TWI Radiographic Interpretation. (Part3)

Radiographic Interpretation
Part 3.
Course Reference WIS 20
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Techniques
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

- film outside, source inside (internal exposure) Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) - film outside, source outside (external exposure) Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) - film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
M.S.Rogers
Single Wall Single Image

SWSI
Film
Film
IQIs should be placed source side
M.S.Rogers
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic

SWSI panoramic
Film
IQIs are placed on the film side Source inside film outside (single exposure)
M.S.Rogers
Double Wall single Image

DWSI
Film IQIs are placed on the film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm
M.S.Rogers
Identification Unique identification IQI placing Pitch marks indicating readable film length
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd EN W10
A
ID MR11
Radiograph
M.S.Rogers
Radiograph
M.S.Rogers
Double Wall Double Image

DWDI
Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of two exposures This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
M.S.Rogers
Identification Unique identification IQI placing Pitch marks indicating readable film length
4
EN W10
1
ID MR12
Shot A Radiograph
M.S.Rogers
Elliptical Radiograph
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Double Wall Double Image perpendicular

DWDI
Film IQIs are placed on the source or film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of three exposures Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
M.S.Rogers
Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two intensifying screens There are three main there are three main types of intensifying screens
Lead screens Fluorescent screens Fluorometallic screens

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Lead Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens Intensification action achieved by emitting particulate radiation (electrons/beta) Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm Front screen shortens exposure time and
improves quality by filtering out scatter

Back screen acts as a filter only
M.S.Rogers
Salt Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens Intensification action achieved by emitting Light radiation (Visible or UV-A) Intensification action twice that of lead screens No filtration action achieved Salt used calcium tungstate
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Fluoromatallic Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate

radiation electrons)
High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Salt used calcium tungstate

M.S.Rogers
Comparison Chart, Intensifying Screens

Screen type
Order of image quality

1 4 3 2
Order of speed
Intensification How factor intensificatio n is achieved

2-3 8-15 5-10 N/A
Lead Fluorescent
3 1
Electrons -ve Beta radiation

Light radiation Light radiation None
Fluorometallic
None
2
4
An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six minutes to two minutes
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
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Radiographic Film
Base
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Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
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Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Emulsion AgBr
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Emulsion AgBr
Supercoat
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What are the advantages of Double Coated Film?
Improve contrast
Reduce the exposure time
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
Film Types
Grain size Coarse Speed Fast Medium Slow Quality Poor Medium Good V Good Film Factor 10
Medium
Fine Ultra Fine
35
90 200
V Slow
Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systems

M.S.Rogers
Image Formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any differing densities The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the latent image (hidden image) 1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into metallic silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are then amplified by the

developer, the developer completely converts the affected crystals into metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation

M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Film processing is carried out using the following
Developer tank - alkali

Stop bath or rinse tank - slightly acidic
Fixer tank - acidic

Final wash tank - running water
Wetting agent - detergent

Drying - drying cabinet or drying room
M.S.Rogers
Processing Systems
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver 3-5 min at 20OC Main Constituents Developing agent metol-hydroquinone Accelerator keeps solution alkaline Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted Preservative prevents oxidation by air Replenishment
Purpose to ensure that the activity of the developer and the

developing time required remains constant Guideline 1. After 1m2 of film has been developed,
about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added
M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Development
Supplied as a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to 1 part developer to 4 parts water Developer temperatures for manual processing 20oC Development times are 4 to 5 minutes During the development process agitation should take place to avoid bromide streaking Replenishment may be added to maintain development times and the activity of the developer
M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Fixer
Supplied as a liquid concentrated acid mixed to 1 part fixer to 3 parts water Fixing temperatures for manual processing 20oC Fixing times are twice the clearing time, clearing time about 3 minutes, fixing time about 6 minutes During the fixing process agitation should take place to avoid light spots on the radiograph
When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer should be replaced, replenishment is not normally added
M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Washing / Drying
After washing in running water the films may be placed in a wetting agent to reduce surface tension this results in even drying, preventing black streaky marks on the radiograph Before drying excess water should be removed with the use of a squeegee
Drying should take place in a dust free environment
Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes

Typical drying times in a drying room 45 minutes Care should be taken not to allow drops of water to appear on the drying films, this may cause black marks to appear on the radiograph
M.S.Rogers
Film Characteristic Curve

Sensitometric curve H & D Curve (Hurter & Driffield)
The point of solarisation
3.5
Density (Log)
3.0
2.5 2.0
1.0
Maximum 0.5 inherent film density 0.3

Log Relative Exposure

M.S.Rogers

Information which can be obtained from a films characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed
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Density
A B C D E
Film A is faster than Film B Film B faster then C

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The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast
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Density obtained in a photographic emulsion does not vary linearly with applied exposure
Steeper gradient Highest contrast
Density (Log)

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The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the density axis will show the density range within which the film is at its optimal
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Shoulder
Density (Log)
Straight line section

Toe

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The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the density axis will show the density range range within which the film is at its optimal A new exposure can be determined for a change of film type
M.S.Rogers
Changing Density
Density achieved 1.5 Density required 2.5 Density
2.5
Determine interval between logs 1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5 Antilog of 0.5 = 3.18 Therefore multiply exposure by 3.18
(measured density is lower than the required density)
1.5
1.3 1.8
Original exposure 10 mA mins New exposure Ltd Copyright 2004 TWI 31.8mA mins

