Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Application Notes
Cover: James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879). A professor at Cambridge
University, England, Maxwell established the interdependence of elec-
tricity and magnetism. In his classic treatise of 1873, he published the
first unified theory of electricity and magnetism and founded the science
of electromagnetism.
Sonnet® User’s Manual
Volume 1
Printed: April 1999
Release 6.0
Sonnet Software, Inc.
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The program names xgeom, em Control, emvu, patgen and patvu, dxfgeo, ebridge, emgen,
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Xgeom User’s Manual
Table of Contents
XGEOM
Table of Contents
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A Brief Overview of xgeom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Enhancements In Recent Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
New Features for Both Windows and UNIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
New Features for UNIX Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Changes for UNIX only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Xgeom User’s Manual Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Using the xgeom Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Tool Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Tool Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Status Bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Describing Menu Bar Accesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shortcut Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Shift Selecting Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Invoking Sonnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Multi-Layer Selects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Shift and Control Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Moving Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Adding Points to a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Deleting Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Polygons, Ports and Vias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Moving Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Deleting Polygons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Cutting and Pasting Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Moving Polygons to Another Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Flipping, Rotating, and Resizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Using Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Standard Box-Wall Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Standard Ungrounded-Internal Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Automatic-Grounded Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Manipulating Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Adding Standard Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Adding Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Adding Auto-grounded Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Deleting Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Changing Port Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Changing Port Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Defining Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths. . . . . . . . . . 34
Creating Auto-grounded Ports: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Auto-grounded Port Reference Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Using Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Via Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Creating the Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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Table of Contents
XGEOM
Edge Vias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Via Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Adding a Via to Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Making Entire Polygons Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Deleting Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Via Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Shorted Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Creating an Airbridge: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Loading in the Example File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Circuit Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Creating the Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Adding Edge Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Summary of Vias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5 Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Applications for Dielectric Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Creating a Dielectric Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Defining Dielectric Brick Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Changing Brick Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Z-Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
ix
Xgeom User’s Manual
Lange Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7 Function Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Startup Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The File Menu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The Help Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
The Main Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The File Menu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Typing in Coordinates From the Keyboard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
An Example of Keying in Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Panning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
x
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
Chapter 1 Introduction
Xgeom is a window based program used to capture circuit geometry for input to
the electromagnetic analysis program, em and is compatible with UNIX,
Windows95/98 and WindowsNT 4.0.
11
Xgeom User’s Manual
The most notable additions for Windows systems is the Palette of Standard
Geometries and the addition of the Undo and Redo commands.
Listed below are the new features and changes introduced in xgeom for Version
6.0. For what’s new in other Sonnet products, please refer to the appropriate
User’s Manual.
12
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
New Features for UNIX Only
File Export: You now have the capability to output your geometry file in DXF or
GDSII format. For details, see “File - Export,” page 89.
Layer Visibility and Locking: You now have the capability to lock (i.e., to
protect from editing commands) or unlock a metalization level and choose the
visibility of that level. For details, see “View - Metalization Levels,” page 101.
New View: You now have the capability to have two views of the same circuit.
For details, see “View - New View,” page 100.
Object Visibility: You can now selectively choose which types of objects you
wish to display at any given time. For details, see “View - Object Visibility,”
page 103.
Orthogonal Mode: This mode allows xgeom to operate only in the horizontal
and vertical planes when adding or moving polygons and points. For details, see
“Tools - Ortho,” page 114.
Selection Filter: You can disable selection of object types. For details, see “Edit
- Select Filter,” page 97.
Status Bar: The status bar appears at the bottom of the xgeom display window to
provide you with information on xgeom’s operation. It has four fields: messages,
zoom level, cursor position, and mode. The message field will indicate what you
need to do to perform a specific action.
Tool Bar: Just below the menu bar in the xgeom display appears a tool bar
consisting of a series of small buttons. These buttons allow quicker access to more
frequently used commands. For details, see “Tool Bar,” page 152.
Tool Box: A tool box appears on your display when the xgeom program is started.
This allows you to quickly access more commonly used functions. For details, see
“Tool Box,” page 155.
Dielectric Bricks: You can now add objects of dielectric brick material to your
circuit. For details, see Chapter 5, “Dielectric Bricks”.
Moving Polygons using Keyboard Entry of Coordinates: When a polygon is
selected, entering coordinates moves the polygon to a new location. For details,
see “An Example of Keying in Coordinates,” page 157.
13
Xgeom User’s Manual
14
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
Shift Selecting Objects: Allows you to add additional objects, or delete objects,
to or from a group of previously selected objects. For details, see “Shift and
Control Keys,” page 28.
Top and Bottom of Box Parameters: The box top and box bottom parameters
are no longer directly entered; instead, metal types are assigned. You then select
a metal type for the box top and box bottom from a pull down menu when defining
the box parameters, which will include the user defined metal types, and the pre-
defined metal types, Free Space and WG Load. For details, see “Parameters -
Box,” page 129 and “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138.
Box Top and Bottom Metal Types: Two new predefined metal types have been
added for the box top or bottom, available in the Box Parameters dialog box. The
first is WG Load which models a perfect matched wave guide load. The other is
Free Space which models removing the top or bottom box cover. For more details,
see “Parameters - Box,” page 129.
Vias: Through use of the editing tools, it is now possible to individually select vias
while in pointer mode in order to delete them.
You should also note that the illustrations alternate between Windows and UNIX
examples as this manual is used for both applications.
15
Xgeom User’s Manual
Tool Bar
Just below the menu bar in the xgeom display appears a tool bar consisting of a
series of small buttons. These buttons allow quicker access to more frequently
used commands. Placing the cursor over these buttons will cause a brief
description of their function to appear in the message field of the status bar at the
bottom of the xgeom window. For a complete description of the these buttons, see
“Tool Bar,” page 152.
Tool Box
A tool box, shown below, appears on your display when a geometry file is opened,
or when you select View ⇒ Tool Box from the menu. This allows you to quickly
access more commonly used functions. Placing the cursor over a button in the tool
box will cause a brief description of the function to appear in the status bar at the
bottom of the xgeom window. For a complete description of the these buttons, see
“Tool Box,” page 155.
Status Bar
The status bar, shown below, appears at the bottom of the xgeom display. It
displays information pertaining to cursor position, mode, zoom level and prompts.
Status Bar
16
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
The status bar is also useful to measure dimensions in your circuit. When a
polygon or set of points is selected, the cursor position on the status bar will
display a readout of the bounding box around the points or polygon.
TIP
As you move the cursor over buttons in either the Tool Box or the Tool Bar a brief
description of its function appears in the Messages section of the Status Bar.
For example, Tools ⇒ Add metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon means to move the
cursor to Tools on the menu bar, press and hold down the left mouse button, drag
the cursor down the menu which appears until Add Metalization is highlighted,
causing another pull-down menu to appear. Continuing to hold down the mouse
button, drag the cursor until Draw Polygon is highlighted and release the mouse
button. The new mode will be indicated on the status bar.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
If a (Shift) appears before the flow description, you should hold the shift key down
while performing the menu selection. This enables you to remain in the mode
selected, until you explicitly choose to exit it. For a complete explanation, see
"Shift Selecting Modes" below.
Shortcut Keys
Some menu items have a shortcut associated with them. These menu items can be
selected by typing the associated shortcut key. Shortcuts are shown on the menu
bar at the end of the name of the menu item. Typing the shortcut key has the same
effect as selecting the menu item with the mouse, but with no need to go through
the menus. Most of the shortcut keys are “control” keys, i.e. you must first hold
down the Control key, and then press the key. In the menus the control key is
indicated by “Ctrl +” before the letter. The “control” keys are denoted in the
manual with a “^” symbol. Any time you see a “^” symbol before a letter, e.g.,
“^U”, you should interpret this as meaning a control key. As an example, to type
a Control-U (^U), hold down the Control key and press the U key. A list of the
shortcut keys is found in section “Keyboard Shortcuts,” page 150 of this manual.
When selecting a mode, such as Tools ⇒ Add Via, you will remain in the mode
until you add one via to the circuit. After adding a single via, xgeom will then
automatically return to pointer mode. If you wish to continue in the Add Via mode
in order to add multiple vias, then hold the shift key down while selecting Add Via
mode from the menu with the mouse. You will continue in this mode until you
select another mode from the menu bar or press the Escape key which will place
you back in pointer mode, the default startup mode, which allows you to edit your
circuit.
Note that shift selecting a mode applies to all methods of entering that mode,
including selection of a button from the tool bar or tool box, or use of a shortcut
key. Also, when using a button to enter a mode, double clicking on the button acts
the same as pushing the shift key.
18
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
Invoking Sonnet
You use the Sonnet task bar, shown below, to access all the modules in the em
Suite. Opening the Sonnet task bar, for both Windows and UNIX systems is
detailed below.
UNIX
1 Open a terminal.
If you do not know how to do this, please see your system administrator.
19
Xgeom User’s Manual
Windows
1 Select Start ⇒ Programs ⇒ Sonnet ⇒ Sonnet from the Windows desktop
Start menu.
20
Chapter 1 Introduction
XGEOM
Once the Sonnet task bar is open, for UNIX or Windows systems, clicking on any
given button opens the appropriate module. The table below shows which
modules are invoked by each button.
21
Xgeom User’s Manual
The translation programs, dxfgeo and gds, are accessed through the Sonnet task
bar main menu, as shown below. Select Convert Dxf for dxfgeo and select Convert
Gds for gds.
For details on each program, please refer to the appropriate user’s manual.
22
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
This chapter provides an overview of xgeom modes of operation, and basic editing
tasks. Changing the circuit is accomplished with the Edit, Modify and Tools
options described in this section.
Pointer Mode
The pointer mode allows you to select objects for editing. This is the default mode
of xgeom upon opening a file. To return to this mode from another mode, press
the ESC key or choose Tools ⇒ Pointer from the menu. When you are in pointer
mode, the cursor appears as shown to the left.
23
Xgeom User’s Manual
Reshape Mode
The reshape mode allows you to manipulate points in polygons. To enter this
mode click on the reshape button in the tool box or select Tools ⇒ Reshape from
the menu. You will remain in this mode until selecting another mode. Pressing the
ESC key will return you to pointer mode.When you are in pointer mode, the cursor
appears as shown to the left.
Clicking on an object while in pointer mode will select the object. If the object is
a polygon, clicking inside the polygon or the edge will select the polygon. The
polygon will become highlighted when selected.
To select a point, you must first be in the reshape mode. Then you select a point
by clicking on that point. The selected point should become highlighted.
24
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
When a polygon or set of points is selected, the dimensions of the bounding box
around the object(s) will appear in the cursor portion of the status bar. This
provides a readily accessible measuring device.
Selected polygon
Click inside the
polygon to select it.
Dimensions of
bounding box
Multiple Selects
You may select multiple objects while in pointer mode and multiple points while
in reshape mode. Objects include metal polygons, brick polygons, ports, and vias.
Multiple polygon selects are very useful when you want to change the attributes
of many polygons at once. The following menu items operate on multiple
polygons:
• Edit ⇒ Cut
• Edit ⇒ Copy
• Edit ⇒ Duplicate
• Edit ⇒ Delete
25
Xgeom User’s Manual
The Modify ⇒ Attributes menu item can be used for metal polygons, dielectric
brick polygons or ports. This menu item will open the Metalization Attributes
dialog box, the Dielectric Brick Attributes box and the Port Attributes box,
depending on which type of object is selected when the menu item is invoked. If
all three types are selected, each type of dialog box will appear in succession in
response to Modify ⇒ Attributes. For more details, see “Modify - Attributes,”
page 118.
