who makes
mark of

periodical tours in state, with drums, silver

is

maces, and belted peons, and

respect.

received with every

He

settles disputes, levies fines,

and

collects subscriptions towards the upkeep of his mutt

(religious institution),
(rent-free) lands.

which

is

also supported

by inam

The Komati
are cremated.

dead, except children and Lingayats,

like other Lingayats,

Lingayat Komatis,
in

bury their dead

a sitting posture.

The death
is

cere-

monies among the Gavaras closely resemble those of

Brahmans.

The

period of death pollution

sixteen

days, during which sweets are taboo.

The Komatis

are best

known

as merchants, grocers,

and money-lenders.
principal vendors of

In the city of Madras, they are the

all

sorts of

imported

articles.

The

row of shops in the China bazar, between Pachaiyappa's College and Popham's Broadway, is almost entirely maintained by them.

Many Komatis

are cloth merchants,

and Traivarnikas are almost entirely engaged in the In the Northern Circars, some earn o-lassware trade.
a living as petty dealers

opium and ganja (Indian In the Ganjam, Vizagapatam and Godavari hemp). districts they are found in the hills, acting as middle-men between the hill tribes and the people of the plains. Most of the Komatis are literate, and this helps them in
in

their dealings with their constituents.

bially

They

are proverrich.

shrewd, industrious, and

thrifty,

and are often


KOMATI
If

344
fails in

a Komati

business, his compatriots will

start.

come

to his rescue,

and give him a fresh

Organised

known among them. Each temple of Kanyaka Parameswari is a centre for charity. In the city of Madras the Kanyaka Parameswari charities, among other good objects, promote the development of female education. In 1905, the Komatis established a
charity
is

well

Southern India Vysia Association, with the object of encouraging "the intellectual, moral, religious, social,

and commercial advancement of the Vysia community." Among the means employed for so doing,
industrial

are the helping of deserving students with scholarships

for the prosecution of the

study of the English and

vernacular languages, and organised relief of poor and

distressed

members

of

the

community by founding
affairs of

orphanages, and so
are

forth.

The

the association

managed by an executive committee made up of prominent members of the caste, including merchants,
lawyers, and contractors.

Many
wealth,

and proverbs have reference to the ready wit, thrift, and other qualities of the
stories

Komatis.*

Of

these, the following are selected from a

:

large repertoire

The Blind Komati and Vishnu.

blind

Komati prayed

to

Vishnu
"

for the restoration

of his eyesight, and at last the

god appeared before him,

and asked him what he wanted.

"
I

Oh

God," he replied,

want

to see

from above the seventh storey of

streets,

my
and

mansion

my

great-grandsons playing in the

eating their cakes from golden vessels."

Vishnu was so astonished man, which combined riches,

See Tales of

at the request of the blind

issue,

and the restoration

1907.

Komati Wit and Wisdom.

C.

Hayavadana Rao, Madras,

345

KOMATI
all his

of his eyesight in one demand, that he granted

desires.

The Komati and

the Thief.

Komati observed a thief at dead of nioht lurking under a pomegranate tree, and cried out to his On this he seated himwife to bring him a low stool.
old
self in front

An

of the thief, and bawled out for hot water,

which

his wife

brought him.

Pretending that he was

suffering from severe tooth-ache, he gargled the water,

and spat

it

out

continuously at the

wondering

thief.

This went on
neighbours,

till

daybreak,

when he
thief,

called out

his

who captured

the

and handed him

over to the police.

The Komati and

his Cakes.

Komati was on

his

way

to the

weekly market, with

couple of thieves

his plate of cakes to

sell

there.

met him when he was him a severe thrashing, walked off with the cakes. The discomfited Komati, on his way back home with the empty plate, was met by another Komati going to
half
there, and, after giving

way

market with

his

cakes.

The

latter

asked how the

demand
replied "

for

cakes was at the market, and the former

Why

go

to the market,
?

come and demand your cakes " unsuspecting Komati went on,
was the
recipient of a

when half-way people and passed on. The

and,
like

the

other,

sound thrashing

at the

hands of

the thieves.

The Komati and

the Scorpion.

A
One

of

number of Komatis went one day to a temple. them put one of his fingers into the navel of the
at the

image of Vinayakan (the elephant god)

gateway,

when a

scorpion, which

ting his finger to his

Putwas inside it, stung him. nose, the Komati remarked "What

KOMATI
a fine smell
!

346
I

have never experienced the

like."

This

induced another
stung, and

man to put his finger in, and he too was made similar pretence. All of them were
and then consoled each
the
other.

thus stung

in succession,

The Koniati and

Milk Tax.
upon

Once upon a
milk,

time, a great king levied a tax

and

all his

subjects were sorely tried by

it.

The
in-

Komatis, who kept cows, found the tax specially

convenient.

They, therefore, bribed the minister, and

strength before the
king, to

mustered

in

whom
tax.

they

spoke concerning the oppressive nature of the

pie for a pie
that
"

The

king asked what their profit from the milk was.

said they to a man,

"A
to be

and the king, thinking

persons

who

profit only

a pie ought not

troubled,

forthwith passed orders for the abolition of

the tax.

The Koinati and

the

Pdndyan King.
silver
for the

Once upon a
vessel of

time, a
size

Pandyan King had a

its first

enormous

made

use of the palace,

contents should
his minister
to put into

and superstitiously believed that

not be of an ordinary kind.
to publish

So he ordered
were

abroad that

all

his subjects

the vessel a chembu-full of milk from each house.

The

frugal Komatis, hearing of this, thought, each to himself,

that, as the

king had ordered such a large quantity, and

it

others would bring milk,

would

suffice if

they took a

chembu-full of water, as a

little

water poured into such

its

a large quantity of milk would not change

it

colour,

and

All the

would not be known that they only contributed water. Komatis accordingly each brought a chembu-full

of water, and none of

them

told the others of the trick

it

he was about to play.

But

so happened that the

Komatis were the

first

to enter the palace, while they


347

KOMATI

thought that the people of other castes had come and

gone.

The
let in

no one might cast the

were
left

was placed behind a screen, so that evil eye on it, and the Komatis one by one. This they did in all haste, and
vessel
trick.

with great joy at the success of their

Thus
it

there was nothing but water in the vessel.

Now
first

had

been arranged that the king was to be the

to see the contents of his

person

new

vessel,

and he was thunder-

struck to find that

his minister to

it

contained only water.

He

ordered

punish the Komatis severely.

But the
"

ready-witted

Komatis came forward, and

to say.

said

Oh

gracious King, appease thy anger, and kindly listen to

what we have
hold.

We

each brought a chembu-full

the precious vessel will the measurement,

of water, to find out

how much

Now

that

we have taken

will forthwith fetch

the quantity of milk required."

we The

king was exceedingly pleased, and sent them away.

story

is

told to the effect that,

when

a Komati was

asked to identify a horse about which a

Muhammadan

and Hindu were

the Hindu's.

quarrelling, he said that the fore-part

looked like the Muhammadan's, and the hind-part like

Another story

is

told of a Komati,

who

when asked by

knew about a fight between two men, deposed that he saw them standing in front of each other and speaking in angry tones when
a Judge what he

a dust-storm arose.

He

shut his eyes, and the sound

of blows reached his ears, but he could not say

which

of the

men

beat the other.

relating to the

Of proverbs may be noted

:

Komatis, the following

A
If

Brahman
he
is
I

will learn if

he

suffers,

and a K5mati

will learn if

ruined.
salt,

ask whether you have

(a

you say that you

have dhol

kind of pulse).

KOMBARA
mean a heavy

348

Like the burning of a Komati's house, which would

loss.

When
the lake,

two Komatis whisper on the other side of you will hear them on this side. This has
In native

reference to the harsh voice of the Komatis.

theatricals, the

Komati
is

is

a general favourite with the

audience, and he

usually represented as short of stature,

obese, and with a raucous voice.

The Komati
ence to a story
in

that suits the stake.

This has

refer-

which a Komati's stoutness, brought on

habits,
is

by want of exercise and sedentary

said to have

shown

that he

a stake.

was the proper person to be impaled on According to the Rev. H. Jensen,* the proin

verb refers to an incident that took place

injustice.'

'the city of

certain

but, at the last

fat

man was to be impaled for a crime, moment he pointed out that a certain
for the

merchant (Komati) would be better suited

instrument of punishment, and so escaped.

The

pro-

verb

is

now used

of a person

who

is

forced to suffer for

the faults of others.

The Komatis
be crushed before
to
it

are satirically

named Dhaniyala jati,

is

or coriander caste, because, as the coriander seed has to

is

sown, so the Komati

supposed

come

to terms only

by rough treatment.
the
title Setti

The Komatis have

is

or Chetti, which

said to be a contracted form of Sreshti,

In

precious person.

recent times,

meaning a some of them have

assumed the

title

Ayya.

Kombara.The
mous
sept of Kelasi.

name, meaning a cap made of the

spathe of the areca palm {Areca Catechti) of an exoga-

Such caps are worn by various

e.g.,

classes in

South Canara,

the Holeyas and Koragas.

.S'^f

* Classified

Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897.

also C.

Hayavadana

Rao, op.

ci(.,

and Ind. Ant., XX, 78, 1891.

349

KONDA DORA

Kombu (stick). An exogamous sept of Kuruba. Komma.^Komma (a musical horn) or Kommula

has been recorded as an exogamous sept of

Kamma
title

and Mala.
perform at

Kommula
festivals

is

further a professional

for

horn-blowers, mainly Mala. Madiga, and Panisavan,

who

and
fuel.

funerals.

Kommi.^A
may
not use

gotra of Gollas, the

members

of which

kommi

Kompala
Dcvanga.

(houses).

An

exogamous

sept

of

Konan.- Konan or Konar is a title of Some Gollas call themselves Konanulu. Konangi (buffoon). An exogamous
Devanga.

Idaiyans.

sept

of

Konda (mountain). An exogamous sept of Devanga

and Medara, and a synonym
for

Konda Dora.

Doras are a caste of hill cultivators, found chiefly in Vizagapatam. Concerning them Surgeon-Major W. R. Cornish writes as follows.*
**

Konda Dora. The Konda

Contrasting strangely with the energetic, patriarchal,

and land-reverencing Parja (Poroja), are the neighbouring

indigenous tribes
ghauts.

found along the slopes of the

are

eastern

They

Konda Kapus, and

Ojas.
it

known as Konda Doras, From what has been ascer-

tained of their languages,

seems certain that, divested of the differences which have been engrafted upon them by the fact of the one being influenced by Uriya and

the other by Telugu, they are substantially of the

origin as the Parja language

same

and the Khond language.

lost all

But the people themselves seem to have entirely

those rights to the
soil,

which are now characteristic of

the more northern tribes.

They

are completely at the

Madras Census Report, 1871,

KONDA DORA
mercy of
call

350

late

immigrants, so

much

so that, though they

themselves Konda Doras, they are called by the

Bhaktas, their immediate superiors,

Konda Kapus.
If,

If

they are found living

superior, they are

in

a village with
as

no Telugu on the other

affairs,

known
is

Doras.

hand, such a

man

at the

head of the village

they are to him as adscripti gleba;, and are denominated

Kapus

or ryots (cultivators).

It

is

apparent that the

soil;

comparatively degraded position that this particular

folk holds
is

Telugu colonists and the reason why they have been subjected to a
due
to the influence of the

greater extent than the cognate tribes further inland

possibly that the Telugu colonization
is

is

of

more ancient
further be

date than the Uriya colonization.

It

may

surmised

that,

Telugu
that of

districts,

from the comparative proximity of the the occupation of the crests of these
But, however

ghats partook rather of the character of a conquest than

mere

settlings in the land.

is

it

came

about, the

result

most disastrous.

Some
folk,

parts of

Pachipenta, Hill Madugulu, and Kondakamberu, which

have been occupied by Telugu-speaking

inferior in agricultural

are far

prosperity to the inland parts,

in

where the Uriyas have assumed the lead

of affairs." In the

the direction

Census Report,
all

that "these people

H. A. Stuart writes speak Telugu, and the majority

1891, Mr.

of

a large

them have returned that as their parent-tongue. But number returned their caste name in the parentI

tongue column.

have since received a vocabulary,

which

is
;

said to be taken from the dialect of the

Konda
Patro,

Doras

and,

if
is

this

is

correct,

then the real speech of

these people

a dialect of Khond."

One Durgi

the head of a mutta (division of a Zemindari) informed

Mr. G. F. Paddison that Konda Doras and Khonds are

351
identical.

KONDA DORA

states

Census Report, 1901, Mr. W. Francis that the Konda Doras "seem to be a section of
In the

the

Khonds,
in

which

has

largely

taken

to

speaking

Telugu, has adopted some of the Telugu customs, and

is

the transitional

Hinduism.
the

They

call

between Animism and themselves Hindus, and worship

stage

Pandavas

and

goddess

called

Talupulamma.

They
(or

drink alcohol, and eat pork, mutton,

dine with Kapus."

etc., and will At times of census, Pandavakulam

Pandava

caste) has

been returned as a

title

of the

Konda Doras.
For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. There are, among the Konda Doras, two well-defined divisions, called Pedda (big) and Chinna
(little)

Kondalu.

Of

these, the former

have remained
latter

in their old

semi-independent position, while the

contact

have

come under Telugu domination.

The Chinna
with the

Kondalu,

who have been

caste,

living

in

Bhaktha
intiperulu,

have adopted

the

Telugu system of
the

as

exogamous

septs,

whereas
divisions,

Pedda
(tiger),

Kondalu have retained the totem

which occur

among

other

hill castes, e.g.,

Naga

(cobra),

Bhag

and Kochchimo

(tortoise).

Among the Chinna

is

Kondalu,

the custom of menarikam,

according to which a

man
The

marries his maternal uncle's daughter,

observed, and

may

further

marry

his

own

sister's

daughter.

Chinna Kondalu women wear glass bangles and beads, Men of the Chinna Kondalu like women of the plains. section serve as bearers and Government employees, whereas those of the Pedda Kondalu section are engaged
in cultivation.

The former have

of

personal names correplains,

sponding to those
e.g.,

the

inhabitants of the

Linganna,

Gangamma,

while the names of the

latter

are taken from the day of the

week on which

KONDA DORA
they

352
e.g.,

were

born,

Bhudra (Wednesday),
is

Sukra

(Friday).

Among
girl's

the Chinna Kondalu, a girl

married before
decided on, the

or after puberty.

When
On

a marriage

is

parents receive a present (voli) of four rupees and

a female cloth.

an auspicious day fixed by the

is

Chukkamusti

(star-gazer), the bride

conducted to the
cloths presented

home

of the bridegroom.
in turmeric-water,

The

contracting couple are

bathed

put on

new

by their fathers-in-law, and wrist-threads are tied on their

wrists.

On

the same day, or the following morning, at

a time settled

by the Chukkamusti,

the bridegroom,

under the direction of a caste

elder, ties the

sathamanam
the follow-

(marriage badge) on the bride's neck.

On

ing day, the wrist-threads are removed, and the newly

married couple bathe.

Among
girl is

the Pedda, as

among

the Chinna Kondalu, a

married before or after puberty.

When

man

contemplates taking a wife, his parents carry three pots

of liquor to the

home

of the girl

whose hand he
is

seeks.

The

acceptance of these by her father

is

a sign that the

match

agreeable to him, and a jholla tonka (brideis

price) of five rupees

paid to him.

The

future bride-

groom's party has to give three feasts to that of the

bride-elect, for
is

each of which a pig

puberty,

is killed.

The

girl
if

conducted to the house of the bridegroom, and,

reached

she has

remains

there.

Otherwise

she returns home, and joins her husband later on, the
occasion being celebrated by a further feast of pork.

Both sections allow the remarriage of widows. Among the Pedda Kondalu, a younger brother may marry the

widow

of his elder brother.

By both
first

sections divorce

is

permitted.

Among the Chinna

has to pay her

Kondalus, a

man who mar-

ries a divorcee

husband twenty-four

353
rupees, of which half
is

KONDA DORA
among
the neighbouring

divided

caste villages in certain recognised proportions.

The dead
a

are usually burnt by both sections.

kill

The

Pedda Kondalu feast, at which much liquor is disposed of. By the Chinna Kondalu the chinna rozu (little day) ceremony
observed, as
it

a pig on the third day, and hold

is

is

by other castes dwelling

in the

plains.

The Chinna Kondalu bear the titles Anna or Ayya when they are merely cultivators under Bhaktha landlords, and Dora under other circumstances. The Pedda
Kondalu usually have no
title.

riot

took place, in 1900, at the village of Korin

ravanivalasa

the

Vizagapatam

district,

under the
of

following strange
this place,

circumstances.

"

Konda Dora

named Korra Mallayya, pretended that he was and gradually gathered round him a camp inspired, of four or five thousand people from various parts of the At first his proceedings were harmless enough, agency.
but in April he gave out that he was a
of one of the
five

re-incarnation
his

Pandava brothers
;

that

infant

son was the god Krishna

that he would drive out the

;

English and rule the country himself

this,

and

that, to effect

he would arm his followers with bamboos, which should be turned by magic into guns, and would change

weapons of the authorities were cut, and rudely fashioned

the

into water.

Bamboos
and

to resemble guns,

armed with
(god), as

camp was drilled by the Swami Mallayya had come to be called. The assembly
these, the

next sent word that they

were going

to

loot

Pachi-

penta, and when, on the ist

to see

how

matters stood,

May, two constables came the fanatics fell upon them,

local police

and beat them to death.

to recover the
ni-23

The
but,

endeavoured

bodies,

owing

to the threatening

KONDA DORA
The

354

attitude of the Swami's followers,

had to abandon the

attempt.
in

District Magistrate then

went to the place

Vizagapatam,

person,

collected reserve police from

Parvatipur, and Jeypore, and at

rushed the camp to arrest the

leaders of the movement.

dawn on the 7th May Swami and the other

were resisted by
rioters

The

police

the mob, and obliged to

killed, others

fire.

Eleven of the

were

Sixty of

wounded or them were tried

died in
jail,

arrested,
for

and the rest dispersed. rioting, and three, including

the Swami, for

murdering the constables.

Of

the

latter,

the

Swami

and the other two were hanged.

The Swami's
all

infant son, the

god Krishna,

also died,

and

trouble ended at once and completely."

Concerning the Konda Kapus or Konda Reddis of

the Godavari
follows.*
"
district,
hill

Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as

Reddis, or

Konda Reddis, are a caste of jungle men, having some characteristics in common with the Koyas. They usually talk a rough

The

Telugu, clipping their words so that

understand them
;

it is

often difficult to

but

it

is

said that

some

of

them speak

Koya.

They

are of slighter build than the Koyas, and

their villages are even smaller.

They

will not eat in the

house of a Koya.

They

call

themselves by various high-

sounding

titles,

such as Pandava Reddis, Raja Reddis,

and Reddis of the solar race (Suryavamsa), and do not

like the plain

name

of

Konda Reddi.

They

recognize no

endogamous

sub-divisions, but

have exogamous septs.

Koyas,
but
are
less

In character they

resemble the
in

simple and stupid, and

to crime.

former years were

They

live

by shifting cultivation.

much given They do

not touch beef, but will eat pork.

They

profess to be

both Saivites and V^aishnavites, and occasionally employ

* Gazetteer of the Godavari district.

355

KONDA DORA
;

Brahman

priests at their funerals

and yet they worship

(or,

the Pandavas, the spirits of the

hills

as they

call

them, the

sons of Racha),

their

ancestors

including

women who have

deity

died before their husbands, and the

her brother

Muthyalamma and

Poturazu,

Sara-

lamma, and Unamalamma.

nearly every village.

The

last

three are found in

are

Other

deities
is

Doddiganga,

who

is

the protector of cattle, and

worshipped when
the
place
of the of the

the herds are driven into the forests to graze, and Desa-

ganga

(or

Paraganga),

who

takes

Maridamma

of the plains, and the

Koyas as goddess of cholera of Saralamma of Pedakonda, eight miles

palle,
is

Muthyalamma and small-pox. The

east of
is

shrine

Rekais

a place of pilgrimage, and

so

Bison Hill
held

(Papikonda), where an important Reddi festival

every seven or eight years

brothers,
is

in

honour of the Pandava

and a huge
and
eaten.

fat pig,

fattened for the occasion,

killed

The

Reddis, like the Koyas, also

observe the harvest festivals.

They

are very superstiin

tious, believing firmly in sorcery,

in

and calling

wizards

time of

illness,

l^heir villages are

formed into groups

like

those of the

Koyas, and the hereditary headmen

over these are called by different names, such as Dora,

Muttadar,

Varnapedda,

and
as

Kulapatradu.

Headmen
recognise,

of villages are

known

Pettadars.

They

though they do not frequently

capture.
If a parent wishes to

practice,

marriage by

show

his dislike for a

calls,

match, he absents himself when the suitor's party

and sends a bundle of cold

departed.

rice after

them when they have

Vaishnavite

Children

are

buried.

Reddis

burn their adult dead, while

the

the

Saivites bury them.

Satanis officiate as priests to the former, and Jangams to

latter.

The pyre

is

kindled by the eldest male of

held on the
fifth

the family, and a feast

ni-23 B

is

day

after the

KONDAIKATTI
funeral.

356
are believed to be born again into

The dead

their former families."

lalas,

Kondaikatti.The name meaning those who tie

of a sub-division of Vel-

the whole mass of hair

of the head (kondai) in a knot on the top of the head, as

opposed to the kudumi or knot

shaved head.

at the

back of the partially

Kondaita. A

sub-division of Doluva.

Kondaiyamkottai. A sub-division of Mara van. Kondalar. Recorded, in the Madras Census ReKondalam means port, 1 90 1, as a sub-caste of Vellala.

women's hair or a kind of dance, and

the

it is

possible that

name was returned by people of the Deva-dasi caste, who are rising in the social scale, and becoming absorbed
in the Vellala caste.

Kondali, of doubtful meaning, has

been returned by cultivators and agricultural labourers

in

North Arcot.

Kondh. In

the

Administration

Report

of

the

Ganjam Agency, 1902-3, Mr. C. B. Cotterell writes that Kondh is an exact transliteration from the vernacular, and he knows of no reason, either sentimental or
etymological, for keeping such spelling as Khond.
It is

noted, in the

" the

Khonds

inhabit

Madras Census Report, 1891, that the hill tracts of Ganjam and parts
call

of Vizagapatam, and are found also in Bengal and the

Central Provinces.
identical with the

They

themselves Kui, a name

Koi or Koya of the Godavari agency

The Telugu them Kotuvandlu. The origin of the name Khond is doubtful, but Macpherson is, I think, right in deriving it from Telugu Konda, a hill. There is a tribe in Vizagapatam called Konda Dora or Konda Kapu, and
and the south of the Jeypore Zemindari.
people
call

these people are also frequently called Kotuvandlu.

All

these names are derivatives of the root k6 or ku, a

357
mountain.

KONDH
is

The

list

The number of sub-divisions returned includes many names of other castes,

in part ascribed to

58.

a fact

which must be

the impossibility of

distinguishing the true

Khonds from persons returned

etc.,

as Kondavandlu, Kondalu, Kotuvandlu,

terms which
all

mean simply
hill

highlanders, and are applicable to

the

tribes.

their

For example, 12,164 Panos have returned main caste as Khond."

In a note on the Kui, Kandhi, or

Mr. G. A. Grierson writes as follows.*

Khond language, " The Kandhs or

of Orissa and

Khonds

are a Dravidian tribe in the

districts.

Ihills

commonly known under the name of Khond. The Oriyas call them Kandhs, and the Telugu people Gonds or Kods. The name which they use themselves is Ku, and their language should accordingly be denominated Kui. The word Ku is probably related to Koi, one of the names by which the Gonds used to denote themselves. The Koi dialect of Gondi is, however, quite different from Kui. The Khonds live in the midst of the Oriya territory.
neighbouring
tribe
is

The

Their habitat

is

the

hills

separating the districts of

in

Ganjam and Vizagapatam

the

Madras Presidency,

and continuing northwards into the Orissa Tributary States, Bod, Daspalla, and Nayagarh, and, crossing the
Mahanadi, into Angul and the Khondmals.

The Khond

area further extends into the Central Provinces, covering

the northern part Kalahandi, and the south of Patna.

Kui

is

surrounded on
it

south

Towards the extends towards the confines of the Telugu

all

sides

by Oriya.

territory.

The language

varies locally, all over this area.

The

differences are not, however, great,

though a man

from one part of the country often experiences difficulty

* Linguistic Survey of India, IV, 1906.

KONDH
in

358

understanding the Kui spoken in other parts.

There

are two principal dialects, one eastern, spoken in

Gumsur

and the adjoining parts of Bengal, and one western, spoken in Chinna Kimedi. In the north, Kui has come
under the influence of the neighbouring Aryan forms of
speech, and a specimen forwarded from the Patna State

was written
garhl.

in

Oriya with a slight admixture of Chattisof

The number

Kandhs returned

at the census

of

89 1 was 627,388.

give a

much

smaller

The language returns, however, The reason is that many figure.

their native speech."

Kandhs have abandoned

It

has been noted that "the character of the Khonds

varies as

much

as their language.
it

Where
is

there has been

much
and
not

contact with the plains,

not as favourable as
to be a bold,

elsewhere.
fitfully

As a

rule,

they

may be taken
upright
;

laborious mountain peasantry of simple, but

undignified

manners

in

their

conduct

sincere in their superstitions

proud of their position as

rights.

landholders

and tenacious of their

affect

The

Line-

pada Khonds
excepted).

manners

like

Uriyas, and,

among

other things, will not eat pork (the flesh of wild pigs

The Khond

villages

have quite the appear-

ance of Uriya
walls, a thing

villages, the

houses are built with

mud

unknown with Khonds

is

in other parts of the

Maliahs

and there

also

much

neat garden cultivation,

which

is

rare elsewhere, probably because the produce

thereof would be appropriated by the Uriyas.

In 1902,

the Linepada Muttah (settlement) presented the unusual

spectacle of a

Khond

ruler as

Dolabehara, as well as
call.

Moliko, with the Uriya Paiks really at his beck and

In

some

places, the

most valuable portions of the land

of Sondis

have passed
to the

into

the possession

and low-

country sowcars (money-lenders),

who have pandered

Khonds by advancing them money, the greater

359

KONDH

portion of which has been expended in drink, the repay-

ment being exacted in land. Except in the Goomsur MaHahs, paddy (rice) cultivation is not extensively carried on by the Khonds elsewhere it is chiefly in the hands of the Uriyas. The Khonds take little trouble in raising
;

their crops.

The

result

is

that,

except in the Goomsur

sell in

Maliahs, where they grow crops to

profit,

the market for

we

find a poverty-stricken

race, possessing hardly

any agricultural
Kimedi,

stock,

and no signs of
are

affluence.
to

In

however, they

beginning

follow

the

example of Goomsur, and doubtless

perity

their material pros-

would much increase

all

if

some check could be

devised to save them from the Uriyas and Sondis,

are steadily acquiring

who

the wet land, and utilising the

Khonds merely
It is

as cultivators."

noted by Mr. F. Fawcett (1902)* that

within fifteen years ago, the

Khonds

of the

would not engage

not, for

in

any ordinary labour.

"up to Ganjam hills They would

example, carry even the smallest article of the

district officer's luggage.

Elephants were accordingly

all

provided by Government for carriage of tents and

camp luggage.
within the
to
last

But there has come a change, and,

ten years or
so,

the

Khonds have taken

last

work

in the

ordinary way.

Within the

few years,
to

for the first time, the

Khonds have been emigrating

Accurate

Assam, to work
gives
is

in the tea-gardens.

figures

are not available, but the estimate of the best authority

the

number

as

about 3,000.

This emigration

now stopped by
and go of
strange thing

edict.

Of

course, they

do not
are

set

out,

their
is

own

accord.

They

taken.
It

The

that they

go

willingly."

was

enacted, in an order of Government, in i90i,t that "in

Man. March

1902.

G.O., No. 1020, Public, Slh October 1901.

KONDH
exercise
of the

360

power conferred by section 3 of the Assam Labour and Emigration Act, 1901, and with the
previous sanction
of the Governor-General in Council,
is

the Governor in Council

all

pleased to prohibit absolutely-

persons from recruiting, engaging, inducing, or assist-

ing any

Native of India to emigrate from the tracts

known
to

as the scheduled districts in the district of

district of

Ganjam

any labour

Assam."

Madras Government approved of certain proposals made by the Collector of Ganjam for utilising the services of the Kondhs in the conservancy of the
In 1908, the
forests
in the

Pondakhol Agency.

The
is

following

is

summary

of these proposals.*
In

The

chief difficulty to

be contended against

Pondakhol

podu

cultivation.
hill

This cultivation

is

not only devastating the

tops

and upper
river,

slopes,

preserve water for

which should be kept well covered to the upper reaches of the Rushikulya
is

the chief source of irrigation in Ganjam, but the origin

of most of the forest fires that
in the hot

also

rage

throughout Pondakhol

weather.

The

District

Forest Officer, in discussing matters with the Kondhs,

was told by some of the villagers that they would forego poduing if they had cattle to plough the lands in the The supply of buffaloes would form plains and valleys.
compensation for a right relinquished. The next aim should be to give the people work in the noncultivation season, which is from the middle of January
the
to the middle of July.
fire

This luckily coincides with the

is

season.

There

an abundance of useful work

in,
e.g.,

that the

Kondhs can be engaged

rendering
fire

the

demarcation lines permanent,

making

lines,

constructing roads, and building inspection sheds.

The

* G.O., No. 3005, Revenue, 3rd

November

ic

361
question'arises as to'
for their^labour.

KONDH
Khonds should be repaid little use to them in this
if

how Money

the
is

of

out-of-the-way part of the country, and,

they got

it,

they would probably go to Surada to get drunk on

It

it.

would be better to pay them

in food-grain

and

cloths,

and for this purpose departmental shops, and a regular

system of accounts, such as are
in

force

among

the

Chenchus

in

Kurnool, would be necessary.

the range of

In the course of a lament over the change which has

come over the Kondhs who

near Berhampore, Mr. S.
" P.

live

in

hills

Rice writes as follows.*

in freedom, but also in

Here they

live in seclusion

and

the lowest depths of squalor and poverty.

Once they
male and
Instead

loved gay colours.

female, are
full

True Khond

dresses, both

of stripes and patterns, in blue, yellow,

and
the

red.

Where

has gone the love of colour

of the long waistcloth ending in tails of blue and red,

man

binds about him a wretched rag that can hardly

be called a garment.
in

Once

the

women

took a delight
in the

decking themselves with flowers, and a pride

are

silver

ornaments that jangled on their naked breasts.

Where
waist
?

now
!

the grasses that adorned them, and the

innocence that allowed them to go clothed only to the

Gone

withered by the blast of the breath of a

'superior civilization.'

Gone

are the hairpins of

sambur

bone
hill

an

inestimable treasure in the eyes of the true

Khond.
tribes.

Gone
In

are the floral decorations, and the

fantastic head-dresses,

which are the pride of the moununromantic squalor our

;

tain
lives,
is

dull,

Khond

moves, and has his being

and, aver as he moves,

heard the clanking upon his wrists of the fetters of

his debt.

Yet

for

all

that he

is

happy."

The

hairpins

Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life, X901.

KONDH
referred to above are

362

made from sambur

sometimes
used

(deer

Cervus

unicolor) bones, and stuck in the hair of male

Kondhs.

Porcupine
hairpins.

quills

are

by

them

as

The
Kondhs
"

following brief, but interesting

of

summary

of the

Ganjam

is

given by Mr. C. F. MacCartie.*

is rice,

The

staple food of the Oriyas

and of the Khond

hill

also during the

two or three months that succeed the

dholl,

harvest.

In February, they gather the crop of

which, eked out with dry

mohwa

[Bassia)

fruit,

fresh
flour,

mangoes, and mango stones ground to a sort of

pull

them through the hot weather, with the help of various yams and edible roots that are plentiful in the When the south-west monsoon sets in, dry jungles. crops, consisting of millets, hill paddy, and Indian corn, are sown, which ripen from August on, and thus afford The hot weather is plentiful means of subsistence. generally called the sukki kalo, or hungry season, as Turmeric is the people are rather pinched just then. perhaps the most valuable crop which the Khonds raise,
as
it is

the most laborious, in consequence of the time

it

takes to mature

two

full

years,

and the constant

field-

work thus
boiling,
is

entailed, first in sheltering the

artificial

young plants
Tobacco
generally

from the sun by

shade, and afterwards in digging,

for

and burnishing the root

market.
It
is

raised

much

as in the low country.

grown
care
is

in back-yards, as elsewhere,

and a good deal of

as the

devoted to

its

cultivation,

Khonds
fruits),

are

inveterate smokers.

Among

the products of the jungles

tassar

may
silk,

be included myrabolams {Terminalia

cocoons, and dammar,
all

of

which are bartered by

the finders to trading Panos in small quantities, generally

Madras Census Report, 1881.


363

KONDH
said to be collected

[Honey and wax are the Kondhs and Benias, who

for salt.

by
of

are expert climbers

precipitous rocks and lofty trees.

four
different kinds of bees,
:

The Kondhs recognise known by the following

its

Oriya names
dorsata)
;

(a)

bhaga mohu, a large-sized bee {Apis

mohu, building

{b)

sattapuri
;

comb

in

seven

layers {Apis indicd)

like a fan
;

{d) nikiti

{c) binchina mohu, with a comb mohu, a very small bee.] * Wet

paddy

is,

of course,

grown
is

in the valleys

and low-lying

bottoms, where water

is

available,

and much ingenuity

exercised in the formation of bunds (embankments)

to retain the natural supply of moisture.

has a dead eye for a natural level

it

is

surprising

The Khond how

speedily a seemingly impracticable tract of jungle will be

converted into paddy

levelling
buffaloes.

fields
flat

by a laborious process of
board attached to a pair of
is

by means of a

The

chief feature of the dry cultivation

the

destructive practice of kumeri.

val, if possible,

strip of forest,

prime-

as being
for a

more

fertile, is

burnt, cultivated,

and then deserted

from three to

term of years, which

may

vary

thirty,

according to the density or other-

wise of the population.

