Vol 1

XGEOM
Sonnet® User’s Manual

EM
Release 6.0
Volume 1
Application Notes
Cover: James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879). A professor at Cambridge
University, England, Maxwell established the interdependence of elec-
tricity and magnetism. In his classic treatise of 1873, he published the
first unified theory of electricity and magnetism and founded the science
of electromagnetism.
Sonnet® User’s Manual
Volume 1
Printed: April 1999
Release 6.0
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The program names xgeom, em Control, emvu, patgen and patvu, dxfgeo, ebridge, emgen,
emgraph, gds (lower case bold italics), LEVEL1 and LEVEL1plus are trademarks of Sonnet
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Table of Contents
XGEOM
Table of Contents
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A Brief Overview of xgeom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Enhancements In Recent Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
New Features for Both Windows and UNIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
New Features for UNIX Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Changes for UNIX only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Xgeom User’s Manual Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Using the xgeom Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Tool Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Tool Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Status Bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Describing Menu Bar Accesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shortcut Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Shift Selecting Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Invoking Sonnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Editing Your Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Pointer Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Reshape Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Selecting Objects for Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Clicking on an Object or Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Multiple Selects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Select by Lassoing an Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Unselecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
vii
Multi-Layer Selects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Shift and Control Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Moving Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Adding Points to a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Deleting Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Polygons, Ports and Vias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Moving Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Deleting Polygons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Cutting and Pasting Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Moving Polygons to Another Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Flipping, Rotating, and Resizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Using Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Standard Box-Wall Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Standard Ungrounded-Internal Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Automatic-Grounded Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Manipulating Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Adding Standard Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Adding Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Adding Auto-grounded Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Deleting Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Changing Port Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Changing Port Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Defining Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths. . . . . . . . . . 34
Creating Auto-grounded Ports: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Auto-grounded Port Reference Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Using Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Via Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Creating the Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
viii
Table of Contents
XGEOM
Edge Vias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Via Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Adding a Via to Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Making Entire Polygons Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Deleting Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Via Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Shorted Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Creating an Airbridge: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Loading in the Example File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Circuit Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Creating the Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Adding Edge Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Summary of Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5 Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Applications for Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Creating a Dielectric Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Defining Dielectric Brick Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Changing Brick Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Z-Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6 Palette of Standard Geometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Interdigital Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Donut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Meander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Round Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Rectangular Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fan Stub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
ix
Lange Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7 Function Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Startup Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The File Menu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The Help Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
The Main Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The File Menu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Typing in Coordinates From the Keyboard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
An Example of Keying in Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Panning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
x
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
Xgeom is a window based program used to capture circuit geometry for input to
the electromagnetic analysis program, em and is compatible with UNIX,
Windows95/98 and WindowsNT 4.0.
A Brief Overview of xgeom

Xgeom provides you with a straightforward interface which allows specification
of all necessary information concerning the circuit to be analyzed. First, you
capture the circuit with xgeom and save the resulting file to disk, with a name
customarily ending in “.geo”. You may then run em using the geometry file as
input. Em automatically subsections the circuit, using variable size subsections,
and performs a complete electromagnetic analysis. Em saves the resulting S-
parameters in a file format selected by you, ready for input into subsequent
microwave design programs.
11
Enhancements In Recent Releases

The major change incorporated in Version 6.0 for UNIX systems is the new
interface which is WindowsNT, Windows95/98, and UNIX compliant.
The most notable additions for Windows systems is the Palette of Standard
Geometries and the addition of the Undo and Redo commands.
Listed below are the new features and changes introduced in xgeom for Version
6.0. For what’s new in other Sonnet products, please refer to the appropriate
User’s Manual.
New Features for Both Windows and UNIX

Undo and Redo: The Undo and Redo command have been added to the Edit
commands in xgeom. For details, see “Edit - Undo,” page 93 and “Edit - Redo,”
page 93.
Palette of Standard Geometries: The palette of standard geometries provides a
set of commonly used circuit elements to add to your design. Choices include
rectangles, meanders, donuts, spirals, interdigital capacitors and Lange couplers.
Once added to your circuit, the standard geometry is converted to its component
polygons which may subsequently be edited. For details, see Chapter 6, “Palette
of Standard Geometries” on page 69.
Launch em analysis: The item Analyze has been added to the File menu to allow
you to launch the em analysis program from xgeom. An Analyze button has also
been added to the tool bar. See “File - Analyze,” page 89.
Status Bar: The status bar appears at the bottom of the xgeom display window to
provide you with information on xgeom’s operation. It has four fields: messages,
zoom level, cursor position, and mode. The cursor position now provides the
dimensions of any selected objects and the delta change if they are moved. This is
useful for measuring objects and distances between objects without having to
view the measuring tool.
Undo and Redo: The Undo and Redo command have been added to the Edit
commands in xgeom. For UNIX, only the Redo command is new. For details, see
“Edit - Undo,” page 93 and “Edit - Redo,” page 93.
12
XGEOM
New Features for UNIX Only
File Export: You now have the capability to output your geometry file in DXF or
GDSII format. For details, see “File - Export,” page 89.
Layer Visibility and Locking: You now have the capability to lock (i.e., to
protect from editing commands) or unlock a metalization level and choose the
visibility of that level. For details, see “View - Metalization Levels,” page 101.
New View: You now have the capability to have two views of the same circuit.
For details, see “View - New View,” page 100.
Object Visibility: You can now selectively choose which types of objects you
wish to display at any given time. For details, see “View - Object Visibility,”
page 103.
Orthogonal Mode: This mode allows xgeom to operate only in the horizontal
and vertical planes when adding or moving polygons and points. For details, see
“Tools - Ortho,” page 114.
Selection Filter: You can disable selection of object types. For details, see “Edit
- Select Filter,” page 97.
Status Bar: The status bar appears at the bottom of the xgeom display window to
provide you with information on xgeom’s operation. It has four fields: messages,
zoom level, cursor position, and mode. The message field will indicate what you
need to do to perform a specific action.
Tool Bar: Just below the menu bar in the xgeom display appears a tool bar
consisting of a series of small buttons. These buttons allow quicker access to more
frequently used commands. For details, see “Tool Bar,” page 152.
Tool Box: A tool box appears on your display when the xgeom program is started.
This allows you to quickly access more commonly used functions. For details, see
“Tool Box,” page 155.
Dielectric Bricks: You can now add objects of dielectric brick material to your
circuit. For details, see Chapter 5, “Dielectric Bricks”.
Moving Polygons using Keyboard Entry of Coordinates: When a polygon is
selected, entering coordinates moves the polygon to a new location. For details,
see “An Example of Keying in Coordinates,” page 157.
13
Changes for UNIX only

Shift Selecting Modes: Modes now default to pointer mode after one use.
However, when selecting a mode, use of the shift key will allow you to remain in
the mode until you explicitly exit it. This is useful for adding multiple objects,
such as ports or vias. For details, see “Shift Selecting Modes,” page 18. You may
also set preferences to xgeom 4.0 mode. For details, see “File - Preferences,”
page 85.
Comments: You will no longer be prompted for comments when saving your
files. To attach comments to a file, select the File ⇒ Comments menu item, and
enter your comments in the dialog box. For details, see “File - Comments,”
page 91.
Keyboard Entry of Objects: When you are in many of the modes, simply enter
coordinates. As you type, your input will appear in the messages field of the status
bar and the polygon will be added. For details, see “An Example of Keying in
Coordinates,” page 157.
Menus and Dialog Boxes: The menus have been reorganized, and dialog boxes
have been implemented. The presence of a dialog box is indicated by an ellipsis
(...) following an item on a pull-down menu. For details about the dialog boxes,
see “Dialog Boxes,” page 75 in the Sonnet Tutorial.
Multi-Layer Selects: Selecting Edit ⇒ Single Layer toggles between single
layer editing mode and multi layer editing mode. When in multi layer mode, you
may select an object that does not appear on the level that you are presently
viewing.
Origin: The origin is now on the bottom left only.
Panning: Panning is no longer a menu item, but is now accomplished through the
use of scroll bars in the xgeom window.
Ports: It is now possible to individually select Ports to delete them or modify their
attributes. This can be used to change the port number, port parameters and define
the port as autogrounded or standard. You can also modify all port impedance
values in one operation. For a detailed discussion of ports, see Chapter 3, “Using
Ports”
14
XGEOM
Shift Selecting Objects: Allows you to add additional objects, or delete objects,
to or from a group of previously selected objects. For details, see “Shift and
Control Keys,” page 28.
Top and Bottom of Box Parameters: The box top and box bottom parameters
are no longer directly entered; instead, metal types are assigned. You then select
a metal type for the box top and box bottom from a pull down menu when defining
the box parameters, which will include the user defined metal types, and the pre-
defined metal types, Free Space and WG Load. For details, see “Parameters -
Box,” page 129 and “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138.
Box Top and Bottom Metal Types: Two new predefined metal types have been
added for the box top or bottom, available in the Box Parameters dialog box. The
first is WG Load which models a perfect matched wave guide load. The other is
Free Space which models removing the top or bottom box cover. For more details,
see “Parameters - Box,” page 129.
Vias: Through use of the editing tools, it is now possible to individually select vias
while in pointer mode in order to delete them.
Xgeom User’s Manual Layout

Chapter 2 through Chapter 5 forms a guide to using xgeom, to be read once you
have tried the tutorials in the Sonnet Tutorial. The last portion, Chapter 7, of the
manual forms a concise reference for xgeom’s functionality, to be used once you
have a working knowledge of the program.
You should also note that the illustrations alternate between Windows and UNIX
examples as this manual is used for both applications.
Using the xgeom Environment

The following section discusses conventions used in this manual and basic
instructions in the use of the xgeom environment.
15
Tool Bar
Just below the menu bar in the xgeom display appears a tool bar consisting of a
series of small buttons. These buttons allow quicker access to more frequently
used commands. Placing the cursor over these buttons will cause a brief
description of their function to appear in the message field of the status bar at the
bottom of the xgeom window. For a complete description of the these buttons, see
“Tool Bar,” page 152.
Tool Box
A tool box, shown below, appears on your display when a geometry file is opened,
or when you select View ⇒ Tool Box from the menu. This allows you to quickly
access more commonly used functions. Placing the cursor over a button in the tool
box will cause a brief description of the function to appear in the status bar at the
bottom of the xgeom window. For a complete description of the these buttons, see
“Tool Box,” page 155.
Xgeom’s Tool Box
Status Bar
The status bar, shown below, appears at the bottom of the xgeom display. It
displays information pertaining to cursor position, mode, zoom level and prompts.
Status Bar
Messages Zoom level Cursor Position Mode
16
XGEOM
The status bar is also useful to measure dimensions in your circuit. When a
polygon or set of points is selected, the cursor position on the status bar will
display a readout of the bounding box around the points or polygon.
TIP
As you move the cursor over buttons in either the Tool Box or the Tool Bar a brief
description of its function appears in the Messages section of the Status Bar.
Describing Menu Bar Accesses

In this manual, we describe accessing the menu bar of xgeom using a “pointer”
description to illustrate selecting the desired menu buttons.
For example, Tools ⇒ Add metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon means to move the
cursor to Tools on the menu bar, press and hold down the left mouse button, drag
the cursor down the menu which appears until Add Metalization is highlighted,
causing another pull-down menu to appear. Continuing to hold down the mouse
button, drag the cursor until Draw Polygon is highlighted and release the mouse
button. The new mode will be indicated on the status bar.
17
If a (Shift) appears before the flow description, you should hold the shift key down
while performing the menu selection. This enables you to remain in the mode
selected, until you explicitly choose to exit it. For a complete explanation, see
"Shift Selecting Modes" below.
Shortcut Keys
Some menu items have a shortcut associated with them. These menu items can be
selected by typing the associated shortcut key. Shortcuts are shown on the menu
bar at the end of the name of the menu item. Typing the shortcut key has the same
effect as selecting the menu item with the mouse, but with no need to go through
the menus. Most of the shortcut keys are “control” keys, i.e. you must first hold
down the Control key, and then press the key. In the menus the control key is
indicated by “Ctrl +” before the letter. The “control” keys are denoted in the
manual with a “^” symbol. Any time you see a “^” symbol before a letter, e.g.,
“Û”, you should interpret this as meaning a control key. As an example, to type
a Control-U (Û), hold down the Control key and press the U key. A list of the
shortcut keys is found in section “Keyboard Shortcuts,” page 150 of this manual.
Shift Selecting Modes
When selecting a mode, such as Tools ⇒ Add Via, you will remain in the mode
until you add one via to the circuit. After adding a single via, xgeom will then
automatically return to pointer mode. If you wish to continue in the Add Via mode
in order to add multiple vias, then hold the shift key down while selecting Add Via
mode from the menu with the mouse. You will continue in this mode until you
select another mode from the menu bar or press the Escape key which will place
you back in pointer mode, the default startup mode, which allows you to edit your
circuit.
Note that shift selecting a mode applies to all methods of entering that mode,
including selection of a button from the tool bar or tool box, or use of a shortcut
key. Also, when using a button to enter a mode, double clicking on the button acts
the same as pushing the shift key.
18
XGEOM
Invoking Sonnet
You use the Sonnet task bar, shown below, to access all the modules in the em
Suite. Opening the Sonnet task bar, for both Windows and UNIX systems is
detailed below.
UNIX
1 Open a terminal.
If you do not know how to do this, please see your system administrator.
2 Enter “sonnet” at the prompt.

The Sonnet task bar appears on your display.
19
Windows
1 Select Start ⇒ Programs ⇒ Sonnet ⇒ Sonnet from the Windows desktop
Start menu.
20
XGEOM
Once the Sonnet task bar is open, for UNIX or Windows systems, clicking on any
given button opens the appropriate module. The table below shows which
modules are invoked by each button.
Table 1 Sonnet Task Bar Buttons
Button Button Name Sonnet Program
Edit Circuit xgeom
Analyze Circuit em Control
View Response emgraph
View Current emvu
View Far Field patvu
Online Manuals Adobe Acrobat
21
The translation programs, dxfgeo and gds, are accessed through the Sonnet task
bar main menu, as shown below. Select Convert Dxf for dxfgeo and select Convert
Gds for gds.
For details on each program, please refer to the appropriate user’s manual.
22
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
This chapter provides an overview of xgeom modes of operation, and basic editing
tasks. Changing the circuit is accomplished with the Edit, Modify and Tools
options described in this section.
Pointer Mode
The pointer mode allows you to select objects for editing. This is the default mode
of xgeom upon opening a file. To return to this mode from another mode, press
the ESC key or choose Tools ⇒ Pointer from the menu. When you are in pointer
mode, the cursor appears as shown to the left.
23
Reshape Mode
The reshape mode allows you to manipulate points in polygons. To enter this
mode click on the reshape button in the tool box or select Tools ⇒ Reshape from
the menu. You will remain in this mode until selecting another mode. Pressing the
ESC key will return you to pointer mode.When you are in pointer mode, the cursor
appears as shown to the left.
Selecting Objects for Editing

Some of the xgeom functions require you to “select” a point or object prior to
choosing the menu item. In order to select points you must be in the reshape mode.
In order to select objects, you must be in the pointer mode. Once in a particular
mode it is possible to select objects in a variety of ways which are explained
below. When an object or point is selected it is highlighted on your display.
Clicking on an Object or Point
Clicking on an object while in pointer mode will select the object. If the object is
a polygon, clicking inside the polygon or the edge will select the polygon. The
polygon will become highlighted when selected.
To select a point, you must first be in the reshape mode. Then you select a point
by clicking on that point. The selected point should become highlighted.
24
XGEOM
When a polygon or set of points is selected, the dimensions of the bounding box
around the object(s) will appear in the cursor portion of the status bar. This
provides a readily accessible measuring device.
Selected polygon
Click inside the
polygon to select it.
Dimensions of
bounding box
Separate polygons sometimes have several vertices in common. If you want to

select a vertex of, say, polygon A, but not the coincident vertex of polygon B, be
sure the cursor is close to the vertex and just inside polygon A. The polygon A
vertex is then selected.
Multiple Selects
You may select multiple objects while in pointer mode and multiple points while
in reshape mode. Objects include metal polygons, brick polygons, ports, and vias.
Multiple polygon selects are very useful when you want to change the attributes
of many polygons at once. The following menu items operate on multiple
polygons:
• Edit ⇒ Cut
• Edit ⇒ Copy
• Edit ⇒ Duplicate
• Edit ⇒ Delete
25
• The Modify menu
The Modify ⇒ Attributes menu item can be used for metal polygons, dielectric
brick polygons or ports. This menu item will open the Metalization Attributes
dialog box, the Dielectric Brick Attributes box and the Port Attributes box,
depending on which type of object is selected when the menu item is invoked. If
all three types are selected, each type of dialog box will appear in succession in
response to Modify ⇒ Attributes. For more details, see “Modify - Attributes,”
page 118.
Ports are attached to polygon edges; therefore, the port moves with the polygon.
Also, if points are selected on a polygon, and a port appears between them, the port
will move with the points. However, if those points are cut, the port will remain
on the polygon. This also holds true for edge vias. If you are not familiar with edge
vias, refer to “Edge Vias,” page 52 for a definition.
Select by Lassoing an Area

One way to select multiple points while in reshape mode or multiple objects while
in pointer mode, is to “lasso” an area which contains these objects. To lasso an
area while in the pointer or reshape mode, move the cursor to the upper left corner
of the region you want to select and press the left mouse button without releasing
it. Hold the mouse button down and drag it to the right and down. A rectangular
26
XGEOM
box shows the area that will be selected. Now release the mouse button. All points
or objects in the region are selected. An example of a lasso select in each mode,
pointer and reshape, is shown below.
Lassoed area in pointer mode. Selected polygons from lasso.
Lassoed area in reshape mode. Selected points from lasso.
Unselecting
Edit ⇒ Unselect will unselect any objects that are presently selected. This item
is unavailable when nothing is selected.
TIP
Clicking on the substrate, outside all selected objects, will also unselect all ob-
jects.
Multi-Layer Selects
If your circuit requires more than one layer of metalization, you may want to
modify the objects or points on some or all of these layers simultaneously.
27
To select points or polygons on more than one layer at a time, toggle single layer
select to the off position by selecting Edit ⇒ Single Layer Select. This puts you
in the Multi-Layer select mode. When in this mode, the select by lassoing or select
by pointing applies for all layers. This mode is usually used for moving and
copying multilayer structures, such as vias.
Shift and Control Keys

When performing multiple selects, it may be desirable to add items to items
already selected or to remove items from previously selected items. In order to add
items, without unselecting any other item, press the Shift key while performing the
select. To unselect items, which are already selected, without unselecting any
other item, press the Control key while performing the unselect.
Note that the Shift key allows you to select additional objects, while the Control
key toggles the state of the objects. If it is currently selected, pressing the Control
key while performing a selection action will unselect the object. If the object is not
currently selected, then pressing the Control key while performing a selection
action will select the object.
The above applies whether you are performing selections by clicking on a single
item or by “lassoing” a group of items.
Points
The following sections describe how to move, add and delete points.
Moving Points
If you need to move a point, you must first be in the reshape mode as described in
the previous section. If you wish to move a single point, then position the cursor
on the point and press, without releasing, the left mouse button. With the button
held down, move the mouse. The point moves as you move the mouse. Drag the
point to the desired location and release the button. If you wish to move multiple
points, select the points by lassoing them as described above. Then place the
28
XGEOM
cursor on any one of the highlighted points and drag the mouse. Note that, in both
cases, the polygon will be reshaped to accommodate the new position(s) of the
point(s).
Notice that the points that you are moving always “snap” to the nearest grid point.
If you want to move a point between your grid points, you must change a property
called the “snap distance”. See “Tools - Snap Setup,” page 116 for information on
how to do this.
Adding Points to a Polygon

Sometimes you may want to change the number of points that make up a polygon.
For example, you might wish to change a triangle to a square or a pentagon.
To change a triangle to a rectangle, select Tools ⇒ Add Points to Polygon from

the menu or click on the Add Points to Polygons button in the tool box. Then click
on one of the sides of the triangle that you want to modify.
Starting triangle polygon Added point.
29
A highlighted point appears. Place your cursor over the highlighted point, press
the left mouse button, then drag the point to the desired location. Two new line
segments connect the new point to the existing endpoints.
New point
Final rectangle after new point has been moved.
You may keep adding points in this fashion for multi-sided polygons. If you make
an error, you may press the Delete or Backspace key and the last point entered is
deleted. When done, push the ESC key to go to pointer mode or select another
menu action to exit the Add Points to Polygon mode.
Deleting Points
If you wish to delete points from an existing polygon, invoke the reshape mode by
selecting Tools ⇒ Reshape or clicking on the Reshape button in the tool box.
Then select the points you wish to delete by lassoing an area that contains them or
by clicking on a single point. Then delete the points by pressing the Delete key or
by selecting Edit ⇒ Delete on the menu bar.
Polygons, Ports and Vias

The following sections describe how to edit and modify polygons. For more
information about handling ports, see “Manipulating Ports,” page 40. For more
information about handling vias, see Chapter 4, “Using Vias”.
30
XGEOM
Moving Polygons
If you need to move a polygon, you must first be in the pointer mode as described
above. Then position the cursor inside the polygon and press, without releasing,
the left mouse button. The polygon is highlighted, indicating selection. With the
button held down, move the mouse. The polygon moves as you move the mouse.
Drag the polygon to the desired location and release the button.
Notice that the polygons that you are moving always “snap” to the nearest grid
point. If you want to move a point or polygon between your grid points, you must
change a property called the “snap distance”. See “Tools - Snap Setup,” page 116
for information on how to do this.
If you want to move a group of polygons in unison, start by selecting all of the
polygons you want included in the move. Each polygon is highlighted. When all
polygons are selected, click on one of the polygons. Holding the button down,
drag the polygons to their new location.
Deleting Polygons
To delete a polygon or polygons, go to the pointer mode by pressing the ESC key
or selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer. Then, select the polygon(s) that you wish to delete,
and press the Delete key, the Backspace key or select Edit ⇒ Delete.
Cutting and Pasting Polygons

When you delete polygons using Edit ⇒ Cut, they are removed from your circuit
and inserted into the xgeom clipboard. You can cut and paste from one layer to
another or within the same layer or even to another circuit. You can cut or copy
polygons from one xgeom window and paste them into any other xgeom window.
The polygons remain in the clipboard until you replace them by cutting or copying
again. Polygons, with their ports and edge vias are copied into the buffer; i.e.,
single points, or individual ports or vias are not copied into the buffer.
To insert polygons into the xgeom clipboard and remove them from your circuit,
first select the polygons that you wish to cut. Now choose Edit ⇒ Cut or click
on the Cut button on the tool bar. The selected polygons are deleted. To retrieve
31
the polygons from the xgeom clipboard, choose Edit ⇒ Paste or click on the
Paste button on the tool bar. The polygons are copied from the clipboard to your
circuit. Also note that the polygons just pasted in are still selected. This makes it
easy to move them to a new location. Cutting and pasting using Edit ⇒ Cut and
Edit ⇒ Paste can be used to move polygons from one layer to another layer, or
from one xgeom window to another.
Edit ⇒ Copy is the same as Edit ⇒ Cut but the selected polygons are placed
into the clipboard without being deleted from the circuit. Use this menu item when
you want to keep the original polygons where they are and make a copy of them
somewhere else.
Edit ⇒ Duplicate combines Edit ⇒ Copy and Edit ⇒ Paste into one menu
item. This menu item provides a fast way to copy polygons to another location on
the same layer. To do this, first select the polygons and then choose Edit ⇒
Duplicate. The selected polygons are inserted into the buffer and duplicates of the
polygons are then pasted on top of the original polygons. The pasted polygons are
highlighted to remind you that they are still selected.
Moving Polygons to Another Layer

To move polygons to another layer, first select the polygons that you wish to
move. Then choose Edit ⇒ Cut. Now move to the new layer where you wish to
place the polygons. This may be done by using the shortcut keys ^D (down) and
Û (up). Now choose Edit ⇒ Paste and the polygons are placed on the new layer.
Flipping, Rotating, and Resizing
Xgeom provides you with a way of flipping, rotating, and resizing polygons. To
use these features, first select the polygon(s) that you wish to change, and then
choose the appropriate menu item. You are then prompted for more information.
For example, to create the mirror image of a polygon, first select the polygon, and
then choose Edit ⇒ Duplicate so that the original polygon remains unchanged.
Now choose Modify ⇒ Flip to open the Flip dialog box and select a Pivot Point.
The polygon is flipped about an axis passing through the pivot point you have
32
XGEOM
chosen. Then choose either Left-Right or Up-Down direction. For a complete
description of the Flip, Rotate, and Resize functions, see the appropriate entries in
"The Modify Menu" on page 118.
33
34
Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
Introduction
All ports are two-terminal devices. In most applications, the first terminal is
attached to a metal polygon, and the second terminal is attached to ground. Such
ports are referred to as grounded ports. Occasionally, however, it is useful to
attach the two terminals of a port between two abutted polygons. These ports are
referred to as ungrounded ports.
Ports are not allowed on diagonal lines and ports are not allowed to overlap each
other (just touching is permitted). Em tests for these error conditions.
When analyzing multi-port circuits to find S, Y, or Z parameters, all of the ports

in the circuit are normally grounded. An ungrounded port can have a different
ground reference from other ports in the circuit, so it is important to exercise care
when using ungrounded ports to avoid corrupting the analysis results. For more
details on the use of grounded and ungrounded ports, see Chapter 5, “Ports” in the
Em User’s Manual.
35
In addition to being either grounded or ungrounded, ports can be further

characterized by their location in a circuit, and by whether or not em can de-embed
them. Each port type is described below.
Standard Box-Wall Ports

A standard box-wall port is a grounded port, with one terminal attached to a
polygon edge coincident with a box wall, and the second terminal attached to
ground. An example of a standard box-wall port is shown below. Standard box-
wall ports can be de-embedded.
Page 18
Standard Ungrounded-Internal Ports

A standard ungrounded-internal port is located in the interior of a circuit, and has
its two terminals connected between abutted metal polygons. An ungrounded-
internal port is illustrated in the next figure on page 37. Ungrounded-internal ports
can be de-embedded by em.
36
XGEOM
Ports on the edge of a single polygon are not allowed, with em generating a “Port
<n> is not connected between two polygons” error message (see “Error
Messages,” page 308 of the Em User’s Manual). Extreme care should be taken
in interpreting the results since the port has no access to ground.
- +
Example of a circuit
with an ungrounded
internal port.
In the figure above, the ungrounded-internal port is attached between two

polygons which have equal widths. This is not a necessary condition for
ungrounded-internal ports. These ports can also be attached between polygons
which are still abutted, but have unequal widths, as shown below. The only
difference between the two conditions is that de-embedding requires the use of
more standards (and therefore more time) when the polygons have unequal
widths.
37
Via Ports
A via port has one terminal connected to a polygon on a given circuit level, and
the other terminal connected to a second polygon on a circuit level above or below
the first polygon. For more details on vias, see Chapter 4, “Using Vias”. Thus,
when ports are desired on the interior of a circuit, capture a via between two layers
and add a port to the edge via. An example of this port type is shown in the figure
below. Note that the triangle symbols in the figure represent a via.
Level 0 Level 1
Example of a
circuit with a
via port (both
levels shown.)
Em cannot de-embed via ports. However, in a circuit which contains a

combination of via ports and other port types, the other port types can still be de-
embedded. Em will automatically identify all of the other ports present in the
circuit and de-embed them, but leave the via ports unde-embedded.
In most cases where you need grounded ports, your first choice would be to use
automatic-grounded ports as discussed in the next section. If you need a port with
the flexibility to be connected between any two layers of your dielectric, you will
want to use the via port.
The example “patch.geo” included with your software has an example of using a
via port.
38
XGEOM
Automatic-Grounded Ports
An automatic-grounded port is a special type of port used in the interior of a
circuit. This port type has one terminal attached to the edge of a metal polygon
located inside the box and the other terminal attached to the ground plane through
all intervening dielectric layers. An auto-grounded port is illustrated below.
page 21
In many circuits, the addition of auto-grounded ports has little influence on the
total analysis time of the em job. However for some circuits, auto-grounded ports
may require some extra overhead calculations, thus increasing the total analysis
time. Therefore, they should be used only when they provide an advantage over
standard box-wall ports. Auto-grounded ports provide advantages over standard
box-wall ports when:
• the layout of your circuit does not allow a direct path for a feed line
to be connected between the port and the box wall, as in the figure
above, or
• your circuit requires a large feed structure to reach the box wall. If
all or part of your feed structure can be eliminated, using an auto-
grounded port could reduce the total number of subsections in your
circuit, thus decreasing the analysis time and/or memory require-
ments.
Auto-grounded ports are similar to via ports with the exception of the following
characteristics:
• Via ports require you to manually create vias that extend upward
through the dielectric to the edge of a metal polygon. This is not the
39
case with auto-grounded ports. You can simply place auto-

grounded ports anywhere a grounded port is needed. Em automati-
cally detects the presence of auto-grounded ports in the circuit and
connects the port terminals appropriately.
• Auto-grounded ports connect directly through all dielectric layers
to the ground plane. Via ports allow the flexibility of connecting
between any two adjacent dielectric layers.
• Auto-grounded ports are de-embedded when the de-embedding
option for em is used, while via ports are not.
• Reference Planes may be set with auto-grounded ports but cannot
be set for via ports.
Manipulating Ports
The following sections explain the basics of manipulating ports; how to add and
delete them and change their characteristics.
Adding Standard Ports

1 To add a standard port to a circuit, click on the Add Port button in the
tool box, or select Tools ⇒ Add Port from the main menu.
2 Then click on the polygon edge at the desired position for a port. A
small box with a number in the center will appear on your circuit, indi-
cating the position of the port. Refer to the figure on page 36.
Ports are numbered automatically, in the order in which they are added to your
circuit, starting at the number one. You may later choose to change a port number;
this operation is discussed below.
Adding Via Ports

1 To add a via port, you must first have two polygons on adjacent levels
with a via connecting them. For more details on how to create vias, see
Chapter 4, “Using Vias”.
40
XGEOM
2 Then click on the Add Port button in the tool box, to put you in Add Port
mode.
3 Then click on the edge via at the lower level polygon to add the port. An
example is shown in the figure on page 38.
Adding Auto-grounded Ports

1 To add an auto-grounded port, proceed as you would to add a standard
port, as described above.
2 Click on the port to select it. This will enable the Modify menu option.
3 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box which
will resemble the figure below.
4 Now the port can be changed from a standard port to an auto-grounded
port by choosing Autognd from the drop list in the Type field. The port
should now be similar to the figure on page 39.
page 23
Deleting Ports
All types of ports are deleted in the same manner. Simply select the port, then
perform a Cut or Delete operation, either through the tool bar or menu, to remove
the port from the circuit.
41
Changing Port Numbering

1 Click on the port or ports to select it/them. This will enable the Modify
menu option.
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box,
shown in the figure on page 41.
3 Now the port number can be changed by typing the desired number in
the Number text entry box of the dialog box. Any nonzero integer, nega-
tive or positive, is valid. Note that if multiple ports are selected,
“Mixed” will appear in the Number text entry box. Editing this field will
apply the same number to all selected ports.
Ports are numbered in the order that they are entered into the circuit. There is no
limit on the number of ports and the number of ports has absolutely no impact on
analysis time.
As many physical ports as desired may be given the same numeric label, and all
ports with the same label are electrically connected together as illustrated below
and have identical parameters. Such ports are called “push-push” ports and have
many uses such as simulating thick metal. See Chapter 18, “Thick Metal with
Arbitrary Cross-Section” in the Em User’s Manual for additional details.
Ports may also have negative labels as shown in the figure on page 43. This feature
can be used to redefine ground. Strictly speaking, em sums the total current going
into all the positive ports with the same port number and sets that equal to the total
current going out of all the ports with that same negative port number. For
example, for a circuit with a +1 port and a -1 port, em sets current flowing into
42
XGEOM
port +1 to be equal to the current flowing out of port -1. Thus the name “balanced”,
or “push-pull” port. See Chapter 17, “Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and
Balanced Ports” in the Em User’s Manual for more details.
An example of push-pull
ports.
Ports may be non-sequential, i.e., you may have only 2 ports, one labeled “1” and
the other labeled “4”. The port order for the S,Y, or Z parameters will be listed in
increasing numeric order. For the example of a two-port with ports labeled “1” and
“4”, the output would be as follows: S11, S41, S14, S44.
Changing Port Impedance

There are two methods for changing the impedance of a port. If you wish to
change the impedance of a given port, and do not need to see the impedance values
of other ports, take the following steps:
1 Click on the port or ports to select it/them. This will enable the Modify
menu option.
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box which
is pictured in the figure on page 41.
3 Now the impedance values can be changed by typing the desired values
in the Resistance, Reactance, Inductance and Capacitance text boxes in
the dialog box. This changes the parameters on all ports selected and all
ports with the same number as the ports selected.
If you wish to change the impedance of a given port, and wish to see the
impedance values of other ports while doing so, proceed as follows:
43
1 Select Parameters ⇒ Ports from the main menu to open the Port
Impedance dialog box.
2 Now the impedance values for any port can be changed by typing the
desired values in the Resistance, Reactance, Inductance and Capaci-
tance fields in the row labeled with the desired port number.
TIP
Note that the impedance of multiple ports may be changed at the same time
through the first method by selecting multiple ports before selecting Modify ⇒ At-
tributes, and by the second method, by modifying all the desired port values while
the Port Impedance dialog box is open.
Defining Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths

Reference Planes or Calibration Lengths, which are mutually exclusive, can be set
for most types of ports, but the method differs according to the port type.
Reference planes cannot be set for via ports since em cannot de-embed them.
Detailed below are the methods for standard ports and auto-grounded ports.
Standard Ports
For standard ports, which normally reside on the box wall, the Reference Plane or
Calibration Length refers to the distance to the box wall. To set the Reference
Planes/Calibration lengths, do the following:
44
XGEOM
1 Select Parameters ⇒ Ref. Planes/Cal. Lengths from the main menu.
This will open the Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths dialog box.
2 Select the side from which the reference plane or calibration length is to
extend (Top, Left, Right, or Bottom) and choose Cal or Ref from the
drop list in the Type field.
3 Then enter the desired length in the Length field from the keyboard.
Alternatively, you may use the mouse by clicking the Use Mouse button
and then clicking in your circuit at the desired location. The Length
entry will be updated to reflect your selection.
4 To remove a reference plane or calibration length, enter a value of zero
in the Length field. Alternately, click on the Use Mouse button, then
click outside the substrate. There is only one plane or length per box
side. The same reference plane or calibration length is used on all ports
on all levels on that side of the box.
45
Auto-ground Ports
For autoground ports, the reference plane or calibration length is defined as the
distance from a particular port. To set a reference plane or calibration length for
an auto-grounded port, do the following;
1 Click on the port to select it. This will enable the Modify menu option.
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box
depicted in the figure on page 41.
3 Then enter the desired length in the Ref. Plane or Cal. Length field in
the Autognd Port Data box. Alternatively, you may use the mouse for
setting the reference plane by clicking the Use Mouse button and then
clicking in your circuit at the desired location. The Ref. Plane entry will
be updated to reflect your selection.
4 To remove a reference plane or calibration length, enter a value of zero
in the respective field.
TIP
Changing a port to an autoground type and setting up a reference plane or calibra-
tion length for the port can be accomplished at the same time in the Port Attributes
dialog box. It is also possible to set calibration lengths for multiple ports by select-
ing the desired ports, selecting Modify ⇒ Attributes and inputting a value in the
calibration length text entry box in the Port Attributes dialog box.
Creating Auto-grounded Ports: An Example

This next section details how to add auto-grounded ports to a circuit, and set up
Reference planes/Calibration lengths to the port.
You add an auto-grounded port to a circuit in the same way that you add a
“standard” box-wall or ungrounded-internal port. The only difference is that after
adding the port, you must change its type to “auto-grounded.”
46
XGEOM
To illustrate the procedure for adding auto-grounded ports to a circuit, let’s begin
with the example circuit shown below.
Place Standard Box-Wall Ports Here
Place Auto-Grounded Ports Here
This circuit is available in the Sonnet examples directory. To obtain a copy of the
geometry file, type the following command:
copyex autonopt.geo
The copyex command will copy the file “autonopt.geo” from the examples
directory to your present directory. Then, if you would like to load the file into
xgeom, type:
xgeom autonopt
Now we will go through the steps you would use to create two “standard” box-
wall ports and two “auto-grounded” ports at the locations indicated in the figure
above.
1 Select (Shift)Tools ⇒ Add Port.

2 Click with the mouse on each of the indicated polygon edges. The
resulting circuit will be similar to that shown in the figure on page 48.
Note that all four ports are “standard” port types.
47
Example
circuit with
“standard”
ports added to
polygon
edges.
3 Press ESC to return to pointer mode.

4 Use the mouse to lasso ports #3 and #4. This action will highlight the
ports you select.
5 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes. This will open the Port Attributes dialog
box shown in the figure on page 41.
6 Now the ports can be changed from standard ports to auto-grounded
ports by choosing Autognd from the drop list in the Type field.
7 Click on the OK button to exit the Port Attributes dialog box.
After converting ports #3 and #4 in this manner, the circuit will appear as shown
below.
The circuit now has the two box-wall and two auto-grounded ports in the desired
locations.
48
XGEOM
This circuit is available in the Sonnet examples directory and may be obtained by
typing:
copyex autoport.geo
Auto-grounded Port Reference Planes
Just as it is possible for you to define reference planes for the de-embedding of
box-wall ports, you can also define reference planes for the de-embedding of auto-
grounded ports. We will again consider the example circuit shown in the figure on
page 48. To add reference planes of length 508 µM for Port #3 and length 1016
µM for Port #4, perform the following steps.
1 Click on Port #3 to select it and enable the Modify menu item.
3 Then enter 508 in the Ref. Plane field of the dialog box.
4 Click on the OK button to close the dialog box. The reference plane will
be drawn on the circuit.
5 Click on Port #4 to select it and enable the Modify menu item.
7 Then enter 1016 in the Ref. Plane field of the dialog box.
8 Click on the OK button to close the dialog box. The reference plane will
be drawn on the circuit.
49
Upon completion of these steps, the circuit layout now appears as shown below.
50
Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
The examples in the first few chapters of this manual show circuits that use only
planar (X-Y) currents. Vias allow current to flow in the Z-direction. Vias can
extend from ground to the substrate surface, a ground via, as well as between
levels in a multilayer structure. Note, however, that vias, by definition, always
extend upward. They can also extend to the top cover of the box.
Via Concepts
To create a via that connects one layer to another layer, you must follow these
steps:
1 Draw a polygon on each of the two layers that you want to connect.
2 Define the position of the via by creating an “edge via” (defined later).
3 If needed, modify the polygons so that vias are as desired.
51
Creating the Polygons
First, you must create the two polygons that you want to connect with a via. This
is true even if you want to connect a via to ground. The polygons must be on
adjacent levels. If they are not, you will need to create a series of vias - each one
connecting polygons on adjacent levels. Type Û and ^D to move up and down
between the two levels that you want to use, and create a polygon on each level.
If the via is going to ground, create a “dummy” polygon on the ground level which
represents the bottom of the xgeom box. It is called a “dummy” polygon because
the ground level is already completely metallized and the polygon does not change
this characteristic.
Edge Vias
To connect two polygons with a via, you must first create an “edge via”. An edge
via is an edge of a polygon that a via originates from. To create an edge via, go to
the lower of the two polygons to which you want to connect a via. Now use Tools
⇒Add Via and click on the edge of the polygon where you want the via to go. If
the cell fill is on, the edge via will appear in inverse coloring with two triangles
shown representing the via.
52
XGEOM
The “up” via symbol indicates that the via post connects this level to the next level
above as shown below. Move up one level. The vias are shown on this level with
a “down” via symbol which is a “down” triangle. The “down” via symbol was
generated automatically when the via-edge was added on the lower level.
a) Cell Fill “Off” b) Cell Fill “On”

Xgeom uses edge vias to define the position of via posts. When the cell fill is turned
“On”, the via posts can be seen as reverse video metalization cells.
Via Posts
With the metalization turned on, by setting View ⇒ Cell Fill to “On”, the via
subsections, called “via posts”, are also displayed in reverse video. See b. When
em subsections the circuit, it subsections each edge via, which you specify, into
subsectional vias called “via posts”. Each via post is a rectangular cylinder of
current, extending between the present level to the next level above. A via post has
a horizontal cross-sectional area equal to one cell and a height equal to the
thickness of the dielectric layer. If you change the cell size, then the edge via is
resubsectioned into via posts with the new cell size. Xgeom places enough via
posts to cover the entire length of the edge via. We will refer to this series of via
posts as a “via fence.” See and .
To view vias as they are being captured, it is convenient to be able to change the
viewed level in xgeom quickly. To do so, just type Û (Control-U) to go up one
level, towards the box top, or ^D to go down one level.You may also click on the
Up One Level or Down One Level button on the tool bar.
53
If you want a level to be displayed as a “ghost” outline whenever you are not on
that level, make the level visible in the Levels dialog box which appears in
response to selecting View ⇒ Metalization Levels. Then you can see how
different levels of metalization line up. You may also use the Levels dialog box to
turn off the visibility of any given level. By default, xgeom starts with all levels
visible.
Adding a Via to Ground

To add a via to ground, you should go to ground level, the bottom of the box and
add a polygon. Then add an edge via to the polygon edge. The polygon on ground
level is not subsectioned and does not change the characteristics of the ground.
54
XGEOM
The ground level is completely metallized, with or without the polygon. The
polygon is created only to provide a polygon edge so a via can connect to the
ground level. A via to ground is depicted below.
Edge-via is added to this polygon.
Polygon
Up Via Post Down Via Post
Ground Level Level 0
Via
Level 0 Metallization
Dielectric Layer
Ground Level Metallization
The lower part of the figure depicts a via going from the single metalization level to ground. The
same via is shown in the top of the figure as it appears in xgeom. The via post is a metal filled column
which penetrates through the dielectric layer and connects the metalization level to ground.
55
The illustration below depicts a via going to ground. However, this time the via is
wider than a cell, so a via fence, made up of adjacent via posts, is used.
Edge-via is added to this polygon.
Ground Level Level 0
Via Fence
Level 0 Metallization
Via Post
Dielectric Layer Ground Level Metallization
The lower part of the figure depicts a via fence going from the single metalization level to
ground. The same via is shown in the top of the figure as it appears in xgeom.
56
XGEOM
Making Entire Polygons Vias
To turn entire polygon(s) into via(s), first select the polygon(s), then choose
Modify ⇒ Add Vias to All. Edge vias will be attached to all sides of the polygon
simultaneously. If your polygon has diagonal lines or points not on the grid,
xgeom does a staircase fit to the polygon. Xgeom only attaches via posts to the
edges of the polygon, creating a hollow “cylinder” of metal. Since current tends
to flow on the surfaces of conductors, creating a solid cylinder would just waste
subsections.
Deleting Vias
To delete an edge via, select the via while in pointer mode by clicking on a triangle
of the edge via that you want deleted. Then select Edit ⇒ Cut from the menu bar
or the Delete key to delete it. Make sure that you are on the level where the via
post starts, and emanates upward, and not on the level above where the via post
ends. Deleting an edge via deletes the via-fence associated with it.
Via Loss
The loss for the via post is determined by the metalization of the polygon that the
via is associated with. See “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138 for an
explanation on how to set the metalization loss.
57
Shorted Vias
One commonly occurring error using vias is to create an edge via that is adjacent
to a port. An example is shown below. This shorts the port to the box wall. In
general, never allow a via post to touch the edge of the box.
Right Wrong
Via Ports
Vias may also be ports. This is a special case of the internal port described in “Via
Ports,” page 38. The port is inserted between two levels. An example of a via port
is shown below. The example “patch.geo” included with your software has an
example of using a via port.
A via port with both levels shown.
58
XGEOM
Creating an Airbridge: An Example
A good example of the use of vias is an airbridge. This section is a tutorial on
creating a transmission line that bridges over another transmission line.
Loading in the Example File
The example file for the airbridge is “bridge.geo.” Obtain a copy of “bridge.geo”
using copyex. If you are not familiar with copyex, see “Obtaining the Example
Files,” page 7 in the Sonnet Tutorial.
Now load the example file into xgeom. To do so, perform the following:
1 Select xgeom from the Sonnet menu in the Windows desktop Start
menu.
2 Select File ⇒ Open from the xgeom main menu. The Open File dialog
box will appear.
3 Double-click on “bridge.geo” in the file list to open the file in xgeom. If
“bridge.geo” does not appear, use the browse button to locate and open
the file.
Your screen should look like this:
a) Upper level (Level 0) b) Lower level (Level 1)
Unfinished airbridge example. The text describes how to complete the bridge.
59
Circuit Description
This example file contains a 6-port circuit. However, the ports are on another
level. Type ^D key or down arrow to go down one level. Your screen should now
look like b. This level shows a transmission line going from ports 1 to 2, another
transmission line going from port 3 to a via post (notice the arrow-up symbol), a
similar line at port 4, and two open stubs at ports 5 and 6.
Let’s concentrate on what happens on the line connected to port 3. This line goes
to a via post, indicated by the arrow-up symbol. The via post connects the line to
another line on the level above this one, which appears as a ghost image. Type Û
to go up one level. You are now looking at the highest level again, level 0. There
is a single rectangle of metal that acts as the “bridge” of the airbridge. Notice the
two arrow-down symbols. These were automatically created by xgeom and
indicate that there is a via post coming up from the level below this level.
Remember, via posts always project upward from the level that they are specified
on.
Creating the Polygons
Now let’s connect the two open stubs connected to ports 5 and 6 to another
airbridge identical to the one that is already there. As a general rule, it is best to
create the polygons on both layers first. In this example, the polygons on level 1
have already been entered for you and the only polygon left is the actual airbridge.
Type ^M to turn the cell fill off and create a new polygon similar to the one that
is already there by using Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Rectangle or ^R
for example. It is good practice to create polygons such that the edges are in line
60
XGEOM
with each other. This makes it possible to change your cell size without having to
change your edge vias. When you are done, turn the cell fill back on. Your circuit
should now look like this:
Adding Edge Vias
Now type ^D to go back to level 1 shown in on the right in the figure above. Select
(Shift) Tools ⇒ Add Vias and click on the end of the each of the open stubs. Three
things show up for each stub. First, a dark dashed line is displayed. This is the edge
via. Second, an arrow-up symbol is displayed, signifying a via post that goes up
to the next layer. Third, a new metallized polygon shows up. This shows you the
actual size and position of the via post. See the next illustration. Now go up to
61
level 0. Your circuit should look appear as below. An arrow-down symbol and an
extra metallized square polygon were automatically created by xgeom for each
edge via that you entered. Press the ESC key to return to Pointer mode.
Completed airbridge example after adding two edge vias.
Summary of Vias
Here is a summary of how to use vias:
• Xgeom uses edge vias to determine the position of a via post.
• When creating edge vias, start on the lowest level and work up.
• To create a via to ground, start by specifying a polygon on the
ground layer.
• Create your polygons before adding vias.
62
Chapter 5 Dielectric Bricks
XGEOM
Although em is a “primarily planar” electromagnetic simulator, it also has the

capability to add “dielectric brick” material anywhere in your circuit. A dielectric
brick is a solid volume of dielectric material embedded within a circuit layer.
Dielectric bricks can be made from any dielectric material, including air, and can
be placed in circuit layers made from any other dielectric material, also including
air. All realizable values for the dielectric constant, loss tangent, and bulk
conductivity can be used to define a dielectric brick. Furthermore, it is possible to
set these parameters independently in each dimension to create anisotropic
dielectric bricks.
Keep in mind, however, that dielectric bricks add a large number of subsections
to your circuit, thus substantially increasing memory requirements and analysis
times.
63
Applications for Dielectric Bricks

The use of dielectric bricks is appropriate for applications where the effects of
dielectric discontinuities or anisotropic dielectric materials are important.
Examples of such applications include dielectric resonators, dielectric overlays,
air bridges, microstrip-to-stripline transitions, dielectric bridges and crossovers,
microslab transmission lines, capacitors, and module walls.
Creating a Dielectric Brick

To create a dielectric brick in xgeom, first move to the circuit level where the base
of the dielectric brick is to be located. The dielectric brick that is created will rest
on this circuit level, and will extend upward to the next level. Dielectric bricks can
be placed on any level, including the ground plane. If a brick is placed on the
highest circuit level (level 0), it will extend up to the top cover of the metal box.
When on the circuit layer where the base of the dielectric brick is to be located,
the next step is to create a base polygon which defines the cross-section of the
brick. This is done in xgeom by selecting either Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick
⇒ Draw Rectangle or Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw Polygon. The
first option allows the vertices of arbitrarily shaped base polygons to be entered
on a point by point basis. This option can always be used to create dielectric bricks
with any cross-sectional shape. However, if the cross-section is rectangular in
shape, it is often quicker to create dielectric bricks using the second option.
Once a dielectric brick has been created in xgeom, it is possible to “see” the brick
from both the circuit layer where the base of the brick is located and the circuit
layer where the top of the brick is located. On both levels, you will see a polygon
which defines the cross-sectional shape of the dielectric brick. The brightness of
the polygon, however, will vary depending upon whether you are on the top level,
where you will see a “dim” polygon, or the base level, where you will see a
“bright” polygon. Note that while it is possible to “see” a brick from two different
circuit levels, “selecting” a brick, for cutting, copying, moving, changing
attributes, etc., can only be done from the circuit level where the base of the brick
is located if you are in Single layer edit mode. The polygon can be selected on
either level if you are in multilayer select.
64
XGEOM
Finally, it is possible to turn dielectric bricks “on” or “off” in xgeom by selecting
View ⇒ Object Visibility. This will open the Object Visibility dialog box shown
below. Click on the Only Objects Checked Below radio button. The object choices
will now be available. Click on the Dielectric Bricks checkbox to turn it off. This
will make any bricks present in the circuit invisible and unselectable, but does not
remove them from the circuit. The dielectric bricks can be turned back “on” by
once again selecting View ⇒ Object Visibility and clicking the Dielectric Bricks
checkbox or the All Objects radio button. Occasionally, when a circuit contains
many layers, with overlapping metal polygons and dielectric bricks, it may be
somewhat difficult to distinguish the metal polygons and dielectric bricks from
one another. The ability to turn dielectric bricks “off” usually makes it easier to
view such circuits.
Defining Dielectric Brick Materials

Just as it is possible to define a variety of metal types, each with different
properties, it is also possible to define a variety of dielectric brick materials, each
with different values for the dielectric constant, loss tangent, and bulk
conductivity. To define a new dielectric brick material, or to modify the
characteristics of an existing material, select Parameters ⇒ Brick Materials.
This will bring up the Brick Materials dialog box, shown on page 66, which shows
all the dielectric brick materials previously defined, the xgeom color/fill pattern
assigned to each brick material, and whether the material is isotropic or
anisotropic. To modify the settings for a particular dielectric brick material, edit
65
that materials text entry boxes. Note that for anisotropic materials all the
parameters do not fit in the dialog box simultaneously, so that it is necessary to
use the scroll bars to access all settings.
The
brick
materi
als
dialog
box.
If the brick type is isotropic only one set of parameters, X, will be set. Conversely,
if the brick material is set to anisotropic, each parameter is defined separately for
the X, Y, and Z dimensions. If you wish to make a brick material anisotropic, click
on the Ani checkbox.
The “default” material used when new dielectric bricks are created can also be set
in the Brick Materials dialog box. Select a brick type from the Default for add
bricks drop list. Once the default material has been set, all bricks created thereafter
will be made of that material.
Changing Brick Materials

The material type for bricks that already exist in a circuit can be changed by
following the procedure given below:
1 Select the brick(s) by clicking on it or lassoing it.
66
XGEOM
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes. This will open the Dielectric Brick
attributes dialog box, shown below.
3 Select the brick material you desire from the drop list labeled Brick.
4 Click on the OK button to apply your selection and close the dialog box.
Z-Partitioning
A dielectric brick simulates a volume of dielectric material. Because a brick
simulates a volume, it must be subsectioned in the X, Y, and Z dimensions. The
more subsections (better resolution) used in each dimension, the more accurate the
analysis.
X/Y subsectioning of dielectric bricks is identical to X/Y subsectioning of metal

polygons. You can control the X/Y subsectioning of both through your choice of
grid size, XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, and subsections-per-lambda.
Z subsectioning of dielectric bricks is controlled by the “Z-Parts for bricks”

parameter under Parameters ⇒ Dielectric Layers. This parameter specifies the
number of Z partitions for all dielectric bricks on a particular circuit layer.
67
To set this parameter in xgeom, select Parameters ⇒ Dielectric Layers. Xgeom

will then display the Dielectric Layers dialog box, shown below.
Listed in the far right column of text entry boxes labeled Z-Parts. is the number of
Z partitions for each circuit layer. To change a value in this column, edit the
applicable text entry box. Note that the “number of Z partitions” parameter only
affects dielectric bricks. Changing this value for a particular layer will have
absolutely no affect on the analysis if there are no bricks on the layer. If there are
multiple bricks on the layer, the Z subsectioning for all of those bricks will be
identical. It is not possible to apply different Z partitions to brick polygons which
appear on the same layer.
For additional information on dielectric bricks, refer to Chapter 14, “Dielectric

Bricks” of the Em User’s Manual.
68
Chapter 6 Palette of Standard Geometries
XGEOM
Chapter 6 Palette of Standard
Geometries
Introduction
Xgeom includes a palette of standard geometries, comprised of commonly used
circuit elements, available under the Add Metalization menu. Each item has an
associated dialog box which allows you to input the desired parameters for the
element. Once the element is added to the circuit, it is converted to its component
polygons. These polygons may then be manipulated using all the normal xgeom
functions. An example of a parameter dialog box, for the fan stub, is shown below.
To change the parameter values, edit the corresponding text entry box.
69
The table below lists the available geometries, and the associated command for
adding it to your circuit. For a description of the associated parameters, see the
entry for the geometry in this chapter.
Geometry Command Entry
Rectangle Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Rectangle Page 71
Interdigital Capacitor Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ InterDigCap Page 72
Donut Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Donut Page 74
Meander Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Meander Page 76
Round Spiral Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Round Spiral Page 77

Rectangular Spiral Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Rectangular Page 78
Spiral
Parallel Lines Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Parallel Lines Page 79
Fan Stub Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Fan Stub Page 80

Lange Coupler Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Lange Page 81
70
XGEOM
Rectangle
ILLUSTRATION:
Width
Height
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Width Width of the rectangle in length units.
Height Height of the rectangle in length units.
71
Interdigital Capacitor
ILLUSTRATION:
Terminal Width
Number of Finger Pairs = 4

Finger Pair
F inger S pacing
F inger W id th
X
End Gap
Overlap
PARAMETERS
Finger Width The thickness of the finger in the Y plane.
Finger Spacing The space in between fingers in the Y plane.
Overlap The length of the finger in the X plane as measured from the ending of the End
Gap to the end of the finger. The Finger Length = Overlap + End Gap.
End Gap The distance between the terminal and the finger. Note that the gap is metal on
the side where a finger connects to the terminal and is open space between the
finger and the opposite terminal.
72
XGEOM
Number of Finger Number of finger pairs present in the capacitor. The example above has 4 finger
Pairs pairs.
Terminal Width The width of the terminal which is measured from the outer edge of the
capacitor to the beginning of the End Gap. There is a terminal on either side of
the capacitor.
73
Donut
ILLUSTRATION:
Inner
Radius
Ending Angle = 300°

Number of Sides = 72
Y
Start Angle = 45°
X
Outer
Radius
PARAMETERS
Outer Radius The distance from the center of the donut to the outside edge of the donut.
Inner Radius The distance from the center of the donut to the inner edge of the donut. Setting
this value to zero produces a donut with no center opening.
Start Angle The angle, measured in the clockwise direction and referenced to the X plane
which passes through the center of the donut, at which the polygon is started.
End Angle The angle, measured in the clockwise direction and referenced to the X plane
which passes through the center of the donut, at which the polygon is terminated.
74
XGEOM
Number of This value controls the curvature of the inner and outer edges of the donut. The
Sides higher the value the smoother the edge.The value of 8 yields an octagon for a
donut which starts at 0° and ends at 360°. The range for this value is from 3 to
360.
75
Meander
ILLUSTRATION:
Length
Number of Legs = 5 First Length
Conductor Width
Conductor Spacing
Conductor Width
Y
Last Length
X
PARAMETERS
Number of Legs Number of legs in the meander. The example above has 5 legs.
Conductor Width The width of the conductor in length units.
Conductor The space between legs in length units.

Spacing
Length Length of the leg in length units.

First Length Length of the first (top) leg in length units.
Last Length Length of the last (bottom) leg in length units.
76
XGEOM
Round Spiral
ILLUSTRATION:
Number of Turns = 3
Conductor Spacing Conductor Width
X
Inner Radius
PARAMETERS
Number of Turns The number of turns in the spiral. The example shown above has 3 turns.
Conductor Spacing The spacing between turns in the conductor in length units.
Inner Radius The radius of the inside of the spiral in length units.
77
Rectangular Spiral
ILLUSTRATION:
Conductor Spacing
Number of Turns = 2
First Length
Conductor
Width
X
Second Length
PARAMETERS
Number of Turns The number of turns in the spiral. The example shown above has 3 turns.
Conductor Spacing The spacing between turns in the conductor in length units.
First Length The length of the first segment in length units.

Second Length The length of the second segment in length units.
78
XGEOM
Parallel Lines
ILLUSTRATION:
Conductor Spacing
Conductor Width
Number of Lines = 4
Y
X
Length
PARAMETERS
Number of Lines The number of lines in the parallel set. The example above has 4 lines.
Length The length of each line (conductor) in length units. This value is the same for
all the lines.
Conductor Width The width of each line (conductor) in length units. This value is the same for all
the lines.
Conductor The space between parallel lines (conductors) in length units. This spacing is
Spacing the same between all pairs of conductors.
79
Fan Stub
ILLUSTRATION:
Width Angle
Y
Length
PARAMETERS
Width The width of the base of the fan stub in length units.
Length The length of the straight edges of the fan stub in length units.
Angle Angle subtended by circular sector, in angle units.
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XGEOM
Lange Coupler
ILLUSTRATION:
Feed Width
Finger Length
Finger
Spacing
Finger
Width
PARAMETERS
Number of The number of fingers in the Lange coupler. The example above has six fingers.
Fingers Only even numbers are allowed and you must specify a minimum of 4 fingers.
Finger Width The width of the fingers in length units.
Finger Spacing The spacing between fingers in length units.
Finger Length The length of the finger in the Y plane as measured from the end of the finger
to the feed line.
Feed Width The width of the feed line in length units.
NOTE The Lange coupler does not include wire bonds or airbridges. These must be
added manually.
81
82
Chapter 7 Function Reference
XGEOM
This section contains a brief, yet detailed, description of xgeom’s functionality. It

assumes you have read the previous tutorial and understand xgeom’s basic
framework and purpose.
83
The Startup Menu

The Startup Menu appears on the display when the xgeom program is invoked
with no specified file or when all xgeom windows are closed without exiting the
xgeom program. The startup windows for both UNIX and Windows, with no file
specified are shown below. Actions possible from this menu are described below.
Startup menu for UNIX
Startup menu for Windows
The File Menu
The File menu allows you to load a file from disk, open a new file, or exit the
xgeom program.
File - New
This performs the same function as File ⇒ New on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "File - New" on page 86.
84
XGEOM
File - Open
This performs the same function as File ⇒ Open on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "File - Open" on page 86.
File - Preferences
This performs the same function as File ⇒ Preferences on the main menu in an
xgeom window. See section "File - Preferences" on page 91.
File - Exit
This performs the same function as File ⇒ Exit on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "File - Exit" on page 92.
The Help Menu
The Help menu provides you with basic operating information such as the xgeom
version and licensing.
Help - License Info
This performs the same function as Help ⇒ License Info on the main menu in an
xgeom window. See section "Help - License Info" on page 148.
Help - System Info
This performs the same function as Help ⇒ System Info on the main menu in an
xgeom window. See section "Help - System Info" on page 148.
Help - About
This performs the same function as Help ⇒ About on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "Help - About" on page 149.
85
The Main Menu

The main menu, shown below, appears at the top of the xgeom window and allows
you to access all of xgeom’s functions. The menu selections and their functions
are explained, in detail, below.
The File Menu
The File menu allows you to open a new file, load a file from disk, save a file to
disk, close a file, print the file, view the file comments, and exit the xgeom
program. It will also allow you to select environmental preferences such as an
autosave file.
File - New
Select File ⇒ New to open another xgeom window for a new file. The window
will have a blank substrate to indicate that no circuit has been input yet. The ^N
key is a shortcut for this command.To name the file, select the File ⇒ Save As.
See below for a description of this option.
File - Open
Select File ⇒ Open to load a file in from disk. Xgeom opens the Open File
dialog box, which will resemble the dialog boxes shown below, in which you enter
the directory and filename of the file you wish to open. The appearance of the
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XGEOM
dialog box is system specific; therefore the functionality described will apply
although some details may differ. You may also access this command by use of
the shortcut key, Ô.
The Open File

dialog box for Windows
The Open File dialog box for

UNIX
To open the “.geo” file you desire in one step, double-click the filename in the
scroll list.
87
If the file you want to open is not in the scroll list, change to another directory by
double-clicking a directory name in the scroll list. For UNIX, you may also
change to another directory by typing a different name in the text box for directory
entry followed by a RETURN. Alternately, you may type in the complete path and
file name in the File text box and click the OK button.
The Windows version will also allow you to select a drive and directory from a
drop list.
File - Close
Select File ⇒ Close when you want to exit the particular file, but not necessarily,
the xgeom program. If you have not saved your file to disk, a confirmation popup
box will appear to allow you to save or discard your work. If the file you are
closing is the last xgeom window open, it may also cause you to exit the xgeom
program.
! WARNING
Closing the last open file may also cause you to exit the xgeom
program.
File - Save
You may use File ⇒ Save to save your circuit to disk under the current name.
We recommend that you use a name that ends in “.geo”. If you do not use a file
extension, xgeom will automatically use an extension of “.geo”. You may also
access this command by using the shortcut key, ^S.
File - Save As
You may use File ⇒ Save As to save your circuit to disk under a different name.
A dialog box appears, similar to the Open File dialog boxes shown in the figure
on page 87, in which you can specify the desired filename. See the description of
the Open File dialog boxes starting on page 86 for how to use the Save As dialog
box.
88
XGEOM
File - Revert to Saved
You may use File ⇒ Revert to Saved to close a circuit without saving it and then
open the most recently saved version. This is useful if you make changes to your
circuit and then decide you do not want to keep the changes.
Xgeom opens the version of the document you last saved when you used the Save
or Save As command. Xgeom does not open its own automatically saved version.
File - Analyze
You select File ⇒ Analyze to launch the electromagnetic analysis program, em

with the circuit being edited in xgeom input as the geometry file to be analyzed.
Any changes to the circuit must be saved before invoking em. For more
information about using em, see the Em User’s Manual.
File - Export
Select File ⇒ Export when you want to create and save a bitmap of your current
view, a DXF formatted file of your circuit or a GDS formatted file of your circuit.
File - Export Picture
Select File ⇒ Export Picture when you want to create and save a bitmap of your
current view. A dialog box similar to the Save As File dialog box appears, in
which you can specify the directory and filename to which you wish to export the
file.
File - Export DXF
Select File ⇒ Export DXF when you want to create and save a DXF format copy
of your circuit. A dialog box similar to the Save As File dialog box appears, in
file. If you have trouble reading the export file, you may wish to set the Simplified
Write checkbox to “on” in the Preferences dialog box. This is accessed by
selecting File ⇒ Preferences.
89
File - Export GDS
Select File ⇒ Export GDS when you want to create and save a GDS format copy
of your circuit. A dialog box similar to the Save As File dialog box appears, in
file.
File - Print Setup
You may use File ⇒ Print Setup to open the Print Setup dialog box, shown below.
This allows you to select a printer, printer properties, paper size and source, and
orientation. These options will be used when the print command is executed.
File - Print
You select File ⇒ Print to print a copy of your circuit as specified in the Print
Setup command discussed above. The Print command is not yet available on
UNIX systems.
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XGEOM
File - Comments
You select File ⇒ Comments to view existing comments or to enter new

comments. You accomplish this via the Comments dialog box detailed below.
Edit the text entry box with the comments you wish to include in the file. Em reads
these comments and transfers them to the output file so that the resulting analysis
can be easily traced to the “.geo” file from which it came.
File - Preferences
You select File ⇒ Preferences to open the Preferences dialog box which allows
you to set the autosave function and operating mode for xgeom or simplify the
output of a DXF export.
91
You may turn the autosave function on or off by clicking on the Auto Save On
checkbox. If you set the function to on, you may also set the frequency of saves
by editing the text entry box. The default is 5 minutes between saves.
If the autosave function is set to on, xgeom creates a backup of your circuit at the
time interval entered in the dialog box. The name of the backup file is the same
name as your circuit file but has a “.bck” suffix. For example, if your circuit file
is “filter.geo”, the backup file is named “filter.bck”. This file is deleted when
exiting xgeom, but will remain in your directory if your system fails.
You may choose to have xgeom operate in the version 4.0 style by clicking on the
Remain in mode checkbox. If this option is on, xgeom will remain in a given mode
until you explicitly exit by pressing the ESC key or selecting another mode. For
example, when this option is not set, if you select Add Port, after you add one port,
xgeom will automatically exit the Add Port mode. If this option is set, you will
remain in Add Port mode until you press the ESC key or select another mode, such
as Add Via.
TIP
When not in Xgeom 4.0 Style, pressing the shift key while selecting a mode will
leave you in the mode until you explicitly exit it.
You may click on the Simplified Write checkbox if you are having trouble reading
a DXF file output by xgeom. Export the file with this checkbox set by selecting
File ⇒ Export ⇒ DXF; this format should be easily read by most DXF users.
File - Exit
Use File ⇒ Exit when you are finished, and wish to exit the xgeom program. If
you have not saved your circuit(s) to disk, you are asked for a verification.
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XGEOM
The Edit Menu
The Edit Menu contains functions that help you make changes to your circuit.
Most of the items in this menu are unavailable, appearing “faded”, until you select
an object to edit. Chapter 2, “Editing Your Circuit”, covers the basic concepts of
how to use the Edit menu. This section describes all of the Edit menu items.
Edit - Undo
Edit ⇒ Undo undoes the last action taken on the geometry. A history is kept and
it is possible to perform multiple undos. The menu item is unavailable if no
changes have been made. You may also access this command by using the
shortcut key, ^Z.
Edit - Redo
If you perform an Edit ⇒ Undo and wish to restore the action, select Edit ⇒ Redo.
A history is kept and it is possible to perform multiple redos. The menu item is
unavailable if all undos have been reversed. You may also access this command
by using the shortcut key, ^Y.
Edit - Cut
Edit ⇒ Cut removes the selected objects from your circuit and places them into
the clipboard. Any selected points, ports, and vias are also deleted with the
polygon and copied into the clipboard.
First, select the objects that you wish to put into the buffer. These objects may be
on a single layer or multiple layers. Then choose Edit ⇒ Cut. The objects are
removed from your circuit and placed into the buffer. The objects remain in the
buffer until you replace them by doing another Cut, Copy or Duplicate.You may
also access this command by using the shortcut key, ^X.
TIP
One use for Edit ⇒ Cut is to move objects from one layer to another.
93
Edit - Copy
Edit ⇒ Copy copies the selected objects to the clipboard, from where they may be
pasted in a different place in the circuit or even in another circuit file. The
command leaves the selected objects in their original locations. First, select the
objects that you wish to copy into the clipboard. The objects may be on multiple
levels. Then choose Edit ⇒ Copy. The objects are copied into the clipboard and
remain in the clipboard until you replace them by doing another Cut, Copy or
Duplicate. Note that ports or vias attached to a polygon will be copied to the
clipboard along with the polygon. You may also access this command by using
the shortcut key, ^C.
TIP
One use for Edit ⇒ Copy is to copy objects from one layer to another so that you
have identical objects on both levels. This is sometimes done to simulate thick
metal.
Edit - Paste
Edit ⇒ Paste copies the objects that are in the clipboard to your circuit. The
objects remain in the buffer until you replace them by doing a Cut, Copy or
Duplicate.You may also access this command by using the shortcut key, ^V.
TIP
Edit ⇒ Paste is typically used after using Edit ⇒ Copy to copy objects from
one layer to another or from one xgeom file to another. Also, when a multilayer
copy or cut is performed, the objects in the clipboard will retain their relative spac-
ing.
Edit - Duplicate
Edit ⇒ Duplicate is a quick way of combining Edit ⇒ Copy and Edit ⇒ Paste
into one command. Edit ⇒ Duplicate copies the selected objects into the
clipboard, and places a duplicate of the objects into your circuit. Use this option
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XGEOM
when you want to duplicate part of a circuit on the same layer. One example of
this would be if you wanted to create a mirror image of a polygon. You would first
duplicate your polygon, and then flip it. You may also access this command by
using the shortcut key, Ê.
Edit - Delete
Edit ⇒ Delete removes the selected objects and points from your circuit, but
does not place them into the clipboard. The Delete and Backspace keys are
shortcuts for this command.
TIP
This command is useful when you wish to remove points or objects, but do not
wish to overwrite the contents of the clipboard.
Edit - Clip
You can use Edit ⇒ Clip if you have a complex circuit already entered into
xgeom and you want to analyze just a portion of the circuit. To do this, choose Edit
⇒ Clip and lasso the area that you wish to analyze. All objects or portions of
objects are removed that are not inside of your lassoed area.
NOTE: Edit ⇒ Clip is a multilayer operation regardless of the Single Layer

Select setting. Any objects, or portions of objects, on another level
inside the selected area will not be removed and any objects, or por-
tions of objects, on another level outside the selected area will be re-
moved.
Sometimes the selected area will pass through a polygon, i.e., only part of a
polygon is clipped. In this case, any ports or edge vias associated with that
polygon are removed. This is true even if the port or edge via is inside of the
selected area. To maintain the port or edge via, you must lasso the entire polygon
associated with the port or edge via.
95
You can use Edit ⇒ Clip if you suspect that there may be objects outside your
substrate. You can select Edit ⇒ Clip and lasso the entire substrate. Any objects
outside of the substrate are removed.
! WARNING
Save your file before using Edit ⇒ Clip. Clipping an area may delete
large portions of your circuit, ports, and vias.
Edit - Select All
Edit ⇒ Select All selects all objects on all levels. One use for Select ⇒ All is to
change the metal type of all objects at once.You may also access this command by
using the shortcut key, Â.
Edit - Unselect
Edit ⇒ Unselect will unselect all selected objects. This menu item is only
available whenever objects are selected.
TIP
To unselect all selected points and objects, click the left mouse button anywhere
on your circuit that is not inside a polygon or close to a point.
Edit - Reselect
Edit ⇒ Reselect reselects all points and objects that were unselected in the last
unselection action. For example, if you have selected a group of objects and then
unselect one object by use of a click of the mouse while pressing the control key,
Reselect will once again add that object to those presently selected. This item is
unavailable whenever the last action included a selection of an object or point.
You may also access this command by using the shortcut key, ^T.
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XGEOM
Edit - Copy Picture
Edit ⇒ Copy Picture allows you to save a bitmap of your current view in the
clipboard to allow you to import it to other programs under Windows95 and
WindowsNT.
NOTE: This command is only valid on the Win95/98/NT versions of xgeom.