Ports are attached to polygon edges; therefore, the port moves with the polygon.
Also, if points are selected on a polygon, and a port appears between them, the port
will move with the points. However, if those points are cut, the port will remain
on the polygon. This also holds true for edge vias. If you are not familiar with edge
vias, refer to “Edge Vias,” page 52 for a definition.
26
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
box shows the area that will be selected. Now release the mouse button. All points
or objects in the region are selected. An example of a lasso select in each mode,
pointer and reshape, is shown below.
Unselecting
Edit ⇒ Unselect will unselect any objects that are presently selected. This item
is unavailable when nothing is selected.
TIP
Clicking on the substrate, outside all selected objects, will also unselect all ob-
jects.
Multi-Layer Selects
If your circuit requires more than one layer of metalization, you may want to
modify the objects or points on some or all of these layers simultaneously.
27
Xgeom User’s Manual
To select points or polygons on more than one layer at a time, toggle single layer
select to the off position by selecting Edit ⇒ Single Layer Select. This puts you
in the Multi-Layer select mode. When in this mode, the select by lassoing or select
by pointing applies for all layers. This mode is usually used for moving and
copying multilayer structures, such as vias.
Note that the Shift key allows you to select additional objects, while the Control
key toggles the state of the objects. If it is currently selected, pressing the Control
key while performing a selection action will unselect the object. If the object is not
currently selected, then pressing the Control key while performing a selection
action will select the object.
The above applies whether you are performing selections by clicking on a single
item or by “lassoing” a group of items.
Points
The following sections describe how to move, add and delete points.
Moving Points
If you need to move a point, you must first be in the reshape mode as described in
the previous section. If you wish to move a single point, then position the cursor
on the point and press, without releasing, the left mouse button. With the button
held down, move the mouse. The point moves as you move the mouse. Drag the
point to the desired location and release the button. If you wish to move multiple
points, select the points by lassoing them as described above. Then place the
28
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
cursor on any one of the highlighted points and drag the mouse. Note that, in both
cases, the polygon will be reshaped to accommodate the new position(s) of the
point(s).
Notice that the points that you are moving always “snap” to the nearest grid point.
If you want to move a point between your grid points, you must change a property
called the “snap distance”. See “Tools - Snap Setup,” page 116 for information on
how to do this.
29
Xgeom User’s Manual
A highlighted point appears. Place your cursor over the highlighted point, press
the left mouse button, then drag the point to the desired location. Two new line
segments connect the new point to the existing endpoints.
New point
You may keep adding points in this fashion for multi-sided polygons. If you make
an error, you may press the Delete or Backspace key and the last point entered is
deleted. When done, push the ESC key to go to pointer mode or select another
menu action to exit the Add Points to Polygon mode.
Deleting Points
If you wish to delete points from an existing polygon, invoke the reshape mode by
selecting Tools ⇒ Reshape or clicking on the Reshape button in the tool box.
Then select the points you wish to delete by lassoing an area that contains them or
by clicking on a single point. Then delete the points by pressing the Delete key or
by selecting Edit ⇒ Delete on the menu bar.
30
Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
Moving Polygons
If you need to move a polygon, you must first be in the pointer mode as described
above. Then position the cursor inside the polygon and press, without releasing,
the left mouse button. The polygon is highlighted, indicating selection. With the
button held down, move the mouse. The polygon moves as you move the mouse.
Drag the polygon to the desired location and release the button.
Notice that the polygons that you are moving always “snap” to the nearest grid
point. If you want to move a point or polygon between your grid points, you must
change a property called the “snap distance”. See “Tools - Snap Setup,” page 116
for information on how to do this.
If you want to move a group of polygons in unison, start by selecting all of the
polygons you want included in the move. Each polygon is highlighted. When all
polygons are selected, click on one of the polygons. Holding the button down,
drag the polygons to their new location.
Deleting Polygons
To delete a polygon or polygons, go to the pointer mode by pressing the ESC key
or selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer. Then, select the polygon(s) that you wish to delete,
and press the Delete key, the Backspace key or select Edit ⇒ Delete.
To insert polygons into the xgeom clipboard and remove them from your circuit,
first select the polygons that you wish to cut. Now choose Edit ⇒ Cut or click
on the Cut button on the tool bar. The selected polygons are deleted. To retrieve
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Xgeom User’s Manual
the polygons from the xgeom clipboard, choose Edit ⇒ Paste or click on the
Paste button on the tool bar. The polygons are copied from the clipboard to your
circuit. Also note that the polygons just pasted in are still selected. This makes it
easy to move them to a new location. Cutting and pasting using Edit ⇒ Cut and
Edit ⇒ Paste can be used to move polygons from one layer to another layer, or
from one xgeom window to another.
Edit ⇒ Copy is the same as Edit ⇒ Cut but the selected polygons are placed
into the clipboard without being deleted from the circuit. Use this menu item when
you want to keep the original polygons where they are and make a copy of them
somewhere else.
Edit ⇒ Duplicate combines Edit ⇒ Copy and Edit ⇒ Paste into one menu
item. This menu item provides a fast way to copy polygons to another location on
the same layer. To do this, first select the polygons and then choose Edit ⇒
Duplicate. The selected polygons are inserted into the buffer and duplicates of the
polygons are then pasted on top of the original polygons. The pasted polygons are
highlighted to remind you that they are still selected.
Xgeom provides you with a way of flipping, rotating, and resizing polygons. To
use these features, first select the polygon(s) that you wish to change, and then
choose the appropriate menu item. You are then prompted for more information.
For example, to create the mirror image of a polygon, first select the polygon, and
then choose Edit ⇒ Duplicate so that the original polygon remains unchanged.
Now choose Modify ⇒ Flip to open the Flip dialog box and select a Pivot Point.
The polygon is flipped about an axis passing through the pivot point you have
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Chapter 2 Editing Your Circuit
XGEOM
chosen. Then choose either Left-Right or Up-Down direction. For a complete
description of the Flip, Rotate, and Resize functions, see the appropriate entries in
"The Modify Menu" on page 118.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
34
Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
Chapter 3 Using Ports
Introduction
All ports are two-terminal devices. In most applications, the first terminal is
attached to a metal polygon, and the second terminal is attached to ground. Such
ports are referred to as grounded ports. Occasionally, however, it is useful to
attach the two terminals of a port between two abutted polygons. These ports are
referred to as ungrounded ports.
Ports are not allowed on diagonal lines and ports are not allowed to overlap each
other (just touching is permitted). Em tests for these error conditions.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Page 18
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Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
Ports on the edge of a single polygon are not allowed, with em generating a “Port
<n> is not connected between two polygons” error message (see “Error
Messages,” page 308 of the Em User’s Manual). Extreme care should be taken
in interpreting the results since the port has no access to ground.
- +
Example of a circuit
with an ungrounded
internal port.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Via Ports
A via port has one terminal connected to a polygon on a given circuit level, and
the other terminal connected to a second polygon on a circuit level above or below
the first polygon. For more details on vias, see Chapter 4, “Using Vias”. Thus,
when ports are desired on the interior of a circuit, capture a via between two layers
and add a port to the edge via. An example of this port type is shown in the figure
below. Note that the triangle symbols in the figure represent a via.
Level 0 Level 1
Example of a
circuit with a
via port (both
levels shown.)
In most cases where you need grounded ports, your first choice would be to use
automatic-grounded ports as discussed in the next section. If you need a port with
the flexibility to be connected between any two layers of your dielectric, you will
want to use the via port.
The example “patch.geo” included with your software has an example of using a
via port.
38
Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
Automatic-Grounded Ports
An automatic-grounded port is a special type of port used in the interior of a
circuit. This port type has one terminal attached to the edge of a metal polygon
located inside the box and the other terminal attached to the ground plane through
all intervening dielectric layers. An auto-grounded port is illustrated below.
page 21
In many circuits, the addition of auto-grounded ports has little influence on the
total analysis time of the em job. However for some circuits, auto-grounded ports
may require some extra overhead calculations, thus increasing the total analysis
time. Therefore, they should be used only when they provide an advantage over
standard box-wall ports. Auto-grounded ports provide advantages over standard
box-wall ports when:
• the layout of your circuit does not allow a direct path for a feed line
to be connected between the port and the box wall, as in the figure
above, or
• your circuit requires a large feed structure to reach the box wall. If
all or part of your feed structure can be eliminated, using an auto-
grounded port could reduce the total number of subsections in your
circuit, thus decreasing the analysis time and/or memory require-
ments.
Auto-grounded ports are similar to via ports with the exception of the following
characteristics:
• Via ports require you to manually create vias that extend upward
through the dielectric to the edge of a metal polygon. This is not the
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Manipulating Ports
The following sections explain the basics of manipulating ports; how to add and
delete them and change their characteristics.
Ports are numbered automatically, in the order in which they are added to your
circuit, starting at the number one. You may later choose to change a port number;
this operation is discussed below.
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Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
2 Then click on the Add Port button in the tool box, to put you in Add Port
mode.
3 Then click on the edge via at the lower level polygon to add the port. An
example is shown in the figure on page 38.
page 23
Deleting Ports
All types of ports are deleted in the same manner. Simply select the port, then
perform a Cut or Delete operation, either through the tool bar or menu, to remove
the port from the circuit.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Ports are numbered in the order that they are entered into the circuit. There is no
limit on the number of ports and the number of ports has absolutely no impact on
analysis time.
As many physical ports as desired may be given the same numeric label, and all
ports with the same label are electrically connected together as illustrated below
and have identical parameters. Such ports are called “push-push” ports and have
many uses such as simulating thick metal. See Chapter 18, “Thick Metal with
Arbitrary Cross-Section” in the Em User’s Manual for additional details.
Ports may also have negative labels as shown in the figure on page 43. This feature
can be used to redefine ground. Strictly speaking, em sums the total current going
into all the positive ports with the same port number and sets that equal to the total
current going out of all the ports with that same negative port number. For
example, for a circuit with a +1 port and a -1 port, em sets current flowing into
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Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
port +1 to be equal to the current flowing out of port -1. Thus the name “balanced”,
or “push-pull” port. See Chapter 17, “Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and
Balanced Ports” in the Em User’s Manual for more details.
An example of push-pull
ports.
Ports may be non-sequential, i.e., you may have only 2 ports, one labeled “1” and
the other labeled “4”. The port order for the S,Y, or Z parameters will be listed in
increasing numeric order. For the example of a two-port with ports labeled “1” and
“4”, the output would be as follows: S11, S41, S14, S44.
If you wish to change the impedance of a given port, and wish to see the
impedance values of other ports while doing so, proceed as follows:
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Xgeom User’s Manual
1 Select Parameters ⇒ Ports from the main menu to open the Port
Impedance dialog box.
2 Now the impedance values for any port can be changed by typing the
desired values in the Resistance, Reactance, Inductance and Capaci-
tance fields in the row labeled with the desired port number.
TIP
Note that the impedance of multiple ports may be changed at the same time
through the first method by selecting multiple ports before selecting Modify ⇒ At-
tributes, and by the second method, by modifying all the desired port values while
the Port Impedance dialog box is open.