The Kutiah Khonds

are the

chief offenders in respect of kumeri, to which they confine themselves, as

cattle.

they have no ploughs or agricultural

In the rare instances

when they grow

in

little rice,

the fields are prepared by manual and pedal labour, as

men, women, and children, assemble

puddle the
"

the

field,

and

mud and
is

water

until

it

assumes the desired

consistency for the reception of the seed.

The

hair

into a club

when maturity

seldom worn.

worn long during childhood, but tied is reached, and turbans are A narrow cloth is bound round the loins,

Agricul

Ledger

Series, Calcutta.

No.

7,

1904.

KONDH
and a coarse long-cloth

364
in front

with Tartan ends which hang down

is

and behind,

when
is

the weather

is

cold.

wrapped round the figure The war dress of the Khonds

arrangement of
a

elaborate, and consists of a leather cuirass in front,

cloak, which, with an
is

and a flowing red

'

bison

'

horns and peacock's feathers,

supposed to strike

awe

into the beholder's mind.

Khond women wear

red or parti-coloured skirt reaching the knee, the neck

and bosom being

an upper cloth.

left

bare.

Pano females generally wear

[Tattooing
is

All tattoo their faces.

said to be performed, concurrently with ear-boring,

girls

when
said

are about ten years

old.

The

tattoo

marks are
the

to represent the

implement used

in tilling

soil for

cultivation, moustache, beard, etc.]

Ornaments of beads

and brass bangles are worn, but the usage of diverse In some parts muttas (settlements) varies very much.
of the
is

Goomsur

Maliahs, the use of glass and brass beads

confined to married

women,

virgins being restricted to

decorations composed of plaited grass.

Matrons wear

ten or twelve ear-rings of different patterns, but, in

parts,

many

young
till

girls substitute pieces of

broom, which are

worn
rings.

the wedding day, and then discarded for brazen

in

Anklets are indispensable

the dance on account

of the jingling noise they make, and gold or silver noserings are very

commonly worn.

[The Kondh of the

as follows.*
"

Ganjam Maliahs has been described

tends, combs and
oils,

He
into

centres his great love of decoration in his hair.

This he

with
is

infinite care,

and twists

a large loose knot, which

pins of

caught with curiously shaped

sambur bone,

gaily coloured

combs and bronze

and
it

hairpins with curiously ornamented designs,

is

then gracefully pinned over the

* Madras Mail, 1894.

left

eyebrow.

This

365

KONDH

knot he decorates according to his fancy with the blue

feathers of the jay (Indian roller, Coracias indica), or the

white feathers of the crane and stork, or the feathers of

the more gorgeous peacock.

Two
float
life,
it

feathers

generally

wave
in

in front, while

many more
of his

behind.

This knot,

the simple economy

also does duty as a

stuffs his knife, his
in
in

pocket or pincushion, for into

he

half-smoked cigarette of home-grown tobacco rolled

a sal {Shorea robustd)
leaf,

or even his snuff

wrapped

another leaf pinned together with a thorn.

waist he wraps a white cloth,

Round

his

bordered with a curious

design in blue and red, of excellent

home manufacture,

and over

his shoulder

is

borne his almost inseparable

companion, the tanghi, of many curious shapes, consisting

of an iron blade with a long

wooden handle ornamented

the former
strip

with brass wire.

carries

In certain places, he very frequently arrows,

bow and

made

of bent

bamboo, the string of a long

handle ornamented with
the peacock.]
"

of bark, and

the
of

stripes of the white quills

The Khonds

are very keen in the pursuit of game,

is

for

which the hot weather

if

the appointed time, and,

'

during this period, a sambar or

bison

'

has but

little

chance of escape

once wounded by an arrow, as they

stick to the trail like sleuth hounds,

ble to distance or fatigue.

and appear insensiThe arms they carry are the

are not addicted

bow, arrows, and tangi, a species of light battle-axe that

inflicts

a serious wound.

The women

to drink, but the males are universally attached to liquor,

especially during the hot weather,

when

the sago palm

(solopo

Caryota

tirens) is in full flow.

They

often run

up sheds

in the jungle,

near especially good trees, and

drink for days together.

this season

great

by

falls

from trees

many deaths occur at when tapping the liquor.

KONDH
and the

300

Feasts and sacrifices are occasions for drinking to excess,

latter especially are often scenes of wild intoxi-

cation, the liquor used being either

mohwa,

or a species

of strong beer

brewed from

rice or koeri.

Khond women,

when once
there

married, appear to keep pretty straight, but

is a good deal of quiet immorality among the young men and girls, especially during the commencement of the hot weather, when parties are made up for

fishing or the collection of

berries.

mohwa
all

fruit

and other jungle

of double

At the same

time,

a certain sense of shame

exists, as instances are not at

uncommon

suicide,

when

a pair of too ardent lovers are blown upon,

is

and their liaison

discovered. are

''The generality of Khond and Pano houses

constructed of broad sal logs

hewn

out with the axe, and

thatched with jungle grass, which

ants.

is

impervious to white-

bamboo jungles, bamboo is substituted for sal. The Khond houses are substantially built but very low,
In
feet,

the pitch of the roof never exceeding 8

and the eaves

being only about 4

feet

from the ground, the object being

to ensure resistance to the violent storms that prevail

during the monsoons.

" Intermarriage
is

between Khonds, Panos, and Uriyas

but cases do occur
to

not

recognised,

when

Pano

induces a
live

Khond woman

go

off

with him.

She may

with him as his wife, but no ceremony takes place.

If a Pano commits adultery with a Khond married woman, he has to pay a paronjo, or a fine of a buffalo, to the husband who retains his wife, and in addition a

goat, a pig, a basket of paddy, a rupee,

and a cavady
is

(shoulder-pole) load of pots.

If

the adulterer

a Khond,

he gets

off

with

payment of the

buffalo,

which

is

slaughtered for the entertainment of the village.

The

husband retains

his wife in this case, as also

if

he finds

Z^7
her pregnant

KONDH
;

when
is

first

she comes to him

this

is

not

an uncommon
husband's part

incident.

Divorce of the
if it

wife

on
all,

the

thus very rare,

occurs at

but

cases are not unknown where the wife divorces her husband, and adopts a fresh alliance. When this takes place, her father has to return the whole of the gifts

known as gontis, which when the marriage was

Vizagapatam
district,

the bridegroom paid for his wife

originally arranged."

In a note on the tribes of the

Agency

tracts of the

Mr.

VV. Francis writes as follows.*

Of who
"

these,

by

far the

most numerous are the Khonds,

strong.

are

about
of
this

150,000

An
there

overwhelming
the
wild
is

majority

number,

however,

are not

barbarous Khonds regarding

siderable literature, and

whom

such a con-

who

are so prominent in Ganjam,

but a series of communities descended from them, which

exhibit infinite degrees of difference from their

more

inter-

esting progenitors, according to the grade of civilisation

to

which they have attained.

in

The

only really primitive

Khonds

of the north of Bissamkatak taluk, the

who
in

live

Vizagapatam are the Dongria (jungle) Khonds Dcsya Khonds just south-west of them in and around the
(hill)

Nimgiris, and the Kuttiya

the north-east of the

Khonds
taluk.

of the hills

Gunupur
necklets

The Kuttiya
beads and
like

Khond men wear ample

any other
hill

of white

prominent brass earrings, but otherwise they dress

people.
distinctive garb,

Their women, however, have a

putting on a kind of turban on state

occasions, wearing nothing

above the waist except masses

of white bead necklaces which almost cover their breasts,

and carrying a series of heavy brass bracelets half way up their forearms. The dhangadi basa system (separate

* Gazetteer of the

Vizagapatam

district.

KONDH
and

368
in) prevails

hut for unmarried girls to sleep

in its simplest form,
girls

among them
for the

have opportunities
Special

most intimate acquaintance before they need inform their

parents they wish to

marry.

ceremonies are

practiced to prevent the spirits of the dead (especially of

those killed by tigers) from returning to molest the

living.

Except

totemistic

septs,

they

have

apparently

no
of

sub-divisions.*

The

dress of the civilised

Khonds

both sexes is ordinary and uninteresting. These civilised Khonds worship all degrees of deities, from their own
tribal

Jakara down to the orthodox Hindu gods

follow

every gradation of marriage and funeral customs from

those of their primitive forefathers to those of the lowcountry Telugu speak dialects which range from good
;

Khond through

bastard patois

down

to corrupt

Telugu

and allow their totemistic septs to be degraded down

or divided into, the intiperulu of the plains."

to,

There

is

a tradition that, in olden days, four Kondhs,

named

Kasi,

Mendora,

Bolti,

and Bolo, with eyes the

size of brass pots, teeth like axe-heads, and ears like

elephant's ears,

brought their ancestor

in

Mandia Patro
in

from Jorasingi
authority
all

Boad, and gave him and his children

over the country

singi, and and Pussangia, on condition of settling their disputes, and aiding them in their rights. The following legendin Kurtilli

now comprised Barakhumma, Bodogodo,

Maha-

Balliguda,

Kondhs is given by Jayaram Moodallar. Once upon a time, the Mr. A. B. ground was all wet, and there were only two females on the earth, named Karaboodi and Tharthaboodi, each of whom was blessed with a single male child. The names
ary account of the origin of the
*

very

interesting note on

Totemism among the Khonds by Mr. J. E.

Friend-Pcreira has been published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

LXXIII,

1905.

369
of the children were Kasarodi and Singarodi.

KONDH
All these

individuals sprang from the interior of the earth, together

with two small plants called nangakoocha and badokoocha,

on which they depended

dentally cut the

for subsistence.

One

day,

when

Karaboodi was cutting these plants

little

for cooking,

she acci-

finger of her

left

hand, and the blood

dropped on the ground. Instantly, the wet soft earth on which it fell became dry and hard. The woman
then cooked the food, and gave some of
it

to her son,
usual.

who asked
She
and,
if

her

why

it

tasted so

much sweeter than

a

replied that she might have

so,

would

let

him know.
if

dream that night, Next morning, the

woman

told

him

that,

he would act on her advice, he

that he

would prosper

in this world,

of her as his mother, and was to

was not to think cut away the flesh of her

did,
soil

back, dig several holes in the ground, bury the flesh, and

cover the holes with stones.

rest of the

This her son

and the
dried up

body was cremated.

all

The wet

and became hard, and

kinds of animals and trees

came
with

into existence.
its feet,

partridge scratched the ground

maize, dhal (pea), and rice

and ragi
it.

(millet),

sprung forth from

as

The two

brothers

argued

that,

the

sacrifice

of their

mother brought forth such

sisters,

abundance,

they must sacrifice their brothers,

and others, once a year in future. A god, by name Boora Panoo, came, with his wife and children, toTharthaboodi and the two young men, to

whom

Boora Panoo's

daughters were married.

their fathers.

They begat

children,

who were
on

divided equally between Boora Panoo the grandfather and

Tharthaboodi objected to

this division

the grounds that Boora Panoo's son would stand in the

relation

of
;

Mamoo

to

the

Singarodi

that, if the child

Kasarodi and was a female, when she got

children
of

married, she would have to give a rupee to her

111-24

Mamoo

KONDH
and
that, if
it

370

was a male that Boora Panoo's daughter

boy when he grew up would have to

brought

forth, the

give the head of any animal he shot to

Mamoo

(Boora

Panoo's son).

Then Boora Panoo

built

a house, and
All
lived
in a

Kasarodi and Singarodi built two houses.

happily for two years.

Then Karaboodi appeared

that,
if

dream, and told Kasarodi and Singarodi

offered another
fertile,

they

human

victim, their lands

would be very

and their

cattle could flourish.

In the absence of

a suitable being, they sacrificed a

monkey.

Then Kara-

boodi appeared once more, and said that she was not
pleased with the substitution of the monkey, and that
a

human being must be

sacrificed.

The two men, with who had

their eight children, sought for a victim for twelve years.

At the end
good

of that time, they found a poor man,

a son four years old, and found him, his wife and child
food, clothing,

and shelter

for a year.

They then

asked permission to sacrifice the son in return for their

kindness, and the father gave his assent.
fettered

The boy was

and handcuffed to prevent

of.

his

running away, and

taken good care

Liquor was prepared from grains, and

it,

a bamboo, with a flag hoisted on

planted in the ground.

Next day, a pig was sacrificed near this post, and a feast was held. It was proclaimed that the boy would be tied
to a post on the following day,

and

sacrificed

on the third

day.

On

the night previous to the sacrifice, the Janni

it

(priest)

took a reed, and poked

into the

ground

in

When it entered to a depth of about was believed that the god and goddess eight inches, Tadapanoo and Dasapanoo were there. Round this
several places.
it

spot,

seven pieces of wood were arranged lengthways

and crossways, and an egg was placed in the centre of The Khonds arrived from the various the structure.
villages,

and indulged

in drink.

The boy was

teased,

37^^

KONDH

and told that he had been sold to them, that his sorrow would affect his parents only, and that he was to be
sacrificed
for the

prosperity of the people.

He

was

conducted to the spot where the god and goddess had been found, tied with ropes, and held fast by the

Khonds.

He

was made to

lie

on

his

stomach on the

wooden structure, and held there. Pieces of flesh were removed from his back, arms and legs, and portions
thereof buried at the Khond's place of worship.
tions

Por-

were also set up near a well of drinking water, and placed around the villages. The remainder of the sacrificed corpse was cremated on a pyre set alight with
fire

two pieces of wood. On the following day, a buffalo was sacrificed, and a feast Next day, the bamboo post was removed partaken of. outside the village, and a fowl and eggs were offered to
produced by the
h'iction of

the deity.

The

following stanza
sacrifice,

is

still

recited by the

Janni at the buffalo

for that of a

which has been substituted

:

human

victim

Oh

come, male slave

say
?

come, female slave.

call

What do you
called,

What do you

out for

You have been

have been

brought, ensnared by the

Haddi.

You
I

ensnared by the Domba.

What

can

do,

even

if

you are

my

child

You

are sold

for a pot of food.

The

ethnological

section

of the

Madras Museum
from Baligudu

received a few years ago a very interesting relic in the

shape of a human (Meriah)

in

sacrifice post
fast

Ganjam.

This

post,

which was
is,
I

being reduced to

a mere shell by white-ants,

believe, the only

one

now in existence. It was brought by Colonel Pickance, who was Assistant Superintendent of Police, and set up
in the

ground near the gate of the reserve Police barracks. The veteran members of a party of Kondhs, who were
brought to Madras
111-24B

for the

purpose of performing before

KONDH
excited

372

the Prince and Princess of Wales in 1906, became wildly

when they came

across this relic of their former

barbarous custom.

The best known case," Mr. Frazer writes,* " of human sacrifices systematically offered to ensure good crops is supplied by the Khonds or Kandhs. Our knowl"

edge of them
British

is

derived from the accounts written by

officers,

who,

forty

or

fifty

years ago,
sacrifices

were

engaged

in

putting them down.

The

were

offered to the earth goddess, Tari

and were believed to

from
all

Pennu or Bera Pennu, ensure good crops, and immunity

In particular, they were
in

diseases and accidents.

considered necessary

the cultivation of turmeric, the

Khonds arguing

that the turmeric could not have a deep

red colour without the shedding of blood.

The
if

victim,

a Meriah, was acceptable to the goddess only

he had
is

been purchased, or had been born a victim, that

his father or guardian."

the

son of a victim father, or had been devoted as a child by

In 1837,

Mr. Russell,

in

report on the districts

entrusted to his control, wrote as follows.!

"The
still

cere-

monies attending the barbarous

rite,

and

more the
the

mode

of destroying

life,

vary

in different parts of

country.

In the Maliahs of

Goomsur, the

sacrifice is

offered annually to

Thadha Pennoo

(the earth) under the

effigy of a bird intended to represent a peacock, with the

view of propitiating the deity to grant favourable seasons

and crops.
of,

The ceremony
rotation

is

performed at the expense

and

in

by, certain

mootahs (settlements)
sacrifices,

composing a community, and connected together from

local circumstances.
*

Besides these periodical

The Golden Bough, 1900.

Government of India, No. V,

t Selections from the Records,

Human

Sacrifice

and Infanticide, 1854.

2>72>

KONDH
and even by
are the
indivi-

others are

made by
or

single mootahs,

duals, to avert

any threatening calamity from sickness,

murrain,

other cause.

Grown men

most

esteemed
person

(as victims),

because the most costly.

Children

are purchased, and reared for years with the family of the

who ultimately devotes them to a cruel death, when circumstances are supposed to demand a sacrifice at his hands. They seem to be treated with kindness, and, if young, are kept under no constraint but, when old
;

enough

to be sensible of the fate

which awaits them, they

are placed in fetters and guarded.

Most

of those

who

were rescued had been sold by their parents or nearest relations, a practice which, from all we could learn, is
very common.

Persons of riper age are kidnapped by

trade in

wretches

who

human

flesh.

The

victim must

always be purchased.

Criminals, or prisoners captured

in war, are not considered fitting subjects.

The

price

is

paid indifferently in brass utensils, cattle or corn.

The

Zanee

(or priest),

who may be

of any caste, officiates at

the sacrifice, but he performs the poojah (offering of

flowers, incense, etc.) to the idol

through the medium of

child under seven
at the public

the

Toomba, who must be a Khond

This child
is

years of age.

fed and clothed

is

expense, eats with no other person, and

act

subjected to no

For a month prior to the sacrifice, there is much feasting and intoxication, and dancing round the Meriah, who is adorned with garlands, etc., and, on the day before the performance of the barbarous

deemed impure.

rite,

is

stupefied with
is

toddy,

and made to

sit,

or,

if

necessary,
effigy

bound

at the

bottom of a post bearing the

above described.

The assembled multitude then

:

dance around to music, and addressing the earth, say Oh God, we offer the sacrifice to you. Give us good
'
!

crops, seasons, and health.'

After which they address

KONDH
the victim,
seize you.
'

374

We

bought you with a

sacrifice

price,

and did not

Now we

you according to custom,

and no

sin rests with us.'

On

the following day, the

victim being again intoxicated and

anointed with
part,

oil,

each individual present touches the anointed

wipes the
oil

and

on

his

own

head.
its

All then proceed in

procession around the village and

boundaries, preceded
pole, to the top of

by music, bearing the victim and a

which

is

attached a

tuft

of peacock's feathers.
is

On

returning to the post, which

village deity called

always placed near the

Zakaree Pennoo, and represented by three stones, near which the brass effigy in the shape of
a peacock
is

buried,

they

kill

hog
if it

in sacrifice

and,

having allowed the blood to

for the purpose,

How

into a pit prepared

the victim, who,

has been found

possible, has
cation,
is

been previously made senseless from intoxi-

seized and

thrown

in,

and

his face

pressed

down
flesh

until

he

is

suffocated in the bloody mire amid the

noise of instruments.

The Zanee then

it

cuts a piece of

from the body, and buries

idol,

with ceremony near

the effigy and village

All

as an offering to the earth.

the

rest

afterwards go through the

their

and carry the bloody prize to

same form, villages, where the

same

rites are

performed, part being interred near the

little bits

village idol,

and

on the boundaries.
the

The head
bare,

and face remain untouched, and the bones, when

are

buried

with them

in

pit.

After this horrid

is

ceremony has been completed, a

is left

buffalo calf

brought
off,

in front of the post, and, his forefeet

having been cut

there
attire

till

the following day.

Women,

dressed in

male

and armed as men, then drink, dance and

is

sing round the spot, the calf

killed

and eaten, and

the Zanee
or calf,"

is

dismissed with a present of rice and a hog

375
In the

KONDH
Arbuthnot,
"

same

year,

Mr.

Collector

of

Vizao^apatam, reported as follows.

Of

the

hill

tribe

Codooloo, there are said to be two distinct classes, the The former Cotia Codooloo and Jathapoo Codooloo.
class
is

that

which

is

in

the habit of offering

human

sacrifices to the

god

called Jenkery, with a view to secure

is

o-ood crops.

This ceremony

generally performed on
feast.

the Sunday preceding or following the Pongal

The

victim

is

seldom carried by
is

force, but

procured by

purchase, and there

a fixed price for each person,

which consists of

forty articles such as a bullock, a

male

buffalo, a cow, a goat, a piece of cloth, a silk cloth, a

brass pot, a large plate, a bunch of plantains, etc.

The

man who
(turmeric)
is

is

destined for the sacrifice

is

carried before

the god, and a small quantity of rice coloured with saffron

is

put upon his head.

The

influence of this

said to prevent his attempting to escape, even

It

though
kept
in
is

set at liberty.

would appear, however,

till

that,

from the

moment

of his seizure

he

is

sacrificed,

he

is

a continued state of stupefaction or intoxication.

He

allowed to wander about the village, to eat and drink anything he may take a fancy to, and even to have
connection with any of the

women whom

he

may
is

meet.

On

the morning

set apart for the sacrifice,

he

carried
of the
in the

before the idol in a state of intoxication.

villagers acts as priest,

One

who

cuts a small hole

stomach of the

and with the blood that flows from the wound the idol is smeared. Then the crowds from the neighbouring villages rush forward, and he is
victim,

Each person who as to procure it carries away a morsel of presents it to the idol of his own village."
literally cut into pieces.

is

so fortunate
flesh,

the

and

Concerning a method of
by the post preserved
in

sacrifice,

which

is

illustrated

the

Madras Museum, Colonel

KONDH

376

Campbell records* that "one of the most common ways of offering the sacrifice in Chinna Kimedi is to the effigy
of an elephant (hatti

mundo

or elephant's head) rudely

post,

carved
it

in

wood, fixed on the top of a stout

to revolve.

on which

is

made

After the performance of the

is

usual ceremonies, the intended victim

fastened to the

proboscis of the elephant, and, amidst the shouts and yells

of the excited multitude of Khonds,
is

rapidly whirled

round, when, at a given signal by the officiating Zanee

or priest, the crowd rush
in,

seize the Meriah,

and with

their knives cut the flesh off the shrieking

wretch as

long as
burnt,
I

life

remains.

He

is

then cut down, the skeleton

In several villages

and the horrid orgies are over.

in

counted as many

as fourteen effigies of elephants,

which

had been used

former

sacrifices.

These

caused to

be overthrown by the baggage elephants attached to

my camp

in

the presence of the assembled Khonds, to

show them that these venerated objects had no power against the living animal, and to remove all vestiges of
their bloody superstition."

In another report, Colonel

Campbell describes how the miserable victim is dragged along the fields, surrounded by a crowd of half intoxicated Khonds, who, shouting and screaming, rush upon
him, and with their knives cut the flesh piecemeal from

the bones, avoiding the head and bowels,

skeleton, dying from

till

the living

loss of blood, is relieved

from torture,

when new grain

its

remains are burnt, and the ashes mixed with the

to preserve
it

from insects."
writes, "

Yet again, he

describes a sacrifice which was peculiar to the

of Jeypore.
" It
is,"

Khonds

he

always succeeded by

the sacrifice of three

human

beings,

two

to the sun to

the east and west of the village, and one in the centre,

* Personal Narrative of Service

among

the

Wild Tribes of Khondistan.

MERIAH SACRIFICE POST

ZJJ
with
the usual
barbarities
feet

KONDH
of the

Meriah.

stout

wooden post about six

ground, at the foot of
it

long

is

firmly fixed in the

is

a narrow grave
is

dug, and to

the top of the post the victim

firmly fastened by the

long hair of his head.

stretched arms and

Four
the

assistants

hold his out-

legs,

body being suspended

priest,

horizontally over the grave, with the face towards the

earth.

The

officiating

Junna or

standing on the

right side, repeats the following invocation, at intervals

hacking with his

sacrificial
'

knife the back part of the

!

shrieking victim's neck.

is

mighty Manicksoro,
sacrifice,

this

your

festal day.

To

the

Khonds the offering is Meriah,

you have
sacrifice

to kings Junna.

On

account of this

given to kings kingdoms, guns and swords.

The

we now offer you must eat, and we pray that our battleaxes may be converted into swords, our bows and arrows into gunpowder and balls and, if we have any quarrels
;

with other

tribes,

give us the victory.

Preserve us from

the tyranny of kings and their officers.'

the victim
:

Then, addressing

'

That we may enjoy

our

prosperity,

we

offer

you a

sacrifice to

God Manicksoro, who

will

imme-

diately eat you, so be not grieved at our slaying you.

Your parents were aware, when we purchased you from them for sixty rupees, that we did so with intent to
sacrifice you.

There

is,

therefore, no sin on our heads, but

on your parents.
your obsequies.'

After you are dead,

we

shall

perform

The

victim

is

then decapitated, the

left

body thrown
from the post

into the grave,

till

and the head

suspended

devoured by wild beasts.

till

The

knife

remains fastened to the post

the three sacrifices have

been performed, when

it is

removed with much ceremony.

In an account by Captain

Mac
it is

Viccar of the sacrifice as

stated that

carried out at Eaji Deso,

sacrifice the

on the day of

Meriah

is

surrounded by the Khonds, who

KONDH

syS

beat him violently on the head with the heavy metal

bangles which they purchase at the

these occasions.
If this

fairs,

and wear on
put to his
for

inhuman smashing does not

life,

immediately destroy the victim's

sufferings by strangulation, a
slit

an end

is

bamboo being used

the purpose.

Strips of flesh are then cut off the back, and

each recipient of the precious treasure carries his portion

to the stream
it

which waters

his fields,

and there suspends

on a

pole.

The remains

of the

mangled corpse are then

buried, and funeral obsequies are performed seven days

subsequently, and repeated one year afterwards."

The Kondhs

of Bara

Mootah promised
alia, that

to relinquish

the rite on condition,

znie7'

they should be at
etc.,

liberty to sacrifice buffaloes,

monkeys, goats,

to their

deities with all the solemnities observed

on occasions of
liberty,

human
all

sacrifice

and that they should beat

to their

upon

occasions, to
its

denounce

gods the Government,

and some of

servants in particular, as the cause of

their having relinquished the great rite.

The
alive,

last

recorded Meriah sacrifice

in

in

the
still

Maliahs occurred

1852,

and there are

Ganjam Kondhs

of

who were present at it. Twenty-five descendants persons who were reserved for sacrifice, but were
officers,

rescued by Government

returned themselves as

The Kondhs have now The animal is substituted a buffalo for a human being. hewn to pieces while alive, and the villagers rush home
Meriah
at

the census,

1901.

to their villages, to bury the flesh in the

soil,

and so

secure prosperous crops.

The

sacrifice is not

unaccom-

panied by risk to the performers, as the buffalo, before

dying,
frequently
kills

one or more of
in 1899,

its

tormenters. a buffalo

This was the case near Baliguda

killed

when

the sacrificer.

In the

previous year, the desire

of a village to intercept the bearer of the flesh for a

379
neighbouring village led to a
fight, in

KONDH
which two men
Dassara
fine

were
It

killed.

was the
it,

practice, a few years ago, at every

festival in

Jeypore, Vizagapatam, to select a specially

ram, wash
bottu and

shave

its

head, affix thereto red and white

namam

(sect

marks) between the eyes and

it

down

the nose, and gird

with a new white cloth after

the manner of a
fastened in

human

being.

The animal being then

and
it

a sitting posture, certain puja (worship) was

priest,

performed by a Brahman

was decapitated.
victims
is

The

substitution of animals for

human

indi-

cated by various religious legends.

substituted for Iphigenia,
It

Thus, a hind was

for Isaac.

and a ram

was stated by the officers of the Meriah Agency that there was reason to believe that the Raja of Jeypore, when he was installed on his father's death in
1

860-6 1,

sacrificed a girl thirteen years of

in the

age

at

the

shrine of the goddess Durga

town of Jeypore.* It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district (1907), that " goats and buffaloes now-a-days take the

place of

human Meriah

victims, but the belief in the

superior efficacy of the latter dies hard, and every

now and
sacrifice

again revives.
spread in this

When
district,

the

Rampa
tracts.

rebellion of 1879-80

several cases of

human

occurred in the disturbed

In 1880, two persons

sacrifice

were convicted of attempting a Meriah

near

Ambadala

in

Bissamkatak.
at

In 1883, a

man

(a

beggar
in

and a stranger) was found

to his having

daybreak murdered

one

of the temples in Jeypore, in circumstances which pointed

been

slain as a

Meriah

and, as late as

1886, a

formal enquiry showed that there were ample

for the suspicion that the

grounds

kidnapping of victims

* Manual of the Visagapalam district.

KONDH

380

still went on in Bastar." As recently as 1902, a petition was presented to the District Magistrate of Ganjam, asking him to sanction the performance of a human sacrifice. The memory of the abandoned practice is kept green

by one of the Kondh songs, for a translation of which we are indebted to Mr. J. E. Friend- Pereira.*

At the time of the great Kiabon (Campbell) Sahib's it was enveloped coming, the country was in darkness
"
;

in mist.

Having
they,
sacrificers.

sent paiks to collect the people of the land,

having

surrounded

them,

caught

the

Meriah

Having caught the Meriah

sacrificers,

they brought

them, and again they went and seized the evil councillors. Having seen the chains and shackles, the people were
afraid

murder and bloodshed were quelled. Then the land became beautiful, and
;

a certain

Mokodella (Macpherson) Sahib came.

He
hills

destroyed the

lairs of

the tigers and bears in the

and rocks, and taught wisdom to the people. After the lapse of a month, he built bungalows and
;

schools

and he advised them to learn reading aod law.

learnt
;

wisdom and reading they acquired silver and gold. Then all the people became wealthy." Human sacrifice was not practiced in the Kurtilli Muttah of the Ganjam Maliahs. The reason of this is assigned to the fact that the first attempt was made with a crooked knife, and the sacrificers made such a bad busiColonel Campbell gives ness of it that they gave it up.

They

another tradition, that,

through humanity, one of the

Kurtilli Patros (head of a

group of

villages) threatened

to leave the

muttah

if

the practice was carried out.

* Journ. Asiat.

Soc, Bengal,

1898.

381

KONDH
in the

Of a substituted Ganjam Maliahs in

has been given.
"

sacrifice,

which was carried out

1894,* the following graphic account

Suddenly we came upon a number of

fifty

K bonds
made

carrying an immensely long bamboo, about

feet in length,

surmounted by a gorgeous

sort of balloon

of red and white cloth stretched on a

bamboo
flesh,

frame.

Attached to this were dried strips of pig's

a huge plume of peacock's feathers that

and the
gaily in

whole of the extraordinary structure was surmounted by

waved

the breeze.

Along with
all

this

was carried another bamboo,

bells.

not so long, slung

that the

over with iron

We

found

men had been

worshipping, and presenting these

structures to

a sylvan deity close by,

and were now

Dhuttiegaum,

hastening to the small

Khond

village of

the scene of the present Meriah sacrifice.

Half a mile
a dense

broueht us to

this

hamlet,

situated

among-st

grove of
ously

trees, in the

midst of which was tied to a curi-

fluted

and carved

wooden
its

post

the

sacrificial

buffalo, a placid animal,

oil

with

body glistening with the

pole, with its

of

many

anointings.

The huge bamboo

crown of red and white cloth and peacock's feathers, and incongruous shreds of dried pig's flesh, was now erected
in the centre of the village.

The comparative

quiet in
air

the village did not

last long, for

on a sudden the

was

rent with a succession of shrieks.

With the sound

of the

beating of Maliah drums, and the blowing of buffalo

horns,

party

of

rushing
village.

down a They dashed up

Khonds came madly dancing and steep hillside from some neighbouring
to

the

buffalo,

and began

frantically

dancing with the villagers already assembled

round and round the animal.

Each man

carried a green

bough of some

tree,

a sharp knife, and a tanghi.

They

* Madras Mail, 1894.

KONDH
were
all

382

adorned

in holiday attire, their hair

combed and

knotted on the forehead, and profusely decorated with

them were more or less intoxiVarious other villagers now began to arrive, cated. thick and fast, in the same manner, with wavings of green boughs, flourishing of knives, and hideous yells. Each party was led by the headman or Moliko of the village. The dancing now became more general, and faster and more furious, as more and more joined the human
waving
feathers.

All of

merry go round,' circling about the unfortunate buffalo. The women, who had followed their lords and masters
'

at

a discreet

distance,

stood sedately by in
in the
girls,

a group,

and took no part whatever

for the
oiled,

revels.

well most and stood demurely watching everything with part fine

buxom
The

They were groomed and

their sharp black eyes.

for nearly

hitherto quiet buffalo,

who

two days had been without food and water,

to get excited, and, straining at
at the dancers,
its

now began

tether,

plunged and butted

catching one

man
and

neatly on the nose so that the blood flowed copiously.

However, the Khonds were too excited circled round and round the poor maddened
and blowing horns
every
into
its

to

care,

brute, singing

ears,
it

beating drums,

and

now and then

offering

cakes brought with them

thus madly

from their villages, and then laying them on the top of

the post as offerings.
about,

As they

careered

we had ample time to note their extraordinary costumes. One man had somehow got hold of an old

blue Police overcoat, which he had put on inside out, and

round his waist he had gathered what seemed to be a

number
round

of striped tent

carpets,

forming a
chopper.

stiff ballet

skirt or kilt.

He was

one of the most athletic

in

spinning

the buffalo, flourishing a kitchen

Another
all.

man's costume consisted of almost nothing at

He

3^3
had, however, profusely

KONDH
his

daubed

black spots, and on his

decorative genius.

body with white and head he had centred all his

in

The head

question was swathed in

yards of cloth, terminating at the back in a perfect cas-

cade of cock's feathers.

He

excitedly

waved over

this

erection an ancient and very rusty umbrella, with many ventilations, with streamers of white cloth attached to

the top.