To make a copy of your plot on a Unix system, see See “File - Export”
on page 89.
Edit - Single Layer Select
Edit ⇒ Single Layer Select allows you to select single-layer select mode or
multilayer select mode. Clicking on Single Layer Select will toggle the mode. If
this item is set, the mode is single-layer select. If it is turned off, the mode defaults
to multilayer select.
Single-layer select means that only objects on the current layer can be selected.
Multilayer select mode allows you to select objects on any level, not just the
present level. See “Selecting Objects for Editing,” page 24 for a complete
description of selecting.
If a layer is complete, and you wish to avoid inadvertent changes on it while in

multilayer select mode, you may wish to lock it through use of the View ⇒
Metalization Levels command.
Edit - Select Filter
Edit ⇒ Select Filter opens the Selection Filter dialog box that allows you to
disable selection of object types. For instance, you want to remove all vias, but
leave the rest of your circuit intact. You would click on the Only Objects Checked
97
Below radio button in the dialog box and set only the Vias checkbox. Then
perform a Edit ⇒ Select All, followed by an Edit ⇒ Delete. This will eliminate
all vias in the circuit.
The Selection Filter

dialog box set to
select only Vias.
Any Object : Clicking on this radio button will make all items available for
selection.
Only Objects Checked Below: Clicking on this radio button will allow you to
choose items for editing selection.
To enable selection on a particular item, click on its checkbox so that the box is
filled in. To disable selection, click on the checkbox so that it appears “open”.
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XGEOM
The View Menu
The View menu options allow you to change how information is presented on the
display.
View − Zoom In
You can zoom into a particular area of your circuit by using View ⇒ Zoom In.
After selecting the option, the cursor, when in the main window, changes to
indicate that xgeom is waiting for you to tell it where you want to zoom. Move the
cursor to a corner of the region you want magnified and press the left mouse
button. Holding it down, drag the cursor to the desired opposite corner of the
desired area and release the mouse button. The specified region is expanded to fill
the window.
You may also use the Zoom In button on the tool bar, the shortcut key, Space Bar
or the middle mouse button. See “Tool Bar,” page 152 for more details.
View − Zoom Out
Use View ⇒ Zoom Out to shrink your circuit in your window. This option is
quite useful when you accidentally zoom in a little too far, and need to zoom back
out. Each time you select View ⇒ Zoom Out the circuit shrinks in size. As a
shortcut, you can type ^W to zoom out. Repeatedly typing ^W will eventually
shrink your circuit down to just a small dot on the screen. If this happens, use View
⇒ Full View to restore the display to full size.
You may also use the Zoom Out button on the tool bar. See “Tool Bar,” page 152
for more details.
View − Previous View
View ⇒ Previous View allows you to toggle between the present view and the
previous view. You may also use the Previous View button on the tool bar or the
shortcut key, ^L. See “Tool Bar,” page 152 for more details.
99
View − Full View
View ⇒ Full View resets the area displayed so that the entire substrate surface is
visible on the available screen. ^F is the shortcut key for this command.
You may also use the Full View button on the tool bar or the shortcut key. See
“Tool Bar,” page 152 for more details.
View − New View
View ⇒ New View opens a new xgeom window with the current circuit
displayed. This command is useful if you need to observe the overall circuit while
also working on a section of the circuit.
You may also use the New View button on the tool bar. See “Tool Bar,” page 152
for more details.
View − Aspect Ratio
Select View ⇒ Aspect Ratio to specify the aspect ratio of the displayed plot. The
Aspect Ratio dialog box will appear on the display.
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XGEOM
To obtain a wider image, enter a greater value in the X text entry box than in the
Y text entry box. To obtain a taller image, you enter a greater value in the Y text
entry box than in the X test entry box. A value of X=1.0, Y=1.0 displays the circuit
in its true proportions on any CRT. This option may be needed when obtaining
hardcopy from devices with aspect ratios different from your CRT.
TIP
When editing long thin circuits, Aspect Ratio may be changed to allow you to view
your entire circuit in detail.
View - Up One Level
Select View ⇒ Up One Level to move the view in the xgeom window up one level
of metalization in your circuit. This can also be accomplished by use of the
shortcut key, Û, the button on the tool bar, the Level menu on the tool bar or the
Up Arrow key.
View - Down One Level
Select View ⇒ Down One Level to move the view in the xgeom window down
one level of metalization in your circuit. This can also be accomplished by use of
the shortcut key, ^D, the button on the tool bar, the Level menu on the tool bar or
the Down Arrow key.
View - Metalization Levels
With xgeom, you can view multiple levels at the same time. Each level may be
visible or invisible. It is also possible to lock a level to prevent multilayer selecting
commands from effecting objects on it. If a layer is locked, editing commands will
act on objects on that layer only if it is the present layer. To accomplish this, select
View ⇒ Metalization Levels.
101
The Metalization Levels dialog box appears as shown below. The box indicates
the present visibility value for all levels and their lock status. Initially, when
xgeom starts up, all levels are visible and unlocked so that multilayer selecting
commands will affect objects on all layers of a circuit.
Current Level drop list: This controls the level displayed in the xgeom window.
This allows you to view different levels in your circuit without the need to exit the
dialog box. Select a level from the drop list or edit the text entry box and click on
the Apply button to update the display.
Visible button: Clicking on this button makes the highlighted level visible. When
a level is visible, and not the present level, polygons and other shapes can be seen
on the screen as a dashed outline.
Invisible button: Clicking on this button makes the highlighted level invisible.
When a level is invisible, its objects are not shown except when it is the present
layer viewed.
Lock button: Clicking on this button locks the highlighted level. No objects on
this layer will be selected on another level while in multilayer select mode. You
can use this to prevent inadvertent changes on a completed level. It is important to
remember, however, that the lock does not prevent editing if it is the present layer.
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XGEOM
Unlock: Clicking on this button unlocks the highlighted level for multilayer
selecting.
All Visible button: Clicking on this button makes all levels visible.
All Invisible button: Clicking on this button makes all levels invisible.
View - Object Visibility
View ⇒ Object Visibility opens the Object Visibility dialog box which enables
you to choose which objects you wish to display.
The Object Visibility

dialog box with only
ports selected.
All Objects radio button: Clicking on this button will make all objects visible.
Only Objects Checked Below radio button: Clicking on this button will allow
you to choose which objects to make visible. To enable display on a particular
item click on its checkbox so that the checkbox is filled in. To disable display,
click on the checkbox so that it appears “open”. The default upon startup is that
all objects are visible.
View − Cell Fill
View ⇒ Cell Fill toggles the display of the actual metalization, as subsectioned
by em, on and off. ^M is the shortcut key for this command. When cell fill is “on”,
metal is displayed using the pattern specified in the Parameters ⇒ Metal Types
dialog box. All via posts are also displayed. The metalization is never displayed
on the ground plane except for the via posts. The edges of the metalization are the
actual edges that are analyzed by em. Selection of a finer grid in Parameters ⇒
103
Box results in a better approximation to the edge. Other consequences are a better
representation of the current distribution, more accurate results and a longer
analysis time.
Selection of the edge fill mode, by selecting Modify ⇒ Attributes, can also
improve the fit of the actual metal to the desired edge. Finally, moving the outline
edge slightly can also provide a better fit.
View − Cell Grid
This option toggles the grid on and off. It is related to the cell size selected in the
Box Parameters dialog box. The distance between two grid points is equal to the
cell size. This grid is not to be confused with the snap distance set in the Snap Grid
Setup dialog box. By default, the snap coordinates are set to coincide with the cell
grid, however, the snap coordinates may be set to any other value and may not
necessarily coincide with the cell grid.
When View ⇒ Cell Grid is active, one dot is displayed at the corner of every
possible cell. Metalization is allowed to cover an entire cell or none of the cell. If
the Diagonal edge fill option is active then half a cell, cut diagonally, may also be
filled/empty. To modify the cell size, see section “Parameters - Box,” page 129.
View - Tool Bar
This option toggles the Tool bar on and off at the top of the xgeom menu.The
default setting upon startup is on. For a detailed description of the Tool Bar, see
“Tool Bar,” page 152.
View - Status Bar
This option toggles the Status bar on and off at the bottom of the xgeom menu.The
default setting upon startup is on. The status bar is shown in the figure on page 16.
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XGEOM
View - Tool Box
You select this option to open or close a tool box which allows for quick access to
a number of xgeom’s functions. This option toggles between open and closed. If
the option is on, the tool box is opened automatically when you open an xgeom
file and closed automatically when the last file is closed. For a detailed description
of the Tool Box, see “Tool Box,” page 155.
View - Measuring Tool
You can use this feature to measure distances in your circuit. The measuring tool
consists of an anchor and a readout box. Both will be displayed when you select
View ⇒ Measuring Tool. The anchor, which is drawn as a small cross, is the
reference point for taking measurements. The readout box provides the
coordinates of the current anchor, whose default value is 0,0, the current cursor
position, which is given as a delta from the anchor, and the length of the line from
the anchor to cursor position.
Anchor Setup button

Mouse button Anchor Setup dialog box
Readout box
If you wish to place the anchor in a different position, you may click on the Mouse
button, then click on the new anchor position in your circuit. For a more precise
positioning of the anchor, click on the Anchor (...) button in the Readout box. The
Measuring Tool Setup box is opened. You have three options for entering an
anchor position.
• You may directly enter coordinates by editing the X and Y text
entry boxes via keyboard.
• You may use the origin point (0,0) of the drawing by clicking on
105
the Drawing Origin button.

• You may use the center of the box by clicking on the Box Center
button.
Any selection will cause the X and Y display to be updated with the current anchor
position. Once the position is correct, click on the OK button to apply this value
and close the setup box. The Anchor entry in the readout will now display the new
anchor value and all subsequent measurements will be taken from this point.
Turning the Allow anchor to be dragged checkbox on allows you to move the
anchor directly, by dragging it with the mouse. However, when the option is on,
the anchor has precedence over all other objects. If the anchor is at the same
location as a point, that point can not be selected by clicking. You are also not
permitted to add a new point in the same location as the anchor. If you need to
perform an operation at the anchor location, be sure you first turn Allow anchor to
be dragged off so that the action is permissible.
TIP
When a polygon or set of points are selected, the dimensions of the bounding box
of the selected object(s) appears in the cursor section of the status bar.
View - Redraw
You select View ⇒ Redraw to redraw the xgeom display window.
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XGEOM
The Tools Menu
The Tools menu is used to access the tools which enable you to add or change
objects in a circuit.
Tools - Pointer
You select Tools ⇒ Pointer to place xgeom in pointer mode. This is the default
operating mode of xgeom, in which objects can be selected and moved by use of
the cursor and mouse. The mode is indicated by the word Pointer in the mode field
of the status bar at the bottom of the xgeom window. You can also use the shortcut
ESC key to place you in this mode.
Tools - Reshape
You use Tools ⇒ Reshape to modify the shape of an existing object. For
example, if you have a polygon which needs to be larger on one side, select Tools
⇒ Reshape. This places you in reshape mode, indicated by the cursor and a
message in the status bar. Lasso the points of interest to select them. Selection is
indicated by a black dot on the relevant points. Then drag one of the selected
points to the desired location and release the mouse. As you are dragging the
selected points a rubber band will appear indicating the new shape of the polygon.
When the mouse is released, the polygon will be redrawn with a new shape to fit
the new location of the selected points. This operation is illustrated in on the next
page.
TIP
To move an entire structure, without moving a port attached to the box wall, set
the Multilayer select mode, then select Tools ⇒ Reshape. Lasso the entire circuit,
with the exception of the port. Dragging one of the highlighted points will cause
the entire circuit with the exception of the port to be moved.
107
Polygon before reshaping
Selected points on polygon

in reshape mode.
Appearance of polygon after

moving the selected points.
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XGEOM
Tools - Add Points to Polygon
The Add Points to Polygon menu option may be used when you want to add
additional points to an existing polygon. To add points to a polygon, select Tools
⇒ Add Points to Polygon and click the mouse with the cursor on the line segment
to which you want to add points. The new point appears highlighted. Now drag
the point to the desired position. A “rubber band” appears connecting the
highlighted new point to the existing endpoints on either side. When you release
the mouse, the polygon is redrawn with the new point.
To add more points, repeat the procedure above. When adding points is
completed, exit the add points mode by selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer or pressing the
ESC key.
The measuring tool can be used to determine the correct position while adding
points. Also, the Delete or Backspace key may be used while adding points to
delete a point while it is still selected.
Tools - Add Metalization
Use Tools ⇒ Add Metalization when you wish to add metal to your circuit.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Rectangle
This menu item provides you with a quick way to create rectangular polygons. To
add a rectangle, select Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Rectangle or use the
shortcut key ^R. There is also a button in the Tool box for this task. Now place the
cursor where you want one corner of the rectangle to be. Next, drag the cursor to
form an outline of the desired rectangle. When the rectangle is the size and
dimensions you want, release the mouse button. The rectangle will be drawn and
xgeom will return to pointer mode.
If you wish to add more than one rectangle at a time, press the shift key while
making the menu selection. This will leave you in Add Metalization ⇒ Draw
Rectangle until you explicitly exit this mode.
109
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon
To add a polygon, select Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon or use the
shortcut key ^P. There is also a button in the Tool box for this task. Now click
where you want the first point of the polygon to appear. As you move the cursor
a moving rubber band appears stretching from the first point to the cursor location.
Click on the next point of the polygon, and a fixed line appears between the first
two points and the rubber band now stretches from the last input point. The rubber
band will continue to follow the cursor from the last point input until the polygon
is complete. This can be accomplished by either clicking again on top of the first
point entered or double-clicking on the last point to be entered. Once the polygon
is complete, xgeom returns to pointer mode, unless the mode was shift-selected.
If so, you can continue to add polygons.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Rectangle
To add a rectangle from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Rectangle. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Rectangle,” page 71.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ InterDigCap
To add an interdigital capacitor from the palette of standard geometries, select

Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ InterDigCap. The Geometry Parameters dialog box
appears on your display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see
“Interdigital Capacitor,” page 72.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Donut
To add a donut from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Donut. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Donut,” page 74.
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XGEOM
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Meander
To add a meander from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Meander. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Meander,” page 76.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Round Spiral
To add a round spiral from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Round Spiral. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on
your display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Round Spiral,”
page 77.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Rectangular Spiral
To add a rectangular spiral from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools
⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Rectangular Spiral. The Geometry Parameters dialog box
“Rectangular Spiral,” page 78.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Parallel Lines
To add a set of parallel lines from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools
⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Parallel Lines. The Geometry Parameters dialog box
“Parallel Lines,” page 79.
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Fan Stub
To add a fan stub from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Fan Stub. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Fan Stub,” page 80.
111
Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Lange
To add a Lange coupler from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒
Add Metalization ⇒ Lange. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Lange Coupler,”
page 81.
Tools - Add Dielectric Brick
Use Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick when you wish to add dielectric bricks to your
circuit.
Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw Rectangle
This menu item provides you with a quick way to create rectangular polygons. To
add a rectangle, select Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw Rectangle or use
the button in the Tool box for this task. Now place the cursor where you want one
corner of the rectangle to be. Next, drag the cursor to form an outline of the desired
rectangle. When the rectangle is the size and dimensions you want, release the
mouse button. The rectangle will be drawn and xgeom will return to pointer mode.
If you wish to add more than one rectangle at a time, press the shift key while
making the menu selection. This will leave you in Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw
Rectangle until you explicitly exit this mode.
Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw Polygon
To add a polygon, select Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric ⇒ Draw Polygon or use the
button in the Tool box for this task. Now click where you want the first point of
the polygon to appear. As you move the cursor a moving rubber band appears
stretching from the first point to the cursor location. Click on the next point of the
polygon, and a fixed line appears between the first two points and the rubber band
now stretches from the last input point. The rubber band will continue to follow
the cursor from the last point input until the polygon is complete. This can be
accomplished by either clicking again on top of the first point entered or double-
clicking on the last point to be entered. Once the polygon is complete, xgeom
returns to pointer mode, unless the mode was shift-selected. If so, you can
continue to add polygons.
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XGEOM
Tools - Add Port
Use Tools ⇒ Add Port to add ports to your circuit. See Chapter 3, “Using Ports”
for a detailed description of ports. Select Tools ⇒ Add Port to place xgeom in
Add Port mode, as indicated by a change in cursor and the messages in the status
bar at the bottom of the xgeom window. Then click on the center of the desired
edge of the polygon to which you wish to add a port.
Ports are nearly always placed on the edge of the substrate so that the port has
access to ground. Note that the edge must be on the substrate edge for the port to
have access to ground. If this is not the case, em issues an error message and
terminates.
NOTE: If you wish to add an auto-grounded port, you must first add the port
as described above, then go to the Port Attributes dialog box to
change its type to auto-grounded. For details of how to accomplish
this, see section "Modify - Attributes" on page 118.
If you wish to add multiple ports, press the shift key while making your menu
selection. To delete a port, return to pointer mode by selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer
or pressing the ESC key. Click on the port to select it, then use Edit ⇒ Cut to
delete it.
Tools - Add Via
Use Tools ⇒ Add Via to add edge vias. See Chapter 4, “Using Vias” for a
detailed description of vias. To add an edge via, select Tools ⇒Add Via, then
click on the polygon edge that you want the via added to. A dark dashed line
appears showing where the edge via is. With the metalization turned on, the via
subsections are displayed. Each via post has an “up” via symbol which is an “up”
triangle, indicating that the via connects this level to the next level above. Move
up one level. The subsection vias are shown on this level with a “down” via
symbol, a “down” via triangle. Via posts that are too small to be seen individually
have a single via symbol representing multiple via posts.
113
If you wish to add multiple vias, press the shift key while making your menu
selection. To delete a via, return to pointer mode, by selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer
or pressing the ESC key. Make sure that you are on the level where the edge via
starts, and emanates upward, and not on the level above where the via ends. Click
on the triangle to select it, then use Edit ⇒ Delete to delete it.
See “Creating an Airbridge: An Example,” page 59 for more details on how to get
the via metalization exactly where you want it to go.
The length of the via must be small with respect to the wavelength. If not true,
subdivide the dielectric layer into multiple layers and put vias on each of these
layers.
Tools - Ortho
Selecting Tools ⇒ Ortho places xgeom in the orthogonal mode. This will affect
you in two ways. First, if you add a polygon while the ortho feature is active,
xgeom will only allow horizontal or vertical lines in the object as shown in the
figure below.
Ortho feature off Ortho feature on
TIP
Holding down the shift key while adding, moving, or editing a polygon will place
you in orthogonal mode temporarily.
114
XGEOM
Second, when moving a selected object or point, you may only move in the
horizontal plane or vertical plane at any given time. In other words, Tools ⇒
Ortho ensures that you can only change position in one planar coordinate, either
x or y, at a time. See the example shown below.
Horizontal move
Notice, that in ortho mode, if a move is

made in the horizontal plane, then the
vertical position is fixed. If the move is
in the vertical plane, then the horizontal
position is fixed
Vertical move
115
Tools - Snap Setup
Selecting Tools ⇒ Snap Setup opens the Snap Grid Setup dialog box, shown
below. This allows you to specify a new snap distance. All captured coordinates
and all ruler measurements are snapped to this grid. For example, with a snap of
0.1 mils, a captured point at 10.05 mils is impossible.
Divisions
Snap Grid field
radio buttons
Custom
text boxes
NOTE: The snap distance of your circuit affects how the polygons are en-
tered. It does not change the size of your subsections.
You select one of the following four buttons, pictured above, to select your snap
type:
Cell Size: Sets the snap coordinates to match the cell grid. If the cell size is
changed and this option is in effect, the snap coordinates change to match the new
cell grid. The current cell size is displayed following the button.
Divide Cell: Sets the snap coordinates to match a subdivision of cell size. Enter
the number of divisions per cell in the Divisions field.
Custom: Any arbitrary snap grid can be specified by entering the desired values
in the X and Y Custom text boxes. Use this option if, for example, you want to
capture a polygon with all coordinates snapped to the nearest micron.
No Snap: Alternatively, one can select the No Snap button, in which case
captured coordinates are exactly at the cursor position. This actually means all
coordinates snap to the nearest pixel.
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XGEOM
X - No Snap : Will turn off the snap in the x-direction. This option allows you to
snap in the y-direction only.
Y - No Snap: Will turn off the snap in the y-direction. This option allows you to
snap in the x-direction only.
117
The Modify Menu
The Modify menu allows you to make changes to existing objects in your circuit.
NOTE: Please note that you must first select a polygon(s) and/or port(s) to
access the following modify menu items.
Modify - Attributes
To change the parameters associated with a polygon or a port, select the object,
then select Modify ⇒ Attributes. If the object selected is a metal polygon, the
Metalization Attributes dialog box is opened, as shown in the figure on page 119.
This dialog box allows you to set the metal type, fill type and subsection size. If
the object selected is a brick polygon, the Brick Attributes dialog box is opened,
shown in the figure on page 121. This dialog box allows you to set the brick type
and subsection size. If the object selected is a port, the Port Attributes dialog box
is opened, as shown in the figure on page 122. This dialog box allows you to set
the port type, number, impedance values, and if the port is an autogrounded port,
set the reference plane or calibration length. If both polygons and ports are
selected, the Metalization Attributes box will be opened, followed by the Brick
Attributes box and then the Port Attributes dialog box. These dialog boxes are
described below.
NOTE: If multiple polygons or ports are selected, then changes made in the
Attributes dialog boxes will affect the parameters of all selected poly-
gons or ports.
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XGEOM
The Metalization Attributes dialog box
This dialog box shows the current metal type, fill type and subsection size
associated with the selected polygon(s).
Metalization Attributes
dialog box.
Metal field: : Choose a metal type from the drop list in the Metal field. Changing
the metalization changes only the metalization loss. The polygon is still on the
same physical level; i.e., it is still between the same two layers of dielectric.
When xgeom starts, it initially only has one metal type, “Lossless”. If you have
not set up additional metal types in the Parameters ⇒ Metal Types menu, then
the pull-down menu only presents the one choice of “lossless”. To add new metal
types, see section “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138.
Fill Type field: The “fill type” of a polygon is defined as the type of subsection
used by em at the edges of a polygon. Choose a fill type from the drop list in the
Fill Type field. The four options in the drop list are defined as follows:
Staircase Provides the best rectangular fit to the metalization

edge. Staircase subsections are used in the middle of a
polygon for all choices. Xgeom defaults to “staircase”
edge fill for all new metal structures.
Diagonal Allows triangular as well as rectangular subsections.

This provides a better fit to diagonal edges but
requires more analysis time. An example appears on
page 120. For a more detailed explanation see section
119
“A Coupled Open-Miter with Diagonal Fill,”

page 163 in the Em User’s Manual.
Corner Provides an improved representation of the current at

gap corners. For a more detailed explanation see “A
Coupled Open-Miter with Diagonal Fill,” page 163 in
the Em User’s Manual.
Both Includes both Corner and Diagonal fill.
Two identical polygons, on the lef

subsectioned with Staircase fill,
and on the right subsectioned with
Diagonal fill.
Subsection Size: Edit the X Min, X Max, Y Min and Y Max text entry boxes to
set the subsectioning for the polygon(s). First time users should leave the numbers
set to the default values (X Min 1, Y Min 1, X Max 100, Y Max 100). Refer to
Chapter 3, “Subsectioning” in the Em User’s Manual for a description of these
parameters.
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XGEOM
The Brick Attributes dialog box
The Brick Attributes dialog box, shown below, shows the current brick material and
subsection size associated with the selected polygon(s).
The Brick Attributes

dialog box.
Brick field: Choose a brick type from the drop list in the Brick field. Changing
the brick changes only the brick material. The brick is still within the same
physical layer.
When xgeom starts, it initially only has one brick material, “Air”. If you have not
set up additional brick material choices in the Parameters ⇒ Brick Materials
menu, then the pull-down menu only presents one choice of “air”. To add new
brick material choices, see section “Parameters - Brick Materials,” page 136.
Subsection Size: Edit the X Min, X Max, Y Min and Y Max text entry boxes to
set the subsectioning for the polygon(s). First time users should leave the numbers
set to the default values (X Min 1, Y Min 1, X Max 100, Y Max 100). Refer to
Chapter 3, “Subsectioning” in the Em User’s Manual for a description of these
parameters.
121
The Port Attributes dialog box
The Port Attributes dialog box shows the number, type and impedance associated
with the selected port(s). It also allows you to set reference planes or calibration
lengths for auto-grounded ports.
The Port
Attributes
dialog box.
Port Number: Renumber the port by entering a new value in the Port Number
text box.
Type: Select the port type from a drop list consisting of Standard and
Autogrounded.
Impedance: Enter the four impedance values in the text entry boxes: Resistance
(in ohms), Reactance (in ohms), Inductance (in nanohenrys), and Capacitance (in
picofarads).
Autoground Port Data: This section of the dialog box allows you to set a
reference plane and calibration length for an autogrounded port by entering values
in the text entry boxes or by using the mouse.
For a more detailed discussion of ports and explanations for the options available
in this dialog box, see Chapter 3, “Using Ports”.
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XGEOM
Modify - Flip
Selecting Modify ⇒ Flip opens the Flip dialog box, shown below, which allows
you to flip the selected polygon(s) in the following manner:
• Left-right flip: Flips about a vertical axis so that its left side is on the right.
• Up-down flip: Flips about a horizontal axis so that its top is on the bottom.
The axis runs through a pivot point which you also set in the dialog box. You can
perform a flip on a single polygon or multiple polygons; the flip operation will be
done to all the objects selected when Modify ⇒ Flip is performed.
Left-Right button: Click on the left-right button to flip the selected polygon(s)
about a vertical axis so that its left is on the right and vice versa.
Up-Down button: Click on the up-down button to flip the selected polygon(s)
about a horizontal axis so that its top is on the bottom and vice versa.
The following choices are available for pivot points:
Selection Center: The flip axis runs through the center of the area enclosing all
selected objects.
Individual Centers:If there are multiple polygons selected, each polygon will
flip about its own center.
123
Pivot Point:You can set a custom pivot point by clicking on the Set Pivot button
in the Flip dialog box, and then clicking in the xgeom window to set the pivot
point. Once the pivot point is set, the Pivot Point radio button will be available and
selected. The polygon will then flip about an axis through this custom point.
Meas. Tool Position:This option is only available if the measuring tool is active
when Modify ⇒ Flip is selected. The polygon will flip with the measuring tool
anchor position as a pivot point.
Box Center:This selection uses the box center as the pivot point for the flip.
Modify - Rotate
Modify ⇒ Rotate rotates the selected polygon(s) clockwise or counterclockwise

for a specified angle about a specified pivot point.
Selecting Modify ⇒ Rotate opens the Rotate dialog box, shown below, which
allows you to rotate the selected polygon(s) about a pivot point, clockwise or
counterclockwise, which you also set in the dialog box. You can perform a rotate
on a single polygon or multiple polygons; the rotate operation will be done to all
the objects selected when Modify ⇒ Rotate is performed.
Angle: Enter the desired angle of rotation in this field. To determine angle values,
refer to the figure on page 157.
124
XGEOM
Counterclockwise button: Click this button to rotate the polygon(s) in the
counterclockwise direction.
Clockwise button: Click this button to rotate the polygon(s) in the clockwise
direction.
Set Pivot button: Click on this button to set a pivot point using the mouse. This
will enable the Pivot Point selection in the Pivot Point field.
The following choices are available for pivot points:
Selection Center: Selected objects are rotated about the center of the area
enclosing all the selected objects.
Individual Centers: If there are multiple polygons selected, each polygon will
rotate about its own center.
Pivot Point: The polygon will rotate about the custom point set after clicking the
Set Pivot button.
Meas. Tool Position: This option is only available if the measuring tool is active
when Modify ⇒ Rotate is selected. The polygon will rotate with the measuring
tool origin position as a pivot point.
Box Center:This selection uses the box center as the pivot point for the rotation.
125
Modify - Resize
Modify ⇒ Resize allows you to resize an object or multiple objects using a

scaling factor. When you select the Resize menu item, the Resize dialog box is
opened. Enter the desired scaling factor in the Percentage field. Percentages over
the value of 100 will enlarge the object; below 100 will shrink the object.
Original polygon
Reduced polygon
(%80)
Multiple objects will resize from the selection center, keeping relative, not
absolute positions.
126
XGEOM
Modify - Snap to
Modify ⇒ Snap to opens the Snap Objects dialog box which allows you to “snap”
or align the points of the polygon(s) in one of three useful ways:
Cells: All points on the selected polygons are aligned to a cell edge. You can
choose to align points in both the X and Y direction, only the X direction, or only
the Y direction.
• X and Y - Both the X and Y coordinates of each point in the
selected polygon(s) will correspond to a cell edge.
• X only - The X coordinate of each point in the selected polygon(s)
will correspond to a cell edge. The Y coordinate of the points does
not change.
• Y only - The Y coordinate of each point in the selected polygon(s)
will correspond to a cell edge. The X coordinate of the points does
not change.
Current Snap Grid: All points on the selected polygons are aligned to the Snap
Grid as defined in “Tools - Snap Setup,” page 116. If the current Snap Grid is set
to the cell size, then this option is not enabled, since in that case, the Cells option
above is the equivalent of this selection. You can choose to align points in both
the X and Y direction, only the X direction, or only the Y direction.
• X and Y - Both the X and Y coordinates of each point in the
selected polygon(s) will correspond to a grid edge.
127
• X only - The X coordinate of each point in the selected polygon(s)

will correspond to a grid edge. The Y coordinate of the points does
not change.
• Y only - The Y coordinate of each point in the selected polygon(s)
will correspond a a grid edge. The X coordinate of the points does
not change.
Box Walls: This option is enabled only if you are in Reshape mode and have
selected points on a polygon. You then select a box wall: Left, Right, Top or
Bottom. All selected points will be moved to correspond to the Box wall. This can
be used to ensure that your metalization extends to the box wall.
Modify - Add Vias to All
Modify ⇒ Add Vias to All will make the entire selected polygon(s) a via, by adding
vias to all edges of the selected polygon(s).
Modify - Convert to Metal
Selecting Modify ⇒ Convert to Metal will convert selected polygon(s) to metal.
Modify - Convert to Brick
Selecting Modify ⇒ Convert to Brick will convert selected polygon(s) to dielectric

brick.
TIP
Use the two commands above if you enter a polygon incorrectly.
128
XGEOM
The Parameters Menu
The Parameters menu allows specification of the parameters of the box, length
units, substrate and dielectric layers, metalization, ports, reference planes and
parallel subsections.
Parameters − Box
You select Parameters ⇒ Box to open the Box Parameters dialog box in order to
display the parameters of the circuit box, as well as to allow for modification of
those parameter values. The default box size for a new file is 160 mils X 160 mils
with a cell size of 10 mils X 10 mils.
Metal
types
Sizes
Max. Subsection Size text box Lock check boxes Symmetry check
box
Box Parameters - Sizes
The entries in this section define the area of the box, and include Cell Size, Box
Size and Num. Cells. Changing one of the size factors will cause the other factors
to be updated according to the relationship below. The dialog box allows you to
“lock” any of these values while entering changes. Note that due to this
relationship, if you lock in two of the size parameters, you have de facto locked in
the third. These three values are related in the following manner:
Num. Cellsx * Cell Sizex = Box Sizex
129
Num. Cellsy * Cell Sizey = Box Sizey
where Num. Cells must be an integer.
Cell Size:This entry row defines the size of a single cell of the box area. You enter
an X dimension (width) and a Y dimension (height) through the keyboard. If you
wish the cell size to remain constant when changing either of the other size factors,
click on the lock check box at the end of the entry row.
Selecting cell size is important. The em analysis automatically subsections the

circuit based on the cell size.
Box Size:This entry row defines the size of the box area. You enter an X
dimension (width) and a Y dimension (height) through the keyboard.
Alternatively, if you wish to set the box size and location using the mouse, click
on the Set Box Size with Mouse button. Then click in the xgeom window on the
location of one corner of the new box, then drag to the opposite corner. If you wish
the box size to remain constant when changing either of the other size factors,
click on the lock check box at the end of the entry row.
Num. Cells:This entry row defines the number of cells in the box area. You enter
an X dimension (width) and a Y dimension (height) through the keyboard. If you
wish the number of cells to remain constant when changing either of the other size
factors, click on the lock check box at the end of the entry row.
Note that if the cell size is not locked, xgeom picks the next smallest allowed cell
size which allows for an integer number of cells to fit in the box area specified by
the Box Size and Num. Cells.
Box Parameters - Max. Subsection Size
Max. Subsection Size: Em uses a variable subsection size. Small subsections are
used where needed, such as around corners, and larger subsections are used
elsewhere. This reduces the size of the matrix which must be inverted, often
providing a dramatic increase in the speed of an analysis. In no case are the
subsections smaller than a single cell whose dimensions are specified above.
130
XGEOM
This field allows you to limit the size of the subsection, generated by em, in terms
of subsections per wavelength, where the wavelength is approximated at the
beginning of the analysis. The highest analysis frequency is used to calculate the
wavelength. The default of 20 is fine for most work and means that the maximum
size of a subsection is 18 degrees at the highest frequency of analysis. Increasing
this number decreases the maximum subsection size until the limit of 1 subsection
= 1 cell is reached.
See section “Modify - Attributes,” page 118 for information on how to specify the
maximum and minimum subsection size on a polygon by polygon basis.
Box Parameters -Symmetry
Symmetry check box: You specify whether symmetry is turned on or off by

clicking on the Symmetry check box. Most circuits should have symmetry off. If
a circuit is symmetric about the center line parallel to the X axis and has ports only
on this center line on any layer, then activating symmetry results in a faster
analysis. When symmetry is turned on, everything below the line of symmetry is
ignored, and all metal above the line of symmetry is “reflected” about the
symmetry line. Therefore, you may enter in just half of your circuit, making sure
that you enter in the half that is above the line of symmetry.
It is recommended that first time users capture the entire circuit when using
symmetry, not just half the circuit. This way, toggling symmetry on and off will
affect only the speed of the analysis, not the final result.
! WARNING
Do not place ports below the line of symmetry.
Box Parameters - Top Metal, Bottom Metal
This option allows you to select the metal type for the box top and box bottom.
You can choose either a predefined metal type or user defined metal type.
The are three predefined metal types:

• Lossless, models a perfect conductor
131
• WG Load, models a perfect matched waveguide load.

• Free Space, which removes the top or bottom cover.
WG Load is useful for modeling infinite arrays in em. The top or bottom cover
will then be terminated with a perfectly matched waveguide load. Note this is not
the same as an open environment and the method for modeling radiating structures
in an open environment has not changed. To model an open environment select
Free Space, which sets the impedance of the cover to 377 ohms/sq, the impedance
of free space. You should also note that the sidewalls are always modeled as
perfect conductors.
Top Metal:Use the drop list to select the metal type for the top of the box. Choose
a metal type from the list which includes the default types of WG Load, Free
Space, and Lossless in addition to any user defined metal types. For details on how
to define a user metal type, and default metal types, see section "Parameters -
Metal types" on page 138.
Bottom Metal: Use the drop list to select the metal type for the bottom of the box.
The metal types are the same as listed above for the box top.
Parameters - Units
Parameters ⇒Units allows you to select the default measurement units for your
circuit by opening the Units dialog box.
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XGEOM
Name field: Select a unit of measure from the drop list in the name field. The size
field will be updated to reflect the unit chosen. If you wish to define nonstandard
units, type the name in this field.
Size Field: If you wish to define nonstandard units, enter the conversion factor to
meters in this field.
Applying New Units radio buttons: When changing units, you can choose to
keep your circuit the same physical size or allow it to change size. If you choose
to keep it the same physical size, parameters will be updated to reflect that. For
instance if a cell is 10 mils by 10 mils and you change the unit to inches, it now
measures 0.01 inches by 0.01 inches. If you choose to allow the circuit to change
size, parameters will retain the same amount of the new measurement, i.e., a 10
mil by 10 mil cell will now measure 10 inches by 10 inches. Click the appropriate
checkbox before applying the units.
! WARNING
If you change the size, be sure to assign a new name to avoid
confusion. For instance, you would not want to define mils as equal
to 3 meters.
Parameters - Dielectric Layers
Parameters ⇒ Dielectric Layers opens the Dielectric Layers dialog box which
allows specification of the dielectric layers in the box including adding or deleting
dielectric layers. For your convenience, the xgeom “level” number appears on the
133
left providing you with an approximate “side view” of your circuit. A “level” is
defined as the intersection of any two layers and is where your circuit metal is
placed. The metal is attached to the bottom of the upper dielectric layer.
Dielectric layer text boxes: Each layer has an entry row in the dialog box with
entries available for the parameters of each dielectric layer:
• thickness (Thickness)
• relative dielectric constant (Erel)
• dielectric loss tangent (Dielectric Loss Tan)
• dielectric conductivity (Diel Cond)
• relative magnetic permeability (Mrel)
• magnetic loss tangent (Magnetic Loss Tan)
• Z-Partitioning (Z-Parts. for bricks)
You select the entry to be changed by clicking on its field. Not all parameters can
be displayed simultaneously in the dialog box. Use the scroll bars to access the
additional parameters.When you click on a text entry box in a dielectric layer’s
row of parameters, it becomes the presently selected layer.
The dielectric constant and loss of a dielectric layer are defined as follows:
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XGEOM
• Erel: The ratio (ε’/εo’), where ε’ is the real part of the permittivity of the di-
electric layer material, and εo’ is the permittivity of free space. The ratio is
dimensionless.
• Loss Tan: The ratio (ε’’/ε’), where ε = ε’ - jε’’, and ε is the complex permit-
tivity of the dielectric layer material. The ratio is dimensionless.
• Diel. Cond: The quantity σ, where σ is the dielectric conductivity in siemens

per meter.
Em uses the above parameters to calculate the total effective tanδ for the dielectric
material as follows:
tan δ = ( Loss Tan ) + (----------------------------

Diel Cond )-
ω ( Erel )ε o'
Here, ω is the radian frequency (ω = 2πf, where f is frequency in hertz). Note that
tanδ has both a frequency-dependent term and a frequency-independent term.
The above equation for tanδ can also be expressed in terms of conductivities as
follows:
( Total Effective Cond ) = ( Loss Tan )ω ( Erel )ε o' + ( Diel Cond )
Both equations are equivalent. Each describes how em uses the input dielectric
parameters to compute loss in the dielectric layer.
Above button: To add a dielectric layer above an existing layer, click on an entry
in the existing layer’s row, then click on the Above button. An additional layer will
be added above the selected layer. This will be indicated by the appearance of
another row of parameter text boxes and a level number to the left of the row.
135
Below button: To add a dielectric layer below an existing layer, click on an entry
in the existing layer’s row, then click on the Below button. An additional layer will
be added below the selected layer. This will be indicated by the appearance of
another row of parameter text boxes and a level number to the left of the row.
Delete button: To delete a dielectric layer, click on an entry in its row, then click
on the Delete button. If you attempt to delete a layer on which metalization is
present, xgeom will prompt you for confirmation before deleting the dielectric
layer, since any metalization present on the layer will also be deleted.
Parameters - Brick Materials
You select Parameters ⇒ Brick Materials to open the Brick Materials dialog box
which allows you to define the characteristics of brick materials for use in your
circuit. The default brick material is Air; this is defined for all xgeom files. All
brick materials may be used on all levels and with different polygons on the same
level. A brick material specifies the dielectric constant, loss tangent and bulk
conductivity used by em, and whether the dielectric is isotropic or anisotropic.
Since the dielectric parameters are unrelated to the level on which a polygon is
located, changing the brick material of a polygon does not change the physical
location of the polygon. It changes only the dielectric parameters.
136
XGEOM
Brick Materials
Default for Add Bricks: Choose a brick material from the drop list of defined
brick materials. This brick material will be applied to any new dielectric bricks as
you add them to the circuit.
Default button:This button is a shortcut for selecting a brick material as the

default, rather than using the drop list discussed above. Click on the material to be
used as the default, then click on this button.
New button: Clicking on the New button allows you to define a new brick
material for use in your circuit. When you click the New button, a new row
appears. You then need to enter parameters to define the brick material.
• Name: To customize the name, edit the text entry box under the name col-
umn.
• Ani: If you wish the brick material to be anisotropic, indicating that its pa-
rameters are different in each dimension, click on this checkbox until it is
filled in. You can then enter the parameters of the brick material by editing
the entries in the row.
If the brick material is isotropic, you only need to fill in the parameters in the X
dimension, which are all displayed in the dialog box as follows:
• Erel
• Dielectric Loss Tan
• Diel. Cond. (S/m)
If the brick material is anisotropic, you will need to define the parameters in all
three dimensions, X, Y, and Z. To access all the parameters, use the scroll bars.
The parameters are as follows:
• Erelx,y,z
• Dielectric Loss Tanx,y,z
• Diel. Cond.x,y,z
Duplicate button:Clicking on the Duplicate button will add a new brick material
whose parameters are identical to the existing selected brick material.
137
Delete button: To delete a brick material, click in its row, then click on the Delete
button. If any polygons currently refer to this brick material, the polygon is
changed to air.
Fill Pattern: This dialog box allows you to choose a fill pattern for the brick
material so that types are easily distinguishable while editing your circuit. Click
on the arrow buttons in the Pattern column, to advance through the choices
available.
Parameters - Metal types
You select Parameters ⇒ Metal Types to open the Metal Types dialog box which
allows you to define the characteristics of metal types for use in your circuit. The
default metal type is Lossless; this is defined for all xgeom files. All metal types
may be used on all levels and multiple metal types may be used on the same level.
These metal types may also be used for the box top and bottom.
A metal type specifies the metalization loss used by em. Since the metalization
loss is unrelated to the level on which a polygon is located, changing the metal
type of a polygon does not change the physical location of the polygon. It changes
only the metalization loss. Metalization loss is discussed in more detail following
the description of the dialog box.
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XGEOM
Default for Add Metalization: Choose a metal type from the drop list of defined
metal types. This metal type will be applied to any metalization added to the
circuit.
Default button:This button is a shortcut for selecting a metal type as the default,
rather than using the drop list discussed above. Click on the metal type to be used
as the default, then click on this button.
New button: The New button allows you to define a new metal type for use in
your circuit. When you click the New button, a new row appears. To customize the
name, edit the text entry box under the name column. You can then enter the
parameters of the metal type by editing the entries in the row:
Metalization Resistivity
• DC Resistance (RDC)
• Skin effect (RRF)
Metalization Reactance
• DC Reactance (XDC)
139
• Surface Inductance (Ls)
Duplicate button: Clicking on the Duplicate button will add a new metal type
whose parameters are identical to the existing selected metal type. You select a
metal type to duplicate by clicking on a text entry box in its row of parameters.
Delete button: To delete a metal type, click in its row, then click on the Delete
button. If any polygons currently refer to this metalization, the polygon is changed
to lossless.
Fill Pattern: This dialog box also allows you to chose a fill pattern for the metal
type, so that types are easily distinguishable while editing your circuit. Click on
the arrow buttons in the Pattern column, to advance through the choices available.
Loss Definitions
There are two kinds of metalization loss specified. The first is DC, low frequency
loss. In this case, the skin depth is much thicker than the metalization. This is also
known as the electrically thin case. Thin film resistors at any frequency fall into
this case, as well as thin conductors at low frequency. DC resistivity loss is
independent of frequency. The units are Ohms/square with the value given by:
R DC = 1 ⁄ σ t
where:
σ is bulk conductivity (Mhos/M)

t is the metalization thickness(M)
In contrast, at higher frequencies, the skin effect surface impedance is a function

of frequency. The number that you type into xgeom, RRF, called the skin effect
coefficient, is multiplied by the square root of the frequency, in Hertz, to arrive at
the surface impedance defined in Ohms/square. The surface impedance is
complex with the imaginary part equal to the real part. The skin effect coefficient
that you type into xgeom is approximately given by:
140
XGEOM
µ
R RF = skin effect coefficient ≈ π ---
σ
where:
–7
µ = 4π × 10
σ is bulk conductivity (Mhos/M)
The above equation assumes that all of the current travels on just one side of the
conductor. This is a good approximation for microstrip. The equation should be
modified for other structures. Stripline, for example, has current of equal
amplitude on both the top and bottom of the conductor. In this case, you should
divide the RRF value by two, while maintaining RDC.
As an example, σ for copper is 5.8x107 Mhos/M, giving RDC = 0.006 Ohms/

square (t = 3 µM) and a microstrip RRF = 2.6x10-7 (enter “2.6e-7” into xgeom). In
reality, the bulk conductivity of copper, or any other given metal, may not equal
141
the laboratory value, so the figures as calculated above are likely to be lower than
actual results. Table 1 provides calculated results of commonly used metals using
the equations above.
Table 7-1: Properties of Commonly Used Metals
RRF
RDC RDC
σ (ΩHz-1/2/sq) XDC (Ω/sq)
Metal (Ω/sq) (Ω/sq) Ls (pH/sq)
(S/M) “Skin Effect” “Reactance”
t = 1 µM t = 1 mil
(microstrip)
Aluminum 3.72e7 0.027 1.1e-3 3.3e-7 0 0
Brass 1.57e7 0.070 2.5e-3 5.0e-7 0 0
Copper 5.80e7 0.017 6.8e-4 2.6e-7 0 0
Gold 4.09e7 0.024 9.6e-4 3.1e-7 0 0
Nichrome 1.00e6 1.000 3.9e-2 2.0e-6 0 0
Silver 6.17e7 0.016 6.4e-4 2.5e-7 0 0
Tantalum 6.45e6 0.155 6.1e-3 7.8e-7 0 0
Tin 8.70e6 0.115 4.5e-3 6.7e-7 0 0
The transition from electrically thin (DC) to electrically thick (RF) is properly
modeled in em. Thus em provides accurate results at low, high and transition
frequencies. If the skin effect coefficient (RRF) is set to 0.0, then the value of RDC
is used over all frequencies. This is the usual case for resistors. The example files
“res400.geo” and “res500.geo” show how to set up a 400 ohm and 500 ohm
resistor using lossy metal.
The top or bottom of the xgeom box may be set to a perfect matched waveguide
load or free space. WG Load is useful for modeling infinite arrays in em. The top
or bottom cover will then be terminated with a perfectly matched waveguide load.
Note this is not the same as an open environment and the method for modeling
radiating structures in an open environment has not changed. To model an open
142
XGEOM
environment select Free Space, which sets the impedance of the cover to 377
ohms/sq, the impedance of free space. You should also note that the sidewalls are
always modeled as perfect conductors.
The surface reactance is specified in Ohms/square and is usually set to zero. See
section “Surface Reactance,” page 43 in the Em User’s Manual for an
explanation of surface reactance.
Parameters − Ports
Selecting Parameters ⇒ Ports opens the Port Impedance dialog box. Using this
dialog box allows you to view and modify the impedance values of all the ports in
your circuit simultaneously. There is an entry row for each port number, in which
you can enter the following values in their respective text boxes:
• Resistance (in ohms): R
• Reactance (in ohms): X
• Inductance (in nanohenrys): L
• Capacitance (in picofarads): C
Note that more than one port may have the same port number and they share the
same parameters. Also, negative port numbers use the same parameters as positive
port numbers, e.g. Port -1 and Port 1 use the same set of parameters. For a further
discussion of port numbers, see “Changing Port Numbering,” page 42.
143
The bearing of the values on the port are as depicted below.
R + jX L
If there are too many ports to be displayed all at once, use the scroll bar to access
the entry rows for the other ports.
TIP
You may also enter the impedance value for a particular port by selecting Modify
⇒ Attributes when the port is selected in the xgeom window.
Parameters − Ref. Planes/Cal. Length
Em has an automatic de-embedding capability. When invoked, em removes the

port discontinuity and a desired length of transmission line, moving the reference
plane into the interior of the box. The reference planes used for de-embedding are
set with this option. One reference plane length per box side may be specified.
Parameters ⇒ Ref. Planes/Cal. Length also allows you to specify the calibration
length used for de-embedding. A box side has a reference plane or a calibration
length, but not both. Please note that it is possible for the calibration length to be
greater than the box length.
144
XGEOM
NOTE: This dialog box is used only for standard ports. Setting Reference
planes/Calibration lengths for an auto-grounded port must be done
in the Modify Attributes dialog box. See section "Modify - Attributes"
on page 118 for details.
When you select Parameters ⇒ Ref. Planes/Cal. Length, the Reference Planes/
Calibration Lengths dialog box is opened. Each box wall (Top, Left, Right, or
Bottom) has a text box containing the following items:
Type field: Use the drop list to select either a reference plane or a calibration
length for the box side.
Length field: Enter the desired length for the reference plane or calibration length
for the box side.
Use Mouse button: This button allows you to set the reference plane length using
the mouse. After clicking on this button, a plus (+) cursor will appear in the xgeom
window. Click in the desired place in your circuit where the reference plane or
145
calibration length should be. Once you click in the xgeom window, the length text
box is updated with the corresponding value. Reference planes will be drawn on
the circuit.
Xgeom may change the reference plane slightly so that it is aligned with the edge
of a cell. The actual position is indicated with a short vertical line at the actual
reference plane location.
To remove a reference plane, enter a value of zero in the Length field or click
outside the boxwall on that side. There is only one reference plane or calibration
length per box side. The same reference plane is used on all ports on all levels on
that side of the box.
Parameters − Parallel Subs.
Parameters ⇒ Parallel Subs. opens the Parallel Subsections dialog box, and allows
the removal of X or Y subsections for a specified distance from a box wall. This
feature is useful for reducing computational time although it may affect the
accuracy of the results. It is referred to as “Parallel Subs” because all subsections
in the specified region that are parallel to the selected box wall are removed. Refer
to the Em User’s Manual for more information about removing parallel
subsections before using this function.
Parallel
Subsections dialog
box.
146
XGEOM
When you select Parameters ⇒ Parallel Subsections the Parallel Subsections
dialog box is opened, as shown in the figure on page 146. Each box wall (Top,
Left, Right, or Bottom) has a text box containing the following items:
Length field: Enter the desired length for the parallel subsection from the box
wall.
Use Mouse button: Click on this button to set the length using the mouse. Once
you click in the xgeom window, the length text box is updated with the
corresponding value.
To remove a parallel subsection, enter a value of zero in the Length field or click
outside the boxwall on that side.
Em will remove the appropriate subsections (Y for the left and right sides, X for
the top and bottom) up to the specified distance, shown as a grayed-out area. An
example is shown below. The Parallel Subsections option removes either X or Y
subsections over a specified distance from the box wall.
}
}
Only X subsections
(Y Subsections removed)
147
The Help Menu
The Help menu provides you with basic operating information such as the xgeom
version and licensing.
Help - License Info
For platforms which support floating licenses, the License dialog box will allow you
to obtain or release a license.
The Users with Licenses scroll list will display a list of users who are presently in
possession of a license. If you do not have a license, the Get command button will
be enabled. Click on this button to obtain a license, if any are available. If you have
a license, the Release command button will be enabled. Click on this button if you
wish to give up your license.
Help - System Info
This command opens a dialog box to provide system information, such as license
ID, display type, and memory available.
148
XGEOM
Help - Debug
This command opens a dialog box which allows you to set the parameters of a
trace for debug purposes. This will be used to provide information to technical
support in case of a problem.
Help - About
This command opens a dialog box which provides the version number for xgeom
and licensing type information.
149
Keyboard Shortcuts
Table 2 describes keyboard shortcuts used in xgeom. All keys are shown here.
Shortcut keys which also have a button on the tool bar are detailed in Table 3,
“Tool Bar,” on page 152. All of these functions may also be implemented by the
menu. Most shortcut keys are “control” keys, abbreviated with a “^” symbol. As
an example, to type a Control-P (^P), hold down the Control key and press the P
key. The DEL key is the Delete and/or Backspace key and the ESC is the Escape
key.
Table 2 Keyboard Shortcuts
Key Meaning
^N New File
Ô Open File
^S Save File
^Z Undo
^Y Redo
^X Cut
^C Copy
^V Paste
Ê Duplicate
Â Select All
^T Reselect
^W Zoom Out
Space Bar Zoom In
Middle Mouse button
^L Previous View
150
XGEOM
Table 2 Keyboard Shortcuts
Key Meaning
^F Full View
Û Up One Level
^D Down One Level
^M Toggle Cell Fill

^P Add Metalization- Draw Polygons
^R Add Metalization-Draw Rectangle
DEL Delete
ESC Pointer mode (Cancel current mode)
NOTE: The ESC key may also be used to cancel actions. For example, if you
are in the middle of adding a polygon, pressing the ESC key will exit
the Add mode and the polygon will not be added to the circuit.
151
Tool Bar
The tool bar consists of a row of buttons which appears just under the main menu
in the xgeom window. The tool bar allows you to access frequently used functions
quickly, without going through pull down menus. Each button, its use, and a
keyboard shortcut to access it, is described below.
Table 3 Tool Bar
Tool Bar button Name Menu Equivalent Keyboard Shortcut
New File ⇒New ^N
Document
Open File ⇒ Open Ô

Document
Save File ⇒ Save ^S

Document
Cut Edit ⇒ Cut ^X
Copy Edit ⇒ Copy ^C
Paste Edit ⇒ Paste ^V
152
XGEOM
Table 3 Tool Bar
New View ⇒ New View None
Window
(View) of
Same
Document
Zoom In View ⇒ Zoom In Space Bar
Middle Mouse Button
Zoom Out View ⇒ Zoom Out ^W
Full View View ⇒Full View ^F
Previous View ⇒ Previous ^Y

View View
Up One View ⇒ Up One Û

Level Level
Down One View ⇒ Down One ^D

Level Level
153
Table 3 Tool Bar

Ortho Tools ⇒ Ortho None
Toggle View ⇒ Measuring None

Measuring Tool
Tool
Analyze File ⇒ Analyze None

File
Print File ⇒ Print None
Level Drop None None

List
154
XGEOM
Tool Box
The Tool Box consists of a window of buttons which appears next to the xgeom
window on your display upon opening a circuit file. The Tool Box allows you to
access frequently used tools quickly, without going to the tools menu.
The table below identifies each button in the tool box and gives a brief description
of its functions. For more detailed explanations, see the corresponding menu
entry.
As you move your cursor over each button, a brief description of its function
appears in the Messages box in the status bar at the bottom of the xgeom window.
Note that the Metal Mode/Brick Mode button toggles between the two modes,
changing each time you click on the button.
The Tool Box is closed automatically when the last circuit file is closed. The tool
box can also be turned on or off by selecting View ⇒ Tool Box.
TIP
As with menu selects, pressing the shift key while clicking on the button will leave
you in the selected mode until you exit it explicitly. See “Shift Selecting Modes,”
page 18.
155
Table 4 Tool Box
Button Name Description
Pointer Places xgeom in pointer mode,

allowing you to select objects.
Reshape Polygons Places xgeom in reshape mode,

allowing you to move points in
polygons.
Add Points to Polygons Allows you to add points to a

selected polygon.
Add Port to Polygon Edge Places xgeom in Add Port mode

allowing you to add ports to metal
polygons.
Add Via to Polygon Edge Places xgeom in Add Via mode

allowing you to add vias to metal
polygons.
Add a Polygon Adds a polygon of metal or

dielectric brick according to the
selections below.
Add a Rectangle Adds a rectangle of metal or

dielectric brick according to the
selections below.
Metalization Mode When Add a Polygon or

Rectangle is selected, objects
added will be metal.
Dielectric Brick Mode When Add a Polygon or

Rectangle is selected, objects
added will be dielectric brick.
156
XGEOM
Typing in Coordinates From the Keyboard
Polygons and points may be entered and moved by using the mouse or their
coordinates may be typed in directly. You can type in polar or Cartesian
coordinates either as absolute coordinates or relative coordinates. Relative
coordinates are relative to the last point entered. The following section shows you
how to enter in a rectangle by typing in the coordinates. The coordinate system
used is shown below. Use View ⇒ Measuring Tool to change the origin used for
Cartesian coordinates.
+Y 90°
135° 45°
180° 0°
+X 225° 315°
(0,0) 270° ( – 45° )
Cartesian Coordinates Polar Coordinates
An Example of Keying in Coordinates
For this example, we will draw a rectangular polygon that is 60 mils wide and 30
mils high. First, start with a new xgeom window by selecting File ⇒ New from
the main menu. If during this example you type in the wrong numbers, just press
the Delete or Backspace key and the last entered point will be removed.
Now select Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon and type in the X and
Y coordinates of the first point of the polygon. For this example, type
50,60
157
and press the Return key. The point you are entering will appear in the left-hand
field of the status bar at the bottom of the xgeom screen. Moving the mouse
stretches a rubber band from the coordinates X=50 mils and Y=60 mils, just as if
you had clicked the left mouse button on that point. See the figure on page 159.
Note that coordinates are snapped to the nearest snap grid point; i.e., typing in
“50.01,59.98” would have the same result as “50,60”.
To enter the next point 60 mils to the right of this point, type
@60<0
A line appears starting from the first point you picked and ending 60 mils to the
right of it. The at sign, “@”, tells xgeom that the number you specify is a distance
from the last point that you entered. The 60 is the distance to move, and the less
than symbol (“<“) tells xgeom that the next number is the angle at which the point
is to be placed. Angles are defined in degrees as shown on page 157.
For the next point, let’s use Cartesian coordinates. Type
@0,30
158
XGEOM
Another line of our rectangle appears. Once again we used the “@” sign to tell
xgeom that the coordinates we entered are relative to the last point. The first
number (0) is always the X value and the second number after the comma is the y
value. In this case the Y value is positive, so the new point is 30 mils above the
previous point.
Keyboa
rd
50,90 @0,30
50,60 (Starting Point) @60<0
Now type
50,90
At this point, your screen should look like the picture above. This time the number
was entered as an absolute coordinate just to illustrate that you may mix absolute
coordinates with relative coordinates.
Mixing absolute coordinates with relative coordinates on the same line is not
allowed; e.g., “50,@0” is not allowed. You may finish your polygon using the
same technique as the mouse: by clicking exactly on the last point entered, or
clicking on the first entered point. You may also type in the equivalent coordinates
to finish. The easiest way to complete a polygon is to type:
159
This completes the polygon. Xgeom interprets the “@” sign as relative
coordinates. When none are given, zero (0) is assumed. In this case “@” is
equivalent to “@0,0” which is the same as clicking the mouse with the cursor on
the last point. This completes the polygon. Note also that typing in “@5” is
equivalent to “@5,0” and adds a point 5 units to the right of the last point.
You may mix mouse and keyboard entry of points. If the “@” sign is used for the
first point when the measuring tool anchor display is visible, the values are relative
to the anchor. Otherwise, a relative first point is treated as an absolute value.
The above example used Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon.