Standard Ports
For standard ports, which normally reside on the box wall, the Reference Plane or
Calibration Length refers to the distance to the box wall. To set the Reference
Planes/Calibration lengths, do the following:
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Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
1 Select Parameters ⇒ Ref. Planes/Cal. Lengths from the main menu.
This will open the Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths dialog box.
2 Select the side from which the reference plane or calibration length is to
extend (Top, Left, Right, or Bottom) and choose Cal or Ref from the
drop list in the Type field.
3 Then enter the desired length in the Length field from the keyboard.
Alternatively, you may use the mouse by clicking the Use Mouse button
and then clicking in your circuit at the desired location. The Length
entry will be updated to reflect your selection.
4 To remove a reference plane or calibration length, enter a value of zero
in the Length field. Alternately, click on the Use Mouse button, then
click outside the substrate. There is only one plane or length per box
side. The same reference plane or calibration length is used on all ports
on all levels on that side of the box.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Auto-ground Ports
For autoground ports, the reference plane or calibration length is defined as the
distance from a particular port. To set a reference plane or calibration length for
an auto-grounded port, do the following;
1 Click on the port to select it. This will enable the Modify menu option.
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box
depicted in the figure on page 41.
3 Then enter the desired length in the Ref. Plane or Cal. Length field in
the Autognd Port Data box. Alternatively, you may use the mouse for
setting the reference plane by clicking the Use Mouse button and then
clicking in your circuit at the desired location. The Ref. Plane entry will
be updated to reflect your selection.
4 To remove a reference plane or calibration length, enter a value of zero
in the respective field.
TIP
Changing a port to an autoground type and setting up a reference plane or calibra-
tion length for the port can be accomplished at the same time in the Port Attributes
dialog box. It is also possible to set calibration lengths for multiple ports by select-
ing the desired ports, selecting Modify ⇒ Attributes and inputting a value in the
calibration length text entry box in the Port Attributes dialog box.
You add an auto-grounded port to a circuit in the same way that you add a
“standard” box-wall or ungrounded-internal port. The only difference is that after
adding the port, you must change its type to “auto-grounded.”
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Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
To illustrate the procedure for adding auto-grounded ports to a circuit, let’s begin
with the example circuit shown below.
Place Standard Box-Wall Ports Here
This circuit is available in the Sonnet examples directory. To obtain a copy of the
geometry file, type the following command:
copyex autonopt.geo
The copyex command will copy the file “autonopt.geo” from the examples
directory to your present directory. Then, if you would like to load the file into
xgeom, type:
xgeom autonopt
Now we will go through the steps you would use to create two “standard” box-
wall ports and two “auto-grounded” ports at the locations indicated in the figure
above.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Example
circuit with
“standard”
ports added to
polygon
edges.
5 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes. This will open the Port Attributes dialog
box shown in the figure on page 41.
6 Now the ports can be changed from standard ports to auto-grounded
ports by choosing Autognd from the drop list in the Type field.
7 Click on the OK button to exit the Port Attributes dialog box.
After converting ports #3 and #4 in this manner, the circuit will appear as shown
below.
The circuit now has the two box-wall and two auto-grounded ports in the desired
locations.
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Chapter 3 Using Ports
XGEOM
This circuit is available in the Sonnet examples directory and may be obtained by
typing:
copyex autoport.geo
Just as it is possible for you to define reference planes for the de-embedding of
box-wall ports, you can also define reference planes for the de-embedding of auto-
grounded ports. We will again consider the example circuit shown in the figure on
page 48. To add reference planes of length 508 µM for Port #3 and length 1016
µM for Port #4, perform the following steps.
1 Click on Port #3 to select it and enable the Modify menu item.
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box,
shown in the figure on page 41.
3 Then enter 508 in the Ref. Plane field of the dialog box.
4 Click on the OK button to close the dialog box. The reference plane will
be drawn on the circuit.
5 Click on Port #4 to select it and enable the Modify menu item.
6 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes to open the Port Attributes dialog box,
shown in the figure on page 41.
7 Then enter 1016 in the Ref. Plane field of the dialog box.
8 Click on the OK button to close the dialog box. The reference plane will
be drawn on the circuit.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Upon completion of these steps, the circuit layout now appears as shown below.
50
Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
Chapter 4 Using Vias
The examples in the first few chapters of this manual show circuits that use only
planar (X-Y) currents. Vias allow current to flow in the Z-direction. Vias can
extend from ground to the substrate surface, a ground via, as well as between
levels in a multilayer structure. Note, however, that vias, by definition, always
extend upward. They can also extend to the top cover of the box.
Via Concepts
To create a via that connects one layer to another layer, you must follow these
steps:
1 Draw a polygon on each of the two layers that you want to connect.
2 Define the position of the via by creating an “edge via” (defined later).
3 If needed, modify the polygons so that vias are as desired.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
First, you must create the two polygons that you want to connect with a via. This
is true even if you want to connect a via to ground. The polygons must be on
adjacent levels. If they are not, you will need to create a series of vias - each one
connecting polygons on adjacent levels. Type ^U and ^D to move up and down
between the two levels that you want to use, and create a polygon on each level.
If the via is going to ground, create a “dummy” polygon on the ground level which
represents the bottom of the xgeom box. It is called a “dummy” polygon because
the ground level is already completely metallized and the polygon does not change
this characteristic.
Edge Vias
To connect two polygons with a via, you must first create an “edge via”. An edge
via is an edge of a polygon that a via originates from. To create an edge via, go to
the lower of the two polygons to which you want to connect a via. Now use Tools
⇒Add Via and click on the edge of the polygon where you want the via to go. If
the cell fill is on, the edge via will appear in inverse coloring with two triangles
shown representing the via.
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Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
The “up” via symbol indicates that the via post connects this level to the next level
above as shown below. Move up one level. The vias are shown on this level with
a “down” via symbol which is a “down” triangle. The “down” via symbol was
generated automatically when the via-edge was added on the lower level.
Via Posts
With the metalization turned on, by setting View ⇒ Cell Fill to “On”, the via
subsections, called “via posts”, are also displayed in reverse video. See b. When
em subsections the circuit, it subsections each edge via, which you specify, into
subsectional vias called “via posts”. Each via post is a rectangular cylinder of
current, extending between the present level to the next level above. A via post has
a horizontal cross-sectional area equal to one cell and a height equal to the
thickness of the dielectric layer. If you change the cell size, then the edge via is
resubsectioned into via posts with the new cell size. Xgeom places enough via
posts to cover the entire length of the edge via. We will refer to this series of via
posts as a “via fence.” See and .
To view vias as they are being captured, it is convenient to be able to change the
viewed level in xgeom quickly. To do so, just type ^U (Control-U) to go up one
level, towards the box top, or ^D to go down one level.You may also click on the
Up One Level or Down One Level button on the tool bar.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
If you want a level to be displayed as a “ghost” outline whenever you are not on
that level, make the level visible in the Levels dialog box which appears in
response to selecting View ⇒ Metalization Levels. Then you can see how
different levels of metalization line up. You may also use the Levels dialog box to
turn off the visibility of any given level. By default, xgeom starts with all levels
visible.
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Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
The ground level is completely metallized, with or without the polygon. The
polygon is created only to provide a polygon edge so a via can connect to the
ground level. A via to ground is depicted below.
Polygon
Via
Level 0 Metallization
Dielectric Layer
Ground Level Metallization
The lower part of the figure depicts a via going from the single metalization level to ground. The
same via is shown in the top of the figure as it appears in xgeom. The via post is a metal filled column
which penetrates through the dielectric layer and connects the metalization level to ground.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
The illustration below depicts a via going to ground. However, this time the via is
wider than a cell, so a via fence, made up of adjacent via posts, is used.
Via Fence
Level 0 Metallization
Via Post
The lower part of the figure depicts a via fence going from the single metalization level to
ground. The same via is shown in the top of the figure as it appears in xgeom.
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Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
Making Entire Polygons Vias
To turn entire polygon(s) into via(s), first select the polygon(s), then choose
Modify ⇒ Add Vias to All. Edge vias will be attached to all sides of the polygon
simultaneously. If your polygon has diagonal lines or points not on the grid,
xgeom does a staircase fit to the polygon. Xgeom only attaches via posts to the
edges of the polygon, creating a hollow “cylinder” of metal. Since current tends
to flow on the surfaces of conductors, creating a solid cylinder would just waste
subsections.
Deleting Vias
To delete an edge via, select the via while in pointer mode by clicking on a triangle
of the edge via that you want deleted. Then select Edit ⇒ Cut from the menu bar
or the Delete key to delete it. Make sure that you are on the level where the via
post starts, and emanates upward, and not on the level above where the via post
ends. Deleting an edge via deletes the via-fence associated with it.
Via Loss
The loss for the via post is determined by the metalization of the polygon that the
via is associated with. See “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138 for an
explanation on how to set the metalization loss.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Shorted Vias
One commonly occurring error using vias is to create an edge via that is adjacent
to a port. An example is shown below. This shorts the port to the box wall. In
general, never allow a via post to touch the edge of the box.
Right Wrong
Via Ports
Vias may also be ports. This is a special case of the internal port described in “Via
Ports,” page 38. The port is inserted between two levels. An example of a via port
is shown below. The example “patch.geo” included with your software has an
example of using a via port.
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Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
Creating an Airbridge: An Example
A good example of the use of vias is an airbridge. This section is a tutorial on
creating a transmission line that bridges over another transmission line.
The example file for the airbridge is “bridge.geo.” Obtain a copy of “bridge.geo”
using copyex. If you are not familiar with copyex, see “Obtaining the Example
Files,” page 7 in the Sonnet Tutorial.
Now load the example file into xgeom. To do so, perform the following:
1 Select xgeom from the Sonnet menu in the Windows desktop Start
menu.
2 Select File ⇒ Open from the xgeom main menu. The Open File dialog
box will appear.
3 Double-click on “bridge.geo” in the file list to open the file in xgeom. If
“bridge.geo” does not appear, use the browse button to locate and open
the file.
Unfinished airbridge example. The text describes how to complete the bridge.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Circuit Description
This example file contains a 6-port circuit. However, the ports are on another
level. Type ^D key or down arrow to go down one level. Your screen should now
look like b. This level shows a transmission line going from ports 1 to 2, another
transmission line going from port 3 to a via post (notice the arrow-up symbol), a
similar line at port 4, and two open stubs at ports 5 and 6.
Let’s concentrate on what happens on the line connected to port 3. This line goes
to a via post, indicated by the arrow-up symbol. The via post connects the line to
another line on the level above this one, which appears as a ghost image. Type ^U
to go up one level. You are now looking at the highest level again, level 0. There
is a single rectangle of metal that acts as the “bridge” of the airbridge. Notice the
two arrow-down symbols. These were automatically created by xgeom and
indicate that there is a via post coming up from the level below this level.
Remember, via posts always project upward from the level that they are specified
on.
Now let’s connect the two open stubs connected to ports 5 and 6 to another
airbridge identical to the one that is already there. As a general rule, it is best to
create the polygons on both layers first. In this example, the polygons on level 1
have already been entered for you and the only polygon left is the actual airbridge.