Others had tied on to their heads with bands of cloth the horns of buffaloes, or brass horns made in Their long, black imitation of those of the spotted deer.

and curly hair hung

erection, giving

in

masses from beneath

this strange

them a most

startling appearance.

The

dancing round the buffalo lasted quite two hours, as

they were waiting for the arrival of the Patro, before

concluding the

final
late.

ceremonies,

and the great man

their jaded

was fashionably

To

incite

energies

to further terpsichorean efforts,

from time to time the

dancers drank copious draughts of a kind of beer, used

specially

on these occasions, and made from kukuri, a

of grain.

species

At

last,

the

long

expected

Patro

arrived with the usual uproar of

many deafening
last,

sounds,

both

artificial

and
this

natural,

and with the waving of green

he walked
while the

boughs.

On

occasion

whole of

his retinue

preceded him dancing, headed by an

ancient and withered hag, carrying on her shoulders a

Maliah drum of cow-hide stretched tightly over a hoop of iron, and vigorously beaten from behind her by a

Khond with stiff thongs of man himself walked sedately,

broken-kneed
tat

dried leather.

The
'

great

followed by his

charger,' a

(pony),

extraordinarily

caparisoned,

and led by a youth of tender years, whose sole garment

consisted of a faded red drummer's coat of antiquated
cut.

As soon as

the Patro had seated himself comfortably

on a log near the dancers, a change came over the scene.


KONDH
The
hitherto

384
shouting

and

madly

revolving throng

stopped their gyrations round the stupefied beast, too

much exhausted and

and. falling on
its

frightened to offer any resistance,

it

neck and body, began to smother

with caresses and endearments, and, to a low plaintive

air,

crooned and wailed over

I

it,

the following dirge, of

which

append a rude
it,

translation.

Tradition says that

they used to sing

with slight variations, over their

:

human

victims before the sacrifice

Blame us
not,

buffalo

Thus

for sacrificing thee,

For our fathers have ordained

This ancient mystery.

We

have bought thee with a

price,

Have paid for thee all thy worth. What blame can rest upon us,

Who
Famine

save our land from dearth

stares us in the face,
fields,

Parched are our

and

dry,

Death looks

in at ev'ry door.
cry.

For food our young ones

Thadi Pennoo
Give

veils her face,

Propitiate me, she cries,

to

me

of flesh

and blood,

willing sacrifice.
its

That where'er

blood

is

shed,

On

land, or field, or hill.

spring,

There the gen'rous grain may

So ye may

eat

your

fill.

Then be
Soon

glad,

buffalo

Willing sacrifice to be.

in Thadi's

meadows

green,

Thou
After the

shalt brouse eternally.

Khonds had been chanting

time, the buffalo

this sacrificial

hymn

for

some

was untied from the carved

3^5
post,

KONDH

and

led,

with singing, dancing and shouting, and

with the noise of

many

musical instruments, to a sacred

off,

grove a few hundred yards

and there
tied,

tied to a stake.

As soon

as

it

had been firmly

the

Khonds threw
crowd of

off all their superfluous clothing to the large

womankind waiting
each

near,

and stood round the animal,

notice, as

man

with his hand uplifted, and holding a sharp

knife ready to strike at a

priest or Janni

moment's

soon as the

had given the word of command.

slight tap

Janni,

who

did not differ outwardly from the others,

The now

gave the buffalo a

axe.
in a

on the head with a small

An
body

indescribable
fell

scene followed.
in

The Khonds

on the animal, and,

an amazingly short

time, literally tore the living victim to shreds with their

knives, leaving nothing but the head, bones,

and stomach.

Death must, mercifully, have been almost instantaneous. Every particle of flesh and skin had been stripped off
during the few minutes they fought and struggled over
the buffalo, eagerly grasping for every atom of flesh.

As soon as a man had secured a piece of flesh, he rushed away with the gory mass, as fast as he could, to his fields,
to bury
it

therein according to ancient custom, before the

sun had

set.
it

As some

of them had to do good distances to

fast.

effect this,

was imperative that they should run very

A curious scene now took place, for which we could obtain

no explanation.
after
effect.

As

the

men
some
left

ran, all the

women

flung

them clods of

earth,

of

them taking very good

The

sacred grove was cleared of people, save a few

of the buffalo, which were
at the foot of the stake."

that guarded the remnants

taken, and burnt with

I

ceremony

pass on to the subject of infanticide

It is

among

the

Kondhs.
all

stated, in the

Manual

of the Vizagapatam

district, that

female infanticide used to be very

common
said to

over the Jeypore country, and the Rajah

ni-25

is

KONDH
have made money out of
it

386
in

one large taluk

(division).

The custom was

child

to consult the
its fate.

Dasari (priest)
it

when a

was born as to

If

was

to be killed, the

parents had to pay the

privilege of killing
it
;

Amin

of the taluk a fee for the

and the Amin used to pay the

Rajah three hundred rupees a year for renting the privilege of giving the license and pocketing the fees.

was formerly very prevalent among the Kondhs of Ganjam, and, in 1841, Lieutenant Macpherson was deputed to carry into effect the measures which had been proposed by Lord Elphinstone for the suppression of the Meriah sacrifices and The custom was ascribed to various beliefs, infanticide. viz., (i) that it was an injunction by god, as one woman made the whole world suffer (2) that it conduces to male offspring (3) that woman, being a mischief-maker,
practice

The

of female infanticide

is

better out of the world than in

it

(4) that the diffi-

culty, owing to poverty, in providing marriage portions was an objection to rearing females. From Macpherson's

known report * the following extracts are taken. The portion of the Khond country, in which the practice of female infanticide is known to prevail, is
well
"

roughly estimated
at 60,000,

at

2,400 square miles,

its

population

and the number of infants destroyed annually

at 1,200 to 1,500.

The

tribes

(who practice

infanticide)

belong to the division of the

not offer
existed

human

sacrifices.

Khond people which does The usage of infanticide has

amongst them from time immemorial. It owes its origin and its maintenance partly to religious opinions, partly to ideas from which certain very important features of Khond manners arise. The Khonds believe that the supreme deity, the sun god, created all things
* Selections

from the Records of the Government of India (Home Depart-

ment), v., 1845.

3^7

KONDH

good
world

that the earth goddess Introduced evil into the

;

and that these two powers have since conflicted.

The
dess.

non-sacrificing tribes

make

the supreme deity the

great object of their adoration, neglecting the earth god-

The

sacrificing tribes,

on the other hand, believe which practice female

the propitiation of the latter power to be the most necessary worship.

Now

the

tribes

infanticide hold that the sun god, in contemplating the

deplorable effects produced by the creation of feminine

nature, charged

men

to bring

up only as many females as

they could restrain from producing evil to society.

is

This
Again,

the

first

idea

upon which the usage

is

founded.

the

Khonds

believe that souls almost invariably return

to animate

human forms
first

in the families in

which they

have been

born and received.

But the reception

is

of the soul of an infant into a family

completed only

on the performance of the ceremony of naming upon the seventh day after its birth. The death of a female infant,
therefore, before that ceremonial of reception,
is

believed

to exclude

its

soul from the circle of family spirits, dimi-

nishing by one the chance of future female births in the

family.

And, as the

first

aspiration of every
is

Khond

is

to have male children,

to
infanticide."

this belief

a powerful incentive
his

Macpherson,

during

campaign,

came across many villages of about a hundred houses, in which there was not a single female child. In like
manner,
in

1S55,

Captain Frye found many Baro Bori

sinorle

Khond

villao-es

without a
it

female child in them.

In savage societies,

has been said, sexual unions

were generally effected by the violent capture of the

woman.

By

degrees

these

captures

have

become
exogamy,

friendly ones,

and have ended

in a peaceful

retaining the ancient custom only in the ceremonial form.

Whereof an

excellent

example

is

afforded by the Kondhs,

ni-25 B

KONDH
concerning

3SS

whom

the author of the

"

Ganjam Manual

writes as follows.

of their children.

The parents arrange the marriages The bride is looked upon as a comis

mercial speculation, and

is

paid for in gontis.

buffalo, a pig,

gonti

one of anything, such as a

;

or a brass

pot

for instance, a

hundred gontis might consist of ten

pigs,

bullocks, ten buffaloes, ten sacks of corn, ten sets of brass,

twenty sheep, ten

price,

and

thirty

fowls.

The

usual

however, paid by the bridegroom's father for the

is

bride,

twenty or thirty gontis.

A Khond
mutah

finds his

wife from
his

among

the

women

of any

(village)

than

own.

On

the day fixed for the bride being taken

home
bride

to her husband's house, the pieces of

broom

in

her

ears are removed, and are replaced by brass rings.

is

The

covered over with a red blanket, and carried

village,
village.

astride

on her uncle's back towards the husband's

accompanied by the young women of her own

Music
things,

is

played, and in the rear are carried brass playetc.,

such as horses,

for

the bridegroom,

and

cloths and

brass pins as presents for the bridegroom

father.

from the bride's

the young

On
is

the road, at

the village

boundary, the procession

met by the bridegroom and

cloths.
sticks.

men

of his village, with their heads and bodies

wrapped up

in blankets

and

Each

a bundle of long thin bamboo

armed with The young women

is

of the bride's village at once attack the bridegroom's

party with sticks, stones, and clods of earth, which the

young men ward off with the bamboo sticks. A runningfight is in this manner kept up until the village is reached, when the stone-throwing invariably ceases, and the
bridegroom's uncle, snatching up the bride, carries her
off to her

husband's house.

This fighting

is

by no means
injured.

child's play,

and the men are sometimes seriously

is

The whole

party

then entertained by the bridegroom

389
as lavishly as his

KONDH
On
the day after

means

will permit.

the bride's arrival, a buffalo

and a pig are slaughtered

and eaten, and, upon the bride's attendants returning home on the evening of the second day, a male and
female buffalo, or some less valuable present,
is

given to

them.

On

the third day,

all

the

Khonds

of the village

have a grand dance or tamasha (festivity), and on the fourth day there is another grand assembly at the house
of the bridesfi'oom.

The
a

bride and brideoroom are then

made

to

sit

down on

cot,

and the bridegroom's brother,

:

pointing upwards to the roof of the house, says

"

As

long as this

girl stays
;

with

us,

may

her children be as

men and

tigers

but,

if

she goes astray,

may

her children
"
!

be as snakes and monkeys, and die and be destroyed

In his report

upon the Kondhs

(1842),

Macpherson

tells

us that "they hold a feast at the bride's house.

into the night the principals in the scene are raised
his shoulders,

Far
by

the dance.

an uncle of each upon The burdens are suddenly exchanged, and

the uncle of the youth disappears with the bride.

and borne through

The

assembly divides

itself into

two

parties.

The

friends of

the bride endeavour to arrest, those of the bridegroom to

cover her
in

flight,

and men, women, and children mingle

I

mock

conflict.

saw a man bearing away upon

in

his

back something enveloped

cloth.

an ample covering of scarlet

was surrounded by twenty or thirty young fellows, and by them protected from the desperate The attacks made upon him by a party of young women. blooming man was just married, and the burden was his
bride,

He

whom

he was conveying to his

own

village.

Her

youthful friends were, according to custom, seeking to

regain possession of her, and hurled stones and

at the

bamboos

head of the devoted bridegroom,

until

he reached

the confines of his

own

village.

Then

the tables were

kONDH
turned, and the bride
friends

390

was

fairly

won

and

off her

young
not

scampered,

screaming and laughing, but

till

relaxing their speed

they reached their

friends

own

village."

Among
spot.

the

Kondhs

of

Gumsur, the

and relations
appointed

of the bride and bridegroom collect at an

The people

of the female convoy call out to the

bride,

others to
fight

come and take the

and then a mock

is

with stones and thorny brambles

female convoy against the parties

one.

begun by the composing the other

furniture brought

In the midst of the tumult the assaulted party

all tiie

takes possession of the bride, and

with her,

and carry

all

off

together.*

According to
bracelets,

another account, the bride, as s<oon as she enters the bridegroom's house,
has two enormous
or

rather handcuffs of brass, each weighing from twenty to

thirty pounds, attached to
girl

each wrist.
wrists

The

unfortunate

has to

sit

with

her two

resting

on her

shoulders,

so as to support

these enormous weights.

This

is

to prevent her from running away to her old

home.
is

On

the third day the bangles are removed, as

girl

it

supposed that by then the

has become reconciled

to her fate.
hills,

These marriage bangles are made on the

in fluted

and are curiously carved

and zigzag
still

lines,

and kept as heirlooms

in the family,

to be used at the

next marriage in the house.

recent account of marriage
old

According to a

more
t

among the Kondhs

an

woman suddenly

rushes forward,

seizes the bride,

flings

her on her back, and carries her off

to the front, catches the

man

comes
astride

groom, and places him

horses neigh and
finally

on

his shoulder.

The human

prance about like the

live

quadruped, and

rush

away
*

to the outskirts of the village.

A. R. Stevenson.
E. Friend-Pereira.

This

is

a signal for

J. J.

Madras Jonrn
Journ
:

Lit. Science, VI, 1837.

Asiat

Soc. Bengal,

LXXI,

1902.

391

ICONDH

the bride's girl friends to chase the couple, and pelt them

with clods of earth, stones, mud, covvdung, and

rice.

When
come

the
up,

mock
and

assault

is

at

an end, the older people

bridal

all

accompany the

pair

to

the

groom's

village.

correspondent informs

me

that he

once saw a

Kondh

bride going to her

new home,

riding

on her uncle's shoulders, and wrapped in a red blanket. She was followed by a bevy of girls and relations, and He was told that the preceded by drums and horns.
uncle had to carry her the whole way, and that,
if

he

had to put her down, a

fine of

a buffalo was
It
is

inflicted,

the animal being killed and eaten.

recorded that

a European magistrate once mistook a

for a riot, but,

Kondh marriage

on enquiry, discovered his mistake.

Reference has been made above to certain brass

playthings, which are carried in the bridal procession.

The

figures include peacocks, chamaeleons, cobras, crabs,

horses,

deer,

tigers,

cocks,

elephants,

human
in clay,

beings,

musicians, etc.

They

are cast by the cire perdue process.

is

The
wax

core of the figure

roughly shaped

accord-

ing to the usual practice, but, instead of laying on the

in

an even thickness, thin wax threads are

or

first

made,

and arranged over the core so as to form a

placed
in

network,

parallel

lines

or

diagonally,

according as the form of the figure or fancy of the work-

man
of a

dictates.

The

head, arms, and feet are modelled in

the ordinary way.

The wax

threads are

made by means
sufficiently

bamboo
by
heat,

tube, into the

end of which a moveable

brass plate
soft

is fitted.
is

The wax, being made

pressed through the perforation at the

end of the tube, and comes out in the form of long threads, which must be used by the workmen before they become hard and brittle. The chief place where these
figures are

made

is

Belugunta, near

Russellkonda

in

KONDH
Ganjam.
the
It
is

392
noted by Mr.
J.

A. R. Stevenson * that

Gumsur, to represent their deities Jara Pennu, the Linga Devata, or Petri Devata, keep in their
of

Kondhs

houses brass figures of elephants, peacocks,

etc.

dolls, fishes,

If affliction
if

happens to any one belonging to the

rice

household, or

the country skin eruption breaks out on

into

any of them, they put

turmeric with
killing fowls
Jani,
it,

milk,

and,

mixing

sprinkle the mixture on the figures, and,

and sheep, cause worship to be made by the and, making baji, eat.

At a marriage among the Kondhs of Baliguda, after the heads of the bride and bridegroom have been brought
together, an

arrow

is

discharged from a

bow by

the

younger brother of the bridegroom into the grass roof of

the hut.
a buffalo and pig are
eaten.

At the betrothal ceremony of some Kondhs, killed, and some of the viscera
the head to the bridegroom's maternal

Various parts are distributed according to an

rule, viz.,

abiding

uncle, the flesh of the sides to his sisters,

and of the back

among
girls

other relations and friends.

Some Kondh boys

in

of ten or twelve years of age are said to be married to

of fifteen

or

sixteen.

At Shubernagiri,

the

Ganjam Maliahs,
together.

are two trysting trees, consisting of a

jak {Artocarpus integrifolia) and

The custom was

for a

mango growing close Kondh, who was unable

his troth,

to pay the marriage fees to the Patro (headman), to meet

his love here

by night and plight

and then

for

the two to

retire

into the jungle for

three days

and

nights before returning to the village.

Afterwards, they

were considered to be man and wife. It is noted by Mr. Friend-Pereira

that,

at

the

ceremonial for settling the preliminaries of a

Kondh

Madras Journ

Lit.

&

Science, VI, 1S37.

+ Loc.

cit.

JVJ
marriage, a knotted string
is

KONDH
put into the hands of the

seridahpa gataru (searchers for the bride), and a similar

string
is

kept by the

girl's

people.
is

The reckoning

of

the date of the betrothal ceremony

kept by undoing

a knot

in the string

every morning.

Some
managed
marriage.

years ago, a young

Kondh was

betrothed to

the daughter of another Kondh, and, after a few years,

to

pay up the necessary number of

girl's

gifts.

He

then applied to the

father to

name the day

for the

Before the wedding took place, however, a

to the girl's father,

and said that she was his had been born before her parents were daughter (she
married), and that he was the

Pano went

man

to

whom

the gifts

should

have been paid.

The

case was referred to a

council meeting, which decided in favour of the Pano.

Of

birth ceremonies, the following account

is

given by

The woman is attended in her confinement by an elderly Kondh midwife, w^ho shampooes her abdomen with castor-oil. The umbilical cord
Mr. Jayaram Moodaliar.
is

cut

by the mother of the

is

infant.

For

this purpose,
its

the right thigh of the baby

flexed towards

abdomen,

and a piece of cooled charcoal placed on

its

right knee.

The

cord

is

placed on the charcoal, and divided with the

sharp edge of an arrow.

the house near a wall.

The

placenta

is

buried close to

After the cord has been severed,

the mother daubs the region of the infant's navel with

She then warms her hands at a fire, and applies them to the infant's body. [It is stated, in the Ganjam Manual, that
her
saliva,

over which she smears castor-oil.

the infant

is

held before a hot

is

fire,

and half roasted.]

a

The warming
five days.

repeated several times daily for four or

the umbilical cord has sloughed
fire,

When

off,

spider
shell,

is

burnt to ashes over a

castor-oil,

placed in a cocoanut

mixed with

and applied by

means of a

ICONDH
fowl's feather to the navel.

394

The

Infant's

head

is

shaved,

except over the anterior fontanelle, the hair from which

is

removed
old.

after

about a month.

Its

body

is

smeared
until
it is

all

over daily with castor-oil and tumeric paste

month

The mother then goes

her
brother's

with her baby and

infant
is

husband

to

house,
is

where the

presented with a fowl,

which
In

taken home, and eaten

by her husband.
according to the
father,
it,

The

appropriation of the fowl varies

locality.

some

places, the infant's

and other

relations, except the

its

mother,

may

eat
in

and, in others, both

parents,
still

and relations living

the house,
paternal
uncle,

may do

so.

In

other places, the father,

paternal

grandfather and

grandmother, and
the

may partake of it. The naming ceremony among

J.

Kondhs
"

of

Gumsur

is

thus described by Mr.

A. R. Stevenson.

Six months

after birth,

on a fixed day, they make gaduthuva (the

ceremony of naming the child). On that day, killing a They wash dog, and procuring liquor, they make baji.
the feet of the child.

The

Jani being come, he ties a

sickle,

cord from the haft to the point of a

divine by

and they
petrilu

means

of

it.

Having assembled the

(literally ancestors,

but here denoting household images

or gods), they put rice on the sickle.

As
is

the

names

(of

the ancestors or family

?)

are repeated in order, each

time the rice

is

put on, that

name

chosen on the
is

mention of which the sickle moves, and

child.

given to the

They then drink

liquor,

and eat

baji.

They

give

rice

and

flesh to the Jani."

Of death ceremonies, the following account is given in " Immediately after the manual of the Ganjam district.
death, a cloth
is

wrapped round the

corpse, but no cloths

or valuables are removed.

rice),

A portion of paddy

(unhusked

and

all

the cooking utensils of the deceased are

395
given to the village Sitra.

icoNDii

[The Sitras manufacture the brass rings and bangles worn by the Kondhs.] The body is then burnt. On the following day, a little rice is cooked, put on a dish, and laid on the spot where the
corpse was burnt.

An

incantation

is

then pronounced,

requesting the spirit of the deceased person to eat the

rice

and enjoy

itself,

and not to change

after death, the

itself into

devil or tiger,
village.

and come bothering the survivors

of the deceased

in

the
is

Three days

madda ceremony
is

performed.
straw,

An
is

effigy

prepared of

which

stuck up in front of or on the roof of the

house, and the relations and friends assemble, lament,

and eat
house.

at the

expense of the people of the deceased's

a present of

Each person brings

on
his

some kind or

other, and,

departure on the next day, receives

something of
in

slightly higher value.

a village requires a purification, which

The death of a man is made by the

after death.
If

sacrifice of a buffalo

on the seventh day head of which, cut

man

is

killed

by a

tiger, the purification is off

made by

the

sacrifice of a pig, the

with a tangi

(axe)

by a Pano,
for

is

passed between the legs of the

stand in a line astraddle.
It is

men

in the village,

who
if

a bad
If the

omen

him

the head touches any man's legs.

gfets

Patro attends a funeral, he

gun, to drive
to

a fee of a sfoat for

ghost."
is
is

firino- his

away the dead man's

if

According
killed

Mr. Jayaram Moodaliar,

a person

by a

tiger,

the head of the decapitated pig

it

placed in a

stream, and, as

floats

down,
If
it

it

has to pass between the

legs of the villagers.

touches the legs of any of

them,

it

forebodes that he will be killed by a tiger.

In a note on the death ceremonies in

J.

Gumsur, Mr.
life

A. R. Stevenson writes as follows.

tie

"

On

ceasing,

they
the

a sheep to the foot of the corpse.

brass
eating-dish,

They

carry

clothes,

brass

drinking-vessel,

KONDH
ornaments, grain
in

396
store,

and the said sheep to the

those things there,

burning-ground.

Having burned the body, and gone

pile,

around about the

they leave

all

and, beating drums, return home.

The garments
liquor,

the
it.

Panos take away.

They procure
kill

and drink

They then go

to their respective houses, and eat.

On

the next day, they

a she-buffalo, and get together

a great quantity of liquor.

The whole
If

of the tribe (near

and distant
and
eat.

relations) being assembled, they

make

baji,

They

beat drums.

the deceased were of

any consequence, dancers come and dance to the sound

of the drums, to
take,

whom some

animal

is

given, which they

and go away.

Subsequently, on the twelfth day,

they carry a hog to the spot where the body was burned,
and,
after

perambulating the

site

of the pyre,

return

to their home,

where they

kill

hog

in the

place set

apart for their household gods, and, procuring liquor,

make
doors

baji,

the

members
off

of the tribe eating together.

Should a tiger carry

all

any one, they throw out of

all

the (preserved) flesh belonging to him, and

the people of the village,

their homes.

not excepting children, quit

The

Jani,

being come with two rods of

the

tummeca

tree {Acacia arabicd), he plants these in

bring-ino'

the earth, and then,

one rod of the condait

tamara tree {Smilax macrophylla), he places

versely across the other two.
incantation, sprinkles water

trans-

The

Jani,

performing some

on them.

Beginning with

the children, as these and the people pass through the

passage so formed, the Jani sprinkles water on them

looking behind them."

all.

Afterwards, the whole of them go to their houses, without

In connection with customs observed in the event of

death, Mr. Jayaram Moodaliar writes that "
if

a woman's

husband

dies,

she removes the beads from her neck, the

397

KONDH

metal finger rings, ankle and wrist ornaments, and the

ornament worn

in

the lobe of one ear, that worn in the

lobe of the other ear being retained.

These are thrown on

the chest of the corpse, before

it is

cremated.

The widow

does not remove the ornaments worn in the helices of the When a ears, and in the alae and septum of the nose.

Khond

dies,

his

body

is

cremated.

The

people

in

the

house of the deceased are not allowed to cook their food on that or the next day, but are fed by their relations and
friends in the village.

On

the day after death, rice and a

fowl are cooked separately, put in big leaf cups, and placed

on the spot where the corpse was burnt. The spirit of the deceased is invited to eat the meal, and asked not to do

them any harm. On the third and smear their heads with
deceased
is

day, the relations bathe,

clay.

An

effigy

of the

made, and stuck up on the roof of the house.

making an image of the deceased obtains amono- the Goomsur Khonds, but, in some other places,

The
is

practice of

considered inauspicious.

On

the seventh day, a puri-

ceremony is gone through, and a buffalo killed, with which, and the indispensable liquor, the guests are At a village two miles from Baliguda, entertained. His gold ear-rings a boy, about sixteen years old, died.
ficatory

and

were not removed, but burnt. His Ragi and other grains, cloths were thrown on the pyre. paddy, etc., were placed near the funeral pyre, but not The food-stuffs, and " buffalo, were divided in the fire.
silver bracelets

among

the Haddis,

who

are the servants of the

headman

(Patro) of the muttah.

They

also took the remains of

the jewels, recovered from the ashes after cremation." * that " once after It is recorded by Mr. F. Fawcett
death, a propitiatory sacrifice
is

made

of animals of the

* Journ. Anthrop.

Soc, Bombay,

II, 249.

KONDH

398

deceased to the Pidari Pitta (ancestor) for the sake of the deceased's spirit, which, after this festive introduction
to the shades,

must take

its

chance.

curious cere-

mony, which I do not remember seeing noted anywhere, Some boiled rice and is performed the day after death. The fowl a small fowl are taken to the burning place.
is split

down

the breast, and placed on the spot

is

it

is

afterwards eaten, and the soul

invoked to enter a new-

born

child."

The following note on a Kondh funeral dance in the Ganjam Maliahs is from the pen of an eye-witness.* " The dead Patro is, as usual, a hill Uriya, of ancient
lineage,

no

less

than that of the great totem of nola

its

bompsa
in

or the ancestral wood-pigeon that laid

eggs

the

hollow of a bamboo, from which this family

sprang.

Various and most interesting are the totems of

In passing,
I

the Maliahs.

may mention another

curious

totem, that of the

pea-fowl,

brought home
pot,

to his wife,

who

two eggs of which a man laid them in an earthen

and from them sprang a man-child, the progenitor But to return to the Patro. Before of a famous family. sunset, mourned by his two wives, the younger and
favourite one carrying a
colour,

young

child of light

bamboo
in

he had been burnt, without much ceremony,

an open grassy spot, his ashes scattered to the four winds of heaven, and the spot marked by wooden posts
driven deep into the
the funeral

Not now would be celebrated obsequies, but a month hence on the accessoil.

sion of his eldest son, the future Patro, a fair lad of

eighteen years.

As

the day
filled

for

the
air.

obsequies drew
Potters from the

near, an unusual bustle

the

low country arrived, and hundreds upon hundreds of

* Madras Mail, 1896.

399
earthen pots of
all

KONDH
Huge
buffaloes,

sizes

and shapes were turned, and

fate, lay

piled in great heaps near the village.

unconscious of their approaching

or

tethered near,
by.

wallowing

in

bovine luxury
far

in

swamp hard

Messengers had been sent

Molikos, and Bissoyis.
not
left out.

and near

to all the Patros,

Even

the Kuttiya

Khonds were
each

The

auspicious morning at length dawned,

to arrive,

when
and

a distinguished

chief with his

little

company began followers, and in many

all

cases his wives

children,

dressed in their best, and bent

I

on enjoying everything to the utmost.

stalwart

noticed

fine

men from

Udiagiri on the edge of the ghauts,

civilised Baliguda,

together with

Khonds from more

and

Khonds
horrid

from cold and breezy Daringabadi, cheerful in

spite of the

numbers of

their relatives that

had found a
1886

tomb

inside a man-eating tiger that since

(together with another ally lately started) had carried

more than four hundred of their kith and kin. Distinguished amongst even that wild horde for savagery were the Khonds from the Kuttiya country, who live on tops of hills, and whose women are seldom, if ever, seen. These are remarkable for their enormous quantities of frizzly hair tied in huge chignons over the right brow,
off

and decorated with feathers of every hue the jay, the parrot, the peacock and the white quills of the paddybird predominating.
in

Their short, sturdy limbs are hung

to be

every direction with necklaces and curious blue beads

and cut agates, said

places and

dug out

of ancient burial

cromlechs in Central India.

Certain

it

is

that almost no inducement will prevail

on a Khond

to

voluntarily part with these precious heirlooms.

fresh detachment
arrived, their
first

As each
wash and

occupation was to

go

to a neighbouring tank (pond), and, after a

decoration

of head and hair with either the orthodox

KONDH
feathers, or, prettier
still,

400
with wreaths of wild flowers,

to repair to the late chief's house, and, presenting

them-

selves at the door, condole, with

much

vigour of lungs,

with the
loss.

now

less

disconsolate widows on their recent

This ceremony over, they tendered their allegiance

of the

to

the young son

dead Patro,

permitted

by

Government to take his place, and each man received from him an earthen cooking-pot, and each circle of
villages a buffalo.

The Khond
some

is

a beef eater, but a

that a married

curious custom prevails in

parts,

woman must

abstain from the flesh of a cow.

These

preliminary ceremonies over, the crowd adjourned, with

great noise of shouting, blowing of buffalo horns, and

beating of drums, to the open grassy spot marked by

posts,

where the
lay.

late

Patro

had been burned, and

weltering in
of
its

where a recently

killed buffalo,

gore,

now

Among

the

throng

men,

women and

children,

most of the former more than slightly elevated

by drinking copious draughts of a kind of beer made

from the kuhari grain, were three Khond s carrying long
poles surmounted by
that blazed in the sunlight like emeralds

The
is

funeral
in

huge bunches of peacock feathers and sapphires. dance now commenced. The dance itself
for,

simple

the extreme,

when

the right spot was

reached, old

round

in a large circle, a perfect

men and young began gyrating round and human merry-go-round.

soil

The

old grey-beards, plodding slowly round the ring,

and stamping on the

with their aged

feet,

presented

a great contrast to the younger and wilder men,

who

capered and pranced about, sometimes outside the

circle,

waving
into
its

their tanghis in the air,

and every now and then

leaping up to the slain buffalo, and dipping their axes

blood, and then back again, dancing

more wildly
east,
till

than ever, round and round from west to

the

40I

KONDH

eye ached to behold the perpetual motion of this animated In the centre revolved the three men with wheel.
the huge bunches of peacock feathers afore-mentioned.

When

any dropped out of the

circle to rest there

were

many eager and

willing to take their places,

and

so, 'vith

relays of fresh dancers, this

human

circle

revolved on

for three whole days, only ceasing at nightfall,

when by
In

large

fires

the various tribes cooked in the earthen pots

provided the buffaloes presented by the new Patro.

olden days, an animal was given to each village, but on

this occasion

only to a circle of villages, occasioning

the wiseacres for the
not only buffaloes in
as well were lavishly

among good old days of the past, when plenty, but Meriah human victims
thereby certain grumblings

provided and

sacrificed.

Ichabod,' said they in

Khond,
and

'the glory of the Maliahs hath departed.'

On

the after-

noon of the third day, the Patros, Molikas,

others of the

Bissoyis,

great

men began
homes

to

depart with their

retainers for their distant

in the jungles,

having

had a thoroughly good time.

The women, who had

been very shy at

first,

fled at

my

approach, now, after

three days' familiarity with a white face, began to

symptoms

of friendliness, so that

show they allowed me to go

quite near to

them

to

examine

their pretty necklaces of

coloured grasses, silver coins, and curious beads, and to

count the numbers of small sticks (generally about twelve

or fifteen) of

broom

that

were arranged

in the

shape of

a crescent round the outer edges of the pierced ears of

each unmarried village

belle,

and

to observe at close
in

quarters the strange tattooed patterns

blue of zig-

zag and curve that to

wise comely faces.

my

eyes disfigured their other-

As

to

beauty of figure,

think

very few can compare with a young and well-grown

Khond maiden, with

ni-26

her straight back and handsome

KONDH
proportions.
that
I

402
It

was, therefore, without

much

difficulty

persuaded some of them to dance before me.

girls

Six

buxom

stepped out,

all

of

them the respectable

to

daughters of well-to-do
the famous

Khonds, prepared

dance
but

peacock dance.

Round
the

their
strip

supple
of

massive

waists

was

twisted

national

Khond
skins

cloth of blue,

red and white, and for bodices

their glossy

what could be more becoming than

of nature's millinery,

brown

gracefully

wreathed with

garlands of coloured grasses and strings of gay beads.

The

polished jet black hair, neatly tied in a knot at the

back, and decorated with pretty lacquered

and

silver

combs, or with forest flowers, added yet more to their picturesque appearance. Each girl now took a long strip
of white cloth, and, winding
to trail at
it

round her waist, allowed

of the

sash.

one end This was supposed to represent the

the back in the fashion of a Liberty

tail

peacock.

Three of the
left

girls

then faced the three others,

hips,

and, with their

hands resting on their

and

their elbows sticking out (to represent the wings), and

the right arms extended

in

froot with the fingers out-

stretched to simulate the neck and beak, began to dance

to the ear-piercing shrieks of cracked trumpet,

and to
retiring,
first
'

the deep beatings of a Maliah

time.

drum marking

excellent

On

and on they danced, advancing and

and now and then crossing over (not unlike the

figure of the quadrille), while their tinkling feet,
little mice, stole in

like

and

out,'

the heels alternately clash-

ing

against

each

other,

in

exact time

to

the music,

and the lips gracefully waving from side to side as they advanced or retired. There was perfect grace of movements combined with extreme modesty, the large
expressive eyes veiled by the long lashes never once

being raised, and the whole demeanour utterly oblivious


403
to the

KONDH

crowd of enthusiastic admirers that surrounded them on all sides. But for the wild scene around, the noise and shrieking of instruments, and the fantastic
dresses of the
tied

Khonds (many

of

whom

had buffalo horns

hair),

on to their painted

faces,

or had decorated their

heads with immense wigs of long black

easily

one might

have supposed these shrinking damsels to have

for

been the pick of a Mission School specially selected

propriety to

an itinerant

dance the South Indian kummi before, say, Bishop of ascetic tendencies and aesthetic

temperament.