M.S.Rogers
Changing Film
Obtain Logs for Films A and B at required density Density
2.5
A B
Interval between logs = 0.15
Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42

Multiply exposure by 1.42
1.7 1.85
Original exposure 10 mA mins New exposure

14.2 mA mins

M.S.Rogers
Determination of Exposure
Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray variable
Intensity - Gamma curies fixed, X-ray mA variable

Film density to be achieved Film speed Source to film distance
Material type
Material thickness
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Gamma exposures are calculated by the use of a gamma calculators/slide rule Gamma calculators take into consideration Film density to be achieved Source type Activity of the source Film speed Source to film distance Material type Material thickness
M.S.Rogers
X-ray exposures are less straight forward because the wavelength and intensity are variable
X-ray exposures are determined by the following By using exposure charts By reference to previous exposure records
By trial and error test shots

By a combination of the above
M.S.Rogers
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

M.S.Rogers
Chart based on Philips 300kV Screen = pb Dev = to spec
Density = 2.0
Material thickness
Density Equivalent Factor

1 Density Achieved 0.50 0.75 1.00
st
Density Required 1.50 5.00 2.60 1.75 2.00 7.50 3.90 2.50 2.50 10.00 4.90 3.33 3.0 12.00 6.00 4.00
1.50
2.00 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.50 3.75 4.00
1.00
0.75 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.38 0.36 0.35
1.40
1.00 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.53 0.50
1.90
1.25 1.00 0.95 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.60
2.40
1.60 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.86 0.80 0.75
Multiply 1st
exposure by the above factors to achieve the density required.

M.S.Rogers
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
3.5 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30
Philips 300kV Screen = pb Dev = to spec Density = 2.0 Material C/S
35
40
45 50
M.S.Rogers
Material thickness
Exposure Equivalent Chart

Radiographic Equivalence Chart
50kv 100kV 150kV 220kV 400kV Mg
Al Ti Cu Steel 18 12
0.6
1
0.6
1
0.5
0.12 0.45 1.6 1 1.4
0.08
0.08 0.35 1.4 1 1.3 1.4 1 1.3
M.S.Rogers
Zi
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30
Chart based on Philips 300kV Screen = pb Dev = to spec Density = 2.0
Material C/S
Film Type
35
40
45 50
M.S.Rogers
Material thickness
Relative Film Exposures

Film Speed Chart
Agfa
CX
D7
D5
D4
Kodak
150
AX
MX
Fuji
100 3 3.5 4 5 6
80 7 8 10 12 14
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2 2.5
Relative Film Exposures

Change of Film From CX to MX Original Exposure Film factor for CX Film factor for MX 4 mins 2.5 10
New Exposure = New film type X original exposure original film New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins 2.5
M.S.Rogers
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
3.5 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30
Philips 300kV Screen = pb Dev = to spec Density = 2.0 Material C/S Film Type FFD = 900
35
40
45 50
M.S.Rogers
Material thickness
Exposure Calculation
Exposure = intensity x time example 3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA minutes 1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA minutes
Exposure formula old exposure = old distance2 new exposure new distance2 E1 = D12 E2 D22
M.S.Rogers
Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change
T1 D1 2 = T2 D2 2
T1 = New exposure time T2 = Original exposure time D1 = New FFD D2 = Original FFD
M.S.Rogers
Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600 mm
Original exposure at 500mm was 10 min
T1 =
(600) 2 (500)
2
10 = 14.4 mins
M.S.Rogers
Any Questions
M.S.Rogers

TWI Radiographic Interpretation. (Part3)

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Radiographic Interpretation

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

Single Wall Single Image

IQIs should be placed source side

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Single Wall Single Image Panoramic

Double Wall single Image

Double Wall single Image

Double Wall single Image

Double Wall Double Image

Double Wall Double Image

Double Wall Double Image

Double Wall Double Image perpendicular

Lead screens Fluorescent screens Fluorometallic screens

Lead Intensifying Screens

improves quality by filtering out scatter

Salt Intensifying Screens

Fluoromatallic Intensifying Screens

radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate

Salt used calcium tungstate

Comparison Chart, Intensifying Screens

Order of image quality

Intensification How factor intensificatio n is achieved

Electrons -ve Beta radiation

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

What are the advantages of Double Coated Film?

Reduce the exposure time

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systems

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

2. The affected crystals are then amplified by the

3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation

Developer tank - alkali

Fixer tank - acidic

Wetting agent - detergent

Purpose to ensure that the activity of the developer and the

about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added

Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes

Film Characteristic Curve

Maximum 0.5 inherent film density 0.3

Log Relative Exposure

Film Characteristic Curve

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Film Characteristic Curve

Film A is faster than Film B Film B faster then C

Log Relative Exposure

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Film Characteristic Curve

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Film Characteristic Curve

Log Relative Exposure

Film Characteristic Curve

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

Film Characteristic Curve

Straight line section

Log Relative Exposure

Film Characteristic Curve

Log Relative Exposure

Interval between logs = 0.15

Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42