Type ^M to turn the cell fill off and create a new polygon similar to the one that
is already there by using Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Rectangle or ^R
for example. It is good practice to create polygons such that the edges are in line
60
Chapter 4 Using Vias
XGEOM
with each other. This makes it possible to change your cell size without having to
change your edge vias. When you are done, turn the cell fill back on. Your circuit
should now look like this:
Now type ^D to go back to level 1 shown in on the right in the figure above. Select
(Shift) Tools ⇒ Add Vias and click on the end of the each of the open stubs. Three
things show up for each stub. First, a dark dashed line is displayed. This is the edge
via. Second, an arrow-up symbol is displayed, signifying a via post that goes up
to the next layer. Third, a new metallized polygon shows up. This shows you the
actual size and position of the via post. See the next illustration. Now go up to
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Xgeom User’s Manual
level 0. Your circuit should look appear as below. An arrow-down symbol and an
extra metallized square polygon were automatically created by xgeom for each
edge via that you entered. Press the ESC key to return to Pointer mode.
Summary of Vias
Here is a summary of how to use vias:
• Xgeom uses edge vias to determine the position of a via post.
• When creating edge vias, start on the lowest level and work up.
• To create a via to ground, start by specifying a polygon on the
ground layer.
• Create your polygons before adding vias.
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Chapter 5 Dielectric Bricks
XGEOM
Chapter 5 Dielectric Bricks
Keep in mind, however, that dielectric bricks add a large number of subsections
to your circuit, thus substantially increasing memory requirements and analysis
times.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
When on the circuit layer where the base of the dielectric brick is to be located,
the next step is to create a base polygon which defines the cross-section of the
brick. This is done in xgeom by selecting either Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick
⇒ Draw Rectangle or Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw Polygon. The
first option allows the vertices of arbitrarily shaped base polygons to be entered
on a point by point basis. This option can always be used to create dielectric bricks
with any cross-sectional shape. However, if the cross-section is rectangular in
shape, it is often quicker to create dielectric bricks using the second option.
Once a dielectric brick has been created in xgeom, it is possible to “see” the brick
from both the circuit layer where the base of the brick is located and the circuit
layer where the top of the brick is located. On both levels, you will see a polygon
which defines the cross-sectional shape of the dielectric brick. The brightness of
the polygon, however, will vary depending upon whether you are on the top level,
where you will see a “dim” polygon, or the base level, where you will see a
“bright” polygon. Note that while it is possible to “see” a brick from two different
circuit levels, “selecting” a brick, for cutting, copying, moving, changing
attributes, etc., can only be done from the circuit level where the base of the brick
is located if you are in Single layer edit mode. The polygon can be selected on
either level if you are in multilayer select.
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Chapter 5 Dielectric Bricks
XGEOM
Finally, it is possible to turn dielectric bricks “on” or “off” in xgeom by selecting
View ⇒ Object Visibility. This will open the Object Visibility dialog box shown
below. Click on the Only Objects Checked Below radio button. The object choices
will now be available. Click on the Dielectric Bricks checkbox to turn it off. This
will make any bricks present in the circuit invisible and unselectable, but does not
remove them from the circuit. The dielectric bricks can be turned back “on” by
once again selecting View ⇒ Object Visibility and clicking the Dielectric Bricks
checkbox or the All Objects radio button. Occasionally, when a circuit contains
many layers, with overlapping metal polygons and dielectric bricks, it may be
somewhat difficult to distinguish the metal polygons and dielectric bricks from
one another. The ability to turn dielectric bricks “off” usually makes it easier to
view such circuits.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
that materials text entry boxes. Note that for anisotropic materials all the
parameters do not fit in the dialog box simultaneously, so that it is necessary to
use the scroll bars to access all settings.
The
brick
materi
als
dialog
box.
If the brick type is isotropic only one set of parameters, X, will be set. Conversely,
if the brick material is set to anisotropic, each parameter is defined separately for
the X, Y, and Z dimensions. If you wish to make a brick material anisotropic, click
on the Ani checkbox.
The “default” material used when new dielectric bricks are created can also be set
in the Brick Materials dialog box. Select a brick type from the Default for add
bricks drop list. Once the default material has been set, all bricks created thereafter
will be made of that material.
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Chapter 5 Dielectric Bricks
XGEOM
2 Select Modify ⇒ Attributes. This will open the Dielectric Brick
attributes dialog box, shown below.
3 Select the brick material you desire from the drop list labeled Brick.
4 Click on the OK button to apply your selection and close the dialog box.
Z-Partitioning
A dielectric brick simulates a volume of dielectric material. Because a brick
simulates a volume, it must be subsectioned in the X, Y, and Z dimensions. The
more subsections (better resolution) used in each dimension, the more accurate the
analysis.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
Listed in the far right column of text entry boxes labeled Z-Parts. is the number of
Z partitions for each circuit layer. To change a value in this column, edit the
applicable text entry box. Note that the “number of Z partitions” parameter only
affects dielectric bricks. Changing this value for a particular layer will have
absolutely no affect on the analysis if there are no bricks on the layer. If there are
multiple bricks on the layer, the Z subsectioning for all of those bricks will be
identical. It is not possible to apply different Z partitions to brick polygons which
appear on the same layer.
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Chapter 6 Palette of Standard Geometries
XGEOM
Chapter 6 Palette of Standard
Geometries
Introduction
Xgeom includes a palette of standard geometries, comprised of commonly used
circuit elements, available under the Add Metalization menu. Each item has an
associated dialog box which allows you to input the desired parameters for the
element. Once the element is added to the circuit, it is converted to its component
polygons. These polygons may then be manipulated using all the normal xgeom
functions. An example of a parameter dialog box, for the fan stub, is shown below.
To change the parameter values, edit the corresponding text entry box.
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Xgeom User’s Manual
The table below lists the available geometries, and the associated command for
adding it to your circuit. For a description of the associated parameters, see the
entry for the geometry in this chapter.
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Chapter 6 Palette of Standard Geometries
XGEOM
Rectangle
ILLUSTRATION:
Width
Height
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
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Interdigital Capacitor
ILLUSTRATION:
Terminal Width
F inger S pacing
F inger W id th
X
End Gap
Overlap
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Overlap The length of the finger in the X plane as measured from the ending of the End
Gap to the end of the finger. The Finger Length = Overlap + End Gap.
End Gap The distance between the terminal and the finger. Note that the gap is metal on
the side where a finger connects to the terminal and is open space between the
finger and the opposite terminal.
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Parameter Definition
Number of Finger Number of finger pairs present in the capacitor. The example above has 4 finger
Pairs pairs.
Terminal Width The width of the terminal which is measured from the outer edge of the
capacitor to the beginning of the End Gap. There is a terminal on either side of
the capacitor.
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Donut
ILLUSTRATION:
Inner
Radius
Y
Start Angle = 45°
X
Outer
Radius
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Outer Radius The distance from the center of the donut to the outside edge of the donut.
Inner Radius The distance from the center of the donut to the inner edge of the donut. Setting
this value to zero produces a donut with no center opening.
Start Angle The angle, measured in the clockwise direction and referenced to the X plane
which passes through the center of the donut, at which the polygon is started.
End Angle The angle, measured in the clockwise direction and referenced to the X plane
which passes through the center of the donut, at which the polygon is terminated.
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Parameter Definition
Number of This value controls the curvature of the inner and outer edges of the donut. The
Sides higher the value the smoother the edge.The value of 8 yields an octagon for a
donut which starts at 0° and ends at 360°. The range for this value is from 3 to
360.
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Meander
ILLUSTRATION:
Length
Conductor Width
Conductor Spacing
Conductor Width
Y
Last Length
X
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Number of Legs Number of legs in the meander. The example above has 5 legs.
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Round Spiral
ILLUSTRATION:
Number of Turns = 3
Conductor Spacing Conductor Width
X
Inner Radius
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Number of Turns The number of turns in the spiral. The example shown above has 3 turns.
Conductor Spacing The spacing between turns in the conductor in length units.
Inner Radius The radius of the inside of the spiral in length units.
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Rectangular Spiral
ILLUSTRATION:
Conductor Spacing
Number of Turns = 2
First Length
Conductor
Width
X
Second Length
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Number of Turns The number of turns in the spiral. The example shown above has 3 turns.
Conductor Spacing The spacing between turns in the conductor in length units.
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Parallel Lines
ILLUSTRATION:
Conductor Spacing
Conductor Width
Number of Lines = 4
Y
X
Length
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Number of Lines The number of lines in the parallel set. The example above has 4 lines.
Length The length of each line (conductor) in length units. This value is the same for
all the lines.
Conductor Width The width of each line (conductor) in length units. This value is the same for all
the lines.
Conductor The space between parallel lines (conductors) in length units. This spacing is
Spacing the same between all pairs of conductors.
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Fan Stub
ILLUSTRATION:
Width Angle
Y
Length
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Width The width of the base of the fan stub in length units.
Length The length of the straight edges of the fan stub in length units.
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Lange Coupler
ILLUSTRATION:
Feed Width
Finger Length
Finger
Spacing
Finger
Width
PARAMETERS
Parameter Definition
Number of The number of fingers in the Lange coupler. The example above has six fingers.
Fingers Only even numbers are allowed and you must specify a minimum of 4 fingers.
Finger Length The length of the finger in the Y plane as measured from the end of the finger
to the feed line.
NOTE The Lange coupler does not include wire bonds or airbridges. These must be
added manually.
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The File menu allows you to load a file from disk, open a new file, or exit the
xgeom program.
File - New
This performs the same function as File ⇒ New on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "File - New" on page 86.
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File - Open
This performs the same function as File ⇒ Open on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "File - Open" on page 86.
File - Preferences
This performs the same function as File ⇒ Preferences on the main menu in an
xgeom window. See section "File - Preferences" on page 91.
File - Exit
This performs the same function as File ⇒ Exit on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "File - Exit" on page 92.
The Help menu provides you with basic operating information such as the xgeom
version and licensing.
This performs the same function as Help ⇒ License Info on the main menu in an
xgeom window. See section "Help - License Info" on page 148.
This performs the same function as Help ⇒ System Info on the main menu in an
xgeom window. See section "Help - System Info" on page 148.
Help - About
This performs the same function as Help ⇒ About on the main menu in an xgeom
window. See section "Help - About" on page 149.
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The File menu allows you to open a new file, load a file from disk, save a file to
disk, close a file, print the file, view the file comments, and exit the xgeom
program. It will also allow you to select environmental preferences such as an
autosave file.
File - New
Select File ⇒ New to open another xgeom window for a new file. The window
will have a blank substrate to indicate that no circuit has been input yet. The ^N
key is a shortcut for this command.To name the file, select the File ⇒ Save As.
See below for a description of this option.
File - Open
Select File ⇒ Open to load a file in from disk. Xgeom opens the Open File
dialog box, which will resemble the dialog boxes shown below, in which you enter
the directory and filename of the file you wish to open. The appearance of the
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dialog box is system specific; therefore the functionality described will apply
although some details may differ. You may also access this command by use of
the shortcut key, ^O.
To open the “.geo” file you desire in one step, double-click the filename in the
scroll list.
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If the file you want to open is not in the scroll list, change to another directory by
double-clicking a directory name in the scroll list. For UNIX, you may also
change to another directory by typing a different name in the text box for directory
entry followed by a RETURN. Alternately, you may type in the complete path and
file name in the File text box and click the OK button.
The Windows version will also allow you to select a drive and directory from a
drop list.