When

their

heaving,

panting

bodies

showed
the

that exhausted nature claimed

man

with the trumpet or

it

them for her own, the drum would rush up,

and blow or beat

energy,
hills,

almost under their drooping heads,

urging them with shouts and gesticulations to further

till

at length the

shades of night crept over the

and, with one accord, the dancing and the deafengirls stole quietly

ing music ceased, while the six

back

and were soon

lost in

the crowd." the

Of

superstitions

among

Kondhs, the following

:

are recorded by Mr. Jayaram Moodaliar

"
tion,
if

When
he

Kondh

starts out

on a shooting expedimarried or
tell

first

meets an adult female,

unmarried, he will return home, and ask a child to

the females to keep out of his way.

He

will

then

make

a fresh

start, and, if he meets a female, will wave his hand to her as a sign that she must keep clear of

him.

Before a party start out for shooting, they warn

the females not to

believes
that,
if

across animals in
in

The Kondh he sees a female, he will not come the jungle to shoot. If a woman is
in

come

their

way.

her menses, her husband, brothers, and sons living

roof,
will

under the same

not

go out shooting

for the

same reason.
III-26 B

KONDH

404
will

A Kondh
(festival) is
visit his

not leave his village

lest

being celebrated,

the

when a jathra god Pennu should

wrath on him.
will

They
suitable for

not

cut

trees,

which yield products

as the

human consumption, such

mango,

jak,

jambul {Eugenia Jambolana), or iluppai {Bassia) from which they distil a spirituous liquor. Even though these
trees prevent the
will

growth of a crop not cut them down.

If

in

the

fields,

they

an owl hoots over the roof of a house, or on a

it is

tree close thereto,

considered unlucky, as foreboding

If

a death in the family at an early date.

close to a village, but outside
villagers will follow.
it,

an owl hoots

the death of one of the

is

For

this reason, the bird

pelted

with stones, and driven

off.

They
amounting

will not kill

a crow, as this would be a sin

to the killing of a friend.

According to their

was a family consisting of an aged man and woman, and four

legend, soon after the creation of the world there
children,
sion.

who

died one after the other

in

quick succes-

Their parents were too aged to take the necessary

steps for their cremation, so they threw the bodies

away

on the ground,
appeared
to

at

some

distance from their home.

God
might

them

in their

dreams one night, and proit

mised that he would create the crow, so that

devour the dead bodies.

They do

not consider
:

it

a sin to

kill

Brahminy
is

kite {Haliasttcr Indus

Garuda

pakshi), which

held in
will

veneration throughout Southern India.

kill
it

A Kondh

for so slight

an offence as carrying

off his chickens.

They

will not cut the

is

crops with a sickle with a

crops, after they have

serrated edge, such as

used by the Oriyas, but use a

straight-edged knife.
cut, are

The

been

removed

to the village,

and threshed by hand,

405

KONDH
While
this
is

and not with the help of

done, strangers

cattle.

being

(Kondh
If

or others)

may

not look on the

crop, or speak to them,

lest their evil

is

eye should

be

cast

on them.

a stranger

seen approaching near the

off

threshing-floor, the
to

Kondhs keep him

it

by signalling

him with
is

their hands, without speaking.

The

serrated
like that
If cattle

sickle

not used, because

produces a sound

of cattle grazing, which would be unpropitious.

were used

in

threshing the crop,

it

is

believed that the

earth god would feel insulted by the dung and urine of

the animals.

They

believe that they can transform themselves

into tigers or snakes, half the soul leaving the

body and

becoming kill an enemy, or satisfy hunger by having a good feed on cattle in the jungle. During this period, they are
changed into one of these animals, either to
believed
to feel
if

dull

and
is

listless,

and disinclined

for

work, and,

a tiger

killed

in

the forest, they will

die synchronously.

Mr. Fawcett informs

me

that the

Kondhs

believe that the soul wanders during sleep.

On

one occasion, a dispute arose owing to a man discovering that another Kondh,

whose

spirit

used to wander
spirit,

about

in

the guise of a tiger, ate up his

ill.

and he
males

became

When

cholera breaks out in a village,

all

and females smear their bodies from head to

pig's fat liquefied

foot with
until

by heat, and continue to do so

they do not bathe,

a few days after the disappearance of the dread disease.

During
fat

this time,

lest

the smell of the

should be washed away."

The Kondhs

are said * to prevent the approach of

the goddess of small-pox by barricading the paths with

* Macpherson.

Memorials of Service

in India.

KONDH
The
leopard

406
oil.

thorns and ditches, and boiling caldrons of stinking

is

looked upon in some way as a sacred

of the northern Maliahs.

beast by the

Kondhs

They

object to a dead leopard being carried through their

villages,

and oaths are taken on a leopard's

countries,
to

skin.
in

Referring to elf stones, or stones of the dead

European
eggs,
etc.,

which needles, buttons, milk,

Mr. F. Fawcett describes * a

are offered,
in

which the ground under a tree was cleared in the form of a square, within which were circles of saffron (turmeric), charcoal, rice, and some

Kondh ceremony,

yellow powder, as well as an egg or a small chicken.

A
go

certain

Kondh had

fever caused

by an
it

evil spirit,

and and

the ceremony was an invitation to

to another village.

to

come

out,

The

following account of a cow-shed sacrifice

"

is

given

A special liquor is brewed from by Mr. Fawcett. t grain for the ceremony, on the first day of which there is a general fast, a pig is bought by general subscription, and dragged to the place where it is to be sacrificed by
The pig is stoned to death, but, ere it dies, each Khond cuts off some of the hair and a little piece of the ear, which are treasured. The meat is divided among them, and cooked with rice. The
a rope
'

through

its belly.'

priest

goes from

house

to

house,

and performs the

ropes of the cattle

ceremony of the cow-shed. (chiefly buffaloes) which are out grazing are tied to the central point in the cow-shed, and the other ends are These ropes are laid on the ground across the shed. The the visible objects, to which sacrifice is made.
head of a chicken
post,
is

The

buried near the ends tied to the

and near

it

are ranged leaves, on which are placed

* Journ., Anlh. Soe.,

Bombay,

II, 1890.

t ^^i<^-


407
rice, flesh

KONDH
its ear.

of the pig, and a bit of

is

little in

front

of these

buried a rotten egg.

is

head

is

buried,

boiled,

whose and eaten by children who

chicken,

The

have not yet donned a

cloth.

The Khond

puts the

rice,

piece of the ear, and the hair of the pig, under the roof.
In the evening the cattle

the

ropes

used
fast

in

the

come home, and are tied by ceremony. Then the women

Drinking and

break their

they

musl eat then.

dancing occupy the two following days, during which no

removed from the cow-shed. On the third day, the Khonds come out with a lump of it in the hand, and throw it in one place, forming a heap, on which the priest pours liquor and rice." The following example of a Kondh oath is given by

manure

is

Mr.

J.

A. R. Stevenson.
is

"

The

subject of the circum-

stance

first

repeated by the swearing party, and a

things
is

basket containing the following

held

before

him

A blood-sucker (lizard). A bit of tiger's skin. A peacock's feather.

Earth from a
'

white-ant

'

hill.

Rice mixed with

fowl's blood.

lighted lamp.

He
object.

proceeds with his oath, touching each object

in

the basket at that part of the oath which refers to that

'

Oh

father
!

(god),

I
I

swear,

and,

if

swear

falsely, then,

Oh
May

father,

may

become
die.

shrivelled
I

and

dry like a blood-sucker, and thus

May

be killed

by a
hill.

tiger.

crumble to dust

like this white-ant's

May

be blown about like this feather.

May

be extinguished like this lamp.'

In saying the last words,

he puts a few grains of

rice in his
its

mouth, and blows out

contents
is

the lamp, and the basket with

made

to

touch the top of his head."

KONDH
witchcraft occurred in the

408

In 1904, a case illustrating the prevailing belief in

Vizagapatam

hill tracts.

The

youngest of three brothers died of fever, and, when the

body was cremated, the

portion.

fire failed to

consume the upper

The

brothers concluded that death must have

been caused by the witchcraft of a certain Kondh.

accordingly attacked him, and killed him.
the brothers cut the body in
half to their
it

They

After death,

half,

and dragged the upper

to nail

own

village,

where they attempted

up on the spot where their deceased brother's body

failed to burn.

The

accused were arrested on the spot,

with the fragment of the Kondh's corpse.

They were

sentenced to death, and the sentence was confirmed by

the

High Court.*
In 1906, a Kondh, suspecting a Pano girl of having

stolen
to

some cloths and a silver ornament from him, went the dhengada house in Sollagodo, where the girl slept
girls,

with other unmarried

and took her to

his village,

where he confined her in his house. On the following day, he took her to an Oriya trader, who thrashed her,
in

order to

make her

confess to the theft.

Subsequently,

some
was

of the villagers collected to see her undergo the

ordeal of boiling water.

boiled,

pot

nearly

full

of water

some cow-dung and sacred rice added, and a rupee placed in the pot. The girl was ordered to take
out the rupee.

This she did three times,

but,

on the

fourth occasion, the water scalded her hand and forearm.

She was then ordered to pay as a fine her ear-ring, which was worth one rupee. This she did, as it was the custom for an unsuccessful person to hand over some property. Her right hand was practically destroyed as An elderly Patro (headman) the result of the scalding.

* Madras Police Report, 1904,

409

KONDH

deposed that the ordinary practice in trials of this sort is to place two pots of water, one boiling and the other
cold.

In the boiling water a rupee and

some

rice are

placed, and the suspected person has to take out the

rupee once, and should then dip his hand

water.
If

in the
is

cold

the hand

is

then scalded, the person

fine to the caste.

consi-

dered guilty, and has to pay a

In trial by immersion in water, the disputants dive

into a pool,
is

and he who can keep under water the longest

in

considered to be

the right.
villages

On

one occasion, some

years ago,

when two

were disputing the right of

possession of a certain piece of land, the Magistrate

resorted to a novel method to settle the dispute.
instituted a tug-of-water

He
side
to

between an equal number of

representatives

of

the

contending parties.

The

which won took possession of the disputed property,

the satisfaction of
In
all.*

connection with

sacred

rice,

which has
to the

been

referred to above, reference

may be made

custom

Mahaprasad Songatho. "It is prevalent among the Khonds and other hill tribes of Ganjam and Orissa, and is found among the Oriyas. Sangatho means union or friendship. Mahaprasad Songatho is friendship sworn by mahaprasad, i.e., cooked rice consecrated to god
of

Jagannath of

Puri.

The remains

of the

offering are

dried and preserved.

All pilgrims visiting Puri invari-

ably get a quantity of this

distribute
it

mahaprasad,
for
it.

and

freely

to those

who ask

It is

regarded as
forIt

a sacred thing, endowed with supreme powers of

giving the sins and wrongs of
is

men by mere

touch.

not only holy

itself,

but also sanctifies everything

believed that one dare not

done

in its presence.

It is

* Madras Mail, 1894.

KONDH
commit a
an
evil

410
foul deed, utter

a falsehood, or even entertain

is

thought,

when

it

held in the

hands.

On

account of such

beliefs,

witnesses in law suits (especially

it

Oriyas) are asked to swear by

when giving

evidence.

sworn friendship between two sex. Instances are on record of friendship contracted between a wealthy and cultured
is

Mahaprasad Songatho individuals of the same

townsman and a poor village

rustic, or

between a Brahmin

woman
is

of high family and a Sudra servant.

Songatho

solemnised with some ceremonies.

for the

On

an auspicious

day fixed
temple
in

purpose, the parties to the Songatho,

with their relatives, friends and well-wishers, go to a

procession to the festive music of flutes and
in that

drum.

There,

consecrated place, the would-be

oath,

friends take a solemn

with the god before them,

mahaprasad

in

their
w^ill

hands,

and the

assemblage

to

witness that they

be lifelong
there

friends, in spite of

any

changes that might come over them or their

families.
gifts

The ceremony

closing,

will

be

dinners,

and presents on both sides, and the day is all mirth and merriment. Thus bound by inseparable ties of friendship,

they live to the end of their lives on terms of intimacy

extreme

and

affection.

They
in

seize

every
other's

opportunity

of meeting,

and

living

each

company.

They

allow no festival to pass without an

exchange of new cloths, and other valuable presents. No important ceremony is gone through in any one's
house without the other being
invited.

Throughout
If

the year, they will send each other the various fruits

and vegetables

in their respective seasons.

one

dies,

his or her family

does not consider the bond as having

been snapped, but continues to look

more

or less in the
survivor,
if

upon the other same manner as did the deceased.

need of help,
is

The

in

sure to receive

411

KONDH
maintained by the

assistance and sympathy from the family of the deceased

friend.

This

is

how

the institution

is

less civilised

Oriyas of the rural parts.

The romance

of the
tribe.

Songatho increases with the barbarity of the The Khonds, and other hill tribes, furnish us

with an example of Songatho,

which retains

all

its

Among them, Songatho is ideal primitive simplicity. friendship, and examples of Damon and Pythias are not
rare.

Khond

has been

known

to ruin himself for the

all

sake of his friend.

has,

He
life,

willingly sacrifices

that he

and even

his

to protect the interests of his

friend.

The
is

friends

have nothing

but

affection

for

each other." *
It

noted,

in the

Gazetteer of the
steal
in

Vizagapatam
those
for the

district, that " the

Khonds

cattle, especially

belonging to Brinjari gangs,

sake of their
fiesh.

an open manner,

Veppiguda near Gudari a party of them attacked four constables who were
In 1898, at
patrolling the country to check these thefts, thrashed

them, and carried

off all

their property

and uniforms.

Efforts to arrest these

men

resulted in the inhabitants

hills,

of their village fleeing to the

and, for a time,

it

looked as

if

there was danger of others joining them,

out.

and of the Khonds going

In 1882, the

Khonds of

Kalahandi State rose against the Uriyas, and murdered

some hundreds
hair,
etc.,

of them.

Luckily the invitation to join

them, conveyed by the circulation of the head, fingers,

of an early victim, was not accepted

by the

Khonds

of this district."

The news

of the rising

was

conveyed to Mr. H. G. Prendergast, Assistant Superintendent of Police, by a

Domb

disguised as a
his languti

fakir,

who

carried the report concealed in

(cloth).

He

* Madras Mail, 190S.

KONDH
was rewarded with a
at

412
silver bangle.
it

the village

of Balwarpur,
all

Kultas should

be killed
the

At a meeting held was decided that the and swept out of the country.
carried

As

a sign of

this,

Kondhs
all

brooms about.
and
the

At Asurgarh the
the atrocities.

police found four headless corpses,

learnt from the widows

that they had to say about

in

The murders had been committed

All the victims

most brutal way.

still

were scalped while

off before

alive,

and one had an arm and a leg cut

being scalped.

As each

victim

died,

his

death was

announced
followed

by three taps on a drum

given slowly,
unfortunate

by shouting and dancing.

The

men were dragged out of their houses, and killed before their women and children. Neither here nor anywhere outraged, though they were else were the women threatened with death to make them give up buried One woman was in this way made to dig treasure.
up a thousand rupees.
scalped

On
it

a tamarind

tree

near the

village of Billat, affixed to

as a trophy, there

head of a Kulta,

hacked about

in

the

was the most

horrible way.*

The fact is noted by Mr. Jayaram Moodaliar that the Kondh system of notation is duodecimal. Thirteen is
twelve and one, forty three twelves and four, and so
forth.

Kondh
Aborigines of the
Soc. Bengal,

Bibliography.
Eastern Ghats.
Journ.
Asiat.

XXV,

39-52, 1856.

Caldwell, R.
or

South

Indian

Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Family of Languages, 2nd edn.,

appendix, 516-17, 1875.

Se0 G.O., Judicial, 14th August 1882, No. 952,

Khond

Rising.

413
Campbell, G.

KONDH
India,

Specimens of Languages of

including those of the Aboriginal Tribes of Bengal, the

Central Provinces and the Eastern Frontier, 95-107,

1904, Calcutta.

Campbell,
Dalton,

Major-General.

Personal

Narrative of

Service amongst the Wild Tribes of Khondistan, 1864.

E. T.

Descriptive Ethnology

of

Bengal,

285-301, 1872.
Duff,

Rev. A.

The

First

Series

of

Government

Measures
the

for the Abolition of

Human

Sacrifices

among
Review,

Khonds.
Fawcett, F.

Selections

from the Calcutta

i94-257 1845-6.

Miscellaneous Notes.
II,

Journ., Anthrop.

Soc, Bombay,
Francis,
Vol.
I,

247-51.

W.

Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District,

1907.
J.

Friend-Pereira,

E.

Marriage

Customs

of

the
III,

Khonds.

Journ., Asiat. Soc. Bengal,

LXXI,

part

18-28, 1903.

Friend-Pereira,

J.

E.

Totemism among the Khonds.

Journ., Asiat. Soc,

Bengal,

LXXI

1 1,

Part III, 39-56,

1905.

Frye,

Captain,

Dialogues and

Sentences

in

the
1,

Kondh Language,
Cuttack.

with an English translation,

185

Frye,

Captain.

Fables

in

the

Kondh Language, Kondh Language,

with an English translation, 1851, Cuttack.

Frye,

Captain.

Fables in the
1,

with an Oriya translation, 185

Frye, Captain.
or

Cuttack.
of Joseph in the Kui

The History

Kondh Language,
Frye,

1851, Cuttack.

Captain.
in the

Primer and Progressive Reading

trans-

Lessons
lation,
1

Kondh Language, with an Oriya

85

1,

Cuttack.

KONDH
Frye, Lieut.
lation
J.

414
P.

On

the Uriya and

Kondh PopuSoc.

of Orissa.

Journ.,

Roy. Asiat.

of Great

Britain

and Ireland, XVII, 1-38, i860.

G.
A.
Linguistic

Grierson,

Survey of

India,

IV,

457-71, 1906.

History of the Rise and Progress of the Operations

for the

Suppression of

Human

Sacrifice

and Female
Depart-

Infanticide in the Hill tracts of Orissa.

Selections from

the Records of the Government of India

(Home

ment) No. V, 1854, Calcutta. Hunter, W. W. Orissa II, 67-100, 1872.

Huttmann, G. H.
the

Lieut. Macpherson's
Districts of

Report upon

Khonds

of the

Ganjam and Cuttack.

Macpherson's
of

Calcutta Review, VIII, 1-51, 1847.

Huttmann, G. H.

Captain

Report
and

upon

the

Khonds

of the

Districts

Ganjam

Cuttack.

Calcutta Review, X, 273-341, 1848.

Introduction to the

of

Lingum Letchmajee. the Kui or Kondh

Macpherson, Captain

Grammar
1902,

Language,
S. C.

2nd

edn.,

Calcutta.

An

account of the Reli-

gious

Observances of the Khonds of Goomsur and Boad. Journ., Roy. Asiat. Soc. of Great Britain and Ireland, VII, 172-99, 1843.
Macpherson, Captain
S. C.

Opinions and

An

account of the Reli-

gion of the Khonds

in Orissa.

Journ., Roy. Asiat. Soc.

of Great Britain and Ireland, XIII, 216-74, 1852.

Macpherson, Lieut.
the Districts of

Report upon the Khonds of Ganjam and Cuttack, 1863, Madras.

Maltby, T.
Rice,
S.

J.

Ganjam

District

P.

Occasional

Manual, 65-87, 1882. Essays on Native South

of Bengal,

Indian Life, 97-102, 1901.

Risley,

H. H.

The Tribes and Castes

I 397-413.I1891.


415
Smith, Major
J.

KONDRA
Handbook
of the

McD.

Practical

Khond Language, 1876, Cuttack. On the Language, Manners, and Taylor, Rev. W. Rites of the Khonds or Khoi Jati of the Goomsur
Mountains
Stevenson.
1837-

from

documents

furnished

by

J.

A.

R.

Madras Journ.
Rev.

Lit.

and Science, VI, 17-46,

Taylor,
Hill

W.

Inhabitants of the

Some Additional Notes on the Goomsur Mountains. Madras

or

Journ., Lit.

and Science, VII, 89-104, 1838.

Kondra.

The

Kondras

Kondoras are a

fishing

caste in Ganjam,

who

fish in

ponds, lakes, rivers, and

It

backwaters, but are never engaged in sea-fishing.

has

been suggested that the name

a crab, as they catch crabs them.

is

derived from konkoda,

in the

Chilka lake, and

in

sell

The Kondras rank very low

rice,

the social scale,

and even the Haddis refuse to beat drums for them, and
will

not accept partially boiled

In

which they have

some places, the members of the caste call themselves Dasa Divaro, and claim descent from the boatmen who rowed the boat when King Bharatha went to
touched.

Chithrakutam, to inform

Rama of the

death of Dasaratha.

Apparently the caste

sections, viz.,

is

divided into two endogamous

follow the traditional

Macha Kondras, who

occupation of fishing, and Dandasi Khondras,

taken to the duties of village watchmen.

of septs or bamsams, the following

who have As examples

cited
:

may be

kako (crow),

gaya (cow), kukkiriya (dogs), A ghasia (grass), bholia (wild dog), sanguna (vulture). few said that reverence is paid to the animals after which
bilva (jackal),

the

bamsam
is

is

named

before the marriage ceremonies,

but this was denied by others.

caste
styled

The headman
is

of the

Behara,

and he

assisted by the
is

Dolobehara and

Bhollobaya.

There

also

caste

KONDRA
messenger called Chattia.
death ceremonies.
Girls

416

The Behara

receives a fee

of a rupee on occasions of marriage, and one anna for

are married either

girl is

before or
in

after

puberty.

Sometimes a
tree
is

married

performance of a vow to

the sahada [Strebltis asper) tree.

cleaned, a

The ground round

it.

the

new

cloth

is

then tied round the trunk,

and a bow and arrow are rested against

officiates as priest,

The Behara
places near

and on behalf of the

indicus),

girl,

the tree twelve handfuls or measures of rice and twelve

of dal (peas
:

Cajanus

and twelve pieces of

If

string on a leaf, as provisions for the bridegroom.

the girl has not reached

maturity,
;

she must remain

seven days near the tree

days.

otherwise she remains four

On
:

the last day, the Behara, sitting close to the

"

tree, says

We

have given you provisions

for

twelve

years.

This

is

Give us a tsado-patra (deed of separation)." written on a palmyra leaf, and thrown down

near the tree.

The dead are cremated, and the corpses of both men and women are said to be placed face downwards on the Among many other castes, only those of women pyre. are placed in this position. The death ceremonies are similar to those observed by many Oriya castes. A bit
of bone
is

removed from the burning-ground, and food

it

offered to

daily until the tenth

day,

when

all

the

agnates, as well as the brothers-in-law and sons-in-law

of the deceased, are shaved.

The
father

sons of the sister of

if

the dead person are also expected to be shaved are

fatherless
;

they

but,

if

their

is

alive,

they are

shaved on the following day.

The Kondras
and Kalika.

regard Ganga-devi as their caste deity,

e.g.,

but worship also other deities,

Chamunda, Buddhi,

417

KONGA VELLALA

Konga. Konga

or

meaning inhabitant of
large

Kongu Is a territorial term, It has, at the Kongu country.

mostly Tamil, which include

recent times of census, been returned as a division of a

number

of classes,

Ambattan,

Kaikolan, Kammalan,

Kuravan, Kusavan,

Malayan, Odde, Fallen, Paraiyan, Shanan, Uppara, and used as a term of abuse among the Vellala. It is

Badagas of the

Nilgiri
in

hills.

Those,

for

example,

who

made mistakes
scornfully called

matching

Holmgren's wools, were

Similarly, in

Konga by

the onlookers.
tall,

parts

of the
is

Tamil country, a

lean and stupid

individual

called a

Kongan.
I

Konga
Konga
little

Vellala. For the following note on the

Vellalas of the Trichinopoly district,

am
to

in-

debted to Mr. F.
in

R. Hemingway.

They seem

have

common

with the other Vellalas, except their

name, and appear to hold a lower position in society, for Reddis will not cat with them, and they will dine with
Tottlyans and others of the lower non- Brahman castes.

They

live in

compact communities, generally

in

hamlets.

Their dwellings are generally thatched huts, containing

only one room.

They

are cultivators, but not well

off.

Their

men can

generally be recognized by the

number

of large gold rings which they wear in the lobes of the

cars,

upper part of the

istic
tali

and the pendant (murugu), which hangs from the Their women have a characterears.
(marriage badge) of large
size,

strung on to

number

of cotton threads, which are not, as

among

other castes, twisted together.

to

They

also

seem always

wear an ornament called tayittu, rather like the common cylindrical talisman, on the lelt arm. The Konga Vellalas are split into two endogamous
divisions, viz., the

Konga Vellalas proper, and

the

Tondan

or

Ilakanban-kuttam (servant or Inferior sub-division).

ni-27

KONGA VELLALA
The
latter are

418

admittedly the offspring of illegitimate

intercourse with outsiders by girls and

caste,

widows of the

who have been

rules.

expelled

in

consequence of their

breach of caste

The Kongas proper have an

sation.

elaborate caste organi-

Their country

is

divided into twenty-four nadus,

each comprising a
four groups

certain

number

of villages,

and

possessing recognised head-quarters, which are arranged

into

under the villages of Palayakottai,

Kangayam, Pudur and Kadayur, all in the Coimbatorc Each village is under a Kottukkaran, each district. nadu under a Nattu-kavundan or Periyatanakkaran, and
each group under a Pattakkaran.
with considerable respect.

The

last

is

treated
is

He

wears gold toe-rings,

is

not allowed to see a corpse, and

always saluted with

in

clasped

hands.

He

is

only occasionally called

to

matters being settled by the and matrimonial questions by the NattuKottukkarans, Both the Kongas proper, and the Tondans kavundan.
settle caste disputes, small

have a large number of exogamous septs, the names of

which generally denote some

taboo,
herb).
e.g.,

article,

the use of which

is

kadai (quail), pannai {Ce/osia aj'gentea, a potdesirable

The most

match

for

boy

is
is

his

maternal uncle's daughter.

often married to a

To

such an extent

the

preference for such unions carried out, that a young boy

is

grown-up woman, and

until
is

it

is

admitted

that, in

such cases, the boy's father takes upon himself

of a

the duties

husband

his

son has

reached

maturity, and that the wife

allowed to consort with

any one belonging

house.

to the caste

whom
live
in

she

may

fancy,

provided that she continues to

her husband's

the rules are

With widows, who are not allowed to remarry, more strict. A man convicted of undue intimacy with a widow is expelled from the caste, unless

419

KONGA VELLALA

she consents to his leaving her and going back to the

caste,

and he provides her with adequate means to Hve

separately. that she

is

The form
only a

of consent
vessel,

is

for the

woman to

say

mud

and

has been broken

because polluted, whereas the

and cannot be

utterly

man is of bell-metal, polluted. The erring man is

:

readmitted to the caste by being taken to the village

common, where he
Calotropis gigantea)

is

beaten with an erukkan (arka

stick,

and by providing a black

sheep

for a feast to his relatives.

At weddings and
priests

funerals, the
caste,

Konga

of their

own

called

employ Arumaikkarans and

Vellalas

Arumaikkaris.

These must be married people, who

have had children.

concerned,
is

The

first

stage, so far as a wife

is

to

become an

clutingalkari

(woman

of seven

Mondays), without which she cannot wear a red mark on

her forehead, or get any of her children married.
is

This

effected, after the

birth

of at

least

one

child,

by

observing a ceremonial at her father's house.

(booth) of green leaves
fillet
is
is

pandal

erected in the house, and a

of

pungam [Pongamia

glabra) and tamarind twigs

placed round her head.

She

is

then presented with

it,

new

cloth,

prepares some food and eats

and steps

over a mortar.
children
is

married couple wait until one of their

and then undergo the ceremony called arumaimanam at the hands of ten Arumaikkarans
married,

and some Pulavans (bards among the Kaikolans), who touch the pair with some green grass dipped in sandal and
water,
oil, etc.

The man then becomes an Arumaikkaran,

All people of arumai rank

and
a

his wife

an Arumaikkari.
beaten by a

are treated with great respect, and,

when one

of them dies,

drum

is

man

standing on another man's

shoulders,

who

receives as a present seven measures of

grain measured, and an equal quantity unmeasured.

in-27 B

KONGA VELLALA

420
of the

The betrothal ceremony takes place at the house

and consists
in tying

future bride, in the presence of both the maternal uncles,

fruit and betel leaf in the girl's wedding day, the bridegroom is shaved, On the cloth. and an Arumaikkari pours water over him. If he has a sister, the ceremony of betrothing his prospective

daughter to her son,

horseback, carr^^ing

is

performed.
fruit

He

then goes on
to a stone

some
stone

and a

pestle,

planted for the occasion, and called the nattukal, which

he worships.

The

is

supposed to represent the

Kongu Kongu

king, and the pestle the villagers,

is

and the whole

ceremony

said to be a relic of a

custom of the ancient

formerly belonged,

people, to which the caste

which required them to obtain the sanction of the king On his return from the nattukal, for every marriage.
balls

of white and coloured rice are taken round the

off the evil eye.

bridegroom, to ward
ofives

His mother then

him three mouthfuls of food, and eats the remainder

to

herself,

indicate that henceforth she will not provide

him with meals.

barber then blesses him, and he

bride's house,

repairs on horseback to the

where he

is

received by one of her party similarly mounted.

ear-rings are put
in

His

the bride's ears, and the pair are

carried on the shoulders of their maternal uncles to the

nattukal.

On
The

their return thence, they are

touched by
milk and

an Arumaikkaran with a betel leaf dipped

water.
blessed,
tali

in oil,

(marriage badge)
ties
it

is

worshipped and

and the Arumaikkaran

"

on her neck.

The

barber then pronounces an elaborate blessing, which runs

as follows
:

Live as long as the sun and

moon may

endure, or Pasupatisvarar (Siva) at Karur.

May

your

branches spread like the banyan

like

tree,

and your roots

grass, and may you

like

flourish like the

bamboo.

May

ye twain be

the

flower

and the thread, which

42

ICONlCA^Nl

together form the garland and cleave together, like water and the reed growing in it." If a Pulavan is present, he

adds a further blessing, and the

tracting-

little

fingers of the con-

couple are linked together, anointed with milk,

and then separated. The death ceremonies are not peculiar, except that the torch for the pyre is carried by a Paraiyan, and not, as

among most castes, by the chief mourner, and

that no cere-

monies are performed after the third day. The custom is to collect the bones on that day and throw them into
water.

The

barber then pours a mixture of milk and

poll, poli.

ghi (clarified butter) over a green tree, crying

The
{q.v.).

caste has

its

own

beggars,

called

Mudavandi
of

Kongara

(crane).

An

exogamous sept

Padma

Sale, and Kamma. Konhoro. A title of Bolasi. Konkani. Defined, in the Madras Census

Report,

1901,

as

a territorial or

linguistic

term,

meaning a

dweller in the

Konkan country
is

(Canara), or a person

speaking the Konkani dialect of Marathi.

kani (bastard Konkani)
or pure Konkanis.

Kadu Konname opposed to the God

" the

In South Canara,

Konkani

Brahmans are the trading and shop-keeping class, and, in the most out-of-the-w^ay spots, the Konkani village
shop
is

to be found." *

The

following note on Konkanis

is

extracted from

the Travancore Census Report, 1901.

"

The Konkanis
l^hc

include the Brahman, Kshatriya, and Vaisya castes of the Sarasvata section of the

Cauda Brahmans.

Brahmans of this community differ, however, from the Konkanastha Maharashtra Brahmans belonging to the
*

Manual of

the South

Canara

district.

kONKANI
Dravida group.
on
this coast are

422

The Konkani Sudras who have settled known by a different name, Kudumikkar.
original

The Konkanis'

habitation

is

the bank of the

Sarasvati, a river well

known

in

early Sanskrit works,

but said to have

lost itself in the

sands of the deserts

north of Rajputana.

According to the Sahyadrikanda,

a branch of these Sarasvatas lived in Tirhut in Bengal,

whence ten families were brought over by Parasurama Panchakrosi, and to Gomantaka, the modern Goa, Attracted by the richness and beauty of the Kusasthali. new country, others followed, and the whole population
settled

themselves
in

in

sixty

villages

and

ninety-six

hamlets

and around Goa, the

settlers in the
sixty),

former
in

being called Shashtis (Sanskrit for

and those

the latter being called Shannavis or Shenavis (Sanskrit

for ninety-six).

The

history of those Sarasvatas

was one

of uninterrupted general and commercial prosperity until

about twenty years after the advent of the Portuguese.

When King Emanuel

to have changed
larcfe efflux to

died and King John succeeded

him, the policy of the Goanese

in

Government

is

believed

favour of religious persecution.

the Canarese and Tulu countries was the

to

result.

Thence the Konkanis appear

have migrated

to Travancore and Cochin, and

found a safe

haven under

the rule of their

Hindu

sovereigns.

In their last homes,

the Konkanis extended and developed their commerce,

built temples,

and endowed them so magnificently that

to this

the religious institutions of that community, especially at

Cochin and Alleppey, continue

richest in all Malabar.
"

day almost the

Canter Visscher writes* that 'the Canarese who

are permanently settled in Malabar are the race best

* Letters from Malabar.

Translation.

Madras, 1862.

4^3

KONSARl

known
India
their

to the

Europeans, not only because the East

trade

Company
members

with them and appoint one of

to be their

merchant,
:

giving him the

attendance of two Dutch soldiers

the

but also because from

all

shops of these people

others various

in

town we obtain

our

necessaries, except animal food.

fruits,

Some
is

sell rice,

others

kinds of linen,

and some again

hardly one

are money-changers, so that there

is

who

not engaged in trade.'