Keyboard entry is also supported for Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw
Rectangle and Tools ⇒ Add Points to Polygon. As soon as you type a number or
an at sign, “@”, while any of these functions are active, xgeom starts reading from
the keyboard. Note that for entering a rectangle, you only enter two points: the
origin of the rectangle and the location of the opposite corner.
Direct keyboard entry of coordinates can be used in place of mouse actions in most
circumstances, including while adding rectangles, moving objects and zooming.
Panning
Panning is accomplished through the use of scroll bars which appear on the edges
of the xgeom window. To cause the display to move in increments, click on the
arrow button at either end of a scroll bar. Alternately, place the cursor on the bar
at the center and drag the bar to the desired position.
160
Index
XGEOM
Index
A air-bridge 49
example 49–52
Â 86, 140
analyze 79
accuracy 136
anisotropic dielectric bricks 53
add
aspect ratio 90
dielectric bricks 102, 146
@ (at) sign 148–150
default brick material 127
attributes 16
polygon 102
dielectric bricks 108, 111
rectangle 102
modify
metalization 99–102
metalization 109
default metal type 129
ports 112
donut 64, 100
auto-grounded ports 29, 103
fan stub 70, 101
calibration lengths 112
interdigital capacitor 62, 100
reference planes 112
lange coupler 71, 102
autosave 82
meander 66, 101
parallel lines 69, 101 B
polygon 100, 102
backup 82
rectangle 61, 99, 100
backup file 25, 82
rectangular spiral 68, 101
balanced ports 33
round spiral 67, 101
bottom metal 122
points 19, 150
box parameters 119
making an error 20, 99
bottom metal 122
to polygon 99
maximum subsection size 120
polygons 104
sizes 119
ports 103
symmetry 121
auto-grounded 31
top metal 122
standard 30
Box Parameters dialog box 94, 119
via-ports 30
box size 119, 120
via 103
Brick Attributes dialog box 111
161
brick materials 127 polygons 22

parameters 126 across layers 22, 84
Brick Materials dialog box 126 copy picture 87
bricks See dielectric bricks corner mode 110
bulk conductivity 130, 131 cut 15, 21, 47, 83
polygons 21
C
^C 84, 140, 142 D
calibration lengths 34, 35, 36, 112, 134 ^D 91, 141, 143
capacitance 133 de-embedding 134
cartesian coordinates 147 de-embedding ports
cell fill 93, 109 via-ports 28
patterns 130 DEL 85, 141
cell grid 94, 106 delete 15, 20, 83, 85, 88, 141
cell size 94, 106, 119, 120 clipboard 85
cells/lambda 120 objects 21
clicking 14 parallel subsections 137
clip 85 points 20
clipboard 21, 83, 85 polygons 21
delete 85 reference planes 136
duplicate 84 delete key 20, 99
paste 84 deleting
close 78 ports 31, 103
comments 81 vias 47, 104
conductivity 124 diagonal mode 109
control key 8, 18 dialog boxes
conventions 5 Box Parameters 94, 119
status bar 6 Brick Attributes 111
tool bar 6 Brick Materials 126
tool box 6 Dielectric Brick Attributes 16
convert 118 Dielectric Layers 123
coordinates 147 Flip 22, 113
default origin 148 Levels 44
entry from keyboard 147–150 License 138
polar coordinates 148 Metal Types 128
copy 15, 22, 84 Metalization Attributes 16, 109
edit 84 Metalization Levels 92
points 22 Object Visibility 93
162
Index
XGEOM
Parallel Subsections 136 double clicking 8
Port Attributes 16, 112 down one level 91
Port Impedance 34, 133 duplicate 15, 22, 84
Print Setup 80 clipboard 84
Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths 135 DXF
Resize 116 simplified write 82
Rotate 114 DXF export
Save As 78, 79 file 79, 82
Selection Filter 88
Snap Grid Setup 94, 106 E
Snap Objects 117 Ê 85, 140
Unit 122 edge-vias 42
Dielectric Brick Attributes dialog box 16 edit 83–88
dielectric bricks 16, 53–58, 102, 126, 127, 146 clip 85
add 102 copy 15, 22, 84
anisotropic 53 copy picture 87
application 53 cut 15, 21, 47, 83
attributes 108, 111 delete 15, 20, 85, 88
convert 118 duplicate 15, 22, 84
defining new types 127 multi-layer 87
fill patterns 128 paste 22, 84
materials 55, 56, 126 points 18
polygon 108 reselect 86
visibility 55 resize 23
dielectric conductivity 124 select all 86, 88
dielectric constant 124 select filter 87
dielectric layers 123 single layer 87
auto-grounded ports 30 single layer select 18
dielectric conductivity 124 undo 83
magnetic loss tangent 124 unselect 17, 86
magnetic permeability 124 em
Dielectric Layers dialog box 123 accuracy 136
dielectric loss tangent 124 invoking 79
dielectric thickness 124 low frequencies 132
dielectrics 123 subsections 1, 93, 120
direct entry 147 emergency backup 25
discontinuities 134 ESC 97, 141
donut 64, 100 escape key 97, 141
163
example files gaps 110

patch.geo 28, 48 GDS
exit xgeom 78, 82 export file 80
export 79 grid 106
DXF file 79
GDS file 80 H
picture 79 ^H 140
help menu 75
F hot keys 8, 18, 97, 99, 100, 102, 140
^F 90, 141, 143 shift key 18
fan stub 70, 101
feed-structure 29 I
file 74–75, 76–82 impedance 33, 34, 112
analyze 79 inductance 133
close 78 interdigital capacitor 62, 100
comments 81 internal ports 26, 48
exit 75, 82 invisible 91
export 79 invoking em 79
DXF 79, 82
GDS 80 K
picture 79 keyboard
new 74, 76 control key 8
open 75, 76 coordinate entry 147
page setup 80 ctrl-A 86, 140
preferences 81 ctrl-C 84, 140, 142
print 80 ctrl-D 91, 141, 143
revert to saved 79 ctrl-E 85, 140
save 78 ctrl-F 90, 141, 143
save as 78 ctrl-H 140
fill patterns 128, 130 ctrl-M 93, 141
flip 22, 113 ctrl-N 76, 140, 142
modify 22, 23 ctrl-O 77, 140, 142
pivot point 113 ctrl-P 100, 141
Flip dialog box 22, 113 ctrl-R 99, 141
full view 90 ctrl-S 78, 140, 142
ctrl-T 86, 89, 140, 143
G ctrl-U 91, 141, 143
.geo 1, 78 ctrl-V 84, 140, 142
164
Index
XGEOM
ctrl-W 140, 143 edit See edit
ctrl-X 83, 140, 142 file See file
ctrl-Y 140 help 75
ctrl-Z 140 modify See modify
DEL 85, 141 parameters See parameters
ESC 97, 141 startup 74
shortcut keys 8 tools See tools
space bar 140 view See view
table of keys 140 menu bar
accesses 7
L metal types 93, 128
lange coupler 71, 102 defining new types 129
lasso 16 fill patterns 130
Levels dialog box 44 Metal Types dialog box 128
License dialog box 138 metalization
lock 87, 91, 92, 119, 120 commonly used metals 132
loss 109 convert 118
definitions 130 fill patterns 130
formula 130 fill type 109
magnetic loss tangent 124 loss 109, 130
microstrip 131 modify attributes 109
stripline 131 reactance 129
tangent 124 resistivity 129
vias 47 thickness 130
loss tangent 124 type 109
lossless 109, 128 Metalization Attributes dialog box 16, 109
metalization levels 91
M invisible 92, 93
^M 93, 141 locked 92
magnetic loss tangent 124 unlocked 93
magnetic permeability 124 visibility 44
main menu 76–139 visible 92, 93
accesses 7 Metalization Levels dialog box 92
maximum cell size 120 metalization loss
meander 66, 101 vias 126
measuring tool 95, 114 metals
anchor 95–96 via-posts 93
menu microstrip
165
loss 131 Object Visibility dialog box 93

mode objects
add points to polygons 19 across layers 84
orthogonal mode 104 copy 84
pointer 13, 14, 21, 97 delete 21, 83, 85
reshape 14, 18, 97 editing 14
shift selecting 8 flip 113
modify 16, 108–118 moving 105
attributes 16, 108 multiple selects 15
metalization 109 orthogonal 104
ports 31, 33, 36, 112 points
convert to brick 118 add 150
convert to metal 118 ports 25–30, 103
flip 22, 23, 113 reference planes 134, 136
rotate 23, 114 rotate 114
snap to grid 117 selecting 14
mouse snap 117
clicking 14 unselect 17
move vias 41–48, 103, 104
points 18 visibility 93
polygons 21 open File 76
polygons between layers 22 ortho 104
move layer 84
multi-layer 87 P
editing 84 ^P 100, 102, 141
multi-layer select 17 page setup 80
multiple selects 15 palette 59–71
donut 64
N fan stub 70
^N 76, 140, 142 interdigital capacitor 62
new 76 lange coupler 71
new features 2 meander 66
new file 76 parallel lines 69
new view 90 rectangle 61
number of cells 119, 120 rectangular spiral 68
round spiral 67
O palette of standard geometries
Ô 77, 140, 142 see palette or standard geometries
166
Index
XGEOM
panning 150 copy 22
parallel lines 69, 101 delete 20
parallel subsections edit 18
delete 137 move 18
Parallel Subsections dialog box 136 select 14
parameters 119–137 polar coordinates 147
box 119 polygons 20
bottom metal 122 add 100, 102
box size 120 add points 19, 99
cell size 94, 120 brick 108
maximum subsection 120 copy 22, 84
number of cells 120 across layers 22
symmetry 121 cut 21
top metal 122 delete 21, 83, 85
brick materials 126 flip 22, 113
calibration lengths 134 modify 108
dielectric layers 123 move 21
metal types 93, 128 moving between layers 22
metalization 109, 111 paste 21
parallel subsections 136 resize 22, 23, 116
ports 34, 133 rotate 22, 23, 114
reference planes 134 select 14
units 122 snap 117
partitioning 124 Port Attributes dialog box 16, 112
paste 21, 22, 84 Port Impedance dialog box 34, 133
clipboard 84 ports 20, 25–36, 133
polygons 21 add 103
patch.geo 28, 48 auto-grounded 31
picture standard 30
export 79 via-ports 30
pivot point attached to polygons 16
flip 113 auto-grounded 29, 103, 112
rotate 115 calibration lengths 36
pointer 13, 97 example 36–39
pointer mode 13, 14, 21, 97, 141 reference planes 36
points calibration length 34
add 19, 150 de-embedding 27, 30
making an error 20 deleting 31, 103
167
discontinuity 134 reshape mode 14, 18, 20, 97

impedance 33, 34, 112, 133 resistance 133
internal 26, 48 resistivity 129
manipulating 30 resistors 132
modify attributes 31, 36, 112 resize 22, 23, 116
non-sequential 33 scaling factor 116
numbering 30, 32, 112 Resize dialog box 116
push-pull 33 revert to saved 79
reference planes 34 rotate 22, 23, 114
standard angle 114
calibration lengths 35, 135 pivot point 115
reference planes 35, 135 Rotate dialog box 114
type 112 round spiral 67, 101
via-ports 28, 48 rubber banding 99
preferences 81
autosave 82 S
remain in mode 82 ^S 78, 140, 142
simplified write 82 save 78
previous view 89 revert to saved 79
print 80 save as 78
Print Setup dialog box 80 Save As dialog box 78, 79
push-pull ports 33 scaling factor 116
scroll bars 150
R select 87
^R 99, 141 all 86
reactance 129, 133 control key 18
rectangle 60, 61 lasso 16
rectangular spiral 68, 101 multi-layer 17
redo 140 multiple 15
redraw 96 objects 14
reference planes 34, 35, 36, 134 point 14
auto-grounded ports 30 polygons 14
delete 136 reselect 86
Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths dialog select all 87
box 135 select filter 87
remain in mode 82 shift key 18
reselect 86 unselect 86
reshape 14, 97 select all 88
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Index
XGEOM
Selection Filter dialog box 88 snap grid 106, 117
shift key 8, 18 Snap Grid Setup dialog box 94, 106
shift selecting 145 Snap Objects dialog box 117
shift selecting modes 8 snap setup 106
shortcut keys 8, 18, 99, 100, 102 space bar 140
ctrl-A 86, 140 S-Parameters 1
ctrl-C 84, 140, 142 spiral
ctrl-D 91, 141, 143 rectangular 68, 101
ctrl-E 85, 140 round 67, 101
ctrl-F 90, 141, 143 staircase mode 109
ctrl-H 140 standard geometries 59–71
ctrl-M 93, 141 donut 64
ctrl-N 76, 140, 142 fan stub 70
ctrl-O 77, 140, 142 interdigital capacitor 62
ctrl-P 100, 141 lange coupler 71
ctrl-R 99, 141 meander 66
ctrl-S 78, 140, 142 parallel lines 69
ctrl-T 86, 89, 140, 143 rectangle 60, 61, 100
ctrl-U 91, 141, 143 rectangular spiral 68
ctrl-V 84, 140, 142 round spiral 67
ctrl-W 140, 143 startup menu 74–75
ctrl-X 83, 140, 142 file 74–75
ctrl-Y 140 exit 75
ctrl-Z 140 new 74
DEL 85, 141 open 75
ESC 97, 141 status 97
space bar 140 status bar 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 94, 97, 103, 145, 148
table of keys 140 stripline
shorted vias 48 loss 131
simplified write 82 subsectional vias 43
single layer 87 subsections 110
single layer select 18 maximum size 120
skin effect 130 parallel 136
snap 19, 21, 94, 106, 117 size 110, 111
no x snap 107 triangular 109
no y snap 107 vias 43
none 106 X Min 110
snap distance 106 Y Max 110
169
Y Min 110 units

surface impedance 130 setting 122
surface reactance 133 Units dialog box 122
symmetry 121 unlock 93
unselect 17, 86
T control key 18
^T 86, 89, 140, 143 up one level 91
thick metal 32
tool bar 3, 6, 8, 31, 43, 89, 94 V
table of icons 142 ^V 84, 140, 142
tool box 3, 6, 8, 30, 95, 145 via 103
table of icons 146 via-fence 43
tools 97–107 via-ports 28, 48
add dielectric bricks 102 via-posts 43, 93
add metalization 99–102 vias 20, 41–48
donut 64, 100 add 42
fan stub 70, 101 deleting 47, 104
interdigital capacitor 62, 100 edge-vias 42
lange coupler 71, 102 example 49–52
meander 66, 101 loss 47
parallel lines 69, 101 metalization loss 126
rectangle 61, 100 restrictions 104
rectangular spiral 68, 101 shorted 48
round spiral 67, 101 subsections 43
add points to polygon 99 summary 52
add ports 103 symbol 43, 103
add via 103 to ground 44
add vias 42 via-posts 43
ortho 104 view 89–96
pointer 13, 97 aspect ratio 90
reshape 14, 97 cell fill 93
snap setup 106 cell grid 94
top metal 122 down one level 91
triangle subsections 109 full 90
measuring tool 95
U metalization levels 44, 91
Û 91, 141, 143 new 90
undo 83, 140 object visibility 93
170
Index
XGEOM
previous 89 Z
redraw 96
^Z 140
status bar 94
zoom 89
tool bar 94
in 89
tool box 95
out 89
up one level 91
Z-partitioning 124
zoom in 89
zoom out 89
visible 91
W
^W 140, 143
WG load 128
window
status bar 94
tool bar 94, 142
tool box 95, 145
X
^X 83, 140, 142
X Max 110
X Min 110
xgeom
4.0 style 82
autosave 82
clipboard 21, 85
cut 83
exit 78, 82
menu bar 7
overview 1
window 94, 95, 145
Y
^Y 140
Y Max 110
Y Min 110
171
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Em User’s Manual
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
EM
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A Simple Outline of the Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Subsectioning the Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Zero Voltage Across a Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Input and Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Em Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Em Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Enhancements in Release 6.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Em User’s Manual Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Describing Menu Bar Accesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Invoking Sonnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Important Options and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

De-embedding the Port Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Using Multi-Frequency Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Using Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Invoking Single Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Adjusting the Subsectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Removing Parallel Subsections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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3 Subsectioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Selecting Cell Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Setting the Maximum Subsection Size Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Defining the Subsectioning Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Changing the Subsectioning of a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Default Subsectioning of a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
X Min and Y Min for a Manhattan Polygon. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
X Min and Y Min for a Non-Manhattan Polygon . . . . . . . . 36
Using X Max and Y Max for any Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Using the Edge Mesh Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Metalization and Dielectric Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Metalization Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Surface Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Surface Reactance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Dielectric Layer Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5 Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Port Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Box-Wall Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ungrounded-Internal Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Automatic-Grounded Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Special Considerations for Auto-Grounded Ports . . . . . . . . 54
Specifying Port Normalizing Impedances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Special Port Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Ports with Duplicate Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Ports with Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6 De-embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Enabling the De-embedding Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
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De-embedding Port Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Box-Wall Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Ungrounded-Internal Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Auto-Grounded Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Shifting Reference Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Box-Wall Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Coupled Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
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Auto-Grounded Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
De-embedding Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
De-embedding Error Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7 De-embedding Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Defining Reference Planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
De-embedding Without Reference Planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Reference Plane Length Minimums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength 84
Reference Plane Lengths Greater than One Wavelength . . . 84
Non-Physical S-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Box Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Higher Order Transmission Line Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8 Network File Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Network File Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Cascading S-, Y- and Z-Parameter Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Thin-Film Resistor Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
The Network File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
A Network File Invoking a Geometry File Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Inserting Lumped Elements into a Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Using Ungrounded-Internal Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Example Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
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Em User’s Manual
Dividing the Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Creating the Geometry Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Analyzing the Geometry Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Creating the Network File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Analysis of the Network File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Alternate Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
10 Intelligent Frequency Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Automatic Frequency Selection Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Using FINDMIN and FINDMAX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
11 The em Network File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Format of the em Network File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Header Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Data Blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
The DIM Data Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Rules for the DIM Data Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The VAR Data Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Referencing Variables in the CKT Data Block . . . . . . . . . 141
The CKT Data Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
defNp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
netname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
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Table of Contents
Using Data Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Geometry File Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
High Precision em Output Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
The FILEOUT Data Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
netname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
EM
param . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
outtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
SPICE and PSPICE keywords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The FREQ Data Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Analysis Control Keywords For em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Sorted Frequency Sweeps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Using END to Control the Order of Frequency Sweeps . . . 156
Frequency Interpolation of em Output Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
AUTO, FINDMIN and FINDMAX for Basic Analyses . . . 157
Overriding the FREQ Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
The OUT Data Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
netname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
meas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
delim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
12 Using Diagonal Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

A Coupled Open-Miter with Diagonal Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
13 Vias and 3-D Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Adding Vias to the Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
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Restrictions on Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Simple Via Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
A Conical Via . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
14 Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Applications of Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Dielectric Brick Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Guidelines for Using Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Subsectioning Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Using Vias Inside a Dielectric Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
De-embedding and Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Air Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Limitations of Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Diagonal Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Antennas and Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Ebridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15 Antennas and Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Modeling Infinite Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Modeling an Open Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Validation Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Class of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Using The SPICE Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
PSpice Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
N-Coupled Line Option. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
A Simple Microwave Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Topology Used for SPICE Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
A High Speed Digital Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
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Other Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
17 Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and Balanced Ports . . 203

The Coplanar Short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
The Coplanar Cross Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
EM
18 Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
19 Package Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Unwanted Box Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Verifying the Box Resonance Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Removing Box Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
20 Viewing Tangential Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
21 Accuracy Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

An Exact Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Residual Error Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Using the Error Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
22 Range of Analysis Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Subsection Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Metalization and Dielectric Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Numerical Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
23 Time Required for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

The “Wall” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Detailed Parameter Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
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Em User’s Manual
24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Invoking em. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Selecting a Geometry File Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Analysis Input Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Selecting a Geometry File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Editing a Geometry File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Specifying Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Setting up a Simple Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Setting Up a Complex Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Using an Analysis Control File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Selecting Run Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Selecting Job Window Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Selecting Additional Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
25 Em Interface: Analysis of a Network File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Selecting a Network File Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Analysis Input Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Selecting a Network File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Editing a Network File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Specifying Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Selecting a Simple Sweep. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Selecting Internal Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Selecting Run Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Selecting the Verbose Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Selecting Additional Options for a Network File . . . . . . . . 261
26 Em Interface: Run Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Editing Analysis Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Adding Frequency Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Entering Intelligent Frequency Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Entering a Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Editing a Frequency Control Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
viii
Table of Contents
Specifying SPICE Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Adding Comments to the Analysis Control File . . . . . . . . . 269
Specifying the Subsectioning Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Saving Frequency Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Specifying Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Running an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Viewing the Run List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
EM
Editing the Run List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Starting an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Pausing an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Continuing an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Stopping an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Using the em Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Closing the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Re-Opening the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Saving the Contents of the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Invoking emgraph to Plot Response Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Invoking emvu to View Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Invoking patvu to View the Far-Field Radiation Patterns. . 279
Invoking a Text Editor to View Response Data . . . . . . . . . 279
Job Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Creating a New Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Opening an Existing Job File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Loading an Existing Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Saving a Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Reverting to a Saved Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Em Control Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Setting Multi-Frequency Caching Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . 283
Selecting Startup Run Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Setting Up a Default Simple Sweep for Analyses . . . . . . . . 285
Appendix I The em Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Input/Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
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Em User’s Manual
Appendix II The Analysis Control File Format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Appendix III LEVEL1 and LEVEL1plus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
LEVEL1 Suite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

LEVEL1plus Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Appendix IV Warning and Error Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Warning Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Error Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
De-embedding Error Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Sonnet Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Sonnet Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
x
EM
Em performs electromagnetic analysis [75, 76, 78] for arbitrary 3-D planar [50]
(e.g., microstrip, coplanar, stripline, etc.) geometries, maintaining full accuracy at
all frequencies. Em is a “full-wave” analysis in that it takes into account all
possible coupling mechanisms. The analysis inherently includes dispersion, stray
coupling, discontinuities, surface waves, moding, metalization loss, dielectric loss
and radiation loss. In short, it is a complete electromagnetic analysis. Since em
uses a surface meshing technique, i.e. it meshes only the surface of the circuit
metalization, em can analyze predominately planar circuits much faster than
volume meshing techniques.
Em does a full three dimensional analysis that includes both 3-D fields and 3-D
currents. This is in contrast to 2.5-D analyses which, while including full 3-D
fields, allow only 2-D currents. Thus, a 2.5-D analysis does not allow vias or any
other vertical current.
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Em User’s Manual
Em analyzes 3-D structures embedded in planar multilayered dielectric on an

underlying fixed grid. For this class of circuits, em can use the FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform) analysis technique to efficiently calculate the electromagnetic
coupling on and between each dielectric surface. This provides em with its several
orders of magnitude of speed increase over volume meshing and other non-FFT
based surface meshing techniques.
A Simple Outline of the Theory

Em performs an electromagnetic analysis of a microstrip, stripline, coplanar
waveguide, or any other 3-D planar circuit by solving for the current distribution
on the circuit metalization using the Method of Moments.
Em analyzes planar structures

inside a shielding box. Port
connections are usually made at
the box sidewalls.
Subsectioning the Circuit
The analysis starts by subdividing the circuit metalization into small rectangular
subsections. In an actual subsectioning, see , small subsections are used only
where needed. Otherwise, larger subsections are used since the analysis time is
2
directly related to the number of subsections. Triangular subsections, which can

be larger without sacrificing accuracy, can be used to fill in the diagonal
“staircase” at the user’s discretion.
Em evaluates the electric field everywhere due to the current in a single

subsection. Em then repeats the calculation for every subsection in the circuit, one
at a time. In so doing, em effectively calculates the “coupling” between each
EM
possible pair of subsections in the circuit.
Em calculates the tangential electric field on all subsections, given

current on one subsection. This figure shows the actual subsectioning for
an example circuit.
3
Em User’s Manual
Zero Voltage Across a Conductor
Each subsection generates an electric field everywhere on the surface of the

substrate, but we know that the total tangential electric field must be zero on the
surface of any lossless conductor. This is the boundary condition: no voltage
allowed across a perfect conductor.
The problem is solved by assuming current on all subsections simultaneously. Em

adjusts these currents so that the total tangential electric field, which is the sum of
all the individual electric fields just calculated, goes to zero everywhere that there
is a conductor. The currents that do this form the current distribution on the
metalization. Once we have the currents, the S-parameters (or Y- or Z-) follow
immediately.
If there is metalization loss, we modify the boundary condition. Rather than zero
tangential electric field (zero voltage), we make the tangential electric field (the
voltage on each subsection) proportional to the current in the subsection. The
constant of proportionality is the metalization surface resistivity (in ohms/square).
In short, Ohm’s Law.
The Input and Output Files

Em executes in the following manner:
1 Reads an ASCII geometry file describing the circuit or a network file
defining the circuit analysis.
2 Reads an ASCII “.an” file or accepts direct input from the job window
specifying the analysis frequencies.
3 Number crunches.
4 Outputs one or more ASCII files with the results.
There are three types of files associated with an em geometry file analysis: a file
which controls the analysis, a file which specifies the circuit geometry and circuit
response file(s). More than one circuit response file may be specified for an em
4
analysis. Which circuit response files are generated depends on the options
selected. In addition, em can generate a current density file and/or a SPICE
lumped element equivalent netlist file.
There are two other types of files associated with an em network file analysis: a
file which defines the network to be analyzed and a circuit response file. More
than one output response file may be specified for a network file analysis. The
EM
network file may cite circuit response files, execute a geometry file analysis, or
obtain external analysis frequency control from a control file.
The file extensions used in em are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Em File Extensions
Extension I/O Type File Type
.geo Input Circuit geometry file (Required Extension)
.an Input Analysis control file (Required Extension)
.net Input Network File (Required Extension)
.d Output Circuit response file (De-embedding applied)
.nd Output Circuit response file (No de-embedding)
.pd Output Circuit response file (Precision de-embedded)
.pnd Output Circuit response file (Precision no de-embedding)
.s<n>p Output Touchstone format frequency sorted response file.

(.s<nn>) n = number of ports < 10. nn= number of ports > 10.
.jxy Output Current density file
.lc Output SPICE lumped element equivalent netlist file
.lct Output SPICE RLCG matrix sets file
.psp Output PSPICE output file
.csv Output Comma separated value data for Excel. See -f option.
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Em User’s Manual
The analysis control file determines the frequencies for analysis. Its other uses are
detailed in Appendix II, “The Analysis Control File Format.” An example file is
given in the next section. If a name other than “ctl.an” is selected, a name ending
with “.an” is required.
The analysis control file is not mandatory. Analysis frequencies may also be
controlled through options selected in the em job window or by an internal
command in the case of a network file.
The circuit geometry file is generated with a geometry capture program such as
xgeom. Geometry files can also be generated by the interface provided by
Cadence or Barnard Microsystems and by the Sonnet programs gds, which
translates GDSII Stream files, dxfgeo, which translates DXF files, and ebridge,
which provides an interface between HP-EEsof’s Series IV or ADS layout module
and Sonnet. The file name is required to have a “.geo” extension.
The geometry file specifies the size of the box containing the circuit, the number
of and material properties of the dielectric layers as well as a polygonal
description of the metalization outline.
Performing circuit analysis with the em circuit network capability requires a

network file. This file is not required to run an electromagnetic analysis. This file
consists of a header line, optional comment lines and several data blocks which
define the circuit analysis to be performed. The format of the file is specified in
Chapter 11, “The em Network File.” A network file name ending with “.net” is
required.
The circuit response file format can be selected in the Output File dialog box for
compatibility with popular circuit analysis programs. The circuit response file
contains automatically generated comment lines as well as any comment lines
from the analysis control and geometry files. The various types of circuit response
files are cited in Table 1.
The Touchstone format frequency sorted response file provides Touchstone

format S-Parameter data sorted by frequency. If the number of ports in the circuit
is less than 10, em uses the .s<n>p extension, where <n> is the number of ports.
For example, if a circuit has three ports, the file extension is .s3p. If the number of
ports is 10 or greater, em uses the .s<nn> extension where <nn> is the number of
6
ports. For example, if the number of ports is 14, the file extension is .s14. For more
details about this file type, please see the -SNP command option in Appendix I,
"The em Command Line"
The output for a network file analysis has a file name ending with “.rsp.” The
format of the data is determined by a command within the network file.
EM
Em Applications
Em is appropriate for a wide range of 3-D planar structures. The via capability
allows analysis of airbridges, wire bonds, spiral inductors, wafer probes and
internal ports as well as for simple grounding.
It is appropriate to use em for:

• Evaluation of specific discontinuities or groups of interacting
discontinuities to assist in the design of a 3-D planar circuit. Em pro-
vides ultra-precise S-parameters for discontinuities allowing designers to
work with confidence. Em can also quickly synthesize an equivalent lumped
model for discontinuities. The lumped model can be used directly in circuit
theory programs.
• Design validation. Using em for design validation effectively eliminates ex-

pensive design iterations (i.e., “tweak”, refabricate, etc.) of the passive, planar
portion of a circuit. At present, because em makes no compromise in accura-
cy, performing an analysis of, say, an entire amplifier with a single electro-
magnetic analysis on a mid-range workstation or PC is difficult. However,
validation of large portions of an amplifier design is reasonable.
If a circuit is designed from the start with electromagnetic analysis in mind,

much larger circuits can be done. For example, the analysis works best with
tightly packed, rectangular circuits, designed on a common dimension grid.
• Microwave package evaluation. It is important to assess how a circuit will

operate in the package environment. Em analyzes a circuit inside a conduct-
ing box. If the box (acting as a dielectric loaded resonator) is resonant at a fre-
7
Em User’s Manual
quency where the circuits still have gain, poor performance results. Em
provides an analysis of a package prior to fabrication. Resonances can then
be dealt with on the computer rather than on the test bench.
• Microstrip antennas. The “top” of em’s box can be effectively removed.

While radiation is outside of em’s primary thrust, a wide variety of microstrip
antennas and radiating discontinuities can be evaluated.
• High speed digital interconnect. When an approximate model is not good

enough, em can synthesize a SPICE lumped model including all delays and
couplings. The lumped model is synthesized directly from electromagnetic
data.
Em is not appropriate for doing an initial design. Rather, the faster circuit theory
simulators (which do not typically include stray coupling) should be used for the
first cut. Em can then enhance the simulator performance by providing custom,
ultra-precise discontinuity data and by validating large portions of the final circuit,
including all stray interactions.
Em is designed to work with your existing CAE software. Since the output data is
in Touchstone or Compact format (at your discretion), em provides a seamless
interface to your CAE tool.
Em Origins
The technique used in em was developed at Syracuse University in 1986 by Rautio
and Harrington [75, 76, 78]. It was originally developed as an extension of an
analysis of planar waveguide probes [81]. The technique expresses the fields
inside the box as a sum of waveguide modes and is thus closely related to the
spectral domain approach.
The complete theory has been published in detail in peer reviewed journals. A full
bibliography of relevant papers is presented in Appendix V.
8
Enhancements in Release 6.0

This section summarizes new capabilities and changes in 6.0. If you are not yet
familiar with em, you may want to just skim this section, skipping any terms that
are unfamiliar. If you are an experienced user, this section merits detailed reading.
The major changes incorporated in Version 6.0 is the new UNIX interface which
EM
is compatible with WindowsNT 4.0 and Windows95 and the combining of em and
emgen into one program. This will allow you to run both electromagnetic and
circuit network analyses from an interactive window whose settings can be saved
in a file. Listed below are the new features and changes introduced in Version 6.0.
New Features
Multi-Frequency Caching: Multi-frequency caching (MFC) is a technique that
can dramatically reduce the em computation time when analyzing large circuits
over many frequencies without any loss in accuracy. MFC pre-computes
frequency independent data and stores it on your hard disk. This data is later
recalled while the simulation is performed. For more information about Multi-
Frequency Caching, see “Using Multi-Frequency Caching,” page 20.
Em Control interface: The em Control interface provides an interactive interface
to em. This interface consists of menus and dialog boxes which allow you to select
run options and execute em analyses. You may save the settings of the control
interface in a job file.
Run List: The em interface allows you to edit a list of command lines which form
a batch file for running analyses. The command lines are generated interactively
from the settings in the various em dialog boxes. This list is saved as part of the
job file. The job file contains the settings of the interface and must have a “.job”
extension. For more information about the Run List, please see “Running an em
Analysis,” page 272.
Direct Frequency Control: The em interface allows you to control analysis
frequencies directly through use of the Simple Sweep and Complex Sweep
options in the job window. Em analyses do not require an analysis control file,
although it is still possible to use one to control the analysis frequencies. For
information about specifying frequency control information, please see
“Specifying Frequency Control,” page 248 and page 260.
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Em User’s Manual
Output Data Format: Em outputs Magnitude/dB data as well as Magnitude/

Angle and Real/Imaginary data. See “Selecting Additional Options,” page 252.
Invoking emgraph: You now have the ability to invoke the Sonnet plotting
program, emgraph, directly from the em interface to observe your analysis results.
For information about invoking emgraph, please see “Invoking emgraph to Plot
Response Data,” page 278. For details about emgraph’s operation, refer to the
Emgraph User’s Manual in your 6.0 manual set.
Invoking xgeom: You now have the ability to invoke the Sonnet circuit geometry
input program, xgeom, directly from the em interface. This provides efficient
access to your circuit to make modifications while running em analyses. For
information about invoking xgeom, please see “Editing a Geometry File,”
page 248. For details about xgeom’s operation, refer to the Xgeom User’s Manual
in your 6.0 manual set.
Changes
The combination of em and emgen: Em and emgen have been combined into
one program. Both are accessible through a windows interface activated by
selecting Em Control from the Sonnet menu in the Windows desktop Start menu.
In this documentation, emgen is referred to as the em circuit network capability
and is accessed by running a Network file analysis. The circuit network capability
must be purchased separately as an add-on to the em program.
Intelligent Frequency Control: This feature, previously only available in
emgen, automatically determines where to place frequency points for an analysis.
Intelligent frequency control is now available with em. For details, see “Entering
Intelligent Frequency Controls,” page 267.
Em User’s Manual Layout

Chapter 2 through Chapter 7 discuss important design considerations while using
em. Many of the discussions contain examples to illustrate the point under
consideration. Chapter 8 through Chapter 11 discuss the em circuit network
capability. This is followed by Chapter 12 through Chapter 23 in which advanced
design topics are discussed. The last chapters, Chapter 24 through Chapter 26
provide a user’s guide to the em interactive interface, em Control.
10
Describing Menu Bar Accesses
In this manual, we describe accessing the menu bar of em Control using a

“pointer” description to illustrate selecting the desired menu buttons.
For example, View ⇒ Open Graph means to move the cursor to View on the
menu bar, press and hold down the left mouse button, drag the cursor down the
EM
menu which appears until Open Graph is highlighted. Release the mouse button.
Emgraph is invoked to display the response data of the file being analyzed.
Invoking Sonnet
You use the Sonnet task bar, shown below, to access all the modules in the em
Suite. Opening the Sonnet task bar, for both Windows and UNIX systems is
detailed below.
11
Em User’s Manual
UNIX
1 Open a terminal.
If you do not know how to do this, please see your system administrator.
2 Enter “sonnet” at the prompt.

12
Windows
1 Select Start ⇒ Programs ⇒ Sonnet ⇒ Sonnet from the Windows desktop
Start menu.
EM
13
Em User’s Manual
Once the Sonnet task bar is open, for UNIX or Windows systems, clicking on any
given button opens the appropriate module. The table below shows which
modules are invoked by each button.
Table 2 Sonnet Task Bar Buttons
Button Button Name Sonnet Program
Edit Circuit xgeom
Analyze Circuit em Control
View Response emgraph
View Current emvu
View Far Field patvu
Online Manuals Adobe Acrobat
14
The translation programs, dxfgeo and gds, are accessed through the Sonnet task
bar main menu, as shown below. Select Convert Dxf for dxfgeo and select Convert
Gds for gds.
EM
For details on each program, please refer to the appropriate user’s manual.
15
Em User’s Manual
16
Chapter 2 Important Options and Concepts
EM
Chapter 2 Important Options
and Concepts
In the previous chapter, we described the basics of running em: what input files
are required, how you set up and save a job file, and what the output results mean.
In this chapter we discuss the following techniques which are frequently used to
obtain more accurate results and/or shorter analysis times:
• De-embedding the port discontinuity
• Using multi-frequency caching (MFC)
• Using symmetry
• Invoking single precision
• Adjusting the subsectioning
• Removing parallel subsections.
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Em User’s Manual
De-embedding the Port Discontinuity

Each port in a circuit analyzed by em introduces a discontinuity into the analysis
results. In addition, any feed transmission lines that might be present introduce
phase shift, and possibly, impedance mismatch and loss. Depending upon the
nature of your analysis, this may or may not be desirable. De-embedding is the
process by which the port discontinuity and transmission line effects are removed
from the analysis results.
The em de-embedding algorithm is described in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter

7. To summarize, this algorithm performs the following analysis steps when
enabled:
1 Calculates port discontinuities.
2 Removes effects of port discontinuities from analysis results.
3 Optionally shifts reference planes (removes effects of feed or port trans-
mission lines from analysis results).
4 Calculates transmission line parameters Eeff and Z0.
18
Run em with de-embedding enabled whenever you do not want to include the
effects of port discontinuities in your analysis results. In fact, the De-embed option
is selected by default whenever a new job file is opened. To enable de-embedding,
set the De-embed check box in the em job window to on, or specify an output file
with a “.d” file extension in the Output Files dialog box.
EM
The circuit “steps.geo” is shown above. The de-embedded and non-de-embedded
analysis results are shown below. The circuit is available in the Sonnet example
files.
De-embedded 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
10.0000000 0.513865 -141.5 0.857871 -53.90 0.857871 -53.90 0.513865 -146.3
P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.6763 0.0000) Z0=(44.73370 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.117753
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.2013 0.0000) Z0=(73.08549 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.044139
The de-embedded results of a “steps.geo” analysis.
Primary 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
10.0000000 0.515668 152.64 0.856789 -163.5 0.856789 -163.5 0.515668 60.400
The non-de-embedded results of a “steps.geo” analysis.
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Em User’s Manual
Using Multi-Frequency Caching

Multi-frequency caching (MFC) is a technique that can dramatically reduce the
em computation time when analyzing large circuits over many frequencies
without any loss in accuracy. This technique is enabled by checking the “Multi-
Frequency Caching” run option in the em Control job window. MFC pre-
computes frequency independent data and stores it on your hard disk. This data is
later recalled while the simulation is performed.
By storing and reusing the data in this manner, MFC significantly reduces the
required matrix fill time. In standard em analyses, matrix fill is completely re-
computed at each frequency. Thus, if you are analyzing at a large number of
frequencies (greater than four), and if matrix fill time is appreciable for your
circuit, enabling MFC will speed up your analysis. Since an analysis executes in
either the same or less time, this option should always be used except when cache
disk space is unavailable.
The MFC technique does require some time to pre-compute the frequency
independent data. Because of this pre-computation time, MFC does not provide
any advantage when you simulate at four or fewer frequencies. If you set up an
analysis to run at four or fewer frequencies, and you check the “Multi-Frequency
Caching” run option, em will automatically disable MFC for the simulation.
Circuits for which the matrix fill time is large will benefit the most from MFC.
Characteristics of such circuits include:
• Circuits with a large number of cells in the X and Y dimensions.
• Circuits with a large number of metallization layers.
• Circuits with vias.
• Circuits with polygons using diagonal fill.
• Circuits with polygons for which XMIN/YMIN is greater than 1.
It is important to remember that MFC only reduces the matrix fill time. MFC has
no affect on the matrix solve time.
MFC saves time by writing data to your hard disk and reusing that data later.
Therefore, you need to have hard disk space available in order to use MFC. When
em begins a simulation with MFC enabled, it displays the amount of disk space
20
required, and where the data will be stored. In general, if you have disk space
available, it is recommended that you always run with MFC enabled. MFC will
not slow the simulation down.
If you wish to change the location where em will store the data, select File ⇒
Preferences from the em Control main menu, and enter a new disk location in the
Cache Directory dialog box. You may also set a Cache Limit in the same
EM
preferences window. This limit sets the maximum amount of disk space that you
will allow em to use for MFC. If a particular simulation exceeds this limit, em will
automatically disable MFC for that simulation. For details on how to set the
location and limit the amount of memory, see “Setting Multi-Frequency Caching
Parameters,” page 283.
When MFC is enabled, em displays a message similar to the following:
Multi-frequency caching enabled below <fmfc> GHz.
This frequency is the maximum frequency at which the pre-computed data is valid
and is used as a cutoff frequency. Above the cutoff frequency, it is not usually
possible to compute frequency independent data. If your frequency analysis band
is entirely below <fmfc>, em runs with MFC enabled over your entire band. If your
band is above <fmfc>, em disables MFC for the entire simulation. If your band has
frequencies both above and below <fmfc>, em automatically uses MFC up to
<fmfc> and disables MFC for all frequencies greater than <fmfc>.
It is possible to disable the automatic cutoff. For details, see the -F option in the
Appendix I, "The em Command Line".
Using Symmetry
The microstrip circuit in “steps.geo” (see the circuit on page 19) is symmetric
about the horizontal center line. Em can take advantage of this, provided all ports
are also on the center line. This second condition is important. If there is a port off
the center line, em creates the port’s image on the other side of the center line and
shorts the two together, a result usually not desired.
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Em User’s Manual
If you want to short two symmetrical ports together you should identically number
the ports above and below the line of symmetry. Ports with the same number are
electrically connected together. This may be useful for designers interested in the
even-mode of a pair of coupled lines, as shown below.
This circuit cannot be run using This circuit may be run with symmetry,
symmetry. because the ports above and below the
line of symmetry are the same number.
For the "steps.geo" example file, your em analysis may take advantage of the
symmetry setting. Run xgeom and modify “steps.geo” using Parameters ⇒ Box
to open the Box Parameters dialog box. When you click on the Symmetry
checkbox, it toggles from Off to On and a dashed center line is drawn on the
circuit. Visually check to make sure the circuit really is centered on the center line.
If not, move the circuit until it is centered.
In electromagnetic terms, the symmetry option places a magnetic wall along the
center line. In terms of performance, the number of subsections is reduced by
nearly half, reducing the size of the matrix to one quarter of its original memory
requirement, and decreasing matrix solve time by about a factor of eight. Thus,
symmetry is a powerful tool in reducing both analysis time and hardware
requirements. You will always get identical analysis results when using
symmetry.
When finished, save the file under the new name “steps_sy.geo”. You may want
to add a comment or two indicating the modification as you store the file. You may
also obtain a copy of this file from the Sonnet examples by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples. If you are not familiar with Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples, see “Obtaining
the Example Files,” page 7 in the Sonnet Tutorial.
Run an analysis in the following manner:
22
1 Invoke the em program by selecting Em Control from the Sonnet task

bar.
2 Click on the Geometry File radio button under File Type to select the
analysis of a geometry file.
3 Check to make sure the default directory is correct. Then, enter
“steps_sy.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
EM
4 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button and enter a value of 10.0 in the
Start text entry box.
5 The Verbose and De-embed options are already on; therefore, click on
the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The output to the screen should be the same as the previous section, with one
possible exception. If a non-zero user time was displayed in the previous example,
the time should be about half that in this example. Note that the number of
subsections is cut by almost half. While not particularly important here, the
improvement in speed and memory use is very important for large circuits.
Invoking Single Precision

Em normally works with double precision. In many cases, a single precision
matrix reduction is all that is needed. Keep in mind that the matrix elements are
still calculated in double precision because of potential numerical difficulties.
Once calculated, they are then truncated and stored in single precision format.To
invoke a double precision matrix using the file “steps_sy.geo”, do the following:
1 Invoke the em program.
3 Enter “step_sy.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
4 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button and enter a value of 10.0 in the
Start text entry box.
5 Click on the Memory Save checkbox to turn the option off and use a
double precision matrix.
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Em User’s Manual
6 The Verbose and De-embed options are already on; therefore, click on
the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The results are virtually identical to the previous results.
By invoking single precision, you cut the memory required by a factor of two. This
has a significant effect if your problem is large enough to cause em to swap out to
disk. For these big problems, use of single precision can result in an order of
magnitude increase in speed.
On some machines, the floating point operation speed is also increased because
single precision calculations can be done faster than double precision. The Sun
SPARCstation is such a machine.
Unfortunately, compilers on certain other computers perform single precision

arithmetic by first converting to double precision, performing the operation and
then converting back to single precision. If such a machine is not memory
swapping in double precision, there is no increase in speed in single precision. It
may even result in a slightly slower analysis.
In general, use the memory saver option on large circuits. It is not needed on small
circuits.
On occasion, the memory saver option can result in slightly different results. At
extremely low frequencies, when the subsections size is on the order of 0.0001
wavelength or smaller, single precision may not be enough to allow the matrix to
be accurately inverted. In this case, em issues a warning as corrupted results may
be generated. If you are using the memory save option at very low frequencies and
you notice non-physical results, eliminating the option and re-analyzing may
remove the problem.
Adjusting the Subsectioning

The most direct way to reduce analysis time is to reduce the number of
subsections. A reduction in number of subsections by half can result in one, or
even two, orders of magnitude increase in speed.
24
The easiest way to reduce subsection count is to reduce the amount of metal to be
analyzed. Any metal which is unlikely to carry significant current should be
removed. Distant ground plane regions in coplanar waveguide, for example. Also,
long, unneeded lengths of connecting transmission line provide no additional
information in an analysis and should be removed.
A second way to reduce subsection count is to simply use a larger cell size. It can
EM
be surprising how little a larger cell size changes results on many circuits.
Be careful not to reject viable options because of the dimensions being used. For
example, if you want to analyze a line 7.0 microns wide, the obvious potential cell
dimensions are 1 micron (for a seven cell wide line) and 7 microns (for a one cell
wide line). There are other options, also. For example, the cell size can be
specified to be 7/3 = 2.33333 microns resulting in a three cell wide line.
Next, use your engineering judgement in determining the dimensions of a

structure. If a 7.1 micron wide line is called for, and you use a 7 micron cell size,
the residual error introduced by making the line 7 microns wide is probably less
than the manufacturing tolerances.
However, there are circuits which have very fine geometries combined with very
large overall structures. The fine geometry determines the cell size, requiring the
overall circuit to use a large number of cells.
To address this problem, you may specify a minimum and maximum subsection
size, in terms of cells, for each polygon. You use the parameters X Min, Y Min,
X Max and Y Max to do this. Chapter 3, “Subsectioning,” discusses this in more
detail.
A third way to reduce the number of subsections is to cut the circuit into pieces
and analyze each piece separately. For example, instead of analyzing an entire
bandpass filter, analyze half of it. Then, if both halves are identical, just use the
em circuit network capability, or a circuit theory program to cascade the half filter
analysis with itself.
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Em User’s Manual
Most filters, and other structures as well, can be broken down into a number of
small circuits which can be easily analyzed. In fact, a pure circuit theory analysis
takes this “breaking down” to the limit. An example of this approach is discussed
in the beginning of Chapter 8.
Removing Parallel Subsections

A transmission line connected to a port is subsectioned with both x and y directed
subsections included in order to determine both x and y directed currents.
However, in most cases, a majority of the current flows in the longitudinal
direction and there is very little current flowing in the transverse direction.
For example, in a horizontal, x directed transmission line, most of the current is

flowing in the x direction. There is very little transverse, y directed, current
flowing. Without parallel subsection removal, all of the y directed subsections are
still included in the analysis, though their current is almost zero. This wastes
subsections, memory and time.
To remove the transverse subsections, in xgeom, select Parameters ⇒ Parallel

Subsections. Then select a side and either specify a length in the text entry box or
use the mouse to specify the length for which parallel subsections are to be
excluded. The transverse subsections are parallel to the side of the box being
referenced.
This option should be used carefully. Here are a few rules:

• Never remove subsections for lengths greater than 1/4 to 1/2
wavelength.
• Remove subsections only from transmission lines with very small
transverse currents such as feed lines. For example, do not remove
subsections from discontinuities, lines that change in width or
regions where structures approach one another.
• Since this option affects all xgeom drawing levels, check all levels
for possible problems.
26
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
EM
The Sonnet subsectioning is based on a uniform mesh indicated by the small dots
in the xgeom screen. The small dots are placed at the corners of a “cell”. One or
more cells are automatically combined together to create subsections. Cells may
be square or rectangular (any aspect ratio), but must be the same over your entire
circuit. The cell size is specified in xgeom in the Box Parameters dialog box which
is opened by selecting Parameters ⇒ Box. The analysis solves for the current on
each subsection. Since multiple cells are combined together into a single
subsection, the number of subsections is usually considerably smaller than the
number of cells. This is important because the analysis solves an N x N matrix
where N is the number of subsections. A small reduction in the value of N results
in a large reduction in analysis time and memory.
Care must be taken in combining the cells into subsections so that accuracy is not
sacrificed. Em automatically places small subsections in critical areas where
current density is changing rapidly, but allows larger subsections in less critical
areas, where current density is smooth or changing slowly.
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Em User’s Manual
However, in some cases you may wish to modify the automatic algorithm because
you want a faster, less accurate solution, or a slower, more accurate solution, than
is provided by the automatic algorithm. Also, in some cases, you may have
knowledge about your circuit that the software does not. For example, you may
know that there is very little current on a certain area of your metal. Or you may
have chosen a small cell size because you have a small dimension in your circuit,
but do not need the accuracy of a small cell size in larger structures within your
circuit. In these cases, you can change the method by which em combines cells
into subsections.
This chapter explains how em combines cells into subsections and how you can
control this process to obtain an analysis time or the level of accuracy you require.
There is also a discussion of selecting the cell size and how that may affect the em
analysis.
The following methods may be used to control the way in which em combines
cells into subsections:
• Selecting cell size.
• Setting the subs/lambda parameter.
• Defining the subsectioning frequency.
• Changing the subsectioning of a polygon.
• Using the edge mesh option.
Selecting Cell Size

As you know, em subdivides the circuit into subsections which are made up of
“cells,” the building block in xgeom. The following discussion describes how to
select a cell size.
TIP
Select a cell size that is smaller than 1/20 of a wavelength.
28
Before calculating a cell size, is it important to calculate the wavelength at your

highest frequency of analysis. An exact number is not important. If you know the
approximate effective dielectric constant of your circuit, use this in the
wavelength calculation; otherwise, use the highest dielectric constant in your
structure.
Most circuits require that your cell size be smaller than 1/20 of a wavelength.
EM
Larger cell sizes usually result in unacceptable errors due to incorrect modeling of
the distributed effects across the cell. Cell sizes smaller than λ/20 may increase
the accuracy slightly but usually increases the total number of subsections, which
increases the analysis time and memory requirements.
TIP
When possible, round off dimensions of your circuit so that they have a larger
common multiple.
Since your circuit geometry is snapped to the nearest cell, you must find a cell size
such that all of the dimensions of the circuit are a multiple of this cell size. For
example, if your circuit has dimensions of 30 microns, 40 microns and 60 microns,
possible cell sizes are 10 microns, 5 microns, 2.5 microns, 2 microns, etc. Large
cell sizes result in more efficient analyses, so choosing 10 microns is probably
best.
TIP
Calculate the X cell size and the Y cell size independently.
The X cell size and Y cell size do not have to be the same number. Calculate the
X cell size based on just your dimensions in the X direction, and your Y cell size
based on just your dimensions in the Y direction.
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Em User’s Manual
For example, if you have a spiral inductor with widths of 10 microns and spacings
of 11 microns, modify the 11 microns to 10 microns. You may now use a cell size
of 2, 2.5, 3.333, 5 or 10 microns instead of 1 micron, speeding up the analysis by
several orders of magnitude with little impact on circuit performance. This
concept is illustrated below.
Circuit 1:
Requires 80 cells
Runs slow, uses more memory
More accurate 8 µm
3 µm
1 µm cell size
1 cell
Circuit 2: 1 cell
Requires only 6 cells
Runs fast, uses less memory
Less accurate
8
4 µm
4 µm cell size
Circuit 1 takes more time and memory to analyze than circuit 2 even though they
have approximately the same amount of metal. This is because the dimensions in
circuit 2 are divisible by 4, so a 4 um cell size may be used. Circuit 1 requires a 1
um cell size. Think about the sensitivity of your circuit to these dimensions and
30
your fabrication tolerances. If your circuit is not sensitive to a 1 micron change or

can be made with only a +/- 1 micron tolerance, you can easily round off the 3
micron dimension in circuit 1 to the 4 micron dimension in circuit 2.
Setting the Maximum Subsection Size Parameter
EM
The parameter Max. Subsection Size allows the specification of a maximum
subsection size, in terms of subsections per wavelength, where the wavelength is
approximated at the beginning of the analysis. The highest analysis frequency is
used in the calculation of the wavelength.
The default of 20 subsections/λ is fine for most work. This means that the
maximum size of a subsection is 18 degrees at the highest frequency of analysis.
Increasing this number decreases the maximum subsection size until the limit of
1 subsection = 1 cell is reached.
You might want to increase this parameter for a more accurate solution. For
example, changing it from 20 to 40 decreases the size of the largest subsections by
a factor of 2, resulting in a more accurate (but slower) solution. Keep in mind that
using smaller subsections in non-critical areas may have very little effect on the
accuracy of the analysis while increasing analysis time.
Another reason for using this parameter is when you require extremely smooth
current distributions using emvu. With the default value of 20, large interior
subsections may make the current distribution look “choppy”. Setting this value
to a large number forces all subsections to be only 1 cell wide, providing smooth
current distribution. Again, analysis time is impacted significantly.
The Max. Subsection Size parameter is specified in xgeom in the Box Parameters
dialog box which is opened by selecting Parameters ⇒ Box.
Defining the Subsectioning Frequency

The subsectioning parameter Max. Subsection Size defined as subsections per
wavelength normally uses the highest analysis frequency to determine the
wavelength. However, this may be changed by using the keyword “FMAX”
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Em User’s Manual
followed by a frequency in the ctl.an file or by entering a frequency in the

Subsectioning Frequency text entry box in the Analysis Control dialog box when
setting up frequency control information in em. That frequency is now used for
the wavelength determination instead of the highest frequency of analysis. Thus,
the same subsectioning can be used for several analyses which differ in the highest
frequency being analyzed.
NOTE: The Subsectioning Frequency must be greater than the highest

analysis frequency to be used since em uses the higher value of the
two.
Changing the Subsectioning of a Polygon

Em allows you to control how cells are combined into subsections for each
polygon. This is done using the parameters “X Min”, “Y Min”, “X Max” and “Y
Max”. These parameters may be changed for each polygon, allowing you to have
coarser resolution for some polygons and finer resolution for others. See “The
Metalization Attributes dialog box,” page 119 in the Xgeom User’s Manual, for
information on how to change these parameters.
Before discussing how to make use of these parameters, we need to first

understand em’s automatic subsectioning for a polygon when the parameters are
set to their default settings.
Default Subsectioning of a Polygon

The default values for the subsectioning parameters are X Min = 1, Y Min = 1,
X Max = 100 and Y Max = 100. These numbers specify the smallest and largest
allowed dimensions of the subsections in a polygon. With X Min = 1, the smallest
subsection in the X dimension is one cell. With X Max = 100, subsections are not
allowed to go over 100 cells in length.
shows how these default subsectioning parameters are used. Notice in the corner,
the subsection size is just one cell. The current density changes most rapidly here,
thus, the smallest possible subsection size is used.
32
Subsection size is 1 cell by 1 cell on corner

Subsection size is 1 cell
wide along edge
EM
Subsections are wide
and long away from edge
Cell Size =
A portion of circuit metal showing how em combines cells into subsections. In

this case the subsectioning parameters are set to their default values: X Min = 1,
Y Min = 1, X Max = 100 and Y Max = 100.
As we go away from the corner, along the edge, the subsections become longer.
For example, the next subsection is two cells long, the next one is four cells long,
etc. If the edge is long enough, the subsection length increases until it reaches X
Max (100) cells, or the maximum subsection size parameter, whichever comes
first, and then remains at that length until it gets close to another corner,
discontinuity, etc.
Notice, however, that no matter how long the edge subsection is, it is always one
cell wide. This is because the current density changes very rapidly as we move
from the edge toward the interior of the metal (this is called the edge singularity).
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Em User’s Manual
In order to allow an accurate representation of the very high edge current, the edge
subsections are allowed to be only one cell wide. However, the current density
becomes smooth as we approach the interior of the metal. Thus, wider subsections
are allowed there. As before, the width goes from one cell to two cells, then four,
etc.
X Min and Y Min for a Manhattan Polygon

On occasion, you may wish to change the default subsectioning for a given
polygon. You can do this using the subsectioning parameters X Min, Y Min, X
Max and Y Max.
X Min and Y Min affect Manhattan polygons differently than non-Manhattan

polygons, where a Manhattan polygon is one that has no diagonal edges.
For Manhattan polygons, X Min and Y Min set the size of the edge subsections.
By default, X Min and Y Min are 1. This means the edge subsections are 1 cell
wide. When X Min is set to 2, the subsections along vertical edges are now 2 cells
wide in the X direction (see the figure on page 35). This reduces the number of
subsections and reduces the matrix size for a faster analysis. However, accuracy
may also be reduced due to the coarser modeling of the current density near the
structure edge or a discontinuity.
34
2 Cells Wide
(X Min = 2) 4 Cells
{
8 Cells
1 Cell Wide
(Y Min = 1) {
EM
2 Cells
4 Cells
Cell Size =
X
A portion of circuit metal showing how em combines cells into subsections for Manhattan polygons
when X Min = 2 and Y Min = 1.
If X min or Y min are greater than your polygon size, em uses subsections as large
as possible to fill the polygon.
NOTE: The subsection parameters, X Min, Y Min, X Max and Y Max are
specified in cells (not mils, mm, microns, etc.). For example, X Min =
5 means that the minimum subsection size is 5 cells.
Although the X Min and Y Min parameters are very useful options, it is not a
substitute for using a larger cell size. For example, a circuit with a cell size of 10
microns by 10 microns with X Min = 1 and Y Min =1 runs faster than the same
circuit with a cell size of 5 microns by 5 microns with X Min = 2 and Y Min = 2.
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Em User’s Manual
Even though the total number of subsections for each circuit may be the same, em
must spend extra time calculating the value for each subsection for the circuit with
the smaller cell size.
X Min and Y Min for a Non-Manhattan Polygon

For non-Manhattan polygons, when X Min is increased, the smallest subsection
size is still one cell. All edge subsections are still one cell wide. This is so the
diagonal edges can be represented. However, the next subsections in become
longer and/or wider more quickly than before (see the figure below). This reduces
the number of subsections and reduces the matrix size for a faster analysis.
4 Cells
1 Cell by 1 Cell (2 * X Min)
on corner
Cell Size =
X
A portion of circuit metal showing how em combines cells into subsections for non-Manhattan
polygons, with X Min = 2 and Y Min = 1. Non-Manhattan polygons always have 1 cell wide edge
subsections. The next subsection in is 2*X Min = 4 cells.
36
Using X Max and Y Max for any Polygon
As mentioned before, the Max. Subsection Size parameter can be used to control
the maximum subsection size for your circuit. You may also control the maximum
subsection size of individual polygons by using the X Max and Y Max parameters.
For example, if X Max and Y Max are decreased to 1, then all subsections will be
EM
one cell. This results in a much larger number of subsections and a very large
matrix which are the cause of increased analysis time. Thus, this should be done
only on small to medium size circuits where high accuracy is required.
NOTE: If the maximum subsection size specified by X Max or Y Max is larger

than the size calculated by the Max. Subsection Size parameter, the
Max. Subsection Size parameter takes priority.
Using the Edge Mesh Option

When using the Edge Mesh option, all Manhattan polygons are treated as if they
were non-Manhattan polygons. In other words, the edge subsections are always
one cell wide regardless of X Min or Y Min. When used in conjunction with large
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Em User’s Manual
X Min or Y Min values, this option can be very useful in reducing the number of
subsections but still maintaining the edge singularity, as shown below. This is very
often a good compromise between accuracy and speed.
A Manhattan polygon showing how em combines cells into subsections using

the Edge Mesh option in conjunction with a large X Min and Y Min.
In the case pictured above, X Min and Y Min are set to be very large, and the
frequency is low enough so that the Max. Subsection size parameter corresponds
to a subsection size that is larger than the polygon.
38
To invoke the edge mesh option, click on the Edge Mesh checkbox in the
Additional Options dialog box.
The Additional
Options dialog box
showing the Edge
EM
Mesh feature invoked
(box checked).
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Em User’s Manual
40
Chapter 4 Metalization and Dielectric Loss
EM
Chapter 4 Metalization and
Dielectric Loss
Metalization Loss
Metalization loss is specified in xgeom in the Metal Types dialog box which is
opened by selecting Parameters ⇒ Metal Types. Losses may be assigned to
circuit metal, top cover and ground plane. Sidewalls are always assumed to be
perfect conductors.
A common misconception is that only one type of metalization is allowed on any

given level. In fact, different metalizations (i.e., different losses) can be mixed
together on any and all levels. It is possible to have, say, a thin film resistor next
to a gold trace on the same level.
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Em User’s Manual
Surface Resistance
The metalization loss is based on surface resistance. Two numbers are required.
The first parameter, RDC, determines loss at low frequency (where the conductor
is much thinner than the skin depth). Surprisingly, electromagnetic analyses often
predict zero loss at low frequency because they assume RDC is zero. RDC is useful
for thin film resistors as well as low frequency metal loss.
The second parameter is the skin effect coefficient, RRF. Em multiplies this
number by the square root of the frequency (in Hertz) to yield the ohms/square
value at high frequency. See the “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138 in the
Xgeom User’s Manual, for examples of RDC and RRF.
The equations for RDC and RRF are repeated here:
R DC = 1 ⁄ ( σt )
R RF = Skin effect coefficient = ( πµ ) ⁄ σ
where σ is the bulk conductivity in mhos/meter, t is the metalization thickness in

meters, and µ = 4π x 10-7 H/m. Typical values for RDC and RRF are 0.004 and 3e-
7. If you start getting very strange loss results, check RRF, paying special attention
to the exponent.
Em also properly models the transition between electrically thin (low frequency)
and electrically thick (high frequency) conductors. The transition frequency from
RDC to RRF is the square of RDC/RRF. At this frequency, and a relatively narrow
band around it, both coefficients are important.
Em’s modeling of loss is very precise if accurate values of RDC and RRF are used.
Expect the final result to be just as accurate as the values of RDC and RRF
specified.
42
If an extremely precise evaluation of loss is needed, build (or find) and measure a
simple structure of the desired metalization. Then adjust the values of RDC (low
frequency) and RRF (high frequency) until the calculated loss matches the
measured value. Then you can use these values for any circuit which uses the same
metalization. You are now effectively using measured values for R DC and RRF.
The typical values given above work well as a first approximation.
EM
The alternative to using measured loss value to determine RRF is to develop a
physical model. Such a model would have parameters such as bulk conductivity,
bottom side surface roughness, top side surface roughness, metal porosity and
edge roughness as at least a few of its parameters. Developing such a model
accurately is expected to be very difficult and is beyond the scope of this analysis
software. Even if developed, such a model only converts the problem to that of
measuring the physical parameters needed for the model. Measuring the required
physical parameters (like metal porosity) is likely to be even more difficult than
measuring the loss and determining RRF in the first place.
Another aspect of loss is that the surface impedance of a good conductor has an
imaginary part which is equal to the real part. This reactive surface impedance is
physically due to the increased surface inductance caused by the current being
confined closer to the surface of the conductor. This surface reactance is included
in RRF. The effect is small, but potentially significant in certain cases.
Some electromagnetic analyses use a “perturbational” approach for loss. This

means that they assume the current flowing everywhere is the same as the lossless
case. This approximation works for low loss (good conductor). However for thin
film resistors (high loss), the lossless (short circuit) current is not the same as the
lossy current and a perturbational approach fails.
Em’s loss analysis is not perturbational. It works just as well for 100 ohms/square
resistor material as it does for 0.004 ohms/square good conductor.
Surface Reactance
Surface reactance, Xdc, is specified, in ohms/square, in xgeom in the Metal Types
dialog box accessed by selecting Parameters ⇒ Metal Types. Em uses the same
reactance at all frequencies.
43
Em User’s Manual
Until recently, the only surface resistivities of practical interest were pure real, i.
e., pure loss. With the growing application of superconductors in high frequency
work, surface reactance reaches significant levels. A superconductive effect
known as “kinetic inductance” slows the velocity of the electrons with no loss of
energy. This can be modeled as a surface inductance.
The effect of surface inductance is to make εeff larger, or the velocity of

propagation slower. For normal conductors, εeff can never be larger than εrel. In
a superconductor, this is no longer true. This unusual effect becomes significant
for very thin substrates.
Surface inductance, Ls, is specified, in xgeom in the Metal Types dialog box
accessed by selecting Parameters ⇒ Metal Types. This parameter takes into
account the surface reactance at higher frequencies.
There are three recommended approaches to obtaining a value for Ls. A first order
approximation is to assume the metal is a perfect conductor.
R DC = 0 R rf = 0 Ls = 0
This model works well for moderate frequencies (less then 150 GHz) and
moderate circuit dimensions which are much greater than the London depth of
penetration.
The second approach is a model which is still valid at moderate frequencies, but
includes effects due to kinetic inductance. The kinetic inductance is a function of
temperature and can be approximated in the following manner:
R DC = 0 R rf = 0 Ls = µ0 λL ( T )
44
where
–7
µ 0 = 4π ( 10 ) H/m
4
λ L ( T ) = λ0 ⁄ ( 1 – ( T ⁄ T c ) ) London depth of penetration at temp.
λ 0 = London depth at T = 0 meters
EM
T c = Critical (Transition) Temperature in degrees Kelvin
The third model should be used to account for high frequency effects or effects
due to small circuit dimensions. In these cases, the surface resistances
proportionality to ω2 begins to dominate and the following model is suggested.
The resistivity is a function of frequency-squared, and Sonnet presently does not
have a method to do this. Therefore, if you are analyzing over a broad band, you
need to have a separate geo file for each frequency, using the following
equations.1
R rf = 0
1 2 2
R DC = --- ω µ 0 ( λ L ( T ) ) 3 σ N ( η n ⁄ ( η n + η s ) )
2
Ls = µ0 λL( T )
where
ω = 2πf radians/sec
σ N = Conductivity of the superconductor in its normal state (Mhos/m3)
η n = Normal state carrier density (1/m3)
η s = Superconducting state carrier density (1/m3)
µ 0 and are as defined above
λL ( T )
1. Shen, Z. Y., “High-Temperature Superconducting Microwave Circuits,”

Boston, 1994, Artech House.
45
Em User’s Manual
Dielectric Layer Parameters

You can set the dielectric constant and loss of a dielectric layer by changing the
following parameters in xgeom by selecting Parameters ⇒ Dielectric Layers.
• Erel: The relative dielectric constant (εr). The ratio (ε’/εo’), where ε’ is the
real part of the permittivity of the dielectric layer material, and εo’ is the per-
mittivity of free space. The ratio is dimensionless.
• Dielectric Loss Tan: The dielectric loss tangent. The ratio (ε’’/ε’), where ε =
ε’ - jε’’, and ε is the complex permittivity of the dielectric layer material. The
ratio is dimensionless.
• Diel. Cond: The dielectric conductivity, σ, where σ is the bulk conductivity

in siemens per meter.
• Mrel: The relative magnetic permeability (µr) of the dielectric layer material.
• Magnetic Loss Tan: The magnetic loss tangent of the dielectric layer
material.
• Z-Partitioning: The z-partitioning parameter for the dielectric layer. Note
that the number of Z partitions only affects dielectric bricks. Changing this
value for a particular layer will have absolutely no affect on the analysis if
there are no bricks on the layer. If there are multiple bricks on the layer, the
Z subsectioning for all of those bricks will be identical.
The more partitions (better resolution) used in the Z-dimension, the more ac-
curate the analysis; however, analysis time and memory requirements also in-
crease.
Em uses the above parameters to calculate the total effective tanδ for the dielectric
material as follows:
tan δ = ( Loss Tan ) + (-----------------------------

Diel Cond )-
ω ( Erel )ε o'
46
Here, ω is the radian frequency (ω = 2πf, where f is frequency in hertz). Note that
tanδ has both a frequency-dependent term and a frequency-independent term.
The above equation for tanδ can also be expressed in terms of conductivities as
follows:
( Total Effective Cond ) = ( Loss Tan )ω ( Erel )ε o' + ( Diel Cond )
EM
Both equations are equivalent. Each describes how em uses the input dielectric
parameters to compute loss in the dielectric material.
See “Parameters - Dielectric Layers,” page 133 of the Xgeom User’s Manual, for
information on setting these parameters.
47
Em User’s Manual
48
Chapter 5 Ports
EM
Chapter 5 Ports
Port Types
All ports in em are two-terminal devices. In most applications, the first terminal is
attached to a metal polygon and the second terminal is attached to ground. Such
ports are referred to as grounded ports. Occasionally, however, it is useful to
attach the two terminals of a port between two adjacent polygons. These ports are
referred to as ungrounded ports.
When analyzing multi-port circuits to find S-, Y- or Z-parameters, all of the ports
in the circuit should be grounded. An ungrounded port can have a different ground
reference from other ports in the circuit, which, in turn, can corrupt the results.
In addition to being either grounded or ungrounded, ports can be further

characterized by their location in a circuit and by whether or not em can de-embed
them. Each port type is described in the sections that follow.
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Em User’s Manual
Box-Wall Ports
A standard box-wall port is a grounded port, with one terminal attached to a

polygon edge coincident with a box wall and the second terminal attached to
ground. An example of a standard box-wall port is shown below. Standard box-
wall ports can be de-embedded.
- +
1
Box wall
port on
page 46.
50
Chapter 5 Ports
Ungrounded-Internal Ports
A standard ungrounded-internal port is located in the interior of a circuit and has

its two terminals connected between abutted metal polygons. An ungrounded-
internal port is illustrated below. Ungrounded-internal ports can be de-embedded
by em.
EM
- +
1
a) b)
In part a of the figure, the ungrounded-internal port is attached between two

polygons which have equal widths. This is not a necessary condition for
ungrounded-internal ports. These ports can also be attached between polygons
which are abutted, but have unequal widths, as shown in part b. The only
difference between the two conditions is that de-embedding requires the use of
more standards (and therefore more time) when the polygons have unequal
widths.
51
Em User’s Manual
Via Ports
A via port has one terminal connected to a polygon on a given circuit level and the
other terminal connected to a second polygon on a circuit level above or below the
first polygon. An example of this port type is shown in below. See “Adding Via
Ports,” page 40 of the Xgeom User’s Manual, for information on how to create a
via port.
Upper Polygon
+
1
-
Via Port
Lower Polygon
An example of a circuit with a standard via port. A side view of

the enclosed area on the circuit is shown on the right.
Em cannot de-embed via ports. However, in a circuit which contains a

combination of via ports and other port types, the other port types can still be de-
embedded. Em will automatically identify all of the other ports present in the
circuit and de-embed them, but leave the via ports un-de-embedded.
The example file “patch.geo” has an example of a via port used in a patch antenna.
The example file “viaports.geo” shows conceptually how via ports are used in an
amplifier. The designer would analyze the four port in “viaports.geo” and then use
a circuit theory program to attach a transistor between the via ports, ports 3 and 4
in “viaports.geo”. Both example files can be obtained with the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command.
52
Chapter 5 Ports
In most cases where you need grounded ports, your first choice would be to use
auto-grounded ports (as discussed in the next section), especially since it is
possible to de-embed an autogrounded port. The two most common cases where
a via port would be used is when you wish to attach a port between two adjacent
levels in your circuit or when you want a port to go up to the box cover rather than
down to ground.
EM
Automatic-Grounded Ports
An automatic-grounded port is a special type of port used in the interior of a
circuit. This port type has one terminal attached to the edge of a metal polygon
located inside the box and the other terminal attached to the ground plane through
all intervening dielectric layers. An auto-grounded port with a reference plane
shift is shown below.
In many circuits, the addition of auto-grounded ports has little influence on the
total analysis time of the em job. However for some circuits, auto-grounded ports
may require some extra overhead calculations, thus increasing the total analysis
time. Therefore, they should be used only when they provide an advantage over
standard box-wall ports. Auto-grounded ports provide advantages over standard
box-wall ports when:
• the layout of your circuit does not allow a direct path for a feed line
to be connected between the port and the box wall (as in the figure
above), or
• your circuit requires a large feed structure to reach the box wall. If
all or part of your feed structure can be eliminated, using an auto-
53
Em User’s Manual
grounded port could reduce the total number of subsections in your

circuit, thus decreasing the analysis time and/or memory
requirements.
Auto-grounded ports are similar to via ports with the exception of the following
characteristics:
• Via ports require you to manually create vias that extend upward
through the dielectric to the edge of a metal polygon. This is not the
case with auto-grounded ports. You simply place auto-grounded
ports anywhere a grounded port is needed. Em automatically
detects the presence of auto-grounded ports in the circuit and
connects the port terminals appropriately.
• Auto-grounded ports connect directly through all dielectric layers
to the ground plane. Via-ports allow the flexibility of connecting
between any two adjacent dielectric layers.
• Auto-grounded ports are de-embedded when the de-embedding
option is used, while via ports are not.
• Reference planes may be set with auto-grounded ports but cannot
be set for via ports.
Special Considerations for Auto-Grounded Ports