File - Close
Select File ⇒ Close when you want to exit the particular file, but not necessarily,
the xgeom program. If you have not saved your file to disk, a confirmation popup
box will appear to allow you to save or discard your work. If the file you are
closing is the last xgeom window open, it may also cause you to exit the xgeom
program.
! WARNING
Closing the last open file may also cause you to exit the xgeom
program.
File - Save
You may use File ⇒ Save to save your circuit to disk under the current name.
We recommend that you use a name that ends in “.geo”. If you do not use a file
extension, xgeom will automatically use an extension of “.geo”. You may also
access this command by using the shortcut key, ^S.
File - Save As
You may use File ⇒ Save As to save your circuit to disk under a different name.
A dialog box appears, similar to the Open File dialog boxes shown in the figure
on page 87, in which you can specify the desired filename. See the description of
the Open File dialog boxes starting on page 86 for how to use the Save As dialog
box.
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File - Revert to Saved
You may use File ⇒ Revert to Saved to close a circuit without saving it and then
open the most recently saved version. This is useful if you make changes to your
circuit and then decide you do not want to keep the changes.
Xgeom opens the version of the document you last saved when you used the Save
or Save As command. Xgeom does not open its own automatically saved version.
File - Analyze
File - Export
Select File ⇒ Export when you want to create and save a bitmap of your current
view, a DXF formatted file of your circuit or a GDS formatted file of your circuit.
Select File ⇒ Export Picture when you want to create and save a bitmap of your
current view. A dialog box similar to the Save As File dialog box appears, in
which you can specify the directory and filename to which you wish to export the
file.
Select File ⇒ Export DXF when you want to create and save a DXF format copy
of your circuit. A dialog box similar to the Save As File dialog box appears, in
which you can specify the directory and filename to which you wish to export the
file. If you have trouble reading the export file, you may wish to set the Simplified
Write checkbox to “on” in the Preferences dialog box. This is accessed by
selecting File ⇒ Preferences.
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Select File ⇒ Export GDS when you want to create and save a GDS format copy
of your circuit. A dialog box similar to the Save As File dialog box appears, in
which you can specify the directory and filename to which you wish to export the
file.
You may use File ⇒ Print Setup to open the Print Setup dialog box, shown below.
This allows you to select a printer, printer properties, paper size and source, and
orientation. These options will be used when the print command is executed.
File - Print
You select File ⇒ Print to print a copy of your circuit as specified in the Print
Setup command discussed above. The Print command is not yet available on
UNIX systems.
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File - Comments
Edit the text entry box with the comments you wish to include in the file. Em reads
these comments and transfers them to the output file so that the resulting analysis
can be easily traced to the “.geo” file from which it came.
File - Preferences
You select File ⇒ Preferences to open the Preferences dialog box which allows
you to set the autosave function and operating mode for xgeom or simplify the
output of a DXF export.
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You may turn the autosave function on or off by clicking on the Auto Save On
checkbox. If you set the function to on, you may also set the frequency of saves
by editing the text entry box. The default is 5 minutes between saves.
If the autosave function is set to on, xgeom creates a backup of your circuit at the
time interval entered in the dialog box. The name of the backup file is the same
name as your circuit file but has a “.bck” suffix. For example, if your circuit file
is “filter.geo”, the backup file is named “filter.bck”. This file is deleted when
exiting xgeom, but will remain in your directory if your system fails.
You may choose to have xgeom operate in the version 4.0 style by clicking on the
Remain in mode checkbox. If this option is on, xgeom will remain in a given mode
until you explicitly exit by pressing the ESC key or selecting another mode. For
example, when this option is not set, if you select Add Port, after you add one port,
xgeom will automatically exit the Add Port mode. If this option is set, you will
remain in Add Port mode until you press the ESC key or select another mode, such
as Add Via.
TIP
When not in Xgeom 4.0 Style, pressing the shift key while selecting a mode will
leave you in the mode until you explicitly exit it.
You may click on the Simplified Write checkbox if you are having trouble reading
a DXF file output by xgeom. Export the file with this checkbox set by selecting
File ⇒ Export ⇒ DXF; this format should be easily read by most DXF users.
File - Exit
Use File ⇒ Exit when you are finished, and wish to exit the xgeom program. If
you have not saved your circuit(s) to disk, you are asked for a verification.
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The Edit Menu
The Edit Menu contains functions that help you make changes to your circuit.
Most of the items in this menu are unavailable, appearing “faded”, until you select
an object to edit. Chapter 2, “Editing Your Circuit”, covers the basic concepts of
how to use the Edit menu. This section describes all of the Edit menu items.
Edit - Undo
Edit ⇒ Undo undoes the last action taken on the geometry. A history is kept and
it is possible to perform multiple undos. The menu item is unavailable if no
changes have been made. You may also access this command by using the
shortcut key, ^Z.
Edit - Redo
If you perform an Edit ⇒ Undo and wish to restore the action, select Edit ⇒ Redo.
A history is kept and it is possible to perform multiple redos. The menu item is
unavailable if all undos have been reversed. You may also access this command
by using the shortcut key, ^Y.
Edit - Cut
Edit ⇒ Cut removes the selected objects from your circuit and places them into
the clipboard. Any selected points, ports, and vias are also deleted with the
polygon and copied into the clipboard.
First, select the objects that you wish to put into the buffer. These objects may be
on a single layer or multiple layers. Then choose Edit ⇒ Cut. The objects are
removed from your circuit and placed into the buffer. The objects remain in the
buffer until you replace them by doing another Cut, Copy or Duplicate.You may
also access this command by using the shortcut key, ^X.
TIP
One use for Edit ⇒ Cut is to move objects from one layer to another.
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Edit - Copy
Edit ⇒ Copy copies the selected objects to the clipboard, from where they may be
pasted in a different place in the circuit or even in another circuit file. The
command leaves the selected objects in their original locations. First, select the
objects that you wish to copy into the clipboard. The objects may be on multiple
levels. Then choose Edit ⇒ Copy. The objects are copied into the clipboard and
remain in the clipboard until you replace them by doing another Cut, Copy or
Duplicate. Note that ports or vias attached to a polygon will be copied to the
clipboard along with the polygon. You may also access this command by using
the shortcut key, ^C.
TIP
One use for Edit ⇒ Copy is to copy objects from one layer to another so that you
have identical objects on both levels. This is sometimes done to simulate thick
metal.
Edit - Paste
Edit ⇒ Paste copies the objects that are in the clipboard to your circuit. The
objects remain in the buffer until you replace them by doing a Cut, Copy or
Duplicate.You may also access this command by using the shortcut key, ^V.
TIP
Edit ⇒ Paste is typically used after using Edit ⇒ Copy to copy objects from
one layer to another or from one xgeom file to another. Also, when a multilayer
copy or cut is performed, the objects in the clipboard will retain their relative spac-
ing.
Edit - Duplicate
Edit ⇒ Duplicate is a quick way of combining Edit ⇒ Copy and Edit ⇒ Paste
into one command. Edit ⇒ Duplicate copies the selected objects into the
clipboard, and places a duplicate of the objects into your circuit. Use this option
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when you want to duplicate part of a circuit on the same layer. One example of
this would be if you wanted to create a mirror image of a polygon. You would first
duplicate your polygon, and then flip it. You may also access this command by
using the shortcut key, ^E.
Edit - Delete
Edit ⇒ Delete removes the selected objects and points from your circuit, but
does not place them into the clipboard. The Delete and Backspace keys are
shortcuts for this command.
TIP
This command is useful when you wish to remove points or objects, but do not
wish to overwrite the contents of the clipboard.
Edit - Clip
You can use Edit ⇒ Clip if you have a complex circuit already entered into
xgeom and you want to analyze just a portion of the circuit. To do this, choose Edit
⇒ Clip and lasso the area that you wish to analyze. All objects or portions of
objects are removed that are not inside of your lassoed area.
Sometimes the selected area will pass through a polygon, i.e., only part of a
polygon is clipped. In this case, any ports or edge vias associated with that
polygon are removed. This is true even if the port or edge via is inside of the
selected area. To maintain the port or edge via, you must lasso the entire polygon
associated with the port or edge via.
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You can use Edit ⇒ Clip if you suspect that there may be objects outside your
substrate. You can select Edit ⇒ Clip and lasso the entire substrate. Any objects
outside of the substrate are removed.
! WARNING
Save your file before using Edit ⇒ Clip. Clipping an area may delete
large portions of your circuit, ports, and vias.
Edit ⇒ Select All selects all objects on all levels. One use for Select ⇒ All is to
change the metal type of all objects at once.You may also access this command by
using the shortcut key, ^A.
Edit - Unselect
Edit ⇒ Unselect will unselect all selected objects. This menu item is only
available whenever objects are selected.
TIP
To unselect all selected points and objects, click the left mouse button anywhere
on your circuit that is not inside a polygon or close to a point.
Edit - Reselect
Edit ⇒ Reselect reselects all points and objects that were unselected in the last
unselection action. For example, if you have selected a group of objects and then
unselect one object by use of a click of the mouse while pressing the control key,
Reselect will once again add that object to those presently selected. This item is
unavailable whenever the last action included a selection of an object or point.
You may also access this command by using the shortcut key, ^T.
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Edit - Copy Picture
Edit ⇒ Copy Picture allows you to save a bitmap of your current view in the
clipboard to allow you to import it to other programs under Windows95 and
WindowsNT.
Edit ⇒ Single Layer Select allows you to select single-layer select mode or
multilayer select mode. Clicking on Single Layer Select will toggle the mode. If
this item is set, the mode is single-layer select. If it is turned off, the mode defaults
to multilayer select.
Single-layer select means that only objects on the current layer can be selected.
Multilayer select mode allows you to select objects on any level, not just the
present level. See “Selecting Objects for Editing,” page 24 for a complete
description of selecting.
Edit ⇒ Select Filter opens the Selection Filter dialog box that allows you to
disable selection of object types. For instance, you want to remove all vias, but
leave the rest of your circuit intact. You would click on the Only Objects Checked
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Below radio button in the dialog box and set only the Vias checkbox. Then
perform a Edit ⇒ Select All, followed by an Edit ⇒ Delete. This will eliminate
all vias in the circuit.
Any Object : Clicking on this radio button will make all items available for
selection.
Only Objects Checked Below: Clicking on this radio button will allow you to
choose items for editing selection.
To enable selection on a particular item, click on its checkbox so that the box is
filled in. To disable selection, click on the checkbox so that it appears “open”.
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The View Menu
The View menu options allow you to change how information is presented on the
display.
View − Zoom In
You can zoom into a particular area of your circuit by using View ⇒ Zoom In.
After selecting the option, the cursor, when in the main window, changes to
indicate that xgeom is waiting for you to tell it where you want to zoom. Move the
cursor to a corner of the region you want magnified and press the left mouse
button. Holding it down, drag the cursor to the desired opposite corner of the
desired area and release the mouse button. The specified region is expanded to fill
the window.
You may also use the Zoom In button on the tool bar, the shortcut key, Space Bar
or the middle mouse button. See “Tool Bar,” page 152 for more details.