The

occupation of the Kon-

kanis has been commerce ever

Portuguese

in India.
is

Some

since the advent of the of them make papatams *

(popadams) which
consumption
in in

a condiment of almost universal

Till

Malabar.

recently, the

Konkanis
But
in

Travancore

knew

nothing

else

than

trade.

now, following the example of their kinsmen

professions.

Bombay

and South Canara, they are gradually taking to other

Canarese districts, most of the Konkanis came under the influence of Madhavacharya, unlike the Shenavis, who still continue The worship of Venkataramana, the to be Smartas.
settled themselves in the
"

Having

presiding deity of the Tirupati shrine,

is

held in great

importance.

Every Konkani temple

represented
in each."

is

called

Tirumala
hill

Devasmam,
(Tirumala)

as the divinity that resides on the sacred

is

Konsari.
bell-metal,

The

Konsaris derive their name from

konsa, a bell-metal dish.

They

are Oriya

workers

in

manufacture dishes, cups and plates. employed by them as purohits (priests) Brahmans are and gurus (preceptors). They eat fish and mutton, but

and

* Fine cakes

made

of gram flour and a fine species of alkali, which gives them

rise

an agreeable
crisp

taste,

and serves the purpose of making them

and become very

when

fried.

kOONAPILLI VANt)LU

424
Marriage
is

not fowls or beef, and drink liquor.

is

infant.

Remarriage of widows and divorct^cs

permitted,

Koonapilli vandlu.
Sales.

Beggars

attached to

Padma

Koppala.
in

section ofVelamas,

who

tie

the hair

and an exogamous sept of Mutrachas, whose females do up

a
head,
their hair in a knot

knot (koppu) on the top of the

when they reach puberty.

and

A sept of Gadaba, Muka Dora, Rona. Koracha. See Korava. Koraga. The Koragas are summed
Kora
(sun). up,

in

the

Madras Census Report,

1901, as being a wild tribe of

in

basket-makers and labourers, chiefly found

Mudbidrl,

and in Puttur in the Uppinangadi taluk of South Canara.

They

are,

Mr. M. T. Walhouse writes,* "a very quiet

;

and inoffensive race

exceeding

small and slight, the

inches
;

men seldom
llat,

five feet six

black-skinned, like most

Indian aborigines, thick-lipped, noses broad and

hair

and
is

rough and bushy.

live

Their principal occupation

basket-making, and they must labour

for their masters.

They

on the outskirts of

villages,
in

and may not

huts of leaves,

dwell in houses of clay Or

called koppus.

mud, but

Like many of the wild tribes of India,

they are distinguished by unswerving truthfulness.

The

word of a Koragar is proverbial." The Koragas rank below the Holeyas. In some towns, they are employed by the sanitary department as scavengers. They remove the hide, horns, and bones
of cattle and buffaloes, which die in the villages, and sell

them mainly
which
is

to

Mappilla merchants.

They accept

food,

left

over after feasts held by various castes.

* Journ. Anthrop, Inst,, IV., 1875.

425

KORAGA

Some

arc skilful in the manufacture of cradles, baskets,

cylinders to hold paddy,

scale-pans,

winnowing and sowinor baskets,

strainers, ring-stands for
fibre) rope,

boxes, rice-water

supporting pots, coir (cocoanut

brushes for

washing

cattle,

etc.

They

also

manufacture various

domestic utensils from soapstone,

which they

sell

at

a very cheap rate to shopkeepers in the bazar.

"Numerous
" exist

slave-castes,"

Mr. Walhousc continues,

throughout India, not of course recognised by

formally emancipated by an Act of Govern-

law indeed
ment
in

1843 but
slaves.

virtually

though improved in condition, Their origin and status are thus

still,

described.

After the four principal classes,

who sprang

from Brahma, came six Anuloma castes, which arose from the intercourse of Briihrnans and Kshatriyas with

women
in

of the

classes

below them respectively.

hair,

The
which
these

term Anuloma denotes straight and regular

India characterises the

Aryan

stock.

After

came

six Pratiloma castes, originating in reverse order

from Brahman and Kshatriya

inferior classes.

dala, the

women by fathers of the among these was the ChanThe third offspring of Shudra fathers by Brahman women.
or slaves, were sub-divided into fifteen
still

The Chandalas,
classes,
strictly

none of which might intermarry, a rule

observed.

fifteen classes,

The two last, and lowest of the are the Kapata or rag-wearing, and the
Koragas.
;

Soppu
these

or leaf-wearing

Such

is

the account
is

given by Brahman chroniclers

but the probability

that

lowest slave-castes are the descendants of that

primitive population which the

Aryan invaders from the

and, after a struggle of

north found occupying the

soil,

ages, gradually dispossessed, driving

some

to the hills

and jungles, and reducing others to the condition of All these races are regarded by their Hindu slaves.

KORAGA

426

masters with boundless contempt, and held unspeakablyunclean.

This feeling seems the result and witness of

the despised races were powerful, and to be

times

when

approached as lords by their now haughty masters, and was probably intensified by struggles and uprisings, and
the

memory

of humiliations inflicted on the ultimately

successful conquerors.

Evidences

for this

may be

inferred

from many curious rights and privileges, which the despised castes possess and tenaciously retain. Moreover,

the

contempt and loathing

in

which they are

ordinarily held are curiously tinctured with superstitious

fear,

for

they are believed to possess secret powers of

magic and witchcraft, and influence with the old malignant deities of the soil, who can direct good or evil fortune.

As an instance, if a Brahman mother's children die off when young, she calls a Koragar woman, gives her some
oil,

rice,

and copper money, and places the surviving

child in her arms.

at other times
it

The

out-caste

woman, who may not

it

be touched, gives the child suck, puts on

if

her iron bracelets, and,

girl,
is

a boy, names
it

Koragar,

if

Korapulu.
believed to

She then returns

give a

to the mother.
life.

This

new
ill,

lease of

Again,

when
the

man
oil

is

dangerously
into

or perhaps unfortunate,

he pours

an earthen vessel,

worships
at

it

in

same way
nail

as
oil,

the family god, looks

his

face

reflected in the

and

puts into

it

a hair from his

head and a
stars

paring from his toe.

The

oil

is

then

presented to

the Koragars,

and the

hostile

gods or

are believed to be propitiated." According to Mr. Ullal Raghvendra Rao,* old superstitious Hindus
to utter the

never venture
night.

word Koraga during the

Madras

Christ. Coll.

Mag.

Ill, 1SS5-6.

42 7
It is

KORAGA
district,

noted

in

the

Manual of the South Canara

to

that "

all

traditions unite in attributing the introduction

of the

Tulu Brahmins of the present day

(of the

Mayur

Varma

Kadamba

dynasty), but they vary in details

in

connected with the manner

footing in the land.

which they obtained a firm

One

account says that Habashika,

chief of the Koragas, drove out

in

Mayur Varma, but was

turn expelled by Mayur Varma's son, or son-in-law,

L5kaditya of Gokarnam, who brought Brahmins from

Ahi-kshetra, and settled

them

in

thirty-two villages."

Concerning the power, and eventual degradation of the

Koragas, the following version of the tradition
is

cited
is

by

Mr. Walhouse.

"

When

Lokadiraya, whose date

fixed

by Wilks about 1450 B.C., was king of Bhanvarshe in North Canara (a place noted by Ptolemy), an invader, by name Habashika, brought an army from above the
ghauts, consisting of
castes,
all

the present Chandala or slave-

overwhelmed that part of the country, and marched southward to Mangalore, the present capital of
South Canara. The invading host was scourged with small-pox, and greatly annoyed by ants, so Habashika moved on to Manjeshwar, a place of ancient repute, twelve
miles to the south, subdued the local ruler Angarawarma,

son of Virawarma, and reigned there

his

in

conjunction with

nephew

but after twelve

years

both died

one

legend says through enchantments devised by Angara-

warma

another that a neighbouring ruler treacherously

his sister

proposed a marriage between

and Habashika,
all

and, on the bridegroom and his caste-men attending for

the nuptials, a wholesale massacre of them

was effected. Angarawarma, then returning, drove the invading army into the jungles, where they were reduced to such
and

extremity that they consented to become slaves,

were apportioned amongst the Brahmans and original

KORAGA
landholders.
cattle,

428

Some were

set

to

watch the crops and

some

to cultivate, others to various drudgeries,

allotted to the existing slave-castes, but

which are

still

the Koragars,

who had been

raised

by Habashika

to the

highest posts under his government, were stripped and

driven towards the sea-shore, there to be hanged, but,

being ashamed of their naked condition, they gathered

the leaves of the nicki bush (Vitex Negundo), which

grows abundantly
tioners took
})ity

in

waste places,

and made small

this the execu-

coverings for themselves in front.

On

on them and

let

them

go, but

condemned
the lowest

them

to be the lowest of the low, and wear no other

covering but leaves.

The Koragas

are

now

of the slave divisions, and regarded with such intense

loathing and hatred that up to quite recent times one

section of them, called

Ande

or pot Koragars, continually

wore a pot suspended from their necks, into which they were compelled to spit, being so utterly unclean as to be prohibited from even spitting on the highway
and
to this

day their

women

continue to show

in their

leafy aprons a

memorial of the abject degradation to

which their whole race was doomed." It is said that in pre- British days an Ande Koraga had to take out a

come into the towns and villages by day. night mere approach thereto was forbidden, as
licence to

At
his

presence would cause terrible calamity.

The Koragas
is

of those days could cook their food only in broken vessels.

The name

Yastra, by which one class of Koragas

called, has reference to their wearing vastra, or clothes,

such as were used to shroud a dead body, and given to

them

the shape of charity, the use of a new cloth According to another account the beino- prohibited. three divisions of the Koragas are (i) Kappada, those
in

who wear

clothes, (2) Tippi,

who wear ornaments made

KORAGA.

429
of the cocoanut shell, and (3) Vanti,

KORAGA
who wear
a peculiar

These three clans may eat Each clan is divided into together, but not intermarry. exogamous septs called balls, and it may be noted that some of the Koraga balls, such as Haledennaya and
kind of large ear-ring.

Kumerdennaya, are Mundala Holeyas.

also

found

among
dress,

the Mari

and

On

the subject of

Koraga

Mr. Ullat Raghmales gird a

Various

vendra Rao informs us that

waist with leaves of the forest
for this

" while the

piece of cloth round their loins, the females cover their

woven

together.

According to a reasons are assigned tradition, at the time when the Koragars had reigned,
custom.

now

far

distant,

one of these

'

blacklegged

'

(this

is

usually the expression by which they are referred to

during the night) demanded a

marriage.

girl

of high birth

in

Being enraged

at this, the

upper class with-

held, after the

overthrow of the Koragas, every kind of

dress from Koraga

women, who,

to protect themselves

from disgrace,

have since had recourse to the leaves of

Mr. Walhouse writes*
"

the forest, conceiving in the meantime that god had

decreed this kind of covering."

further that the

Koragas wear an
buttocks.

apron of twigs and

Once this was the only leaves over the covering allowed them, and a mark of their deep degraBut now, when no longer compulsory, and of dation. no use, as it is worn over the clothes, the women still
retain
it,

believing

its

disuse would be unlucky."

tells us,t

"

The

Koragas," Mr. H. A. Stuart

part of their

"cover the lower

body with a black cloth and the upper part with a white one, and their head-dress is a cap made of the areca-nut spathe, like that worn by the Holeyas.
* Ind. Ant. X, 1881. f Manual of the South Canara
district.

KORAGA
Their ornaments
bracelet,

430
consist

of

brass

ear-rings,

an iron
tied

and beads of bone strung on a thread and

around their waist."

I

saw

at Udipi,

The waist-belt of a Koraga, whom was made of owl bones.

states,"^

"It may," Mr. Walhouse

"be noted

that,

according to the traditional accounts, when the invading

hosts under Habashika were in their turn overthrown

and subjected, they

Whilst
state

accepted

slavery

under

certain

conditions that preserved to

it

them some shadow of right. was declared that they should be for ever in a of servitude, and be allowed a meal daily, but never

the means of providing for the next day's meal.

slave

Each

was ascripted
in

to his master

under the following

forms, which have

come down
slave

to our days,

and were

observed
living

the purchase or transfer of slaves within

memory.
oil,

The

having washed, anointed

cloth, his future

himself with

and put on a new

filled
it

owner
in

took a metal plate,

with water, and dropped

a gold coin, which the slave appropriated after drinking

up the water.
for his hut,

The

slave then took

some earth from

his

future master's estate,

and threw it on the spot he chose which was given over to him with all the trees
land was transferred, the slaves went

thereon.

When

with

it,

and might also be sold separately.

Occasionally

they were presented to a temple for the service of the

deity.

This was done publicly by the master approachtemple,

ing the

putting some

earth

from before

its

entrance into the slave's mouth, and declaring that he

abjured his rights, and transferred them to the deity

within.
for

Rules were

laid

down, with the Hindoo passion

only detailing what

regulating small matters, not

slaves should do, but

work the

what allowances of food

IV, 1875.

* Journ. Anthrop.

Inst.

431

KORAGA

they should receive, and what presents on certain festival

occasions they
master.

should obtain

from,

or

make

to

the

On

marriages

among

themselves, they pros-

trated themselves before the master and

obtained his

consent, which was accompanied with a small present

money and rice. The marriage over, they again came before the master, who gave them betel nuts, and
of

poured some
moustache.

oil

on the bride's head.

On

the master's

death, his head slave immediately shaved his hair and

There was also a list of offences for which masters might punish slaves, amongst which the employment of witchcraft, or sending out evil spirits against others, expressly figures and the punishments with which each offence might be visited are specified,
;

the

worst

of which

are

branding and
life

flogging

with
in

switches.

There was no power of

and death, and

cases of withholding the usual allowance, or of punish-

ments severer than prescribed, slaves might complain

the authorities."

to

On

the subject of Koraga slavery, Mr. Ullal Ragh"

vendra Rao writes that

although these slaves are

in a

degraded condition, yet they by no means appear to be dejected or unhappy. A male slave gets three hanis of

paddy (unhusked
besides a small

rice) or

a hani and a half of rice daily,

of
salt.
if

quantity

The

female

slave
wife,

gets two hanis of paddy, and,

they be

man and

they can easily

necessaries of

sell
life.

a portion of the rice to procure other

They

are

also

allowed one cloth

each every year, and, besides, when transferred from one

master to another,
they get a cocoanut,
a
a jack
tree

(Artocarpzcs integrifolia), and

piece of land
rice.

where
greater

they can sow ten or twenty seers of

The

number

of slaves

belong to the Alia Santanam castes

(inheritance in the female line), and

among

these people

KORAGA
a male slave
is

432
sold for three
for five

pagodas (fourteen rupees)

;

and a female slave

slaves

pagodas

whereas the few

who belong

to the

Makkala
for the

Santanam
female.

castes

(inheritance in the male line) fetch five pagodas for the

man

slave,

and three pagodas

This

is

because the children of the latter go to the husband's

master, while those of the former
master,
also.

go

to the mother's

who

has the benefit of the husband's services

He

has,

however, to pay the expenses of their

marriage, which amount to a pagoda and a half; and, in

manner, the master of the Makkala Santana slave pays two pagodas for his marriage, and gets possession
like

of the female slave and her children.

The master

has

the power of hiring out his slave, for whose services he

receives annually about a

mura of

rice,

or forty seers.

They

are also mortgaged for three or four pagodas:" For the marriages of the Koragas, Mr. Walhouse informs us that " Sunday is an auspicious day, though

Monday

is

for the other slave castes.

The bridegroom
on a mat
in

and bride, after bathing

them.

in cold water, sit

the former's house, with a handful of rice placed before

An

old

man

presides, takes a few grains of rice

and sprinkles on their heads, as do the others present, The bridegroom first the males and then the females.
then presents two silver coins to
feasts every
his

wife,

and must

afterwards give six feasts to the community."

At these

Koraga is said to vie with his neighbour " Though amongst the other in eating and drinking. slave castes divorce is allowed by consent of the com-

munity, often simply on grounds of disagreement, and

the
is

women may marry

again, with the Koragars marriage

indissoluble, but a

widow

is

entitled to re-marriage,
wife, all

and a man may have a second, and even third

living with him."

433

KORAGA

Concerning the ceremonies observed on the birth of

a

Mr. Ullal Raghvendra Rao writes that " after a child is born, the mother (as among Hindoos) is unholy, and cannot be touched or approached. The inmates
child,

take leave of the koppu for five nights, and depend on

the hospitality of their friends, placing the mother under the sole charge of a nurse or midwife.

On

the sixth

night the master of the koppu calls his neighbours,

who

can hardly refuse

to

oblige

him with their presence.

The mother and

and
this

the child are then given a tepid bath,

makes them holy. Members of each house bring with them a seer of rice, half a seer of cocoanut oil, and a cocoanut. The woman with the baby is seated on a
mat
to

her neighbour's presents before her

oldest

in a flat basket.

The

man

present consults with his comrades as

what name
in

will best suit the child.

A
is

black string
rice,

is

then tied round the waist of the baby.

The

which

comes

heaps from the neighbours,

used for dinner

split

on the occasion, and the cocoanuts are

pieces, the lower half
child,

Into

two

being given to the mother of the

and the upper half the owner.

This
;

is

the custom

followed

when

the baby

Is

a male one

in case of a

female

child, the owner receives the upper half, leaving the Koragars were originally lower half for the mother. worshippers of the sun, and they are still called after the

names of the days of the week

of Aditya, or the sun)
;
;

as
;

Alta (a corruption

Toma (Soma, or the moon) Angara (Mangala) Gurva (Jupiter) Tanya (Shani, or Saturn) Tukra (Shukra, or Venus). They have no
;

separate temples

for

their

God, but a place beneath

is

a kasaracana tree [Strycknos Nux-vonticd)

for the

consecrated

worship of the deity which

is

is

exclusively their

own, and
is

called Kata.

usually performed in
ni-28

Worship in honour of this deity the months of May, July, or

KORAGA
October.

434

Two

plantain leaves are placed on the spot,

with a heap of boiled rice mixed with turmeric.

usual in every ceremony observed by a

As

is

Koragar, the

senior in age takes the lead, and prays to the deity to

accept the offering and be satisfied.

But now they have,

Bhutas

by following the example of Bants and Sudras, exchanged

their

original

object

of

worship for that of

(demons)."

On

the subject of the religion of the Koragas, Mr.

states that " like all the slave castes

Walhouse
races, the

and lower

Koragars worship Mari

Amma,

the goddess

presiding over small-pox, the most dreadful form of Parvati,

the wife of Siva.

She

is

the most popular deity in

Canara, represented under the most frightful form, and

worshipped with bloody

rites.

Goats, buffaloes, pigs,

fowls, etc., are slaughtered at a single

blow by an Asadi,

one of the slave tribes from above the ghauts.

the Koragars, in

Although

common

with

all slaves,

are looked

upon

as exconimunicated and unfit to approach any Brahminical

temple or

deity, they

have adopted the popular Hindoo

the preliminaries and prayers
virgin."

festivals of the

Gokalastami or Krishna's birthday, and

latter,

the Chowti.

In the

must be performed by a
festivals,

Concerning these

Mr. Ullal Raghvendra Rao gives the following

"

details.

The Koragars have no

Of

fixed feasts exclusively

of their own, but for a long time they have been observ-

ing those of the Hindus.

these two are Important.

One

is

the other

Gokula Ashtami, or the birthday of Krishna, and is the Chowti or Pooliyar feast. The latter is
importance than the former.

of greater
is

The former

a holy day of abstinence and temperance, while the

latter is associated

with feasting and merry-making, and

looks more like a gala-day set apart for anything but

religious performance.

On

the Ashtami some cakes of

435
black gram are

KORAGA

made

in addition to the usual dainties.

in aid,

The

services

of

Bacchus are called

and the

master of the koppu invites his relatives and friends. A regular feasting commences, when the master takes the
lead,

and enjoys the company of

his guests

by seating
floor

himself in their midst.

crosswise with a
guest,
little

They

are

made
all

to

sit

on the

space intervening between every

who pays

strict

regard to

the rules of decency

and rank.

To keep up

the distinction of sexes, females

are seated in an opposite row. of his intimates

The

host calls upon

some

or friends to serve on the

curry, the

occasion.

The

first

dish

is

second

rice

and cakes and

come in next. The butler Koragar serves out to the company the food for the banquet, while the guests eat it heartily. If one of them lets so much as a grain of rice fall on his neighbour's plate, the whole company
dainties

ceases eating.

The

offender

is

at

once brought before

the guests, and charged with having spoiled the dinner.

He

is

tried there

and then, and sentenced to pay a

fine

that will cover the expenses of another banquet.

In
is

case of resistance to the authority of the tribunal, he

excommunicated and abandoned by

and
relatives.

his

wife,

children

No
is

one dare touch or speak to him.

to

plea of poverty of course receives a kind consideration.

The
is

offender

made

pay a small sum as a

fine,

which
the

paid for him by a well-to-do Koragar.

To crown
way

feast,

a large quantity of toddy finds

its

into the

midst of the company,

small piece of dry areca leaf

sewed together covers the head of a Koragar, and forms for him his hat. This hat he uses as a cup, which
contains a pretty large quantity of liquid.

A
in

sufficient

quantity

is

poured into their cup, and

its

if,

pouring, a
is

drop finds

way

to the ground, the butler

sure to
to

undergo the same penalty that attaches

111-28 B

itself

any

KORAGA

436
After the
in

irregularity in the dinner as described above.

banquet, some male

members

of the

group join

dance to the pipe and drum, while others are stimulated

by the intoxicating drink into frisking and jumping about.

To
of

turn to the other festival.

The inmates

of the house

are required to fast

the previous night

one

and
is

all

them

and on the previous day flesh or drink

not

allowed.
bathes,

The

next

morning before

sunrise, a

virgin

and smears cowdung over a part of the house.

having been
consecrated,
a

The

place

new

basket,
It

specially

made

for the occasion, is

rice,

placed on that spot.

contains a handful of beaten

pieces of sugar-cane.

two plantains, and two

is

The

basket

then said to contain

the god of the day,

the spot
is

whom

the sugar-cane represents, and

too holy to be approached by

belief

man

or

woman.

which they hold, that the prayers made by a virgin are duly responded to on account of
her virgin purity, does not admit of the worship being

A common

conducted by any one

with flowers of the

else.

The

girl

adorns the basket

for

forest,

and prays
all

the choicest

blessings on the inmates of the house

the year round.

is

A
If

Koraga woman, when found

is

guilty of adultery,

said to be treated in the following extraordinary way.

her paramour

of low caste similar to herself, he has

in

to

marry

her.

But,

order to
hut,

purify

her

for

the

ceremony, he has to build a

inside.
It is

and put the woman

then set on

fire,

and the

woman

escapes as

best she can to another place where the

is

same performance
been burnt out

gone through, and so on

until she has

seven times.

She
fit

is

then considered once more an honest

woman, and

to

be again

married.

According
is

to

Mr. Walhouse,
river-bank, set

" a

row of seven small huts

and the offender made

built

on a

fire to,

to run over

the burning sticks and ashes as a penance."

similar

437

KORAGA

form of ordeal has been described as occurring among " When a the Bakutas of South Canara by Mr. Stuart.

man

is

called yelu halli sudodu,

excommunicated, he must perform a ceremony which means burning seven

ceremony, and bundles of grass are The excommunicated man has then
this
built,

villages, in order to re-enter the caste.

For

seven small booths are

piled against them.
to pass

through these huts one

the

after the other, and, as

" (cf.

he

does
It
is

so,

headman

sets fire to the grass

Koyi).

suggested by Mr. R. E. Enthoven that the idea

to be

seems

"a

rapid representation of seven existences,

the outcast regaining his status after seven generations

have passed without further transgression.

suggested
is

The

parallel

the law of

Manu

that seven generations are

necessary to efface a lapse from the law of endogamous

marriage."

Of death ceremonies Mr. Walhouse

death the bodies of
except
in cases of
all

tells

us that

"on

the slave castes used to be burnt,

death from small-pox.

soil

This

may have

been to obviate the pollution of the

by their carcases

when
is still

their degradation
is

was deepest, but now, and from

long past, burial

universal.

The

master's permission

asked, and, after burial, four balls of cooked rice

are placed on the grave, possibly a trace of the ancient

notion of supplying food to the ghost of the deceased." handful is said * to be " removed from the grave on the

A
is

sixteenth day after burial, and buried in a

pit.

stone

erected over

it,

on which some

rice

and toddy are

is

placed as a
" It

last offering to
its

the departed soul which

then asked to join

ancestors."
"

may," Mr. Walhouse writes,

all

be noted that the

Koragars alone of

the slave or other castes eat the

Manual

of Ihe

Soulh Canara

dislricl.

JcORAmA

43^

flesh of alligators (crocodiles),

and they share with one

or two other divisions of the slaves a curious scruple or

prejudice against carrying any four-legged animal, dead

or alive.

This extends to anything with four

etc.,

legs,

such

as chairs, tables, cots,

which they cannot be prevailed

upon

to

lift

unless one leg be removed.

As they work

as coolies, this sometimes produces inconvenience.

A
lie

somewhat

similar scruple obtains

among

the Bygas of
sit

Central India, whose

women

are not allowed to

or

on any four-legged bed or

stool."

Like the Koragas, the

Bakudas

of

South Canara
first

" will not carry a bedstead

off,

unless the legs are

taken

and

it

is

said that this

objection rests upon a sui3posed resemblance between the

four-lcijcrcd cot

and the

four-lesfored ox." *

Of the language spoken by the Koragars, Mr. Ullal Raghvendra Rao states that " it is a common belief that
the Koragar has a peculiar dialect generally spoken by

him

at his koj)pu.

He may be
him out of

induced to give an account

of his feasts, his gods, his family, but a

dialect will frighten
his wits.

word about

his

Generally polite

and well-behaved, he becomes impolite and unmannerly

when questioned about his dialect." " All the Hindoos," Mr. Walhouse writes, " believe that the Koragars have
a language of their own. understood only by themselves, but it seems doubtful whether this is anvthin^ more than an idiom, or slang." A vocabulary of the Koraga dialect
is

contained in the South Canara Manual (1895). Korama. See Korava.

of this nomad tribe, which permeates the length of the Indian peninsula, through

Korava. Members

countries where

are likely to

many languages and dialects be known by different names

*

are spoken,
in different

Manual of

the

South Canara

district.

439
localities,

KORAVA
They
are

and

this

is

the case.

known

as

Korava from the extreme south to the north of the North Arcot district, where they are called Koracha or Korcha, and in the Ceded Districts they become Yerukala or Ycrakala.
practising
as In Calcutta they have been traced
doctors,

quack

and assuming
to their
in the

names,

or

adding

terminations

Maratha own, which

suggest that they belong to a caste

in

south higher

the social scale than they really do.

Some Koravas
V^ellaPalli,

pass for Vellalas, calling themselves

las

Agambadiar
themselves

with the

title

Pillai.

Others
etc.'"^

call

Kavarai, Idaiyan, Reddi,

As

railways spread over

the country, they readily adapted themselves to travelling

by them, and the opportunities afforded

stealing
of.

for

going

quickly far from the scene of a recently committed crime,

or
for

from sleeping passengers, were soon

availed

In 1899, the Superintendent of

Government
of

Railways
thieves,

reported

that
called

"the

large

organization

commonly
call

Kepmari Koravas (though

so),

they never
far.

themselves

use the railway to travel

them are now settled at Cuttack, where they have set up as native doctors, whose speciality is curing piles. Some are at Midnapur, and are going on to Calcutta, and there were some at Puri some time ago. It is said that a gang of them has gone recently to Tinnevelly, and taken up their abode near Sermadevi,
of
calling themselves Servaikars.
velly,

Some

One morning,
missionary's

in

Tinne-

while the butler

in

house was

attending to his duties, an individual turned up with a

fine fowl
for
it

sale.

The

butler,

finding that he could

it,

purchase

for

about half the real price, bought

and

showed

it

to his wife with no small pride in his ability in

M. Paupa Rao Naidu.

History of Railway Thieves.

KORAVA
making a bargain.

440 But he was

it

distinctly
his

crestfallen

when

his wife pointed out that

lost

was

had been
Korava."

on the previous night.

own bird, which The seller was a

In 1903, a of pujaris,

gang

of Koravas, travelling in the guise

at Puri.

was arrested

The

Police discovered

that a warrant remained unexecuted against one of them,

who had been concerned in Arcot many years previously.

states that

a dacoity case in

North

The

report of the case

is

"cognate with the Kepmaries

a class of
their
in

Korava
village),

pujaris (as they call themselves

in

own
the

who, emanating from one small hamlet

district,

Tanjore

are spread

more or

less all

over India.

There
are

are,

or were until the other day, and probably

some of them in Cuttack, Balasore, Midnapur, Ahmedabad, Patna, Bombay, Secunderabad, and other places. One of them attained a high position in Bombay. Their ostensible profession is that of curing
still

piles

and

fistulas,

but

it

is

noticeable that, sooner or

at

later after their taking

up their abode

any

place, the

Kepmaries are
so,

to be
is

found somewhere near, and the

impression, which
is

not quite a certainty but very nearly

that they play the convenient role of receivers

of

property stolen by the

Kepmaries."

Kepmari

is

regarded as a very strong term of abuse, indicating, as

it

does, a rogue of the worst character.

In the southern

districts,

the Kasukkar Chettis and Shanans are said to

be very

much

trusted by the Koravas in the disposal of

property.
It is

noted by Mr. H. A. Stuart * that the Koravas

or Yerukalas are a vagrant tribe found throughout the

Presidency, and in

many

parts of India.

In the

Telugu

Madras Census Report, 1891.

'^>*^

'

J^' YE R UK ALAS.

441

KORAVA

country they are called Yerukalavandlu or Korachavandlu, but they always speak of themselves as Kurru,

and there

is

not the slightest

room

for the

doubt that

has been expressed regarding the identity of the Koravas and Yerukalas. Several derivations of Yerukala have

been proposed by Wilson and others. It has been suggested, for example, that yeru is connected with erra,

meaning

red.

fortune-tellers,

Telugu Yerukalavandlu would mean and Dr. Oppert suggests that this is the
In

origin of the

probable

name Yerukala. He says* "it is highly that the name and the occupation of the
Kuruvandlu or Kuluvandlu induced the

fortune-telline

Telugu people to call this tribe Yerukulavandlu. Dr. Oppert further connects Kurru with the root ku, a mountam and, in a Tamil work of the ninth century,t
;

Kurru or Kura (Kuramagal) is given as the name of a hill tribe." A strone argument in favour of the caste

name being connected with

telling
is

the profession of fortunethat

afforded by the

fact

women go

about
i.e.,

the streets, calling out " Yeruko,

prophecies, mother, prophecies.

amma, yeruku,"
are,
all

The Kuravas

Mr.

Francis writes,|

'*

a gipsy tribe found

over the Tamil

country, but chiefly in

Kurnool, Salem, Coimbatore and

South Arcot.

Kuravas have usually been treated as

Both castes are being the same as the Yerukalas. o wandering gipsies, both live by basket-making and
fortune-telling, both

speak a corrupt Tamil, and both

original stock.
It
is

may have sprung from one

call

note-

w^orthy in this connection that the Yerukalas are said to

one another Kurru or Kura.

But their names are

not used as interchangeable in the districts where each

is

found, and there

*

seem

to be

no

real differences

between

Madras Journ. Lit

and Science, 1888-89.

t Tirumurukairuppadai.

Madras Census Report, 1901.

KORAVA
the two
gether.
bodies.

442

They do

not intermarry, or eat totie

The Kuravas
in

are said to

a piece of thread

soaked

turmeric

water round the bride's neck at

weddings, while Yerukalas use a necklace of black beads.

The Yerukalas have

fetch the
tali

a tradition that those

who went
tali,

to

and pipe never returned, and they conseand

quently use black beads as a substitute for the

a bell for the pipe.

The Kuravas worship Subramanya,

in
It

the son of Siva, while the Yerukalas worship Vishnu

the form of Venkateswara and his wife Lakshmi.

may be noted that, in a very early Sanskrit drama, the Brahman thief mocks Subramanya as being the patron The Kuravas treat the gentler sex in saint of thieves.
a very casual manner, mortgaging or selling their wives
without compunction, but the Yerukalas are particular

about the reputation of their womankind, and consider

it

a serious matter
escort
after

if

any of them return home without

an

sunset.

The

statistics

of this

year

accordingly show Yerukalas separately from

Koravas.

The
is

reports from the various districts, however, give

such discrepant accounts of both castes, that the matter

clearly
in
in

need of further enquiry."

There

is

no

district

the Madras Presidency or elsewhere, where

live,

both

Koravas and Yerukalas

unless

it

be the

smallest possible corner of the Coimbatore district bor-

dering on the south-east of Mysore, for the name Korcha

intervenes
;

and, for a wide strip of country including

the north of the North Arcot district and south of the

Cuddapah

district,

the Korava

is

known

as a Korcha,

and the Census Superintendent,

authorities, has admitted these
It
is

in

common

with other

in

the north of
first

names to be synonymous. the Cuddapah district that the

co-existence with the Korcha.
all

Yerukalas

appear

in

The Korcha being

admitted on

sides to be the

same

443

KORAVA

as the Korava, our doubt regarding the Identity of the

Korava with the Ycrukala

establish the fact that

will

be disposed of

if

we can

the
J.

Korcha and the Yerukala

Cain, writing* about the
district, states that

are the same.

The Rev.
call

Yerukalas of the Godavari

themselves they
people
call

"among
this

each other Kuluvaru, but the Telugu

them Erakavaru or Erakalavaru, and

name

has been derived from the Telugu word eruka,

which means knowledge or acquaintance, as they are

great fortune-tellers."

According to Balfour,! the Koravas, or a certain

section of them,
i.e.,

the Kunchi Koravas, were

known
of

as Yerkal Koravar,

and they called the language they

authority,

spoke Yerkal.