Metal Under Auto-Grounded Ports
You cannot have metal directly beneath an auto-grounded port in a multi-layer

circuit. Auto-grounded ports are two-terminal devices with one terminal
connected to an edge of a metal polygon and the second terminal connected to the
ground plane. When em detects the presence of an auto-grounded port, it
automatically connects the two terminals in this manner. This includes circuits
which have multiple dielectric layers between the polygon and the ground plane.
However, in order for em to accomplish this, there must be a direct path from the
edge of the metal polygon to the ground plane. When an auto-grounded port is
used in a circuit where there is more than one dielectric layer between the port and
the ground plane, em checks to make sure that there is no metal directly beneath
the auto-grounded port. If metal is found, em prints an error message and stops.
54
Chapter 5 Ports
Edge of Metal Polygon is Lossless
Auto-grounded ports can attach to the edge of any metal polygon in the interior of
a circuit. There are no restrictions on the loss parameters of the metal used in the
polygon. However, along the edge of the metal polygon where the port is attached,
em does force the cells to be lossless. For most circuits, this should have little or
no effect on the results. If, however, the port is attached to a highly lossy metal
EM
polygon, such as a thin-film resistor, the edge cell(s) of that polygon will be made
lossless, and the output results may be affected.
Auto-Grounded Ports on Box-Wall
Auto-grounded ports are designed to be used in the interior of a circuit. If an auto-

grounded port is placed on a box-wall, it is treated as if it were a standard box-wall
port.
Specifying Port Normalizing Impedances

Whenever results are to be incorporated into a circuit theory based analysis
program, the normalizing impedance for each port should be 50 ohms. In rare
cases, S-parameters normalized to some other impedance is desired.
For example, you may want to see what the reflection coefficient of a structure is
when port 2 is connected to a 1.0 pF capacitor in parallel with a 10 ohm resistor
(a power FET input model), while the input is being driven with a source which
has a 35 ohm internal impedance. In this case, normalize port 1 to 35 ohms and
port 2 to 10 ohms plus 1.0 pF.
In another example, pure electromagnetics is frequently carried out using S-

parameters normalized to the characteristic impedance of each connecting
transmission line. These are often called “generalized” S-parameters, in spite of
the fact that the line impedance is usually not specified, thus precluding precise
conversion to 50 ohms for use in circuit theory software.
To understand the physical meaning of normalized S-parameters, recall that our

standard 50 ohm S-parameters are measured by terminating all ports in 50 ohms
and then measuring ratios of incident to reflected (or transmitted) wave
55
Em User’s Manual
amplitudes. If we were to use 60 ohm terminations, instead of 50 ohm

terminations, the resulting measurements of traveling wave ratios would yield S-
parameters normalized to 60 ohms. If we were then to take the S-parameters which
had been measured using 60 ohm port terminations and use it in a circuit theory
program (which expects you to use 50 ohm terminations), we would get incorrect
results.
However, 60 ohm S-Parameters do have uses. Say you want to know what
percentage of power is absorbed by a 60 ohm load terminating port 2 of a two port
circuit. That is simply one minus the magnitude squared of S11, using 60 ohm S-
parameters. If you are interested in a different load, use a different normalizing
impedance.
S-Parameters can be renormalized to any real impedance by using the circuit

network capability of em, or a circuit theory based program, to cascade
appropriate transformers on each port. This technique can not be used with a
complex impedance, as is the case with a lossy line or complex load.
In em, the default normalizing impedance is 50 ohms. If you would like a different
normalization, refer to the section “Parameters - Ports,” page 143 of the Xgeom
User’s Manual, on how to specify the normalizing impedance for each port.
The normalizing impedance is represented by four numbers. First is the real part
in ohms. Next comes the reactive part in ohms. Third is the inductive part in
nanohenries (nH). The last number is the capacitive part in picofarads (pF). The
inductive and capacitive part modify only the reactive portion of the load, they are
included so you do not have to manually re-calculate the reactive part at each
frequency.
56
Chapter 5 Ports
The resistance, reactance and inductance are all connected in series when the
specific normalizing impedance is calculated at each frequency of analysis as
illustrated below. The capacitance is connected in parallel with the result and then
the final normalizing impedance at the frequency of analysis is calculated.
R + jX L
EM
C
Equivalent circuit of an em port.
NOTE: The normalizing impedances are ignored if Y- or Z-parameters are

specified for output. Y- and Z-parameters are always normalized to
one ohm.
This capability should be used only by the most advanced users. If the above
discussion is not clear, seek assistance. Under no circumstances should this
capability be used on data which is to be incorporated in a circuit in a standard
circuit theory program other than Sonnet. Many such programs assume S-
parameters normalized to exactly 50 ohms.
For example, the 50 ohm S-parameters of a microstrip step junction look like a
very small shunt capacitance and a very small series inductance. In other words,
the reflection coefficient is almost zero and the transmission coefficient is almost
unity with a couple degrees of phase. If, instead of 50 ohm S-parameters, we were
to use S-parameters normalized to the characteristic impedances of the lines
connecting to each of the two ports (this is common in electromagnetics), the S-
57
Em User’s Manual
parameters would look like a transformer between the two impedances. This
causes many circuit theory programs, which are expecting 50 ohm S-parameters,
to give grossly incorrect results.
Special Port Numbering

All ports are assigned a number at the time they are created in xgeom. By default,
the ports are numbered by the order in which they are created (i.e. first port created
is assigned the number 1, second port created is assigned the number 2, etc.). With
this default method, all ports are positive and unique. However, there are some
applications that require the ports to have duplicate, or even negative, numbers.
Ports with Duplicate Numbers
All ports with the same number, as pictured below, are electrically connected
together. As many physical ports as desired may be given the same numeric label.
Such ports are sometimes called “even-mode” or “push-push” ports and have
many uses, including simulating thick metal or the even-mode response of a
circuit. See Chapter 18, “Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section,” for an
example of using “push-push” ports.
Ports with identical

port numbers are
electrically
connected together.
Ports with Negative Numbers
Ports may also have negative numbers as shown in the figure on page 59. This
feature can be used to redefine ground. Strictly speaking, em sums the total current
going into all the positive ports with the same port number and sets that equal to
58
Chapter 5 Ports
the total current going out of all the ports with that same negative port number. For
example, for a circuit with a +1 port and a -1 port, em sets current flowing into
port +1 to be equal to the current flowing out of port -1. Thus, they are sometimes
called “balanced”, “push-pull” or “odd-mode” ports. Coplanar lines can be
represented with balanced ports. See Chapter 17, “Coplanar Waveguide
Discontinuities and Balanced Ports,” for an example of push-pull ports.
EM
An example of push-
pull ports.
59
Em User’s Manual
60
Chapter 6 De-embedding
EM
Each port in a circuit analyzed by em introduces a discontinuity into the analysis

results. In addition, any transmission lines that might be present introduce phase
shift, and possibly, impedance mismatch and loss. Depending upon the nature of
your analysis, this may or may not be desirable. De-embedding is the process by
which the port discontinuity and transmission line effects are removed from the
analysis results.
The figure on page 62 illustrates the general layout of a circuit to be analyzed with
em. The device under test (DUT), shown as a box in the figure, is the circuitry for
which we wish to obtain analysis results. The DUT is located inside the metal box
and is connected to one or more ports. The ports may be located on box walls, as
in the figure, or in the interior of the metal box (see Chapter 5 for a description of
port types available in em). Typically, transmission lines are necessary to connect
the ports to the DUT.
When de-embedding is enabled, em performs the following sequence of steps:

1 Calculates port discontinuities.
61
Em User’s Manual
2 Removes effects of port discontinuities from analysis results.

3 Optionally shifts reference planes (removes effects of feed transmission
lines from analysis results).
4 Calculates transmission line parameters Z0 and Eeff.
Metal Box Walls
Port Transmission Line Device

Under
Test
(DUT) Transmission Line Port
General layout of a circuit to be analyzed with em.
Upon completion of the de-embedding process, em outputs de-embedded S-

parameter results, Z0, Eeff and the calculated port discontinuities.
An abbreviated summary of the de-embedding algorithm used is presented in [66]

and the complete theory is presented in [67].
Enabling the De-embedding Algorithm

To demonstrate de-embedding with em, we will analyze the filter shown in the
next figure on page 63. This circuit consists of five sections making up the filter
metalization, two ports and two transmission lines connecting the ports to the filter
62
metalization. Reference planes have been defined for port 1 and port 2 at the left
and right edges of the filter metalization, respectively. These reference planes
instruct em to remove the effects of the transmission lines up to the filter
metalization when de-embedding is enabled.
EM
Port 1
Transmission Filter Metalization

Line (DUT)
Transmission
Line
Port 2
Port discontinuities and transmission lines at the upper left and lower right
are removed from the em analysis results by enabling de-embedding.
63
Em User’s Manual
The geometry file shown in the figure above, “filter.geo,” is available in the
Sonnet examples directory. You may use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a
copy of this file.
NOTE: Adding reference planes to a circuit in xgeom does not automatically

enable de-embedding in em. De-embedding must be enabled at the
time em is executed. The procedure for enabling de-embedding is
described below.
There are two methods for enabling de-embedding in em. The first method is to
set the De-embed option in the job window to “on”. The second method is to
specify an output file with a “.d” file extension in the Output Files dialog box. In
this case, the De-embed checkbox is automatically set to “on”.
To demonstrate de-embedding with the example “filter.geo” do the following:

1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The em program window
will appear with a new untitled job file.
3 Check that the default directory is your project directory. If the directory
is not correct either click on the Browse button to chose the correct
directory and file, or enter the directory in the Start In : text entry box.
4 Enter “filter.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
5 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button in the Frequency Control sec-
tion of the job window. Then enter “10” in the Start text entry box. The
Frequency Unit is set to GHz, so no action need be taken.
6 The Verbose and De-embed options are already set, as defaults, so you
need take no action for these items.
7 Click on the Run command button to execute the em analysis.
Below is the output written to the output window by em.
64
ELECTROMAGNETIC ANALYSIS OF 3-D PLANAR CIRCUITS

Version 6.0
(C) Copyright 1987 - 1999 Sonnet Software, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Circuit geometry file: filter.geo

Analysis control file: ewa36361
EM
De-embedded response file: filter.d
Starting subsectioning...done.
Circuit uses 455 subsections, 2 Mbytes.
Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Waveguide mode calculation time = 0 seconds.
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0. Analyzing entire circuit
Matrix fill time = 1 seconds. (DUT and transmission lines)
Reducing matrix.
Matrix solve time = 0 seconds.
De-embedding ports on left box wall.
First standard, 28 subs, 28.125 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0.
Reducing matrix. De-embedding
Second standard, 53 subs, 56.25 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz. Port 1
Reducing matrix.
De-embedding ports on right box wall.
First standard, 28 subs, 28.125 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
De-embedding
Reducing matrix.
Second standard, 53 subs, 56.25 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Port 2
Reducing matrix.
Pre-computational time (seconds) -- Subsectioning: 0, Caching: 0
Analysis time per frequency (mm:ss) -- 0:02 user, 0:00 system, 0:02 real
Analysis time per function (seconds) -- Modes: 0, Fill: 1, Solve: 0
10.0000000 1.000000 -72.59 0.000641 17.050 0.000641 17.050 1.000000 -73.31
P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4556 0.0000) Z0=(51.78808 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041639
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4762 0.0000) Z0=(51.88224 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041650
De-embedded S-parameter, transmission parameter, and port discontinuity results

em: finished.
Total time for 1 freq (mm:ss) -- 0:02 user, 0:00 system, 0:02 real
65
Em User’s Manual
Listed below are some comments concerning the output information shown
above:
• Em begins the analysis by subsectioning the entire circuit contained
inside the metal box. This includes the DUT, port discontinuities
and all transmission lines.
• Em then analyzes the entire structure at the first frequency (10
GHz). S-parameter results for the entire structure are obtained. If
de-embedding had not been enabled, these S-parameters would be
output by em as the non-de-embedded results and the analysis
would be complete.
• After analyzing the entire structure, em de-embeds the port (#1) on
the left box wall. To do this, em creates and analyzes two
calibration standards. The listing shows the number of subsections
(28, 53) and length (28.125 mils, 56.25 mils) for each standard.
• Em then de-embeds the port (#2) on the right box wall in the same
manner.
• In the last block of information, em displays the de-embedded S-
parameter results along with the feed transmission line parameters
(Z0 and Eeff) and calculated discontinuity (R and C) for each de-
embedded port. “P1” and “P2” stand for “port 1” and “port 2”,
respectively. A detailed discussion concerning the port
discontinuities (R and C) is presented in the next section.
De-embedding Port Discontinuities

All ports in em introduce a discontinuity into the analysis results. Sometimes, this
is desirable. For example, when analyzing a circuit fabricated with box walls, the
effects introduced by a box-wall port discontinuity are real. Under this
circumstance, the discontinuity should not be removed. However, in analyses
where only the behavior of the DUT is of interest, all port discontinuities should
be removed by de-embedding.
66
When enabled, em’s de-embedding algorithm automatically removes the

discontinuities for box-wall, ungrounded-internal and auto-grounded ports (see
Chapter 5 for a description of port types available in em). A via port is the only
type of port that cannot be de-embedded by em. The port discontinuities for the
port types which can be de-embedded are described in the sections that follow.
Box-Wall Ports
EM
Box-wall ports have one port terminal connected to a polygon inside the metal
box, and the second port terminal connected to ground (see the figure on page 50).
The port discontinuity is modeled as a series resistor, R, and capacitor, C, shunted
to ground as shown below. If the circuit being analyzed is completely lossless, the
resistor value, R, is zero. Even with loss in the circuit, the capacitive reactance is
normally very large compared to the resistance.
S-parameters from em
without de-embedding
Device
Under
Test
R
Box-wall port C
discontinuity
Port discontinuity associated with a box-wall port.
When enabled, em’s de-embedding feature automatically calculates the values of

R and C for each box-wall port present in the circuit. The port discontinuities are
then removed by cascading a negative R and C as illustrated above.
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Em User’s Manual
S-Parameters S-parameters from em

from em with without de-embedding
de-embedding.
Device
Under
Test
-R R
-C C
Block cascaded to negate Box-wall port

box-wall port discontinuity discontinuity
De-embedding automatically cancels the discontinuity associated with a box-wall port.
68
Ungrounded-Internal Ports
Ungrounded-internal ports do not have access to ground. For these ports, the two
port terminals are connected between abutting polygons. The port discontinuity is
again modeled as a series resistor, R, and capacitor, C, but is now connected
between polygons as shown in .
EM
S-Parameters from
Ungrounded-internal - + em without de-
port discontinuity
embedding
R C
Metallized Metallized
polygon polygon
Port discontinuity associated with an ungrounded-internal port.
69
Em User’s Manual
When enabled, the de-embedding feature automatically calculates the values of R

and C for each ungrounded-internal port in the circuit. The port discontinuities are
then removed by cascading a negative R and C as illustrated below.
Block cascaded to negate S-parameters from em

port discontinuity
- + with de-embedding
-R -C without de-embedding
R C
Metallized Metallized
polygon polygon
Ungrounded-internal
port discontinuity
De-embedding automatically cancels the discontinuity associated

with an ungrounded-internal port.
Auto-Grounded Ports
Auto-grounded ports have one port terminal connected to a polygon edge in the
interior of the metal box and the second port terminal connected to the ground
plane. The model for the port discontinuity is shown in the figure on page 71. This
discontinuity includes three components: a resistance, R, a capacitance, C, and an
impedance, Zvia. Zvia is the impedance associated with the via used to construct
70
the auto-grounded port (see section “Automatic-Grounded Ports,” page 53, for a
description of auto-grounded ports). R and C are the open-end resistance and
capacitance of the polygon to which the auto-grounded port is attached.
Device
Under Test
EM
S-parameters
R from em
Auto-grounded Zvia without de-
port discontinuity
C embedding
Port discontinuity associated with an auto-grounded port.
When de-embedding is enabled, em automatically calculates the values of R, C

and Zvia. The port discontinuity is then removed by cascading negative values of
these parameters as illustrated on page 72.
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Em User’s Manual
D ev ice
U n d er Test
R -R
A u to -g ro u n d ed Z v ia -Z via
p o rt d isco n tin u ity
C -C
S -p aram eters fro m em
w ith o u t d e-em b ed d in g
S -p aram eters fro m em B lo ck cascad ed

w ith d e-em b ed d in g to n eg ate
p o rt d isco n tin u ity
De-embedding automatically cancels the discontinuity
associated with an auto-grounded port.
Shifting Reference Planes

Transmission lines are required in many circuits to connect ports to the device
under test (DUT). If the length of a transmission line is more than a few degrees
relative to a wavelength, unwanted phase (and possibly loss) will be added to the
S-parameter results. If the impedance of the transmission line differs from the
normalizing impedance of the S-parameters (usually 50 ohms), an additional error
in the S-parameters results. Thus, if we are only interested in the behavior of the
DUT, any “long” transmission lines connecting the ports to the DUT should be
removed during de-embedding. The process of removing lengths of transmission
line during de-embedding is known as “shifting reference planes”.
72
Reference planes may be specified in xgeom for box-wall and auto-grounded

ports, but not ungrounded-internal ports. When em detects a reference plane, and
de-embedding is enabled, it automatically builds and analyzes the calibration
standards necessary to de-embed the port and shift the reference plane by the
specified length.
NOTE: Reference planes are not necessary for de-embedding. If you do not
EM
specify a reference plane in xgeom for a box-wall or auto-grounded
port, the reference plane length defaults to zero. This means that em
will not shift the reference plane for that port when de-embedding is
enabled. However, em will remove the discontinuity for that port.
Box-Wall Ports
The figure below shows a circuit with a length of transmission line, TRL, inserted
between a box-wall port and the device under test.
Transmission line
Device
TRL Under
S-parameters Test
from em without R
de-embedding C
Box-wall port
discontinuity
Port discontinuity and transmission line

associated with a box-wall port.
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Em User’s Manual
When de-embedding is enabled, em removes the transmission line in a manner

similar to that used to remove the port discontinuity. Em calculates S-parameters
for the TRL alone, and then cascades a “negative” TRL along with negative R and
C as illustrated in the next figure.
Block cascaded
to negate trans-
mission line
S-parameters from em S-parameters from em

with de-embedding without de-embedding
Transmission line
Device
-TRL TRL Under
Test
Block cascaded -R R
to negate port -C
discontinuity C
Box-wall port
discontinuity
Illustration of how de-embedding removes the port discontinuity and

transmission line associated with a box-wall port.
Coupled Transmission Lines
The two previous figures illustrated how the reference plane for a single
transmission line attached to a box-wall port is shifted during de-embedding. In
general, there may be multiple transmission lines on a given box wall on one or
more circuit levels. This is illustrated in the next figure. In this situation, em shifts
the reference plane an equal distance for all transmission lines on the given box
wall. All coupling between the transmission lines is accounted for and removed.
74
NOTE: When shifting a reference plane for coupled lines, em assumes the
following:
a) all coupled lines are either horizontal or vertical
b) the width of each coupled line is constant
c) the spacing between coupled lines is constant.
EM
1
Ports 2
N-coupled
. transmission
. lines
.
Box Wall
De-embedding shifts the reference plane an equal distance for all N-
coupled transmission lines on a given box wall. The coupling between
transmission lines is removed by the de-embedding process.
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Em User’s Manual
Auto-Grounded Ports
Below is a circuit with a length of transmission line, TRL, inserted between a

metallized polygon and an auto-grounded port.
Device
Under Test TRL
Transmission line
R
Zvia
without de-embedding C
Auto-grounded
port discontinuity
Port discontinuity and transmission line associated with an auto-grounded port.
76
When de-embedding is enabled, em removes the transmission line in a manner

similar to that used to remove the port discontinuity. Em calculates S-parameters
for TRL alone, and then cascades a “negative” TRL along with negative R, C and
Zvia as shown below.
Block cascaded to negate

transmission line
Device
TRL
EM
Under Test -TRL
Transmission line
Zvia R -R -Z
S-parameters from em via
without de-embedding C -C
Auto-grounded
port discontinuity
S-parameters from em Block cascaded to negate

with de-embedding port discontinuity
Illustration of how de-embedding removes the port discontinuity and

transmission line associated with an auto-grounded port.
De-embedding Results
The listing below shows the de-embedded results obtained earlier in the chapter
from the analysis of the example filter circuit (see page 63). This example
illustrates the format of the de-embedded data that is written both to your output
window and to the de-embedded results file (“.d” file extension).
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Em User’s Manual
10.0000000 1.000000 -75.45 0.000757 14.090 0.000757 14.090 1.000000 -76.37
P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4556 0.0000) Z0=(51.78808 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041639
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4762 0.0000) Z0=(51.88224 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041650
Example showing format of results obtained when de-embedding is enabled in em.
You should notice the following about the results in above:

• The first line is a comment line which describes the analysis results
on the line below. In this example, the results are de-embedded 50
ohm S-parameters in Touchstone magnitude/angle format.
• The second line gives the analysis results.
• The remaining two lines give de-embedding information for each
port in the circuit. The various fields are defined as follows:
P#: Port number.
F: Frequency in units defined earlier in the results file.
Eeff: Effective dielectric constant of the transmission line connected to the port.
Z0: TEM equivalent characteristic impedance of the transmission line, in ohms.
R: Equivalent series resistance of port discontinuity, in ohms.
C: Equivalent series capacitance of port discontinuity, in pF.
De-embedding Error Codes
There are certain situations, discussed in detail in Chapter 7, “De-embedding

Guidelines,” for which em is unable to obtain accurate de-embedded results. Em
will usually, but not always, detect these situations and replace any suspect results
with an error message. The format of the error message is “undefined: <code>”,
where <code> is a code which indicates the reason that em is unable to determine
the de-embedded results. Table 2 describes the various error codes which may be
displayed by em.
78
Table 3 Codes displayed for indeterminate de-embedded

results
De-embedded
Code Description
S-Parameters
EM
nd N/A Port was not de-embedded. No data is available.
mp Valid Multiple ports on same box wall.
sl Caution Length of first de-embedding standard is too

short.
nl Valid Length of first standard is multiple of half wave-

length.
mv Valid Multiple values of Eeff or Z0 for a single port

number.
bd Caution Bad Eeff or Z0 data due to unknown reason.
The second column of Table 2, labeled “De-embedded S-Parameters”, gives the

status of the de-embedded S-parameters corresponding to each error code. Error
code “nd” indicates that the port was not de-embedded, therefore the status is not
applicable. Error codes “mp”, “nl” and “mv” have a status of “Valid”. This
indicates that while em was not able to determine Eeff or Z0, the de-embedded S-
parameter results are completely valid. Error codes “sl” and “bd” have a status of
“Caution”. This indicates that you should be cautious about using the de-
embedded S-parameter results as they may be corrupt.
The “nd” error code indicates that the port cannot be de-embedded. Via ports are
the only port type available in em that cannot be de-embedded. Thus, you will get
this error code only when de-embedding circuits which contain via ports.
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Em User’s Manual
The “mp” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0 because
the circuit has multiple ports on the same side of the box. The reason for this is
that more than one value is required to describe the multiple modes associated
with coupled transmission lines.
The “sl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is too
short. We recommend that the length be at least one substrate thickness. See the
section “Reference Plane Length Minimums,” page 82, for details.
The “nl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is a
multiple of a half wavelength. In this case, em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0,
but the de-embedded S-parameter results are completely valid. See the section
“Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength,” page 84, for
details.
The “mv” code indicates that a single port number is used for multiple ports in the
circuit, and that the Eeff and Z0 values vary for the different ports.
Finally, the “bd” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and/or Z0
for an unknown reason. Low precision and box resonances in the calibration
standards are sources of error that occasionally lead to the “bd” code.
80
Chapter 7 De-embedding Guidelines
EM
Guidelines
The previous chapter describes the basics of de-embedding: what it is, how it is
enabled, and what it does when enabled. This chapter presents guidelines for
obtaining good de-embedded results.
Defining Reference Planes

Xgeom and em place very few restrictions on the reference planes which may be
defined for a given circuit. This is done intentionally so as to provide maximum
flexibility for all users.
However, there are some basic guidelines concerning reference planes that should
almost always be followed. These guidelines are discussed below.
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Em User’s Manual
De-embedding Without Reference Planes
De-embedding does not require reference planes. Reference planes are optional
for all box-wall and auto-grounded ports. If you do not specify a reference plane
for a particular port in xgeom, em will assume a zero-length reference plane for
that port. This means that de-embedding will remove the discontinuity associated
with that particular port, but will not shift the reference plane for it.
As discussed in the next section, em may generate bad de-embedded results if you
attempt to remove a very short (but greater than zero) reference plane length.
However, if you de-embed without a reference plane, em will not attempt to
remove any length of transmission line at all. As a result, de-embedding without
a reference plane does not lead to any error. Therefore, we recommend that you
de-embed without reference planes rather than specify very short, non-zero,
reference plane lengths.
Reference Plane Length Minimums
The only explicit restriction on the minimum reference plane length that you may
specify is that the reference plane must be at least three cell lengths long. If the
reference plane is less than three cell lengths long, em displays an error message
and stops. Otherwise, em performs the analysis with whatever reference plane
length you have specified.
82
If, however, the reference plane is very short relative to the substrate thickness or
the width of the transmission line, em may generate poor de-embedded results.
This is due to one or both of the following reasons which are illustrated below
Fringing fields from DUT

interact with fringing fields
from port.
EM
First calibration standard is
too short. Port #1 interacts
with port #2.
1 DUT 1 2
Box Wall Metal Box
Poor de-embedding results may be obtained when very short (but non-
zero) reference plane lengths are used.
• The port is too close to the device under test (DUT). There are fringing
fields associated with the port and separate fringing fields associated with the
DUT. If the port and DUT are too close, the fringing fields interact. The de-
embedding algorithm (which is virtually identical to algorithms used in de-
embedding measured data) is based on circuit theory and cannot handle fring-
ing field interaction. See [56] for a detailed description of the problem.
• The first calibration standard is too short. In this situation, the discontinu-
ity associated with port #1 interacts with the discontinuity associated with
port #2. As a result, the first calibration standard does not “behave” like a
transmission line and its S-parameters are invalid.
There is no precise rule as to how long a reference plane must be made in order to
prevent the above effects from corrupting the de-embedded results. The required
reference plane length is dependent upon the circuit geometry and the nature of
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Em User’s Manual
the analysis. However, we recommend that you use reference plane lengths equal
to or greater than one substrate thickness. This is sufficient for most types of
analysis.
Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength

Eeff and Z0 cannot be calculated when the length of the reference plane is an
integral multiple of a half wavelength. For example, at an extremely low
frequency the electrical length of the reference plane may be a fraction of a degree
(i.e., zero half-wavelengths). In this case, the analysis is unable to accurately
evaluate the electrical length and, especially, the characteristic impedance.
At some point as the length of the reference plane approaches a multiple of a half-
wavelength, em is able to determine that the calculated values of Eeff and Z0 are
becoming corrupt. When this occurs, em outputs the error message “undefined:
nl” in place of the Eeff and Z0 values (see the section “De-embedding Error
Codes,” page 78). Note, however, that while em is unable to determine Eeff and
Z0, the de-embedded S-parameter results are still perfectly valid.
Reference Plane Lengths Greater than One Wavelength
If the length of the reference plane is more than one wavelength, incorrect Eeff
results might be seen. However, the S-parameters are still completely valid.
Em’s calculation of Eeff is based on phase length. If the reference plane is, say,
365 degrees long, em first calculates Eeff based on a phase length of 5 degrees.
However, em has some “smarts” built in. If a non-physical result is seen, em
increases the calculated phase length by 360 degrees at a time until physical (i.e.,
Eeff Š 1.0) results are obtained. This usually corrects the problem.
Thus, it takes a particularly long reference plane before the Eeff calculation fails.
When it does fail, it suddenly jumps down to a value just above 1.0. Z0 and the de-
embedded S-parameter data still have full validity. This failure mode is rarely
seen.
84
Non-Physical S-Parameters
Generally, reference planes should not be set in xgeom such that they extend
beyond a discontinuity in the circuit. Doing so may result in non-physical S-
parameters.
To illustrate this problem, consider the circuit shown below. In this circuit, the
EM
reference planes do not extend beyond any discontinuities. When de-embedding
is enabled, the port #1 discontinuity is removed along with a transmission line of
width W1 and length L1. Similarly, the port #2 discontinuity is removed along
with a transmission line of width W2 and length L2. The de-embedded result is a
set of 2-port S-parameters for the block in the middle of the circuit.
L1
L2
W1 W2
Now, consider the figure on page 86. This circuit is identical to the circuit shown
above except that the length of the reference plane originating on the left box wall
has been increased. If em is run with de-embedding enabled on this circuit, it
“removes” a length of transmission line equal to the specified reference plane
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Em User’s Manual
length. This occurs even though the actual port transmission line is shorter than
the reference plane length. As a result, the de-embedded S-parameters are non-
physical.
Aragorn
Discontinuity
begins here
L2
W1 W2
L1
Example circuit for which non-physical S-parameters will be

obtained when em is run with de-embedding enabled.
A second de-embedding example leading to non-physical S-parameter results is

shown in the next figure. In this example, the circuit has two via pads on each side
of the port transmission line. The via pads are grounded to the box wall.
86
When em is run with de-embedding enabled on this circuit, it “removes” three

coupled transmission lines with a length equal to the reference plane length. Since
the reference plane extends from the box wall beyond the vias, the de-embedded
S-parameters are again non-physical.
EM
W1
L2
W2 W4
W3
Box Resonances
Because em’s de-embedding algorithm is based on circuit theory, it is unable to
de-embed a structure contained inside a resonant cavity; a limit it shares with all
de-embedding algorithms. Thus, whenever you wish to de-embed a circuit with
box resonances, you must take the necessary steps to remove those box
resonances. (See Chapter 19 for a detailed description on identifying and
removing box resonances.) Note that if you do de-embed a circuit with box
resonances, em may generate a “bd” de-embedding error code: see section “De-
embedding Error Codes,” page 78. This error code indicates that em has detected
bad values for Eeff and Z0.
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Em User’s Manual
Higher Order Transmission Line Modes

De-embedding removes the port discontinuity and the connecting length of
transmission line. The de-embedding assumes that there is only one mode
propagating on the connecting transmission line, usually the fundamental quasi-
TEM mode. If higher order modes are propagating, the de-embedded results are
not valid. (The same is true for actual, physical, measurements.) If this is the case,
we strongly recommend using a thinner substrate, unless, for some reason, multi-
mode operation is desired.
Even when higher order microstrip modes are evanescent, there can still be
problems. If the port is so close to the discontinuity of interest that their fringing
(evanescent) fields interact, the de-embedding looses validity. Again, this is a
problem which also arises in an actual physical measurement if the device to be
de-embedded is too close to the fixture connector.
88
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
EM
The em network file provides you with a powerful circuit analysis tool. Examples
of ways in which the circuit network capability may be used include:
• Cascading S-, Y- and Z- parameter data files. You can read and combine
multiple sets of S-, Y- and Z-parameter data files, including results from pre-
vious em runs. This is particularly useful when analyzing large, complex cir-
cuits which require subdivision for an em analysis. When analyzing a
network file, em will automatically interpolate between frequencies if there
are differences between the data files.
• Inserting lumped elements into a circuit. Lumped elements, such as resis-

tors, capacitors, inductors and ideal transmission lines, can be combined with
S-, Y- and Z-parameter data files.
• Intelligent frequency selection. Em, when analyzing a network file, may be

set up to automatically select frequency points for an analysis. Frequency
points are spaced close together in regions where the circuit response varies
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Em User’s Manual
rapidly and are spaced farther apart in regions where the circuit response is
essentially constant. Em may also be set up to automatically find the frequen-
cies where the minimum and maximum responses of a circuit occur.
Network File Analyses

The sequence of steps for a network file analysis may be summarized as follows:
1 Em reads the network file which contains circuit and analysis control
information. This includes S-, Y- and Z-parameter data files, lumped
elements, references to geometry files and intelligent frequency
selection specifications. The format of the network file is similar to the
format used in other netlist programs.
2 Em uses an analysis control file and a geometry file to run each electro-
magnetic analysis invoked by the network file.
3 Em performs the circuit analysis specified in the network file.
4 Em combines the electromagnetic results with the circuit results to
obtain the desired output results. This may include sorted S-, Y- and Z-
parameters, and the frequencies at which minimum or maximum circuit
responses occur (Fmin, Fmax).
Note that the above sequence of steps is generalized for analyses which include
both electromagnetic and circuit analysis. In cases where the overall analysis is
restricted to either electromagnetic analysis or circuit analysis, some of the steps
are omitted.
Cascading S-, Y- and Z-Parameter Data Files

A particularly useful feature provided by a network file is the ability to cascade
multiple S-, Y- and Z-parameter data files. There are no restrictions on the file
formats which may be cascaded. For example, you can cascade em Z-parameter
data in Touchstone format with measured S-parameter data in Super-Compact
format. In addition, em can analyze at frequencies which are not included in the
data files. Em automatically interpolates if there are any differences between the
requested frequency points and those in the data files.
90
To demonstrate the cascading operation, we will analyze the two-port circuit

shown below. This circuit consists of two identical thin film resistors connected
in series. We will use the S-parameters from the geometry file analysis on the thin-
film resistor as input to the network file analysis. The desired output result is an
overall set of two-port S-parameters for the series combination of resistors.
EM
N ode 1 N ode 2 N ode 3
S -param eter S -param eter
1 file “res16.d” file “res16.d” 2
The two-port S-parameters contained in file “res16.d” are cascaded to

obtain an overall set of two-port S-parameters.
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Em User’s Manual
Thin-Film Resistor Example

Before cascading the resistors “.d” files together, we need to obtain the results of
the geometry file analysis of the thin-film resistor shown in the next figure. Use
Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain the response file, “res16.d”, from the Sonnet
example files.
Resistive Material
Transmission Lines
The geometry file for the thin-film resistor.
The output file “res16.d” appears below.
92
! **************************************************
!< FTYP RSP
!< PROG EM 6.0, id leslie1b.2986, on PC/DOS 95050501.
!< CMD em -dv -rres16.d res16.geo -- Sat Mar 27 12:24:46 1999
!< CKDATE Wed Mar 1 11:00:11 1996 ! Last time res16.geo was updated.
! Maximum subsection size is lambda/20 at 400 MHz. Estimated Eeff = 5.4.
! All dimensions are in mils.
! A = 200.000000(16), B = 200.000000(16), C = 275.000000, with 2 layers.
EM
! Lay H( mils) Erel Etan(d) Esigma Murel Mtan(d) Nz Subs
! 0 250.0000 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 1 17
! 1 25.00000 9.800000 0.000000 0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 1 0
! Estimated Memory: 1 Mbytes Subsection Total: 17
! Ports: 2 Box-Wall
! Circuit has loss.
! Loss parameters of metals used in circuit:
! Thin Film -- Rdc: 16.77 Rrf: 0 Xdc: 0 Ls: 0
! Circuit and excitation are symmetric about X axis.
! De-embedded 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
! Comments following s-parameters give port data with following syntax:
! P# F=x MHz Eeff=(x+jy) Z0=(x+jy) Ohms R=x Ohms C=x pF
! All box-wall reference planes are zero length.
# MHZ S MA R 50
! Pre-computational time (seconds) -- Subsectioning: 0, Caching: 0
! Analysis time per frequency (mm:ss) -- 0:00 user, 0:00 system, 0:00 real
! Analysis time per function (seconds) -- Modes: 0, Fill: 0, Solve: 0
!
200.000000 0.143614 -2.626 0.856388 -3.076 0.856388 -3.076 0.143614 -2.626
!< P1 F=200.00 Eeff=(6.3966 0.0000) Z0=(51.23505 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094942
!< P2 F=200.00 Eeff=(6.3966 0.0000) Z0=(51.23505 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094942
!
300.000000 0.143613 -3.939 0.856393 -4.614 0.856393 -4.614 0.143613 -3.939
!< P1 F=300.00 Eeff=(6.3968 0.0000) Z0=(51.23438 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094938
!< P2 F=300.00 Eeff=(6.3968 0.0000) Z0=(51.23438 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094938
!
400.000000 0.143611 -5.254 0.856400 -6.152 0.856400 -6.152 0.143611 -5.254
!< P1 F=400.00 Eeff=(6.3970 0.0000) Z0=(51.23348 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094934
!< P2 F=400.00 Eeff=(6.3970 0.0000) Z0=(51.23348 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094934
! Total time for 3 freqs (mm:ss) -- 0:01 user, 0:00 system, 0:01 real
The output file “res16.d” is created by em when the thin-film resistor

example shown on page 92 is analyzed.
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Em User’s Manual
The Network File

The network file consists of a header line, optional comment lines and several data
blocks which define the circuit analysis to be performed. The network file that we
will use in our example is shown below.
!< FTYP NET
! File: cascade.net
! Date: March 27, 1999
! Cascade two s-parameter files.
DIM
FREQ MHZ ! Use MHZ freq units
CKT
S2P 1 2 res16.d ! Input resistor net
S2P 2 3 res16.d ! Input resistor net
DEF2P 1 3 RESNET ! Overall network
FILEOUT
RESNET Touch cascade.d S MA R 50 ! Define output data
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0 ! 200 - 400 MHZ
The network file “cascade.net” cascades S-parameter data files. Em reads S-parameter
data from the input file “res16.d”, and writes the resulting S-parameter data to the output
file “cascade.rsp”.
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a copy of the network file,
“cascade.net”. Presented below is a brief explanation of the above network file.
For a detailed description of the network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network
File.”
• The first line in the above, “!< FTYP NET”, is the header line. This
is a required line which identifies the file as an em network file.
• Following the header line in is a block of comment lines. All
comments begin with an exclamation point (!). Note that the
94
exclamation point does not need to be in the first column of the file.
Everything following an exclamation point on a given line is
considered a comment. There are no restrictions on the number or
location of comment lines which may be placed in an em network
file.
• The DIM data block defines units for circuit parameters specified
later in the network file. In our example, the frequency units are
EM
defined as MHZ.
• The CKT data block defines the network(s) to be analyzed. In the
above example, a two-port element, S2P, is placed between nodes 1
and 2 with S-parameters from input file “res16.d”. A second 2-port
element, S2P, is placed between nodes 2 and 3 with S-parameters
from the same file, “res16.d”. Finally, a 2-port network,
“RESNET”, is defined between nodes 1 and 3.
• The FILEOUT data block specifies the desired output results. In
this example, this block specifies that results for the network
“RESNET” should be stored using Touchstone (Touch) format in
the output file “cascade.rsp”. The final four fields, “S MA R 50,”
specify S-parameters, magnitude-angle format and a real
normalizing impedance of 50 ohms for all ports.
• The FREQ data block specifies the analysis frequencies. In this
case, the frequency is swept from 200 MHZ to 400 MHZ in steps of
100 MHZ. Note that the MHZ unit comes from the DIM block.
To analyze the example circuit with em, do the following:

1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar to open the em program
window with a new job file.
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Em User’s Manual
2 Click on the Network radio button in the File Type section of the job
window. The appearance of the job window will be updated and appear
as shown below.
3 Check that the default directory is correct. If not, use the Browse button
to select the correct directory and the file, “cascade.net” or edit the Start
In text entry box to enter the correct directory.
4 Enter “cascade.net” in the Network File text entry box.
5 The Internal Sweep radio button is already selected under the Frequency
Control section.
The listing on page 97 shows the resulting S-parameters stored in the output file
“cascade.d”.
96
!< FTYP RSP ! S-Parameter Data File

!< VER 6.0
!< PROG em
!< DATE Sat Mar 27 12:34:38 1999
!
! Network : RESNET with 2 Ports
# MHZ S MA R 50
EM
200.000000 0.250782 -5.307 0.748778 -6.262 0.748778 -6.262 0.250782 -5.307
300.000000 0.250310 -7.959 0.748702 -9.393 0.748702 -9.393 0.250310 -7.959
400.000000 0.249650 -10.61 0.748596 -12.52 0.748596 -12.52 0.249650 -10.61
The output file “cascade.d” is generated when the network file “cascade.net” is
analyzed with em.
A Network File Invoking a Geometry File Analysis

The preceding described how em may be used to perform strictly circuit analyses.
The next example demonstrates a network file analysis which invokes a geometry
file analysis in conjunction with using previously generated data. The example
builds on results generated in the previous chapters.
To demonstrate a combined network file/geometry file analysis, the two-port T-

attenuator shown in the next figure on page 98 will be analyzed. Em will be set up
to perform the following steps:
1 Read S-parameter data from the file “res16.d”, copied in Chapter 8.
2 Perform an electromagnetic analysis of the geometry file “res67.geo”, a
67 ohm thin-film resistor.
3 Combine the S-parameter results from the electromagnetic analysis with
the S-parameter results from “res16.d” to obtain an overall set of S-
parameters for the T-attenuator.
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Em User’s Manual
Node 1 S-parameter Node 2 S-parameter Node 3

1 file “res16.d” file “res16.d” 2
geometry file
“res67.geo”
The two-port T-attenuator will be analyzed with em to demonstrate a combined

electromagnetic/circuit analysis.
98
Pictured below is the geometry file “res67.geo”, which is a 67 ohm thin-film

resistor. This file is read by em and used for the geometry file portion of the
analysis.
EM
Transmission
Line
67 ohm
Thin-Film
Resistor
Transmission
Line
The network file shown on page 100 will be input to em. Since this file is similar
to the network file described on page 94, we will only highlight the differences
between the two files here.
99
Em User’s Manual
!< FTYP NET
! File: combine.net
! Date: July 1, 1996
! Perform combined electromagnetic and circuit analysis.
DIM
FREQ MHZ
CKT
S2P 1 2 res16.d
S2P 2 3 res16.d
GEO 2 0 res67.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
DEF2P 1 3 ATTEN
FILEOUT
ATTEN Touch combine.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0
The network file “combine.net” illustrates a combined electromagnetic and circuit

analysis.
The primary distinction between the network file shown above and the file on
page 94 is that this file contains an instruction to perform a geometry file analysis.
The GEO keyword in the CKT data block instructs em to use the geometry file
“res67.geo” and command options “vd” to run an electromagnetic analysis. The
CTL keyword at the end of the GEO line specifies how em acquires the analysis
frequencies. CTL can be set equal to an external file, i.e., CTL=ctl.an, or it can be
set equal to the word “internal” as it is in the above example. When it is set to
“internal”, em automatically creates a temporary analysis control file using the
frequencies specified in the FREQ data block.
100
After first performing the electromagnetic analysis on the geometry file, em then
performs all required circuit analysis before outputting the requested results.
TIP
Before executing a GEO statement, em checks for the existence of data at the
specified control frequencies. If the data already exists, and the geometry file has
EM
not changed since the data was generated, em does not execute an electromagnetic
analysis, but uses the available data.
To obtain copies of the geometry file, “res67.geo”, and the network file,
“combine.net”, use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
In addition, if you wish to perform the analysis and you do not have file “res16.d”
available, you can obtain it also by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
To analyze the example circuit with em, do the following:

2 Then click on the Network radio button in the File Type section of the
job window.
or edit the Start In text entry box to enter the correct directory.
4 Enter “combine.net” in the Network File text entry box.
Control section.
The listing on page 102 shows the output file “combine.rsp”. This file contains the
overall set of S-parameters for the T-attenuator.
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Em User’s Manual

!< VER 6.0
!< PROG em
!< DATE Thu Jul 1 12:00:00 1996
!
! Network : ATTEN with 2 Ports
# MHZ S MA R 50
200.000000 0.008927 67.709 0.500515 -5.759 0.500515 -5.759 0.008927 67.709
300.000000 0.013072 68.924 0.501159 -8.646 0.501159 -8.646 0.013072 68.924
400.000000 0.017178 67.772 0.502054 -11.54 0.502054 -11.54 0.017178 67.772
The output file “combine.rsp” is generated when input file “combine.net” is analyzed
with em. This file contains the overall set of S-parameters for the T-attenuator.
NOTE: When the above example is run, em generates two output files; one
has a “.d” extension and the other has a “.pd” extension. The file with
the “.d” extension is the standard em de-embedded results file. The
file with the “.pd” extension is a high precision data file used by the
circuit network capability. See section “High Precision em Output
Files,” page 148 for details.
Inserting Lumped Elements into a Circuit

Another very useful feature that the em circuit network capability provides is the
ability to insert lumped elements into a circuit after an electromagnetic analysis
has been performed on that circuit.
To demonstrate the use of lumped elements, we will again analyze the T

attenuator. In this chapter, however, the three resistors will not be analyzed as part
of the geometry file, but will be inserted as lumped elements in the network file
analysis. The figure below shows the circuit layout with the lumped resistor
elements. The transmission line structures geometry file will be analyzed with em
first. A network file will then be used to insert the three resistors and calculate
two-port S-parameters for the overall circuit.
102
To accomplish this task, it is necessary to create a geometry file with the

transmission line structure and three “holes” where lumped elements will
eventually be inserted. The figure on page 104 shows such a geometry file. Here,
pairs of auto-grounded ports have been placed on the edges of each lumped
element “hole”. When the lumped elements are inserted later on, each is connected
across the corresponding pair of auto-grounded ports. Note that under certain
conditions, ungrounded-internal ports can be used instead of auto-grounded ports.
EM
See “Using Ungrounded-Internal Ports,” page 107, for details.
16.77 Ω 16.77 Ω
1 2
Lumped Elements Lumped Element
67.11 Ω Geometry File

metalization
The two-port T attenuator will be re-analyzed to demonstrate the

use of lumped elements.
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Em User’s Manual
The geometry file “lumped.geo” contains three sets of auto-grounded

ports placed at locations where lumped elements will eventually be
inserted.
104
Below is the network file that will be used for this example.
!< FTYP NET
! File: lumped.net
! Date: Sept 1, 1996
! Analyze T attenuator using lumped elements.
DIM
EM
FREQ MHZ
RES OH
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 lumped.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
RES 3 4 R=16.77
RES 5 6 R=16.77
RES 7 8 R=67.11
DEF2P 1 2 ATTEN
FILEOUT
ATTEN Touch lumped.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0
The network file “lumped.net” is used to insert the three T-attenuator resistors as
lumped elements.
The network file above instructs em to perform the following steps:

1 Perform an electromagnetic analysis on the geometry file “lumped.geo”
using the verbose and de-embed options. Frequency control is set to
internal; therefore, the values used are those specified in the SWEEP
command which appears later in the file.
2 Insert a 16.77 ohm resistor between nodes 3 and 4.
5 Calculate an overall set of S-parameters for the T attenuator.
6 Write the results to output file “lumped.rsp”.
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Em User’s Manual
Use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain copies of the geometry file,

“lumped.geo”, and the network file, “lumped.net”.
To perform the analysis:

job window.
4 Enter “lumped.net” in the Network File text entry box.
Control section.
The listing below is the output file “lumped.rsp”. Note that these results are
similar to the results given in for distributed elements.

!< VER 6.0
!< PROG emgen
!< DATE Thu Sep 1 12:00:00 1996
!
# MHZ S MA R 50
200.000000 0.007892 66.627 0.500390 -4.890 0.500390 -4.890 0.007892 66.627
300.000000 0.011500 69.402 0.500788 -7.338 0.500788 -7.338 0.011500 69.402
400.000000 0.015127 69.447 0.501343 -9.790 0.501343 -9.790 0.015127 69.447
The output file “lumped.rsp” shows the resulting S-parameters obtained when the T
attenuator circuit is analyzed using lumped elements.
106
Using Ungrounded-Internal Ports
In the example presented above, a pair of auto-grounded ports was placed at each
location in the em circuit layout where a lumped element would eventually be
inserted (see ). It is also possible to perform the same analysis using ungrounded-
internal ports, because each resistor in this example is a series lumped element
without access to ground (see ). Any time access to ground is not required for a
EM
lumped element, you can replace the pair of auto-grounded ports with a single
ungrounded-internal port.
The figure below shows a geometry file for the T attenuator with ungrounded-
internal ports at each lumped element location. Note that the gaps between
polygons at these locations have been removed. This is because you must attach
ungrounded-internal ports between two abutted polygons. This slightly impacts
the overall performance of the attenuator.
Z3
The geometry file “lumped2.geo” uses ungrounded-internal ports at

locations where lumped elements will eventually be inserted.
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Em User’s Manual
The network file shown on page 109 connects the desired resistors across the
ungrounded-internal ports of the network shown on page 107. Since ungrounded-
internal ports do not have access to ground, only a single node is specified when
connecting an element across them. See the RES statements in the CKT data
block.
! WARNING
Ungrounded-internal ports have one terminal connected to an edge
of a polygon and the second terminal connected to an abutted edge
of a second polygon. Ungrounded-internal ports do not have access
to ground. Therefore, only 1-port elements or 1-port networks may be
connected across ungrounded-internal ports.
108
!< FTYP NET
! File: lumped2.net
! Analyze T-attenuator using ungrounded-internal ports.
DIM
EM
FREQ MHZ
RES OH
VAR
Z3 = 16.77
Z4 = 16.77
Z5 = 67.11
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 5 lumped2.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
RES 3 R^Z3
RES 4 R^Z4
RES 5 R^Z5
DEF2P 1 2 ATTEN
FILEOUT
ATTEN TOUCH lumped2.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0
The network file “lumped2.net” connects the three T attenuator resistors across the
corresponding ungrounded-internal ports.
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain copies of the geometry file,
“lumped2.geo”, and the network file, “lumped2.net”.
To initiate the analysis once the input files are in place, do the following:
job window.
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Em User’s Manual
4 Enter “lumped2.net” in the Network File text entry box.
Control section.
The listing below shows the S-parameter results obtained from the analysis with
ungrounded-internal ports. These results are very similar, but not identical, to the
results in for auto-grounded ports. The differences are primarily due to the change
in the gap size between polygons at the points where lumped elements are
inserted.

!< VER 6.0
!< PROG emgen
!< DATE Thu Sep 1 12:00:00 1996
!
# MHZ S MA R 50
200.000000 0.009217 68.496 0.500482 -5.785 0.500482 -5.785 0.009217 68.496
300.000000 0.013510 70.114 0.500994 -8.683 0.500994 -8.683 0.013510 70.114
400.000000 0.017788 69.364 0.501707 -11.59 0.501707 -11.59 0.017788 69.364
The output file “lumped2.rsp” contains the S-parameter results for the T attenuator
analyzed with lumped elements and ungrounded-internal ports.
110
Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
EM
Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A
Filter Example
This chapter will provide an in-depth example of a filter in which a network file
analysis is used to make the circuit more manageable for your processing
resources. The circuit is a seven-section edge-coupled microstrip bandpass filter
(courtesy of Kaman Sciences, Inc.).
The filter as a whole presents a difficult analysis problem in that it could require
more memory than is available and/or excessive CPU usage; therefore, the circuit
will be broken down into smaller pieces for electromagnetic analysis.
For this entire structure, the response changes rapidly with respect to frequency.
This is not true, however, for the response of certain sections of the circuit. These
sections will become the subdivisions used to analyze the structure.
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Em User’s Manual
Subdividing not only reduces the size of circuit to be analyzed, but allows us to
take advantage of the interpolation feature of a network analysis. Interpolation
requires fewer frequencies to be analyzed while providing the same level of
accuracy; therefore, analyses of the subdivisions are performed at a limited
number of frequencies.
Then a network file is used to connect the response data of the subdivisions to
simulate the full filter. Interpolation is automatically performed between
frequencies in the data files. This provides accurate response data for the filter at
a larger number of frequencies using fewer resources than would be required if the
circuit was approached as a whole.
Performing user-guided subdivision as a method of analysis should, in general, be

done as follows:
1 Decide how the circuit is to be split up. This step often requires
expertise and experience to avoid splitting the circuit at a junction where
significant coupling or rapidly varying response is present.
2 Create the individual geometry files in xgeom which make up the cir-
cuit.
3 Use em to analyze the individual geometry files at a limited number of
frequencies.
4 Create a network file which connects the individual response data files
in a network equivalent to the circuit as a whole and defines the frequen-
cies of analysis. This allows em to interpolate between the frequency
points used in Step 3.
5 Use em to run an analysis of the network file and output response data
for the circuit.
Example Files
All of the files associated with this example are contained in one directory and
may be obtained using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples. To copy all the files using only
one command, type the following in the Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples Command text
entry box when it appears:
112
copyex bpfilter
This will copy a folder which contains all the example files related to this
example.
The filter to be analyzed is shown below, and is available in the file “bpf_w.geo.”
EM
The filter circuit, “bpf_w.geo,” with an aspect ratio of 1:4. The dashed
line shows the first place to split the circuit.
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Em User’s Manual
Dividing the Circuit

The first step, as mentioned above, is to decide how to split the circuit. The main
consideration is to divide the circuit in places where the coupling mechanism is at
a minimum. Other considerations, such as symmetry and wavelength, may need
to be addressed.
Notice that the filter is symmetrical; therefore the first split should be to divide the
circuit in half and connect the halves after analysis.
! WARNING
This circuit is symmetrical about the y-axis and not the x-axis, nor do
the ports lie on the plane of symmetry; therefore, it would be
incorrect to set the Symmetry checkbox in the Box Parameters dialog
box.
114
Half of the filter still presents a difficult analysis problem; therefore, the circuit
will be broken down even further into eight geometry files. This breakdown is
shown below.
bpf_p5.geo
bpf_p4.geo bpf_p4.geo bpf_p7.geo
EM
bpf_p8.geo
bpf_p1.geo bpf_p2.geo bpf_p2.geo bpf_p3.geo
bpf_p6.geo bpf_p6.geo
Half of the filter circuit divided into eight separate “.geo” files.
Note that the breaks in the circuit are made where coupling is not a significant
factor. Places on the circuit where a high degree of coupling is present are kept
within an individual geometry file so that the coupling may be accurately
accounted for.
You may notice that some of the geometry files, for example, “bpf_p2.geo,” are
used twice instead of one file with a circuit that is twice the length. The division
was placed to optimize interpolation results. In order to prevent interpolation from
skewing the results each piece must be non-resonant and its length under λ/2. Each
circuit is 1/4 wavelength long in keeping with this stricture.
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Em User’s Manual
Creating the Geometry Files

A geometry file must be created in xgeom for each piece of the circuit. When
creating the individual files, you should ensure that the parameters of the circuit,
such as the metal loss and dielectric are the same. The physical dimensions of the
circuit elements should also be kept intact.
You should insert ports in the individual files to connect them to the pieces on
either side. The figure below shows the first two individual files which make up
the filter as shown on page 113. These files, along with the other individual
geometry files, are available in the “bpfilter” directory that you copied at the
beginning of this chapter.
bpf_p1.geo bpf_p2.geo
TIP
Cell size may vary from geometry file to geometry file as long as the physical
dimensions of the circuit are preserved. Therefore, choose a cell size for each
circuit piece which provides the most efficient analysis without sacrificing
accuracy.
116
Analyzing the Geometry Files

Once the individual files have been created, each should be analyzed using em.
When importing response data, em will interpolate data if the imported analysis
results are not at exact evaluation frequencies. This ability to interpolate between
frequencies in the input data files can provide a great deal of efficiency by
eliminating the need to simulate at each frequency.
EM
In this case, each of the individual geometry files were analyzed at five
frequencies: 4.0, 7.75, 11.5, 15.25 and 19.0 GHz. The individual files are analyzed
at the same first and last frequency as the overall analysis and at enough points in
between to provide for reasonable interpolation of data at frequencies which fall
between these values.
When the network file analysis is performed, em will interpolate to provide

simulation data at other frequencies. The figure on page 118 shows the Smith
charts for the file “bpf_p2.d” analyzed at the five frequencies cited above and the
same geometry file analyzed only at 4.0 GHz and 19.0 GHz. As you can see from
the Smith chart on the right using only two data points would yield erroneous data
when interpolating. On the other hand, five frequencies yields a fairly smooth
curve and will provide acceptable interpolated data.
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Em User’s Manual
The Smith charts for file “bpf_p2.d” and a subset of only two frequencies. Em analyses
need to be performed at enough frequencies to allow accurate interpolation of data.
Creating the Network File

The next step after analyzing the individual files is to create a network file which
uses the response data from the analyses as input for a network which is equivalent
to the whole circuit. The listing on page 119 shows the network file, “bpf_p.net”,
that will be used for this example. The network file instructs em to perform the
following steps:
1 Import the “.d” data files resulting from the analysis of the individual
geometry files.
2 Define the network HALF which defines half the bandpass filter.
3 Define a circuit FILTER comprised of two HALF networks connected
together.
4 Analyze FILTER from 4.0 GHz to 19.0 GHz in steps of 0.05 GHz.
118
!< FTYP NET ! Net file for Bandpass filter
DIM
FREQ GHZ
EM
VAR The network file,
“bpfilter.net.”
CKT
S3P 1 2 3 bpf_p1.d !Insert data file bpf_p1.d
S4P 2 3 4 5 bpf_p2.d !Insert data file bpf_p2.d
DEF3P 1 22 23 HALF !Define network HALF
HALF 1 22 23 !Insert network HALF

HALF 2 23 22 !Insert network HALF
DEF2P 1 2 FILTER !Define network FILTER
FILEOUT
FILTER TOUCH bpf_p.rsp S DB R 50 !Define output filter as “bpf_p.rsp”
FREQ
SWEEP 4.0 19.0 0.05 !Analyze FILTER from 4.0 GHZ to 19.0 GHZ in 0.05 GHZ step
The listing for the network file, “bpf_p.net”, used for this example.
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Em User’s Manual
The nodal network HALF is illustrated below. The network HALF is equivalent
to half the filter in “bpf_w.geo.” The network file then connects the two HALF
circuits, in the network FILTER, substituting the response data in place of the
circuit.
bpf_p1.d 2 bpf_p2.d 20
1
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
… 1
2
bpf_p7.d
3
4
1
2
bpf_p8.d
3
4
22
3 21 23
Once half the filter is defined, the two halves are connected to make a whole
circuit equivalent to that found in “bpf_w.geo.” Note that the circuit HALF on the
right in the figure below is reversed in both the vertical and horizontal directions.
2 22 3
1 1 HALF HALF 1 2
3 2
23
Graphical representation of the nodal network, FILTER, as defined in bpf_p.net.
Em is then instructed to run an analysis of the whole structure, from 4.0 GHz to
19.0 GHz in 0.05 GHz steps, placing the output in the file “bpf_p.rsp.”
The “.d” data files contain results of analyses at a subset of the frequencies just
cited above. The network file analysis includes interpolation at frequencies for
which data does not exist.
Analysis of the Network File

The last step to complete the analysis of the filter is to analyze the network file
using em. The analysis completes very quickly. Even with the analysis time of the
individual geometry files, there is a considerable difference in the amount of time
and computer resources used to obtain an answer for the bandpass filter as a sum
of its parts, rather than approaching it as a whole. In this case, subdivision yielded
approximately a 500x improvement in processing time and a 25x improvement in
120
memory space required. This improvement comes as a result of reducing the

number of subsections for any given analysis since both computation time and
memory requirements rise sharply as the subsections go up, as shown on the chart
below. For this example, the entire filter circuit used approximately 3500
subsections while any given individual piece only required a few hundred.
Full Filter
EM
Time &
Memory
Piecewise
Analysis
Number of Subsections
Another contributing factor to the efficiency of the subdivision method comes

from taking advantage of the interpolation performed when analyzing a network
file. Interpolation reduces the number of analysis frequencies, thereby saving
considerable computational time.
In this instance, 301 frequency points were required. The need to analyze even
more frequency points would increase the efficiency of using this method.
Conversely, you would derive less benefit from this method if less frequency
points were needed.
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Em User’s Manual
The emgraph plot shown below depicts the measured response data,
“bpf_meas.rsp,” of the bandpass filter circuit as compared to the geometry file
analysis of the whole filter, “bpf_w.d,” and the network file analysis of the
subdivided circuit, “bpf_p.rsp.”
The measured data from the bandpass filter compared with

the geometry file analysis and the network file analysis.
Alternate Approach
In the example in this chapter, the analysis of the individual files was performed
separate from the network file analysis. Using the GEO command in the CKT
block of the network file, it is possible to perform the electromagnetic analysis as
part of the circuit analysis. An example of a network file, “bpf_g.net” using this
122
method is shown below. The analysis control file, “bpf_g.an” is available in the
“bpfilter” directory. Each of the circuits is analyzed from 4.0 GHz to 19.0 GHz in
steps of 3.75 GHz.
!< FTYP NET ! Net file for Bandpass filter
DIM
FREQ GHZ
EM
VAR
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 bpf_p1.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p1.geo
GEO 2 3 4 5 bpf_p2.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p2.geo
DEF3P 1 22 23 HALF !Define network HALF
HALF 1 22 23 !Define network HALF

HALF 2 23 22 !Define network HALF
DEF2P 1 2 FILTER!Define network FILTER
FILEOUT
FILTER TOUCH bpf_g.rsp S DB R 50!Save output in bpf_g.rsp
FREQ
SWEEP 4.0 19.0 0.05!Set up control frequencies for analysis
The network file, “bpf_g.net” which shows an example of performing geometry file
analysis within a network file analysis.
The results using this method are identical to those obtained earlier in the chapter.
The only real change is a reduction in the amount of user intervention required.
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Em User’s Manual
Note that an external analysis control file, analyzing at less frequencies than the
network file, was used in the GEO statements to take advantage of the
interpolation ability of the network analysis.
Before executing a GEO statement, em checks for the existence of data at the
specified control frequencies. If the data already exists, and the geometry file has
not changed since the data was generated, em does not execute an electromagnetic
analysis, but uses the available data.
This check saves having to run all eleven analyses over, when only one of the
geometry files has been changed.
124
Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency Selection
EM
Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency
Selection
The frequency response of many circuits varies slowly in some frequency regions
and rapidly in others. For efficiency reasons, it is often desirable to analyze such
circuits with coarse frequency resolution in the slowly varying regions and fine
frequency resolution in the rapidly varying regions. Typically, however, you do
not know where the slowly and rapidly varying regions lie before the analysis is
performed. This makes it necessary to either analyze over the entire frequency
band with the fine resolution or to manually adjust the frequencies as the analysis
is being performed.
Em’s automatic frequency selection feature alleviates this difficulty. When

enabled, this feature automatically determines where to place frequency points. In
the rapidly varying regions, the frequency points will be spaced close together. In
the slowly varying regions, frequency points will be spaced farther apart.
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Em User’s Manual
Automatic Frequency Selection Example

To demonstrate the automatic frequency selection feature, we will analyze the
amplifier circuit shown below. This circuit consists of a pair of matching networks
and a pair of auto-grounded ports at the location where the transistor S-parameters
126
will be inserted.
EM
The geometry file “amp.geo” shows an amplifier with matching networks

and a pair of auto-grounded ports at the location where transistor S-
parameters will be inserted.
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain the geometry file shown above,
“amp.geo”.
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Em User’s Manual
Listed below is the network file for this example. It is the AUTO keyword in the
FREQ data block that enables the intelligent frequency selection feature.
Specifically, the AUTO line in the listing below tells em to analyze nodal network
“amp” at 20 frequency points between 2.0 GHz and 20.0 GHz, with a precision of
0.010 GHz. The precision value specifies the finest frequency resolution allowed
for the analysis. Thus, for this example, all frequency points chosen by em will be
spaced by at least 0.010 GHz.
!< FTYP NET
! File: amp.net
! Date: Jan 1, 1997
! Amplifier example.
DIM
FREQ GHZ
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 amp.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
S2P 3 4 amp_dev.s2p
DEF2P 1 2 amp
FILEOUT
amp TOUCH amp.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
AUTO NET=amp N=20 2.0 20.0 0.010
The AUTO keyword in the FREQ block instructs em to analyze at 20 frequency

points between 2.0 GHz and 20.0 GHz, with a precision of 0.010 GHz
! WARNING
The smaller the frequency “precision”, the longer the required
computation time. Be careful when you choose the precision value
for a particular analysis.
You may use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a copy of the network file,
“amp.net”, along with the transistor S-parameter input file, “amp_dev.s2p”.
128
Then click on the Run button or press the Return key to copy the two files to the
default directory.
job window.
EM
3 Enter “amp.net” in the Network File text entry box.
Control section.
Note that this analysis may take a few minutes to complete. If you do not wish to
wait for the analysis to complete, you can obtain the output response file,
“amp.rsp” by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
The figure on page 130 shows the frequency response of |S11| and |S21| obtained
from the analysis. Notice that the frequency points are not evenly spaced. The
points are more concentrated near “corners” of the response and less concentrated
along “straight edges” of the response. Emgraph may be invoked from em by
clicking on the Open Graph button in the Output window or by selecting View ⇒
Open Graph from the main menu.
TIP
If you wish to use the intelligent frequency selection features of em for a geometry
file analysis, you may use the IFS command button in the Control Analysis dialog
box when editing a Complex Sweep or an Analysis Control File.
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Em User’s Manual
The magnitude of S11 and S21 is plotted versus frequency, using

emgraph, for the example amplifier circuit.
Using FINDMIN and FINDMAX

The previous example described the AUTO keyword and how it enables
automatic selection of frequency points within a specified frequency band. In this
section, the FINDMIN and FINDMAX keywords are described. FINDMIN and
FINDMAX determine the frequencies where the circuit response reaches a
minimum and maximum, respectively.
To demonstrate FINDMIN and FINDMAX, we will again analyze the amplifier

shown on page 127. This time, however, we will determine the frequency at which
|S21| reaches a maximum. The plot above shows that the maximum occurs
somewhere between 16.0 and 20.0 GHz. Thus, the analysis will be constrained to
this frequency band.
130
The figure below shows a network file that will accomplish the task described
above. Here, the FINDMAX keyword has been specified in the FREQ data block.
This statement instructs em to determine the frequency of maximum |S21| for
network “AMP”, between 16.0 and 20.0 GHz, with a precision of 0.0010 GHz.
The precision value specifies the finest frequency resolution allowed for the
analysis. Thus, in this example, all frequency points chosen by em while searching
for maximum |S21| will be spaced by at least 0.0010 GHz.
EM
!< FTYP NET
! File: findmax.net
! Determine frequency of maximum circuit response.
DIM
FREQ GHZ
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 amp.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
S2P 3 4 amp_dev.s2p
DEF2P 1 2 AMP
FILEOUT
AMP Touch findmax.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
FINDMAX NET=AMP S2_1 16.0 20.0 0.0010
The FINDMAX keyword in the FREQ block instructs em to determine the

frequency of maximum |S21| between 16.0 and 20.0 GHz. A precision of 0.0010
GHz is specified.
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a copy of the network file shown
above, “findmax.net”.
The analysis can then be performed as follows:

job window.
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3 Enter “findmax.net” in the Network File text entry box.

Control section.
Shown below is the sorted response file “findmax.rsp”. The maximum value of
|S21| is 2.128671 at 17.847 GHz.