Use View ⇒ Zoom Out to shrink your circuit in your window. This option is
quite useful when you accidentally zoom in a little too far, and need to zoom back
out. Each time you select View ⇒ Zoom Out the circuit shrinks in size. As a
shortcut, you can type ^W to zoom out. Repeatedly typing ^W will eventually
shrink your circuit down to just a small dot on the screen. If this happens, use View
⇒ Full View to restore the display to full size.
You may also use the Zoom Out button on the tool bar. See “Tool Bar,” page 152
for more details.
View ⇒ Previous View allows you to toggle between the present view and the
previous view. You may also use the Previous View button on the tool bar or the
shortcut key, ^L. See “Tool Bar,” page 152 for more details.
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View ⇒ Full View resets the area displayed so that the entire substrate surface is
visible on the available screen. ^F is the shortcut key for this command.
You may also use the Full View button on the tool bar or the shortcut key. See
“Tool Bar,” page 152 for more details.
View ⇒ New View opens a new xgeom window with the current circuit
displayed. This command is useful if you need to observe the overall circuit while
also working on a section of the circuit.
You may also use the New View button on the tool bar. See “Tool Bar,” page 152
for more details.
Select View ⇒ Aspect Ratio to specify the aspect ratio of the displayed plot. The
Aspect Ratio dialog box will appear on the display.
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To obtain a wider image, enter a greater value in the X text entry box than in the
Y text entry box. To obtain a taller image, you enter a greater value in the Y text
entry box than in the X test entry box. A value of X=1.0, Y=1.0 displays the circuit
in its true proportions on any CRT. This option may be needed when obtaining
hardcopy from devices with aspect ratios different from your CRT.
TIP
When editing long thin circuits, Aspect Ratio may be changed to allow you to view
your entire circuit in detail.
Select View ⇒ Up One Level to move the view in the xgeom window up one level
of metalization in your circuit. This can also be accomplished by use of the
shortcut key, ^U, the button on the tool bar, the Level menu on the tool bar or the
Up Arrow key.
Select View ⇒ Down One Level to move the view in the xgeom window down
one level of metalization in your circuit. This can also be accomplished by use of
the shortcut key, ^D, the button on the tool bar, the Level menu on the tool bar or
the Down Arrow key.
With xgeom, you can view multiple levels at the same time. Each level may be
visible or invisible. It is also possible to lock a level to prevent multilayer selecting
commands from effecting objects on it. If a layer is locked, editing commands will
act on objects on that layer only if it is the present layer. To accomplish this, select
View ⇒ Metalization Levels.
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The Metalization Levels dialog box appears as shown below. The box indicates
the present visibility value for all levels and their lock status. Initially, when
xgeom starts up, all levels are visible and unlocked so that multilayer selecting
commands will affect objects on all layers of a circuit.
Current Level drop list: This controls the level displayed in the xgeom window.
This allows you to view different levels in your circuit without the need to exit the
dialog box. Select a level from the drop list or edit the text entry box and click on
the Apply button to update the display.
Visible button: Clicking on this button makes the highlighted level visible. When
a level is visible, and not the present level, polygons and other shapes can be seen
on the screen as a dashed outline.
Invisible button: Clicking on this button makes the highlighted level invisible.
When a level is invisible, its objects are not shown except when it is the present
layer viewed.
Lock button: Clicking on this button locks the highlighted level. No objects on
this layer will be selected on another level while in multilayer select mode. You
can use this to prevent inadvertent changes on a completed level. It is important to
remember, however, that the lock does not prevent editing if it is the present layer.
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Unlock: Clicking on this button unlocks the highlighted level for multilayer
selecting.
All Visible button: Clicking on this button makes all levels visible.
All Invisible button: Clicking on this button makes all levels invisible.
View ⇒ Object Visibility opens the Object Visibility dialog box which enables
you to choose which objects you wish to display.
All Objects radio button: Clicking on this button will make all objects visible.
Only Objects Checked Below radio button: Clicking on this button will allow
you to choose which objects to make visible. To enable display on a particular
item click on its checkbox so that the checkbox is filled in. To disable display,
click on the checkbox so that it appears “open”. The default upon startup is that
all objects are visible.
View ⇒ Cell Fill toggles the display of the actual metalization, as subsectioned
by em, on and off. ^M is the shortcut key for this command. When cell fill is “on”,
metal is displayed using the pattern specified in the Parameters ⇒ Metal Types
dialog box. All via posts are also displayed. The metalization is never displayed
on the ground plane except for the via posts. The edges of the metalization are the
actual edges that are analyzed by em. Selection of a finer grid in Parameters ⇒
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Box results in a better approximation to the edge. Other consequences are a better
representation of the current distribution, more accurate results and a longer
analysis time.
Selection of the edge fill mode, by selecting Modify ⇒ Attributes, can also
improve the fit of the actual metal to the desired edge. Finally, moving the outline
edge slightly can also provide a better fit.
This option toggles the grid on and off. It is related to the cell size selected in the
Box Parameters dialog box. The distance between two grid points is equal to the
cell size. This grid is not to be confused with the snap distance set in the Snap Grid
Setup dialog box. By default, the snap coordinates are set to coincide with the cell
grid, however, the snap coordinates may be set to any other value and may not
necessarily coincide with the cell grid.
When View ⇒ Cell Grid is active, one dot is displayed at the corner of every
possible cell. Metalization is allowed to cover an entire cell or none of the cell. If
the Diagonal edge fill option is active then half a cell, cut diagonally, may also be
filled/empty. To modify the cell size, see section “Parameters - Box,” page 129.
This option toggles the Tool bar on and off at the top of the xgeom menu.The
default setting upon startup is on. For a detailed description of the Tool Bar, see
“Tool Bar,” page 152.
This option toggles the Status bar on and off at the bottom of the xgeom menu.The
default setting upon startup is on. The status bar is shown in the figure on page 16.
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View - Tool Box
You select this option to open or close a tool box which allows for quick access to
a number of xgeom’s functions. This option toggles between open and closed. If
the option is on, the tool box is opened automatically when you open an xgeom
file and closed automatically when the last file is closed. For a detailed description
of the Tool Box, see “Tool Box,” page 155.
You can use this feature to measure distances in your circuit. The measuring tool
consists of an anchor and a readout box. Both will be displayed when you select
View ⇒ Measuring Tool. The anchor, which is drawn as a small cross, is the
reference point for taking measurements. The readout box provides the
coordinates of the current anchor, whose default value is 0,0, the current cursor
position, which is given as a delta from the anchor, and the length of the line from
the anchor to cursor position.
If you wish to place the anchor in a different position, you may click on the Mouse
button, then click on the new anchor position in your circuit. For a more precise
positioning of the anchor, click on the Anchor (...) button in the Readout box. The
Measuring Tool Setup box is opened. You have three options for entering an
anchor position.
• You may directly enter coordinates by editing the X and Y text
entry boxes via keyboard.
• You may use the origin point (0,0) of the drawing by clicking on
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Any selection will cause the X and Y display to be updated with the current anchor
position. Once the position is correct, click on the OK button to apply this value
and close the setup box. The Anchor entry in the readout will now display the new
anchor value and all subsequent measurements will be taken from this point.
Turning the Allow anchor to be dragged checkbox on allows you to move the
anchor directly, by dragging it with the mouse. However, when the option is on,
the anchor has precedence over all other objects. If the anchor is at the same
location as a point, that point can not be selected by clicking. You are also not
permitted to add a new point in the same location as the anchor. If you need to
perform an operation at the anchor location, be sure you first turn Allow anchor to
be dragged off so that the action is permissible.
TIP
When a polygon or set of points are selected, the dimensions of the bounding box
of the selected object(s) appears in the cursor section of the status bar.
View - Redraw
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The Tools Menu
The Tools menu is used to access the tools which enable you to add or change
objects in a circuit.
Tools - Pointer
You select Tools ⇒ Pointer to place xgeom in pointer mode. This is the default
operating mode of xgeom, in which objects can be selected and moved by use of
the cursor and mouse. The mode is indicated by the word Pointer in the mode field
of the status bar at the bottom of the xgeom window. You can also use the shortcut
ESC key to place you in this mode.
Tools - Reshape
You use Tools ⇒ Reshape to modify the shape of an existing object. For
example, if you have a polygon which needs to be larger on one side, select Tools
⇒ Reshape. This places you in reshape mode, indicated by the cursor and a
message in the status bar. Lasso the points of interest to select them. Selection is
indicated by a black dot on the relevant points. Then drag one of the selected
points to the desired location and release the mouse. As you are dragging the
selected points a rubber band will appear indicating the new shape of the polygon.
When the mouse is released, the polygon will be redrawn with a new shape to fit
the new location of the selected points. This operation is illustrated in on the next
page.
TIP
To move an entire structure, without moving a port attached to the box wall, set
the Multilayer select mode, then select Tools ⇒ Reshape. Lasso the entire circuit,
with the exception of the port. Dragging one of the highlighted points will cause
the entire circuit with the exception of the port to be moved.
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Tools - Add Points to Polygon
The Add Points to Polygon menu option may be used when you want to add
additional points to an existing polygon. To add points to a polygon, select Tools
⇒ Add Points to Polygon and click the mouse with the cursor on the line segment
to which you want to add points. The new point appears highlighted. Now drag
the point to the desired position. A “rubber band” appears connecting the
highlighted new point to the existing endpoints on either side. When you release
the mouse, the polygon is redrawn with the new point.
To add more points, repeat the procedure above. When adding points is
completed, exit the add points mode by selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer or pressing the
ESC key.
The measuring tool can be used to determine the correct position while adding
points. Also, the Delete or Backspace key may be used while adding points to
delete a point while it is still selected.
Use Tools ⇒ Add Metalization when you wish to add metal to your circuit.
This menu item provides you with a quick way to create rectangular polygons. To
add a rectangle, select Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Rectangle or use the
shortcut key ^R. There is also a button in the Tool box for this task. Now place the
cursor where you want one corner of the rectangle to be. Next, drag the cursor to
form an outline of the desired rectangle. When the rectangle is the size and
dimensions you want, release the mouse button. The rectangle will be drawn and
xgeom will return to pointer mode.
If you wish to add more than one rectangle at a time, press the shift key while
making the menu selection. This will leave you in Add Metalization ⇒ Draw
Rectangle until you explicitly exit this mode.
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To add a polygon, select Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon or use the
shortcut key ^P. There is also a button in the Tool box for this task. Now click
where you want the first point of the polygon to appear. As you move the cursor
a moving rubber band appears stretching from the first point to the cursor location.
Click on the next point of the polygon, and a fixed line appears between the first
two points and the rubber band now stretches from the last input point. The rubber
band will continue to follow the cursor from the last point input until the polygon
is complete. This can be accomplished by either clicking again on top of the first
point entered or double-clicking on the last point to be entered. Once the polygon
is complete, xgeom returns to pointer mode, unless the mode was shift-selected.
If so, you can continue to add polygons.
To add a rectangle from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Rectangle. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Rectangle,” page 71.
To add a donut from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Donut. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Donut,” page 74.
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Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Meander
To add a meander from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Meander. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Meander,” page 76.
To add a round spiral from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Round Spiral. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on
your display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Round Spiral,”
page 77.
To add a rectangular spiral from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools
⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Rectangular Spiral. The Geometry Parameters dialog box
appears on your display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see
“Rectangular Spiral,” page 78.
To add a set of parallel lines from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools
⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Parallel Lines. The Geometry Parameters dialog box
appears on your display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see
“Parallel Lines,” page 79.