The same
style

writing

the

Yerkalwadu, alludes to them as Kurshiwanloo, and goes

on to say that they

communication.
stands
for

themselves Yerkal, and give

here
for

the same appellation to the language in which they hold

The word Yerkal

and
Kurshi

undoubtedly
It
is

Ycrukala,
this,

Korcha.

evident

from

supported by authorities

such as
regard to

Wilson, Campbell,

Brown and

Shortt, that the doubt

in

mentioned by the Census Superintendent

the identity of the Yerukala and Korava had not arisen

when

the Cyclopaedia of India was published, and

later investigators

it

is

the subsequent reports of

responsible for
it.

that are

The divergencies

of practices reported

must be reckoned with, and accounted for. They may be due to local customs existing in widely separated
areas.
It is

contended that the Koravas and Yerukalas

do not intermarry or eat together.

Korava,
in the

who has
south,
if

made

a permanent

home

in a village

asked whether he would marry a Yerukala, would most

* Indian Antiquity, IX, 1880.

f Cyclopaedia of India.

KORAVA
certainly

444

answer

in

the negative, probably having never

heard of such a person.

to a

circular letter,

submitted
districts,

number
of by

of Police

Inspectors in several

produced the same sort of discrepant information complained

the

Census Superintendent.

But one

Inspector extracted from his notes the information that,

1895, marriages took place between the southern Koravas of a gang from the Madura district and the Yerukalas of the Cuddapah district and, further, that
in
;

gang of Yerukalas in the Anantapur district married a Korcha girl from a gang belonging The consensus of opinion also to the Mysore State.
the son of one of a

goes to prove that they

will eat

together.

Yerukalas
tali

undoubtedly place a string of black beads as a

used by the Koravas.

round
is

the bride's neck on marriage occasions, and the

same

Information concerning the use

of a turmeric-dyed string

came from only one

district,

source,

namely, Hosur in the Salem

and

it

was necessary

even here

for the string to

be furnished with a round

bottu, which

might be a bead.

plain turmeric-soaked
rule.

thread appears to be more the exception than the

Yerukalas are both Vaishnavites and Saivites, and a god

worshipped by any one gang cannot be taken as a representative

their
this

god

for the

whole

class.

Yerukalas may treat

womankind
is

better than the southern Koravas, but

only a matter of degree, as the morals of both

are slack.

The

Yerukalas, occupying, as they do, the

parched centre of the peninsula, more frequently devastated

by famine than the

localities

occupied by the

Koravas,

may have

learnt in a hard school the necessity

;

of taking care of their wives

to pass to another man,

for, if

they allowed them

his

and a drought ruined

find
it

crop

and

killed the cattle,

he would

hard to procure

another, the probability being that the price of wives

445
rises in a

KORAVA
commodities
in a

common

ratio with other

time

of scarcity.

From

the accounts given by them,

to

it

appears that the

Koravas claim

have originated in mythological ages.

locality,

The

account varies slightly according to the

but the general outlines agree more or less with the

story related in
priests, are

the

Bhagavatham.
it

The

purohits, or

the safest guides, and

was one of them

the great Venudu,

who

told the following story, culled, as he admitted, from

the Sastras and the Ramayana.

When

son of Agneswathu,

who was

directly

descended from
unable to
died,

Brahma, ruled over the

his

universe,

he was

procure a son and heir to the throne, and,

when he

death was looked on as an irreparable misfortune.

His body was preserved.

in

The seven

ruling planets sat

do.

solemn conclave, and consulted as to what they should Finally they agreed to create a being from the

right thigh of the deceased

Venudu, and they accordingly

Nishudu.

fashioned and gave

life

to

But their work

was not successful, for Nishudu turned out to be not only deformed in body, but repulsively ugly in face. It

was agreed at another meeting of the planets that he was not a fit person to be placed on the throne. So they set to work again, and created a being from the right shoulder of Venudu, and their second effort was
crowned with success.
tion,

They

called the second creation

satisfac-

Proothu Chakravarthi, and, as he gave general

he was placed on the throne.
naturally

This supersession
to

caused

the

first-born

Nishudu

be

dis-

contented, and he sought a lonely place, in which he

communed with the o;ods, why they had created him

besfoingf of

them the reason

The if he was not to rule. gods explained that he could not now be placed on the
throne, as Chakravarthi had already been installed, but

KORAVA

446
In this capacity

that he should be a ruler over forests.

Nishudu begat the Boyas,

Koravas.

Chenchus,
his

Yanadis,

and

The Boyas were

all

legitimate children, but

It is

the others were

illegitimate.

because Nishudu

watched

in

solemn silence to know

his creator that

some

of his offspring called themselves

to know).

Yerukalas

(yeruka,

When
exile.

Another story explains the name Korava. the princes Dharmaraja and Duryodana were at
strife,

variance, the former, to avoid

.A.

went

into voluntary

woman who

loved him set out in search of him,

identified, disguised

but,

through fear of being

herself

as a fortune-teller.
their offspring
fortune-telling.

In this manner she found him, and became known as Koravas, from kuru,

The

appellation Koracha or

Korcha appears
(sly look)

to be of

later date

than Korava, and

is

said to be derived from

the Hindustani kori

(sly), korri

nigga

corrupted into Korcha.

to them, they

Whenever

this

becoming name was applied

branches

had evidently learnt

family, in

their calling thoroughly,

its

and the whole

whatever direction

spread, established a reputation for cunning in snaring

animals or birds, or purloining other peoples' goods,

until to-day their

names are used

the course

for the

purpose of

insulting

abuse

in

of a

quarrel.

Thus a

belligerant might call the other a thieving Yerukala, or

ask, in tones other than polite,
if

he belongs to a gang of

Korchas.

In the Tamil country, a

man

is

said to kurato
"

kenju, or cringe like a Korava,

their dishonesty
is

and another allusion

is

kurapasangu, to cheat like a Korava.

the ruin of the family

The proverb

"

Kuruvan's justice

refers to the endless nature of their quarrels, the decision

of which will often occupy the headmen for weeks together. In communicating

among themselves,
in

the Koravas and

Yerukalas speak a corrupt polyglot,

which the words

KORAVA.


447
derived from several languages bear
to the original.
little

KORAVA
resemblance
chiefly

Their words appear to be taken

from Tamil, Telugu, and Canarese. A short vocabulary of the Yerukala language has been published by the
Rev.
J.

Cain.*

The Yerukalas

call this

language Oodra,
slang,

which seems
or, as

to stand for gibberish

or thieves'

they explain, something very hard to understand.

is

Oriya or Oodra

the language of the districts of

north,

Ganjam
fact

and Orissa.
that

The word Oriya means

call

and the

the Yerukalas

their

language

Oodra would

seem
tribe.

to confirm their belief that they are a northern

The wanderers always know more than one language colloquially, and are able to make themselves
understood by the people of the country through which

they

may be

passing.

Those who have

language of the
call

settled in villages
locality.

invariably speak the

When

talking

among

themselves, they

Koravan, or the bathing Korava.

Brahman Thanniko They consider the

and, as

Brahmans

to be

more cunning than themselves,

they are fond of bathing to remove pollution, they have

given them this nickname.

A
has

detailed account of the

been published by

Mr.

spector-General of Police, t
Constable

Korava slang and patois F. Fawcett, Deputy Infrom whose note thereon the
:

following examples are taken

Erthalakayadu.
Kederarilu.

Red-headed man.

Head

constable.

The man who

an
ass.

rides

on

Taking bribe

...

Kalithindrathu.

Eating ragi food.

Toddy
Fowls
...

Uggu perumalu
ollaithanni.

White

water,

or

good

water.

Rendukal Naidu.
Arthupottavungo

Mussalmans

The Naidu of two Those who have

(circumcised).

legs.

cut

* Loc.

cit.

t Note on Koravas, 1908.

KORAVA
Pariah
... ...
...

448
Utharalu keenjalu.

The man
That
Milk

that pipes.

Butcher's knife

Elamayarathe bottarathu.

for striking those

that graze leaves.

eyes.

Rupees

...

...

Palakanna.
Ollakelluka.

White pebbles.

Korava society

is

purely patriarchal, and, in whatever

division or sept of the caste a

Korava may be born, he

has to subordinate himself to the will of his elders or the

leaders of his particular gang.
called the

The head

of a

gang

is

Peru Manusan or Beriya Manasan (big man).

He

is

selected principally because of his age, intelligence,

and the influence he commands amongst the members of

the gang.
It is

a post which carries with

it

no remunerall

ation whatever, but the

tions,

holder presides at

consultaall social

and

is

given the position of honour at

functions.

Concerning the caste government, Mr. Fawcett writes

that

"the kulam or caste assembly adjudicates claims,

penalties, ejects individuals from

inflicts

the caste,

or

readmits them thereto.

Free drinking of toddy

at the

expense of one of the parties accompanies every caste

assembly.
for
It is

the aggrieved party

who

gives notice

assembly of the kulam.

indicating
to

The

disputants join hands,

thereby

the

should be decided by them.

kulam that their dispute Each pays one rupee. The

kulam may decide the dispute at once, or adjourn for The next meeting further consideration at any time.
is

called the second joining of hands,

one rupee, as before, to be spent in fails to attend when the kulam has been convened loses
his caste absolutely.
If there
is

when each pays toddy. A man who

a third adjournment,
3|-

that

is

a third joining of hands, each side pays Rs.

for toddy, to

keep the kulam

in

good

spirits.
is

As

this is

always the

final

adjournment, the decision

sometimes


449
arrived at by
rice
tity
is

KORAVA

means of an
in
is

ordeal.

An

equal quantity of

placed

two pots of equal weight having a quanan equal quantity of firewood.

themselves
on.

of water, and there

satisfy

The judges
the

most carefully
is

as

to

quantity, weights,

and so

The water
first
is is

boiled,
to

and

man whose
expenses.
the

rice

boils

declared
to

be the

winner of the dispute.

all his
It

The
;

loser

recoup the winner

sometimes happens that both pots

then a coin
boiling
oil.
is

boil

at

same time

to

be picked

There is yet another method of settling disputes about money. The amount claimed is brought by one party, and placed
out
of a

pot

containing

beside an
it,

idol.

The

claimant

is

then asked to take

and, should nothing unpleasant

happen

to

him or

to his family afterwards,

he

is

declared to have

made

out his claim.

The kulam

has nothing whatever to do

is

with planning the execution of offences, but

sometimes
as,

called upon to decide about the division of plunder,

for instance,

when any member

for

of a criminal expedition

improperly secretes something for himself.

But they
whether

engage vakils (pleaders)

they have been concerned

defending members of the

oftence,

gang who are charged with a criminal

in
it

or not."

There are a great many

classes of Koravas,

most of
of liveli-

them obtaining
hood
call
fall

their

names from the

particular occupa-

tions they have followed as an ostensible

for

means

many

generations.
all,

But, whatever they

may

themselves, they

according to Mr. Mainwaring,

viz.
:

within three divisions,

1.

Sakai, Sampathi, Sathupadi.

2.

Kavadi or Gujjula.
Devarakonda, Mendrakutti, or Menapadi.

3.

The members
Koravas,
111-29

of the

first

two divisions are pure

the legitimate

descendants of Koravas

who

KORAVA

450
caste,

have never married outside the

whereas the third

division represents and includes the

and the offspring

their

thereof.

mixed marriages, The Koravas receive into

other than

ranks

members

of castes

Paraiyans

(including Malas and Madigas), Yanadis, Mangalas, and

Tsakalas.

The ceremony

of introduction into the

Korava

community
of gold.

consists in burning the tongue with a piece

The Koravas have

a strong objection to taking

food touched by Medaras, because, in their professional

occupation of doing wicker-work, they use an awl which

resembles the tool used by Madigas

in

shoe-making.

The Koravas
families,

are

said
call

to be

divided

into

two large

which they

Pothu and

Penti,

meaning male

and female. All the families included in the first division noted above are Pothu, and those in the second Penti.

The

families in the third division, being the product of

mixed marriages, and the position of females being a

lowly one, they are also considered to be Penti.

The

Pothu section
going

is

said to have arisen from

search of brides for themselves, and the Pent is from

in search of

men going in men

husbands

for their daughters.

When
For
marry
This

a Korava, male or female, wishes to marry, a partner

must be sought

in

a division other than their own.

first

example, a Korava of the

division

is

bound

to

a female belonging to the second or third division, who,

after marriage, belongs to her husband's division.

may be

little

hard on the

women

of the

first

division,

because they are bound to descend

in the social scale.

However,
first

their daughters can rise

division.

by marrying into the For the purpose of religious ceremonies,

each division has fixed duties.

first

The members

of the

division have the right of decorating the god,

attire.

and

dressing him in his festival

division carry the

Those of the second

and

god and the

regalia inizprocession,

45

KORAVA

burn incense, and those of the third drag the temple car, and sing and shout during its progress. For this reason,
it

is

said,

they are sometimes called Bandi

divisions,"

(cart).

"

The major

Mr. Paupa Rao Naidu

Manapati,

writes,

" are four in

number, and according to their gradation

Kavadi,

they are

Sathepati,
all

Mendragutti.

They

are
"
I.

corrupted Tamil words.

is

Sathepati

a corruption of Sathupadi, which

flowers, jewels

means adorning a Hindu deity with

vestments.
"
2.

and

Kavadi, meaning a pole carried on the shoulders

its

with two baskets pendant from

" 3.

ends,

in

which are

contained offerings for a deity or temple.

Manapati

is

a corruption of Manpadi, which

god,

means singing
in a

in praise of

when He

is

worshipped

temple.
" 4.

Mendragutti

is

corruption of Menrikutti,

which means them to the temple

"

stitching a pair of shoes,

and presenting

a custom
shrines.

still

prevalent at Tirupati

and other important

Of these

four divisions, the

first

two

are, or rather

were, considered superior to the other two, a Kavadi

man being

styled

Pothuvadu (man), and a Sathepati man

and subinformed

Penti (female)."

still
is

further classification of divisions

divisions

given by Mr. F.

S.

Mullaly.*
that,
in

am

by Mr. C.
district,

Hayavadana Rao
(eastern).

the Vizagapatam

the Yerukalas are divided into Pattapu or Odde,

and Thurpu
in

Of these,

the former,

when they
both
right

are prosperous, live in tiled houses, while the latter live

huts.

wrists,

women wear brass bangles on and Thurpu women brass bangles on the
Pattapu
Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.

in-29 B


KORAVA
wrist,

452
left.

and glass bangles on the

over the right.

The former throw

shoulder, and the

the end of their cloth over the

latter

left

It is

recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly

district, that

"the Kuravans are divided into a number

sections,

of

endogamous

of which

the

Ina

Kuravans
criminal,

and the Kavalkaran Kuravans are the most

especially the
latter.

The

latter

are

also called

the

Mondu, and Kadukutti Kuravans. and appearance the Namakkal Kuravans are
Marasa,
Vellalans or Pallis.
ear-rings.

In dress
said to be

superior to those of Karur, and to look like well-dressed

They

are peculiar in wearing long

They

are also said to be

much

better thieves

than the others, and to dislike having a Karur Kuravan

when breaking
household by

into a house, for fear

he might wake the

the

his clumsiness."

As examples
following, cited
:

of intiperu, or

exogamous

septs,

which were given by Uppu Yerukalas, may be

mendi
Mogili {Pandanusfascicuiaris)
Uyyala, swing.
star.

Dasari, Vaishnavite
cant.

Sukka,

Ragala, ragi grain.

thorns.
Pula, flowers.

Kampa, bush of
Avula, cows.

Katari, dagger.

Thoka,

tail.

Ambojala,
glabra).

lotus.

Kanaga {Pongamia
Bandi, cart.
Gajjala, small bell.

Samudrala,

sea.

Venkatagiri, a town.

"A knowledge,"
or sept

Mr. Fawcett writes, "of these house

names may be useful in order to establish a man's identity, as a Koravar, who is generally untruthful
as to his

seldom if ever so as regards his house or sept name, and his father's name. He conis

own name,

siders it shameful to lie about his parentage, 'to be born to one, and yet to give out the name of another.'

453

KORAVA

Totemism
odd that
the
it

of

some kind evidently exists, but it is rather has not always any apparent connection with
Thus, the totem of persons of
in Tamil),
eat, or
is

the sept or house name.

Koneti sept

horse-gram (kollu

which
use in

they hold in veneration, and will not touch,

any way. The totem of the Samudrala sept is the conch shell, which likewise will not be used by those of the It may be noted that persons of sept in any manner.
the

Rameswari sept

will not

eat tortoises,

while those
to

of the Koneti sept are in

some manner obliged

occupations

do so
the

on certain occasions."

As regards names
Koravas, the Bidar or

for specific

among

nomad Koravas
salt,

originally carried

merchandise

in the

form of

tamarinds, jaggery (crude

sugar or molasses), leaves of the curry leaf plant {^Murray

Kcenigii) from place to place on pack-bullocks or donkeys.

The

and those who brought them round for sale were called in Tamil Karuvaipillai, and in Telugu Karepaku, after the commodity which This is a common custom in India, and they carried.
leaves were in great demand,

when

driving through the bazar,

one may hear,

of
will

for

example, an old
addressed as
at a

woman

carrying a bundle
"

wood

firewood.

Kavadi

"

be screamed
baskets, etc.,

man

carrying a pole (kavadi) with

it,

who got in the way of another. The section of Koravas who carried salt inland from the coast became knowm as Uppu (salt) Koravas. Another large
suspended from
class are the

Thubba, Dhubbai, or Dhabbai (split bamboo) Koravas, who restrict their wanderings to the foot of hill With these ranges, where bamboos are obtainable.
they

make

baskets for the storage of grain, for carrying

manure
In the

at the

bottom of carts, and various fancy

district,

articles.

Kurnool

the Yerukalas will

only

cut

bamboos at the time of the new moon, as they are then

KORAVA
supposed to be
free

454
from attacks by boring weevils, and
the

they do certain puja (worship) to the goddess Malalamma,

who

presides over

bamboos.

In

the

Nallamalai

forests,

the

Yerukalas do not spHt the bamboo into

pieces and remove the whole, but take off only a very
thin strip consisting of the outer rind.

The

strips are

made up
donkeys.

into long bundles,

There

is

which can be removed by extreme danger of fire, because the

left

inner portions of the bamboos,

are most inflammable.*
in the
forest,

all

over the

forest,

Instead of splitting the bamboos

lot

and leaving behind a

of combustible

material, the Yerukalas

now have

to

purchase whole

bamboos, and take them outside the

forest to split them.

The members of a gang of these Yerukalas, who came before me at Nandyal, were each carrying a long s|)lit bamboo wand as an occupational insigne. A further important section is that of the Kunchu or Kunchil Koravas, who gather roots in the jungle, and make them The Korainto long brushes which are used by weavers.
vas have a monopoly
pride in
in

their manufacture,

making good brushes.

shikaris

and take These Kunchu Koravas

and
snare antelope,
skill.

are excellent

(hunters),

partridges, duck, quail,

and other game with great

to catch

For the close enough to the young ones

ragged
at

purpose of shooting antelopes, or of getting

them

after a

short run, they use a kind of shield

made
like

of dried twigs

the

edges,

which looks
grass.

an enormous

wind-blown bundle of
on the ground, and,

When

they come in sight

of a herd of antelopes, they rest one edge of the shield

sitting

on their heels behind

it,

move

it

slowly forward towards the herd until they get

sufficiently close to

dash

at the

young

ones, or shoot the

* Forest Inspection Report, 1896.

455

KORAVA
are
to
fail

grown-up animals.
mistake the shield
gradual approach.
at night,
lake),
in

The

antelopes

supposed
to notice

to
its

for a bush,

and

They capture duck and

is

teal largely

and go

to the rice fields

below a tank (pond or

which the crop

young,

and the ground

This would be a
fed there

consequently not entirely obscured.

likely feeding-ground, or traces of

duck having

on the previous night might be noticed.

creeper from one bund

They peg

(mud embankment)

to another,
in

parallel to the tank bund, four inches

above the water

the

field.

From

this they

loops

made

of sinews

suspend a number of running drawn from the legs of sheep or

ooats or from the hind-lesfs of hares, the lower ends of

the loops touching the

mud

under water.

If

the duck
fall

or teal come to feed, they are sure to be caught, and

victims
to

the

slip

noose.

"The Kuntsu (Kunchu)

" catch small birds

Korachas," Mr. Francis

tells us,*

by

limine twisfs or an arrangement of bits of a

bamboo with

worm hung

inside

it,

or by setting horse-hair nooses

round the

nests.

Quails they capture by freely snaring

a piece of ground, and then putting a quail in a cage in

the middle of

it,

to lure the birds towards the snare.

They

also catch them,

and partridges

too,

by driving the

bevy towards a collapsible net. To do this, they cover themselves with a dark blanket, conceal their heads
in

a kind of big hat

made

of hair, feathers and grass, and

stalk the birds from a bullock trained to the work, very

gradually driving them into the net.

sionally capture black-buck (antelope)

They

also occa-

by sending a tame
in

buck with nooses on

his

horns to fight with a wild one. horns entangled

the

The

latter

speedily
is

gets his

nooses, and

easily secured."

Sometimes the Kunchu

* Gazetteer of the Bellary district.

kORAVA

456

Korava begs in villages, dragging about with him a monkey, while the females earn a livelihood by tattooing, which occupation, known as pricking with green, has gained for them the name of Pacchai (green) Kutti. The patterns used in tattooing by a Korava woman, whom I interviewed, were drawn in a note-book, and consisted of
fishes, scorpions,

a fortress, five-storeyed house, conven-

tional designs, etc.

The

patterns were

drawn on the
a mixture of a

skin, with great dexterity

and

skill in

freehand drawing,
in

by means of a blunt
cocoanut
of
four
shell.

stick

dipped

lamp-black, lamp-oil, and turmeric contained in a half

The

pattern

is

pricked in with a bundle

together.

or five

needles tied
in

The
out

needles

and drawing-stick were kept

the
tattooing

a hollow bamboo, and

mixture

in

the

scooped

fruits

of

the bael [yEgle Marmelos) and palmyra palm i^Borasstis

flabellifer).

For tattooing an entire upper extremity,

the Korava

at several sittings,

woman would
is

be paid
in

from eight to twelve annas, or receive food-grains

lieu

of money.

The
it

hot weather

said to be

more

favourable for the operation than the cold season, as

the swelling after
is

less.

To check

this, lamp-oil,

turmeric, and leaves of the avarai plant {Dolichos Lablab)

are applied.

Concerning the Pacchaikuttis,

called,

or,

as they are also

Gadde
that
'*

(soothsayers),

Mr.

Paupa Rao Naidu

writes

the

women

start

with a basket and a

winnowing basket or tray

which they do
village
for grain or

into a village, proclaiming

their ostensible profession of tattooing

and soothsaying,
unfortunate

money.

When

who often women, who fall ill, see these Gadde women moving about, they call them into their houses, make them sit, and, pouring some grain into their baskets, ask them about their past
always lose children or

457
misery and future
lot.

KORAVA
suffi-

These women, who are

ciently trained to speak in suitable language, are clever

enough

some yarns in equivocal terms, so that the anxious women, who hope for better futurity, understand them in the light uppermost in their own minds. The Korava women will be rewarded duly, and doubly
to give out
too, for they
all

never

fail
if

to study the nature of the

it

house

the time, to see

offers a fair field for

booty to

their

men."

**

the local goddess,

At Srungavarapukota in the Vizagapatam district Yerakamma, is a deification of a

sati.

woman who committed

her,

Ballads are sung about

which say that she was the child of Dasari parents, and that her birth was foretold by a Yerukala woman (whence her name) who prophesied that she would have
the gift of second sight.

She eventually married, and one day she begged her husband not to go to his field, as she was sure he would be killed by a tiger if he did. Her husband went notwithstanding, and was slain as she had foreseen. She committed sati on the spot where her
shrine
still

stands."*

The Or or village Koravas have given up their nomad life, and settled in villages of their own, or Many of them have together with other communities.
attended pial schools, and can read and write to some
extent.
salt

Some

of

them are employed

jail

in

the police and

departments, as

warders,

etc.

The Or Korava

is fast

losing his individuality, and assimilating, in dress,

manners and customs, the ryots among

In the

whom

he dwells.

Salem
is

district there

is

a village called Koravur,

which

inhabited entirely by Koravas,

were originally

Uppu

Koravas, but

who say that they now cultivate their

Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam

district.

KORAVA
own
lands, or

458

work as

agricultural labourers for the land-

owners.
visit to

They say
Madras

further that they pay an occasional

for the

purpose of replenishing their

sell at local

stock of coral and beads, which they

(markets).
at

shandis

Some Koravas
Though

are said to buy gilded beads

Madura, and cheat unsuspecting villagers by selling

as gold.

them

the

Or Koravas

are becoming
for other

civilised,

they have not yet

lost their desire

men's goods, and are reported to be the curse of the

Anantapur, Cuddapah, and Bellary

sheep and

districts,

where they

commit robbery, house-breaking, and

cattle.

theft, especially of

A
is

particularly bold sheep theft

by

them a few years ago

miles off the railway.

worthy of mention.

The
lies

village

of Singanamalla in the

Anantapur
It
is

district

a few

bordered on two sides by

into

Government

forest

reserves,

which the

villagers

regularly drove their sheep and goats to graze, in charge

of small boys,
watcher, or

in

the frequent absences of the forest the watcher was well disposed towards

when

them.

An

arrangement was made between the Koravas

at

and a meat-supplier

Bangalore to deliver on

his behalf

a large number of sheep at a wayside

station
to

near

Dharmavaram,

to receive

which trucks had

be ready,

and the transaction was purely cash. One morning, when more than a hundred sheep had been driven far
into the reserve

by

their youthful
for

charges,

who kept

more or less close together a number of Koravas turned

selves as forest

the sake of company,

and represented themwatchers, captured the small boys, gagged

up, to trees,

them and
night,

tied

them

and drove

off all

the availtill

able sheep.

The boys were

not discovered

late at

and the police did not get to work till the following morning, by which time the sheep were safely
entrained for Bangalore.

459
It is

KORAVA

Madras Police Report, 1905-1906, that "a lar^e number of members of the notorious Rudrapad Koracha gangs have recently been released from His Highness the Nizam's prisons, and their return will add appreciably to the difficulties of the
noted, in the Bellary Police."

small class of Koravas

is

named Pamula

(snake),

as they follow the calling of snake-charmers.

In the

Census Report, 1901, Pusalavadu

of Yerukala.
etc.,

(seller of glass

beads)

and Utlavadu (makers of utlams) are given as sub-castes

An

utlam

is

a hanging receptacle for pots,

In the same report,

made

of palmyra fibre.

kuttukiravar (those
Valli

who bore

a hole in

Kaduthe ear) and

Ammai Kuttam

(followers of the goddess Valli

synonyms of Koravas. They claim that Valli Ammai, the wife of the god Subrahmanya, was a Korava woman. Old Tamil books refer to the Koravas as fortune-tellers to kings and queens, and

Ammai)

are returned as

priests to

Subrahmanya.

Some Koravas

have, at times

of census, returned themselves as Kudaikatti (basket-

making) Vanniyans.

Balfour refers to VValaja Koravas,

and

states that they are musicians.

They

are probably

identical with the

Wooyaloo Koravas,* whose duty it is to swing incense, and sing before the god during The same writer speaks of a religious celebration. Soli Bajantri or Sonai Kolawaru and Kolla and
Korawars, and states that they inhabit the Southern

Maratha country.

These names,

like

Thogamallai
in
local.

for

Koravas who come from the village of that name

Trichinopoly district, are probably purely
the

the

Further,
species

Abb6 Dubois
is

states

that

" the

third

of

Kuravers

generally

known under
Op.

the

name

of Kalla

* F. S, MuUaly.

cit.

KORAvA
Bantru, or robbers.

460

The
is

last

Muhammadan
for

prince

who

reigned over Mysore

battalion of these

said to have

employed a regular
the purpose
in the night,

men

in

time of war, not

of fighting, but to infest the enemy's

stealing
officers,

camp

away the horses and other necessaries

and acting as
in

of the
in

spies.

They were awarded

in

proportion to the dexterity they displayed

these

achievements, and,

time of peace, they were despatched

into the various States of

neighbouring princes, to rob

It is

for the benefit of their masters."

possible that the

Kaikadis of the Central

Provinces arc identical with

thither.

Koravas,

who have migrated

of Koravas,

section

called

Koot (dancing)

or

Kothcc (monkey) Kaikaries, is referred to by Mr. Pau])a Rao Naidu as "obtaining their living by prostitution.

They Some
the

also

kidnap or

sell

children

for

this

purpose.

of the

women

of this class are thrivino- well in

in

Madras Presidency as experts

in

dancing.

They

are kept by rich people, and are called in the Telugu

country Erukala Bogamvaru,

Tamil Korava Thevidia.

They also train monkeys, and show them to the public." The household god of the Korava, which is as a rule very rudely carved, may be a representation of either Vishnu or Siva. As already noted, it is stated in the
Census Report, 1901, that the Koravas worship Subrahmanya, the son of Siva, while the Yerukalas worship Vishnu in the form of Venkateswara and his wife
Lakshmi.

They

worship, in addition to these, Kola-

puriamma,

Perumalaswami,

and

other

appropriate

deities, prior to

proceeding on a depredatory expedition.

Kolapuriamma is the goddess of Kolhapur, the chief town of the Native State of that name in the Bombay
Presidency,

who

is

famous

in
is

Southern India,

Perumalthe

swami, or Venkateswara,

the god of Tirupati,

46

KORAVA

great place of pilgrimage in the North Arcot district. The signs of a recent performance of worship by

Koravas may prove an indication to the PoHce that they have been concerned in a dacoity, and act as a clue to
detection thereof.

They

sacrifice

sheep or goats once a

year to their particular

god on a Sunday or Tuesday, while those who worship Venkateswara honour him on
a

Saturday, and break cocoanuts as an offering.

the ceremonies
is

All

offerings presented to the

gods are divided among those

present,

after

have been completed.

for

Venkateswara
the

said to be

sometimes represented,

purpose of worship, by a brass vessel (kalasam) decorated with flowers, and bearing on it the Vaishnavite

namam

(sect mark).

Its

mouth

is

closed by a cocoanut,

beneath which mango or betel leaves are placed.

within the hut

On

the day appointed for the religious service, everything

is

thrown outside, and the

floor

is

purified

with cow-dung, and devices are drawn thereon.

vessel
is

The brass

set

up, and offerings of large quantities of food

it.

are

made

to

Some

of this dedicated food (prasadam)

must be given

to all the inhabitants of the settlement.

lump of clay, squeezed into a conical shape, with a tuft of margosa {Melia Azadirachta) leaves does duty In front thereof, three stones are for Poleramma. Poleramma may be worshipped close to, but placed.
not within, the hut.

To

her offerings of boiled rice

(pongal) are

made by

fasting

women.

The manner
omen

in

which the boiling food bubbles over from the cookingpot

is

eagerly watched, and accepted as an

evil.

for

good or

In a note on the Coorroo, Balfour states *

that " they told

me

that,
clay,

when they

pray, they construct

a small pyramid of

which they term Mariamma,

Madras Journ,

Lit, Science,

XVII,

1853.

KORAVA
and worship
ornaments
smith, from
it.

462

The women had

small gold and silver

suspended from cords round their necks,

which they said had been supplied to them by a gold-

whom they had ordered

represented
is

figures of

Mariamma.
by
their

The form
lliey

that

of

the

goddess Kali,
told

mentioned that they had

been
dies,

forefathers that,

the body of

when some of

a good

man

his spirit enters

the better animals, as that of a

life

horse or cow, and that a bad man's spirit gives

to

the form of a dog or jackal, but they did not seem to

believe
in
it.

They

believe

firmly,

however,

in

the
evil,

existence and constant presence of a principle of

who, they

say, frequently appears,

it

my

informant having

himself often seen

in

the dusk of the evening assuming

various forms, at times a cat, anon a goat, and then

a dog, taking these shapes that

injure him."

it

might approach to
the southern

The domestic god

districts,
is

of the

Koravas,

in

said

to be

Sathavu, for
in three or

whom

a day of

worship

is

set apart

once
in

four years.

The

Koravas assemble, and,

the village, a

an open place to the west of

is

mud

platform

erected,

on which small

bricks are spread.

sickle, sticks,
fruits,

In front of the platform are placed a

(liquor).

and arrack
rice

Cocoanuts, plantain

and

are

offered,

and

sheep

sacrificed.

Sandal and turmeric are poured over the bricks, and

camphor
a feast.

is

burnt.

The proceedings

terminate

with

The

presiding goddess of the criminal profession of

is

the Koravas

stated by Mr.

M. Paupa Rao Naidu*

to

be Moothevi, the goddess of sleep,

whom

they dread

and worship more than any other god or goddess of the

* History of Railway Thieves.

Madras, 1904.

463

KORAVA
is

Hindu Pantheon.
throw their victims
in their prayers to

The

object of this worship

vigilant,

twofold,

one being to keep themselves

off their

guard.

and the other to Moothevi is invoked

keep them sleepless while on their

nefarious purpose bent, but withal to

make

their victims
is

sufficiently sleepy over their property.

This goddess

worshipped especially by females, who perform strange

orgies periodically, to propitiate her.
is

secluded spot

preferred for performing these orgies, at

which animal

sacrifices are

made, and there

deity
for
let

is

distribution of liquor in

honour of the goddess.

in

The Edayapatti gang worship

Ratnasabhapathy
at

addition the

Ayyamala.

When
words

prosecuted

a crime, the Koravan invokes his

favourite deity to
'

If

him off with a whipping in the the punishment of whipping be inflicted I

shall adore the goddess.'

The
sacrifice

following account of a peculiar form of

human

by the Koravas

in

former days was given to

Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao by an old inhabitant of the

Asur near Walajabad in the Chingleput district. A big gang settled at the meeting point of the three villages of Asur, Melputtur, and Avalur, on an elevated They had spot commanding the surrounding country. with them their pack-bullocks, each headman of the gang owning about two hundred head. The cow-dung which accumulated daily attracted a good many of the villagers, on one of whom the headmen fixed as their
village of

intended victim.