!< VER 6.0
!< PROG emgen
!< DATE Thu Sep 1 12:00:00 1996
!
! Network : AMP with 2 Ports
# GHZ S MA R 50
16.0000000 0.770403 4.0070 1.616757 -127.5 0.123244 -112.2 0.359779 -1.676
17.6390000 0.284598 -4.083 2.107314 170.36 0.181064 -162.2 0.446832 50.421
17.8330000 0.221455 17.305 2.128562 159.30 0.185135 -171.5 0.532143 50.882
17.8460000 0.219825 19.365 2.128670 158.52 0.185291 -172.2 0.538237 50.809
17.8470000 0.219719 19.526 2.128671 158.46 0.185303 -172.2 0.538707 50.803
17.8480000 0.219615 19.687 2.128670 158.40 0.185314 -172.3 0.539177 50.797
17.8490000 0.219515 19.849 2.128669 158.34 0.185325 -172.4 0.539648 50.791
17.8530000 0.219140 20.497 2.128650 158.10 0.185368 -172.6 0.541532 50.765
17.8620000 0.218464 21.972 2.128540 157.56 0.185460 -173.0 0.545782 50.703
17.8870000 0.217841 26.150 2.127732 156.03 0.185668 -174.3 0.557658 50.501
17.9610000 0.227358 38.411 2.120736 151.44 0.185869 -178.2 0.593240 49.658
18.0000000 0.238855 44.146 2.114385 148.93 0.185731 179.69 0.611908 49.027
18.2300000 0.372999 62.464 2.028162 133.69 0.180400 166.91 0.719460 43.969
20.0000000 0.993288 7.9480 0.039507 162.26 0.049682 169.51 0.737714 3.8837
|S21| of the amplifier response reaches a maximum of 2.128671 at 17.847 GHz.
132
Chapter 11 The em Network File
EM
The em network file consists of several data blocks. These data blocks define the
circuit to be analyzed, designate how em should perform the analysis and
determine what types of output the analysis is to produce. It is not necessary to
create an em network file when the overall analysis is restricted to a geometry file.
In that case, you only need the geometry file, “.geo.” However, when circuit
analysis is to be performed, you must specify an em network file in the job
window.
Below you will find a detailed description of the em network file. This section is
primarily intended to serve as a reference. Thus, you may wish to skim it initially
and return later for specific details.
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Em User’s Manual
Format of the em Network File

The figure below shows the general format of the em network file. This file
consists of the following: a header line, optional comment lines and data blocks
which provide the information to perform the analysis. Everything in the network
file is case insensitive.
!< FTYP NET Header
! File: example.net Comment

Lines
! General format of network file.
DIM
[Define units used to specify circuit parameters]
VAR
[Define variables for use in CKT block]
CKT
[Define circuit to be analyzed]
Data
Blocks
FILEOUT
[Define output data files]
FREQ
[Define analysis frequencies]
OUT
[Define tabular output]
This is the general format of the em network file. This file consists of a header, optional
comment lines and several data blocks which provide the information to perform the analysis.
134
Header Line
All network files must begin with the header line shown in , “!<FTYP NET”. This
line identifies the file as an em network file. If the header line is not present in a
network file, em will issue a warning message and then attempt to continue
processing.
EM
Comments
You may insert a comment on a line in the em network file by entering an

exclamation point (!) followed by the comment. Whenever em detects an
exclamation point, it considers everything to the right of the exclamation point to
be a comment. There are no restrictions on the number or location of comments
that may be placed in an em network file.
TIP
The string “!< ” (exclamation point - “less than” sign - space) is a special anti-
comment symbol recognized by em. When em detects a line beginning with this
string, it interprets the line as an uncommented line. For example, em would
interpret the line “!< input data” as “input data”. This anti-comment symbol may
be useful if you read em network files with other netlist programs.
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Em User’s Manual
Data Blocks
Data blocks are sections in the em network file which specify particular types of
analysis information. Each data block begins with a special keyword to indicate
the type of information that it contains. Following the keyword are appropriate
parameter values for that section. Table 4 lists the data blocks which may be
included in em network files.
Table 4 Em Network File Data Blocks
Order Data Block Description
1 DIM Define units used to specify circuit parameters.
2 VAR Define variables for use in CKT data block.
3 CKT Define circuit to be analyzed.
4 FILEOUT Define output data files.
5 FREQ Define analysis frequencies.
6 OUT Define tabular output.
Table 4 shows the required order for the data blocks if they are present in the
network file. The only data block required to be present is the CKT block. All
other data blocks are optional.
136
The DIM Data Block

The DIM data block is an optional block which is used to override the default units
for the em network file. The listing below shows the syntax for the DIM data
block.
DIM
parameter1 unit1
EM
parameter2 unit2
. .
. .
. .
parameterN unitN
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
...
The DIM data block is used to override the default units for em.
parameter
The parameter field designates a circuit parameter which can be specified in
various units. For example, frequency is a circuit parameter which can be
specified in HZ, KHZ, MHZ, GHZ, THZ, or PHZ. See Table 5 for a list of the
circuit parameters which can be specified in the DIM data block.
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unit
The unit field designates the particular unit which is used to specify a circuit
parameter. For example, HZ is a particular unit which can be used to specify the
frequency parameter. See Table 5 for a list of the units which can be specified in
the DIM data block.
Table 5 DIM Data Block Parameters and Units
paramet Descriptio Defaul

units
er n t
FREQ Frequency HZ (Hertz) KHZ (1e+3 Hertz) GHZ

MHZ (1e+6 Hertz) GHZ (1e+9 Hertz)
THZ (1e+12 Hertz) PHZ (1e+15
Hertz)
RES Resistance OH (Ohms) KOH (1e+3 Ohms) OH

MOH (1e+6 Ohms)
IND Inductance FH (1e-15 Henries) PH (1e-12 Hen- NH

ries)
NH (1e-9 Henries) UH (1e-6 Henries)
MH (1e-3 Henries) H (Henries)
CAP Capaci- FF (1e-15 Farads) PF (1e-12 Farads) PF

tance NF (1e-9 Farads) UF (1e-6 Farads)
MF (1e-3 Farads) F (Farads)
LNG Length MIL (mils) IN (inches) MIL

UM (1e-6 meters) MM (1e-3 meters)
CM (1e-2 meters) M (meters)
ANG Angle DEG (degrees) RAD (radians) DEG
138
Rules for the DIM Data Block
The parameters given in Table 5 may be included in a DIM block using any
combination and order. If more than one unit is specified for a given parameter,
em will use the final unit specified for that parameter.
Example
EM
The listing below shows an example of how the DIM data block may be used in
an em network file.
DIM ! DIM keyword indicates start of block
FREQ MHZ ! Frequency in megahertz
IND PH ! Inductance in picohenries
CAP PF ! Capacitance in picofarads
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Em User’s Manual
The VAR Data Block

The VAR data block is an optional block which defines variables for subsequent
use in the CKT data block. The listing below shows the syntax for the VAR data
block.
DIM
...
VAR
name1 = value1
name2 = value2
. .
. .
. .
nameN = valueN
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
...
name
The name field specifies the alphanumeric name of the variable being defined.
value
The value field specifies the number which will be substituted for name
everywhere name is referenced in the CKT data block.
140
Referencing Variables in the CKT Data Block
Variables that have been defined in the VAR data block may be referenced in the
CKT data block by using a “^” symbol as follows:
parameter^name
EM
When em detects a “^” symbol in the CKT block, it will set parameter equal to the
value which corresponds to name. As an example, consider the VAR and CKT
data blocks listed below. In this example, em sets the Z-parameter equal to 50.0,
the E-parameter equal to 90.0, and the F-parameter equal to 1.0.
VAR
char_impedance = 50.0
electrical_length = 90.0
reference_freq = 1.0
CKT
TLIN 1 2 Z^char_impedance Eêlectrical_length F^reference_freq
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Em User’s Manual
The CKT Data Block

The CKT data block is a required block which defines the circuit to be analyzed.
The figure below shows the syntax of the CKT data block.
DIM
...
VAR
...
CKT
element1 nodes parameters
aa. . aaa.
aa. . aaa.
aa. . aaa.
elementN nodes parameters
defNp nodes netname1
[filename1]
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
142
element
The element field specifies a type of circuit element. Table 6 lists the circuit
elements which may be included in the CKT data block.
Table 6 CKT Data Block Elements
EM
Element Nodes Parameters Description
RES n1 [n2] R=res Resistor

resistance in RES units.
CAP n1 [n2] C=cap Capacitor

capacitance in CAP units.
IND n1 [n2] L=ind Inductor

inductance in IND units.
TLIN n1 n2 [n3] Z=Z0 Transmis-

characteristic impedance in RES units. sion line
E=len
electrical length in ANG units.
F=freq
reference frequency for len in FREQ units.
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Em User’s Manual
Table 6 CKT Data Block Elements
Element Nodes Parameters Description
TLINP n1 n2 [n3] Z=Z0 Physical

characteristic impedance in RES units. Transmis-
L=len sion Line
physical length in LNG units.
K=Eeff
effective dielectric constant.
A=atten
attenuation in dB per unit length in LNG units.
F=freq
frequency for scaling atten in FREQ units.
Attenuation versus analysis frequency (f):

A(f) = attenfreq = 0
A(f) = atten * sqrt(f/freq)freq > 0
SNP n1 n2 ... nN [n(N+1)] file [tag] Input

alphanumeric name of input data file. data file
optional field which references a particular
data tag located in the input data file. The
tag has the following format inside the file:
“!< DATA_TAG tag”.
GEO n1 n2 ... nN [n(N+1)] file Geometry

alphanumeric name of the geometry file. file for
OPT=opt electro-
list of em command line options. magnetic
CTL=ctl analysis
em analysis frequencies: ctl may be an
analysis control file or it may be the string
“internal”. If “internal”, the em analysis is
performed at frequencies specified in the
FREQ data block.
144
nodes
The nodes field specifies reference points to which circuit elements are connected.
Any positive integer value may be used. Node 0 is reserved for ground. Bracketed
nodes ([n]) are optional. If a bracketed node is not specified, it defaults to 0
(ground). For example, if you specify “RES 1 R=50.0”, a 50 ohm resistor is
connected between node 1 and ground. Conversely, if you specify “RES 1 2
EM
R=50.0”, a 50 ohm resistor is connected between node 1 and node 2. At each
location in the CKT block where a defNp statement is used, the node numbers are
reset.
parameters
The parameters field specifies the required parameter values for a given element.
The parameters must be specified in the order given by Table 6.
defNp
The defNp field defines a nodal network of one or more elements in the CKT
block. The “n” in defNp is equal to the number of ports in the network (all of
which are referenced to node 0). The nodes listed after defNp become ports in
ascending order. Networks may be included as elements in subsequently defined
networks.
netname
The netname field assigns names to nodal networks defined with defNp. All
assigned names must be unique; only alphanumeric characters are allowed; and
the first character cannot be a number.
filename
The filename field specifies the alphanumeric name of an output file in which 50
ohm S-parameter results will be stored. This field is optional. Note that an output
file can also be specified with the FILEOUT data block.
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You may include the string “$BASE” in filename. Upon detecting this string, em
substitutes the network file name, minus the “.net” extension, for “$BASE”. For
example, if the network file is named “filter.net”, and you specify
“$BASE_new.rsp” for file name, em will create an output file named
“filter_new.rsp”.
Example
The listing below shows how the CKT data block may be used in an em network
file.
CKT
S2P 1 2 filter.nd ! Read data in filter.nd
RES 2 3 R=100.0 ! Insert 100 ohm resistor
GEO 2 0 via.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal ! Analyze via.geo with em
GEO 3 4 feed.geo CTL=feed.an ! Use control file feed.an
DEF2P 1 4 Net1 $BASE_Net1.rsp! Define network Net1
S3P 1 2 3 device.d ! Read data in device.d

Net1 3 4 ! Insert network Net1
DEF3P 1 2 4 Net2 ! Define network Net2
Using Data Tags
Input data files may contain more than one “data set”. A “data set” consists of a
Touchstone or Super-Compact header line, and a block of S-, Y- or Z-parameter
data. The S-, Y- or Z-parameter block may contain one or more frequency points.
The figure on page 147 shows the general format of an input data file with three
data sets. Note that in addition to the header lines and parameter blocks, the figure
also has three DATA_TAG lines. DATA_TAG lines are optional lines which you
146
can insert into an input file to distinguish one data set from another. In the example
below, the first set has the tag “transistor,” the second set has the tag “feedline”
and the third set also has the tag “transistor.”
!< DATA_TAG transistor
[Touchstone or Super-Compact header line]
[S, Y or Z parameter block]
!< DATA_TAG feedline
EM
!< DATA_TAG transistor

Input data files may contain more than one data set. To distinguish one data set
from another, optional DATA_TAG lines are inserted into the data file.
When you use an SNP statement to read an input data file, em determines whether
or not you have specified the tag field (see Table 6 on page 143). If you have not
specified a tag, em simply ignores any DATA_TAG lines and reads all data
present in the input file. Conversely, if you have specified a tag, em looks for a
matching DATA_TAG line in the input file. If em does not find at least one
matching DATA_TAG line, it issues an error message and stops. If em finds one
or more matching DATA_TAG lines, it reads the data from each matching set.
The “Use last data sets only” option gives you additional control over the reading
of an input data file. This option instructs em to exclude all data sets in the input
file except the final set with a tag which matches the tag specified in the SNP
statement. If no tag is specified, the last data set in the file is read. This option is
available in the Advanced Options dialog box, which is accessed by the Additional
Options command button in the job window when a network file is selected.
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Em User’s Manual
Geometry File Consistency
The GEO statement instructs em to perform an electromagnetic analysis on a

specified geometry file. Before starting the electromagnetic analysis, however, em
checks the specified output file for previously generated results to determine
whether or not any “consistent” results already exist. If so, em simply reads those
results from the output file rather than perform the electromagnetic analysis.
Previously generated em results are considered “consistent” if they satisfy two

criteria:
• The geometry file has not been modified since the em data was
created. This is determined by comparing the date and time the
geometry file was last updated to the date and time listed on the
CKDATE line in the em output file.
• The batch command options specified in the GEO statement match
the options listed on the CMD line in the em output file.
The circuit network capability advanced option, Do not check for consistency,
may be used to override the geometry file consistency checks described above.
When enabled, this option instructs the circuit network capability to read all data
present in the em output file, regardless of consistency. This option may be
selected in the Advanced Options dialog box, which is accessed by the Additional
Options command button when a Network file is selected in the job window.
High Precision em Output Files
The GEO statement instructs em to perform an electromagnetic analysis using the

specified geometry file, analysis control file and batch command options (see
Table 6). When doing so, em automatically creates one or two high precision
output files in addition to the standard em output files. If only non-de-embedded
data is requested, em creates one file with the extension “.pnd”. If only de-
embedded data is requested, em creates one file with the extension “.pd”. If both
non-de-embedded and de-embedded data is requested, em creates both “.pnd” and
“.pd” files.
148
The high precision output files contain S-parameter data in real/imaginary format.
They are primarily intended for internal use by em. Generally, you do not need to
be concerned with these files. However, it is recommended that you save the
“.pnd” and “.pd” files whenever you save corresponding “.nd” and “.d” files. This
will ensure that the high precision data is still available should you need to re-
analyze in the future.
EM
The FILEOUT Data Block
The FILEOUT data block is an optional block which defines the output data files.
The listing below shows the syntax for the FILEOUT data block.
DIM
...
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
netname1 format filename1 [param][outtype] [impedance]
netname1 SPICE filename2 [SPICE keywords]
netname2 format filename3 [param][outtype] [impedance]
aa. aa. aaa. aaaa. aaaa. .
netnameN format filenameN [param][outtype] [impedance]
FREQ
...
OUT
netname
The netname field references a nodal network defined in the CKT block.
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Em User’s Manual
format
The format field indicates the format type to use for the output data. Valid options
are:
TOUCH Touchstone format.
SPICE Spice Lumped Model Synthesis (generic format)
PSPICE Spice Lumped Model Synthesis (PSpice format)
SC Super-Compact format.
CSV Comma separated values. For use with commonly

available spread sheet programs such as Excel.
filename
The filename field specifies the name of the file which will store output results. If
no extension is specified, the default extension of “.rsp” is used. The same
filename may not be used in multiple FILEOUT statements.
“$BASE_new.rsp” for filename, em will create an output file named
“filter_new.rsp”.
param
The param field is an optional field which is used to specify the desired output
parameter type. S (S-parameters), Y (Y-parameters) and Z (Z-parameters) are
available. If param is not specified, it defaults to S. Note that you must specify
the param field if you have specified the outtype field. Not used with the SPICE
format.
150
outtype
The outtype field is an optional field which specifies the format of the output data.
This field can be set to MA (magnitude-angle in degrees), MR (magnitude-angle
in radians), RI (real-imaginary) and DB (magnitude in dB-angle in degrees). If
outtype is not specified, it defaults to MA. Note that you must specify the outtype
field if you have specified the impedance field. Not used with the SPICE format.
EM
impedance
The impedance field specifies the normalizing impedances for each port in the
network referenced by netname. Table 7 describes the available options for the
impedance field. If you do not specify impedance, default settings are “R 50” for
S-parameter data and “R 1” for Y- and Z-parameter data. Not used with the
SPICE format.
Table 7 FILEOUT Data Block Impedance Keywords
Argument Description
R nr All ports in netname are normalized by the same real

value, nr. Valid for S-, Y- and Z-parameter data.
Z nr ni All ports in netname are normalized by the same complex

value, nr + jni. Valid only for S-parameter data.
TERM nr1 ni1 nr2 ni2 ... nrN niN First port in netname is normalized by the complex value,
nr1 + jni1. Second port in netname is normalized by the
complex value, nr2 + jni2, etc. Valid only for S-parameter
data.
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Em User’s Manual
SPICE and PSPICE keywords
These keywords are optional when using the SPICE or PSPICE format and may
be placed in any order at the end of the line. If these values are not specified by
the user, then the default value is used.
CMIN: Minimum allowed capacitance (pF). The default value is 0.1 pF.
LMAX: Maximum allowed inductance (nH). The default value is 100.0 nH.
RMAX: Maximum allowed resistance (ohms). The default value is 1000.0 ohms.
KMIN: Minimum allowed mutual inductance (dimensionless ratio). The default
value is 0.01.
RZERO: Resistor to go in series with all lossless inductors (resistance in ohms).
Needed for some versions of SPICE. The default value is 0.0
Example
The figure below shows an example of how the FILEOUT data block may be used
in an em network file.
FILEOUT
Net1 Touch file1.rsp S MA TERM 0 80 50 0 50 0
Net2 SC file2.rsp
Net3 SPICE file2.rsp CMIN=1.0 LMAX=10.0
Net4 Touch file3.rsp Y RI R 100
Net5 Touch file4.rsp S MA
152
The FREQ Data Block

The FREQ data block is an optional block which specifies analysis control
parameters. The syntax of the FREQ data block is shown below.
DIM
...
EM
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
keyword1 parameters1
keyword2 parameters2
aaa. aaaaa.
aaa. aaaaa.
aaa. aaaaa.
keywordN parametersN
OUT
...
keyword
The keyword field specifies an analysis control keyword. Below are listed
analysis control keywords that are recognized by em.
parameters
The parameters field specifies all required information for the given keyword.
The keyword descriptions below detail the required parameters for each keyword.
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Em User’s Manual
Analysis Control Keywords For em
ANN: ANN comment

Write comment following ANN keyword to output response file. If ANN appears
inside the FREQ block of a em network file, em will write comment to the speci-
fied response files.
END: END
Sort and analyze all frequencies (not yet analyzed) which precede the END key-
word.
SWEEP: SWEEP f1 f2 fstep

Linear frequency sweep from f1 to f2 with a step size of fstep.
ESWEEP: ESWEEP f1 f2 Nfreq

Exponential frequency sweep from f1 to f2 with a common ratio between the
Nfreq frequency points.
LSWEEP: LSWEEP f1 f2 Nfreq
Linear frequency sweep from f1 to f2. Step size is equal to(f2-f1)/(Nfreq-1).
STEP: STEP f1 f2 … fN
Discrete frequencies at f1, f2, …, fN.
AUTO: AUTO NET=network N=Nfreq f1 f2 prec

Automatic frequency selection using network as the basis. Em begins by analyz-
ing at f1 and f2. It then analyzes at Nfreq frequencies between f1 and f2. The prec
field specifies the frequency grid upon which frequencies are selected. For exam-
ple, if prec = 0.10, f1 = 1.0 and f2 = 2.0, the algorithm is constrained to the follow-
ing frequencies: 1.00, 1.10, 1.20, 1.30, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60, 1.70, 1.80, 1.90 and 2.00.
Note that while network is used as the basis for selecting frequencies, all networks
in the circuit are analyzed at each selected frequency.
154
FINDMIN: FINDMIN NET=network param [MAX=Nfreq] f1 f2 prec

FINDMIN finds the frequency at which the minimum frequency response of net-
work occurs. The param field specifies a basis S-, Y- or Z-parameter using one of
the following formats: pxy or px_y, where p is S-, Y- or Z, and x,y are a pair of port
indices. The px_y format must be used when a port index with two or more digits
is referenced. For example, S[port 1 - port 2] may be specified as S12 or S1_2, but
S[port 15 - port 1] may only be specified as S15_1.
EM
The search for the minimum is constrained to frequencies which fall on a grid
controlled by prec, f1, and f2 (see description of AUTO). If Nfreq is specified, the
total number of frequency points analyzed is limited to the endpoints f1 and f2,
plus Nfreq points between f1 and f2. Note that while frequencies are selected to
determine the minimum frequency response of network, all networks in the circuit
are analyzed at each selected frequency.
FINDMAX: FINDMAX NET=network param [MAX=Nfreq] f1 f2 prec

FINDMAX is identical to FINDMIN except that it finds the frequency at which
the maximum frequency response of network occurs.
Sorted Frequency Sweeps

Multiple frequency sweep statements may be specified in a single FREQ data
block. For example, the FREQ block shown below has one STEP and two SWEEP
statements.
FREQ First
STEP 2.0 13.0 frequency
SWEEP 10.0 30.0 10.0 example.
SWEEP 5 25 10
Notice that the frequencies for the SWEEP statements overlap. By default, em
sorts all analysis frequencies in ascending order before performing an analysis.
Thus, if the above FREQ block were used in em, the analysis would be performed
with the following frequency order: 2.0, 5.0, 10.0, 13.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25.0 30.0.
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Em User’s Manual
Using END to Control the Order of Frequency Sweeps
You could also set up the example shown on page 155 so that frequencies from
the two SWEEP statements are not sorted. This is done in the example below.
FREQ
STEP 2.0 13.0
SWEEP 10.0 30.0 10.0
END
SWEEP 5 25 10
END statements may be used in the FREQ block to control the

order of frequency sweeps.
Here, an END statement has been inserted between the SWEEP statements. This
statement tells em to analyze at all frequencies before END first, and then analyze
the frequencies following END. For the example in , the analysis would be
performed with the following frequency order: 2.0, 10.0, 13.0, 20.0, 30.0, 5.0,
15.0, 25.0. You could also include multiple END statements in the FREQ block.
Then, all frequencies above the first END statement would be analyzed first, all
frequencies between the first and second END statements would be analyzed
second, etc.
Frequency Interpolation of em Output Data
You may specify one set of analysis frequencies in the FREQ block of a network
file and a second set of analysis frequencies in an external analysis control file
referenced by a GEO statement (see “The CKT Data Block,” page 142). When
you do, em performs the electromagnetic analysis only at the set of frequencies
specified in the external analysis control file. Em then interpolates the
electromagnetic analysis output data to obtain results at the set of frequencies
specified in the FREQ block.
156
AUTO, FINDMIN and FINDMAX for Basic Analyses
You may include AUTO, FINDMIN and FINDMAX statements in an analysis

control file when using em to perform basic electromagnetic analyses. In this case,
the network parameter must be set equal to “GEO” to identify the circuit in the
geometry file as the “network” whose response is analyzed. For example, an
AUTO statement might appear as follows:
EM
AUTO NET=GEO N=20 1.0 20.0 0.10
Overriding the FREQ Block
You may specify an analysis control file (“.an”) along with a network file (“.net”)
in the em job window. When you do, the information contained in the analysis
control file overrides any information contained in the FREQ block of the network
file. You may include any of the keywords and parameters described above in the
analysis control file.
Note that specifying an analysis control file along with a network file overrides
only the information contained in the FREQ block of the network file. If the
network file contains a GEO statement (see “The CKT Data Block,” page 142)
which references an external analysis control file, the external analysis control file
is not overridden.
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The OUT Data Block

The OUT data block is an optional block which is used to specify tabular output
data. The syntax of the OUT data block is shown below.
DIM
...
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
netname1 meas1 [meas2 ...] filename1 [DELIM=delim]
[COM=com]
netname2 meas3 [meas4 ...] filename2 [DELIM=delim]
[COM=com]
aaa. aa. aaaaa. aaaa. . aaaaaaa.
aaa. aa. aaaaa. aaaa. . aaaaaaa.
netname
The netname field references a nodal network defined in the CKT data block.
meas
The meas field specifies the type of measurement to output. Table 8 shows the
measurement types which may be specified in the OUT block. A single line may
include multiple measurement types.
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Table 8 OUT Data Block Measurement Types
meas Description
MAG[px_y] Magnitude of px_y or pxy, where “p” is S, Y or Z, “x” is port x

or and “y” is port y. Note that pxy cannot be used if “x” or “y” is
EM
MAG[pxy] greater than 9. Examples: MAG[S1_1], MAG[Y11],
MAG[Z10_20].
ANG[px_y] Phase angle of px_y or pxy in degrees (See MAG for details).
or
ANG[pxy]
RE[px_y] or Real part of px_y or pxy (See MAG for details).

RE[pxy]
IM[px_y] or Imaginary part of px_y or pxy (See MAG for details).

IM[pxy]
DB[Sx_y] or Magnitude in dB of Sx_y or Sxy. See MAG above for details.

DB[Sxy]
filename
The filename field specifies the alphanumeric name of the file in which the
tabular data will be stored. You can send multiple measurements to the same
filename. In this case, the measurement data will appear in multiple columns
separated by the specified delim.
“$BASE_new.out” for filename, em will create an output file named
“filter_new.out”.
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delim
The delim field is an optional field used to specify the delimiter between columns
in filename. SPACE, TAB and COMMA delimiters are available. If the delim
field is not specified, em defaults to TAB.
com
The com field is an optional field used to specify a comment string. This string
will precede all comments in filename. The comment string may be one or more
characters in length. If the com field is not specified, em defaults to “!”.
Example
Below is an example of how the OUT data block may be used in an em network
file. Notice that the same output file may be specified on multiple lines.
OUT
Net1 MAG[S1_1]ANG[S1_1] file1.out
Net2 RE[Z2_1]IM[Z2_1] file1.out DELIM=SPACE COM=##
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Chapter 12 Using Diagonal Fill
EM
This chapter discusses the use of the diagonal fill option for a metal polygon.
When a polygon is first added to a circuit, the default fill type is staircase. The
metal will be “filled” in using whole cells, thus a diagonal edge would resemble a
staircase. An example of this is shown in the figure on page 162.
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Metal “off” Metal “on”

An example of staircase fill for a metal polygon.
On the left is the outline of the polygon with the metal fill turned “off”. On the
right is the polygon with the metal turned “on” with a staircase fill. As can be seen,
the cell fill makes a staircase approximating the diagonal edge of the polygon.
Note that the error caused by such an approximation decreases as the X and Y cell
sizes are decreased. Thus, it is possible to make this error arbitrarily small by
choosing sufficiently small X and Y cell sizes. However, for a coarser cell size,
the diagonal fill option, which uses triangular subsections on the edge, may
provide a better fit.
162
This fill option involves additional computation time. However, depending on the
circuit, using this option may allow a given level of precision to be achieved more
quickly. The circuit on page 162 is shown below with diagonal fill.
EM
A Coupled Open-Miter with Diagonal Fill
As an example, a right angle mitered bend which is closely interacting with an
open end will be analyzed. Attempts to model this discontinuity using a circuit
theory based program do not include the fringing field interaction between the two
discontinuities.
The circuit is contained in “openmite.geo,” available using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy

Examples command and is shown on the left in the figure on page 164. For details
on how to use diagonal fill for a metal polygon, see “The Metalization Attributes
dialog box,” page 119 in the Xgeom User’s Manual.
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Em User’s Manual
Notice that there are “gussets” where the miter polygon attaches to the
transmission line shown on the left in the figure below. Due to the nature of the
triangle subsections used in diagonal fill, acute angles (less than 90 degrees)
cannot be modeled. Em automatically cuts acute angles off, as illustrated on the
right. Thus, the tabs on the miter polygon.
On the left, “openmite.geo,” with a closely interacting mitered bend and open end
discontinuity. If the mitered region is captured as a simple triangle, without tabs, as
shown on the right, the vertices with acute angles are cut off.
This analysis required more time due to the use of diagonal fill to model the mitre
accurately. Once included, however, the em analysis time is relatively insensitive
to the amount of diagonal fill.
Analyzing the file yields the following results:

10.0000000 1.000000 -150.6
Circuits with diagonal edges may benefit from using diagonal fill. The edges of
such structures are frequently much better approximated with the diagonal edges
allowed by diagonal fill. Include it only on polygons with diagonal edges that
carry significant current. See references [42] and [68] in the Sonnet Bibliography
for a detailed description of diagonal fill (triangle subsections).
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Chapter 13 Vias and 3-D Structures
EM
Chapter 13 Vias and 3-D
Structures
Up to this point, most of the consideration has been with two-dimensional (2.5-D)
structures, i. e., only X and Y current has been needed. However, em can handle
full 3-D current as well. The third (Z) dimension of current is handled by a special
kind of subsection called a via.
Adding Vias to the Circuit

Vias, as used in em, are actually more general than the vias usually used in circuit
design. In circuit design, vias connect metal on the substrate surface to the
groundplane beneath the substrate, a ground via. In em, vias can connect
metalization between any substrate or dielectric layer, not just bottom layer to
ground. We call these “level-to-level” vias: Thus, em’s vias can be used in
modeling airbridges, spiral inductors, wire bonds and probes as well as the
standard ground via.
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Em’s vias use a uniform distribution of current along their length and thus are not
intended to be used to model resonant length vertical structures. Keep the via
lengths small with respect to a wavelength.
To create vias, use xgeom to specify one or more polygon edges as edge-vias (see
Chapter 4, “Using Vias,” in the Xgeom User’s Manual for details). Em places
subsectional vias (called “via-posts”) along the entire length of all edge-vias. Vias
always go up from the selected polygon edge with the length of the via equal to
exactly the thickness of the dielectric layer. The via-posts are rectangular
cylinders with a horizontal cross-sectional area equal to one cell. If you make the
cell size smaller, the vias become smaller with more of them along the edge-via.
Of course, the length of the edge-via is unchanged. Current in a subsectional via
is uniform through out the body of the via and is Z directed. Via loss is determined
by the polygon from which the via originates.
Restrictions on Vias
The height of the via should be a small fraction of a wavelength. The via height is
the same as the thickness of the substrate or dielectric layer it penetrates. So, for
ground vias, this is usually no problem.
If a microstrip substrate is a significant fraction of a wavelength thick, over-

moding also becomes a major problem. If vias are used to form, for example, a
septum, or an interior wall, keep an eye on potential problems.
Simple Via Example

A simple via is stored in the file “via.geo” and is shown in the figure on page 167.
This file was generated by adding a via to ground at the end of the stub in
“open_120.geo”, converting an open circuited stub to a short circuited stub. The
via subsections are indicated by small triangles pointing down, indicating metal
going into the screen. Triangles pointing up indicate metal coming out of the
screen. The file “via.geo” is also available using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
166
The vias were captured by placing a polygon on the ground level indicating the
periphery of the ground via. A square was used to model a via that is actually
round. Such a model gives surprisingly accurate results. If an even more accurate
model is needed, an octagon can be used.
After the polygon is in place at the base of the via, each side of the base polygon
is converted into vias going up. See “Making Entire Polygons Vias,” page 57 in
EM
the Xgeom User’s Manual for details.
Note that the top end of the via, shown below, is a “hat” which is larger than the
via itself. There are no restrictions on the polygons at the top of a via. Em’s
subsectioning algorithm handles the subsectioning accurately.
A simple via to ground. On the top, as it would appear in xgeom (top view). On
the bottom, a view in perspective.
An analysis of the above via at 10 GHz with de-embedding gives an S11 phase of
148.32 degrees. A perfect short circuit is 180 degrees. This means the via has an
inductive phase of about 32 degrees.
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A Conical Via
One may simulate a conical ground via with a staircase approximation. Simply
divide, say, a 100 µM GaAs substrate into four 25 µM substrates. Then put
polygons (and specify edge-vias) at appropriate places to form a step
approximation to the via sides. For an example, see the file “cvia.geo” in the
examples directory. This circuit is a conical via to ground placed in the center of
a through line, the purpose being to measure the via inductance.
You may use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain the file “cvia.geo”. Then select
xgeom from the Sonnet task bar and open the file “cvia.geo”.
The “cvia.geo” file is a very detailed model of a conical via. If you are modeling
a large circuit (say, an inter-stage matching network) with multiple vias, you may
want to use a simpler model for faster analysis.
A more complex structure using simple vias is the 20 µM wide shunt stub off a 50
ohm transmission line shown below (courtesy Raytheon Research Division). The
stub is near enough to the via/capacitor combination that there is significant
coupling, causing the error seen in the circuit theory calculation as compared to
the measured and simulated em results shown on page 169.
PORT 1 PORT 2
VIA
MIM
CAP
The coupling between the 20 µM wide stub and the via/capacitor

combination requires an electromagnetic analysis.
168
The em analysis accurately models the coupling and would have eliminated a re-
design and re-fabrication cycle. The circuit theory analysis requires only a fraction
of a second per frequency while em requires 13 seconds per frequency (HP-710).
But, in this case, since the circuit theory analysis yields the wrong answer, taking
the time to perform an electromagnetic analysis has a very high return.
1.0
EM
Circuit Theory
analysis chart
0.9
Mag S21
Em Data
0.8 Measured
0.7
10 15 20 25
Frequency (GHz)
If the circuit had been spread out (the stub straightened out and kept at least 100
µM from any other components), circuit theory would probably have provided an
accurate analysis and electromagnetic analysis would be unneeded. This circuit,
“raystub.geo,” can be obtained using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
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170
EM
Although em is primarily a planar electromagnetic simulator, it also has the

capability to add “dielectric brick” material anywhere in your circuit. A dielectric
brick is a solid volume of dielectric material embedded within a circuit layer. See
the illustration below. Dielectric bricks can be made from any dielectric material
(including air) and can be placed in circuit layers made from any other dielectric
material (including air). For example, dielectric bricks can be used to simulate
structures such as a dielectric resonator block in an “air” circuit layer, or an “air
hole” in a dielectric substrate circuit layer.
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Level 1 Level 0
Dielectric Brick
Dielectric
Layer
Level 0 Metal
Dielectric
Layer
Level 1 Metal
Side View of Circuit shown above.
All realizable values for the dielectric constant, loss tangent and bulk conductivity
can be used. Furthermore, it is possible to set these parameters independently in
each dimension to create anisotropic dielectric bricks.
Em is appropriate for simple structures using dielectric bricks; however, for more
complicated circuits you may need a full 3-D electromagnetic analysis tool like
Micro-Stripes from KCC Ltd. Micro-Stripes is a powerful full 3-D EM analysis
172
tool based on the Transmission Line Matrix (TLM) technique, and is ideal for the
analysis of waveguide components, non-planar circuit structures, transitions and
antennas. Micro-Stripes is available in North America through Sonnet Software.
Applications of Dielectric Bricks
EM
The use of dielectric bricks is appropriate for applications where the effects of
dielectric discontinuities or anisotropic dielectric materials are important.
Examples of such applications include dielectric resonators, dielectric overlays,
airbridges, microstrip-to-stripline transitions, dielectric bridges and crossovers,
microslab transmission lines, capacitors and module walls.
Dielectric Brick Parameters

Loss in the dielectric bricks is calculated in the same fashion as loss for the
dielectric layer. For a detailed discussion of these parameters, see “Dielectric
Layer Parameters,” page 46. See “Defining Dielectric Brick Materials,” page 65
of the Xgeom User’s Manual for information on setting these parameters.
Guidelines for Using Dielectric Bricks

Subsectioning Dielectric Bricks
A dielectric brick simulates a volume of dielectric material. Because a brick
simulates a volume, it must be subsectioned in the X, Y and Z dimensions. The
more subsections (better resolution) used in each dimension, the more accurate the
analysis.
X/Y subsectioning of dielectric bricks is identical to X/Y subsectioning of metal

polygons. You can control the X/Y subsectioning of both through your choice of
grid size, XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX and subsections-per-wavelength. See
Chapter 3, “Subsectioning,” for details.
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Z subsectioning of dielectric bricks is controlled by the “number of Z-partitions”

parameter. This parameter specifies the number of Z subsections for all dielectric
bricks on a particular dielectric layer. See “Z-Partitioning,” page 67 of the Xgeom
User’s Manual for information on setting this parameter.
Using Vias Inside a Dielectric Brick

Vias through dielectric bricks are treated the same as vias through the standard
dielectric layers. Note that via ports inside dielectric bricks are not allowed.
De-embedding and Dielectric Bricks
The effects of port discontinuities and interconnecting transmission lines are

removed from the simulated data by using de-embedding. In general, the de-
embedding procedure is not changed when dielectric bricks are present in the
circuit.
However, there are two important considerations. First, a dielectric brick located
in the interior of a circuit (not touching a box wall) represents a discontinuity in
that circuit. Thus, no reference plane should be set so that it extends from the box
wall beyond the leading edge of the dielectric brick. This is similar to the
restriction that reference planes should not extend beyond metal discontinuities in
the circuit.
The second consideration concerns the creation of the two “thru-line” standards
used to perform the de-embedding. To create the standards for a given box wall,
em identifies all metal polygons in the circuit which have an edge in common with
the wall, and then creates one thru-line extending from that edge for every such
polygon. If there are also dielectric bricks with an edge in common with the given
box wall, em also creates “dielectric brick thru-lines” which extend from that
edge. In short, this makes it possible to de-embed ports on box walls where one or
more dielectric bricks have an edge in common with that box wall.
174
Air Dielectric Bricks
Dielectric bricks can be made of any dielectric material (dielectric constant, loss
tangent and bulk conductivity) and can be placed in any circuit layer. This allows,
for instance, “alumina” bricks to be created in an “air” circuit layer. However, it
is also possible to reverse this scenario. Dielectric bricks made of “air” can also
be created in alumina circuit layers. This is an important consideration to
EM
remember. Depending upon the circuit geometry for a given application, this
ability to reverse the dielectric characteristics may simplify the circuit and make
it faster to analyze.
Limitations of Dielectric Bricks

Diagonal Fill
Diagonal fill is not allowed for dielectric bricks. All dielectric bricks must use
“staircase fill”. Thus, dielectric bricks with curved or rounded edges must be
stairstep approximated. Note that the error caused by such an approximation
decreases as the X and Y cell sizes are decreased. Thus, it is possible to make this
error arbitrarily small by choosing sufficiently small X and Y cell sizes.
Antennas and Radiation
Patvu does not support dielectric bricks. Circuits containing dielectric bricks can
be analyzed with patvu, but the radiation effects of the dielectric bricks are not
accounted for in the analysis.
Ebridge
The ebridge interface to the HP-EEsof Series IV or ADS circuit analysis program
does not create dielectric bricks.
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176
Chapter 15 Antennas and Radiation
EM
Chapter 15 Antennas and
Radiation
To this point, this manual has been focused on using em for the analysis of high
frequency circuits and transmission structures. However, there is a large class of
radiating structures for which em has proven very useful. This chapter describes
how to use em to analyze 3-D planar radiating structures, such as microstrip patch
arrays and microstrip discontinuities, using the “Open Waveguide Simulator”
technique. The underlying assumptions of this technique are described in detail.
Common modeling mistakes are also pointed out. Examples are provided to
illustrate the correct use of the modeling technique.
If you find that these modeling techniques are not sufficient to handle your design,
then you may need a full 3-D electromagnetic analysis tool like Micro-Stripes
from KCC Ltd. Micro-Stripes is a powerful full 3-D EM analysis tool based on
the Transmission Line Matrix (TLM) technique, and is ideal for the analysis of
waveguide components, non-planar circuit structures, transitions and antennas.
Micro-Stripes is available in North America through Sonnet Software.
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Background
Since em is an analysis of 3-D planar circuits in a completely enclosing,
shielding, rectangular box, the analysis of radiating structures is not an
application which immediately comes to mind.
However, em can be used to simulate infinite arrays using a waveguide simulator.

In this technique, as shown in on page 179, a portion of the array is placed within
a waveguide. The waveguide tube is vertical, connecting the radiating patches to
the termination, which is a matched load. The images formed by the waveguide
walls properly model the entire infinite array scanned to a specific angle.
The waveguide simulator inspired what we now call the Open Waveguide
Simulator Technique described in the next section.
Modeling Infinite Arrays

The sidewalls of the shielding box in the em analysis easily represent the sidewalls
of the waveguide in the infinite array waveguide simulator. A side view is shown
in the figure on page 179.
Providing a termination for the end of the waveguide requires a little more
thought. Any waveguide mode can be perfectly terminated by making the top
cover resistivity in em equal to the waveguide mode impedance. This can be done
in xgeom automatically at all frequencies and all modes by selecting “WGLOAD”
from the metals in the Top Metal drop list in the Box Parameters dialog box.
178
Waveguide
Walls
η
Z TE = ------------------------- f > fc
fc 2
1 –  ----
Waveguide
 f Termination
EM
fc 2
Z TM = η 1 – ----
 f > fc
 f Array
Patches
v c mπ 2 nπ 2
f c = ------  ------- +  ------
2π  A   B
Substrate
The waveguide simulator for infinite arrays inspired the technique described here. In this side
view, the waveguide walls form images of the array of microstrip patches, simulating an infinite
array. vc is the velocity of light in the medium filling the waveguide.
In a phased array with the array scanned to a specific direction, a single waveguide
mode is generated. The em software can model the waveguide simulator of that
infinite array just by setting the top cover impedance to the impedance of the
excited waveguide mode.
Modeling an Open Environment

If we can use a closed (i.e., terminated) waveguide to model an infinite array, we
can also model radiation from a finite array; although, it must be done under
certain conditions. It is important to keep in mind that, unless the analysis is
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carefully prepared, these conditions are easily violated, yielding incorrect results.
When the conditions are met, useful results can be obtained, as shall be
demonstrated.
First Condition: Make both of the lateral substrate dimensions greater than one
or two wavelengths.
When using the Open Waveguide Simulator, we view the sidewalls of the
shielding box as forming a waveguide whose tube extends in the vertical direction,
propagating energy from the antenna toward the “Termination” in . Radiation is
then approximated as a sum of many waveguide modes. If the tube is too small,
there are few, if any, propagating modes, violating the First Condition.
There is an easily made mistake when modeling radiation from small

discontinuities. Discontinuities are usually small with respect to wavelength. For
a discontinuity analysis, the sidewalls are usually placed one or two substrate
thicknesses from the discontinuity. In this case, the substrate dimensions are
unlikely to meet the First Condition. If the sidewalls form below a cut-off
waveguide, there is no radiation.
Second Condition: Make sure the sidewalls are far enough from the radiating
structure that the sidewalls have no affect.
Another way to look at this condition is to consider the image of the structure
(discontinuity or antenna) created by the sidewall. Position the sidewall so that the
image it forms has no significant coupling with the desired structure.
Usually two to three wavelengths from the sidewall is sufficient for

discontinuities. For single patch antennas, one to three wavelengths is suggested.
Requirements for specific structures can easily be greater than these guidelines. If
the First Condition requires a larger substrate dimension than the Second
Condition, it is very important that the larger dimension is used.
If you are using patvu, the larger the box the better. Patvu assumes that S-
parameters from em are from a perfect open environment. If some of the power is
reflected due to a box that is too small, the input power calculated by patvu will
be slightly incorrect. Patvu then calculates antenna efficiencies greater then
100%. If this occurs, the box size should be increased.
180
Third Condition: Place the top cover outside the fringing fields (i.e., near field)
of the radiating structure, preferably a half wavelength.
If this condition is violated, the resistive top cover becomes involved in the
reactive fringing fields which form the near field of the radiator. This changes
what would have been reactive input impedance into resistive input impedance,
overestimating the radiation loss.
EM
Do not place the top cover thousands of wavelengths away from the radiator.
Extreme aspect ratios of the box should be avoided. Empirical data for patch
antennas has shown that a distance of about 1/2 wavelength works best.
Fourth Condition: Set the top cover to Free Space.
This value is a compromise. As shown by the equations on the previous page, all
TE modes have a characteristic impedance larger than 377 ohms (Ω), while all TM
modes are lower. Thus, while a 377 ohms/square top cover does not perfectly
terminate any mode, it forms an excellent compromise termination for many
modes. This approximates removing the top cover of the box. If the box is large,
it, in turn, approximates radiation, as shall be demonstrated.
Fifth Condition: The radiating structure can not generate a significant surface
wave.
If there is a significant, compared to required accuracy, surface wave, it is

reflected by the sidewalls of the box. Unless this is the actual situation, such
antennas are inappropriate for this technique. Actually, the Fifth Condition is a
special case of the Second Condition, since if there is significant surface wave, the
Second Condition cannot be met. This condition is stated explicitly because of its
importance.
In general, any surface wave is both reflected and refracted when it encounters the
edge of the substrate. This boundary condition is different from either the
conducting wall of Sonnet or the infinite substrate provided by a true open space
analysis.
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A dual patch antenna is illustrated conceptually below.
Free Space
Top Cover
Double Patch
Antenna
Feed point
Radiation can be simulated by including a lossy top cover, a lossy dielectric layer
(optional) and by placing the sidewalls far from the radiator (drawing not to scale).
Place the top cover one half wavelengths from the radiator.
The feed point is created in xgeom by creating a via to ground at the feed point.
Then the ground end of that via is specified as a port, just as one would specify a
more typical port on the edge of the substrate at a box sidewall. A file showing an
antenna similar to this one is named “patch.geo” and is available using the Sonnet
⇒ Copy Examples command.
182
Validation Example
For validation, we offer work performed by E. Ongareau of Matra Defense,
Antennas & Stealthness Dept., France, as presented at the 1993 EEsof User’s
Group meeting at HYPER in Paris. (Reprinted with permission.) The antenna is a
triple patch structure, with a top view shown below. The antenna is a test
realization intended only for validation. It is not designed for optimum VSWR.
EM
Top view of a triple patch antenna (courtesy of Matra Defense). The central patch is
fed with a coaxial probe (indicated by a down pointing triangle). Each patch is
resonant at a different frequency to increase the overall antenna bandwidth.
Good results are also regularly obtained on single microstrip patch antennas. We
cite this example as one of the more sophisticated antennas analyzed using the
Open Waveguide Simulator technique.
In this antenna, each patch has a slightly different resonant frequency, resulting in
an increased bandwidth. The antenna is fed from below with a coax probe attached
to the central patch. The feed point is indicated with a triangle.
The substrate is 3.04 mm thick with a dielectric constant of 2.94. The drawing is
to scale with substrate dimensions of 200 mm x 100 mm. The top cover is 200 mm
above the substrate surface. Cell size is 0.78125 mm square. A loss tangent of
0.001 is used in both air and substrate. The small air loss helps terminate the
propagating modes.
The antenna geometry file, “tripat.geo,” is available using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command.
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The chart below shows the result. We see that the resonant frequencies of each
patch (i.e., the low VSWR points) have differences between measured and
calculated of about 1%. This is typical of most analyses of patch antennas using
this technique. The differences in resonant frequency (i.e., the reflection zeros)
then determine the differences in the rest of the VSWR plot. The degree to which
these differences are due to analysis error, fabrication error and measurement error
cannot be determined from this data.
7
Measured
Calculated
6
4
VSWR
1
1%
2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency (GHz)
The measured and calculated data for the triple patch antenna were obtained
completely separately, so there was no chance to “tweak” the model for
agreement.
184
If the typical differences between measured and calculated data shown on

page 184 are acceptable, given the specific requirements for a particular project,
then the Open Waveguide Simulator technique can provide useful results.
EM
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186
Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
EM
Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model
Synthesis
This chapter describes how to use em to automatically synthesize SPICE files.

This capability is useful for circuits which are small with respect to the
wavelength of the highest frequency of interest. This includes structures such as
discontinuities like step, tee and cross junctions. Other applications include
modeling cross-talk and propagation delay in digital interconnect circuits and
multiple spectrum circuits that combine digital, analog and RF functions.
This option automatically takes the results of the electromagnetic analysis of a

circuit and synthesizes a lumped model of inductors, capacitors, resistors and
mutual inductors. This information is then formatted and saved as an ASCII
SPICE file.
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A second SPICE related capability of em is the generation of L, C, R and G

matrices for N-coupled transmission lines. These matrices represent the
distributed parameters of the transmission lines (for example, inductance per unit
length).
Class of Problems
The SPICE generation capability is intended for any circuit which is small with
respect to the wavelength of the highest frequency of excitation. Typically, 1/20th
wavelength is an appropriate limit. (If a circuit is too large, split it into two or more
circuits and analyze each separately.) This limitation is due to the circuit theory
limitations of modeling a circuit with lumped elements. The Sonnet
electromagnetic analysis is not intrinsically limited in this fashion.
The model generated by the analysis includes any lumped elements (including
mutual inductors) between any ports of the circuit layout. Lumped elements from
any port to ground are also included. The synthesis capability does not allow
internal nodes (nodes which are not connected to a port in the layout) with the
single exception of the internal node required to specify a resistor in series with an
inductor.
Any circuit which requires internal nodes for an accurate model should be split
into several parts so that the required points become nodes. Internal ports without
ground reference give incorrect results. Any internal ports should be carefully
specified and checked for reasonable results.
The SPICE file generation capability is usually not appropriate for large
microwave circuits because such circuits are usually larger than a small fraction
of a wavelength.
The SPICE model synthesis capability is fast enough that it can be used on circuits
with hundreds of ports.
188
Using The SPICE Option

First, select two frequencies, with an approximate 10% difference, for analysis
and specify them in the analysis control file or in the Simple Sweep option in em.
The SPICE synthesis needs electromagnetic results at two frequencies to
accomplish its work. If four frequencies are specified, two lumped models are
generated. If an odd number of frequencies is specified, em terminates with an
EM
appropriate error message.
Make sure the frequency is not too low. In circuits with vias, when the subsection
size is less than 10-5 wavelength, numerical precision can be a problem. For
example, if the subsection size is 1 mm, it would be unwise to analyze below 1
MHz.
If the frequency specified is low enough, em warns you that you may need
quadruple precision. The quadruple precision option can be enabled by clicking
on the Quad Precision checkbox in the Additional Options dialog box. Be aware,
however, that Quad Precision can slow the analysis down substantially; use the
option only when necessary. Analyzing the circuit at a higher frequency is often a
better solution.
After completing the analysis, always do a “reality check” for reasonable values.
If you have bad data, the frequency may be too high or too low. If the frequency
is too low, the solution may have unity S-parameters, causing a strange SPICE
model. To be absolutely sure your results are good, select a second pair of
frequencies, different from the first pair by, say, a factor of two, and re-analyze
the circuit. You should obtain similar results between the two analyses.
To use the SPICE generation option, click on the Output Files button in the job
window, which will open the Select Output Files dialog box. Set the .lc name
checkbox to “on” and enter a file name in the corresponding text entry box. This
will select the SPICE option specifying the default value of 1 for the displayed
precision for the lumped element values. This results in output like “C1 1 3
12.1pf”.
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If you wish a higher number of digits, you must open the Additional Options
dialog box and enter -xn in the Advanced text entry box, where n is an integer
value from 0 to 7. When working with very small structures, specifying, for
example, “-x4” may be desired. This results in output like “C1 1 3 0.0312pf”.
Values from 0 to 7 may be used. The digits 8 or 9 generate the same output as 7.
Any capacitors with a value of 0 are not included in the model. Any inductors or
resistors which are essentially open circuits are also excluded.
To reduce the number of lumped elements in the model, open circuit limits can be
specified in the Spice Control dialog box, shown below. This dialog box is used
when editing Complex Frequency controls or an Analysis Control file.
The values are defined as follows:

CMIN: Minimum allowed capacitance (pF). The default value is 0.1 pF.
LMAX: Maximum allowed inductance (nH). The default value is 100.0 nH.
RMAX: Maximum allowed resistance (ohms). The default value is 1000.0 ohms.
KMIN: Minimum allowed mutual inductance (dimensionless ratio). The default
value is 0.01.
RZERO: Resistor to go in series with all lossless inductors (resistance in ohms).
Needed for some versions of SPICE. The default value is 0.0
All calculated component values which fall outside the allowed range specified by
the user in the frequency controls are excluded from the resulting lumped model.
The RZERO entry is provided for those versions of SPICE which need inductors
to have some small loss to avoid numerical difficulties. The default value of 0.0
disables this capability.
Output is sent to the file ending in “.lc” specified in the Output Files dialog box.
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In most cases, the de-embedding option should also be used. Otherwise the small
shunt capacitance from the port discontinuity is also included in the lumped
model.
PSpice Option
A SPICE lumped model can also be generated using PSpice output format. All of
EM
the rules and assumptions described in the previous section for .lc SPICE files still
apply. To generate a SPICE lumped model in PSpice format, specify "-pspice"
under Advanced Options in em control. See "SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files
Using Electromagnetic Analysis" on page 565 in the Sonnet Application Notes
for an illustration of the use of PSpice output format. The output file name
extension is ".psp".
N-Coupled Line Option

If the structure being modeled is an N-coupled line, the SPICE option described
above can be applied to a short length of line to generate a single section of the L-
C-L-C. lumped model of a transmission line. This approach has two
disadvantages. First, the lumped LC model of a transmission line is approximate.
Second, the LC model can be very time consuming to analyze. There is a better
alternative.
That alternative is to use distributed LC parameters of a transmission line,

specifically, inductance per unit length and capacitance per unit length. Analyses
which use such data are much faster than those which use simple lumped models.
In addition, accuracy is maintained at all frequencies for which TEM mode
propagation is an adequate approximation.
For a single line, the L and C distributed parameters are each a single number. For
N-coupled lines, L and C become N by N matrices. When metal loss is included,
we now also have an R matrix. The resistance is in series with the inductance.
When there is dielectric loss, a G matrix is also calculated. The conductance is in
parallel with the capacitance. The synthesis determines whether a G or R matrix
are needed only from the calculated S-parameters. The circuit geometry is not
referenced at any time.
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To generate RLCG matrices, select a “.lct” file in the Output Files dialog box and
enable the De-embed option. De-embedding is often required as described in the
previous section. The “ctl.an” file needs only one frequency specified. If two
frequencies are specified, two RLCG matrix sets are generated.
Your “.geo” file must be an N-coupled line with ports 1 through N as input and
ports N+1 through 2N as output. The input of line M should be port M and its
output should be port M+N. The software does not check for this condition, but
issues a warning message if the number of ports is not an even number. This
restriction does not apply to generating “.lc” files, only generating “lct” files.
There is no limit on N.
The results are per unit length, where a unit length is the de-embedded length of
the N-coupled line. The length must be short compared to the wavelength at the
frequency of analysis.
A Simple Microwave Example

Let’s say you want a lumped model for the steps discontinuity used in the
beginning of this manual. A copy of the file “steps.geo” can be obtained by using
Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
In order to synthesize a lumped model, two frequencies need to be analyzed in the

following manner:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The job window will appear
on your display.
2 Enter “steps.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
3 Click on the Simple Sweep option in the Frequency Control section.
Enter 1.0 in the Start text entry box and 1.1 in the Stop text entry box.
4 The Verbose and De-embed options are already selected, so you need
take no action on these items.
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5 Click on the Output Files command button to open the Select Output
Files dialog box.
EM
6 Click on the .lc name checkbox to set it to “on.” The default name of
“steps.lc” will appear in the corresponding text entry box. Click on the
OK button to close the dialog box.
7 Click on the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The lumped model is stored in the file specified in the Select Output Files dialog
box, “steps.lc”:
* Limits: C>0.1 pF, L<100 nH, R<1000 Ohms, K>0.01.

* Analysis time per frequency (mm:ss) -- 0:01 user, 0:00 system,
0:01 real
* Analysis time per function (seconds) -- Modes: 0 Fill: 0 Solve: 0
* Analysis frequencies: 1000.000000, 1100.000000 MHz
.subckt 1 2
C1 1 0 0.3pf
C2 2 0 0.2pf
L1 1 2 0.3nh
.ends
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The first line indicates the open circuit limits. For example all capacitors less than
0.1 pF are excluded from the model. These limits can be modified as discussed in
“Using The SPICE Option,” page 189.
The next two lines detail the processing time.
The next line documents the analysis frequencies. This is followed by the SPICE
lumped model. In this case we have two capacitors to ground (node 0) and one
inductor connected between port 1 and port 2. Ground is node 0 and all the
remaining node numbers correspond to ports of the same number.
If two decimal places of precision are desired, open the Additional Options dialog
box by clicking on the Additional Options command button in the em job window.
Enter
-x2
in the Advanced text entry box.
Topology Used for SPICE Output

The topology of the lumped element model generated by em depends on the
circuit being analyzed. In general, the model contains an inductor (in series with
a resistor if using loss), a capacitor and a resistor (when using loss) connected in
parallel from each port to ground. A similar parallel RLC network is also
connected between each port. Therefore, a four-port circuit can contain more
elements than a two-port circuit. Each inductor may also have a mutual inductance
to any other inductor in the network. The figure on page 195 shows the most
complex equivalent circuit possible for a two-port (mutual inductances not
shown). Any values that are outside of the open circuit limits are not included.
194
1 2
EM
Equivalent circuit of a two-port structure generated by em’s SPICE option.
Mutual inductances also exist between all inductors, but are not shown. Any
component whose value is outside of the open circuit limits are not printed in
the SPICE output file.
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A High Speed Digital Example

The figure below shows the top level of an example circuit. There are 32 input
ports and 32 output ports for a total of 64 ports. The first eight bits (ports 1-8) go
into the circuit, down to the second level, underneath all the other lines, and come
up on the right hand side as the last eight bits. Thus, this is a byte-reversal network.
Top
Level
The top level of the byte-reversal network. The byte order on input (left side) is
reversed on output (right side). This is a top view.The arrow heads indicate
connections between levels (down vias).
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Bottom
Level
EM
The bottom level of the byte-reversal network. The triangles indicate connections
between levels (up vias).
A copy of the above file, “br32.geo” can be obtained using Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples.
The circuit was analyzed at 10 and 15 MHz, where each line is about 1 degree
long. If you wish to perform the analysis yourself, do the following:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The main window with a
new job window will appear on your display.
2 Enter “br32.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
Enter 10.0 in the Start text entry box and 15 in the Stop text entry box.
4 Select MHz from the Frequency Unit drop list at the end of the Simple
Sweep.
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6 Click on the Output Files command button to open the Select Output
Files dialog box.
7 Click on the .lc name checkbox to set it to “on.” The file name “br32.lc”
is automatically input in the corresponding text entry box. Click on the
OK button to close the dialog box.
8 Click on the Additional Options button. The Advanced Options dialog
box will appear on your display.
9 Enter “-e” in the Manual Options text entry box. This option reduces the
number of subsections at cross-over points. Click on the OK button to
close the dialog box and apply the option.
The lumped model is stored in the file specified in the Select Output Files dialog
box, “br32.lc”.
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The following is a portion of the resulting SPICE model (… indicates information

left out):
.subckt bytervrs 1 2 3 4 . . . 63 64
C1 a1 0 a14.5pf
C2 a1 2 a 1.6pf
C3 a1 25 a0.7pf
C4 a1 55 a0.1pf
EM
.
.
.
C57 1 64 0 9.1pf
L1 1 33 77.2nh
L2 2 34 77.3nh
.
.
.
L32 32 64 79.6nh
K1 L1 L2 0.2
K2 L1 L3 0.1
.
.
.
K70 L31 L32 0.2
.ends
Nodes 1 - 64 correspond to the ports of the same number in the circuit layout, .
Node 0 is ground. For example, C1 represents the capacitance from port 1 to
ground. L1 represents the inductance from port 1 to port 33 (i.e., port 1 is
connected to port 33). There is also a capacitance (not listed above) from port 33
to ground.
C2 is a stray capacitance coupling ports 1 and 2, generating cross-talk. The

capacitive coupling causes cross-talk whenever there is a time varying voltage
difference between ports 1 and 2.
Mutual inductance K1 inductively couples the port 1 to port 33 line (L1) to the
port 2 to port 34 line (L2), also generating cross-talk. The mutual inductance
causes cross-talk whenever either the port 1 or port 2 line carries a time varying
current. A quick inspection of this file reveals the worst cases for cross-talk (i.e.,
largest mutual inductors and capacitors).
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The sub-circuit was placed in a complete SPICE file with an example analysis
shown below.
0.15
0.10 Port 25 (Reverse)

Crosstalk Voltage (Volts)
0.05
0.00
-0.05
Port 57 (Forward)
-0.10
-0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (nS)
A SPICE analysis was performed using the em synthesized model of the byte-reversal network.
Shown here is the cross-talk to the port 25 - port 57 line caused by a 1 Volt signal with a 10 pS
rise time on port 1. All ports are terminated in 50 ohms. Analysis courtesy of CONTEC
Microelectronics USA.
Other Techniques
Classical techniques use, for example, just an electrostatic or just a magnetostatic
analysis to derive a model. This is adequate for uniform transmission lines
embedded in homogenous dielectric (no different layers). In an arbitrary
predominantly planar circuit, as we have here, a single static analysis provides
only half a circuit model, just the capacitors or just the inductors.
200
Since em is a full dynamic analysis, both the inductive and capacitive portion of
the model are obtained with one analysis (at two frequencies).
In addition, the techniques usually used for the static analyses are of a volume
gridding variety (e.g., finite elements, finite difference). Even under the
simplifications allowed by static analysis, the circuit shown in is well beyond the
capability of such software tools.
EM
However, because em is a surface meshing analysis, it can analyze the circuit of
in under 1 minute on an HP-710 using about 1 Mbyte of memory. The SPICE file
is generated after analyzing two frequencies.
The model which results has 1057 capacitors, 32 inductors and 70 mutual
inductors. If loss is included, the model would also include resistors. Many of the
capacitors in the lumped model are 0.1 and 0.2 pF, just over the default minimum
capacitance of 0.1 pF. A much simpler model (with a little less accuracy) is
possible by including the command “CMIN 0.3” in the ctl.an file. Nearly all of the
1057 capacitors are then excluded from the model because they are too small.
Note that the experimental approach to modeling this circuit involves building the
circuit, measuring a 64 port structure (requiring 2080 separate complex
measurements at each frequency), developing and entering an appropriate 1000+
element model in a circuit simulator, and optimizing each of the 1000+ variables
for a best fit. Such a task is well beyond the state-of-the-art.
In contrast, by using the em analysis, the total, end-to-end time is a few minutes.
This includes the time required for manual circuit layout capture and inspection of
the final results.
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202
Chapter 17 Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and Balanced Ports
EM
Chapter 17 Coplanar Waveguide
Discontinuities and
Balanced Ports
Em also handles coplanar waveguide well because ground planes and dielectric
layer thicknesses can be made any value while still maintaining full accuracy and
without compromise in speed. This section describes a very simple, yet important,
coplanar waveguide discontinuity, the short circuit. A second example is the
coplanar cross junction. The cross junction also illustrates the use of level-to-level
vias to form airbridges. Airbridges are needed to suppress the slot line mode as
well as provide a ground current return path in some cases.
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The Coplanar Short

The coplanar short, see below, finds wide use as a measurement calibration
standard.
A co-planar waveguide short circuit discontinuity is easily handled by em.
Notice that both ground ports have been labeled “-1”, while the signal port is
labeled “1”. This represents a balanced port. Any number of ports can have the
same positive or negative labels. This is done in xgeom by selecting the ports in
question and opening the Port Attributes dialog box by selecting Modify ⇒
Attributes. Em sums the total current going into all the positive ports with the
same port number and sets that equal to the total current going out of all the ports
with that same negative port number. Thus the name “balanced”, or “push-pull,”
port.
Although this circuit is symmetric, there is another issue to consider before

invoking symmetry. This is addressed at the end of this section.
Slot line can be represented by removing one of the “-1” ports, above. Be careful,
however, the sign of the slot line port can be reversed by swapping the remaining
“-1” port with the “1” port. It is possible, in fact, to get an S21 phase of 180
degrees for a zero length line. This happens if the ports on either end of a slot line
have opposite sign.
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Note that we end the width of the ground lines just before they would have
touched the sidewall. If the side of the ground line touches the side wall, it shorts
out to the sidewall, thus allowing ground current to return via the sidewall instead
of through the ground line. This defeats the purpose of the balanced port. Be sure
that your ground lines touch the sidewall only at the location of negative port
numbers when using balanced ports.
EM
For large coplanar (or slot line) structures, there may be significant current on the
outside edges of the ground strip. This can be verified with emvu. If this current
is undesired, it can be eliminated by connecting the outside edge of the ground
strips to the sidewalls of the box about a quarter wavelength from each port. This
forms a quarter wavelength shorted (slot line) stub. At the port, the stub presents
an open circuit to the current which, otherwise, would have started flowing along
the outside edge of the ground strip.
You can get a copy of the coplanar short, “cosht.geo”, using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command. To analyze the circuit, perform the following:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The main window with a
new job window will appear on your display.
2 Enter “cosht.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
Enter 10.0 in the Start text entry box.
The result is
10.0000000 1.000000 169.31
A perfect short is 180 degrees; therefore, the short is about 11 degrees inductive.
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It is possible to get the same result in less time. Notice that the circuit is physically
symmetric. To add in symmetry, you would select Parameters ⇒ Box in xgeom.
If this were the only change you made before analyzing the circuit, it would not
work.
The reason for this is that when a circuit is symmetric, em does not subsection any
part of the circuit below the center line. After subsectioning the circuit, em checks
to make sure all ports have at least one subsection. But notice that the “-1” port
below the center line is still there. This port does not have any subsections and em
prints an error message to that effect and terminates. So also remove the lower of
the two “-1” ports and save the circuit under “cosht_sy.geo”. An analysis of this
circuit provides almost identical data in much less time.
Whenever you see an error message stating that there are no subsections for a
given port, check for ports below the axis of symmetry, if symmetry is turned on.
The Coplanar Cross Junction

The coplanar cross junction (see the figure on page 207) illustrates the analysis of
coplanar waveguide structures including the effect of airbridges as an integral part
of the coplanar discontinuity. The airbridges are needed in order to suppress the
slot line mode which would otherwise propagate in the coplanar transmission line.
In the case of the cross junction, the airbridges are needed for a second purpose,
to provide a return path for ground current. The ground conductor on both sides
206
must be continuous between all ports. Otherwise the ground current on one side is
interrupted. If this happens, very strange results are seen, both in the em analysis
and in actual measurements.
EM
A coplanar cross junction with airbridges (dotted lines) to short out slot line
modes and to provide a return path for current.
The airbridges are indicated by dashed lines. Both ends of each airbridge are
supported by a via (indicated by the up triangle) which also provides electrical
connection to the ground conductors. The airbridges are 1.5 µm above the GaAs.
This circuit is stored in the file “cocross.geo” in the examples directory and is
accessible with the Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples command.
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208
Chapter 18 Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section
EM
Chapter 18 Thick Metal with
Arbitrary Cross-
Section
The previous chapter discussed balanced, or “push-pull,” ports. In this section, we

use “push-push” ports to create thick metal lines where the vertical cross-section
has an arbitrary geometry. To demonstrate this capability, we use a simple
trapezoidal geometry, the cross section shown in the figure on page 211.
To analyze the thick metal, set up the dielectrics so that there is one layer of
dielectric with the same thickness as the metal. Then, place a polygon representing
the top side of the thick metal on the top side of that dielectric layer. Also place a
polygon representing the bottom side of the thick metal on the bottom side of that
dielectric layer.
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Next, place ports on both top and bottom sides. To connect the top side port to the
bottom side port, give both ports the same number. This is done in xgeom by
selecting the ports in question and opening the Port Attributes dialog box by
selecting Modify ⇒ Attributes.
As many physical ports as desired may be given the same numeric label, and all
ports with the same label are automatically connected together. Such ports can be
called “push-push”, in contrast with the “push-pull” ports of the previous chapter.
A circuit implementing the above transmission line is stored in “thkthru.geo”. A

copy can be obtained by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples. An analysis, using a
Simple Sweep frequency control of 10 GHz run with the Verbose and De-embed
options set, yields:
10.0000000 0.316130 -126.0 0.948716 144.01 0.948716 144.01 0.316130 -126.0

P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(7.6412 0.0000) Z0=(26.49793 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.241587
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(7.6412 0.0000) Z0=(26.49793 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.241587
For extremely thick lines, where the assumption that there is no current wrapping
around the edge might not be valid, vias must be included along the edges of the
line so that current flowing there is included. Note that vias, representing Z-
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Chapter 18 Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section
directed current, are not needed to represent current flowing along the edge of the
line. They are only needed for current which flows over and around the edge of
the line, a rare situation in most planar high frequency circuit designs.
Top Current
No Current
EM
Around Edge
Bottom Current
A trapezoidal cross-section transmission line viewed in perspective. If the line has no
current going around the edge, it can be modeled, as shown, as two infinitely thin sheets
of current, one at the top and the other at the bottom of the actual metal.
If a more detailed cross-section is desired, one can use more than two levels of
infinitely thin metal to model the cross-section. Do not place metal on the interior
(i.e., metal which is not on the top, bottom or edge) of the thick line. There is no
current inside a good conductor and there is no need to waste subsections there.
When a discontinuity is encountered in thick metal, vias probably should be

included between the top and bottom metal as current may need to flow up or
down at that point. Also if a line is longer than about an eighth wavelength, it
would be a good idea to “tack” the top and bottom together with vias periodically
to prevent unexpected resonances.
Do not place vias at the edge of the substrate next to a sidewall on a port. In this
situation, the vias short out to the sidewall. This shorts out the port. Such a
situation can be identified by the port refection coefficient magnitude close to
unity and the phase close to 180 degrees, a short circuit.
The example directory contains an example of a thick step junction in a file called
“thkstep.geo”, which can be obtained by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
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212
Chapter 19 Package Resonances
EM
The circuit is designed, fabricated and meets all specifications. But before you are
ready to ship you need to consider the package around the circuit. Once the lid
goes on, it must be tested for package resonances and chip-to-chip coupling.
Em can help with the package design. Recall that em analyzes a circuit in a
conducting 6-sided metal box. The sidewalls of the box are always perfect
conductors. Thus, you can find out on the computer early in the design cycle if the
package is going to have resonances or evanescent waves that are of any concern.
As an example, we analyzed a model of an amplifier in a box, shown in the figure
on page 214. The circuit is stored in the file “package.geo” in the examples
directory, and can be obtained using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples command.
We have left the transistor location open in this circuit for two reasons. First, the
electromagnetic analysis performed by em does not support active devices. If you
want to use the circuit network capability of em to include a transistor, place an
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auto-grounded port here. Second, if there is a resonance, it shows up as a value of

S21 approaching unity. This indicates a strong, package resonance induced,
coupling between input and output.
We have also included the bias lines, ports 3 and 4, to make sure that a package
resonance does not kill the bias isolation. Feedback through bias leads is a
significant cause of low frequency oscillations and smoked devices.
The file “package.geo” is a model of an amplifier used to check for package

resonances. The entire width of the box is not shown.
The amplifier model is only approximate, we do not need exact line widths and
precise layout. The purpose of this analysis is only to check for resonances. The
detail used in this case is probably more than is needed. A simpler circuit should
be sufficient for a package resonance search.
The lowest resonance found was at 31.7625 GHz, shown on the plot on page 215.
Given the approximate nature of the way we captured the circuit, we can conclude
that there is a package resonance somewhere around 31 -32 GHz. There may be
other resonances; the search was not exhaustive. Coupling between bias ports,
which is not shown, also becomes large at resonance, making instability a virtual
certainty.
In addition to searching for resonances by looking at the S-parameters, as we have

done here, we can also search for resonances by invoking the Detect Box
Resonance option. The Detect Box Resonance option is described in “Verifying
the Box Resonance Problem,” page 218.
214
This package has big problems at resonance. Fortunately, with the em analysis in
hand, modifications can be made and tested before costly fabrication.
A second analysis was performed from 20 GHz to 60 GHz with the top cover
removed; i.e., selecting Free Space as the Top Metal in Box Parameters. This
analysis showed several low Q (wide bandwidth) resonances, none of which
exceeded 35 dB down. The plot is shown on page 216.
EM
A related application of this analysis is to use the circuit package as the resonant,
frequency determining element in an oscillator design.
Results of a search for package resonances shows strong coupling between

input and output at 31.7625 GHz.
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The package resonances disappear when the top cover is removed.
Unwanted Box Resonances

A problem which affects actual measurements, as well as the em analysis, is box
resonances. If present, resonances put glitches into the simulated data. Em has the
ability to detect box resonances and remove them, if desired. This section shows
the effects of unwanted box resonances and their resolution.
Box resonances can also corrupt de-embedding results. Because em’s de-
embedding feature is based on circuit theory, it possesses the same limitation that
all de-embedding algorithms share. It is unable to de-embed a structure contained
inside a resonant cavity (box). This means that if a box resonance exists for a de-
embedding calibration standard, the final S-parameters should be suspect.
216
To obtain an example of data with a box resonance use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples
to get the file “open_120.geo”.
To analyze the circuit, perform the following:

1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The em main window with
a new job window will appear.
EM
2 Enter “open_120.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box in the job
window.
3 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button under Frequency Control. Then
enter 24.0 in the Start box, 24.6 in the Stop box and 0.1 in the Step box.
4 The default value of GHz is already set, as well as the default options,
Verbose and De-embed so no action need be taken on these items.
The S-parameter results are shown below.
24.0000000 1.000000 -54.96

!< P1 F=24.000 Eeff=(8.1759 0.0000) Z0=(36.47273 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.211362
!
24.1000000 1.000000 -56.91
!< P1 F=24.100 Eeff=(8.1667 0.0000) Z0=(36.22324 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.214332
!
24.2000000 1.000000 -61.60
!< P1 F=24.200 Eeff=(8.1394 0.0000) Z0=(35.53605 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.221539
!
24.3000000 1.000000 -172.2
!< P1 F=24.300 Eeff=(7.7543 0.0000) Z0=(29.14039 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.311480
!
24.4000000 1.000000 -43.44
!< P1 F=24.400 Eeff=(8.2908 0.0000) Z0=(39.71460 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.188056
!
24.5000000 1.000000 -49.36
!< P1 F=24.500 Eeff=(8.2456 0.0000) Z0=(38.25533 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.199493
!
24.6000000 1.000000 -51.58
!< P1 F=24.600 Eeff=(8.2336 0.0000) Z0=(37.85267 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.203249
De-embedded results showing the effects of a box-resonance.
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Here we see the effects of a box resonance with the jump in phase, at 24.3 GHz,
of the de-embedded open end. The sudden steep phase change in S11 is a sure clue
of a box resonance. Note that Eeff and Z0 are also affected. This is because there
is also a resonance in at least one of the standards that em creates for de-
embedding.
In some cases, the standards do not have a box resonance and Z0 and Eeff are
unaffected. To see an example of this, reduce the top layer thickness from 1000
mils to 50 mils. The box resonance moves to 24.85 GHz while the Z0 and Eeff
calculations remain smooth.
Verifying the Box Resonance Problem

When you see a “glitch” in the S-parameter data or in the characteristic
impedance, you can verify whether or not it is a box resonance by using the detect
box resonance option in em. To do this, proceed as follows:
a new job window will appear on your display.
2 Click on the Additional Options command button. This will open the
Additional Options dialog box.
3 Click on the Detect Box Resonance checkbox. Then click on the OK
command button to close the dialog box and apply the option.
window.
6 The default value of GHz is already set, as well as the default options
Verbose and De-embed
The output at 24.3 GHz is shown on page 219.
218
! Box resonances, primary structure.