To add a fan stub from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒ Add
Metalization ⇒ Fan Stub. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Fan Stub,” page 80.
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To add a Lange coupler from the palette of standard geometries, select Tools ⇒
Add Metalization ⇒ Lange. The Geometry Parameters dialog box appears on your
display. For details about this geometry’s parameters, see “Lange Coupler,”
page 81.
Use Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick when you wish to add dielectric bricks to your
circuit.
This menu item provides you with a quick way to create rectangular polygons. To
add a rectangle, select Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw Rectangle or use
the button in the Tool box for this task. Now place the cursor where you want one
corner of the rectangle to be. Next, drag the cursor to form an outline of the desired
rectangle. When the rectangle is the size and dimensions you want, release the
mouse button. The rectangle will be drawn and xgeom will return to pointer mode.
If you wish to add more than one rectangle at a time, press the shift key while
making the menu selection. This will leave you in Add Dielectric Brick ⇒ Draw
Rectangle until you explicitly exit this mode.
To add a polygon, select Tools ⇒ Add Dielectric ⇒ Draw Polygon or use the
button in the Tool box for this task. Now click where you want the first point of
the polygon to appear. As you move the cursor a moving rubber band appears
stretching from the first point to the cursor location. Click on the next point of the
polygon, and a fixed line appears between the first two points and the rubber band
now stretches from the last input point. The rubber band will continue to follow
the cursor from the last point input until the polygon is complete. This can be
accomplished by either clicking again on top of the first point entered or double-
clicking on the last point to be entered. Once the polygon is complete, xgeom
returns to pointer mode, unless the mode was shift-selected. If so, you can
continue to add polygons.
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Tools - Add Port
Use Tools ⇒ Add Port to add ports to your circuit. See Chapter 3, “Using Ports”
for a detailed description of ports. Select Tools ⇒ Add Port to place xgeom in
Add Port mode, as indicated by a change in cursor and the messages in the status
bar at the bottom of the xgeom window. Then click on the center of the desired
edge of the polygon to which you wish to add a port.
Ports are nearly always placed on the edge of the substrate so that the port has
access to ground. Note that the edge must be on the substrate edge for the port to
have access to ground. If this is not the case, em issues an error message and
terminates.
NOTE: If you wish to add an auto-grounded port, you must first add the port
as described above, then go to the Port Attributes dialog box to
change its type to auto-grounded. For details of how to accomplish
this, see section "Modify - Attributes" on page 118.
If you wish to add multiple ports, press the shift key while making your menu
selection. To delete a port, return to pointer mode by selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer
or pressing the ESC key. Click on the port to select it, then use Edit ⇒ Cut to
delete it.
Use Tools ⇒ Add Via to add edge vias. See Chapter 4, “Using Vias” for a
detailed description of vias. To add an edge via, select Tools ⇒Add Via, then
click on the polygon edge that you want the via added to. A dark dashed line
appears showing where the edge via is. With the metalization turned on, the via
subsections are displayed. Each via post has an “up” via symbol which is an “up”
triangle, indicating that the via connects this level to the next level above. Move
up one level. The subsection vias are shown on this level with a “down” via
symbol, a “down” via triangle. Via posts that are too small to be seen individually
have a single via symbol representing multiple via posts.
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If you wish to add multiple vias, press the shift key while making your menu
selection. To delete a via, return to pointer mode, by selecting Tools ⇒ Pointer
or pressing the ESC key. Make sure that you are on the level where the edge via
starts, and emanates upward, and not on the level above where the via ends. Click
on the triangle to select it, then use Edit ⇒ Delete to delete it.
See “Creating an Airbridge: An Example,” page 59 for more details on how to get
the via metalization exactly where you want it to go.
The length of the via must be small with respect to the wavelength. If not true,
subdivide the dielectric layer into multiple layers and put vias on each of these
layers.
Tools - Ortho
Selecting Tools ⇒ Ortho places xgeom in the orthogonal mode. This will affect
you in two ways. First, if you add a polygon while the ortho feature is active,
xgeom will only allow horizontal or vertical lines in the object as shown in the
figure below.
TIP
Holding down the shift key while adding, moving, or editing a polygon will place
you in orthogonal mode temporarily.
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Second, when moving a selected object or point, you may only move in the
horizontal plane or vertical plane at any given time. In other words, Tools ⇒
Ortho ensures that you can only change position in one planar coordinate, either
x or y, at a time. See the example shown below.
Horizontal move
Vertical move
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Selecting Tools ⇒ Snap Setup opens the Snap Grid Setup dialog box, shown
below. This allows you to specify a new snap distance. All captured coordinates
and all ruler measurements are snapped to this grid. For example, with a snap of
0.1 mils, a captured point at 10.05 mils is impossible.
Divisions
Snap Grid field
radio buttons
Custom
text boxes
NOTE: The snap distance of your circuit affects how the polygons are en-
tered. It does not change the size of your subsections.
You select one of the following four buttons, pictured above, to select your snap
type:
Cell Size: Sets the snap coordinates to match the cell grid. If the cell size is
changed and this option is in effect, the snap coordinates change to match the new
cell grid. The current cell size is displayed following the button.
Divide Cell: Sets the snap coordinates to match a subdivision of cell size. Enter
the number of divisions per cell in the Divisions field.
Custom: Any arbitrary snap grid can be specified by entering the desired values
in the X and Y Custom text boxes. Use this option if, for example, you want to
capture a polygon with all coordinates snapped to the nearest micron.
No Snap: Alternatively, one can select the No Snap button, in which case
captured coordinates are exactly at the cursor position. This actually means all
coordinates snap to the nearest pixel.
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X - No Snap : Will turn off the snap in the x-direction. This option allows you to
snap in the y-direction only.
Y - No Snap: Will turn off the snap in the y-direction. This option allows you to
snap in the x-direction only.
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The Modify menu allows you to make changes to existing objects in your circuit.
NOTE: Please note that you must first select a polygon(s) and/or port(s) to
access the following modify menu items.
Modify - Attributes
To change the parameters associated with a polygon or a port, select the object,
then select Modify ⇒ Attributes. If the object selected is a metal polygon, the
Metalization Attributes dialog box is opened, as shown in the figure on page 119.
This dialog box allows you to set the metal type, fill type and subsection size. If
the object selected is a brick polygon, the Brick Attributes dialog box is opened,
shown in the figure on page 121. This dialog box allows you to set the brick type
and subsection size. If the object selected is a port, the Port Attributes dialog box
is opened, as shown in the figure on page 122. This dialog box allows you to set
the port type, number, impedance values, and if the port is an autogrounded port,
set the reference plane or calibration length. If both polygons and ports are
selected, the Metalization Attributes box will be opened, followed by the Brick
Attributes box and then the Port Attributes dialog box. These dialog boxes are
described below.
NOTE: If multiple polygons or ports are selected, then changes made in the
Attributes dialog boxes will affect the parameters of all selected poly-
gons or ports.
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The Metalization Attributes dialog box
This dialog box shows the current metal type, fill type and subsection size
associated with the selected polygon(s).
Metalization Attributes
dialog box.
Metal field: : Choose a metal type from the drop list in the Metal field. Changing
the metalization changes only the metalization loss. The polygon is still on the
same physical level; i.e., it is still between the same two layers of dielectric.
When xgeom starts, it initially only has one metal type, “Lossless”. If you have
not set up additional metal types in the Parameters ⇒ Metal Types menu, then
the pull-down menu only presents the one choice of “lossless”. To add new metal
types, see section “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138.
Fill Type field: The “fill type” of a polygon is defined as the type of subsection
used by em at the edges of a polygon. Choose a fill type from the drop list in the
Fill Type field. The four options in the drop list are defined as follows:
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Subsection Size: Edit the X Min, X Max, Y Min and Y Max text entry boxes to
set the subsectioning for the polygon(s). First time users should leave the numbers
set to the default values (X Min 1, Y Min 1, X Max 100, Y Max 100). Refer to
Chapter 3, “Subsectioning” in the Em User’s Manual for a description of these
parameters.
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The Brick Attributes dialog box
The Brick Attributes dialog box, shown below, shows the current brick material and
subsection size associated with the selected polygon(s).
Brick field: Choose a brick type from the drop list in the Brick field. Changing
the brick changes only the brick material. The brick is still within the same
physical layer.
When xgeom starts, it initially only has one brick material, “Air”. If you have not
set up additional brick material choices in the Parameters ⇒ Brick Materials
menu, then the pull-down menu only presents one choice of “air”. To add new
brick material choices, see section “Parameters - Brick Materials,” page 136.
Subsection Size: Edit the X Min, X Max, Y Min and Y Max text entry boxes to
set the subsectioning for the polygon(s). First time users should leave the numbers
set to the default values (X Min 1, Y Min 1, X Max 100, Y Max 100). Refer to
Chapter 3, “Subsectioning” in the Em User’s Manual for a description of these
parameters.
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The Port Attributes dialog box shows the number, type and impedance associated
with the selected port(s). It also allows you to set reference planes or calibration
lengths for auto-grounded ports.
The Port
Attributes
dialog box.
Port Number: Renumber the port by entering a new value in the Port Number
text box.
Type: Select the port type from a drop list consisting of Standard and
Autogrounded.
Impedance: Enter the four impedance values in the text entry boxes: Resistance
(in ohms), Reactance (in ohms), Inductance (in nanohenrys), and Capacitance (in
picofarads).
Autoground Port Data: This section of the dialog box allows you to set a
reference plane and calibration length for an autogrounded port by entering values
in the text entry boxes or by using the mouse.
For a more detailed discussion of ports and explanations for the options available
in this dialog box, see Chapter 3, “Using Ports”.
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Modify - Flip
Selecting Modify ⇒ Flip opens the Flip dialog box, shown below, which allows
you to flip the selected polygon(s) in the following manner:
• Left-right flip: Flips about a vertical axis so that its left side is on the right.
• Up-down flip: Flips about a horizontal axis so that its top is on the bottom.
The axis runs through a pivot point which you also set in the dialog box. You can
perform a flip on a single polygon or multiple polygons; the flip operation will be
done to all the objects selected when Modify ⇒ Flip is performed.
Left-Right button: Click on the left-right button to flip the selected polygon(s)
about a vertical axis so that its left is on the right and vice versa.
Up-Down button: Click on the up-down button to flip the selected polygon(s)
about a horizontal axis so that its top is on the bottom and vice versa.
Selection Center: The flip axis runs through the center of the area enclosing all
selected objects.
Individual Centers:If there are multiple polygons selected, each polygon will
flip about its own center.
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Pivot Point:You can set a custom pivot point by clicking on the Set Pivot button
in the Flip dialog box, and then clicking in the xgeom window to set the pivot
point. Once the pivot point is set, the Pivot Point radio button will be available and
selected. The polygon will then flip about an axis through this custom point.
Meas. Tool Position:This option is only available if the measuring tool is active
when Modify ⇒ Flip is selected. The polygon will flip with the measuring tool
anchor position as a pivot point.
Box Center:This selection uses the box center as the pivot point for the flip.
Modify - Rotate
Selecting Modify ⇒ Rotate opens the Rotate dialog box, shown below, which
allows you to rotate the selected polygon(s) about a pivot point, clockwise or
counterclockwise, which you also set in the dialog box. You can perform a rotate
on a single polygon or multiple polygons; the rotate operation will be done to all
the objects selected when Modify ⇒ Rotate is performed.