They made themselves

Thus
a

intimate with

him, plied him with drink and tobacco, and gave him

the monopoly of the cow-dung.

week

or ten

days passed away, and the Koravas then fixed a day for
the sacrifice.

They

invited the victim to visit

them

at

dusk, and witness a great festival in honour of their

caste goddess.

At the appointed hour, the man went

KORAVA
to

464

the

settlement,
pit,

and was induced

large

to

drink

freely.

Meanwhile, a
upright in
it,

enough

for

man

to stand

had been prepared.

in

At about midnight,
pit,

the victim was seized, and forced to stand in the

which was

filled

up to

his

neck.

This done, the

gang made off with their belongings. As soon as the last of them had quitted the settlement, the headmen brought a large quantity of
children of the
fresh cow-dung, and placed a ball of
it

women and

on the head of

the victim.

The

ball

served as a support for an earthen

The man was by this time nearly dead, and the cattle were made to pass over his head. The headmen then made off, and, by daybreak, the whole gang had disappeared. The murdered man was found by the villagers, who have, since that time, scrupulously avoided the Koravas. The victim is said
lamp, which was lighted.
to have turned into a Munisvara,

and

for a

long time

troubled those

noon or

who happened to go near the spot at midnight. The Koravas are said to have
sacrifice

performed the
against death

so

as

to

insure

their

cattle

from disease.

The

ground,

on which

they encamped, and on which they offered the

sacrifice, is

human
thereto,

stated to have been barren

prior

and, as the result thereof, to have

It
is

become very

fertile.

said that

Korava women invoke the

in

village

goddesses when they are telling fortunes.

They use a
this,

winnowing fan and grains of rice prophesy good or evil, according

grains found on the fan.*
stick,

doing
the

and
of

to

number

They

carry a basket, winnow,

and a wicker tray in which cowry shells are imbedded in a mixture of cow-dung and turmeric. The
represents

basket

Kolapuriamma,

and

the

cowries

Madras^Census Report, 1901.

-a

465

KORAVA
Korava woman
leaves and
client's

Poleramma.

When

telling fortunes, the

places on the basket the winnow,

rice, betel

areca nuts, and the wicker tray.

Holding her
it

hand over the winnow, and moving

about, she com-

mences

to chant,

and name

all

sorts of deities.

From

time to time she touches the hand of the person whose The Korava women fortune is being told with the stick.
are very clever in extracting information concerning the
aftairs of

a client before they proceed to

fix

tell

her fortune.

Brahmans
ceremony

the auspicious hour for marriage, and

Chettis are invited to act as priests at the purification

for re-admission into caste of a

who

has cohabited with a Paraiyan or

man or woman Muhammadan,

or been beaten with a shoe, etc.

For the purpose of

re-admission, a panchayat (council) assembles, at which

the

headman

presides.

Enquiries are
fine of

made

into

the

conduct of the accused, and a

two rupees

levied.

Of this sum
betel

the Chetti receives eight annas, with

some

and tobacco.

The

balance

is

spent in liquor for

those

who

are assembled.

After the Chetti has received

his fee,

he smears the foreheads of the guilty person

and the

company

with

sacred

ashes.

The impure

person goes to a stream or well, and bathes.

again comes before the council, and
Chetti again marking his
forehead.
is

He

then

purified

by the
before

The proceedings
trial

wind up with a
tied together.

feast.

In former days, at a

a council, the legs of the complainant and accused were

In

1907, a

Koracha was excommuni-

cated for having

illicit

intercourse with a widow.

The

ceremony of excommunication ing the head and moustache of the guilty person, and making him ride a donkey, wearing a necklace of bones. In the case under reference, a donkey could not
usually consists of shav-

be procured, so a temporary shed was made of sajja

ni-30

KORAVA

466
fire

{Setaria italica) stalks, which were set on

after the

man had
five

passed through

it.

He

was

to be re-admitted

into the caste

by standing a

feast to all the

members

of

gangs of Korachas.
It is

said* that " a curious custom of the Kuravans

them from committing crime on new-moon or Once started on an expedition, they full-moon days. There is a case are very determined and persistent. record where one of a band of Kuravans out on on an expedition was drowned in crossing the Cauvery.
prohibits

Nothing

daunted

by

the

loss

or

the

omen, they
tried

attempted a burglary, and

failed.

They then
;

another house, where they also failed

till

and

it

was not

they had met with these three mishaps that their

determination weakened, and they went home."

The Koravas
careful
start

are extremely superstitious, and take

notice

of

good

or

bad omens before

they

on a criminal expedition.
sought.
its

which the assistance

or Perumal
is

They hold a feast, at of the goddess Kolapuriamma A young goat, with coloured

thread attached to

and a garland of margosa leaves with a piece of turmeric round its neck, is taken
horns,

to

an out-of-the-way shrine.
will
it

Here

it

is

placed before
is

the deity, and cocoanuts are broken.

The god
If

asked

whether the expedition

of the animal quivers,

be successful.

the body
in

is

regarded as an answer
will

the affirmative

if

it

does not, the expedition

to

be

abandoned.
urinates,

If

in addition

quivering,

the
for.

animal

no better sign
it

could

be hoped

The

Koravas make
used
this

a point of honour to pay for the goat

for this religious

purpose.

It

was information of
to the

ceremony having been performed which led

* Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly

district.

^(i']

KORAVA
Cuddapah
first

detection of a torchlight dacoity in the

in 1896.

district

The

expedition was in the

instance suc-

cessful,
in

for the

Koravas broke

into a

Komati's house

the middle of a village, and carried off a quantity of

jewels.

The Komati's arm was

faces

broken, and he and other

inmates of the house were badly burnt by lighted torches

thrust against their

and bodies.

Among-

other

methods of consulting the omens is to sacrifice a fowl at a shrine, and sit in front thereof listening for the
direction

whence the chirping of

the

lizards issues.

If

the

omens
start

are auspicious,

members

of the expedition

off,

armed

as a rule with latis (sticks)

and axes.

If

they attack a
at
it,

cart,
if

they commence by throwing stones

the occupant has fire-arms with him.
into

to ascertain

Houses are generally broken

by means of a hole
In the

made

in

the wall near the door-latch.

Ceded

Districts,
built of

where the houses are as a rule substantially rough stone, and have flat roofs of salt earth, an
is

opening

frequently effected through the roof.

in

The

Koravas are often extremely cruel

they adopt to extort

the methods which

inhabitants of
In

information from

houses as to where their valuables are concealed.

common
the
spirit

with other Hindus, they avoid the shadow of

in

thandra tree {Terniinalia dc/erica),

of

which the
In this In the

Saneswaradu

is

believed

to
is

reside.

connection the following

city of

legend

recited.*

Bimanapuram there

ruled a king

named Bimaraju,
fell

who had

a beautiful daughter

named Damayanti, with

in

whom

the gods, including Nalamaharaju,

love.

Damayanti had never seen Nalamaharaju, but loved him on account of the stories which reached her of the justice with which he governed his kingdom, and his chastity.
This story
is

based on well-known episode of Nalacharilra

in the

Aranya Parva

of the Mahabharatha.

ni-30 B

KORAVA
To

468
in

avoid being charged with partiality

disposing of
all

his daughter's hand,

Bimaraju determined to invite

the gods to his house, and the one to

whom Damayanti
all

should throw a garland of flowers should claim her as

his wife.

The day

fixed

on arrived, and

the gods

assembled, except Saneswaradu,

been unavoidably detained.

a
circle,

who appears to have The gods were seated in

Nalamaharaju
off

and a

fly

guided Damayanti to Nalamaharaju,

on whose neck she threw the garland.

at

once claimed her as his

wife,

and started

with her

to his

kingdom.

On the way they met Saneswaradu,

of their being in each

who demanded an explanation

other's

company.

He

was

told,

and was very angry

in his

because the matter had been settled

absence, and

swore a mighty oath that they should be separated.

this

To
in

end, he caused

all

sorts of difficulties to
spell,

come

their

way.

Under

his

Nalamaharaju took

to

gambling, and

lost all his property.

in

He

was separated

from Damayanti, and lived

spell

poverty

for years.
last

The
for a

of

Saneswaradu

could, however, only

certain

number

of years, and,
set out for

when

the time expired

to find

Nalamaharaju
yanti

Bimanapuram,

Dama-

who had

returned to her father's house.

tree,

On

the

way, under a thandra

he met Saneswaradu, who

all

confessed that he was the cause of

the troubles that

had

befallen

him,

and begged

that

he would

look

leniently on his fault.

Nalamaharaju would not forgive

him, but, after cursing him, ordained that he should live

for

ever in the thandra tree, so that the area over which

It
is

he could do wrong should be limited.

reason that
all

for

this

wandering tribes avoid pitching a camp

tree.

within the shadow of this

tree

{Terminalia

Catappd) belonging to the same genus as the thandra

is

regarded as a lucky one to camp beneath, as

it

was

469

KORAVA

under one of these trees that Rama made a bower when he lived with Sita and Lakshmana after his banishment
to the forest of

Dandaka.

In

connection with

omens and
"

superstitions,

Mr.

Fawcett writes as follows.

superstitious, are constantly

Koravas,

being
for

highly

on the look-out

omens,

especially before starting out on an excursion

when the
is

objective
deity,

is

dacoity or housebreaking.

The household
Water
its
still,

represented by a brick picked up at random,

is

worshipped, and a sheep or fowl

first

sacrificed.
if it

is

poured over the animal, and,

shakes

body,
there

the
is

omen

is

good, while,

if it

stands perfectly

misfortune ahead.

It is

see widows, pots of milk,

when starting, to dogs urinating, a man leading

unfortunate,

bull,

or a bull bellowing.

On

the other hand,

it

is

downright lucky when a

criminal operation.

bull bellows at the scene of the

To

see a

man goading

a bull

is

a good

omen when
it.

starting,

and a bad one

at the scene.

Sprinkling urine over doors and walls of a house facilitates

breaking into

The

failure of

an expedition

is

generally

attributed to the evil eye, or the evil tongue,

effects are evinced in

whose bad

many
its

ways.

If

the excursion has

been
is

for

housebreaking, the housebreaking implement

at

often soldered
metals),
evil

sharp

end with panchalokam

eff^ect

(five

to counteract the
is

of the evil eye.

It

The

tongue
evil

a frequent cause of failure.

consists

in talking

of others, or harping on probable mis-

fortunes.
effects.

There are various ways of removing its unhappy A mud figure of a man is made on the ground,

and thorns are placed over the mouth. This is the man with the evil tongue. Those who have suffered walk
round
it,

crying out and beating their mouths

effect.
it

the greater

the noise, the better the

Cutting the neck of a fowl

half through and allowing

to flutter about, or inserting

KORAVA
a red hot spHnterjn
its

470
anus to madden
if
it

with pain, are

considered to be effective, while,

after its

a cock should croware averted.

life.

neck has been

cut, calamities

The
consist

fowl

is

a sort of adjunct to the Koravar's

first
;

In early-

childhood, the

experiments

in

his

career

in stealing fowls

in

manhood he

feasts

on them when

he

is

well

off,

and he uses them, as we have seen, with

for divination or averting misfortune.
is

abominable cruelty

The number
the
ing,

seven

considered

ominous,

and an
for
for wee[)-

expedition never consists of seven men.

The word

number seven
and
is

in

Telugu resembles the word

or

considered to be unlucky.
jail,

A man who

has
is

returned from

who

has been newly married,

not as a rule taken on an expedition.

former, the rule

In the case of the

may be
flock.

set aside

by bringing a lamb

from a neighbouring

A man

who

forgets to bring
is

his stick, or to equip or

left

arm himself
out
for

properly,

always
is

As unlucky number
behind.
it

in

the case of dacoities, seven

start

an

to

housebreaking,
indulged
in of

but,

should

be unavoidable, a

fiction is

making-

the housebreaking implement the eighth member of the

gang.

When

there are dogs about a house, they are

soon kept quiet with powdered gajjakai or ganja leaves

mixed with cooked rice, which they eat greedily. Detached parties In the jungle or elsewhere are able to
unite

by making sounds

like the

howling of jackals or

hooting of owls.
the forest,
is

The

direction taken on a road, or in

Indicated

by throwing the leaves of the

tangedu [Cassia auriczdala) along the road.

roads, the road taken
Is

At

cross-

Indicated by the thick end of

a twig of the tangedu placed under a stone.

stones,

Rows

of

one piled over the other, are also used

to point

out the route taken

resort to divination,

when

crossing

hills.

The women

but not accompanied by cruelty,

471

KORAVA

husbands are long enough absent to arouse apprehension of danger. A long piece is pulled out of a
their

when

broom, and to one end of

It

are tied several small pieces

in

dipped
but,

in oil.
it

If

the stick floats

water,

all is

well

should

sink,

two of the women

generally

start out at

once

to find the

men.

They

know

as a matter of

pre-arrangement whereabouts to find them, and proceed

thither,

pretending to

sell

karipak (curry leaves).

is

The

eighteenth day of the Tamil month Avani

the luckiest

day of

all for

committing crimes.

successful criminal

day ensures good luck throughout the exploit on Sundays, which are auspicious for weddings, are year.
this

inauspicious

for

crimes.

Mondays,
noon

Wednesdays and
from
Fridays

Saturdays are unlucky

until

for starting out

home.

So,

too,

is

the day after

new moon.
in

are unsuitable for breaking into the houses of

Brahmans

or Komatis, as they

may be engaged

worshipping

Ankalamma, to whom the day is sacred." Many Koravas examined by Mr. Mainwaring were injured in one way or another. One man had his left nostril split, and explained that it was the result of a bite by another Korava in the course of a drunken brawl at a toddy-shop. Another had lost some of his teeth in a similar quarrel, and a third was minus the lobe of his
right ear.

A characteristic of the

Koravas, which

is

well marked,

is their hairlessness. They have plenty of straight hair on the head, but their bodies are particularly smooth.

Even the pubic

hairs

hairs

are scanty, and the abdominal

in

are
is

abundant only
not,
in

a few

instances.

The

Korava

appearance, the typical criminal of

That even the innocent looking individuals are criminal by nature, the following figures establish. In 1902, there were
one's imagination, of the Bill

Sykes type.

RORAVA
739

4^2
or

Koravas,

Korchas as they are called

In

the

Anantapur
less

district,

on the police registers as members

of wandering gangs or ordinary suspects.

Of

these,

no

than 215, or 29 per cent., had at least one conviction recorded against them. In the Nellore district, in 1903,
there were 54 adult males on the register, of
less

whom

no

than

24,

or 44 per cent., had convictions against

them.

In the

Salem

district,

in

the

same

year, there

were 118 adult male Koravas registered, against 38, or

32*2 per cent, of

whom

convictions stood.

There

are,

of course, hundreds

who escape
for

active surveillance
livelihood,

by

assuming an ostensible means of

ances must

and allow-

be made

the

possibility of

numbers

escaping conviction for offences they

may have committed.

hesitation
into
in

The women
less

are equally criminal with the men, but are

frequently

caught.

They have no
by passing

concealing

small

articles

them

the

vagina. The best way of ascertaining whether this has In this been done is said to be to make them jump. way. at a certain feast, a gold jewel was recovered from

woman, and she was convicted.*

always
effectual.

This expedient
case
fields,

is,

however, not
notice,
in

came under
in

1901,

at the

Kolar gold

which a

woman had a
who was

small packet of stolen gold

amalgam passed

to her during the search of the

house by her husband,

suspected.

the house to urinate.

She begged permission to leave 7'he request was granted, and

with her on her return reported

a constable

who went

her conduct as suspicious.

cured, and the parcel found

female searcher was protransversely in the

it.

jammed

vagina, and required manipulation to dislodge

jewels,

Small

which the Koravas manage to

*

steal,

are at once

M. Paupa Rao Naidu.

Op.

cit.

473
concealed in the mouth, and
swallowed,
the jewel
is

KORAVA
even swallowed.

When

next day recovered with the

help of a purgative.

In this

way

a half sovereign was

recovered a few years ago.*

Male Koravas sometimes

In the Tanjore

conceal stolen articles in the rectum.

district a

Korava Kepmari, who was suspected of having

resorted to this dodge, was examined by a medical officer,

and two thin gold chains, each about 14 inches long, were extracted. The females take an important part in
resisting an attempt to arrest the males,
that,
I

am

informed
the

"when a males make off,

in

raid

is

made on an encampment,

while the females, stripping themselves,

dance

a state of nudity, hoping thereby to attract the

to them,

constables

while the males get clear away.

fail

Should, however, these manoeuvres

object, the females

to attain their

proceed to lacerate the pudenda, from

which blood flows profusely.

dead.

They then

lie

down

as

if

The unfortunate constables, though proof against amorous advances, must perforce assist them in their distress. If it comes to searching Korava huts, the
females take a leading part
in

attacking the intruders,

and

will

not hesitate to stone them, or break chatties

(earthen pots) on their heads."

It
is

recorded,

in

the

Cuddapah Manual,

that

"a
and

Yerukala came to a
begging,
ascertained

village, and,

under the pretence of

jewels,

which

women wore

whether the

husbands of

any such were employed

at night in the fields.

In the night he returned, and,

going to the house he had previously marked, suddenly snatched up the sleeping woman by the massive kamma
(gold ear-ring) she wore, sometimes with such violence
as to
lift

up the woman, and always

* Ibid.

in

such a way as to

KORAVA
wrench
in

474
This trick he repeated
In one case,

off the lobe of the ear.

three different hamlets of the same village on one

night,

and

in

one house on two women.

lifted

the

woman had been

fell

so high that,

when

the ear

gave way, she

her head."

to the ground,

and severely injured

is

new form

of house robbery
in

said to

have

been started by the Koravas

recent years.

They

mark down the residence

worth
stealing,

of a woman, whose jewels are and lurk outside the house before dawn.

Then, when the

before the

woman comes

out,

as

is

the custom,

men

are stirring, they snatch her ear-rings and

other ornaments, and are gone before an alarm can be

raised.*
is

for

Another favourite method of securing jewelry the Korava to beg for rice, from door to door, on

a dark night, crying " Sandi bichcham,

Amma,

Sandi

bichcham" (night alms, mother, night alms).

at the

Arrived

house of his victim, he cries out, and the lady

rice,

of the house brings out a handful of

in his pot.

and puts
spoil.

it

As she does
",

so,

he makes a grab at her

tali

or other neck ornament, and

" Stolen property
of,

makes

off

with the
"
is

Mr. Mullaly writes,!

for a rupee's
rule,

disposed

as soon as they can get a suitable remuneration.

is

The
their into

general bargain

Re.

weight of gold.

They do

not,

however, as a

lose

much over

transactions,

and invariably convert their surplus

In searching a Koravar

sovereigns.

encampment on one
to discover a

occasion, the writer

had the good fortune

which,
for

number

of sovereigns

safe

keeping, were

stitched in the folds of their pack saddles.

Undisposed

of property, which had been buried,

is

brought to the

encampment
before dawn.

at nightfall,

and taken back and re-buried The ground round the pegs, to which
t Op.

I'olice Report, 1902.

cit.

475
their asses are tethered, in heaps of ashes or

KORAVA
filth,

are

favourite places for burying plunder."

The
Alagiris

Koravas
or

disguise

themselves as

Kepmaris,
Alagiri,

pujaris.
etc.,

The
in

terms

Kepmari,

Kathirivandlu,

are applied to certain persons

who
of

adopt particular methods

committing crime,

all

which are adopted by the Koravas. The Tamil equivalent of Kepmari is Talapa Mathi, or one who changes
his head-dress.

Alagiris are thieves

temple of Kalla Alagar near

who worship at the Madura, and vow that a

will

percentage of their ill-gotten gains

offering to his temple.

be given as an

Kathirivandlu (scissors people)

are those
off chains,

who

operate with knives or scissors, snipping

of purses,

cutting the strings

and ripping

open bags or pockets. The Koravas are not nice as regards the selection
of

Telugu as kondamuchu, jackals, field rats, deer, antelope, goats and sheep serve as There is a Tamil proverb " Give articles of dietary. an elephant to a pandit, and a cat to a Kuravan." They will not eat cattle or buffaloes, and will not take food in company with Muhammadans, barbers, washermen, carpenters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, Paraiyans or Chakkiliyans. The Boyas seem to be the lowest class with
in

some of their food. faced monkey known

Cats, fowls,

fish, pigs,

the black-

whom they will

available,

eat.

They drink
At

heavily

or

at

social

gatherings,

when funds are when free drinks

is

are forthcoming.

council meetings liquor must be

supplied
"

by the disputants, and there

a proverb,

With dry mouths nothing can be uttered." Most Koravas possess knives, and a kind
is

of

bill-

hook, called koduval, which

a sort of compromise
of the blade
is

between a sword and a

heavy, and renders
it

sickle.

The back

capable of dealing a very severe

KORAVA
blow.

476
this

With
the

implement animals are slaughtered,

split.

murders committed, and bamboos

For

purpose

of

committing

burglaries,

the

Koravas are said by Mr. Mujjaly

to use

an iron

instru-

ment pointed at either end, called gadi kolu or sillu kolu, which is offered, before a gang sets out, to Perumal, whose aid in the success of the undertaking is
invoked.

The Koravas
doing something.

as a class are industrious, and generally

One may

see the

men on
will

the march

twisting threads into stout cord.

Others

be making

fine nets for fishing, or coarse ones, in

which to suspend
or a design

household pots or utensils

with red thread and cowry

straw pads, on which the

;

round-bottomed chatties invariably stand

shells,

wherewith to decorate
It is

the head of a bull or a money-bag.

when hawk-

ing these articles from door to door that the Koravas are said to gain information as to property which

may
in

be worth stealing.

The

following

is

a free translation

of a song representing
l)lay

Koracha

characteristics,

by Mr. D. Krishnamacharlu, a well-known amateur

dramatist of Bellary
Hurrah
!

:
caste
!

Our Koracha

is

a very fine caste,

The

best of castes,

Hurrah
is

When

a temple feast

proceeding,

We

beg,

and commit
?

thefts surprising.
for

Don't we

Care we
off

aught
?

Don't we slip

uncaught

(Chorus.)

Cutting trinkets

off,

From

the necks of babes in their mothers' arms.

Who

could suspect us
get away
?

Cannot we hoodwink them

all ?

Cannot we

(Chorus.)

477

KORAVA
us,

When
Do we

those eternal

watchmen catch
life

After endless search take

blurt out
?

out of us.
?
?

Do we
is

confess

Don't we enquire what

our offence

(Chorus.)

In the south, the

Koravas are frequently employed

by villagers as watchmen (kavalgars) on the principle

of setting a thief to keep other thieves
.

off.

They
is

are

paid in grain.
of them, and,
if

The

villagers are

more than

half afraid

the remuneration stipulated upon

not
will

promptly paid to the watchmen, a house-breaking

certainly

occur
in

in

the

village.

If

a crime

happens

to take place

a village where a Korava has been

appointed watchman, he frequently manages to get back

the stolen property
if

the theft

is

the

work of another

Korava, but only on condition that the police are not

called in to investigate the offence.

The

dwellings in which the Koravas

live

are

made
erect

with low

mud

walls and thatched.

The wanderers
feet high.

a temporary hut called gudise, with mats or cocoanut or

palmyra palm leaves, not more than 4

It is

constructed of crossed bamboos tied together, and con-

nected by another bamboo, which serves as a ridge, over

which they fasten the mats.

Marriages are arranged by the
of a youth
elders.

The

father

who

is

of a marriageable age calls together

some of the

elders of his division, and proceeds in quest

If

of a suitable bride.

the family visited consents to the

sent
for,

match, the headman

the toddy-shop.

is

and a move
called

is

made

to

Here the
it

father of the
vessel,

future bridein

groom

fills

a small earthen
offers

Telugu
?

muntha, and
asking him.

to the father of the bride-elect,

I

Do you know why

It
is

give you this toddy

I

The

recipient replies,

because

have given you

KORAVA

478
I

my

daughter, and

drink to her heahh.

The
is

vessel
it,

Is

refilled

and offered to the headman, who takes

and

enquires of the father of the girl

why he

to drink.

The

reply
's

is,

Because
;

have given

my

daughter to

son

drink to her health.

The

questions and

answers are repeated while every one present, according

to rank, has a drink.

Those who have so drunk betrothal ceremony are looked upon as witnesses
is

at this

to the

contract.

After the drinking ceremony, an adjournment

to the girl's house,

made

where a
the

feast

is

partaken

of.

At the conclusion
people enquire
the purchase
if

thereof,

future

bridegroom's

the girl has a maternal uncle, to

paid.

whom
is

money

is

loi

money should be madas (a mada

for

The purchase
rupees), and But, as

= two
is

always the same

a matter of
f^ict,

both well-to-do and poor.

it

the whole of

never paid.

few

instalments are sometimes handed over, but generally

the

money

is

the cause
families,

of endless

quarrels.

When,
maternal

however,

the

are

on good terms, and the

his
wife's

husband enjoys the hospitality of

uncle, or vice versa,
it is

common

thing for one to say

I

to the other after a drink.

Sec, brother-in-law,

have

paid you two madas to-day,

voli

so deduct this from the

(purchase money).

After the marriage has been

arranged, and the maternal uncle has paid four annas as

an earnest of the transaction, the party disperses

such time as the principals are
the
in a position to

until

perform
the
girl

wedding.

They might

be infants,

or

immature, or the intended husband be away.

account break off the match.

After the

betrothal ceremony, the parents of the girl should on no

If this

were done, the

those

party of the husband-elect would

summon

who

were present

at

the drinking ceremony to a meeting,

and he who partook of the second drink (the headman)

479

KORAVA
girl

would demand from the fether of the

of the breach of contract.

an explanation
is

No

explanation
is

likely to

be

satisfactory,

varahas.*
paid,
is

hundred and the father like the purchase money, is seldom This sum,
fined three
it

but the award of

in

places the party from

whom

it

due

a somewhat
payable.

inferior position to the party to

whom

it is

They occupy

thenceforth the posi-

tion of creditor to debtor.

On

the occasion of quarrels,

no delicate sense of refinement restrains the former from

and the position would be retained through several generations. There is a Tamil proverb that the quarrels of a Korava and an Idaiyan are not
alluding" to the debt,

easily settled.
fulfil

If

the contracting parties are ready to

girl is

their

engagement, the maternal uncle of the

first

paid five varahas as the

instalment of the purchase

money, and a Brahman purohit is asked to fix an auspiAt the appointed cious time for the marriage ceremony.
time, the
bride,

wedding party assembles at the home of the and the first day is spent in eating and drinking,

the bride and bridegroom being arrayed in

new

clothes

purchased at the expense of the bride's father.

following day, they again feast.

On

the

The

contracting couple

are seated on a kambli (blanket), on which

of rice have been previously sprinkled.

some grains
guests form

The

a circle round them,

and, at the auspicious moment,

the bridegroom ties a string of black beads round the

bride's

neck.

When

the

string

has been

tied,

the

married

women

present, with hands crossed, throw rice

pair.

over the heads of the

This

rice has

been previ-

ously prepared, and consists of five seers of rice with

five pieces of turmeric, dried cocoanut,

dried date fruit

or

and jaggery (crude sugar), and

A

five

silver

copper

varaha or pagoda was worth Rs. 3-S-0.

KORAVA
coins.

480
is

While the rice-throwing

is
:

proceeding, a monis

otonous song
free translation

crooned, of which the following

five

Procure

white bulls.

Get

five

white goats.
silver.

Obtain a seer * of

Get a seer of gold. Always love your father

And
Look
Your

live

happy

for ever.

after

your mother always,

father

and mother-in-law.

Do

not heed what folk say.

after

Look

your relations,
will

And
Shall

the

God above

keep you happy.

Five sons and four daughters

compose your

family.

predominance of sons
five

is

always considered desir-

able, and, with

sons and four daughters, the mystic

number nine

is

reached.

No
ding

widows,

women who

have remarried, or

girls

dedicated as prostitutes, are allowed to join the wedcircle, as

they would be of

evil

omen
must

to the bride.

Widows and
whose

remarried

women

have

lost

husband, and the prostitute never knows the God to

service she
is

dedicated.
is

On

the third day, the

rice-throwing ceremony

repeated, but on this occasion

the bride and bridegroom pour

some of the

rice

over

each

other's heads before the

the marriage ceremony, but,

women officiate. This ends as among some other'classes,

consummation

is

prohibited for at least three months, as

a very strong superstition exists that three heads should

not enter a door within one year.

The

bride and bride-

ofroom are the

*

first

two heads to enter the new home,

seer

is

an Indian measure of weight, varying in different parts of the

countrv.

481

KORAVA

and the birth of a child within the year would constitute This undesirable event is rendered less likely the third. postponement of consummation. After the preby a
scribed time has lapsed, the bride, with feigned reluctance,
is

escorted by her female relations to her husband's hut.

On the way obscene pleasantries, which evoke much merriment, are indulged
in.

The

bride's pretended reluctance

necessitates a certain

amount

of compulsion, and she

Finally, she
is

is

given an occasional shove.

thrust into

the door of the hut, and the attendant

departure.

women

take their

The following details in another form The bridegroom rites may be noted.
been
set

of the marriage

proceeds on a

Saturday to the settlement of the bride, where a hut has

up

for

him

close to that of the bride.

Both the
head-

huts should face the east.

On the following day, the

man, or an

elder, brings a tray containing betel, flowers

and kankanams (wrist-threads). He ties the threads round the wrists of the bride and bridegroom, and also
round a pestle and mortar and a crowbar.
bution of rice to
all

distri-

present, including infants, follows,

distributed.

and pork and mutton are also

evening, married

Towards

women

go, with music produced by

beating on a brass tray, to a well or tank, with three

pots beneath a canopy (ulladam).

The

pots are

filled

and placed near the marriage milk-post. The bride takes her seat on a plank, and the bridegroom is carried on the shoulders of his brother-in-law, and
with water,

conducted to another plank.

Three married women, and

is

some

old men, then pour rice over the heads of the pair,

while the following formula

repeated

"Try
;

to secure
live well

four pairs of donkeys, a few pigs and cattle

and amicably
live."

feed your guests well

grow wise and

The
H1-31

couple are then taken to the bride's hut, the

KORAVA
entrance to which
is

482

guarded by several married women,

till

who
pair

will not

allow them to enter

the bridegroom has

given out the name of the bride.

they have eaten

Within the hut, the exchange food three times, and what remains after
is

finished off

by some married men and

bridesmaid.

women.

That night the

is

pair sleep in the bride's hut,

together with the best

following day, a feast

man and
held,

On

the

at

must be represented by

at

least

which every house one married woman.

takes
the
bride

Towards
to his hut,

evening,

the

bridegroom

and, just before they start, her mother ties

in

At the entrance to the hut, a basket, called Kolapuriamma's basket, is placed. Depositing a winnowing tray thereon, the bride pours The rice the rice which has been given to her on it.
rice

up some

her cloth.

is

then transferred by the bridegroom to the mortar, and

it

he and the bride pound

with the pestle and crowbar.

The

tali

is

then tied by the

bridegroom round the

bride's neck.

In connection with marriage, Mr. Fawcett writes as

follows.
"

girl's

mother's brother's son has the right to

if

have her to
from the

wife,

and,

his right

is

abrogated by giving
receives a penalty
given.

her to another, he (or his father

?)

man

to

whom
is

she

is

The

girl's

maternal uncle disposes of the

district,

girl.

In the Coimbatore
is

however,
it

it

the father

who

said to

do so

indeed

is

said that the father can even take a girl

to another for

away from her husband, and give her

a higher bride-price.
is

Prior to marriage proper, there

the betrothal, accompanied by presentation of betel

leaves and draughts of toddy,

when

the maternal uncle

is

or father repeats a regular formula which

answered

word

for

word by the

girl's party, in

which he agrees to
at the

hand over the

girl for

such a

price,

same time

4^3

KORAVA
damaged

requiring that she shall receive no bodily injury or have

her hair cut, and,

if

she

is

returned

physically,
rate.
It

payment

shall

be made according to a fixed

should be said that the betrothal sometimes takes place

at a tavern, the favourite

haunt of the Koravas, where

the bridegroom's party offers a pail of toddy to the

father of the girl
pail seals the

and

his party.

The emptying

of this

marriage contract, and involves the father

of the girl into

payment of the bride-price as a

fine,

together with a fine of Rs, 2 for every male child, and

Rs. 4 for every female child that
penalty,

may be
is

born.

This

which

is

known

as ranku,

not,

as a rule,

pressed at once, but only after some children have been

born.

by a
hour
the

The day of marriage, generally a Sunday, is fixed Brahman, who receives betel nuts, cocoanuts, one

rupee, or even less.

for the event.

He

selects

an auspicious day and

is

The hour

selected

rather early in

the evening, so that the marriage

may be consummated

same

night.

few days before the appointed day,

into a tank (pond)

two unmarried lads cut a branch of the naval tree

{^Eugenia Janibolana), and throw
or river,
it

where it is left same two lads bring it

until the wedding day, when the back, and plant it in the ground
it is

near the dwelling of the bride, and on either side of

placed a pot of water (brought from the tank or river

where the branch had been

by two married
each pot
is
is

left to

soak) carried thither

women under
The

a canopy.

The mouth
sit

of

closed by placing on top an earthen vessel

on which

a lamp.

bride and bridegroom

on

donkey saddles spread on the ground, and undergo the nalugu ceremony, in which their hands and feet are rubbed nine times with saffron (turmeric) coloured
red with

chunam
rice

(lime).

The

elders bless the couple,

throwing

over their heads with crossed hands, and


KORAVA
all

484

the while the

:

women

chant monotonously a song

such as this

Galianame Baipokame Sobaname,

Oh, Marriage giver of happiness and prosperity
!