! TE: 8(0,1,*) 1(1,1,*)
! Box resonances, first standard, side 0.
! TE: 1(1,1,*) 29(1,0,*) 1(0,3,*) 0(1,1,*)
! Box resonances, second standard, side 0.
! TE: 0(1,1,*) 19(1,0,*) 1(0,1,*) 0(0,1,*)
!
EM
24.3000000 1.000000 -172.2
!< P1 F=24.300 Eeff=(7.7543 0.0000) Z0=(29.14039 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.311480
De-embedded results showing a box-resonance at 24.3 GHz.
Notice that the resonance detection information is printed out before, not after, the
frequency of analysis. Also note that the S-parameters are the same; the resonance
has not been removed. We see box resonances listed for the primary structure (the
open end) and for both standards.
The box resonance information tells us that the resonance is Transverse Electric
(TE), i.e., there is no Z directed electric field which is perpendicular to the
substrate surface. Several of the modes are (0,1,*) indicating that there is no
variation (first digit) of field in the X direction, which is the direction of the open
stub, and a half sine wave of variation (second digit) in the Y direction.
The “*” in the mode number indicates that the variation in the Z direction is
unknown. Since we generally have several different dielectrics as we go along the
Z axis, a mode number here is not always clear.
The digit in front of the parentheses is the mode significance. The mode
significance can be used to compare one resonance with another, but has no
physical meaning. For example, the first mode in the primary structure has a
significance of 8. This means that we are closer to exciting this mode than we are
to the second mode, which has a significance of 1. The most important mode is the
(1,0,*) mode in the first standard, with a significance of 29.
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Removing Box Resonances
One way to remove a box resonance is to change the size of the box, either larger
or smaller, to move the resonant frequency out of band. If the problem occurs in
de-embedding, you may be able to change the length of the calibration standard in
xgeom to move the box resonance out of the band of interest.
The box is a resonator because it is completely enclosed. Another way to keep it

from resonating is to just take off the top cover. We can use an approximation of
this by setting the top cover resistivity to 377 ohms/square, the impedance of free
space. You do this by selecting Free Space as the Top Metal in the Box Parameter
dialog box in xgeom. This is an accurate approximation provided the cover is not
so close that it interacts with the evanescent fringing fields surrounding the circuit.
If you wish to model a sheet of resistive material in the box, rather than removal
of the top cover, setting the top cover to that resistivity is accurate no matter how
close the cover is to the circuit. It is an approximation only when used to model
the removal of the top cover.
If you wish to analyze the circuit with the top cover removed, perform the
following:
a new job window will appear on your display.
window.
3 Click on the Editor command button to the right of the Geometry File
text entry box to invoke the xgeom program with the “open_120.geo”
file open.
4 Select Parameters ⇒ Box to open the Box parameters dialog box. Click
on the Top Metal drop list and select Free Space from the metals avail-
able in the drop list. Click on the OK command button to close the dia-
log box and apply the changes.
5 Select File ⇒ Save As to open the Save As dialog box. Enter “open-
loss.geo” in the file name text entry box and click on the OK button to
save the file.
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6 To analyze the file, enter “openloss.geo” in the Geometry File text entry
box in the em job window.
8 The default value of GHz is already set, as well as the default options,
Verbose and De-embed
EM
The results are shown below.
24.0000000 0.989757 -54.86

!< P1 F=24.000 Eeff=(8.1768 5.2e-3) Z0=(36.48887 0.096410) R=0.15584 C=0.211187
!
24.1000000 0.975815 -56.41
!< P1 F=24.100 Eeff=(8.1707 0.0115) Z0=(36.30066 0.231696) R=0.34909 C=0.213525
!
24.2000000 0.931200 -58.15
!< P1 F=24.200 Eeff=(8.1638 0.0309) Z0=(36.03638 0.674346) R=0.94949 C=0.216409
!
24.3000000 0.855048 -54.81
!< P1 F=24.300 Eeff=(8.1921 0.0669) Z0=(36.50667 1.710846) R=2.25883 C=0.212178
!
24.4000000 0.906994 -50.38
!< P1 F=24.400 Eeff=(8.2331 0.0422) Z0=(37.70634 1.320674) R=1.64077 C=0.202681
!
24.5000000 0.951370 -51.13
!< P1 F=24.500 Eeff=(8.2327 0.0198) Z0=(37.77502 0.697364) R=0.81424 C=0.202991
!
24.6000000 0.969205 -52.31
!< P1 F=24.600 Eeff=(8.2288 0.0113) Z0=(37.65657 0.442684) R=0.48646 C=0.204634
De-embedded results with most box-resonances removed.
Most of the resonance has been removed. To remove the resonance more
completely, the top cover can be moved closer to the substrate surface. In fact, if
the cover is moved to within 50 mils, there is absolutely no indication of a
resonance left.
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With the top cover off, em is also including radiation loss in the de-embedded
discontinuity (see the S11 magnitude). The loss has a secondary effect in making
Eeff and Z0 complex as well.
Taking the top cover off works, provided the sidewalls of the box are large enough
to form a propagating waveguide up to the top cover, or you can place the top
cover close enough to the substrate surface to catch the fields in the box mode.
High order “box” modes tend to be confined primarily to the substrate and are
difficult to remove in this manner. As you make the box bigger by increasing the
substrate surface area, the modes “loosen up” so that they can propagate to the top
cover and become absorbed.
To completely absorb any single waveguide mode, set the surface impedance of
the top cover equal to the impedance of the waveguide mode. If you have multiple
modes to absorb, setting the impedance to 377 ohms/square (Free Space Top
Metal) is a nice compromise because some modes are above 377 ohms and others
are below.
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Chapter 20 Viewing Tangential Electric Fields
EM
Chapter 20 Viewing Tangential
Electric Fields
One reason em is so fast is that all of the electric and magnetic fields are solved
for analytically, with “pencil,” “paper” and many equations. The computer need
only do an FFT and solve for the current distribution.
However, on occasion, you want to view the fields, not the current. You do this
with what is called a “sense layer”. The sense layer is a rectangular patch of
conductor placed where you want to see the tangential electric field.
Actually, describing the sense layer as a conductor is misleading. This is because

you set the surface resistance and/or reactance of the conductor to some large
value, say 1,000,000 ohms per square. (We suggest setting the reactance to a large
value instead of the resistance because it is a little more efficient in em.)
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You set the reactance to such a large value so that the sense layer has little
influence on the original fields. An intuitive analogy is to view a sense layer like
inserting a sheet of paper (very high reactance) into the fields. Because the
reactance of the sense layer is high, the currents are very small. The sheet of paper
does not change the fields. When capturing the sense layer, it is best to set X Max
and Y Max to 1 for the best image. See the “Adjusting the Subsectioning,”
page 24.
But even though they are small, what are the currents? The current density is
proportional to the tangential electric fields over the area of the sense layer. This
is just a two dimensional version of Ohms Law: Current is proportional to
Voltage.
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Chapter 20 Viewing Tangential Electric Fields
An example is shown below as viewed by emvu. You may use the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command to get a copy of the geometry file, “tane.geo.” The “tane.geo”
file is based on the “gap20.geo” file.
EM
The tangential electric fields just above a gap discontinuity. The input voltage comes
from the left. Strong fields are present across the gap, especially at the corners. This
analysis was performed at 1 GHz.
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226
Chapter 21 Accuracy Benchmarking
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Chapter 21 Accuracy
Benchmarking
Electromagnetic analyses are often described as providing what is called “Good

Agreement Between Measured And Calculated” (GABMAC). However, in the
past, there has been little effort to decide just what “good” means. The more useful
result is the “Difference Between Measured And Calculated” (DMAC).
In this chapter, we describe a precise benchmark, based on [21], [22] and [24],
which allows the evaluation of DMAC for any 2.5-D or 3-D electromagnetic
analysis down to the 1 x 10-8 level of accuracy.
An Exact Benchmark
What we need to calculate DMAC is an exact benchmark. One source of an exact
benchmark is stripline. The characteristic impedance of a stripline has an exact
theoretical expression K(k) is the complete elliptical integral of the first kind. For
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evaluation on a computer, a polynomial for K(k) is available in Abramowitz and Stegun,

Handbook of Mathematical Functions, pp. 590 - 592. (Be sure to note the errata, m1 = 1-
m2, not 1-m.):
w
η 0 K ( k' )
Z 0 ε r = ------ ------------
4 K( k)
πw
k = tanh  --- ----
2
k' = 1–k
 2 b
η 0 = 376.7303136
The expression for K(k) cited above provides an accuracy of about 1 x 10-8. When
programmed on a computer, the following values are obtained for three different
transmission line impedances (unity dielectric constant):
Table 9 Stripline Benchmark Dimensions
Z0 (ohms) w/b
25.0 3.3260319
50.0 1.4423896
100.0 0.50396767
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For a length of stripline, there are two parameters of interest: characteristic

impedance and propagation velocity. With the w/b given above, we know the
exact answer (to within 1 x 10-8) for Z0. With a dielectric constant of 1.0, we also
know the exact answer for the propagation velocity. It is the speed of light, known
to about 1 x 10-9. Any difference from these values is error, or, DMAC.
Each of the above three benchmarks are available via the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
EM
Examples command. To get the 50 ohm line, to get the file “s50.geo.” The other
benchmark circuits are in “s25.geo” and “s100.geo.”
The “b” dimension is exactly 1.0 mm, the “w” dimension is given by the above
table and the length of each line is 4.99654097 mm with a dielectric constant of
1.0. Each of these lines is precisely 0.25 wavelengths long at 15.0 GHz. The
geometry files have the subsectioning set so the lines are 16 cells wide and 128
cells long. Analysis time is a few seconds on an HP-710.
To evaluate DMAC, do an analysis of the line at 15 GHz, with de-embedding

enabled. For the error in characteristic impedance take the percent difference
between the calculated value and the exact value, above. For the error in
propagation velocity, take the percent difference between the calculated S21 phase
and -90 degrees. Total error, in percent, is the sum of the two errors.
Some types of analyses do not calculate characteristic impedance. A detailed error

analysis shows that, to first order for a 1/4 wavelength long 50 ohm line, the value
of |S11| is equal to the error in characteristic impedance. For example, an |S11| =
0.02 means that there is about 2% error in characteristic impedance. To use this
approximation for, say, a 25 ohm line, the S-parameters must be converted to 25
ohm S-parameters. This may be done by adding transformers in a circuit theory
program.
Residual Error Evaluation

We have performed a detailed analysis of the relationship between subsectioning
and residual error (DMAC). The simplest way to subsection a line is to use
subsections the same width as the line. In Sonnet, and in many other analyses, this
results in a uniform current distribution across the width of the line. In reality, the
current distribution is singular at the edges of the line.
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Since the current distribution is symmetrical about the center line, using either one
or two subsections across the width of the line gives the same amount of error.
We find that a one or two subsection wide line gives 5% to 6% error. If there is
not much stray coupling, circuit theory can often give a better result. When the line
is 16 cells wide, we see about 1% error, much more reasonable. We have found
(and you can verify) that convergence is very strong: Double the number of cells
per line width and the error is cut in half.
When we vary the number of cells per wavelength, along the length of the line, we
see an inverse square relationship. Double the number of cells per wavelength
along the length of the line and the percent error decreases by a factor of four.
An equation which expresses the error as a function of subsectioning is:
16 2
E T ≅ -------- + 2  -------
16
NW ≥ 3 N L ≥ 16
NW N 
L
where
NW = Number of cells per line width,
NL = Number of cells per wavelength along line
length,
ET = Total Error (DMAC) (%).
This equation estimates subsectioning error only. For example, any de-embedding
errors are added to the above error. This error estimate should be valid for any
electromagnetic analysis which uses roof-top subsectioning.
Notice that the quantities used for the error estimate are in terms of cells, not
subsections. Cells are the smallest possible subsections size. In Sonnet,
subsections in the corners of polygons are one cell on a side. Subsections along
the edge of polygons are one cell wide and can be many cells long. Interior
subsections can be many cells in both dimensions.
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We have found that, for most cases, the cell size is the important parameter in
determining error. Or in other words, the smallest subsection size is important. For
example, the stripline benchmark geometry files, mentioned before, are set to
make the lines 16 cells wide, even though those 16 cells may be merged into only
4 or 5 subsections. It is the 16 cells which determine the level of error, not the 4
or 5 subsections.
EM
In performing this error evaluation, we also found that the error in characteristic
impedance due to NW is always high, never low. Also, there is very little variation
in the error for different impedance lines. The above equation can be very accurate
in evaluating error. And, finally, for NL above about 40 cells per wavelength, all
the error is in the characteristic impedance. The error in velocity of propagation is
essentially zero.
The above equation can be very accurate in evaluating error. With this precise
knowledge of the error, we can now do something about it!
Using the Error Estimates

The above error estimate can be used to estimate the error for an overall circuit.
Let’s say that a cell size is used that makes some high impedance transmission
lines only 1 cell wide. Other, low impedance transmission lines, are, say, 30 cells
wide. The 1 cell wide lines give us about 5% error. The 30 cell wide lines give
about 0.5% error. In non-resonant situations, you can expect the total error to be
somewhere between 5% and 0.5%. If most of the circuit is the low impedance line,
the error is closer to 0.5%, etc.
However, let’s say that our circuit has resonant structures. Let’s say it is a low pass
filter. It is easy to verify by means of circuit theory that the low pass filter is very
sensitive to the high impedance lines. This means we can expect about 5% error,
even though the high impedance lines only make up half the filter.
Given this information, there are several courses of action. First, if 5% error is
acceptable, no further effort is needed.
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More likely, we wish to analyze the filter with less error. Since we now know the
error in the characteristic impedance is 5%, we can physically widen the line so
that the characteristic impedance is 5% lower to compensate for the known
increase in characteristic impedance due to subsectioning the line only one cell
wide. Very precise analyses are possible using this compensation technique.
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Chapter 22 Range of Analysis Validity
EM
Chapter 22 Range of Analysis
Validity
Em is a complete electromagnetic analysis; all electromagnetic effects, such as

dispersion, loss, stray coupling, etc., are included. There are only two
approximations used by em. First, the finite numerical precision inherent in digital
computers. Second, em subdivides the metalization into small subsections.
The cell size is important factor in determining the accuracy. By using a smaller
cell size, metal edges can be more accurately defined and the current distribution
is better represented. The trade-off is increased execution time. A quantitative
description of accuracy versus cell size is given in Chapter 21, “Accuracy
Benchmarking.”
The trade-off between execution time and accuracy increases the degrees of
freedom available to the design engineer.
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Subsection Size
There are actually two limits on subsection size, a minimum and a maximum.
When we refer to a cell, we have in mind the minimum limit. For example, a
circuit may cover 10,000 cells. Em can use variable size cells, which we refer to
as subsections. That same 10,000 cell circuit could be subsectioned into only 200
variable sized subsections. The maximum limit determines the size of the largest
subsection (which may cover many cells).
With a maximum frequency in mind, the cell size should be set so that a single cell
is no more than a fraction of a wavelength at the maximum frequency of analysis.
The parameter Max. Subsection Size allows the specification of a maximum

subsection size, in terms of subsections per wavelength, where the wavelength is
approximated at the beginning of the analysis. The highest analysis frequency is
used in the calculation of the wavelength.
The default of 20 subsections/λ is fine for most work. This means that the
maximum size of a subsection is 18 degrees at the highest frequency of analysis.
Increasing this number decreases the maximum subsection size until the limit of
1 subsection = 1 cell is reached.
As the limits of subsection size, both maximum and minimum, are made smaller,
the em analysis is asymptotically exact. Given sufficient computer resources, an
arbitrarily accurate answer may be achieved.
Chapter 3 contains a detailed explanation of subsectioning.
Metalization and Dielectric Thickness

The analysis assumes zero metalization thickness. This could result in some
discrepancy for thick lines which are tightly coupled. An approximation for
metalization thickness is to have two zero thickness metalization levels, one at the
top and the other at the bottom of the actual metalization. Layer to layer vias may
be used to form the sides of the thick lines as described in Chapter 18, “Thick
Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section.”
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Chapter 22 Range of Analysis Validity
Dielectric layer thickness and dielectric constant have no impact on the accuracy
as long as the layers are greater than 0.05 microns thick. For layers thinner than
0.05 microns, numerical precision may not allow accurate answers. The substrate
area has no impact on accuracy. However, it does have a secondary impact on
analysis time.
All coupling between all subsections is calculated and included in the analysis,
EM
even coupling between patches of metalization which are not connected to
anything.
Numerical Precision
Em experiences a numerical precision problem (difference between two large
numbers) if the subsection size gets too small. For example, if the subsection size
is several microns and the frequency is a few kilohertz, there are precision
problems. The results quickly become obviously bad. A higher frequency of
analysis, or use of quadruple precision can solve the problem. At a higher
frequency, the subsection becomes larger, in terms of wavelengths.
The precision problem also arises with vias. This is especially true if, in addition
to the small cell size, the via is in a thin layer, say a micron or less. Unreasonable
results are seen as high as several hundred MHz, or even 1 GHz. The net effect of
the loss of precision makes the via appear to have a very long phase length. These
problems become worse if the Memory Save option is used. Again, use of the
quadruple precision option can solve the problem in exchange for increased
analysis time.
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236
Chapter 23 Time Required for Analysis
EM
Chapter 23 Time Required for
Analysis
Em is a memory and computation intensive program. Small circuits are analyzed

quickly while large circuits can require a considerable amount of time. In some
cases, it may be desirable to run the program in the background.
There is no simple rule for calculating the time required for a particular analysis
although there are guidelines, presented below, which will afford you some
measure of control over that time.
The amount of time required is closely related to the number of subsections, which
is printed out when em is run with the Verbose option. After a few trials, you will
have a good idea of whether an analysis is a few seconds, a few hours, or just
totally hopeless by looking at the number of subsections.
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The most important factor in the execution time required is the amount of memory
required by em compared with the amount of memory you have. This is also
printed out by em if you use the Verbose option. If em says you need 36 Mbytes
and you have 16 Mbytes installed, then it is a good idea to kill the run quickly.
You can reduce the memory required by using the Memory Save option, which
makes the analysis single precision. You can also try to reduce the area of
metalization in the circuit. Try to eliminate any metal that is not carrying current
and make connecting lines as short as possible (but not too short, see Chapters 6
and 7 on de-embedding).
Another approach, if your memory requirement is right on the edge, is to free up

some of your computer’s memory. Make sure no one else is also running a big
number cruncher at the same time.
The estimate of required memory printed out by em is just an estimate. It is usually

within 1 Mbyte or so, but could be off by much more. To get both the memory
estimate and the number of subsections without going on to actually analyze the
circuit, use the Calculate Memory Usage option, available in the Additional
Options dialog box.
For most circuits, the following equation can be used to estimate the amount of
memory that will be used by em:
B = K*N2
where B is the number of bytes, and N is the number of subsections. K is equal to

8 if running with double precision and loss. This can be circuit metal loss, top or
bottom cover loss or dielectric loss. K is equal to 4 if you are running with loss but
using Memory Save or running lossless and using double precision. K is equal to
2 if you are running a lossless circuit and using Memory Save. This equation
should be used only as an estimate as it only includes the memory used by the final
matrix in em. Circuits with large boxes (in terms of number of cells) or many
layers require more memory. You should use this equation to calculate an upper
limit on the number of subsections for your computer.
For UNIX systems, you can check the memory actually used by typing the “ps”
(process status) command. Consult your system administrator or UNIX manuals
for details on the “ps” command.
238
To check how much of your system’s memory is actually available for your use,
select Help ⇒ System Info from the em Control main menu. The System
Information dialog box appears on your display and contains the information on
system memory use.
EM
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Em User’s Manual
The “Wall”
When using circuit theory analysis, an increase in circuit complexity gradually
produces an increase in analysis time. With an electromagnetic analysis, the
increase happens suddenly. A mere doubling of circuit complexity (say, by using
a smaller subsection size) can result in one, or even two, orders of magnitude
longer analysis. We call this the “Wall” (see the charts below).
Circuit Theory
Time
Complexity
Electromagnetics
Time
Complexity
240
The Wall is frequently encountered when em runs out of real memory, as

described above, and is forced to start swapping out to disk. Execution time can
quickly go from a few minutes to a few hours. Either get more memory or modify
the circuit so that there are fewer subsections.
To avoid the wall, start with no loss (metal or dielectric) and use a large
subsection size. Perform the first analysis at a single frequency to evaluate how
EM
long an analysis takes. Then, provided you get fast results, try adding loss or
making the subsection size smaller. Keep going until the analysis is as long as you
can tolerate and then let it run over a full range of frequencies, perhaps overnight.
The main factor in analysis time is the number of subsections. Em prints out the
number of subsections if the Verbose option is used. As you gain experience with
em, you will get a good feel for what can be tolerated. For example, on a Sun
SPARCstation 1 with 16 Mbytes of memory, up to 1700 subsections (lossless) or
1200 subsections (with loss) can be calculated in an hour or so. At this point the
computer runs out of memory and starts swapping to disk, resulting in huge
increases in time.
To avoid the frustrations of getting on the slow side of the wall, start lossless with
big subsections. You may find that big subsections provide all the accuracy you
need!
Detailed Parameter Dependencies

How do changes in the various input parameters affect the analysis time?
First, keep in mind that em has two stages in the analysis. In the first stage, em fills
a large matrix. The matrix has one row/column for each subsection. This is where
em is calculating the coupling between every possible pair of subsections. In the
second stage, em is solving the matrix. Here, em is performing matrix inversion-
like functions and is calculating the currents which allow all boundary conditions
to be met. The different parameters affect each stage of the analysis differently.
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During analysis of the first frequency in a run, em prints out the amount of time
spent on various portions of the analysis. If the time spent in any particular section
of the analysis is less than one second, it is not printed out. Sections which are
timed include the waveguide mode calculation (prior to matrix fill), the matrix fill
and the matrix inversion.
Parameters which have no effect on analysis time include the substrate thickness,
cover height and number of ports. Each of these parameters is unlimited and have
no impact on speed while still maintaining complete accuracy.
Including metalization loss increases the matrix solve time only. And this is only
if the rest of the structure is lossless. If there is any dielectric loss or ground plane
(or top cover) loss, there is virtually no additional impact from also including
metalization loss (the whole calculation is already fully complex). The matrix
solution time is increased by about a factor of four (if it becomes complex).
Metalization loss has no impact on any other segment of the analysis.
Including dielectric loss, or ground plane or top cover loss, makes the entire
calculation complex. The matrix solve time is increased by about a factor of four,
while the matrix fill time is increased by about a factor of two.
In calculating the values for the matrix elements during the matrix fill, several two
dimensional Fourier Transforms must be calculated. The size of the Fourier
Transforms is the same size as the substrate in terms of cells. If a substrate is 128
x 64 cell, each Fourier Transform is 128 x 64 elements. Memory storage is
required for only one Fourier Transform at a time and this is usually much smaller
than the matrix being filled.
For large substrate dimensions (as measured in terms of cells), it is best to use a
power of two. With a substrate dimension of 32 cells, there is little difference
when a power of two is used. However if the substrate dimension is 512 cells,
noticeably slower execution results if one were to use 500 cells. With a power of
two, a FFT algorithm is automatically used to evaluate the Fourier Transform
which significantly improves processing time.
For non-binary substrate sizes, the analysis is speeded up by the use of chirp Z-
transforms in place of discrete Fourier Transforms for the matrix fill calculations.
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For all the above detail, keep in mind that if the substrate is small (less than
256x256 cells), the Fourier Transform time is of little consequence.
If the Quad Precision option is used, all matrix fill operations are performed in
quadruple precision. Depending on the computer and specific problem being
solved, this can add substantial time to the analysis. The precision used in the
matrix solve is not affected by the Quad Precision option.
EM
Matrix fill time is proportional to the number of subsections squared for large
circuits.
The number of subsections, for a given cell size, can be reduced by minimizing
the number of vertices and the number of diagonal lines in the polygonal
description of the circuit. If the circuit is symmetric with no more than two ports,
with both ports on the axis of symmetry, invoke the symmetry option for a
significant memory and time savings.
The matrix solve time is proportional to the number of subsections cubed and is
the main limitation on the analysis at this time.
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244
Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File
EM
Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis
of a Geometry File
There are two types of analysis that may be done in em: Geometry File or Network
File. This chapter describes how to invoke em and set up the analysis of a
geometry file. Chapter 25 will describe the analysis of a network file.
A geometry file, created by xgeom, provides geometry information for a single 3-

D planar circuit. The file name must have the extension “.geo”. Em will execute
an electromagnetic analysis of this circuit at the frequencies specified directly in
the em interface or through use of an analysis control file. The desired output is
specified by selecting run options and output file types.
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Invoking em
You start the em program by selecting em Control from the Sonnet task bar. If you
do not know how to invoke the Sonnet task bar, refer to “Invoking Sonnet,”
page 11. When you select em Control, the main window with a new job window
will appear on your display as shown below.
File text entry box File drop down list
Directory drop
down list
Directory text
entry box
Em job window.
When em is started, the main window opens with a new job file already open. How
to manipulate job files is discussed in “Job Files,” page 279.
Selecting a Geometry File Analysis

You must select the type of analysis you wish to run: Geometry File or Network
File.
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• To analyze a geometry file, click on the Geometry radio button under File
Type in the job window.
The job window will appear as shown in the figure on page 246. The Frequency
Controls and Options now available in the job window are those appropriate for
analyzing a geometry file. This window’s appearance will vary slightly for an
analysis of a network file.
EM
Analysis Input Files
This section will discuss specifying, and editing, the geometry file.
Selecting a Geometry File
To select the geometry file for analysis, you must specify the directory and the file
name. The directory is entered in the box labeled “Start In :” and the file name is
entered in the File text entry box just above the Directory text entry box.
• Select the directory and file name.
You may enter these several different ways:
• Use the Browse button to browse the file system for the file name;
this will set both the directory and the file name.
OR
1 Set the directory by either:
• Editing the Directory text entry box
• Selecting a previously used directory from the Directory drop down
list.
2 Set the file name by either
• Editing the File text entry box
• Selecting a previously used file name from the file name drop down
list.
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Editing a Geometry File
You may wish to make changes to a geometry file before running an analysis by
editing the circuit in the xgeom program.
• Click on the Edit command button, which appears after the File text entry
box, to invoke the xgeom program with the geometry file open.
For details on how to use xgeom to modify your circuit, please see the Xgeom
User’s Manual.
! WARNING
You must save the circuit geometry file in xgeom for the changes
made in the editing session to be available before running an
analysis.
Specifying Frequency Control

This section of the em job window, highlighted in the figure below, allows you to
control the frequencies used in analyzing the geometry file.
Frequency Control section of the em job window.
Setting up a Simple Sweep

A simple sweep is used to execute an analysis using only one or multiple
frequencies evenly spaced in an ascending order.
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1 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button in the Frequency Control section of
the job window.
2 Enter the Start, Stop and Step values in the appropriate text entry boxes.
EM
If you wish to analyze at only one frequency, enter that frequency in the Start text
entry box. Otherwise, Start provides the beginning frequency, Stop the ending
frequency and Step the spacing. For instance if the Frequency Units were set to
GHz, then the values of 2, 10, 2 would start an analysis at 2 GHz and end at 10
GHz with steps of 2 GHz (e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 GHz)
TIP
If you omit the step value in a simple sweep, the circuit is analyzed at two
frequencies, the start and stop values.
3 Select the frequency units.
Select the units for the analysis frequencies from the Frequency drop list. The
choices are Hz, KHz, MHz, GHz, THz and PHz. The default setting upon opening
a new em interface is GHz.
Setting Up a Complex Sweep

Complex sweeps are used to run an analysis using multiple sets of frequencies in
sorted or unsorted order, and may also enable intelligent frequency selection
(IFS), such as finding the maximum or minimum value for a parameter. Complex
sweeps are not available for a network file. Network file frequency control is
provided in one of three ways: a simple sweep, internal to the network file or by
an analysis control file.
1 Click on the Complex Sweep radio button under Frequency Control in the
em job window.
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This will enable the Edit button to allow you to set up a complex sweep.
2 Click on the Edit command button which appears next to the Complex
Sweep radio button.
The Analysis Control dialog box will appear as shown below. This dialog box
allows you to edit frequency control information. For details on how to edit the
complex sweep, see “Editing Analysis Controls,” page 264.
The Analysis Control - Internal dialog box.
Using an Analysis Control File
There may be times where you will wish to analyze multiple circuits at the same
set of frequencies. Rather than specifying frequency control information on an
individual basis, you set the up the information once in an analysis control file.
You then specify the analysis control file as input to control each analysis. An
analysis control file may be used to control the analysis frequencies for either a
geometry or network file. You may specify an analysis control file and edit the
contents in the same manner as a Complex Sweep. For details about the contents
and syntax of an analysis control file, see Appendix II, “The Analysis Control File
Format.”
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• Click on the Analysis File radio button under Frequency Control in the em
job window.
Enter the file name of the desired analysis control file.
NOTE: The default directory for the analysis control file will be the same as
the input file specified in the top of the job window. If you wish to use
EM
a control file from a different directory use the Browse command or
type the complete or relative pathname of the file.
You may edit the specified analysis control file by clicking on the Edit command
button. This will open the Analysis Control dialog box. For details on using the
dialog box to edit your file, see section “Editing Analysis Controls,” page 264.
Selecting Run Options

You may select various options for the analysis of the geometry file including
advanced options.
Selecting Job Window Options

There are four options available in the job window for an geometry file analysis,
which may be turned on when you wish to use the option and set to off if the option
is not desired. The Verbose and De-embed options are set to on by default for a
new job run.
Verbose Option: Causes em to display messages in the output window during
program execution describing the current state of the analysis.
De-embed Option: The circuit is automatically de-embedded to the specified
reference planes, or the box edge if no reference planes are specified in the
geometry file. For a detailed discussion of de-embedding refer to Chapters 6 and
7.
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If this option is on, an output file containing the de-embedded response data is
produced. The name defaults to the circuit geometry file basename with a “.d”
extension. For example, if the input file is “steps.geo” then the response file is
automatically named “steps.d”. If you wish to name the output file differently see
“Specifying Output Files,” page 270.
Memory Save Option: The system matrix is filled in single precision which
reduces memory requirements for storing the matrix to one half of that of double
precision. If this option is not used, the matrix is stored in double precision. This
option affects only the matrix storage and the matrix solution. The precision of the
matrix fill calculations is not affected.
Make emvu File Option: Outputs current density information for the entire
circuit which can be viewed using emvu. For details on using the emvu program,
see the Emvu User’s Manual.
The file name for the current density information defaults to the input file
basename with the extension “.jxy”. For example, if the input file is “steps.geo”,
then the current density file will be named “steps.jxy”. If you wish to name the
output file differently, see “Specifying Output Files,” page 270. If the “.jxy” file
already exists, it is renamed “.jxb” and output is sent to the new, empty, “.jxy” file.
In this case, any previous “.jxb” file is lost.
Selecting Additional Options

There are more options available for a geometry file analysis in the Additional
Options dialog box. These options provide advanced control over em’s execution.
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1 Click on the Additional Options command button in the job window to open
the Additional Options dialog box, shown below.
EM
The dialog box contains sections for selecting run mode, output parameter type,
output data format, output file format, and various options as well as a text entry
box for entering advanced options.
2 Select the Run Mode.
To execute em in the normal manner and perform a full analysis, you click on the
Full Analysis radio button.
If you click on the Calculate Memory Usage radio button, em will calculate the
number of subsections followed by an estimate of the number of Mbytes of
memory required. The actual analysis is not performed.
To see how a particular circuit is subsectioned, click on the Generate Subsections

Only radio button. Em will output a current density file containing subsectioning
information only, which you must view using emvu. The data file will have an
extension of “.jxy.”
For a detailed discussion of subsectioning, see Chapter 3, “Subsectioning.”
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3 Select the output parameter type.

You select the parameter type by clicking on the S, Y or Z radio button to pick S-
Parameters, Y-Parameters or Z-Parameters, respectively.
4 Select the output data format.

You may choose between Touchstone or Compact by clicking on the appropriate
radio button.
5 Select the output file format.

You may choose between Magnitude/Angle, Real/Imaginary or Magnitude/dB by
clicking on the appropriate radio button.
6 Select various options as needed.

High Precision Output: Outputs higher precision numbers (more significant
figures) to the response file. This file is useful if you plan on using the data later
in a network analysis.
Detect Box Resonance: Detects box resonance. For a detailed discussion of box
resonance, please see Chapter 19, “Package Resonances.”
Edge Mesh: Edge subsections are always one cell wide regardless of X Min or Y
Min. When used in conjunction with large X Min or Y Min values, this option can
be very useful in reducing the number of subsections while still maintaining the
edge singularity.
Quad Precision: Quadruple precision option. If cell size is less than about 10-5
wavelengths and vias are used in the circuit, numerical precision can cause
numerical error. This option switches the matrix fill calculations to quadruple
precision so that very low frequency analysis is accurate. For example, for a cell
size of 1 micron and a frequency of 1 GHz, errors may be seen, and this option
should be used.
Be aware, however, that Quad Precision can slow the analysis down substantially;
use the option only when necessary. Analyzing the circuit at a higher frequency is
often a better solution.
This option affects only the matrix fill calculations. This option and Memory Save
are completely independent.
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7 Enter any desired advanced options in the Advanced Options text entry box.
This text entry box allows you to enter advanced command options that are not
otherwise available. For details on the options and their specifications see
Appendix I, “The em Command Line.”
EM
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Chapter 25 Em Interface: Analysis of a Network File
EM
Chapter 25 Em Interface: Analysis
of a Network File
There are two types of analysis that may be done in em: Geometry File or Network
File. This chapter describes how to set up the analysis of a network file in em.
Chapter 24 describes the analysis of a geometry file.
A network file defines a circuit made of components which may consist of

multiple geometry files, previously existing data files, resistors, capacitors,
inductors and transmission lines. The file name must have the extension “.net.”
Em will execute an electromagnetic analysis of this circuit at the frequencies
specified within the network file or through use of an external analysis control file.
The desired output is specified by selecting run options and output file types. For
details on the network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network File.”
For details about invoking em, see “Invoking em,” page 246.
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Selecting a Network File Analysis

You must select the type of analysis you wish to run: Geometry File or Network
File.
• To analyze a network file, click on the Network radio button under File Type
in the job window.
The job window will appear as shown below. The Frequency Controls and
Options now available in the job window are those appropriate for analyzing a
network file. This window’s appearance will vary slightly for an analysis of a
geometry file.
The em job window for a network file analysis.
Analysis Input Files

This section will discuss specifying the network file and editing the network file.
Selecting a Network File
This allows you to select the network file which you wish to analyze.
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• Enter the file name in the File text entry box.

You may enter the file name in one of three ways: edit the text entry box, select a
file name from the droplist or click on the Browse command button to open the
Browse dialog box which will allow you to change directories if needed.
You may also change directories by picking one from the drop list attached to the
Start In text entry box.
EM
Editing a Network File
You may wish to make changes to a network file before running an analysis by
editing the contents of the file.
• Click on the Edit command button, which appears after the File text entry
box, to invoke Notepad, or Vi, with the netlist file open.
Notepad is an ASCII text editor, available on all Windows platforms. For details
on how to use Notepad please see the appropriate documentation in your Windows
package. For details on the network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network File.”
! WARNING
You must save the network file for the changes made in the editing
session to be available before running an analysis.
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Specifying Frequency Control

This section of the em job window, shown below, allows you to control the
frequencies used in analyzing the network file. You may select a simple sweep, an
internal sweep or an analysis control file. For details on the analysis control file
option, see “Using an Analysis Control File,” page 250.
The Frequency Control section of the job window for a network file analysis.
Selecting a Simple Sweep
A simple sweep functions the same when used to analyze a network file or a
geometry file. For details on the simple sweep, see “Setting up a Simple Sweep,”
page 248.
Selecting Internal Sweep

An internal sweep uses the frequency control information provided in the FREQ
block of the network file as opposed to an external control file. This option is only
available for a network file.
• Click on the Internal Sweep radio button under Frequency Control in the
em job window
Selecting Run Options

You may select various options for the analysis of the network file including
advanced options.
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Selecting the Verbose Option
The Verbose option is set to on by default in a new job run. This option will cause
em to display messages in the output window during program execution
describing the present state of the analysis.
Selecting Additional Options for a Network File
EM
There are additional options available for a network file analysis in the Additional
Options dialog box. These options provide advanced control over em’s execution.
• Click on the Additional Options command button in the job window to open
the Additional Options dialog box.
The Additional Options dialog box for a network file.
The dialog box contains three options and an Advanced Option text entry box. To
select an individual option, click on the checkbox. The option is on if a check
appears inside the checkbox. The options and their use are described below.
Use last data sets only Option: This will exclude all data sets present in an
existing em response file except the final set with a tag which matches the tag
specified in the SNP statement. See “Using Data Tags,” page 146.
Do not check for consistency Option: Em will not check for geometry file
consistency. All data sets in an existing em response file are read regardless of
consistency. See “Geometry File Consistency,” page 148 for details.
Force Running Option: This will ignore any existing analysis data. All em
analyses are run at all frequencies.
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Advanced Options: This text entry box allows you to enter advanced command
line options that are not otherwise available. For details on the options and their
specifications, see Appendix I, “The em Command Line.”
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Chapter 26 Em Interface: Run Controls
EM
Chapter 26 Em Interface: Run
Controls
This chapter details the em interface by describing how to accomplish various

tasks while running the em program. The following will be discussed:
• How to specify frequency control information.
• How to execute an analysis run.
• How to view your analysis results.
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Editing Analysis Controls

When editing a complex sweep or an analysis control file, input is provided
through the Analysis Control dialog box, shown below.
You add frequency controls by clicking on the Add, Add IFS... or Add Separator
command buttons in the Analysis Control dialog box. Entries will appear in the
Frequency Control Entries list box.
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Adding Frequency Controls

• Click on the Add command button in the Analysis Control dialog box to
open the Frequency Control dialog box.
EM
This dialog box allows you to define one of four types of sweeps: a simple sweep,
single frequency, exponential sweep or linear sweep. You select the type of sweep
by clicking on the respective radio button. You then enter the required
specifications for that sweep type in the text entry boxes. The sweep types and
associated data are described below. An entry line will appear in the Frequency
Control Entries list in the Analysis Control dialog box when you click on the OK
command button.
Sweep: An entry line starting with SWEEP specifies a list of analysis frequencies.
Three numbers specify a start, stop and step. Step provides the increment between
frequencies. For example,
SWEEP 2.0 10.0 2.0
will analyze at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 GHz.
The start, stop and step are all checked for error conditions. As many SWEEP lines
may be used as is needed. When complete, the frequency list is sorted. There is no
limit on the number of frequencies.
Single Sweep: An entry line starting with STEP followed by up to three discrete
frequency points as desired. The text entry boxes are FREQ1, FREQ2 and
FREQ3. You may enter up to 3 individual frequencies if desired. For example,
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STEP 3.0 17.5 28.0
will analyze at 3, 17.5 and 28 GHz.

Exponential Sweep: An entry line starting with ESWEEP specifies an
exponential frequency sweep from the starting frequency to the end frequency
with a common ratio between the desired number of frequency points. The text
entry boxes are Start, Stop and # of Points. The # of Points is the number of
frequency points used for the analysis. For example,
ESWEEP 8.0 64.0 4.0
will analyze at 8, 16, 32 and 64 GHz.

Linear Sweep: An entry line starting with LSWEEP followed by three integers
specifying the start, stop and number of frequencies. The text entry boxes are
Start, Stop and # of Points. The # of Points is the number of frequency points used
for the analysis. For example,
LSWEEP 5.0 40.0 8.0
will analyze at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 GHz.
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Entering Intelligent Frequency Controls

• Click on the Add IFS command button in the Analysis Control dialog box to
open the Intelligent Frequency Control dialog box.
EM
This dialog box allows you to define one of three types of sweeps: an auto sweep,
a find minimum sweep and a find maximum sweep.You select the type of sweep
by clicking on the respective radio button. You then enter the required
specifications for that sweep type in the text entry boxes which appear. The sweep
types and associated data are described below. The command will appear in the
Frequency Control Entries list in the Analysis Control dialog box when you click
on the OK command button.
For a detailed discussion of intelligent frequency controls, see Chapter 10,

“Intelligent Frequency Selection.”
Auto: This feature automatically determines where to place frequency points. In
the rapidly varying regions, the frequency points will be spaced close together. In
the slowly varying regions, frequency points will be spaced farther apart. The text
entry boxes are as follows: Start, Stop, Precision and Number of Points. The
Number of Points text entry box is the number of frequencies between the start and
stop frequency at which em will analyze. The Precision text entry box specifies
the finest frequency resolution allowed for the analysis. All frequency points
chosen by em will be spaced by at least the precision value.
Find Min: Find Min determines the frequency where the circuit response reaches
a minimum. The text entry boxes are as follows: Start, Stop, Precision, Parameter
and Number of Points. The Precision text entry box specifies the finest frequency
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resolution allowed for the analysis. All frequency points chosen by em will be
spaced by at least the precision value. The Parameter text entry box defines the
parameter for which you wish to determine the minimum value. For instance,
“S2_1” would be S21. The Number of Points text entry box is the number of
frequencies between the start and stop frequency at which em will analyze. This
optional value can be used to set a reasonable limit on the number of iterations in
the analysis.
Find Max: Find Max functions in the same manner as Find Min except that it
determines the frequency where the circuit response reaches a maximum.
Entering a Separator
• Click on the Add Separator command button to add an END statement to the
Frequency Control Entries.
The END command causes em to sort and analyze all frequencies not yet analyzed
which precede the END keyword. A separator is used to force a particular order
of frequencies.
Editing a Frequency Control Entry
After you have entered a frequency control, you may wish to change it.
• Click on the entry in the Frequency Control Entries text box.
The entry will be highlighted in reverse video. Click on the Edit command button
to open the appropriate dialog box to edit the command. The same dialog box that
was used to enter the command will now appear. Click on the Delete command
button to delete the entry.
Specifying SPICE Parameters

The SPICE dialog box allows you to set up parameters for a SPICE lumped
element synthesis. These values are used in the analysis control file when an “.lct”
output file is specified. For a discussion of SPICE formatted output, see Chapter
16, “SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis.”
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• Click on the SPICE command button in the Analysis Control dialog box to
open the SPICE dialog box.
EM
The SPICE dialog box allows you to enter the parameters necessary for producing
a SPICE lumped model. The parameters are defined below. To enter a value, edit
the respective text entry box.
Rmax: This value specifies the largest resistor allowed for inclusion in the SPICE
lumped model, in ohms. The default value is 1000.0 ohms.
Cmin: This values specifies the smallest capacitor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in pF. The default value is 0.1 pF.
Lmax: This values specifies the largest inductor allowed for inclusion in a SPICE
lumped model, in nH. The default value is 100.0 nH.
Kmin: This values specifies the smallest mutual inductance allowed for inclusion
in a SPICE lumped model; it is a dimensionless ratio. The default value is 0.01.
Rzero: This value specifies the resistor to go in series with all lossless inductors,
in ohms. This parameter is provided for those versions of SPICE which require
inductors with some small loss, to avoid numerical difficulties. The default value
of 0.0 disables this capability.
Adding Comments to the Analysis Control File

• Click on the Comments command button in the Analysis Control dialog box
to open the Comments text entry box.
Edit the text entry box with any comments pertaining to the circuit. These
comments will appear in the em response file.
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Specifying the Subsectioning Frequency
Normally, the highest frequency of analysis is used as the subsectioning

frequency. This option allows you to specify another subsectioning frequency.
• Enter the desired frequency in the Subsectioning Frequency text entry box
in the Analysis Control text entry box.
NOTE: The higher of the two values, the entered subsectioning frequency or
the highest frequency specified in the analysis, is used as the
subsectioning frequency.
Saving Frequency Controls

When you are done editing a Complex Sweep, click on the OK button to save the
information and close the Analysis Control dialog box. If you wish to export the
complex sweep to a file, click on the Export command button.
When you are done editing an analysis control file, you may save the file under
the same name, or a different name by clicking on the Save command button and
the Save As command button, respectively.
Specifying Output Files

There are seven different types of response data files which em can output.
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• Click on the Output Files command button in the job window to open the
Select Output Files dialog box.
EM
To select an output file, click on the checkbox and edit the accompanying text
entry box with the desired file name, if the default name is not acceptable. The file
name defaults to the basename of the input geometry file with the appropriate
extension. For example for a non-de-embedded response file the extension is
“.nd”. If “steps.geo” is the input file, then the output file would default to
“steps.nd”. The type of output files are described below.
.nd name: This file type contains response parameters with no de-embedding
done. The file name must end with a “.nd” extension. This is the default output file
if the De-embed option is not set.
.d name: This file type contains response parameters with de-embedding
applied.The file name must end with a “.d” extension. Selecting this output file
will also set the De-embed option in the job window. This output file is selected
with the default file name if the De-embed option is set.
.jxy name: This file type contains current density data for use with the emvu
program.The file name must end with a “.jxy” extension. Selecting this output file
will also set the Make Emvu File option in the job window. This output file is
selected with the default file name if the Make Emvu File option is set.
.pnd name: This file type is a high precision circuit response file with no de-
embedding. The high precision output files contain S-parameter data in real/
imaginary format with more precision than a “.d” or “.nd” file. They are primarily
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intended for internal use when executing a GEO line in a network file. Generally,
you do not need to be concerned with these files. However, you may wish to create
a high precision file if you plan on re-using the data in a network analysis.
.pd name: This file type is the same as the “.pnd” file except the response data is
de-embedded.
.lc name: This file type contains a SPICE lumped model suitable for
incorporating as a “.subckt” directly in a SPICE deck. For a detailed discussion of
the SPICE file options, see Chapter 16, “SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis.” The
file name must end with a “.lc” extension.
.lct name: This file type contains a SPICE distributed N-coupled line RLCG
matrix in SPICE format. For a detailed discussion of the SPICE file options, see
Chapter 16, “SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis.” The file name must end with a
“.lct” extension.
Running an em Analysis
This section discusses running an em analysis: starting, stopping, pausing and
viewing run lists.
Viewing the Run List
The run list allows you to set up a sequence of em jobs, to be run one after another.
The run list contains a list of command line equivalents of the options and files
specified in each job. Multiple entries in the run list may be used in a batch like
manner to execute multiple analysis runs.
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• To view the run list, click on the Show Run List toggle button, or select View
⇒ Run List from the main menu.
The run list will appear at the bottom of the job window as shown below.
EM
The em job window with the run list displayed.
To hide the run list, click on the Hide Run List toggle button, or select View ⇒ Run
List from the main menu.
Editing the Run List

The initial command line appears by default when a new em window is opened
and appears as follows:
Not Run: em -dv
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“Not Run” means the command line has not yet been executed. The -dv is for the
De-embed and Verbose options which are set by default at initialization. As you
use the interface to select files, frequency controls and run options, this command
line will be modified to reflect those choices. For instance, if you select the
geometry file, “steps.geo” and the analysis control file, “ctl.an”, then the entry
would appear as follows:
Not Run: em -dv ctl.an steps.geo steps.d
Once the entry has been executed by clicking on the Run command button, the
entry will start with “Finished:” in place of “Not Run.”
It is possible to have multiple entries in the run list. When the Run command
button is clicked, all the entries which have not yet run will be executed. This
allows you to set up multiple analyses of the same or different circuits and execute
with one action.
Adding a New Entry to the Run List
• To add a new entry to the run list, click on the New command button.
The default entry of
Not Run: em -dv
will be highlighted. The highlighted entry will be affected by actions taken in the
job window.
Copying an Entry in the Run List
You may wish to add an additional entry to the run list which is similar to an
existing entry in the run list. To do so, you may copy an entry and add it to the run
list as described below.
1 Click on the entry you wish to copy.
This entry will be highlighted, indicating it is the active entry.
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2 Click on the Copy command button to the right of the run list.
This will enable the Paste Above and Paste Below command buttons.
3 If you wish the new entry to appear above the current entry, click on the
Paste Above command button.
The new entry is highlighted, as the active entry, above the original command. The
EM
Paste Below command button operates in the same manner, except that the new
entry appears below the original.
Deleting an Entry from the Run List
If you wish to delete an entry from the run list, perform the following:
1 Click on the entry to make it the active entry.
2 Click on the Cut command button to delete the entry.
The entry deleted by the Cut command is now available for the Paste Above and
Paste Below commands.
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Starting an em Analysis
• Click on the Run command button in the job window or select Run ⇒ Start
Run from the em main menu.
Em will execute the analysis, and the Output window, shown below, will appear
on your display. If the verbose option is set, em will output status messages as it
executes.
Em output
window.
Pausing an em Analysis
• Click on the Pause command button at the bottom of the Output window or
select Run ⇒ Pause Run from the em main menu.
This will stop the execution of an em analysis until the Continue command button
is clicked.
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Continuing an em Analysis
• Click on the Continue command button at the bottom of the Output window
or select Run ⇒ Continue Run from the em main menu.
This will start execution of an em analysis which has been paused.
Stopping an em Analysis
EM
• Click on the Stop command button at the bottom of the Output window or
select Run ⇒ Stop Run from the em main menu.
This will abort the em execution. Data from frequencies that have been completed
will be saved, but data from the frequency currently being processed is lost.
Using the em Output Window

The em output window, shown in the figure on page 276, displays the program
status as the analysis proceeds when the Verbose option is on. The output window
is automatically opened when the Run command button in the job window is
selected.
Closing the Output Window

• Click on the Close command button at the bottom of the Output window.
This will close the Output window on your display but will not affect the contents
of the window.
Re-Opening the Output Window

• Select View ⇒ Output from the em main menu to open the Output window
without running an analysis.
The scroll bars to the right and bottom of the Output window allow you to move
about the contents of the window.
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Saving the Contents of the Output Window
You may save the contents of the Output window in a text file.
• Select File ⇒ Save As from the main menu.
This opens the Save As dialog box which allows you to save the contents of the
Output window, as a text file, to the specified file name.
Invoking emgraph to Plot Response Data
You may observe your response data using the plotting program, emgraph, by
invoking the program directly from the output window.
• Click on the Open Graph button at the bottom of the Output window.
This will invoke the emgraph program with a Cartesian graph. For information on
using emgraph, see the Emgraph User’s Manual.
Emgraph may also be invoked by selecting View ⇒ Graph from the em main
menu.
Note that emgraph will not load a file when analyzing a network; open the desired
file from within the emgraph program.
Invoking emvu to View Current Density

You may observe your current density using the visualization tool, emvu, by
invoking the program directly from the output window.
• Click on the Open Emvu button at the bottom of the Output window.
This will invoke the emvu program with a current plot of the JXY Magnitude at
the first analysis frequency. For information on using emvu, see the Emvu User’s
Manual.
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Invoking patvu to View the Far-Field Radiation Patterns
You may observe the far-field radiation patterns of your analysis data using the
visualization tool, patvu, by invoking the program directly from the output
window.
• Select View ⇒ Open Patvu from the menu of the output window.
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This will invoke the patvu program with a far-field plot for the default data. For
information on using patvu, see the Patvu User’s Manual.
Invoking a Text Editor to View Response Data
You may observe your response data file using the ASCII text editor, Notepad, on
Windows systems and the Vi editor on UNIX systems, by invoking the program
directly from the output window.
• Select View ⇒ Open Data from the menu of the output window.
This will invoke Notepad on Windows, or Vi on UNIX, with the response data file
open. For information on using these editors, please see the appropriate
documentation for the program.
Notepad, or Vi, may also be invoked by selecting View ⇒ Data from the em main
menu.
Note that em will not load a file when analyzing a network; open the desired file
from within the text editor program.
Job Files
A job file is used to store all the run options set in the em window that control an
analysis. This section will discuss opening job files, creating new job files and
saving job files.
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Creating a New Job File
A job file allows you to save to disk all the run options and input and output files
that have been specified for a particular analysis run.
• Select File ⇒ New from the main menu.
A new job window will appear in your display. You may use this window and its
dialog boxes to specify input files, output files and run options to control an
analysis run. You may then execute the analysis.
Opening an Existing Job File
You can open an existing job file in em. The file extension must be “.job”.
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1 Select File ⇒ Open from the main menu.

The Open File dialog box, shown below for both Windows and UNIX systems,
appears on your display.
Open File dialog box

for Windows
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Open File dialog box for
UNIX
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2 Select the name of the job file you want to open.

To open the file in one step, double-click the document name in the scroll list.
double-clicking a directory name in the scroll list or by typing a different name in
the text box above the scroll list and clicking Open. This will open a task window
containing the specified job file.
3 Click Open.
A job window will be opened containing the specified job file.
Loading an Existing Job File

You can open an existing job file in em without opening another job window. The
file extension must be “.job”. The file you select will replace the active job.
1 Select File ⇒ Load from the main menu.
If the active job contains unsaved changes, a query window will appear saying:
“The File has been changed, do you want to save it? Click on Save, Discard, or
Cancel. Once the file in the active job window is closed, the Open File dialog box,
shown in the figure on page 281, will appear on your display.
2 Select the name of the job file you want to open.
To open the file in one step, double-click the document name in the scroll list.
double-clicking a directory name in the scroll list or by typing a different name in
the text box above the scroll list.
The job file will replace the old job in the active job window.
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Saving a Job File

Saving the Current Job File
To save the current job file, select File ⇒ Save from the main menu.
To Change a Job File’s Name or Location
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When you save a job you can change its name or location. When you change a job
file’s name or location you make a copy of the job file.
• Select File ⇒ Save As from the main menu.
This opens the Save As dialog box, similar to the Open File dialog box shown in
the figure on page 281, which allows you to change the name or location of your
job file.
Enter the directory and file name under which you want to save the file. Then click
on the Save command button or press the return key.
Reverting to a Saved Job File

• To close the current job file without saving it and open the most recently
saved version, select File ⇒ Revert from the main menu.
This command is useful if you have made changes to a job file which you wish to
discard.
Em Control Preferences
The preferences dialog box, accessed by selecting File ⇒ Preferences from the
main menu, allows you to control program settings for em Control.
Setting Multi-Frequency Caching Parameters
To set the default cache directory and a limit on cache memory perform the
following:
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1 Select File ⇒ Preferences from the main menu.

The Preferences dialog box appears on your display.
references dialog
box.
2 Enter the desired directory for Cache memory in the Cache Directory text
entry box.
You must enter the complete path of the directory name. A directory called
"sonnet_cache" is created in the specified directory. Any value entered in this text
box overrides the global value, if any, entered in the sonnet.ini file. For details
about the sonnet.ini file, see Chapter 8, "Initialization File" in the Sonnet
Installation Manual.
3 Enter the desired limit, in Megabytes, in the Cache Limit text entry box.
Enter the maximum amount of disk space available to use for the cache data. If
you do not wish to limit the amount of disk space, leave “None” in the text entry
box. If a particular simulation exceeds this limit, em will automatically disable
MFC for that simulation.
4 Click on the OK command button.

This closes the dialog box and applies your entries. These preferences are used for
multi-frequency caching in all subsequent em jobs, including the present setup.
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Selecting Startup Run Options
You may specify startup run options in the Preferences dialog box. The run
options specified are set for all subsequent jobs.
1 Select File ⇒ Preferences from the main menu.
The Preferences dialog box appears on your display as shown on page 284.
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2 Enter the command line run options you wish to have as default in the
Startup Options text entry box.
Any options you enter will be set when a new job window is invoked. For
example, entering “-vd” sets the Verbose and De-embed options. For details about
command line options, see “The em Command Line,” page 287.
Clicking on the Set to Top Window button enters any options presently set in the
job window into the Startup Options text entry box. For example, if the Verbose,
De-embed and Make emvu file options are set in the main job window and the
Quad Precision option is selected in the Additional Options dialog box when you
click on the Set to Top Window button, then "-djqv" appears in the Startup
Options text entry box.
This closes the dialog box and applies your entries. These preferences are used in
all subsequent em jobs, including additions to the run list, but not for the present
job.
Setting Up a Default Simple Sweep for Analyses
You may specify a default simple sweep in the Preferences dialog box. The simple
sweep specified will be used in any subsequent em jobs.
4 Enter the Start, Stop and Step values in the appropriate text entry boxes in
the Startup Simple Sweep section of the Preferences dialog box.
If you wish to analyze at only one default frequency, enter that frequency in the
Start text entry box. Otherwise, Start provides the beginning frequency, Stop the
ending frequency and Step the interval between analysis frequencies. For instance
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if the Frequency Units were set to GHz, then the values of 2, 10, 2 would start an
analysis at 2 GHz and end at 10 GHz with steps of 2 GHz (e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10
GHz)
5 Select the desired frequency units from the drop list.
You may select from Hz, KHz, MHz, GHz, THz, and PHz. This sets the units used
for the specified frequencies.

This closes the dialog box and applies your entries. These preferences are used in
all subsequent em jobs, including additions to the run list, but not for the present
job.
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Appendix I The em Command Line
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Appendix I The em Command
Line
This appendix details the em command line. The command line appears in the Run
List in the main em window. This chapter also serves as syntax guide for a batch
file or for the OPT field in a GEO command in a network file.
If the option is available in the interactive interface, the location is identified.
Options discussed here, that are not available through em Control, may be entered
in the Advanced Options text entry box in the Additional Options dialog box.
These will be identified as advanced options.
NAME: em - Electromagnetic analysis of planar circuits.
SYNTAX: em [-options] [files]
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where [options] is a list of command line options and [files] is a list of input and
output files.
The [options] list is made up of one or more groups of options, with each group
preceded by a minus sign (-). For example, the following are equivalent ways to
express the same <options> list:
-vdmjbx5
-vd -mjb -x5
-v -d -m -j -b -x5
Options
-h List frequently used options to your screen. This is only available as an advanced
option.
-m Memory saver option. The system matrix is filled in single precision which
reduces memory requirements for storing the matrix to one half of that of double
precision. On some computers, matrix solution time is also faster. If this option is
not used, the matrix is stored in double precision. This option affects only the
matrix storage and the matrix solution. The precision of the matrix fill calculations
is not affected (see “-q”).
This is available as the Memory Save option in the Options section of the job
window. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-q Quadruple precision option. If cell size is less than about 10-5 wavelengths and
vias are used in the circuit, numerical precision can cause numerical error. This
option switches the matrix fill calculations to quadruple precision so that very low
frequency analysis is accurate. For example, for a cell size of 1 micron and a
frequency of 1 GHz, errors are often seen, and the -q option should be used.
Be aware, however, that Quad Precision can slow the analysis down substantially;
use the option only when necessary. Analyzing the circuit at a higher frequency is
often a better solution.
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This option affects only the matrix fill calculations. The matrix is still stored and
solved in double (or single, if “-m”) precision. This option and “-m” are
completely independent.
This is available as the Quad Precision checkbox in the Additional Options dialog
box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-y N-port circuit parameters are stored in Y or Z parameter form. The Y and Z
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-z parameters are normalized to 1 ohm independent of port terminations. If no option
is specified, S-parameters are stored.
These options are available under the Parameters section of the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-C Store the circuit response information in Super-Compact format. If no option

specified, Touchstone format is used.
This option is available under the File Format section of the Additional Options
dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-n Specify a name for the output SPICE sub-circuit (see -x) or for the S-parameter
output data. For example, “em -x -nModel_name”.
This is an advanced option and is available only by editing the Advanced Options
text entry box in the Additional options dialog box.
-r Specify the file for circuit response (usually S-parameter) data. Specifying a
command line file name which ends with a period followed by “nd” or “d” is
equivalent to specifying the option. This option is usually used when the desired
response file does not end with “.nd” or “.d”, for example, “-rAnswer.s2p”.
This is an advanced option and is available only by editing the Advanced Options
text entry box in the Additional options dialog box. Note that this option will only
function if all output file types are turned off in the Output Files dialog box.
-g Specify the file for circuit geometry. Default file is “cir.geo”. Specifying a
command line file name which ends with a period followed by “geo” is equivalent
to specifying the option. For example, “-gFile.geo”.
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This option is available in the Geometry File text entry box in the job window.
Available only for a geometry file analysis.
-a Specify the analysis control file. Default file is “ctl.an.” Specifying a command
line file name which ends in a “.an” is equivalent to specifying the option. If the
option “-astdin” is specified or if the analysis control file does not exist, the user
is prompted for a start, stop and step frequency in MHz.
These options are available in the Frequency Control section of the job window.
-v Verbose mode. Display messages during program execution describing the

current state of the analysis.
This is available in the Options sections of the job window. Available for both
geometry file and network file analyses.
-j Outputs current density information. Specifying a command line file name which
ends with “.jxy” is equivalent to specifying the option. If the “.jxy” file already
exists, it is renamed “.jxb” and output is sent to the new, empty, “.jxy” file. In this
case, any previous “.jxb” file is lost.
This option is available by selecting the Make emvu file option in the job window
or by specifying a “.jxy” file in the Output Files dialog box. Available only for
geometry file analyses.
-J Outputs current density file containing subsectioning information only. Emvu will
show circuit as completely red, but can be useful to view subsectioning. If the
“.jxy” file already exists, it is renamed “.jxb” and output is sent to the new, empty,
“.jxy” file. In this case, any previous “.jxb” file is lost.
This option is available by selecting Generate Subsections Only in the Additional
-x SPICE lumped model synthesis. Requires at least two frequencies of analysis.

Output is a lumped model suitable for incorporating as a “.subckt” directly in a
SPICE deck. If followed by a single number, 0-7, that number is taken as the
number of digits to the right of the decimal place to be used for formatting lumped
element values. Default is 2. Output file name is “spice.lc”, unless there is a file
ending in “.lc” on the command line.
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This option is available by selecting a “.lc” file in the Output Files dialog box and
entering the values in the SPICE dialog box accessible in the Analysis Control
dialog box. However, if you wish to use the number of digits you must enter -xn
in the Advanced text entry box in the Additional Options dialog box. Available
only for geometry file analyses.
-E All Manhattan polygons are treated as if they were non-Manhattan polygons. In
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other words, the edge subsections are always one cell wide regardless of X Min or
Y Min. When used in conjunction with large X Min or Y Min values, this option
can be very useful in reducing the number of subsections but still maintaining the
edge singularity.
This option is available as the Edge Mesh option in the Additional Options dialog
-F Force multi-frequency caching (MFC) to run above the cutoff frequency for box
resonances. By default, the MFC algorithm computes a cutoff frequency above
which box resonances may occur. MFC is then enabled for all frequencies up to
the cutoff frequency. This option forces MFC to be enabled at all frequencies. You
may use this option when there are no box resonances present in the frequency
band over which you are analyzing. Note, however, if you use this option and
there are box resonances present in the analysis band, the s-parameter results over
the entire band may be corrupted.
-X SPICE distributed N-coupled line RLCG matrix synthesis. The geometry must be
an N-coupled line. Only a single frequency need be specified. Output are the L and
C N x N matrices for the N-coupled line. If there is metal loss, R is also generated.
If there is dielectric loss, G is also generated. Output file name is “spice.lct”,
unless there is a file ending in “.lct” on the command line.
This option is available by selecting a “.lct” file in the Output Files dialog box.
Available only for geometry file analyses.
-N Calculates the number of subsections followed by an estimate of the number of

Mbytes of memory required. The analysis is not performed.
This option is available by selecting Calculate Memory Usage in the Additional
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-d The circuit is automatically de-embedded to the specified reference planes (see the
geometry file description). This is the only case in which the reference plane
information is used. Specifying a command line file name which ends with a
period followed by “d” is equivalent to specifying the option.
This option is available by selecting the De-Embed option in the job window or
by specifying a “.d” file in the Output Files dialog box. Available only for
geometry file analyses.
-b Detects potential box resonances and prints out a warning message just before the
frequency data in the output file.
This option is available as the Detect Box Resonances option in the Additional
-e This option disables the detection of polygon edges on other than the present level
for subsectioning purposes. If thin dielectric layers are used (for example,
capacitor dielectrics), this option is not recommended. May result in a less
accurate, but faster analysis.
This option is only available by entering it in the Advanced text entry box in the
Additional Options dialog box. Available for both geometry and network file
analyses.
-P Outputs higher precision numbers (more significant figures) to the response file.
This option is available as the High Precision Output option in the Additional
-p Outputs a special high precision real-imaginary S-parameter file (“.pd” or “.pnd”

file) to be used by the networking capability.
This option is available by specifying a “.pd” or “.pnd” file in the Output Files
dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-R Outputs real/imaginary data.

This option is available as the Real/Imag option in the Additional Options dialog
-DB Outputs magnitude/dB data.
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This option is available as the Mag/dB option in the Additional Options dialog
-f Outputs comma separated value data for use in common spread sheet programs
such as Excel by Microsoft Corporation. The output file will be named
“basename.csv.” For example, if you are analyzing “steps.geo” with the -f option,
the output file would be named “steps.csv.” This filename extension is reserved
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for Excel.
This is only available as an advanced option.
-ver Prints out the present version of em and license id and exits. Must be the first
option on the command line. All other options are ignored.
This option is available only as an advanced option. All other options must be off,
and this option entered into the Advanced text entry box in the Additional options
dialog box for it to function properly.
-Oforcerun Ignore any existing em analysis data. All em analyses are run at all frequencies.
This option is available as the Force Running option in the Additional Options
dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-Ofs<int> Specify the field size (number of characters) for network output results. The <int>
value must be > 2. For example, if -Ofs7 is specified:
• 2 is stored as 2.00000
• -3 is stored as -3.0000
• 4e-9 is stored as 4.00e-9
The default field size is 8 for S-parameter magnitudes and 6 for S-parameter
phases.
This option is only available by entering it in the Advanced text entry box in the
Additional Options dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-Olast Exclude all data sets present in an input file except the final set with a tag which
matches the tag specified in the SNP statement. See “The CKT Data Block,”
page 142 for details.
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This option is available as the Use last data sets only option in the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-Onocheck Do not check for geometry file consistency. All data sets in an existing em
response file are read regardless of consistency. See “Geometry File
Consistency,” page 148 for details.
This option is available as the Do not check for consistency option in the
Additional Options dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-SNP This option outputs a Touchstone format frequency sorted response file.
The Touchstone format frequency sorted response files provide Touchstone

format S-Parameter data with the following characteristics:
• File contains only S-parameter data in Touchstone format.
• Data is sorted by frequency.
• File contains only data which is consistent with the present
analysis.
• File is updated on a frequency-by-frequency basis.
• File contains de-embedded results if de-embedding was enabled,
otherwise it contains non-de-embedded results.
• File contains <R>-ohm s-parameters, provided that all ports in the
circuit are terminated with <R> ohms. If not, the file contains 50-
ohm s-parameters.
Input/Output Files
The input and output files specified on the em command line vary depending upon
the type of analysis being performed.
For a network file analysis, you must specify a network (“.net”) input file on the
command line. Generally, this is the only file specified on the command line when
analyzing a network file. All other input and output files are usually specified
within the network file. The only exception is an analysis control file (“.an”). If
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you specify an analysis control file along with a network file on the em command
line, em will ignore all information contained in the FREQ block of the network
file and will instead use the information contained in the analysis control file.
The following files may be specified on the batch command line:
Analysis Input file. The file name must end with “.an”. This file can set the frequencies for
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Control File analysis, among other things. For executing from a batch file, if the file does not
exist, you will receive an error message.
When performing a network file analysis, if you specify an analysis control file in
the command line, em will ignore all information contained in the FREQ block of
the network file and will instead use the information contained in the analysis
control file. This is the equivalent of selecting Analysis File under Frequency
Control in the job window.
Circuit Input file. The file name is required to end with “.geo.” The circuit geometry file
Geometry can be created with a geometry capture program such as xgeom, see the Xgeom
File User’s Manual. If the circuit geometry file does not exist, em terminates.
Network Input file. The file name is required to end with “.net.” The network file can be
File created with an ASCII text editor, such as Notepad or Vi. For details on the
network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network File.”
Circuit Output file. The file name should end with “.nd” or “.d”. If the file ends with “.d”,
Response automatic de-embedding is enabled. Otherwise, the file name must be specified
File with the -r option. This file contains the N-port circuit parameters (e.g., S-
parameters) of the circuit being analyzed. This file can be used for input directly
to any of a number of high frequency circuit analysis programs. If the analysis is
run with High Precision invoked (-p), the resulting circuit response file will end
with “.pnd” or “.pd” extension.
If the -SNP option is used, then a Touchstone format frequency sorted response
file is output with the extension ".s<n>p" or ".s<nn>" where <n> is the number of
ports when the number of ports is less than 10 and <nn> is the number of ports
when the number of ports is greater than 10.
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Current Output file. The file name usually ends with “.jxy”. This file stores current density
Density File information on the file for later viewing by emvu. Analysis time is increased by
this option and the file can take up a large amount of disc space if the circuit is
large with many ports.
SPICE File Output file. The file name should end with a “.lc” or a “.lct.” The “.lc” file contains
a lumped model of inductors, capacitors, resistors and mutual inductors. The “.lct”
file contains LCRG matrices for N-coupled transmission lines. These matrices
represent the distributed parameters of the transmission lines. See Chapter 16,
“SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis,” for a detailed discussion of the SPICE
options.
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Appendix II The Analysis Control File Format
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Appendix II The Analysis Control
File Format
The analysis control file controls the frequencies used for analysis as well as other
analysis parameters. The file is required to have a name ending with “.an”. If no
file name is specified in the command line, em looks for “ctl.an” in the current
directory. If that file is not found, em returns an error message.
Any line with a first non-space character of “!” is ignored. Any blank line is also
ignored. Comments following any complete line of data are allowed.
In the keywords that follow, only the specified number of letters (3 or 4) are
significant. Upper and lower case letters are allowed. Additional letters may be
used but they do not alter the program’s execution. For example, “VER”,
“VERSION” and “VERTRFGH” all have the same effect. There may be no more
than 255 characters per line.
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VER Any line with the first three characters “VER” is taken to specify the em version
number. Up to five characters following the end of the first space characters
following “VER” are read into em. This information is required for compatibility
with future versions. The VER line should be the first non-comment line in the
file.
ANN When the response file is created, the analysis parameter file is searched for any
lines beginning with ANN. The remainder of any lines found are listed in the
heading of the circuit response file. This is useful for the automatic documentation
of the em analysis output.
HZ Frequency units can be specified by a line with “HZ”, “KHZ”, “MHZ”, “GHZ”,
KHZ “THZ”, or “PHZ”. The frequency units can be changed as often as desired within
the same analysis file. All frequencies specified on a FRE line must be in the units
MHZ most recently specified. If no units have been specified, MHZ is assumed. If no
frequency units were specified in the command line, the frequency units in effect
HZ at the end of the analysis file is used for the circuit response file. Frequency units
specified in the command line have no effect on how the analysis file is read.
SWEEP A line starting with SWEEP specifies a list of analysis frequencies. SWEEP may
be followed by one, two or three numbers. One or two numbers specify one or two
frequencies. Three numbers specify a start, stop and step. The start, stop and step
are all checked for error conditions. As many SWEEP lines may be used as is
needed. When the file is complete, the frequency list is sorted. Duplicate
frequencies are not removed. There is no limit on the number of frequencies.
FRE Same as the SWEEP keyword.
LSWEEP Syntax: LSWEEP f1 f2 Nfreq
Linear frequency sweep from f1 to f2. Step size is equal to(f2-f1)/(Nfreq-1).
ESWEEP Syntax: ESWEEP f1 f2 Nfreq.

Exponential frequency sweep from f1 to f2 with a common ratio between the
Nfreq frequency points.
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Appendix II The Analysis Control File Format
EEFF Followed by a floating point number, specifies the effective dielectric constant
(Eeff) used to calculate the wavelength for satisfying the subsections/wavelength
parameter. If not specified, or if it is less than 1.0, the parameter is ignored and a
simple estimate of Eeff is used.
END Sort and analyze all frequencies (not yet analyzed) which precede the END
keyword. Used to force a particular order of frequencies.
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STEP Followed by as many discrete frequency points as desired.
FMAX The subsectioning parameter “subsections/wavelength” normally uses the highest

analysis frequency to determine the wavelength. However, this may be changed
by using the keyword “FMAX” followed by a frequency in the ctl.an file. That
frequency (in the units most recently specified) is now used for the wavelength
determination instead of the highest frequency of analysis. Thus, the same
subsectioning can be used for several analyses which differ in the highest
frequency being analyzed.
CMIN Followed by a number, specifies the smallest capacitor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in pF.
LMAX Followed by a number, specifies the largest inductor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in nH.
RMAX Followed by a number, specifies the largest resistor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in ohms.
KMIN Followed by a number, specifies the smallest mutual inductance allowed for
inclusion in a SPICE lumped model, dimensionless ratio
RZERO Followed by a number, specifies the resistor to go in series with all lossless
inductors, in ohms. Needed for some versions of SPICE.
AUTO: AUTO NET=GEO N=Nfreq f1 f2 prec

Automatic frequency selection using the geometry file as the basis. Em begins by
analyzing at f1 and f2. It then analyzes at Nfreq frequencies between f1 and f2. The
prec field specifies the frequency grid upon which frequencies are selected. For
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example, if prec = 0.10, f1 = 1.0 and f2 = 2.0, the algorithm is constrained to the
following frequencies: 1.00, 1.10, 1.20, 1.30, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60, 1.70, 1.80, 1.90 and
2.00.
FINDMIN: FINDMIN NET=GEO param [MAX=Nfreq] f1 f2 prec

FINDMIN finds the frequency at which the minimum frequency response of the
geometry file occurs. The param field specifies a basis S-, Y- or Z-parameter us-
ing one of the following formats: pxy or px_y, where p is S-, Y- or Z, and x,y are
a pair of port indices. The px_y format must be used when a port index with two
or more digits is referenced. For example, S[port 1 - port 2] may be specified as
S12 or S1_2, but S[port 15 - port 1] may only be specified as S15_1. The search
for the minimum is constrained to frequencies which fall on a grid controlled by
prec, f1 and f2 (see description of AUTO). If Nfreq is specified, the total number
of frequency points analyzed is limited to the endpoints f1 and f2, plus Nfreq
points between f1 and f2.
FINDMAX: FINDMAX NET=GEO param [MAX=Nfreq] f1 f2 prec

FINDMAX is identical to FINDMIN except that it finds the frequency at which
the maximum frequency response of the geometry file occurs.
300
Appendix III LEVEL1 and LEVEL1plus
EM
This appendix describes the restrictions on the software for the LEVEL1 and
LEVEL1plus suites.
LEVEL1 Suite
The LEVEL1 suite includes the following Sonnet products, with the limitations
cited below: xgeom, em, emgraph, emvu, dxfgeo, and patvu. The circuit network
capability is available as an add-on purchase, but is not available in the LEVEL1
demo.
• One metalization layer available.
The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of metalization layers; LEVEL1
is limited to one metalization layer. The option to add another dielectric layer, and
hence another metalization layer is not available. The Add Below and Add Above
buttons in the Dielectric Layers dialog box in xgeom are disabled.
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• Maximum of two dielectric layers available.

The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of dielectric layers; LEVEL1 is
limited to two dielectric layers. The Add Below and Add Above buttons in the
Dielectric Layers dialog box in xgeom are disabled.
• 64 Megabyte memory limit.

The full Sonnet suite allows use of an unlimited memory space, although most
users limit the memory to the size of their physical memory. LEVEL1 limits you to
the use of 64 Megabytes of memory regardless of the memory available.
• Dielectric bricks are not available.

The full Sonnet suite allows for the use of dielectric bricks throughout a circuit.
Dielectric bricks are not available for the LEVEL1 suite. The Brick Mode button in
the xgeom tool box and the Modify ⇒ Convert to Bricks menu items are disabled
in xgeom.
• Auto-grounded ports are not available.

The full Sonnet suite allows for the use of an unlimited number of auto-grounded
ports. Auto-grounded ports are not available in the LEVEL1 suite. The Type drop
list in the Port Attributes dialog box in xgeom is disabled.
• Parallel subsections are not available.

The full Sonnet suite allows you to remove parallel subsections where there is
very little transverse current to reduce the number of subsections and improve
processing time. Parallel subsections are not available in the LEVEL1 suite. The
Parameters ⇒ Parallel Subsections menu item in xgeom is disabled.
• Vias not available.

The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of vias which allow current to
flow in the Z-direction between metallization layers. LEVEL1 suite does not allow
the use of vias. In xgeom, the Add Vias button on the tool box, the Tools ⇒ Add
Via menu item, and the Modify ⇒ Add Vias to All menu item are disabled.
302
• Kinetic inductance is not available.

The full Sonnet suite allows the user to specify a kinetic inductance for a metal
type for superconductor applications. This parameter is not available for the
LEVEL1 suite. The Ls parameter in the Metal Types dialog box in xgeom is
disabled.
• Maximum of 4 ports available.
EM
The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of ports in a circuit. A maximum
of 4 ports are allowed in the LEVEL1 suite. After 4 ports have been added to a
circuit in xgeom, the Add Port button on the tool box and the Tools ⇒ Add Port
menu item are disabled.
• The variables XMIN and YMIN are not available.

The full Sonnet suite allows you to control how the circuit is subsectioned by
allowing you to set a minimum size for subsectioning in the x and y directions for
any given polygon. In the LEVEL1 suite these values are both set to the default
value of 1. The X Min and Y Min text entry boxes in the Metalization Attributes
dialog box in xgeom are disabled.
• The variables XMAX and YMAX are not available.

allowing you to set a maximum size for subsectioning in the x and y directions for
any given polygon. In the LEVEL1 suite these values are both set to the default
value of 100. The X Max and Y Max text entry boxes in the Metalization Attributes
dialog box in xgeom are disabled.
• The variable Max. Subsection Size is not available.

allowing you to set a maximum size for subsectioning in terms of subsections/
lambda. In the LEVEL1 suite this value is set to the default value of 20. The Max.
Subsection Size text entry box in the Box Parameters dialog box in xgeom is
disabled.
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Em User’s Manual
• Multi-Frequency Caching run option is not available in em Control.

The full Sonnet suite provides the Multi-Frequency run option for em, which pre-
computes frequency independent data to save on processing time. The checkbox
in the em Control job window is disabled.
LEVEL1plus Suite
The limitations on the LEVEL1plus suite are the same as the LEVEL1 suite with the
following exceptions:
• 128 Megabyte memory limit.
The full Sonnet suite allows use of an unlimited memory space, although most
users limit the memory to the size of their physical memory. LEVEL1plus limits
you to the use of 128 Megabytes of memory (twice that of LEVEL1) regardless of
the memory available.
• Vias are available.

The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of vias which allow current to
flow in the Z-direction between metallization layers. LEVEL1plus suite also
allows the use of vias (up or down).
• Maximum of 6 ports available.

The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of ports in a circuit. A maximum
of 6 ports (2 more than LEVEL1 suite) is allowed in the LEVEL1plus suite. After 6
ports have been added to a circuit in xgeom, the Add Port button on the tool box
and the Tools ⇒ Add Port menu item are disabled.
• Internal Ports available.
The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of internal ports. LEVEL1plus
suite allows internal ports. Note that these ports are counted as part of the 6 port
limit.
304
Appendix IV Warning and Error Messages
EM
Appendix IV Warning and Error
Messages
The following is a list of error and warning messages that may be generated by
em. When warning messages occur, em continues to run. A warning message
should be considered important to note, but does not necessarily mean that you
have done anything wrong. When error messages occur, em does not continue to
run.
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Em User’s Manual
Warning Messages
Below <freq> use of Memory Saver (-m) may result in error.
At extremely low frequencies, when the subsections size is on the order of 0.0001
wavelength or smaller, single precision may not be enough to allow the matrix to
be properly inverted. In this case, very strange results are generated. For example,
S21 may be different from S12. In such a case, eliminate the -m option and re-
analyze.
Circuit has metal with no subsections.
This means that a polygon has been found that does not contain any subsections.
Look at the xgeom file at these <x,y> locations. One reason a polygon may not
have metal is because it is outside of the xgeom box. Another reason might be
because the polygon is too small. Any polygon that is smaller than 1 cell by 2 cells
may have missing subsections. No current is allowed to flow in the X or Y
direction in these locations.
Circuit outside of box at (<x>, <y>), level <n>. All circuit out-
side of box is ignored.
This means that em found part of the circuit to be outside the xgeom box. To find
the problem area, bring up xgeom and go to level <n>. Make sure your origin is
set to “Top Left” (using View ⇒ Origin). Then use the ruler to determine the
location of the coordinates given by <x> and <y> in the warning message. If the
circuit is only slightly outside the box (less than a half a cell), this message may
be ignored. To correct the problem, you may snap the offending polygon(s) to the
grid (using Edit ⇒ Snap).
No subsections in rectangular area <x,y>.
See “Circuit has metal with no subsections.”
306
<Side> box wall de-embedding merit down to <x>%.
This message means that something may be wrong with de-embedding. Some
possible causes for this problem are box resonances, higher order propagating
modes, and short reference planes or calibration standards. Try taking out the
reference planes or making them longer. If you do not have reference planes, then
try specifying a calibration standard for the side specified in the error message.
EM
Usually a reference plane or a calibration standard length of 2-3 substrate
thicknesses is sufficient.
Subsections/wavelength value of <n> specified in file <geo

file>. Using required minimum of 6 subsections/wavelength
for analysis.
The subsections/wavelength parameter was less than 6 in the geometry file <geo
file> being analyzed. The em analysis requires that the parameter have a minimum
value of 6 subsections/wavelength. This minimum value is used in place of the
value specified in the geo file.
The ‘-q’ option has no effect on this computer.
Some computers do not support quad precision. This message occurs when quad
precision is attempted on a computer that does not support quad precision.
The thickness of layer <n> is less than 0.05 uM.

Ultra-thin layers may result in numerical precision prob-
lems.
Precision problems have been found with ultra-thin layers. When this occurs, the
data may be incorrect. Try setting the thickness a little larger than 0.05 microns.
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Em User’s Manual
Transmission Line SPICE model requires even number of

ports. Found <n> ports.
Your “.geo” file must be an N-coupled line with ports 1 through N as input and
ports N+1 through 2N as output. The input of line M should be port M and its
output should be port M+N. The software does not check for this condition, but
issues a warning message if the number of ports is not an even number. This
restriction does not apply to generating “.lc” files, only generating “lct” files.
There is no limit on N.
<X|Y> cell size is greater than <lambda/K> wavelengths

(<m> <length units>) at highest frequency.
If the subsections/wavelength parameter is K, then the maximum allowed

subsection size is lambda/K. Since the smallest possible subsection size is equal
to the cell size, the maximum allowed cell size is also lambda/K. This warning
message is output when the cell size is greater than lambda/K. It indicates that
your cell size in the <X|Y> direction may be too large and may result in analysis
error.
Error Messages
Bottom ref. plane must be more than 3 cells long.
The reference plane associated with the bottom side of the box is too short for
accurate de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove
the reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
Dielectric constant of layer <n> <= 0.0.
The dielectric constant must be non-zero and positive.
308
Hardware key not found.
This message applies only to PCs. Make sure your key is properly connected to
your parallel port. If you have multiple keys connected, try switching them
around.
Left ref. plane must be more than 3 cells long.
EM
The reference plane associated with the left side of the box is too short for accurate
de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove the
reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
Lumped spice model must have even number of analysis

frequencies.
The “-x” option requires an even number of frequencies for analysis. Change your
analysis control file so there are an even number of frequencies.
Port <n> is below line of symmetry.
The analysis has determined that the circuit has a port below the line of symmetry
and symmetry is enabled. This is not allowed. When symmetry is enabled, all
ports must be located on or above the line of symmetry. To perform the analysis,
either remove the port below the symmetry line, or disable symmetry.
Port <n> is on ground plane.
The analysis has determined that the circuit has an invalid port located on the
ground plane. Box-wall, auto-grounded, and ungrounded-internal ports cannot be
located on the ground plane. Via-ports can be located on the ground plane, but the
port MUST be attached to an edge via (the edge-via and the port must be on the
same polygon edge).
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Em User’s Manual
Port <n> is not connected between two polygons.
The analysis has determined that the circuit has a standard port connected to the
edge of a single polygon, located in the interior of the metal box. This is not
allowed. Box-wall ports must be located on a box-wall. Ungrounded-internal
ports must be connected between two abutting polygons.
Relative permeability of layer <n> <= 0.0.
The relative permeability of any layer must be non-zero and positive.
Right ref. plane must be more than 3 cells long.
The reference plane associated with the right side of the box is too short for
accurate de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove
the reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
Subsection <X | Y> dimension is too large at highest fre-

quency.
This message is printed when the cell size of your circuit is larger than 1/3
wavelengths. Results from such an analysis would be incorrect. Check the units
used in xgeom and your frequency units in the ctl.an file. If these are correct, you
will need to use a smaller cell size or a lower frequency.
Top ref. plane must be more than 3 cells long.
The reference plane associated with the top side of the box is too short for accurate
de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove the
reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
De-embedding Error Codes

There are certain situations, discussed in detail in Chapter 7, “De-embedding
Guidelines,” for which em is unable to obtain accurate de-embedded results. Em
will usually, but not always, detect these situations and replace any suspect results
310
with an error message. The format of the error message is “undefined: <code>”,
where <code> is a code which indicates the reason that em is unable to determine
the de-embedded results. Table 9 describes the various error codes which may be
displayed by em.
Table 10 Codes displayed for indeterminate de-embedded results
EM
De-embedded
Code Description
S-Parameters
nd N/A Port was not de-embedded. No data is available.
mp Valid Multiple ports on same box wall.

sl Caution Length of first de-embedding standard is too short.
nl Valid Length of first standard is multiple of half wave-

length.
mv Valid Multiple values of Eeff or Z0 for a single port num-

ber.
bd Caution Bad Eeff or Z0 data due to unknown reason.
The second column of Table 10, labeled “De-embedded S-Parameters”, gives the
status of the de-embedded S-parameters corresponding to each error code. Error
code “nd” indicates that the port was not de-embedded, therefore the status is not
applicable. Error codes “mp”, “nl” and “mv” have a status of “Valid”. This
indicates that while em was not able to determine Eeff or Z0, the de-embedded S-
parameter results are completely valid. Error codes “sl” and “bd” have a status of
“Caution”. This indicates that you should be cautious about using the de-
embedded S-parameter results as they may be corrupt.
The “nd” error code indicates that the port cannot be de-embedded. Via ports are
the only port type available in em that cannot be de-embedded. Thus, you will get
this error code only when de-embedding circuits which contain via ports.
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Em User’s Manual
The “mp” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0 because
the circuit has multiple ports on the same side of the box. The reason for this is
that more than one value is required to describe the multiple modes associated
with coupled transmission lines.
The “sl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is too
short. We recommend that the length be at least one substrate thickness. See the
section “Reference Plane Length Minimums,” page 82 for details.
The “nl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is a
multiple of a half wavelength. In this case, em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0,
but the de-embedded S-parameter results are completely valid. See the section
“Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength,” page 84 for
details.
The “mv” code indicates that a single port number is used for multiple ports in the
circuit, and that the Eeff and Z0 values vary for the different ports.
Finally, the “bd” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and/or Z0
for an unknown reason. Low precision and box resonances in the calibration
standards are sources of error that occasionally lead to the “bd” code.
312
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
Sonnet Theory
[1] Aki Kogure, "Automatic SPICE Models and S-Parameters Analysis," Design
Wave Magazine, No. 20, March 1999, pp. 145 - 151. (Japanese Article)
[2] Shigeki Nakamura, "Top Interview: Electromagnetic Analysis is not Difficult -
Big Rush to Install PC Version," Electronic Products Digest, Vol. 16, No. 1,
January 1999, page 48. (Japanese Article)
[3] James C. Rautio, “Comments on ‘Revisiting Characteristic Impedance and Its
Definition of Microstrip Line with a Self-Calibrated 3-D MoM Scheme,’ ” IEEE
Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 47, No. 1, January
1999, pp. 115 - 117.
[4] Aki Kogure, “Why Electromagnetic Analysis is Necessary,” Design Wave
Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 19, January 1999, pp. 27 - 38. (Japanese Article)
313
Em User’s Manual
[5] James C. Rautio and George Matthaei, “Tracking Error Sources in HTS Filter
Simulations,” Microwaves and RF, Vol. 37, No. 13, December 1998, pp. 119 -
130.
[6] J.C. Rautio, “-Electromagnetic Analysis for Microwave Applications,”
Computational Electromagnetics and Its Applications, Vol. 5, Boston:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 80-96.
[7] Yasumasa Noguchi, Shin-ichi Nakao, Hideaki Fujimoto and Nobuo Okamoto,
“Characteristics of Shielded Coplanar Waveguides on Multilayer Substrates,”
Electronic Information and Communications Univerisity Meeting, Electronics
Society Conference, June 29, 1998. (Japanese Article)
[8] Aki Kogura, “Sonnet, KCC Electromagnetic Analysis Software for Antenna
Analysis,” Electronics Update, Vol. 13, No. 146, 1998, pp. 58-59. (Japanese
article.)
[9] Erik H. Lenzing and James C. Rautio, “A Model for Discretization Error in
Electromagnetic Analysis of Capacitors,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 2, February 1998, pp. 162-166.
[10] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Analysis for Microwave Applications,”
Computational Electromagnetics and Its Applications, Kluwar Academic
Publishers, pp. 80-96.
[11] J. C. Rautio, “Retracing Key Moments In the Life of Maxwell,” Microwaves &
RF,” Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1997, pp. 35-51.
[12] Keisuke Ogawa, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Influence of Microstrip Conductor Offset in Microstrip Transmission Line,”
Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, Japan Institute
for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, 11th JIPC Annual
Meeting, March 1997, pp. 83-84. (Article in Japanese.)
[13] Yusuke Hamada, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Input Impedance of Equipment Housing with an Aperture for EMI Estimation
Inside the Housing,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of
Tokyo, Technical Report of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and
Communication Engineers of Japan, EMCJ 97-29, July 1997, pp. 45-50. (Article
in Japanese.)
314
[14] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility
inside Equipment Housing with an Aperture,” Faculty of Science and
Technology, Science University of Tokyo, The Journal of Japan Institute for
Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Vol. 12, No. 5, August 1997,
pp. 369-373. (Article in Japanese.)
[15] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Analysis of
Electromagnetic Field Coupled through an Aperture of Equipment Housing,”
EM
Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, The
Transaction of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and Communication
Engineers of Japan, Vol. J80-B-11, No. 9, September 1997, pp. 809-811. (Article
in Japanese.)
[16] Keisuke Ogawa, Yasuhiro Kido, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji
and Eimei Shu, “Radiated Emission from PCB with Microstrip Conductor
Offset,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo,
Technical Report of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and
Communication Engineers of Japan, Vol. EMCJ 97-77, November 1997, pp. 23-
29. (Article in Japanese.)
[17] Yusuke Hamada, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Influence of a PCB Inside Equipment Housing with an Aperture on Resonant
Modes,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo,
Technical Report of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and
Communication Engineers of Japan, EMCJ 97-78, November 1997, pp. 31-37.
(Article in Japanese.)
[18] Hiroaki Kogure, Yusuke Hamada, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Resonant Modes inside Equipment Housing and Susceptibility of Printed
Circuit,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, Japan
Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Papers of
Electromagnetic Behavior Society, Vol. 6, No. 3, November 1997, pp. 1-5.
[19] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Analysis of
Electromagnetic Field inside Equipment Housing with an Aperture,” Faculty of
Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, The Institute of
Electronics, Information, and Communication Engineers of Japan, Transaction
on Communications, Vol. E80-B, No. 11, November 1997, pp. 1620-1624.
315
Em User’s Manual
[20] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Analysis for Microwave Applications,” NASA

CEM (Computational Electromagnetics) Workshop, Newport News, VA, May
1996.
[21] J. C. Rautio, “Seven Years Later,” Applied Microwave and Wireless, November/
December 1996, pp. 99-100.
[22] J. C. Rautio, “Questionable Reviews,” The Institute (IEEE newspaper), Jan.
1996, pg. 11.
[23] J. C. Rautio, “An Investigation of an Error Cancellation Mechanism with Respect
to Subsectional Electromagnetic Analysis Validation,” International Journal of
Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 6,
November 1996, pp. 430-435.
[24] J. C. Rautio, “The Microwave Point of View on Software Validation,” IEEE
Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 38, No. 2, April 1996, pp. 68-71.
[25] J. C. Rautio and Hiroaki Kogure, “EMI Applications Of The Electromagnetic
Analysis By The Method Of Moments-Electromagnetic Analysis Applied To
Analog And Digital PCB Design,” JPCA Show 96 Text: Today and Tomorrow of
EMI Design, pp. 11-19.
[26] Hiroaki Kogure, “Susceptibility inside Equipment Housing with a Slot,” Faculty
of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, 7th Workshop, WG-1,
pp. 4-5, Jan 1996. (Article in Japanese.)
[27] Hiroaki Kogure, Keisuke Ogawa, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Analysis of Radiation from Printed Circuit Board with a Slot,” Papers of
Electromagnetic Behavior Society, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 7-12, February 1996.
[28] Hiroaki Kogure, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Electromagnetic Simulation by
MoM and TLM Method,” 10th JIPC Annual Meeting, Proceedings, pp. 169-170,
March 1996, Tokyo.
[29] Hiroaki Kogure, Keisuke Ogawa, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility
inside Equipment Housing with a Slot,” 10th JIPC Annual Meeting, Proceedings,
pp. 185-186, March 1996, Tokyo.
[30] Hiroaki Kogure, Keisuke Ogawa, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility
inside Equipment Housing with a Slot,” Proceedings of The 1996 IEICE General
Conference, pg. 318, March 1996.
316
[31] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility of
the Multilayer Printed Circuit inside the Equipment Housing,” Communication
Engineers of Japan Technical Report of the IEICE, EMCJ96-19 (1996-07), pp.
13-18, July 1996.
[32] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility of
Multilayer Printed Circuit inside Equipment Housing,” Asia-Pacific Conference
on Environmental Electromagnetics (CEEM 96) Xi'an China, November 1996,
EM
pp. 263-266.
“Electromagnetic Distribution of Multilayered Printed Circuit - Analysis of
coupling to other layers,” Japan Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging
Electronic Circuits, Papers of Electromagnetic Behavior Society, Vol. 5, No. 2,
pp. 1-10, Oct. 1995. (Article in Japanese.)
“Analysis of Current Distribution of Multilayered Printed Circuit,”
Communications Engineers of Japan Technical Report of IEICE, EMCJ95-19
(1995-07), pp. 1-8, July 1995. (Article in Japanese.)
[35] J. C. Rautio, “EM-Analysis Error Impacts Microwave Designs,” Microwaves and
RF, September 1996, pp. 134-144.
[36] James R. Willhite, “Turning Clean Theory into Reality,” Wireless Design and
Development, March 1996, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 19-20.
[37] J. C. Rautio, “Response #2. Comments on Zeland's Standard Stripline
Benchmark Results - MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of
Microwave and Millimeter- Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 6,
November 1995, pp. 415-417.
[38] J. C. Rautio, “EMI Analysis from a Wireless Telecommunication and RF
Perspective,” Proceedings of the 1995 Nepcon West Conference, Anaheim, CA,
USA, pp. 749-755.
[39] J. C. Rautio and Hiroaki Kogure, “An Overview of the Sonnet Electromagnetic
Analysis,” Proceedings of the 1994 IEICE Fall Conference, Tokyo, pp. 325-326.
[40] J. C. Rautio, “An Ultra-High Precision Benchmark For Validation Of Planar
Electromagnetic Analyses,” IEEE Tran. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. 42, No.
11, Nov. 1994, pp. 2046-2050.
317
Em User’s Manual
[41] J. C. Rautio, “A Precise Benchmark for Numerical Validation,” IEEE

International Microwave Symposium, Workshop WSMK Digest, Atlanta, June
1993.
[42] “Comparison of Strategies for Analysis of Diagonal Structures,” Sonnet
Application Note 51-02.
[43] J. C. Rautio, “MIC Simulation Column - A Standard Stripline Benchmark,”
International Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided
Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, April 1994, pp. 209-212.
[44] J. C. Rautio, “Response #3. Standard Stripline Benchmark - MIC Simulation
Column,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-
Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 365-367.
[45] J. C. Rautio, “Some Comments on Approximating Radiation,” International
Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.
4, No. 2, 1994, pp. 454-457.
[46] J. C. Rautio, “Synthesis of Lumped Models from N-Port Scattering Parameter
Data,” IEEE Tran. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. 42, No. 3, March 1994, pp.
535-537.
[47] J. C. Rautio, “Educational Use of a Microwave Electromagnetic Analysis of 3-D
Planar Structures,” Computer Applications in Engineering Education, Vol. 1, No.
3, 1993, pp. 243-254.
[48] J. C. Rautio, “Characterization of Electromagnetic Software,” 42nd ARFTG
Conference Digest, San Jose, CA, Dec. 1993, pp. 81-86.
[49] J. C. Rautio, “Some Comments on Electromagnetic De-Embedding and
Microstrip Characteristic Impedance” International Journal of Microwave &
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 2, April 1993, pp.
151-153.
[50] J. C. Rautio, “Some Comments on Electromagnetic Dimensionality,” IEEE
MTT-S Newsletter, Winter 1992, pg. 23.
[51] J. C. Rautio, “Sonnet Software Reveals Tangential Fields,” EEsof Wavelengths,
Vol. 9, No. 1, March 1993, pg. 12.
[52] J. C. Rautio, “Sonnet Introduces Antenna Pattern Visualization in New Release,”
EEsof Wavelengths, Vol. 9, No. 2, June 1993, pg. 21.
318
[53] J. C. Rautio, “EEsof Joins Forces With Sonnet Software,” EEsof Wavelengths,
Vol. 8, No. 3, Sept. 1992, pg. 14.
[54] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Design of Passive Structures - Emerging
Technology in Microwave CAD,” IEEE MTT-S Newsletter, Fall 1990, pp. 21-
22.
[55] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Microwave Design,” RF/Microwave Applications
Conference, Santa Clara, CA, March 1992, pp. 105-109.
EM
[56] J. C. Rautio, “Experimental Validation of Microwave Software,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, Panel Session PSB Digest, Albuquerque,
June 1992.
[57] J. C. Rautio, “Current Developments in 3-D Planar Microwave
Electromagnetics,” Microwave Hybrid Circuits Conference, Oct. 1991, Arizona.
[61] J. C. Rautio, “Experimental Validation of Electromagnetic Software,”
International Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided
Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 4, Oct. 1991, pp. 379-385.
[62] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Microwave Analysis,” IEEE International
Microwave Symposium, Workshop WSA Digest, Albuquerque, June 1992.
[63] J. C. Rautio, “EM Visualization Assists Designers,” Microwaves and RF, Nov.
1991, pp. 102-106.
[64] J. C. Rautio, “Reviewing Available EM Simulation Tools,” Microwaves & RF,
June 1991, pp. 16A-20A.
[65] “Generating Spice Files Using the em Electromagnetic Analysis,” Sonnet
Application Note 104a, Dec. 1998.
[66] J. C. Rautio, “A New Definition of Characteristic Impedance,” MTT
International Symposium Digest, June 1991, Boston, pp. 761-764.
319
Em User’s Manual
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Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.1,
No. 3, July 1991, pp. 282-287.
[68] J. C. Rautio, “Triangle Cells in an Electromagnetic Analysis of Arbitrary
Microstrip Circuits,” MTT International Microwave Symposium Digest, Dallas,
June 1990, pp. 701-704.
[69] J. C. Rautio, “Experimental Validation of Microwave Software,” 35th ARFTG
Conference Digest, Dallas, May 1990, pp. 58-68. (Voted best paper at the
conference.)
[70] J. C. Rautio, “Preliminary Results of a Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Analysis
of Shielded Microstrip Circuits,” 27th ARFTG Conference Digest, Dallas, Dec.
1986. (Voted best paper at the conference.)
[71] J. C. Rautio, “An Experimental Investigation of the Microstrip Step
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pp. 1816-1818.
[72] J. C. Rautio, “A Possible Source of Error in On-Wafer Calibration,” 34th ARFTG
Conference, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, Dec. 1989, pp. 118-126.
[73] J. C. Rautio, “Microstrip Program Improves Accuracy of Circuit Models,”
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[74] J. C. Rautio, “Reflection Coefficient Analysis of the Effect of Ground on
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MTT-35, pp. 726-730, Aug. 1987.
[76] J. C. Rautio and R. F. Harrington, “An Efficient Electromagnetic Analysis of
Arbitrary Microstrip Circuits,” MTT International Microwave Symposium
Digest, Las Vegas, June 1987, pp. 295-298.
[77] J. C. Rautio and R. F. Harrington, “Results and Experimental Verification of an
Electromagnetic Analysis of Microstrip Circuits,” Trans. of The Society for
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[78] J. C. Rautio, “A Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Analysis of Shielded

Microstrip Circuits,” Ph. D. Dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY,
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of Shielded Microstrip Circuits,” ARFTG Conference Digest, Baltimore, pp.
121-134, June 1986. (Voted best paper at the conference.)
[80] J. C. Rautio, “Techniques for Correcting Scattering Parameter Data of an
EM
Imperfectly Terminated Multiport When Measured with a Two-Port Network
Analyzer,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-31, May 1983, pp.
407-412.
[81] R. F. Harrington, Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1961, section 8-11, pg. 8.
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[82] John F. Sevic, "A Sub 1 Ω Load-Pull Quarter-Wave Prematching Network Based
on a Two-Tier TRL Calibration," Microwave Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, March
1999, pp. 122-132.
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9, No. 2, March 1999, pp. 73 - 85.
[84] Jack Browne, "Technology Fuels Firm’s Entry Into Filter Market," Microwaves
& RF, Vol. 38, No. 1, January 1999, pp. 113-118.
[85] Mansoor K. Siddiqui, Arvind K. Sharma, Lenonardo G. Callejo, and Richard Lai,
"A High-Power and High-Efficiency Monolithic Power Amplifier at 28 GHz for
LMDS Applications," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1998, pp. 2226 - 2232.
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Cauchy Method and Adaptive Sampling for an Accurate Microwave Circuit
Modeling," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46,
No. 12, December 1998, pp. 2364 - 2371.
321
Em User’s Manual
[87] Mohamed H. Bakr, John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua (Steve)
Chen, and Kaj Madsen, "A Trust Region Aggressive Space Mapping Algorithm
for EM Optimization," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1998, pp. 2412 - 2425.
[88] Y. C. Chen, L. Ingram, R. Lai, M. Barsky, R. Grunbacher, T. Block, H. C. Yen,
and D. C. Streit, “A 95-GHz InP HEMT MMIC Amplifier with 427-mW Power
Output,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8, No. 11, November
1998, pp. 399 - 401.
[89] R. Lai, M. Barsky, T. Huang, M. Sholley, H. Wang, Y. L. Kok, D. C. Streit, T.
Block, P. H. Liu, T. Gaier, and L. Samoska, “An InP HEMT MMIC LNA with
7.2-dB Gain at 190 GHz,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8,
No. 11, November 1998, pp. 393-395.
[90] Huei Wang, Richard Lai, Yon-Lin Kok, Tian-Wei Huang, Michael V Aust,
Yaochung C. Chen, Peter H. Siegel, Todd Gaier, Robert J. Dengler, and Barry R.
Allen, “A 155-GHz Monolithic Low-Noise Amplifier,” IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 11, November 1998, pp. 1660-
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[91] Charles Trantanella, Mitch Shifrin, and Brian Bedard, “Low Cost, Plastic
Encapsulated Mixers for C/X-Band Applications,” IEEE GaAs IC Symposium
Technical Digest 1998, November 1998, pp. 131-134.
[92] Jakub J. Kucera and Urs Lott, “A 1.8 dB Noise Figure Low DC Power MMIC
LNA for C-Band,” IEEE GaAs IC Symposium Technical Digest 1998,
November 1998, pp. 225-228.
[93] David E. Meharry, “Multi-Octave Transformer Coupled Differential Amplifier
for High Dynamic Range,” IEEE GaAs IC Symposium Technical Digest 1998,
November 1998, pp. 221-224.
[94] J.S. Hong, M.J. Lancaster, R.B. Greed, D. Voyce, D. Jedamzik, J.A. Holland,H.J.
Chaloupka, Jean-Claude Mage "Thin Film HTS Passive Microwave Components
for Advanced Communication Systems", Accepted for IEEE Trans. on Applied
Superconductivity.
[95] Nanju Na, Kwang Lim Choi and Madhavan Swaminatham, "Characterization of
embedded resistors for high frequency wireless applications," 1998 IEEE Radio
and Wireless Conference Proceedings, August 1998, pp. 117-120.
322
[96] Tony Yeung, Jack Lau, H.C. Ho, and M.C. Poon, "Design Condsiderations for
Extremely High-Q Integrated Inductors and Their Application in CMOS RF
Power Amplifiers," 1998 IEEE Radio and Wireless Conference Proceedings,
August 1998, pp. 265-268.
[97] Brian K. Kormanyos, Ronald W. Kruse, and Debra R. Follensbee, "A High
Efficiency MMIC Power Amplifier for Phased Array Antenna Applications,"
1998 IEEE Radio and Wireless Conference Proceedings, August 1998, pp. 333-
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334.
[98] Robert W. Jackson and Zhaoyang Wang, “Circuit Model for Coupling Between
MMIC’s in Multichip Modules Including Resonance Effects,” IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 7, July 1998, pp. 959-965.
[99] John H. Mayer, "Simulation advances accelerate RF designs," Military &
Aerospace Electronics, June 1998, pp. 19 -22.
[100] Alan L. L. Pun, Tony Yeung, Jack Lau, François J. R. Clément, and David K. Su,
"Substrate Noise Coupling Through Planar Spiral Inductor," IEEE Journal of
Solid-State Circuts, Vol. 33, No. 6, June 1998, pp. 877-884.
[101] Kyu Yong Kim, Yong Chung and Yong Su Choe, “Low Side Lobe Series-fed
Planar Array at 20 GHz,” IEEE 1998 AP-S International Symposium, Altlanta,
Georgia, June 21 - 26, 1998, pp. 1196 - 1199.
[102] A. Torabian and Y. L. Chow, “Rapid Analysis of High Q and High Order Patch
Filters,” IEEE 1998 AP-S International Symposium, Altlanta, Georgia, June 21 -
26, 1998, pp. 1906 - 1909.
[103] Z. Wang and R. W. Jackson, “A CAD Algorithm for Coupling Between
Dielectric Covered MMICs in Multi-Chip Assemblies,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S
International Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, June 1998, pp. 33-36.
[104] D. Prieto, J.C. Cayrou, J.L. Cazaux, T. Parra, and J. Graffeuil, “CPS Structure
Potentialities for MMICs: A CPS/CPW Transition and a Bias Network,” 1998
IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, June 1998, pp. 111-114.
[105] J.S. Hong, M.J. Lancaster, D. Jedamzik and R.B. Greed, “8-Pole
Superconducting Quasi-Elliptic Function Filter for Mobile Communications
Application,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, June
1998, pp. 367-370.
323
Em User’s Manual
[106] T. Gokdemir, S. Nam, A. E. Ashtiani, I. D. Robertson and Ulun Karacaoglu,

“Millimeter-Wave Monolithic Balanced BPSK Modulator Using a Miniaturized
Backward-Wave Coupler” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest,
Vol. 2, June 1998, pp. 877-880.
[107] G Subramanyam, F. Van Keuls and F. A. Miranda, “A Novel K-Band Tunable
Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using a Thin Film HTS/Ferroelectric/Dielectric
Multilayer Configuration” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest,
Vol. 2, June 1998, pp. 1011-1014.
[108] F. Rouchaus, V. Madrangeas, M. Aubourg, P. Guillon, B. Theron, M. Maigan,
“New Classes of Microstrip Resonators for HTS Microwave Filters
Applications” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, June
1998, pp. 1023-1026.
[109] A. Fathy, V. Pendrick, G. Ayers, B. Geller, Y. Narayan, B. Thaler, H. D. Chen, M.
J. Liberatore, J. Prokop, K. L. Choi, M. Swaminathan, “Design of Embedded
Passive Components in Low-Temperature Cofired Ceramic on Metal (LTCC-M)
Technology,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, June
1998, pp. 1281-1284.
[110] Brad Heimer and Thomas Budka, “Methodology for Creating Embedded
Transmission Line 90° Bend and Shunt Capacitor Models,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S
International Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, June 1998, pp. 1297-1300.
[111] Yon-Lin Kok, Pin-Pin Huang, Huei Wang, Barry R. Allen, Richard Lai, Mike
Sholley, Todd Gaier and I. Mehdi, “120 and 160 GHz Monlithic InP-based
HEMT Diode Sub-harmonic Mixer,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International
Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, June 1998, pp. 1723-1726.
[112] M. H. Bakr, J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernacki, S. H. Chen and K. Madsen, “A Trust
Region Aggressive Space Mapping Algorithm for EM Optimization,” 1998 IEEE
MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, June 1998, pp. 1759-1762.
[113] K.-F. Lau, L. Liu, and S. Dow, “Recent MMW Technology Development its
Military and Commercial Applications,” 1998 IEEE Radio Frequency Integrated
Circuits Symposium Digest of Papers, June 1998, pp. 87-90.
[114] Zhaofeng Zhang, Alan Pun, Jack Lau, “Interference Issues in Silicon RFIC
Design,” 1998 IEEE Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium Digest of
Papers, June 1998, pp. 119-122
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[115] D. Staiculescu, A. Pham, J. Laskar, S. Consolazio and S. Moghe, “Analysis and

Performance of BGA Interconnects for RF Packaging,” 1998 IEEE Radio
Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium Digest of Papers, June 1998, pp. 131-
134.
[116] F.A. Miranda, F.W. Van Keuls, R.R. Romanofsky, and G. Subramanyam,
“Tunable Microwave Components for Ku and K band Satellite
Communications,” (accepted by Integrated Ferroelectrics).
EM
[117] F.W. Van Keuls, R.R. Romanofsky, and F.A. Miranda, “Several Microstrip-Based
Conductor/ Thin Film Ferroelectric Phase Shifter Designs Using (YBa2Cu3O7-
d,Au)/SrTiO3/LaAlO3 Tunable Ring Resonators,” (accepted by Integrated
Ferroelectrics).
[118] F.W. Van Keuls, R.R. Romanofsky, N.D. Varaljay, F.A. Miranda, C.L. Canedy, S.
Aggarwal, T. Venkatesan, and R. Ramesh, “A Ku-Band Gold/BaxSr1-xTiO3/
LaAlO3 Thin Film Conductor/Ferroelectric Microstripline Phase Shifter for
Room Temperature Phased Array Applications,” (submitted to Microwave and
Optical Technology Letters)
[119] Zhaoyang Wang, and Robert W. Jackson, "A CAD Algorithm for Coupling
Between Dielectric Covered MMICs in Multi-Chip Assemblies", to appear in
IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Symposium Digest, June 1998.
[120] G. Subramanyam, F.W. Van Keuls and F.A. Miranda, “A Novel Tunable
Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using a Thin Film HTS/Ferroelectric/Dielectric
Multilayer Configuration,” (accepted by IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques).
[121] Guru Subramanyam, Fred Van Keuls, and Félix A. Miranda, “A K-Band Tunable
Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using a Thin-Film Conductor/Ferroelectric/Dielectric
Multilayer Configuration,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8,
No. 2, February 1998, pp. 78 - 80.
[122] Lei Zhu and Ke Wu, “Revisiting Characteristic Impedance and Its Definition of
Microstrip Line with a Self-Calibrated 3-D MoM Scheme,” IEEE Microwave
and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8, No. 2, February 1998, pp. 87 - 89.
[123] Jia-Sheng Hong and Michael J. Lancaster, “Cross-Coupled Microstrip Hairpin-
Resonator Filters,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 46, No. 1, January 1998, pp. 118-122.
325
Em User’s Manual
[124] F.W. Van Keuls, F.A. Miranda, R.R. Romanofsky , C. H. Mueller, R. E. Treece
and T.V. Rivkin, “(YBa2Cu3O7-d, Au)/SrTiO3/LaAlO3 thin film conductor/
ferroelectric phase shifters and their potential for phased array applications,”
Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 3075 (1997).
[125] Brad Ryan Heimer, Lu Fan, and Kai Chang, “Uniplanar Hybrid Couplers Using
Asymmetrical Coplanar Striplines,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2234-2240.
[126] Jia-Sheng Hong, Michael J. Lancaster, “Theory and Experiment of Novel
Microstrip Slow-Wave Open-Loop Resonator Filters,” IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2358-
2365.
[127] Pin-Pin Huang, Tian-Wei Huang, Huei Wang, Eric W. Lin, Yonghui Shu, Gee. S.
Dow, Richard Lai, Michael Biedenbender, and Jeffrey H. Elliot, “A 94-GHz
0.35-W Power Amplifier Module,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2418-2423.
[128] Daisy L. Ingram, D. Ian Stones, Jeffrey H. Elliot, Huei Wang, Richard Lai, and
Michael Biedenbender, “A 6-W Ka-Band Power Module Using MMIC Power
Amplifiers,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45,
No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2424-2430.
[129] Mark S. Mirotznik and Dennis Prather, “How to choose EM software,” IEEE
Spectrum, Vol. 34, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 53-58.
[130] “CAD Roundtable: benchmarking the future of design,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, November 1997, pp. 31-42.
[131] Alan Conrad and Jack Browne, “EM Tools Enhance Simulation Accuracy,”
Microwaves & RF, Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1997, pp. 133-136.
[132] Robert W. Jackson and Ryosuke Ito, “Modeling Millimeter-Wave IC Behavior
for Flipped-Chip Mounting Schemes,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 10, October 1997, pp. 1919-1925.
[133] Robert W. Jackson and Sambarta Rakshit, “Microwave-Circuit Modeling of High
Lead-Count Plastic Packages,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 10, October 1997, pp. 1926-1933.
[134] Robert W. Jackson and Ryosuke Ito, "Microwave Modeling of Flipped Chip
Packaging Schemes," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Techniques, October
1997.
326
[135] Ryosuke Ito and Robert W. Jackson, "Circuit Modeling of Isolation in Flip-Chip
Microwave Integrated Circuits", 1997 Conference on the Electrical Performance
of Electronic Packaging Proceedings, San Jose., pp.217-220, October 1997.
[136] I. Toyoda, T. Tokumitsu, and M. Aikawa, “A Basic Concept of Microwave
Design Automation Based on Three-dimensional Masterslice MMIC
technology,” in 27th European Microwave Conf. Proc., Sept. 1997. (To be
published)
EM
[137] K. Nishikawa, I. Toyoda, and T. Tokumitsu, “Miniaturized three-dimensional
MMIC K-band upconverter,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letter, 1997.
[138] George L. Matthaei, Neal O. Fenzi, Roger J. Forse, and Stephan M. Rolhing,
“Hairpin-Comb Filters for HTS and Other Narrow-Band Applications,” IEEE
Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 8, August
1997, pp. 1226-1231.
[139] T. Tokumitsu, K. Nishikawa, K. Kamogawa, I. Toyoda, and K. Nishimura,
“Three-dimensional MMIC technology and application to millimeter-wave
MMIC's,” 1997 Topical Symposium on Millimeter Waves Digest, July 1997.
[140] “Sorting Through the Myriad of Software Options,” Wireless Systems Design,
Master Reference, Vol. 2, No. 8, July 1997, pp. 78-81.
[141] Marinus (Ron) Korber, Jr., “New Microstrip Bandpass Filter Topologies,”
Microwave Journal, Vol. 40, No. 7, July 1997, pp. 138-144.
[142] K. Kamogawa, K. Nishikawa, C. Yamaguchi, M. Hirano, I. Toyoda, and T.
Tokumitsu, “A Very Wide-tuning Range 5-GHz-band Si Bipolar VCO Using
Three-dimensional MMIC technology,” in IEEE International Microwave
Symposium Digest, June 1997, pp. 1221-1224.
[143] I. Toyoda, K. Nishikawa, T. Tokumitsu, C. Yamaguchi, M. Hirano, and M.
Aikawa, “Three-dimensional Masterslice MMIC on Si Substrate,” in 1997 IEEE
Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium Digest, June 1997, pp. 113-116.
[144] Gregory L. Hey-Shipton, Neal O. Fenzi, and Kurt F. Raihn, “HTS Diplexer &
Low Noise Amplifier RF Module,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 295-298.
[145] Shen Ye and Raafat R. Mansour, “A Novel Split-Resonator High Power HTS
Planar Filter,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 1, pp. 299-301.
327
Em User’s Manual
[146] Michael J. Lee and Joseph A. Faulkner Jr., “Power Combining Port Impedance
Model,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2,
pp. 543-546.
[147] J. S. Hong and M. J. Lancaster, “Microstrip Slow-Wave Open-Loop Resonator
Filters,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2,
pp. 713-716.
[148] T. Gokdemir, U. Karacaoglu, D. Budimir, S. B. Economides, A. Khalid, A. A.
Rezazadeh and I. D. Robertson, “Multilayer Passive Components for Uniplanar
Si/SiGe MMICs,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium
Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 761-764.
[149] M. N. Tutt, H. Q. Tserng and A. Ketterson, “A Low Loss, 5.5 GHz - 20 GHz
Monolithic Balun,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium
Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 933-936.
[150] Kunihiko Sasaki, Junshi Utsu, Kazuoki Matsugatani, Kouichi Hoshino, Takashi
Taguchi, and Yoshiki Ueno, “InP MMICs for V-Band FMCW Radar,” IEEE
MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 937-940.
[151] Michael Case, Mehran Matloubian, Hsiang-Chih Sun, Debabani Choudhury, and
Catherine Ngo, “High-Performance W-Band GaAs PIN Diode Single-Pole
Triple-Throw Switch CPW MMIC,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 1047-1050.
[152] Y. Hwang, J. Lester, G. Schreyer, G. Zell, S. Schrier, D. Yamauchi, G. Onak, B.
Kasody, R. Kono, Y. C. Chen, and R. Lai, “60 GHz High-Efficiency HEMT
MMIC Chip Set Development for High-Power Solid State Power Amplifier,”
IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp.
1179-1182.
[153] D. L. Ingram, D. I. Stones, T.W. Huang, M. Nishimoto, H. Wang, M. Siddiqui, D.
Tamura, J. Elliot, R. Lai, M Biedenbender, H. C. Yen, and B. Allen, “A 6 Watt
Ka-Band MMIC Power Module Using MMIC Power Amplifiers,” IEEE MTT-S
1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1183-1186.
[154] H. Wang, R. Lai, Y. C. Chen, Y. L. Kok, T. W. Huang, T. Block, D. Streit, P. H.
Liu, P. Siegel, and B. Allen, “A 155-GHz Monolithic InP-Based HEMT
Amplifier,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 3, pp. 1275-1278.
328
[155] Michael K. Waldo, Irving Kaufman, and Samir El-Ghazaly, “Coplanar

Waveguide Technique for Measurement of Dielectric Constant or Thickness of
Dielectric Films,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium
Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1339-1342.
[156] Robert W. Jackson and Zhaoyang Wang, “Circuit Based Model for Coupling
Between MMICs in Multi-Chip Assemblies,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
EM
[157] J. J. Komiak, S. C. Wang, and T. J. Rogers, “High Efficiency 11 Watt Octave S/
C-Band PHEMT MMIC Power Amplifier,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
[158] A. R. Barnes et. al., “A 6-18 GHz Broadband High Power MMIC for EW
Applications,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 3, pp. 1429-1432.
[159] Yon-Lin Kok, Mark DuFault, Tian-Wei Huang, and Heui Wang, “A Calibration
Procedure for W-band On-Wafer Testing,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
[160] Daniel G. Swanson, Jr., “Optimizing Combline Filter Designs Using 3D Field-
Solvers,” IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Workshops,
WMA: State-of-the-art Filter Design Using EM and Circuit Simulation
Techniques, June 1997.
[161] J. W. Bandler, “EM Optimization Using Space Mapping,” IEEE MTT-S
International Microwave Symposium Workshops, WMA: State-of-the-art Filter
Design Using EM and Circuit Simulation Techniques, June 1997.
[162] George L. Matthaei, “Some CAD Techniques for Planar Microwave Filter
Design and Some Observations Regarding Dispersion,” IEEE MTT-S
International Microwave Symposium Workshops, WMA: State-of-the-art Filter
Design Using EM and Circuit Simulation Techniques, June 1997.
[163] W. R. Gaiewski, L.P. Dunleavy, and A. Castro, Jr., “Analysis and Measurement
of Mode Polarizers in Square Waveguide,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 6, June 1997, pp. 997-1000.
[164] G. Avitabile, A. Cidronali, and C. Salvador, “Equivalent Circuit Model of GaAs
MMIC-Coupled Planar Spiral Inductors,” International Journal of Microwave
and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 4, July 1997, pp.
318-326.
329
Em User’s Manual
[165] Dr. James Willhite, “Three-Dimensional EM Software for PCs,” Microwave

Journal, Vol. 40, No. 5, May 1997, pp. 354-357.
[166] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “Methods of Using Commercial Electromagnetic
Simulators for Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Circuit Design and
Optimization,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No.
5, May 1997, pp. 724-746.
[167] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen and Ya Fei Huang,
“Design Optimization of Interdigital Filters Using Aggressive Space Mapping
and Decomposition,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol.
45, No. 5, May 1997, pp. 761-769.
[168] Shin Ye and Raafat R. Mansour, “An Innovative CAD Technique for Microstrip
Filter Design,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No.
5, May 1997, pp. 780-786.
[169] Gregory L. Creech, Bradley J. Paul, Christopher D. Lesniak, Thomas J. Jenkins
and Mark C. Calcatera, “Artificial Neural Networks for Fast and Accurate EM-
CAD of Microwave Circuits,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 5, May 1997, pp. 794-802.
[170] Jia-Sheng Hong and Michael J. Lancaster, “Investigation of Microstrip Pseudo-
Interdigital Bandpass Filters Using a Full-Wave Electromagnetic Simulator,”
International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided
Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 3, May 1997, pp. 231-340.
[171] Noyan Kinayman and M. I. Aksun, “Efficient Use of Closed-Form Green's
Functions for the Analysis of Planar Geometries with Vertical Interconnections,”
IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 5, May 1997,
pp. 593-603.
[172] Noyan Kinayman and M. I. Aksun, “On the Fast Track - Supercomputing at SU's
Info Mall Helps Launch Businesses,” Syracuse Herald American, Syracuse On-
Line supplement, March 19, 1995, pg. 16.
[173] Victor Perrote, “Wireless Applications Spur EM Applications,” Microwaves &
RF, April 1997, pg. 17.
[174] George Jankovic, “Wireless on the Web,” Applied Microwave & Wireless, Vol.
9, No. 2, March/April 1997.
330
[175] Andreas Vogt and Wilhelm Jutzi, “An HTS Narrow Bandwidth Coplanar Shunt
Inductively Coupled Microwave Bandpass Filter on LaAlO3,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 4, April 1997, pp. 492-497.
[176] Keisuke Ogawa, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Influences of Finite Ground Conductor Width and Microstrip Conductor Offset
on Characteristic Impedance of Microstrip Line,” Papers of Electromagnetic
Behavior Society, Vol. 6. No. 2, pp. 14-20, November 1996. (Article in
EM
Japanese.)
[177] Kenich Kamitani, Naoko Yoshita, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Multilayered printed antenna with dotmatrix-like director - Relation between
the characteristics and the dot density,” Papers of Electromagnetic Behavior
Society, Vol. 6., No. 2, pp. 27-33, November 1996.
[178] Lu Fan, Kai Chang, “Uniplanar Power Dividers Using Coupled CPW and
Asymmetrical CPS for MIC's and MMIC's,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, December 1996, pp. 2411-2420.
[179] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen, Piotr A. Grobelny,
“Optimization Technology for Nonlinear Microwave Circuits Integrating
Electromagnetic Simulations,” International Journal of Microwave and
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, January 1997, pp. 6-28.
[180] Jack Browne, “Evaluate RF Designs With An EM Simulator,” Microwaves and
RF, January 1997, pp. 123-124.
[181] Jack Browne, “EM Simulators Run Under PC Windows,” Microwaves and RF,
December 1996, pp. 163-164.
[182] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “Use EM Software For Component Optimization,”
Microwaves and RF, January 1997, pp. 65-74.
[183] I. Toyoda, T. Tokumitsu, and M. Aikawa, “Highly Integrated Three-dimensional
MMIC Single-chip Receiver and Transmitter,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech., Vol. 44, No. 12, pp. 2340-2346, December 1996.
[184] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “EM Software Aids Microwave Characterization,”
Microwaves and RF, December 1996, pp. 98-108.
[185] Jack Browne, “Top Products of 1996,” Microwaves and RF, December 1996, pp.
189-199.
331
Em User’s Manual
[186] Bill Oldfield, “The Stripline Forward Coupler,” Microwave Engineering Europe,
February/March 1996, pp. 39-40.
[187] Jack Browne, “The Changing Colors of Microwave CAE,” Microwaves and RF,
November 1996, pg. 17.
[188] Janine Sullivan, Alan Conrad and Jack Browne, “Software Tools Grow With The
Power Of The PC,” Microwaves and RF, November 1996, pp. 31-37.
[189] C.W. Turner, “V-Shaped transmission-lines for superconducting circuits and
MMICs,” Microwave Engineering Europe, October 1996, pp. 43-48.
[190] Charles J. Trantanella, “Modeling and Simulation of MMICs and Interconnects
in Microwave Packages,” DTIC (Defense Technical Information Center) or
NTIS (National Technical Information Service) Report # ADA321689,
November 1996.
[191] David Sanchez-Hernandez and Ian D. Robertson, “Some Experimental Results of
Printed Antennas for the Benchmarking of Sonnet em Electromagnetic
Simulator,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-
Aided Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 6, November 1996, pp. 419-429.
[192] Robert W. Jackson and S. Rakshit, “Microwave Modeling of an Elevated Paddle
Surface Mount Package," 1996 Conference on the Electrical Performance of
Electronic Packaging Proceedings, Napa Valley, pp. 57 - 62, October 1996.
[193] David Sanchez-Hernandez, Q.H. Wang, Ali A. Rezazadeh and Ian D. Robertson,
“Millimeter-Wave Dual-Band Microstrip Patch Antennas Using Multilayer GaAs
Technology,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 9,
September 1996, pp. 1590-1593.
[194] Kenji Kamogawa and Tsuneo Tokumitsu, “A Novel Antenna Using Ceramic/
Polyimide Multilayer Dielectric Substrate,” Technical Report of IEICE MW95-
47 (1995-07).
[195] Kenji Kamogawa, Tsuneo Tokumitsu, and Masayoshi Aikawa, “A Novel
Microstrip Antenna Using Alumina-ceramic/Polyimide Multilayer Dielectric
Substrate,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol.
1, pp. 71-74.
[196] Shinji Mino, Yasufumi Yamada, Yuji Akahori, Mitsuho Yasu and Kazuyuki
Moriwaki, “Loss Reduction in a Coplanar Waveguide on a Planar Lightwave
Circuit (PLC) Platform by Quenching,” Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol.
14, No. 8, August 1996.
332
[197] Robert Howald and Chris McDonnell, “Design and Simulation of an