The The

best oil of Madanapalle

best soap seed of Silakat

is is

this

nalugu

for this

nalugu

Paint yourselves,
Stain your cloth.
Bring,

Oh Oh

sisters,

with the best of colours

;

brother, with the best of dyes

;

Oh Oh

brother, the greenest of snakes

it

Adorn with
Bring,

our Basavayya's neck

brother, the flowers without leaves

hair of the bride.
tali,

Adorn with them the

Then

the bridegroom ties the bride's

a string

coloured yellow with saffron (turmeric), or a string of

Every married woman must wear a necklet of black beads, and glass bangles on her wrists when she becomes a widow, she must remove them. A feature of the ceremony not to be overlooked is
small black beads.
;

the wedding meal (pendlikudu).

After undergoing the

nalugu, the bridegroom marks with a crowbar the spot

where this meal, consisting of rice, milk, green gram, and jaggery (sugar), is to be cooked in a pot called
bhupalakunda.
the cooking
is

trench

is

dug

at the spot,
is

and over

it

done.

When
it

the food

ready, the bride

and bridegroom take of

After
this,

each three handfuls, and then

the boys and girls snatch the pot

away from them.

the couple proceed to the bridegroom's hut,

where they find a light burning. The elders sprinkle them with water coloured yellow with saffron (turmeric)
as they enter."

For the following note on

Yerukalas of the Vizagapatam

marriage

among

the

Mr. Hayavadana Rao.

of his paternal aunt or

district, I am indebted to man may marry the daughter maternal uncle. The father of

the would-be husband of a girl goes with ten rupees,

485
called sullaponnu, to her

KORAVA

home, and pays the money to

together.
girl's

one of several elders

who are brought

Towards
is

evening, the ground in front of the

hut

swept,

and a wooden plank and stone are

bridegroom
latter.
sits

set side

by

side.

The

on the former, and the bride on the

Two

pots of water are placed before them, and

connected together by a thread tied round their necks.

The
them.

pots are lifted up, and the water

is

poured over

among many new cloths are not given to them after this Resuming their seats, the couple sprinkle each bath. An intelligent member of the caste other with rice. then personates a Brahman priest, mutters sundry manContrary to the custom prevailing
castes,
it

trams (prayers), and shows a string (karugu) with a piece

of turmeric tied to
to those assembled.
It is

touched

by them

in

token of a blessing, and tied by the bridebride.

groom on the neck of the

supply of liquor,
is

feast,

with a liberal

held,

the expenses of which are met

to.

from the ten rupees already referred

brother

The younger
mother's

may marry

the
is

widow
is

of an elder brother, and

in front of her

vice versa.
hut.

widow

married

The marriage
If

string

tied

round her neck, but

without the ceremonial observed at the marriaee of a

maid.

a husband wishes to secure a divorce, he asks

his wife to
If

break a twig
wishes
small
to
for

in

two before a caste

council.

woman

a divorce, she elopes with a man,

called ponnu, to the husband,

who pays a
and asks him

fine,

break a twig.
is

The

following story

current

among

the Koramas,

to account for the tali or bottu

being replaced by a string

time, a bridegroom forgot
off to

of black beads.
to

Once upon a

bring the

tali,

and he was told

procure the

necessary piece of gold from a goldsmith.

The

parties

waited and waited, but the young

man

did not return.

KORAVA

486

has been used as a According to another story, the tali was prepared, and kept on the bank of a river, but

Since then, the string of beads

marriage badge.

disappeared when

it

was going

to

be picked up.

man was
I

sent to procure another, but did not

come

back.

am

district

informed that the Yerukaias of the Kistna are divided into two classes sheep and goats

practically.

Of these,

the latter are the bastard offspring

in

of the former.

Illegitimate must,

the

first
is

instance,
ipso facto

marry

illegitimate.

The

offspring thereof

whitewashed, and becomes legitimate, and must marry

a legitimate.

A
family

custom

is

stated by Dr. Shortt * to prevail

first

among

the Yerukaias, by which the

two daughters of a
fixed at

may be

claimed by the maternal uncle as wives

"

for his sons.

The

value of a wife

is

twenty

pagodas.

The maternal
is

uncle's right to the

first

two

daughters
is

valued at eight out of twenty pagodas, and

If

carried out thus.

his

he urges his preferential claim,

to his nieces, he pays for each
if

and marries
sons, or

own sons
;

only twelve pagodas

and similarly

he,

from not having

any other cause, foregoes his claim, he receives

else

eight pagodas of the twenty paid to the girl's parents

by anybody
example,

who may marry them."

in

The

price of

a wife apparently differs

it is

different

localities.

For
that,

noted, in the

Census

report, 1901,

among

the

Kongu

sub-division of the Koravas, a

man

can marry his

sister in for

sister's

daughter, and,

when he

gives his

marriage, he expects her to produce a bride

husband accordingly pays Rs. 7-8-0 out of the Rs. 60 of which the bride price consists, at the wedding itself, and Rs. 2-8-0 more each year
him.

His

sister's

Trans. Eth. Sec. N.S., VII.

8;

KORAVA

until the

woman bears

a daughter.

to be even

more previous

Some Koravas seem than fathers who enter their

at a public school.

infant sons for a popular

house

For

their children are said to be

espoused even before they

are born.

Two

men, who wish their children to marry,

" If

say to one another:

your wife should have a

girl

and mine a boy

(or vice versa), they

must marry."

And,

to bind themselves to this, they

exchange tobacco, and

after the children are

the potential bridegroom's father stands a drink to the

future bride's relations.

But

if,

grown

up,

Brahman should pronounce the omens

back the cost of the liquor consumed
If

unpropitious, the marriage does not take place, and the

bride's father pays
at the betrothal.

the marriage

is

arranged, a pot of

water

is

placed before the couple, and a grass (Cymodon

Dactylon) put into the water.

oath between them.*
:

This

is

equal to a binding
It

Of

this

grass

is

said In the

Atharwana Veda May this grass, which rose from the water of life, which has a hundred roots and a hundred stems, efface a hundred of my sins, and prolong my existence on earth for a hundred years." It Is noted by the Rev. J. Calnf that "at the birth of a daughter, the father of an unmarried little boy often brings a rupee, and ties it in the cloth of the father of the newly born
"
girl.

When

the girl

is

grown

up, he can claim her for

his son.
earlier."

For twenty-five rupees he can claim her much

to

In North Arcot, the Koravas are said

their unmarried daughters,

"mortgage
discharged.

who become
till

the absolute
is

property of the mortgagee

the debt

The same

practice exists In

Chingleput and Tanjore.

wives outright when
t
Ir^d.

In Madras, the Koravars

*
J.

sell their

F. Kearns, Kalyfina Shatanku, 1868.

Ant., III., 1S74.

X Madras Census Report, 1871.

KORAVA

488
fifty

they want money, for a sum equal to

Nellore and other
the
districts,

rupees.

In

they

all

purchase their wives,

seventy rupees,
but

price varying from thirty to

money

rarely passes on such occasions, the consideration

cattle."

being paid in asses or

In a recent case in the

stated that he had sold
It is

Madras High Court, a Korava

one of
his

wives

for

twenty-one rupees.*
the wife

stated by

Dr. Pope that the Koravas do

their wives for debt.
If
is

not " scruple to

pawn

who

is

in

pledge dies a

natural death, the debt

discharged.

If

she should die

from hard usage, the creditor must not only cancel the
debt, but

must defray the expenses of a second marriage

If
if

for his debtor.

the

woman

lives

till

the debt

is

dis-

charged, and

she has children by the creditor, the

girls

boys remain with him, the

her husband."

go back with her

to

The

conditions of the country suggest a

reason
in

for the

pawning of wives.

A wife would be pawned

times of stress, and redeemed after seasons of plenty.

afford to accept her in pledge in a
in

The man who can

time of famine would,

periods of plenty, require

men

for agricultural purposes.

issue,

H e, therefore, retains the male

Some
years ago,

who

in

time

will

be useful to him.

some Koravas were convicted of stealing the despatchbox of the Collector of a certain district from his tent. It came out, in the course of the trial, that the head of the gang had taken the money contained therein as his share, and with it acquired a wife. The Collector humorously claimed that the woman, having been obtained with
his

money, was, according to a section of the Criminal

Procedure Code, his property.

A woman

who

marries seven

men

successively one

after the other, either after the

death of her husbands or

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

4^9
after divorce,
is

KORAVA

considered to
Boyisani.

by Mr. Paupa Rao Naidu to be be a respectable lady, and is called Pedda

said
lead in marriages

She takes the

and other
that "if a

religious ceremonies.
It is

noted, in the Census Report,

jail,

1891,

man

is

sent to

his wife will

form a connection with

some other man

husband, she

of the gang, but on the release of her

him with any children born to The Korava women are accustomed her in the interval. to honour their lords and husbands with the dignified On one occasion, a Korava got into title of cocks." trouble in company with a friend, and was sentenced to
will return to

three years imprisonment, while his friend got two years.

The

latter, at

the termination of his period of enforced

seclusion, proceeded to live with the wife of the former,

settling

down

in his friend's

abode.
at

The former escaped

home, claimed
his
jail

from
wife.

jail,

and,

turning

up

his

His friend journeyed

located,

to the place

where the

was

and reported to the authorities his

ability

to find the escaped convict,

who was

recaptured, while

his friend regained possession of his wife,

and pocketed

twenty-five rupees for giving the information which led

to his rearrest.

The remarriage of widows is permitted. The man who wishes to marry a widow purchases new cloths for
himself and his bride.

He
is

invites a

number

of friends,

and, in their presence, presents his bride with the cloths.

The simple ceremony

As

known

as chirakattu-koradam,

or desiring the cloth-tying ceremony.

a general rule, the

in

Korava wife

is

faithful to

her

husband, but,

the event of incompatibility,

man and

wife will announce their intention of separating to their

gang.

This
111-32

is

considered equivalent to a divorce, and

the husband can

demand back

the four annas, which

KORAVA

490
uncle.
is

were paid as earnest money to his wife's maternal This is said to be done, whether the separation
to the fault either of the

due

husband or the

wife.

Amonois

other castes, the

if

woman

has to return the money only

she

is

divorced owing to her

own
it

fault.

Divorce

said to be rare, and, even after

has taken place, the

their differences,

divorced parties

may make up

and

continue to keep house together.

tion, the father of the girl

In cases of abduc-

summons

a council meeting,

at

which the offender

is

fined.

girl

who has been

if

abducted cannot be married as a spinster, even

she

was recovered before sexual connection had taken place. The man who carried her off should marry her, and the ceremony of widow marriage is performed. In the event of his refusing to marry her, he is fined in the same amount as the parents of a girl who fail to keep the contract to marry her to a particular person. The fact of a man who abducts a girl having a wife already would be no
bar to his marrying her, as polygamy
In former days, an adulterer
fine
is

freely permitted. to

who was unable

pay the

imposed was tied to a

tree,

and shaved by a barber,

who used

the urine of the guilty

woman

in lieu of water.

In connection with birth ceremonies, Mr.

writes as follows.
to be
" Difficulty in parturition is

Fawcett
thought
before

due to an ungratified desire of the

confined.

woman

she
it

is

This

is

generally something to
lust.

eat,

but

is

sometimes ungratified

In cases of the latter

to

kind, the

Koravar midwife induces the woman

is

mention

her paramour's name, and, as the name

the

mentioned,

midwife puts a pinch of earth into the woman's

idea of

mouth with the

accelerating

delivery.
is

The

woman
all,

is

confined in an outlying hut, where she

tabu to

with the exception of the midwife, for about ten days.

as the child
is

As soon

born, incense

is

burnt

in front

491
of this hut, and there
is

KORAVA

an offering of jaggery (crude

sugar) to the

spirits

of the departed elders,

who

are
:

invoked in the following words in the Korava dialect

*

Ye

spirits

of

our elders
cattle

help,

and increase our

Descend on us, give us and wealth. Save us from

the

Sircar (Government),

police.

We
is

shall

worship you

and shut the mouth of the for ever and ever.' The
all

jaggery

then distributed to
is

present,

and the new-

born infant

cleaned with cow-dung and washed.

it

Brahman
child.

is

sometimes consulted, but

is

the maternal

uncle upon

whom

the responsibility falls of

naming the

This he does on the ninth day after confinement,

the mother and child are bathed.

when
waist.

Having named
its

the child, he ties a string of thread or cotton round

This string

signifies the entry of the child into the

it,

Koravar community, and

until the

or

its
life.

substitute,

is

worn

termination of married
is

on

this occasion
is

not usually the

The name gfiven name by which an

known by his fellows, as persons are generally called after some physical trait or characteristic thus Nallavadu, black man Pottigadu, short man Nettakaladu, long-legged man Kuntadu, lame man Boggagadu, fat man Juttuvadu, man with a large tuft of hair Gunadu, hunch-backed man Mugadu, dumb man and so on. In a few cases, children are genuinely named after the household deities. Those so named are called Ramudu, Lachigadu, Venkatigadu, Gengadu,
individual
:

Chengadu, Subbadu, Ankaligadu, and so on. An old custom was to brand the children on the shoulders with
a piece of red-hot
iron.

Marks of such branding are

it

called the cattle mark, for

seems that children should

be branded on the shoulders before undertaking the sacred duty of tending cattle. They explain the
*
'

custom by saying that Krishna, the God of the shepherds,

in-32 B

KORAVA
allowed boys of his

492

own

caste,

and of no other, to This ceremony

leads
to
identi-

perform the sacred duty, after the boy dedicated thereto

had undergone the branding ceremony.

is

seldom observed nowadays, as

Birth of a child on a
is

it

fication.

new-moon

night,

when

the weather

strong,

is

believed to augur a notoriinfant.

ous thieving future for the

Such children are

commonly named Venkatigadu

after the

God

at Tirupati.

The

birth of a child having the umbilical cord twisted

its

round

neck portends the death of the father or

maternal uncle.

warded off by the uncle or the father killing a fowl, and wearing its entrails round his neck, and afterwards burying them
This unpleasant
effect
is

along with the umbilical cord."

The
a baby
1030),

practice of the couvade, or custom in accordance

is

with which the father takes to bed, and

is

doctored

when

born,

is

referred to by Alberuni * (about A.D.

who
is

says that,
attention

when
to

a child

is

born, people

particular

the

man, not to
if

show the woman.

is

There

a Tamil proverb that,

a Korati

brought

to bed,

her

Writing about the Yerukalas,t the Rev.

that

husband takes the prescribed stimulant. Cain tells us J.

"directly the

informs her

woman feels the birth pains, she husband, who immediately takes some of her
them
on, places

clothes, puts

on his forehead the mark

which the women usually place on theirs, retires into a dark room where there is only a very dim lamp, and lies

down on

the bed, covering himself up with a long cloth.

is

When

the child

born,

it

is

washed, and placed on the

cot beside the

articles are

father.

Asafoetida, jaggery,

and other
but has

then given, not to the mother, but to the

is

father.

He

not allowed to leave his bed,

* India.

Triibner.

Oriental Series.

+ Ind. Ant., Ill, 1874.

493
everything needful brought to him."
vars, or

KORAVA

Among

the Kura-

basket-makers of Malabar,

" as

soon as the pains

is

of delivery

come upon a pregnant woman, she

and
left

taken

to an outlying shed,

alone to live or die as the

is

event

may
;

turn out.

No

help

given her

for

twenty-

eight days.

Even medicines

are thrown to her from a

is

distance

and the only assistance rendered

to place
is

a jar of
born.

warm water

close by her just before the child

is

Pollution from birth

held as worse than that

from death.

At the end of the twenty-eight days, the hut in which she was confined is burnt down. The father, too, is polluted for fourteen days, and, at the end of that time, he is purified, not like other castes by the
barber, but by holy water obtained from

Brahmans

at

temples or elsewhere."

To

Mr. G. Krishna Rao, Super-

intendent of Police in the

I

Shimoga

district of

Mysore,
the
it

am

indebted for the following note on the couvade

as practiced

among
a

the Koramas.
that
is

'*

Mr. Rice,

in

Mysore Gazetteer, says

said that,

among

the Koravars

is

when
for
I

woman
At

confined, her

husband takes
of

medicine
Resident

her.

the

instance

the

British

made

enquiries,

and learned that the Kukke

(basket-making) Koramas, living at Gopala village near

Shimoga, had

this

custom among them.

The husband
As

learns from his wife the probable time of her confine-

ment, and keeps at

home awaiting

the delivery.

soon as she

is

confined, he goes to bed for three days,

and takes medicine consisting of chicken and mutton

broth spiced with ginger, pepper, onions, garlic,
etc.

He

drinks arrack, and eats as good

food as he can
rice

afford, while his wife is

given boiled

with a very

small quantity of

salt,

for

fear that a larger quantity

may

induce

wife to

There is generally a Korama midhelp the wife, and the husband does nothing but
thirst.

KORAVA
eat, drink,

494

and

sleep.

The

clothes of the husband, the

to a

wife,

and the midwife are given

washerman

to

be

washed on the fourth day, and the persons themselves have a wash. After this purification, the family gives a dinner to the caste people. One of the men examined by me explained that the man's life was more valuable
than that of the woman, and that the husband, being
a more important factor
in

the

birth than the wife,

deserves to be better looked

after."

The

following

legend
practice

is

current
the

among
couvade

the Koramas, to explain the

of

donkey, belonging to a
a village, wandered
considerable

among them. One day a Korama camp, pitched outside

Brahman's
field,

into a

and did

damage

to the crop.

The Brahman was

down
the

naturally angry, and ordered his coolies to pull

hut of the owner of the donkey.

The Korama,

casting

himself at the feet of the Brahman, for want

of a better

excuse, said that he was not aware of what his animal

was doing, as
wife,

at the

time he was taking medicine

after
it.

for his

and could not look

According to another
his servants to

version of the story, the

Brahman ordered

remove the hut from his land or beat'the Korava, so that Koravas have since that time taken to bed and shared
the pollution of their wives, to escape being beaten.
In connection with the couvade, Mr. Fawcett writes
that "
vars,
it

has been observed in the bird-catching Kora-

and the custom has been admitted by others.

Directly a

woman

is

brought

to

bed,

she

is

given

in betel leaf. She is then composed of asafcetida and other drugs. The husband partakes of a portion of this before it is given to the woman. This custom is one of those which the Koravar is generally at pains to conceal,

asafcetida rolled

given a

stimulant

denying

its

existence absolutely.

The proverb When

*

'

495
the Koravar
asafoetida
'

KORAVA
Koravar man takes

woman

is

confined, the

is,

however, well known.

is

Very soon

after a

woman
down

is

confined, attention

paid exclusively to her

husband, who wraps himself

in

in his wife's cloth,

and

lies

his

wife's place

beside the new-born infant.

He

stays there for at

least

makes room
through
this

for his wife.

informed by Koravars that

some minutes, and then The writer of this note was any one who refused to go

ceremony would undergo the severest penalties, indeed, he would be turned out of the commuNothing annoys a Koravar so much as to mention nity.
the word asafoetida in his presence, for he takes
it

to

be

an insulting reference to the couvade.

to a

The

worst insult

Koravar woman
}

asafoetida

words 'Will you give which are understood by her to mean an

lies

in the

improper overture."

Some Koravas

are said to believe that the pangs of

labour are largely allayed by drinking small doses of a

mixture of the dung of a male donkey and water.

few years ago, when a camp of Koravas was visited

in the

Salem

district

by the Superintendent of
for the

Police,

two men of the gang, who had petitioned

val

remo-

of the

constables

who were

escorting

the gang,

dragged a woman

in the

throes of childbirth by the

This was done to show that they could not move their camp, with a woman in such a
armpits from the hut.
condition.

Nevertheless, long before daylight

on the

following day, the

camp had been moved, and they were

found at a spot

fifteen miles distant.

When

they were

asked about the woman, a hut slightly apart from the

rest

was pointed
newly-born

out, in front of
infant.

which she was suckling

had done
foot,

the

She

the journey

immediately after delivery partly on

and partly on a

donkey.

KORAVA

496

The Korava child's technical education commences From infancy, the Koravas teach their children early. to answer " I do not know " to questions put to them. They are taught the different methods of stealing, and the easiest way of getting into various kinds of houses. One must be entered through the roof, another by a hole
in

the wall, a third by making a hole near the bolt of the

door.

Before letting himself

down from

roof,

the

Korava must make sure that he does not alight on brass He generally sprinkles fine sand vessels or crockery.
in small quantities, so that the noise

give him an idea of the situation. adopted during the day, when hawking wares, must be When a child is caught red-handed, he will learnt.

made thereby may The methods to be

never reveal

his

identity

by giving the name of

his
girl

parents, or of the

gang

to which he belongs.

about twelve or thirteen years old was captured a few

years ago in the Mysore State at the

Oregam weekly
that she

market, and, on being searched, w^as found to have a

small knife in her cheek.

She declared

was an

orphan with neither friends nor relations, but was identiThe Koravas are adepts at assuming fied by the police. But the system of finger-print records, which aliases.
has been introduced in recent years, renders the conceal-

ment of their identity more difficult than it used to " Both men and women," Mr. Paupa Rao writes, be. " have tattoo marks on their foreheads and forearms.

When
in

they are once convicted, they enlarge or alter

tattoo

some way the

marks on

their

forearms, so

that

they might differ from the previous descriptive marks of identification entered by the police in their During festivals, they search books and other records. put red stuff (kunkuma) over the tattoo marks on their
foreheads."

497
Their conduct
rules.
is

KORAVA

regulated by certain well-defined

not enter a house by the front door,
if

They should
is

unless this

unavoidable, and,

they must so enter

it,

If they enter by they must not leave by the same way. the back door, they depart by the front door, which they

leave wide open.

They should not commit robbery

salt,

in

house, in which they have partaken of rice and curds.

Curds always require

honour.

and eating

salt

is

equivalent

to taking the oath of fealty according to their code of

They

ease themselves in the house

in order,
it is

in

which
render

they have committed a theft,

the pursuit of them

said, to

unsuccessful.

In a note on the initiation of Yerukala girls into the

profession of fortune-telling in Vizagapatam, Mr.

vadana Rao writes that

succeeding the
first

it

is

Hayacarried out on a Sunday

puberty ceremony.
is
is

caste feast,

with plenty of strong drink,

fasts.

held, but the girl

herself
little
is

The

feast over, she

taken to a spot at a

distance from the settlement called Yerukonda.

said to be the

This

name

of a place on the trunk road between

girls
is

Vizianagram and Chicacole, to which

in

were taken
blindfolded

former times to be

initiated.

The

girl

with a cloth.

Boiled rice and green

gram are mixed

with the blood of a black fowl, black pig, and black goat,

which are

killed.

Of

this

least three morsels, and, if

mixture she must take at she does not vomit, it is taken

fortune-

as a sign that she will

teller.

become a good Yeruka or

Vomiting would indicate that she would be a

a

false prophetess.

When
the south. the corpse

wandering Korava
If possible,
in.

dies,

he

is

buried as

quickly as possible, with head to the north, and feet to

a

new
is

cloth

is

obtained to wrap
last

The grave

covered with the

hut

which the deceased occupied.

The Koravas immediately

KORAVA

498

leave a camp, in which a death has occurred.

The nomad

Koravas are said by Dr. Pope to bury their dead at night, no one knows where. Thence originates the

common saying

in

regard to anything which has vanished,

it

leaving no trace behind, that

has gone to the dancing-

room of the wandering

actors.

Another proverb runs

to

the effect that no one has seen a dead monkey, or the

burning-ground of a Korava.
In Vizagapatam,

the Yerukala dead are stated by

in a state of nudity.

Mr. Hayavadana Rao to be burnt

tulsi

plant

{Ocimum

sanctiirii)

is

usually planted on

the spot where the corpse

was

burnt.

The

relations

cannot follow their regular occupation until a caste feast

has been held, and some cooked food thrown on the spot

where cremation took

southern
districts,

place.

In a note on the death rites of the

Koravas of the
that,

Mr. F. A. Hamilton writes

dies,

when
is

one of the communitv

the news of the death

conveyed by a Paraiyan or Chakkiliyan.

ground, whither the corpse
it

At the burning-

is

accompanied with music,

is

laid

on dried cow-dung, which has been spread on

the ground.

The son

of the deceased goes thrice round

the corpse, and breaks a

new

water-pot which he has

brought with him near the head.

He

also hands over

a piece of burning sandalwood for lighting the pyre, and

goes straight home without seeing the corpse again.

On

the third day, the son and other relations go to the

tulsi

burning-ground, heap up the ashes, plant either

[Ocimzim sanctum),
or kathalai

perandai {Vitis

quadrangularis),
milk.

{Agave Americana), and pour

On

the sixteenth day, or at

called karumathi
at
is

some

later time,

a ceremony

performed.

The
etc.

relatives
is

assemble
up,

the

burning-ground,

and a stone
milk,

set

and

washed with water, honey,

On

the following

499
day,
all

KORAVA
an
host.
oil-bath,

the

relatives

take

and

new
killed,

cloths

are

presented to the

Sheep are
is

and a

feast,

with a liberal supply of liquor,

is

held.
in

Till this

ceremony

performed, the son remains

mourning.

as follows.

Concerning death ceremonies, Mr. Fawcett writes " A Tamil proverb likens the death of a
for

Koravar to that of a monkey,

no one ever sees the

dead body of
instantly,

either.

Just as the

monkey

is

thought to

be immortal, the other monkeys removing the carcass

so the corpse of the Koravar
all
is

made away
There
is

with and disposed of with

very
If
little

possible speed.

wailing,

and preparations are made

unmarried,

at once.
is

the deceased was married, the bier on which he

is

carried

practically a ladder

if

it is

a single

bamboo with
winding-sheet

pieces of stick placed transversely.

is

The
one
after-

always a piece of new cloth,

is

in
is

corner of which

tied a half

anna-piece (which

wards taken by one of the corpse-bearers).

day, during which they

Only two of

these are under pollution, which lasts the whole of the

must remain

in their huts.

Next

day, after bathing, they give the crows food and milk.

line is

drawn on the body from head

to foot with milk,

;

the thick end of a piece of grass being used as a brush

then they bathe.

for five days.

Pollution of the chief mourner lasts

Half-yearly and annual ceremonies to the

deceased are compulsory.

the floor of the hut.

figure of the deceased

is

drawn with charcoal on a piece of new cloth spread on

On

either side of the figure

is

placed cooked rice and vegetables served on castor leaves.

After some time, the food
is

placed on a

new winnow,

hung suspended from the roof of the hut the whole night. Next morning, the relations assemble, and partake of the food."
is

which

KORAVA
From
I

500
a note on the Yerukalas of the Nellore district,
rule,

gather that, as a
elders

the dead are buried, though

respected

of

the

community

are

cremated.
bier,

Married individuals are carried to the grave on a

those

wrapped in a mat. On the second day, some cooked food, and a fowl, are placed near the grave, to be eaten by crows, A pot of water is carried thrice round the grave, and then thrown down.

who

die unmarried

On

the ninth day, food

final

is

once more offered

for the crows.

The

death ceremonies are generally performed after

two or three months.

(fruits

Cooked

food,

onions,

brinjals

of Solanuni Melongena), Phaseohts pulse, squash

gourd {Cucurbita maxima), pork, and mutton are placed on a number of castor i^Ricinus) leaves spread on the floor,
and offered to the soul of the deceased, which is represented by a human figure drawn on a new cloth. At the
conclusion of the worship, the food
is

placed on

new

winnowing trays provided

the relations, the house
till

for

the purpose, and given to

who

place

the winnows on the roof of

the following day,

when
at

the food
in

is

eaten.

By some Koravas, a ceremony

departed ancestors
is

honour of the
time
brass
in

performed

the

of the
vessel,

November new moon.

well-polished
it,

W'ith red and white marks on

is

placed

the corner

of a room, which has previously been swept, and purified

with cow-dung.
plate,

In front of the pot

rice

is

placed a leaf
set.

on which cooked
is

and other edibles are

Incense

burned,

and the eldest son of the house

in

partakes of the food

will

the hope that he, in due course,

be honoured by his offspring.

The Koramas

of

Mysore are
in

said
to

to

experience

considerable difficulty

finding

men
left

undertake the

work of carrying the corpse

to the grave.

Should the
it

dead Korama be a man who has

a young widow,

is

50I

KORAVA
propose to marry her the

customary

for

some one

to

same

day, and, by so doing, to

engage

to carry out the

burial.

principal part of the

work connected with the

is

shallow grave, barely two feet deep,

dug, and the

corpse laid therein.

piled
split
in,

When

the

soil

has been loosely

a pot of
is

fire,

carried by the chief

mourner

in

bamboo,

broken, and a pot of water placed on the

raised

mound.

Should the spot be

visited during the

night by a pack of jackals, and the water drunk by

to slake their thirst after feasting

them on the dead Korama,

the

omen is accepted as proof that the liberated spirit has fled away to the realms of the dead, and will never
woman, child, or cattle. On the sixth day, the chief mourner must kill a fowl, and mix its blood with This he places, with some betel leaves and nuts, rice.
near the grave.
is

trouble man,

If

it

is

carried off by crows, everything

considered to have been settled satisfactorily.

As regards the
writes as
follows.

dress of the Koravas, Mr. Mullaly

"

The women wear

down on
the
;

necklaces
all

of

shells and cowries interspersed with beads of

in several

colours
;

rows, hanging low

bosom
their

brass

bangles from the wrist to the elbow

silver

brass, lead,
all

and

rings,

very roughly made, on

fingers

except the middle one.

The

cloth peculiar to Koravar

;

women

is

a coarse black one

but they are, as a rule,

not particular as to this, and wear stolen cloths after

removing the borders and

all

marks of
is

identification.

They

also

wear the chola, which

not, like the

fastened across the

at the back.

bosom, and

Lambadis,

The

men
long,

are dirty, unkempt-looking objects, wear their hair

and usually tied

in

a knot on the top of the head,

and indulge
round the

in little finery.

A joochi

(gochi), or cloth

loins,

and a bag called vadi sanchi, made of

striped cloth, complete their toilet."

KORAVA
" In 1884,

502

Mr. Stevenson, who was then the District

Superintendent of PoHce, North Arcot, devised a scheme

for the

regeneration of the Koravas of that

district.

He

obtained for the tribe a tract of Government land near

Gudiyattam, free of assessment

a grant of Rs. 200 for sinking

for ten years, wells.

and also

Licenses were

also issued to the settlers to cut firewood at specially

favourable rates.

He

also prevailed

upon the Zemindar

of Karvetnegar to grant twenty-five cawnies of land in

Tiruttani for ten years for another settlement, as well as

some building

materials.

Unfortunately the impecuni-

ous condition of the Zemindar precluded the Tiruttani

settlement from deriving any further privileges which

were necessary
existence was,

to

keep

the colony

going,

and

its

therefore, cut short.

The Gudiyattam
some
vitality

colony, on the other hand,

exhibited
it,

for

two or three

years, but, in 1887,

I

too,

went the way

is

of the Tiruttani colony."*

gather, from the Police

Administration Report,

1906, that a

scheme

being

worked out, the object of which is to give a well-known wandering criminal gang some cultivable land, and so
enable the
livelihood.

members

of

it

to settle

down

to

an honest

At the

census, 1891,

Korava was returned as a sub-

division of Paraiyans, and the name is also applied to Jogis employed as scavengers. The following note on the Koravas of the west coast
is

interesting as showing that

Malabar

is

one of the
" In

homes of the now become epidemic

Malabar, there
is

popular
in

game

of Diavolo, which has

countries.

some European

a class of people called Koravas,

who

* Madras Mail, 1907. t For this account of the Koravas,

I

am

largely indebted to a report by

Mr. N. E. Q. Mainwaring, Superintendent of Police.

503
have, from time immemorial, played this
in the

KORAVA
game almost

same manner as its Western devotees do at the present time. These people are met with mostly in the southern parts of Malabar, Cochin and Travancore, and they speak the Malayalam language with a singsong accent, which easily distinguishes them from other They are of wandering habits. The men are people. clever acrobats and rope-dancers, but those of more settled habits are engaged in agriculture and other
industries.

The

beautiful grass mats,

known
Their

as Palghat

mats, are woven by these people.

fortune-tellers

women
The

are

and ballad
for

singers.

Their services are

girls.

also in

demand

boring the ears of

rope-

many wonderful feats while balancing themselves on the rope, among them being the playing
dancers perform
of diabolo while walking to and fro on a tight rope.

The Korava

wooden spool on a string attached to the ends of two bamboo sticks, and throws it up to the height of a cocoanut tree, and, when it comes
acrobat spins the

down, he receives
up.

it

on the

string, to

be again thrown
looking at

There are experts among them who can receive

the string without even
difference in
it.

the spool on

There

is

no noteworthy

the structure and

shape of the spool used by the Koravas, and those of

Europe, except that the Malabar apparatus

is

a solid

wooden thing a
ern toy.
It

little

larger and heavier than the West-

has not yet emerged from the crude stage of

skill,

the village carpenter's

and cannot boast of rubber

adorn the im-

tyres and other embellishments which

ported article
injury should

but
it

it is

heavy enough to cause a nasty

performer while
falling.

hit the

The

Koravas are a very primitive people, but as acrobats

and ropedancers they have continued their profession for generations past, and there is no doubt that they have

KORAVA

504
for

been expert diabolo players

be noted that Lieutenant

many

years.'"*

It

may

from Zanzibar to

Cameron, when journeying Benguela, was detained near Lake

Tanganyika by a native chief. He relates as follows. " Sometimes a slave of Djonmah would amuse us by With two sticks about a foot long his dexterity.
connected by a string of 1 certain length, he spun a
piece of

wood

cut in the b.:ape of an hour-glass, throwit

ing
air

it

before and behind him, pitching

up into the
it

like

a cricket-ball, and catching

it

again, while

continued to spin."

Madras Mail, 190S.

^-^.,

Madras

Printed by The Soperintendknt, Governmkxt Press.

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