Inhomogeneous Coupled-Line Bandpass Filter,” Microwave Journal, July 1996,
pp. 64-74.
[198] Aditya Gupta, Mike Salib and Andy Ezis, “A High Efficiency 1.8 W, 6 to 18
GHz HBT MMIC Power Amplifier,” Microwave Journal, August 1996, pp. 20-
26.
[199] Raafat R. Mansour, Shen Ye, Van Dokas, Bill Jolley, Glenn Thomson, Wai-
EM
Cheung Tang and Chandra M. Kudsia, “Design Considerations of
Superconductive Input Multiplexers for Satellite Applications,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1213-1228.
[200] T. Tokumitsu, M. Hirano, K. Yamasaki, C. Yamaguchi, and M. Aikawa, “Highly
Integrated 3-D MMIC Technology Being Applied to Novel Masterslice GaAs-
and Si- MMIC's (Invited Paper),” in IEEE GaAs IC Symposium Digest,
November 1996, pp. 151-154.
[201] Kenjiro Nishikawa, Tsuneo Kokumitsu, and Ichihiko Toyoda, “Miniaturized
Wilkinson Power Divider Using Three-Dimensional MMIC Technology,” IEEE
Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 6, No. 10, Oct. 96, pp. 372-374.
[202] M. Aikawa, T. Tokumitsu, and K. Nishikawa, “Advanced MMIC Technology for
the Next Generation 3D MMICs and Master-slice Technology (Invited Paper),”
in 26th European Microwave Conf. Proc., September 1996, pp. 748-753.
[203] K. Nishikawa, K. Kamogawa, T. Tokumitsu, M. Aikawa, M. Hirano, and S.
Sugitani, “Highly Integrated Three-dimensional MMIC 20-GHz Single-chip
Receiver,” in 26th European Microwave Conf. Proc., September 1996, pp. 199-
203.
[204] R.R. Mansour, “Design of superconductive multiplexers using single-mode and
dual- mode filters,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 42, pp. 1411-
1418, July 1994.
[205] S.H. Talisa et al., “High-temperature superconducting four-channel filter bank,”
IEEE Trans. Appl. Superconduct., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 2079-2082, June 1995.
[206] Salvador H. Talisa, Michael A. Janocko, D.L. Meier, John Talvacchio, C.
Moskowitz, D.C. Buck, R.S. Nye, S.J. Pieseski and George R. Wagner, “High
Temperature Superconducting Space-Qualified Multiplexers and Delay Lines,”
IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996,
pp. 1229-1239.
333
Em User’s Manual
[207] George L. Matthaei, Stephan M. Rohlfing and Roger J. Forse, “Design of HTS,
Lumped-Element, Manifold-Type Microwave Multiplexers,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1313-1321.
[208] Kurt F. Raihn, Neal O. Fenzi, Gregory L. Hey-Shipton, Elna R. Saito, P. Vince
Loung and David L. Aidnik, “Adaptive High Temperature Superconducting
Filters for Interference Rejection,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1374-1381.
[209] Robert W. Jackson, “A Circuit Topology for Microwave Modeling of Plastic
Surface Mount Packages,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1140-1146.
[210] Dan Swanson, “Multilayer Transitions in FR4,” 1996 Wireless Workshop,
Sedona, AZ, October 1996 (also available in the “Library” at http://
www.rfglobalnet.com, 1997).
[211] Robert Jackson, “Modeling & Application of Plastic Surface Mount Packages on
Typical PCBs,” 1996 Wireless Workshop, Sedona, AZ, October 1996.
[212] Robert Jackson, "Modeling Millimeterwave IC Behavior for Flipped Chip
Mounting Schemes," invited paper for the 1996 WRI International Symposium
on "Directions for the Next Generation of MMIC Devices and Systems", N.Y.,
N.Y., September 1996.
[213] Jan Snel, “Ceramic Multilayer Microwave Components Work at the Philips
Ceramic Innovation Centre,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 Multilayer Microwave Circuits
Workshop, pp. 217-227.
[214] Anthony M. Pavio, “Multilayer Couplers, Hybrids and Baluns,” IEEE MTT-S
1996 Multilayer Microwave Circuits Workshop, pp. 183-203.
[215] D. Mirshekar-Syahkal, "Computation of Equivalent Circuits of CPW
Discontinuities Using Quasi-Static Spectral Domain Method," IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 6, June 1996, pp. 979-984.
[216] Zhi-Yuan Shen, Charles Wilker, Philip Pang and Charles Carter, III, “High-
Power HTS Planar Filters with Novel Back-Side Coupling,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 6, June 1996, pp. 984-986.
[217] T. Tokumitsu, K. Nishikawa, K. Kamogawa, I. Toyoda, and M. Aikawa, “Three-
dimensional MMIC Technology for Multifunction Integration and Its Possible
Application to Masterslice MMIC,” in IEEE 1996 Microwave and Millimeter-
Wave Monolithic Circuits Symposium Digest, June 1996, pp. 85-88.
334
[218] Long Tran, Michael Delaney, Russ Isobe, Derek Jang and Julia Brown,
“Frequency Translation MMICs Using InP HEMT Technology,” IEEE MTT-S
[219] Paul D. Cooper, Patricia A. Piacente and Robert J. Street, “Multichip-on-Flex
Plastic Encapsulated MHDI-Low Cost Substrateless Manufacturing for
Microwave and Millimeterwave Modules,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
EM
[220] J.A. Lester, Y. Hwang, J. Chi, R. Lai, M. Biedenbender and P.D. Chow, “Highly
Efficient Compact Q-Band MMIC Power Amplifier Using 2-Mil Substrate and
Partially- Matched Output,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
[221] Y. Hwang, P.D. Chow, J. Lester, J. Chi, D. Garske, M. Biedenbender and R. Lai,
“Fully-Matched, High-Efficiency Q-Band 1 Watt MMIC Solid State Power
Amplifier,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 1, pp. 149-152.
[222] Francois Colomb, Kevin Eastman and John Roman, “Characterization of Metal
on Elastomer Vertical Interconnections,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
[223] Long Tran, Russ Isobe, Michael Delaney, Rick Rhodes, Derek Jang, Julia Brown,
Loi Nguyen, Minh Le, Mark Thompson and Takyiu Liu, “High Performance,
High Yield Millimeter-Wave MMIC LNAs Using InP HEMTs,” IEEE MTT-S
[224] J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernacki and S. H. Chen, “Parameterization of Arbitrary
Geometrical Structures for Automated Electromagnetic Optimization,” IEEE
MTT-S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 1059-
1062.
[225] D. Sturzebecher, J. Leen, R. Cadotte, J. DeMarco, T. D. Ni, T. Higgins, M.
Popick, M. Cummings, B. VanMeerbeke, T. Provencher, B. Kimble, K.
Shalkhauser and R. Simons, “20 GHz LTCC Phased Array Module,” IEEE MTT-
S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 991-994.
[226] I. Toyoda, T. Tokumitsu, and M. Aikawa, “Highly integrated three-dimensional
MMIC single-chip receiver and transmitter,” 1996 IEEE MTT-S International
Microwave Symposium Digest, June 1996, pp. 1209-1212.
335
Em User’s Manual
[227] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “High Power 6-18 GHz H/V Switch Designed in
Channelized Wafer Scale Fabrication Process,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
[228] Hiroaki Tanaka, Yutaka Sasaki, Takuya Hashimoto, Yoshikazu Yagi and Youhei
Ishikawa, “Miniaturized 90 Degree Hybrid Coupler Using High Dielectric
Substrate for QPSK Modulator,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
[229] Der-Woei Wu, “A High-Efficiency HBT Cellular Power Amplifier with
Integrated Matching Networks,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
[230] J.W. Bandler, R.M. Biernacki and S.H. Chen, “Fully Automated Space Mapping
Optimization of 3D Structures,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
[231] G.L. Creech, B. Paul, C. Lesniak, T. Jenkins, R. Lee and M. Calcatera, “Artificial
Neural Networks for Accurate Microwave CAD Applications,” IEEE MTT-S
[232] G.L. Matthaei, N.O. Fenzi, R. Forse and S. Rohlfing, “Narrow-Band Hairpin-
Comb Filters for HTS and Other Applications,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
[233] S. Chaki, T. Takagi, Y. Tsukahara, H. Matsubayashi, N. Andoh, Y. Sasaki and M.
Otsubo, “A Miniaturized X-band 4-Stage LNA Designed Using a Novel Layout
Optimization Technique,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
[234] Mark D. DuFault and Arvind K. Sharma, “Millimeter-Wave Hemt Noise Models
Verified Thru V-Band,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
[235] Mark D. DuFault and Arvind K. Sharma, “A Novel Calibration Verification
Procedure for Millimeter-Wave Measurements,” IEEE MTT-S 1996
International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1391-1394.
[236] Tsang-Der Ni, James DeMarco, Dana Sturzebecher and Mike Cummings, “High
Frequency Hermetic Packages Using LTCC,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
336
[237] F. Schnieder, R. Doerner and W. Heinrich, “High-Impedance Coplanar

Waveguides with Low Attenuation,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters,
Vol. 6, No. 3, March 1996, pp. 117-119.
[238] Chappell Brown, Silicon inductors boost RF design, EE Times, May 20, 1996.
[239] T. Tokumitsu, M. Aikawa, and K. Kohiyama, “Three-dimensional MMIC
Technology: A possible solution to masterslice MMIC's on GaAs and Si,” IEEE
Microwave Guide Wave Letter, Vol. 5, No. 11, pp. 411-413, November 1995.
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[240] J.S. Hong and M.J. Lancaster, “Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using Degenerate
Modes of a Novel Meander Loop Resonator,” IEEE Microwave and Guided
Wave Letters, Vol. 5, No. 11, November 1995, pp. 371-372.
[241] Daniel G. Swanson. Jr., “Guest Editorial,” International Journal of Microwave
and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September
1995, pg. 301.
[242] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “Efficient Use of Commercial Electromagnetic
Simulators for Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Circuits,” International Journal
of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5,
September 1995, pp. 302-323.
[243] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen, William J. Getsinger,
Piotr A. Grobelny, Charles Moskowitz, and Salvador H. Talisa, “Electromagnetic
Design of High-Temperature Superconducting Microwave Filters,” International
Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.
5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 331-343.
[244] Daniel G. Swanson. Jr., “Optimizing a Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using
Electromagnetics,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave
Computer- Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 344-351.
[245] George L. Matthaei and Roger J. Forse, “A Note Concerning the Use of Field
Solvers for the Design of Microstrip Shunt Capacitances in Lowpass Structures,”
International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided
Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 352-358.
[246] Inder J. Bahl (coordinated by), “MIC Simulation Column," International Journal
of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5,
September 1995, pp. 359-367.
337
Em User’s Manual
[247] Rolf H. Jansen, “Computer - aided design of microwave and millimeterwave

integrated circuits - progress during the last decade and future perspectives,” 25th
European Microwave Conference 1995, Conference Proceedings, pp. 93-100.
[248] Daniel G. Swanson, Jr., “First Pass CAD of Microstrip Filters Cuts Development
Time,” Microwave Journal, August 1995.
[249] Martin I. Herman, Karen A. Lee, Elzbieta A. Kolawa, Lynn E. Lowry and Ann
N. Tulintseff, “Novel Techniques for Millimeter-Wave Packages,” IEEE Trans.
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 43, No. 7, July 1995, pp. 1516-1523.
[250] John N. Poelker and Ralston S. Roberson, “A Comparison of Planar Doped
Barrier Diode Performance Versus Schottky Diode Performance in a Single
Balanced, MIC Mixer with Low LO Drive,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1995, pp. 1241-1246.
[251] J.W. Bandler, R.M. Biernacki, Q. Cai and S.H. Chen, “Cost-Driven Physics-
Based Large-Signal Simultaneous Device and Circuit Design,” 1995 IEEE
International Microwave Symposium Digest, Orlando, FL, May 1995, pp. 1443-
1446.
[252] Makoto Hirano, Kenjiro Nishikawa, Ichihiko Toyoda, Shinji Aoyama, Suehiro
Sugitani and Kimiyoshi Yamasaki, “Three-Dimensional Passive Circuit
Technology For Ultra-Compact MMICs,” 1995 IEEE International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Orlando, FL, May 1995, pp. 1447-1450.
[253] Makoto Hirano, Kenjiro Nishikawa, Ichihiko Toyoda, Shinji Aoyama, Suehiro
Sugitani and Kimiyoshi Yamasaki, “Three-Dimensional Passive Circuit
Technology For Ultra-Compact MMICs,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 43, No. 12, Dec. 1995, pp. 2845-2850.
[254] Ichihiko Toyoda, Makoto Hirano, and Tsuneo Tokumitsu, “An Ultra-Wideband
Miniature Balun for 3-Dimensional MMICs,” 1994 Asia-Pac. Microwave Conf.
proc., Dec. 1994, pp. 511-514.
[255] I. Toyoda, T. Hirota, T. Hiraoka, and T. Tokumitsu, “Multilayer MMIC Branch-
Line Coupler and Broad-Side Coupler.” IEEE MMWMC Dig., S-5, June 1992,
pp. 79-82.
[256] Makoto Hirano, Ichihiko Toyoda, Masami Tokumitsu and Kazuyoshi Asai,
“Folded U-Shaped Micro-Wire Technology for GaAs IC Interconnections,” 1996
IEEE International Microwave Symposium Digest, San Francisco, June 1996,
pp. 1153-1156.
338
[257] Makoto Hirano, Ichihiko Toyoda, Masami Tokumitsu and Kazuyoshi Asai,
“Folded U-Shaped Micro-Wire Technology for GaAs IC Interconnections,”
IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 12, Dec. 1996,
pp. 2347-2353.
[258] Satoshi Yamaguchi, Yuhki Imai, Tsugumichi Shibata, Taiichi Otsuji, Makoto
Hirano and Eiichi Sano, “An Inverted Microstrip Line IC Structure for Ultra-
high-speed Applications,” 1995 IEEE International Microwave Symposium
EM
Digest, Orlando, FL, May 1995, pp. 1643-1646.
[259] R. H. Blick, R. J. Haug, D.W. van der Weide, K. von Klitzing, and K. Eberl,
“Photon- assisted tunneling through a quantum dot at high microwave
frequencies,” Applied Physics Letters, Dec. 1995.
[260] D.W. van der Weide, “Delta-doped Schottky diode nonlinear transmission lines
for 480-fs, 3.5-V transients,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 65 (7), August 1994.
[261] K. F. Raihn, N. O. Fenzi, E. R. Soares, and G. L. Matthaei, “An Optical Switch
for High Temperature Superconducting Microwave Band Reject Resonators,”
IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp.
187-190.
[262] J. A. Costello, M. Kline, F. Kuss, W. Marsh, R. Kam, B. Rasano, M. Berry, and
N. Koopman, “The Westinghouse High Density Microwave Packaging
Program,” IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave Symposium, Orlando,
Florida, pp. 177-180
[263] M. A. Schamberger, and A. K. Sharma, "A Generalized Electromagnetic
Optimization Procedure for the Design of Complex Interacting Structures in
Hybrid and Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits,” IEEE MTT-S 1995
International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1191-1194.
[264] C. M. Jackson, T. Pham, Z. Zhang, A. Lee, and C. Pettiete-Hall, “Model for a
Novel CPW Phase Shifter,” IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave
Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1439-1442.
[265] J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernaki, S. H. Chen, R. H. Hemmers, and K. Madsen,
“Aggressive Space Mapping For Electromagnetic Design,” IEEE MTT-S 1995
International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1455-1458.
[266] I. Toyoda, T. Hirota, T. Hiraoka, and T. Tokumitsu, “Multilayer MMIC Branch-
Line Coupler and Broad-Side Coupler.” IEEE MMWMC Dig., S-5, June 1992,
pp. 79-82.
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Em User’s Manual
[267] I. Toyoda, M. Hirano, and T. Tokumitsu, “Three-dimensional MMIC and Its

Application: An Ultra-wideband Miniature Balun,” IEICE Trans. Elec.,Vol. E78-
C, no. 8, pp. 919-924, August 1995.
[268] J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernaki, Q. Cai, S. H. Chen, P. A. Grobelny, and D. G.
Swanson Jr., “Heterogeneous Parallel Yield-Driven Electromagnetic CAD,”
IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp.
1085-1088.
[269] Y. Tsukahara, S. Chaki, Y. Sasaki, K. Nakahara, N. Andoh, H. Matsubayasi, N.
Tanino, and O. Ishihara, “A C-Band 4-Stage Low Noise Miniaturized Amplifier
Using Lumped Elements,” IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave
Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1125-1128.
[270] J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernaki, Q. Cai, S. H. Chen, and P. A. Grobelny,
“Integrated Harmonic Balance and Electromagnetic Optimization with Geometry
Capture,” IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave Symposium, Orlando,
Florida, pp. 793-796.
[271] Dan Swanson, “Optimizing Microstrip Filters Using Electromagnetics,” IEEE
MTT Symposium Workshop WMFE Digest, May 1995, Orlando, Florida.
[272] S. H. Chen, “Automated EM Optimization of Linear and Nonlinear Circuits with
Geometry Capture for Arbitrary Planar Structures,” IEEE MTT Symposium
Workshop WFFE Digest, May 1995, Orlando, Florida.
[273] Anthony M. Pavio, “The Electromagnetic Analysis and Optimization of a Broad
Class of Problems Using Companion Models.” IEEE MTT Symposium
Workshop WFFE Digest, May 1995, Orlando, Florida.
[274] Nitin Jain, “Automated Circuit Design Using Commercial EM Simulators,”
IEEE MTT Symposium Workshop WFFE Digest, May 1995, Orlando, Florida.
[275] Marc Goldfarb, “CAD Methodology for Commercial Applications,” IEEE MTT
Symposium Workshop WFFE Digest, May 1995, Orlando, Florida.
[276] Alan Conrad, Jack Browne, “EM Simulator Enhances Performance of
Microwave Circuits,” Microwaves & RF, April 1995, pp. 200-207.
[277] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen, Piotr A. Grobelny
and Ronald H. Hemmers, “Space Mapping Technique for Electromagnetic
Optimization,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 42, No.
12, December 1994.
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[278] D.W. van der Weide, “Planar antennas for all-electronic terahertz systems,”
Optical Society of America, Vol. 11, No. 12, December 1994.
[279] D.W. van der Weide, R.H. Blick, F. Keilmann, and R.J. Haug, “Electronic
Picosecond-pulse Interferometer Probing the Millimeter-wave Response of a
Quantum- Dot System,” Summary for OSA Topical Meeting on Ultrafast
Electronics and Optoelectronics/Quantum Optoelectronics, March 13-17, 1995,
Dana Point, CA, USA.
EM
[280] -, “Focus on CAD/CAE: A Benchmark guide Through The EM Simulation
Maze,” Microwave Engineering Europe, May 1995, pp. 23-26.
[281] -, “CAD Benchmark: Electromagnetic Simulators,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, Nov. 1994, pp. 11-20.
[282] -, “EM CAD Benchmark: The Vendors Respond,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, December/January 1995, pg. 12.
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Europe, Nov. 1992, pp. 11-19.
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May. 1994, pp. 43-53.
[285] G. L. Matthaei and G. Hey-Shipton, “Concerning the Use of High-Temperature
Superconductivity in Planar Microwave Filters,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech., Vol. MTT-42, No. 7, July 1994, pp. 1287-1294.
[286] J. Bandler, et al., “Microstrip Filter Design Using Direct EM Field Simulation”
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-42, No. 7, July 1994, pp. 1353-
1359.
[287] D. G. Swanson, Jr., “Using A Microstrip Bandpass Filter To Compare Different
Circuit Analysis Techniques,” International Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-
Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, Jan. 1995, pp. 4-12.
[288] U. L. Rohde, “Feedback,” Microwaves and RF, Aug. 1994, pg. 13.
[289] Jack Browne, “Simulation for Wireless Markets,” Microwaves and RF, Aug.
1994, pg. 17.
[290] Jack Browne, “Crosstalk,” Interview with Jim Rautio, Microwaves and RF, Aug.
1994, pp. 47-48.
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Em User’s Manual
[291] T. Winslow, “Response #2: MMIC Miniature Filter,” International Journal of

Microwave & Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, Jan.
1995, pp. 45-49.
[292] J. M. Carroll and K. Chang, “Full Wave Convergence Analysis of Microstrip
Transmission Parameters,” International Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-
Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 140-147, April 1994.
[293] V. K. Sadhir, I. J. Bahl, and D. A. Willems, “CAD Compatible Accurate Models
of Microwave Passive Lumped Elements for MMIC Applications,” International
Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 4,
No. 2, pp. 148-162, April 1994.
[294] J. M. Carroll and K. Chang, “Full-Wave Convergence Analysis of Microstrip
Transmission Parameters,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-
Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1994, pp. 140-147.
[295] M. Goldfarb and A. Platzker, “The Effects of Electromagnetic Coupling on
MMIC Design,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave
Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 1, Jan. 1991, pp. 38-47.
[296] D. Swanson, D. Baker, and M. O'Mahoney, “Connecting MMIC Chips to Ground
in a Microstrip Environment,” Microwave Journal, December 1993, pp. 58-64.
[297] D. Swanson, “Simulating EM Fields,” IEEE Spectrum Magazine, November
1991, pp. 34-37.
[298] R.J. Furlow, “MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of Microwave &
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 4, Oct. 1991, pp.
412-413. (Diagonal filter, meander line from R. Furlow).
[299] R. J. Furlow, “MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of Microwave &
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 2, Apr. 1992, pp.
121-122. (Diagonal filter measured data from R. Furlow).
[300] D. G. Swanson. and R. J. Forse, “An HTS End-Coupled CPW Filter at 35 GHz,”
IEEE International Microwave Symposium, May 1994, San Diego, pp. 199-202.
[301] J. W. Bandler, et. al., “Exploitation of Coarse Grid for Electromagnetic
Optimization,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, May 1994, San
Diego, pp. 381-384.
342
[302] J. W. Bandler, et. al., “Electromagnetic Design of High-Temperature

Superconducting Microwave Filters,” IEEE International Microwave
Symposium, May 1994, San Diego, pp. 993-996.
[303] C. Sinclair, “A Coplanar Waveguide 6-18 GHz Instantaneous Frequency
Measurement Unit for Electronic Warfare Systems,” IEEE International
Microwave Symposium, May 1994, San Diego, pp. 1767-1770.
[304] M. Gillick and I. D. Robertson, “Ultra Low Impedance CPW Transmission Lines
EM
for Multilayer MMIC's,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1993,
Atlanta, pp. 145-148.
[305] D. Willems and I. Bahl, “A MMIC Compatible Coupled Line Structure that uses
Embedded Microstrip to Achieve Extremely Tight Couplings,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp. 581-584.
[306] H. Wang, et. al., “A High Gain Low Noise 110 GHz Monolithic Two-stage
Amplifier,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp.
783-785.
[307] J. W. Bandler, et. al., “Minimax Microstrip Filter Design using Direct EM Field
Simulation,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp.
889-892.
[308] J. W. Bandler, et. al., “Multilevel Multidimensional Quadratic Modeling for
Yield- Driven Electromagnetic Optimization,” IEEE International Microwave
Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp. 1017-1020.
[309] R. R. Mansour, F. Rammo, and V. Dokas, “Design of Hybrid-Coupled
Multiplexers and Diplexers using Asymmetrical Superconducting Filters,” IEEE
[310] A. K. Rayit and N. J. McEwan, “Coplanar Waveguide Filters,” IEEE
[311] C. Sinclair and S. J. Nightingale, “An Equivalent Circuit Model for the Coplanar
Waveguide Step Discontinuity,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium,
June 1992, Albuquerque, pp. 1461-1464.
[312] D. Willems and I. Bahl, “An MMIC-Compatible Tightly Coupled Line Structure
Using Embedded Microstrip,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-
41, No. 12, pp. 2303-2310, Dec. 1993.
343
Em User’s Manual
[313] D. Swanson, “Experimental Validation: Measuring a Simple Circuit,” IEEE

International Microwave Symposium, Workshop WSMK Digest, Atlanta, June
1993.
[314] J. Bandler, “Analog Diagnosis and Optimization Technology for Experimental
Validation,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, Workshop WSMK
Digest, Atlanta, June 1993.
[315] R. Y. Shimoda, “Critical Issues in Experimental Validation,” IEEE International
Microwave Symposium, Panel Session PSB Digest, Albuquerque, June 1992.
[316] I. Bahl and D. WIllems, “Critical Issues in Experimental Validation,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, Panel Session PSB Digest, Albuquerque,
June 1992.
[317] M. Goldfarb, “Verification Structures for Passive Element Model Development,”
IEEE International Microwave Symposium, Panel Session PSB Digest,
Albuquerque, June 1992.
[318] D. Swanson, “Designing Microwave Components Using Electromagnetic Field
Solvers,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, Workshop WSA Digest,
Albuquerque, June 1992.
[319] D. Swanson, “Electromagnetic Software Simulation,” Emerging Microwave
Technologies and Applications Conference, Stanford, CA, March 1991.
[320] L. P. Dunleavy and R. Wenzel, “Use of EM Analysis to Study Shielding Effects
in Microstrip Circuits,” South Con Conference Digest, Orlando, FL, March 1994.
[321] W. Gaiewski and L. Dunleavy, “Design and Analysis of Spiral Inductors on
Silicon,” Interim Technical Report, Univ. S. Florida, May 1994.
[322] P. A. MacDonald, “Characterization of Microstrip Discontinuities on LaAlO3,”
IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1991, Boston, pp. 1341-1344.
[323] D. G. Swanson, Jr., “Grounding Microstrip Lines with Via Holes,” IEEE Trans.
Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-40, No. 8, pp. 1719-1721, Aug., 1992.
[324] D. G. Swanson, “Electromagnetic Simulation of Microwave Components,” 37th
ARFTG Conference, Boston, June 1991, pp. 3-9.
[325] W. Oldfield, et. al., “Simple Microstrip Structures Calculated Vs. Measured,”
37th ARFTG Conference, Boston, June 1991, pp. 10-20.
344
[326] M. E. Goldfarb and R. A. Pucel, “Modeling Via Hole Grounds in Microstrip,”

IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 1, No. 6, June 1991, pp. 135-
137.
[327] D.N. Meeks, "Re-Normalizing the Scattering Parameters," RF Design, October
1985, pp. 41-42.
EM
345
Em User’s Manual
346
Index
Index
EM
A intelligent frequency selection 129
internal 100
accuracy
network file 144, 250, 257
cell size 233
SPICE file 189, 268
Add command button 265
analysis control keywords 154
Add IFS command button 267
ANN 154
Additional Options dialog box
AUTO 154
geometry file analysis 39
END 154
network file analysis 261
ESWEEP 154
advanced options 262
FINDMAX 155, 300
Advanced Options dialog box 198
FINDMIN 155, 300
air bridges 165, 203
LSWEEP 154
amp.geo 127
STEP 154
amp.rsp 129
SWEEP 154
analysis
analysis controls, See frequency control
continuing 277
analysis frequencies
geometry file 245–255
default 285
network file 97, 257–262
units 249, 286
output window 277
ANG 138, 159
pausing 276
anisotropic dielectric bricks 172
running 272–277
ANN 154, 298
starting 276
antennas 177–185
stopping 277
anti-comment symbol 135
Analysis Control dialog box 250
AUTO 128, 154, 157, 267
analysis control file 6, 90, 148, 156, 157, 249,
auto-grounded ports 53, 54, 103, 302
260
de-embedding 70, 76
comments 6, 269
editing 251, 264 B
format 297–299
$BASE 146, 150
geometry file analysis 245, 250
$BASE_new.rsp 146
347
Em User’s Manual
balanced ports 59, 203, 204 circuit theory simulators 8, 240

bandpass filter 111 CKT 95, 100, 136, 142, 145
batch 272 $BASE 146, 150
benchmark 227–232 defnp 145
accuracy 227 elements 144
residual error 229 filename 145
box resonance 216, 218, 292 netname 145
box-wall ports 50 nodes 145
br32.geo 197 CMIN 269, 299
bricks see dielectric bricks cocross.geo 207
byte-reversal network 196 COM 160
combine.net 101
C combine.rsp 102
cache directory combined circuit analyses 90
specifying 283 combining data files 89
cache memory comma separated values 150
limiting 283 command buttons
caching 17, 20–21 Add 265
directory 284 Add IFS 267
memory 284 Comments 269
parameters 283 Output Files 271
CAE software 8 Set to Top Window 285
calculate memory usage option 253 SPICE 269
CAP 138, 143 command line
capacitors 89, 143, 173, 187–201, 257, 296 options 288–293
cascade.net 94 -N 238
cascading data files 89, 90 -q 189, 235, 243
cell size 24, 25, 28, 162, 175, 234, 235, 243 comment line 94, 135
accuracy 233 Comments command button 269
determining error 231 Compact 289
error message 310 complex sweep 249, 264
quad precision 254, 288 coplanar 59
selecting 28–31 cross junction 203, 206
subsectioning 27, 35 short 203
vias 166 waveguide 203
circuit analyses 6, 89, 90, 94, 97, 101, 133 cosht.geo 205
circuit geometry file 6, 90, 148, 295 cosht_sy.geo 206
circuit response file 6, 295 coupling mechanism 114
348
Index
cross junction ungrounded-internal ports 69

coplanar 203 Defnp 145
cross-talk 187 Delim 160
CSV 150 detect box resonance option 254
CTL 100 diagonal fill 163, 175
current density file 5, 252, 253, 271, 290, 296 dialog boxes
cvia.geo 168 Additional Options
EM
geometry file analysis 39
D network file analysis 261
.d 102 Advanced Options 198
data blocks 94 Analysis Control 250
CKT 95, 100, 136, 142, 143, 145 Frequency Control 265
DIM 95, 136, 138, 139 Intelligent Frequency Control 267
FILEOUT 95, 136, 149, 150 main window
FREQ 95, 100, 128, 136 with run list 273
overriding 157 Open File 281, 282, 283
syntax 153 Preferences 283–286
OUT 136 Save As 283
VAR 136, 140 Select Output Files 271
data files 89 SPICE 269
cascading 90 dielectric bricks 171–175, 302
data tags 146 air 175
DATA_TAG 146 applications 173
DB 159 de-embedding 174
de-embed option 251, 271 ebridge 175
de-embedded data 271 limitations 175
de-embedding 17, 18, 61–88, 292 parameters 173
auto-grounded ports 70, 76 patgen 175
box-wall ports 67, 73 subsectioning 173
coupled transmission lines 74 vias 174
enabling 62 dielectric constant 235
error codes 78 dielectric layer thickness 235
example 62 digital interconnect 187
guidelines 81 digital, high speed 196
higher order modes 88 DIM 95, 136, 137, 138
output format 77 discontinuity 17
port discontinuities 66 coplanar cross junction 203, 206
reference planes 72, 81, 84 coplanar short 203
349
Em User’s Manual
lumped model example 192 network file 133

lumped models 187 output
port 88 frequency interpolation 156
disk swap 24 output files 4
distributed parameters 188, 296 reduce circuit size 24
DMAC 227 speed 24
do not check for consistency option 261 STEP 154
DUT 61 SWEEP 154
theory 2–4, 8
E timing 237
-E 291 emgraph
ebridge invoking 278
dielectric bricks 175 plot 130
edge mesh option 37, 254, 291 emvu 31, 205, 225
edge-coupled bandpass filter 111 current density file 252, 271, 290, 296
edge-vias 166 END 154, 299
editing error messages 305, 308–310
analysis control file 251 error, residual 229
analysis controls 264 ESWEEP 154, 266, 298
frequency control 268 example files
geometry file 248 amp.geo 127
network file 259 amp.net 128
electric fields 223 amp.rsp 129
electrically thick conductors 42 benchmark
em s100.geo 229
ANN 154 s25.geo 229
approximations 233 s50.geo 229
AUTO 154, 157 bpfilter 111–123
description 1 br32.geo 197
END 154 cascade.net 94
ESWEEP 154 cocross.geo 207
FINDMAX 155, 157, 300 combine.net 101
FINDMIN 155, 157, 300 cosht.geo 205
frequency selection feature 125 cosht_sy.geo 206
input files 4 cvia.geo 168
interface 245–283 filter.geo 64
invoking 246 findmax.net 131
LSWEEP 154 gap20.geo 225
350
Index
lumped.geo 106 FINDMIN 130, 155, 157, 267, 300

lumped2.geo 109 FMAX 299
lumped2.net 109 force running option 261
open_120.geo 166, 217 FRE 298
openloss.geo 220 Free Space metal type 220, 222
openmite.geo 163 FREQ 95, 100, 128, 136, 138, 153
package.geo 213 overriding 157
EM
patch.geo 52, 182 frequency
raystub.geo 169 interpolation 156
res16.d 92 points 89
res67.geo 101 resolution 125
steps.geo 192 response 125
steps_sy.geo 22 selection 125
tane.geo 225 sorted sweeps 155
thkstep.geo 211 subsectioning 270
thkthru.geo 210 frequency control
tripat.geo 183 adding 265
via.geo 166 analysis control file 250
viaports.geo 52 complex sweep 249, 264
exponential sweep 154, 266 editing 264, 268
exponential sweep 266
F information 263
!<FTYP NET> 134, 135 intelligent frequency selection 267
fields, viewing 223 internal sweep 260
filename 145, 159 linear sweep 266
FILEOUT 95, 136, 149, 150, 151 saving 270
files separator 268
input 297 simple sweep 248
output 270, 297 single 265
fill specifying 248, 260
diagonal 163 SPICE 268
filter example 111–123 sweep 265
filter.geo 64 Frequency Control dialog box 265
filter.net 146 fringing fields 88
filter_new.rsp 146 FTYP NET 94
FINDMAX 130, 155, 157, 268, 300 full analysis mode 253
findmax.net 131
findmax.rsp 132
351
Em User’s Manual
G internal sweep 260

interpolating frequencies 156
.geo, see geometry file
interpolation 112, 117
GABMAC 227
invoking em 246
gap20.geo 225
generate subsections only mode 253 J
GEO 144, 148
.jxy, see current density file
geometry file 6, 90, 148
job file
editing 248
creating a new 280
selecting 247
loading 282
geometry file analysis 245–255
opening 280
run options 251–255
renaming 283
GHZ 298
saving 283
ground via 165, 168
H K
KHZ 298
header line 94, 134, 135
kinetic inductance 44, 303
high precision data file 271, 272
KMIN 269, 299
high speed digital example 196
HZ 298 L
I LEVEL1 301–303
IM 159 auto-grounded ports 302
Impedance 151 dielectric bricks 302
IND 138, 143 dielectric layers 301, 302
inductors 89, 143 kinetic inductance 303
infinite array 178 maximum number of ports 303
input files 297 maximum subsection size 303
Intelligent Frequency Control dialog box 267 memory limit 302
intelligent frequency controls 89 metalization layer 301
AUTO 128 parallel subsections 302
automatic 267 vias 302
find maximum 268 XMAX 303
find minimum 267 XMIN 303
FINDMAX 130 YMAX 303
FINDMIN 130 YMIN 303
specifying 267 LEVEL1plus 301, 304
interface basics 15 maximum number of ports 304
memory limit 304
352
Index
vias 304 metallization loss 41

linear sweep 266 metallization thickness 42, 234
LMAX 269, 299 MFC 17, 283
LNG 138 MHZ 298
loss 41 modes
low frequency 42 higher order 88
related to frequency 42 slot line 203, 206
EM
LSWEEP 154, 266, 298 TEM 88
lumped elements multi-frequency caching 17, 20–21
capacitors 89, 138, 143 directory 284
inductors 89, 138, 143 memory 284
inserting 89, 102 parameters 283
resistors 89, 138, 143
transmission lines 89, 143 N
lumped model 187, 296 N-coupled line 188, 191, 296
lumped.geo 106 Netname 145, 158
lumped2.geo 109 network file 112, 118, 133
lumped2.net 109 analysis 90, 97, 120, 257–262
comment line 94, 135
M comment lines 94
MAG 159 data blocks 94, 136
magnetic wall 22 detailed description 94
main menu editing 259
accesses 11 frequency control 260
main window header line 94, 134, 135
with run list 273 internal sweep 260
make emvu file option 252, 271 interpolation 112
Manhattan Polygon 34 run options 260–262
maximum frequency 234 selecting 258
maximum subsection size 31, 37, 303 nodes
Meas 158 CKT 145
memory available 239 normalizing impedances 55
memory save option 252 number of points
menu bar automatic 267
accesses 11 exponential sweep 266
messages 305–310 find maximum 267
metal, thick 209 find minimum 267
metalization layer 301 linear sweep 266
353
Em User’s Manual
numerical precision 235 FREQ 153

parameter type 254
O patch antenna 177
Open File dialog box 281, 282, 283 patch.geo 52, 182
open_120.geo 166, 217 patgen
openloss.geo 220 dielectric bricks 175
openmite.geo 163 perturbational approach 43
options phased arrays 177
startup 285 PHZ 298
OUT 136, 158 port discontinuity 17
output files 297 ports 49–59, 303, 304
.d extension 102, 271 auto-grounded 53, 54, 103, 302
.jxy extension 271 balanced 59, 203, 204, 209
.lc extension 272 box-wall 50, 67, 73
.lct extension 272 discontinuities 66, 88
.nd extension 271 normalizing impedances 55
.pd extension 102, 272 push-pull 59, 204, 209
.pnd extension 271 push-push 209
combine.rsp 102 renumbering 58
default 271 unbalanced 209
lumped.rsp 106 ungrounded-internal 51, 69, 103, 107
lumped2.rsp 110 via 52
specifying 270 precision
Output Files command button 271 numerical 189, 235
output window 277 quadruple 189, 235, 243
closing 277 single 23
opening 277 SPICE 189, 194
saving the contents 278 Preferences dialog box 283–286
probes 165
P PSPICE 150, 191
.pd 102 push-pull ports 59, 204, 209
package resonances 213–216 push-push ports 209
package.geo 213
parallel subsections 17, 26, 302
Q
parameter 138 -q 189, 235, 243
CKT 145 quad precision 189, 235, 243
DIM 138 cell size 254, 288
FILEOUT 150 option 254
354
Index
R make emvu file 252

memory save 252
radiation 177, 177–185
network file 260–262
raystub.geo 169
parameter type 254
RE 159
quad precision 254
reactance 43
startup 285
reactive surface impedance 43
use last data sets only 261
reference planes 72, 84
EM
verbose 251, 261
de-embedding without 82
RZERO 269, 299
short length 82
remove top cover 220, 222 S
RES 138, 143
s100.geo 229
res16.d 92
s25.geo 229
res67.geo 101
s50.geo 229
residual error 229
Save As dialog box 283
resistance 42
SC 150
resistors 89, 143
Select Output Files dialog box 271
thin film 41, 42, 90
sense layer 223
resonance
separator 268
box 216, 218, 292
Set to Top Window command button 285
response data
simple sweep 248
plotting 278, 279
default 285
response file 6
single 265
RMAX 269, 299
single precision 23
run list
slot line mode 203, 206
viewing 272
SNP 144, 293
run options
S-Parameters 7
advanced 262
generalized 55
calculate memory usage mode 253
SPARCstation 24
de-embed 251, 271
speed 24
detect box resonance 254
SPICE 150, 187
do not check for consistency 261
command button 269
edge mesh 37, 254
dialog box 269
force running 261
option 290
full analysis mode 253
output file 272
generate subsections only 253
parameters 268
geometry file analysis 251–255
CMIN 269
high precision 254
KMIN 269
355
Em User’s Manual
LMAX 269 thick metal 58, 209

RMAX 269 thickness
RZERO 269 metal 42, 234
spiral inductors 165 thin film resistor 41, 90
STEP 154, 265, 299 two connected 91
steps.geo 192 thkstep.geo 211
steps_sy.geo 22 thkthru.geo 210
stripline benchmark 227 3-D 165
subdivision 112 THZ 298
subs/lambda 31, 303 timing 237
subsectional vias 166 TLIN 143
subsectioning 24, 233 TLINP 144
cell size 27, 35 TLM 173, 177
frequency 270 top cover 220, 222
subsections 27, 31, 291 resistive 227
Manhattan polygons 34 Touchstone 150
maximum 25 Transmission Line Matrix technique 173, 177
minimum 25 transmission lines 89, 143
Non-Manhattan polygons 36 N-coupled 188, 296
of polygon 32 structures 102
reduce number 24 triangle subsection 163–164
XMIN 36 tripat.geo 183
YMIN 34 two-port circuit 91
Super-Compact 289 two-port T attenuator 97
superconductor 44, 303
surface reactance 43, 44 U
surface resistance 42 ungrounded-internal ports 103, 107
swapping 24 units
SWEEP 154, 265, 298 frequency 249, 286
symmetry 17, 21, 206, 243 use last data sets only option 261
user guided subdivision 112
T user interface 15
T attenuator 97, 102
with ungrounded-internal ports 107 V
tane.geo 225 VAR 136, 140
tangential electric field 223 verbose option 251, 261, 290
TEM modes 88 via 165, 165, 302, 304
theory 2–4, 8 cell size 166
356
Index
conical 168
edge 166
example 166
ground 168
inside dielectric bricks 174
level-to-level 165, 203
loss 166
EM
posts 166
precision problem 235
restrictions 166
subsectional 166
via ports 52
via.geo 166
viaports.geo 52
W
The "Wall" 240
warning messages 305–307
warnings 108, 128, 248, 259
waveguide simulator 178
wire bonds 165
X
-x 290
xgeom 22
Free Space 220
geometry file 6
menu bar 11
XMAX 37, 303
XMIN 34, 36, 37, 303
Y
YMAX 37, 303
YMIN 34, 36, 37, 303
Z
Z current 165
Z-Partitions 174
357
Em User’s Manual
358
Sonnet Application Notes
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em . . . . . . . 1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Previous Modeling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thick Metal Approximation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Implementation and Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
APP NOTES
Simplified Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis Strategies for Diagonal Structures in em . . . . 11
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Initial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Rotating the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Analyzing Half of the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 19
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Class of Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Using The SPICE Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
dxlv
Other Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
dxlvi
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic
APP NOTES
Analysis of Lange Couplers
Using em
Summary
This application note describes a technique to accurately characterize the coupling
characteristics of the Lange coupler in em. The technique may be extended to any
problem set including coupled lines separated by distances on the order of the
metal thickness.
Introduction
One of the best known and popular planar power divider networks is the Lange
coupler. This structure is used on many microwave and millimeterwave MMICs
and hybrids.
547
::
Circuit theory predictions tend to characterize these structures as overcoupled.

Planar electromagnetic analysis using zero metal thickness tends to underpredict
the degree of coupling.
Thru S21
measured em (thick metal)
measured em (thick metal)
Coupled S21
Lange coupler data courtesy of the Lockheed Martin Electronics

Laboratory, Syracuse, NY.
Lange couplers are used in a wide range of both hybrid and MMIC microwave and
millimeterwave components for signal splitting and combining. Typically, Lange
couplers are utilized to provide equal power with quadrature phase splitting. In
power amplifier development, where multiple components are combined using an
array of input and output couplers to achieve high power levels, the accuracy of
the coupler performance is critical to maximizing overall output power and
efficiency. Any unbalance in the performance of the Lange coupler will result in
power dumping to the Lange terminating resistor, thereby resulting in lower than
expected output power and efficiency.
548
This application note will show that em accurately predicts coupler performance
through the use of a thick metal model for the coupled line section of the Lange
coupler. This results in significantly improved probability of first pass success.
The technique to be outlined below can be applied to any structure where metal
thickness may impact circuit performance.
Previous Modeling Approach

The figure below shows the frequency response for the direct and coupled port
transmission characteristics of a 60 GHz Lange coupler fabricated on 2 mil GaAs.
Neither the circuit theory nor the electromagnetic simulation accurately predict
APP NOTES
the Lange coupler performance.
Thru S21
Circuit Theory Measured Data
Coupled S21
em (zero thickness)
S-parameter data of 60 GHz Lange coupler thru and coupled port response.
Circuit theory, em analysis, and measured performance are shown.
549
::
Thick Metal Approximation

Tightly coupled transmission line structures typically have metal thicknesses on
the order of the line spacings. This results in parasitic capacitances between
parallel sides of the coupled lines which can substantially impact coupling. This
is evident in the electromagnetic analysis response of the 60 GHz Lange coupler
with zero thickness metallization, which predicts significantly under coupled
performance for the coupled port.
In order to more accurately predict the performance of the Lange coupler in the
electromagnetic simulation, a thick metal model for the coupled line section has
been developed. This is effected by creating a second metallization pattern
identical to the first, spacing the two structures to accurately reflect the desired
metal thickness, and connecting the two structures with vias. For metallization
where significant etchback occurs, slanted walls can be implemented to more
accurately predict the results of the impact of metal thickness on coupling. The
figure below shows a simplified cross-section model of how to approximate non-
vertical wall metallizations.
<=>
<=>
Simplified representation of the implementation of non-vertical metallization faces in

xgeom. The left side figures show the metallization geometries involved in the
approximation of the metallization cross-sections shown in the right side figures.
As stated above, the metal thickness is modeled by spacing the two metallization
patterns appropriately. This is accomplished by incorporating an additional
dielectric layer between the substrate material and the open region (air) above it.
This additional dielectric layer is modeled simply as an air layer with the thickness
550
of the metal being modeled. The figure below shows the xgeom dielectrics
window from the 60 GHz Lange coupler geometry file showing the additional
dielectric layer used to simulate the metal thickness.
Additional 3.4 µm
thick dielectric layer to
allow simulation of
thick metallization
structures.
APP NOTES
Xgeom dielectrics window from the .geo file of the 60 GHz Lange coupler.
551
::
Implementation and Results

The figure below shows a close-up view of the coupled line section of a Lange
coupler with the thick metal model implemented. In this figure, plated metal is
modeled on both layers, and airbridge metal is used on the top layer only.
air-
bridge
metal
plated metal
Detail of geometry file of Lange coupler thick metal implementation. Vias

connect between layers separated by thickness to be modeled.
The edge vias connecting the two metallization patterns are clearly evident. In this
case, vias at the ends of the thick metal transmission line structures are sufficient
for accurate modeling. (See Chapter 18, “Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-
Section” in the Em User’s Manual for details on the correct use of vias in
modeling thick metal.)
The feed structure on the four ports of the Lange coupler are not implemented
using the thick metal model. This simplification does not add appreciable error to
the modeled results, and reduces the analysis time.
552
The plot below shows a performance comparison between the measured thru and
coupled port transmission characteristics and the predicted result from the
electromagnetic analysis run with the thick metal model. Improved correlation
between predicted and measured results are shown.
Thru S21
em (thick metal)
measured
APP NOTES
measured
em (thick metal)
Coupled S21
Measured and em data for 60 GHz Lange coupler thru and coupled port data.
Simplified Analysis
The previous work results in an excellent level of accuracy in the analysis of
Lange couplers as is required for final verification prior to a design release.
However, the time required to perform the analysis is commensurate with the level
of accuracy required.
This section details a procedure for simplifying the Lange coupler analysis,
providing a high level of accuracy in a correspondingly reduced time span. This
approach is amenable to the preliminary design phase, where optimization of
design parameters (i.e. - line width and spacing as well as coupled line section
length) can occur quickly. Final analysis in the mode discussed previously would
be performed following the preliminary design phase.
553
::
The following elements were used in the simplification of the analyses: 1)

untwisting the coupled lines, 2) via removal, 3) port renumbering, 4) box size and
metal cell count minimization, 5) cal standard modification, 6) parallel subsection
removal, and 7) invocation of the -E edge-mesh option. The figure below presents
the xgeom .geo file of a coupled line section similar to that used in the analysis of
the 60 GHz Lange coupler.
Xgeom .geo file of a four coupled line structure used in the simplified em analysis
of a Lange coupler with metal thickness. Note the port renumbering and lack of
vias to speed the analysis.
Element one above utilizes the inverse of the approach J. Lange [1] used in the
development of the Lange coupler. See the Sonnet User’s Manual or contact
Sonnet Software, Inc. for further information concerning elements two through
seven listed above.
Table 1 presents the relative performance of each of the approaches: 1) full Lange
coupler analysis using a zero thickness metal model, 2) full Lange coupler
analysis utilizing the thick metal model, and 3) the simplified coupled line
structure. Thru and coupled port magnitude and phase at a single frequency (60
GHz) and analysis time per frequency data is presented to provide a trade-off
matrix between speed and accuracy. This analysis work was performed using em
Version 4.0 and timing performed on a Sun Microsystems SPARCstation 20.
Relative analysis times running under Version 5.1 or above on Windows should
be similar or faster.
554
Summary
A highly accurate method to model the performance of a Lange coupler through
the use of a thick metal model has been presented. Methods to reduce the analysis
time with the goal of allowing efficient optimization of critical Lange coupler
parameters have also been outlined.
This approach to modeling thick transmission lines, where parasitic coupling

along the vertical face of closely spaced coupled line sections may impact
performance, is directly applicable to other structures such as edge-coupled
bandpass filters, interdigital capacitors and edge-coupled DC blocks.
APP NOTES
References
[1] 1. J. Lange, “Integrated Stripline Quadrature Hybrids,” IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, December 1969.
Table 1: Comparison of em Modeling Approaches for 60 GHz Lange Couplers
Thru S21 Coupled

Relative Analysis Time
(dB) S21 (dB)
Coupler Type per Frequency
Phase (o) @60 @60
(min:sec)
GHz GHz
1) Full Lange coupler, zero 92.1 -3.13 -4.24 21:16

thickness metal model
2) Full Lange coupler, thick 89.9 -3.25 -3.61 31:29

metal model
3) Coupled line section only 91.0 -3.12 -3.66 0:51
4) Measured data 90.1 -3.21 -3.44 -
555
::
556
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis Strategies for Diagonal Structures in em
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis
APP NOTES
Strategies for Diagonal
Structures in em
Summary
The em electromagnetic analysis works best with rectangular (Manhattan)
structures since such structures are easily subsectioned. Diagonal (non-
Manhattan) structures are more difficult to analyze, requiring additional
subsections or the inclusion of diagonal subsections. Both increase analysis time
and memory requirements.
In this application note, we explore analysis techniques for a diagonally oriented

35 GHz band pass filter. Analysis is performed on the filter as originally drawn
and results are compared to measured data.
Then, several different approaches to analyzing the filter seeking to reduce

analysis time are evaluated. Timing and accuracy comparisons between these, the
baseline and measured results are made.
557
::
It will be shown that modifying the geometry to make use of the inherent
Manhattan nature of the structure results in significantly reduced analysis times
and memory (RAM) requirements with minimal degradation in the resulting
accuracy.
Introduction
The em electromagnetic analysis subsections structures created on an underlying,
user-defined rectangular grid. Structures which have rectangular edges, otherwise
known as Manhattan, are most easily, quickly and accurately analyzed.
Diagonal, or non-Manhattan, structures, however, are not as easily analyzed.

Either diagonal subsections must be added to allow current to flow diagonally
along a polygon edge or a smaller grid/cell size used to improve the edge
definition. Either results in increased analysis time and hardware requirements
(RAM use).
To explore the impact of various analysis approaches on diagonal structure

analysis time and accuracy, we will analyze a 35 GHz filter fabricated on 100
micron GaAs. Complete dimensional data on the filter is provided in [1].
Measured data and results from other software packages have been published [2],
making the filter a good candidate for validation and comparison. The work in [1]
and [2] was reported by R. Furlow of Boeing.
558
Different approaches used to analyze this structure with em range in analysis time
from 8 seconds to 6 minutes per frequency. All analyses were performed on a 400
MHz Pentium II processor running Sonnet Release 6.0. Loss and de-embedding
are included in the analysis.
Initial Analysis
The xgeom layout of the baseline filter is shown in the figure below. Cell size was
chosen to allow diagonal subsections to exactly follow the long diagonal edges of
the filter. However, the ends of the filter are now only approximated, as can be
seen with close inspection of the circuit as shown in the magnified section. This
shortens the subsectioned metal at each end of the resonator by about 1/2 cell, so
APP NOTES
the drawing of the resonator was lengthened by 1/2 cell at each end as
compensation.
The 35 GHz bandpass filter [1] layout as shown in xgeom.
The plot below shows the result of the em analysis compared with measurement
and with circuit theory analysis. Analysis time was 6 minutes per frequency and
required 66 MB of RAM to analyze.
559
::
The error in the em analysis is primarily in the center frequency while the circuit
theory analysis is in error in both frequency and response shape. The circuit theory
also predicts incorrect loss. The error in the center frequency in the em data is
approximately 1%.Unfortunately, the cost of this 1% accuracy is 6 minutes of
analysis time per frequency point and the need for 66 MB of RAM. Can we do any
better?
0.3
Measured
Em Analysis
(1%)
0.2
S21
0.1 Circuit
Theory
(5%)
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
F(GHz)
Em, circuit theory and measured results [2] for the 35 GHz bandpass
filter.
Rotating the Filter

Rotating the filter so that the resonator sections lie horizontal to the y-axis offers
several advantages in an em analysis. First, modeling of the resonator becomes
more accurate as they can be located exactly on the underlying grid. Also, since
only the small elements associated with the input and output fees require diagonal
subsections, RAM and analysis time requirements ought to decrease.
560
The figure below shows the xgeom layout of the filter rotated by 30 degrees so
that the filter section is horizontal. The filter resonator sections are now
orthogonal whereas the feed lines are on a diagonal.
APP NOTES
Xgeom layout of the 35 GHz bandpass filter rotated 30o so that the filter
resonators are horizontal.
561
::
The plot below shows the analysis results for this structure. We see improved
agreement between the measured and modeled data. Analysis time reduced to 1
minute 24 seconds per frequency and the analysis required 31 MB of RAM to
solve. Simply by changing the way we looked at the circuit, we decreased analysis
time by 4X and RAM requirements by 2X.
1.0
0.8
Measured
0.6 em (1%)
|S21|
0.4
Circuit Theory
0.2 (5 %)
0.0
20 25 30 35 40
Frequency (GHz)
The results of the em and circuit theory analysis compared to measured
data. The rotated filter analysis shows very good correlation to the
measured result.
562
Analyzing Half of the Filter

A review of the original and the Manhattan filter shows that they are symmetric
about a vertical center line. This means we can divide the filter in half, as shown
below and analyze it, then cascade the results together using a Network file
analysis to produce the full filter response.
APP NOTES
The geometry file for the half filter.
Cutting the number of subsections by half results in an analysis time of 39 seconds

per frequency and requires only 22 MB of RAM. This is a 2X reduction in analysis
time per frequency and a 1.4X reduction in required RAM while producing almost
identical S-parameter data.
An added benefit of analyzing the filter in pieces is that since we now have a
broadband (non-resonant) structure, we can analyze at fewer frequencies....then
interpolate to obtain the greater number of frequencies required to generate the
complete filter response. This effectively increased the savings in analysis time,
also. In this case, we analyzed every 5 GHz, 1/5 the required number of
frequencies for the full filter. Adding in the interpolation effect, analyzing half the
filter decreased the analysis time by 10X. This works out to be an equivalent time
of about 8 seconds per frequency.
Conclusion
We have demonstrated several strategies for analysis of a diagonal structure using
Sonnet. Analysis times ranged from 8 seconds to 6 minutes, depending on the
strategy used and the accuracy required.
563
::
References
[1] I. Bahl, “MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of Microwave and
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.1, No. 4, pp. 412-419,
October 1991.
[2] I. Bahl, “MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of Microwave and

Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.2, No. 2, pp. 116-130, April
1992.
564
SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis
SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files
APP NOTES
Using Electromagnetic
Analysis
Summary
This application note describes how to use em to automatically derive SPICE
models from a full wave electromagnetic analysis. The model generated is
compatible with OrCAD Pspice1 and OrCAD PSpice A/D as well as other popular
time domain circuit simulation packages. This capability is useful for circuits
which are small with respect to the wavelength of the highest frequency of
interest. This includes structures such as discontinuities like step, tee, and cross
junctions. The primary application is expected to be the generation of SPICE
models to predict cross-talk and propagation delay in high-speed digital
interconnects. Use of this command option causes em to automatically take the
results of the electromagnetic analysis of a circuit and synthesize a lumped
element equivalent model of inductors, capacitors, resistors, and mutual inductors.
This information is then formatted into an ASCII SPICE ".subckt" definition
ready for inclusion in a SPICE input file. This application note provides the basic
elements of an em spice analysis through some simple directions and an example.
565
::
Introduction
Em includes an option which synthesizes SPICE models2,3. This allows a given
circuit layout to be analyzed electromagnetically with the result used to synthesize
a SPICE lumped element model. The SPICE model consists of resistors,
inductors, capacitors, and mutual inductors and is written to disc in ASCII format.
The sub-circuit can then be incorporated in a complete circuit and analyzed using,
for example, PSpice or PSpice A/D, to obtain time domain responses. The primary
use of this capability is intended to be cross-talk analysis of high speed digital
circuits. The examples in this note are compatible with Pspice but are general
enough to be used in other SPICE type simulators after some modifications.
Class of Problems
The SPICE generation capability is intended for any circuit which is small with
respect to the wavelength of the highest frequency of excitation. Typically, 1/10th
wavelength is an appropriate limit. If a circuit is too large, split it into two or more
circuits and analyze each circuit separately.
The model generated by the analysis includes any lumped elements (including
mutual inductors) between any ports of the circuit layout. Lumped elements from
any port to ground are also included. The synthesis capability does not allow
internal nodes (i.e., nodes in a circuit which are not connected to a port in the
layout; series RL, LC, and RC are considered single lumped elements). Any
circuit which requires internal nodes for an accurate model should have the
appropriate point specified as a port. All ports must have a ground reference. The
SPICE file generation capability is usually not appropriate for microwave circuits
as such circuits are usually larger than a small fraction of a wavelength. However,
there are exceptions. For example, a de-embedded step discontinuity has zero
physical size and can be used with this capability. The SPICE model synthesis
capability is fast enough that it can be used on circuits of up to several hundred
ports.
566
Using The SPICE Option

The spice synthesis needs electromagnetic results at two frequencies to create a
lumped equivalent model. The user must select two frequencies for analysis and
specify them either through a simple sweep or referring to an analysis control file
in the Frequency Control section of the em Control window. (See the Sonnet Em
User’s Manual for details if needed). Selection of the proper frequencies to use
can be somewhat difficult for certain structures so here are a few guidelines to help
with the selection:
• Select the two frequencies so that they are separated by at least
10%. Also, make sure they do not exceed (or even come close to)
the highest useful frequency, where the circuit has become a sizable
APP NOTES
fraction of a wavelength.
• Make sure the frequency is not too low. When the cell size is less
than 0.00001 wavelength, numerical precision can be a problem.
For example, if the cell size (or vertical via length) is 1 mm, it
would be unwise to analyze below 1 MHz. If you are approaching
the lower frequency limit, or want to test for a numerical problem,
you can use the Memory Saver option in em Control to turn on sin-
gle precision (double precision is default) and see if the result
changes.
• After completing the analysis, always do a “reality check” for rea-
sonable values. If you have bad data, one of the above problems is
likely to be at fault. To be absolutely sure your results are good,
select a second pair of frequencies, different from the first pair by,
say, a factor of two, and re-analyze the circuit. You should obtain
almost the same answer.
To create a SPICE model from an em analysis, enter “-pspice<Number>” in the

Advanced Text entry box in the Additional Options dialog box of the em Control
interface. Here “Number” is the number of significant digits printed for the values
of the components in the final lumped model. For example specifying “-pspice4”
will produce components in the output file such as,
C_C1 1 2 2.534pf
567
::
Capacitors and inductors that would be printed out as zero at the specified
precision are excluded from the listing. The option “-pspice” is equivalent to “-
pspice6”.
Output is sent to a “.psp” file with the same prefix. For example, the input file is
“pspice.geo” so the spice output file is “pspice.psp.”
An Example
The example circuit is shown in the figure below. The circuit layout can be
imported from GDSII, DXF, Series 4, or entered directly using xgeom. The ports
are then specified and will translate to nodes in the lumped element netlist. This
circuit is a simple example of three coupled printed circuit traces connected to
three terminals of some pc-board mounted device. It is expected that there will be
significant crosstalk between the lines and added propagation delay due to the
discontinuities.
Geometry of example circuit under investigation shown using Sonnet xgeom . This
circuit is on a 25 mil thick substrate of relative dielectric constant 9.8. em simulation
of this circuit will produce scattering parameters as well as a complete spice
compatible subcircuit.
568
This example geometry is in the Sonnet example directory (pspice.geo). For this
example, the two frequencies chosen were 100 and 125 MHz. You may specify
these frequencies either by using the analysis control file, “pspice.an” or by
entering a two point sweep in the Frequency Control section of the em Control
window. Use of the analysis control file is shown below.
APP NOTES
The em Control window showing the use of the analysis control file.
Remember that you must click on Additional Options command button and enter
“-pspice” in the Advanced Options text entry box in the dialog box which appears
on your display.
569
::
The following is the resulting SPICE model in ".subckt" form (... indicates
information left out):
* Limits: C>0.1 pF, L<100 nH, R<1000 Ohms,

K>0.01.
* Analysis frequencies: 100.000000,
125.000000 MHz
.subckt pspice 1 2 3 4 5 6 GND
C_C1 1 4 2.73473pf
C_C2 1 6 1.39261pf
C_C3 2 GND 0.239061pf
C_C4 2 3 2.72413pf
C_C5 2 5 1.38228pf
C_C6 3 GND 0.197708pf
C_C7 3 5 0.552376pf
C_C8 4 GND 0.285267pf
C_C9 4 6 0.509081pf
C_C10 5 GND 0.196357pf
C_C11 6 GND 0.287491pf
L_L1 1 2 4.93059nh
L_L2 3 4 5.57302nh
L_L3 5 6 5.55392nh
Kn_K1 L_L1 L_L2 0.354279
Kn_K2 L_L1 L_L3 0.353451
Kn_K3 L_L2 L_L3 0.212225
.ends pspice
The file containing this model can be simply included in the spice circuit file with
a ".INC" statement and then connected as needed into the spice netlist.
Alternatively, a symbol can be created for this model and used in a schematic
capture program such as OrCAD Schematics1. Schematics contains a Symbol
Creation Wizard feature which allows symbols to be created quickly from existing
models. For smaller models, there is an option to enter the components
individually using the schematic entry method. This was done for this example
and is shown in the figure below.
570
Inductor
Coupling
APP NOTES
Block
Netlist generated for half of the circuit in the first figure. Only the circuit for ports
1,2,3,4 is shown here. Note the inductor coupling block highlighted in the diagram.
This coupling along with all other parasitics are computed automatically by em. The
circuit is displayed using OrCAD Schematics.
571
::
The circuit shown above is a complete circuit ready for analysis by PSpice or
PSpice A/D. Only the generator, which is a digital clock for this example, and the
port terminations needed to be added to the circuit generated by em. The generator
was connected to port 3 to check for crosstalk between port 3 and port 1. An
example Pspice analysis is shown below.
Time domain response of the circuit showing the crosstalk between the lines 1-2 and
3-4. Nearly 2 volts is generated at port 1 from a 5 volt clock signal at port 3. The data
is displayed using OrCAD Probe.
Other Techniques
Classical techniques use, for example, just an electrostatic or just a magnetostatic
analysis to derive a model. This is adequate for uniform transmission lines
embedded in homogenous dielectric (no different layers). In an arbitrary
predominantly planar circuit, as we have here, a single static analysis provides
only half a circuit model, just the capacitors or just the inductors.
Since em is a full dynamic analysis, both the inductive and capacitive portion of
the model are obtained with one analysis (at two frequencies).
572
In addition, the techniques usually used for the static analyses are of a volume
griding variety (e.g., finite elements, finite difference). Even under the
simplifications allowed by static analysis, circuits more complicated than shown
in Figures 1 and 2 quickly go beyond the capability of such software tools.
However, because em is a surface meshing analysis, it can do the circuit of Figure

1 in 1 minute on a 200 MHz Pentium using about 1 Mbyte of memory. The SPICE
file is generated after analyzing two frequencies, or in about 2 minutes.
Note that the experimental approach to modeling this circuit would involve
building the circuit, measuring a 6 port structure, developing and entering an
appropriate model in a circuit simulator, and optimizing each of the variables for
a best fit. Such a task is time consuming and error prone.
APP NOTES
In contrast, by using the em analysis, the total, end-to-end time was about one
hour. This includes the time required for manual circuit layout capture and
inspection of the final results.
Conclusion
We have shown how the SPICE model synthesis capability of em can be used to
quickly derive lumped models of complex circuits, provided the circuits are small
with respect to wavelength. The only input information required is the circuit
layout. The lumped model is synthesized based on results of a complete
electromagnetic analysis of the layout. The capability can be used on typical
workstations to model circuits of up to several hundred ports, allowing timely
generation of models of complex circuits which can not be accurately evaluated
in any other way.
[1] PSpice, Schematics, and Probe are products of OrCAD Corp. 9300 S.W. Nimbus Ave-
nue, Beaverton, OR 97008-9625
[2] Sonnet User’s Manual, Sonnet Software, 1020 Seventh North Street, Suite 210,
Liverpool, NY 13088
[3] J.C. Rautio, “Synthesis of Lumped Models from N-Port Scattering Parameter Data,”
IEEE Tran. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. 42, No. 3, March 1994, pp. 535-537.
573
::
574

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XGEOM

Sonnet® User’s Manual

 Copyright 1989,1991,1993, 1995-1999 Sonnet Software, Inc. All Rights Reserved

2 Editing Your Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

6 Palette of Standard Geometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

A Brief Overview of xgeom

Enhancements In Recent Releases

New Features for Both Windows and UNIX

Changes for UNIX only

Xgeom User’s Manual Layout

Using the xgeom Environment

Xgeom’s Tool Box

Messages Zoom level Cursor Position Mode

Describing Menu Bar Accesses

Shift Selecting Modes

2 Enter “sonnet” at the prompt.

The Sonnet task bar appears on your display.

Table 1 Sonnet Task Bar Buttons

Button Button Name Sonnet Program

Edit Circuit xgeom

Analyze Circuit em Control

View Response emgraph

View Current emvu

View Far Field patvu

Online Manuals Adobe Acrobat

Selecting Objects for Editing

Clicking on an Object or Point

Separate polygons sometimes have several vertices in common. If you want to

• The Modify menu

Select by Lassoing an Area

Lassoed area in pointer mode. Selected polygons from lasso.

Lassoed area in reshape mode. Selected points from lasso.

Shift and Control Keys

Adding Points to a Polygon

To change a triangle to a rectangle, select Tools ⇒ Add Points to Polygon from

Starting triangle polygon Added point.

Final rectangle after new point has been moved.

Polygons, Ports and Vias

Cutting and Pasting Polygons

Moving Polygons to Another Layer

Flipping, Rotating, and Resizing

When analyzing multi-port circuits to find S, Y, or Z parameters, all of the ports

In addition to being either grounded or ungrounded, ports can be further

Standard Box-Wall Ports

Standard Ungrounded-Internal Ports

In the figure above, the ungrounded-internal port is attached between two

Em cannot de-embed via ports. However, in a circuit which contains a

case with auto-grounded ports. You can simply place auto-

Adding Standard Ports

Adding Via Ports

Adding Auto-grounded Ports

Changing Port Numbering

Changing Port Impedance

Defining Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths

Creating Auto-grounded Ports: An Example

Place Auto-Grounded Ports Here

1 Select (Shift)Tools ⇒ Add Port.

3 Press ESC to return to pointer mode.

Auto-grounded Port Reference Planes

Creating the Polygons

a) Cell Fill “Off” b) Cell Fill “On”

Adding a Via to Ground