Angle: Enter the desired angle of rotation in this field. To determine angle values,
refer to the figure on page 157.
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Counterclockwise button: Click this button to rotate the polygon(s) in the
counterclockwise direction.
Clockwise button: Click this button to rotate the polygon(s) in the clockwise
direction.
Set Pivot button: Click on this button to set a pivot point using the mouse. This
will enable the Pivot Point selection in the Pivot Point field.
Selection Center: Selected objects are rotated about the center of the area
enclosing all the selected objects.
Individual Centers: If there are multiple polygons selected, each polygon will
rotate about its own center.
Pivot Point: The polygon will rotate about the custom point set after clicking the
Set Pivot button.
Meas. Tool Position: This option is only available if the measuring tool is active
when Modify ⇒ Rotate is selected. The polygon will rotate with the measuring
tool origin position as a pivot point.
Box Center:This selection uses the box center as the pivot point for the rotation.
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Modify - Resize
Original polygon
Reduced polygon
(%80)
Multiple objects will resize from the selection center, keeping relative, not
absolute positions.
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Modify - Snap to
Modify ⇒ Snap to opens the Snap Objects dialog box which allows you to “snap”
or align the points of the polygon(s) in one of three useful ways:
Cells: All points on the selected polygons are aligned to a cell edge. You can
choose to align points in both the X and Y direction, only the X direction, or only
the Y direction.
• X and Y - Both the X and Y coordinates of each point in the
selected polygon(s) will correspond to a cell edge.
• X only - The X coordinate of each point in the selected polygon(s)
will correspond to a cell edge. The Y coordinate of the points does
not change.
• Y only - The Y coordinate of each point in the selected polygon(s)
will correspond to a cell edge. The X coordinate of the points does
not change.
Current Snap Grid: All points on the selected polygons are aligned to the Snap
Grid as defined in “Tools - Snap Setup,” page 116. If the current Snap Grid is set
to the cell size, then this option is not enabled, since in that case, the Cells option
above is the equivalent of this selection. You can choose to align points in both
the X and Y direction, only the X direction, or only the Y direction.
• X and Y - Both the X and Y coordinates of each point in the
selected polygon(s) will correspond to a grid edge.
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Modify ⇒ Add Vias to All will make the entire selected polygon(s) a via, by adding
vias to all edges of the selected polygon(s).
TIP
Use the two commands above if you enter a polygon incorrectly.
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The Parameters Menu
The Parameters menu allows specification of the parameters of the box, length
units, substrate and dielectric layers, metalization, ports, reference planes and
parallel subsections.
Parameters − Box
You select Parameters ⇒ Box to open the Box Parameters dialog box in order to
display the parameters of the circuit box, as well as to allow for modification of
those parameter values. The default box size for a new file is 160 mils X 160 mils
with a cell size of 10 mils X 10 mils.
Metal
types
Sizes
Max. Subsection Size text box Lock check boxes Symmetry check
box
The entries in this section define the area of the box, and include Cell Size, Box
Size and Num. Cells. Changing one of the size factors will cause the other factors
to be updated according to the relationship below. The dialog box allows you to
“lock” any of these values while entering changes. Note that due to this
relationship, if you lock in two of the size parameters, you have de facto locked in
the third. These three values are related in the following manner:
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Cell Size:This entry row defines the size of a single cell of the box area. You enter
an X dimension (width) and a Y dimension (height) through the keyboard. If you
wish the cell size to remain constant when changing either of the other size factors,
click on the lock check box at the end of the entry row.
Box Size:This entry row defines the size of the box area. You enter an X
dimension (width) and a Y dimension (height) through the keyboard.
Alternatively, if you wish to set the box size and location using the mouse, click
on the Set Box Size with Mouse button. Then click in the xgeom window on the
location of one corner of the new box, then drag to the opposite corner. If you wish
the box size to remain constant when changing either of the other size factors,
click on the lock check box at the end of the entry row.
Num. Cells:This entry row defines the number of cells in the box area. You enter
an X dimension (width) and a Y dimension (height) through the keyboard. If you
wish the number of cells to remain constant when changing either of the other size
factors, click on the lock check box at the end of the entry row.
Note that if the cell size is not locked, xgeom picks the next smallest allowed cell
size which allows for an integer number of cells to fit in the box area specified by
the Box Size and Num. Cells.
Max. Subsection Size: Em uses a variable subsection size. Small subsections are
used where needed, such as around corners, and larger subsections are used
elsewhere. This reduces the size of the matrix which must be inverted, often
providing a dramatic increase in the speed of an analysis. In no case are the
subsections smaller than a single cell whose dimensions are specified above.
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This field allows you to limit the size of the subsection, generated by em, in terms
of subsections per wavelength, where the wavelength is approximated at the
beginning of the analysis. The highest analysis frequency is used to calculate the
wavelength. The default of 20 is fine for most work and means that the maximum
size of a subsection is 18 degrees at the highest frequency of analysis. Increasing
this number decreases the maximum subsection size until the limit of 1 subsection
= 1 cell is reached.
See section “Modify - Attributes,” page 118 for information on how to specify the
maximum and minimum subsection size on a polygon by polygon basis.
It is recommended that first time users capture the entire circuit when using
symmetry, not just half the circuit. This way, toggling symmetry on and off will
affect only the speed of the analysis, not the final result.
! WARNING
Do not place ports below the line of symmetry.
This option allows you to select the metal type for the box top and box bottom.
You can choose either a predefined metal type or user defined metal type.
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WG Load is useful for modeling infinite arrays in em. The top or bottom cover
will then be terminated with a perfectly matched waveguide load. Note this is not
the same as an open environment and the method for modeling radiating structures
in an open environment has not changed. To model an open environment select
Free Space, which sets the impedance of the cover to 377 ohms/sq, the impedance
of free space. You should also note that the sidewalls are always modeled as
perfect conductors.
Top Metal:Use the drop list to select the metal type for the top of the box. Choose
a metal type from the list which includes the default types of WG Load, Free
Space, and Lossless in addition to any user defined metal types. For details on how
to define a user metal type, and default metal types, see section "Parameters -
Metal types" on page 138.
Bottom Metal: Use the drop list to select the metal type for the bottom of the box.
The metal types are the same as listed above for the box top.
Parameters - Units
Parameters ⇒Units allows you to select the default measurement units for your
circuit by opening the Units dialog box.
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Name field: Select a unit of measure from the drop list in the name field. The size
field will be updated to reflect the unit chosen. If you wish to define nonstandard
units, type the name in this field.
Size Field: If you wish to define nonstandard units, enter the conversion factor to
meters in this field.
Applying New Units radio buttons: When changing units, you can choose to
keep your circuit the same physical size or allow it to change size. If you choose
to keep it the same physical size, parameters will be updated to reflect that. For
instance if a cell is 10 mils by 10 mils and you change the unit to inches, it now
measures 0.01 inches by 0.01 inches. If you choose to allow the circuit to change
size, parameters will retain the same amount of the new measurement, i.e., a 10
mil by 10 mil cell will now measure 10 inches by 10 inches. Click the appropriate
checkbox before applying the units.
! WARNING
If you change the size, be sure to assign a new name to avoid
confusion. For instance, you would not want to define mils as equal
to 3 meters.
Parameters ⇒ Dielectric Layers opens the Dielectric Layers dialog box which
allows specification of the dielectric layers in the box including adding or deleting
dielectric layers. For your convenience, the xgeom “level” number appears on the
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left providing you with an approximate “side view” of your circuit. A “level” is
defined as the intersection of any two layers and is where your circuit metal is
placed. The metal is attached to the bottom of the upper dielectric layer.
Dielectric layer text boxes: Each layer has an entry row in the dialog box with
entries available for the parameters of each dielectric layer:
• thickness (Thickness)
• relative dielectric constant (Erel)
• dielectric loss tangent (Dielectric Loss Tan)
• dielectric conductivity (Diel Cond)
• relative magnetic permeability (Mrel)
• magnetic loss tangent (Magnetic Loss Tan)
• Z-Partitioning (Z-Parts. for bricks)
You select the entry to be changed by clicking on its field. Not all parameters can
be displayed simultaneously in the dialog box. Use the scroll bars to access the
additional parameters.When you click on a text entry box in a dielectric layer’s
row of parameters, it becomes the presently selected layer.
The dielectric constant and loss of a dielectric layer are defined as follows:
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• Erel: The ratio (ε’/εo’), where ε’ is the real part of the permittivity of the di-
electric layer material, and εo’ is the permittivity of free space. The ratio is
dimensionless.
• Loss Tan: The ratio (ε’’/ε’), where ε = ε’ - jε’’, and ε is the complex permit-
tivity of the dielectric layer material. The ratio is dimensionless.
Em uses the above parameters to calculate the total effective tanδ for the dielectric
material as follows:
Here, ω is the radian frequency (ω = 2πf, where f is frequency in hertz). Note that
tanδ has both a frequency-dependent term and a frequency-independent term.
The above equation for tanδ can also be expressed in terms of conductivities as
follows:
Both equations are equivalent. Each describes how em uses the input dielectric
parameters to compute loss in the dielectric layer.
Above button: To add a dielectric layer above an existing layer, click on an entry
in the existing layer’s row, then click on the Above button. An additional layer will
be added above the selected layer. This will be indicated by the appearance of
another row of parameter text boxes and a level number to the left of the row.
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Below button: To add a dielectric layer below an existing layer, click on an entry
in the existing layer’s row, then click on the Below button. An additional layer will
be added below the selected layer. This will be indicated by the appearance of
another row of parameter text boxes and a level number to the left of the row.
Delete button: To delete a dielectric layer, click on an entry in its row, then click
on the Delete button. If you attempt to delete a layer on which metalization is
present, xgeom will prompt you for confirmation before deleting the dielectric
layer, since any metalization present on the layer will also be deleted.
You select Parameters ⇒ Brick Materials to open the Brick Materials dialog box
which allows you to define the characteristics of brick materials for use in your
circuit. The default brick material is Air; this is defined for all xgeom files. All
brick materials may be used on all levels and with different polygons on the same
level. A brick material specifies the dielectric constant, loss tangent and bulk
conductivity used by em, and whether the dielectric is isotropic or anisotropic.
Since the dielectric parameters are unrelated to the level on which a polygon is
located, changing the brick material of a polygon does not change the physical
location of the polygon. It changes only the dielectric parameters.
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Brick Materials
Default for Add Bricks: Choose a brick material from the drop list of defined
brick materials. This brick material will be applied to any new dielectric bricks as
you add them to the circuit.
New button: Clicking on the New button allows you to define a new brick
material for use in your circuit. When you click the New button, a new row
appears. You then need to enter parameters to define the brick material.
• Name: To customize the name, edit the text entry box under the name col-
umn.
• Ani: If you wish the brick material to be anisotropic, indicating that its pa-
rameters are different in each dimension, click on this checkbox until it is
filled in. You can then enter the parameters of the brick material by editing
the entries in the row.
If the brick material is isotropic, you only need to fill in the parameters in the X
dimension, which are all displayed in the dialog box as follows:
• Erel
• Dielectric Loss Tan
• Diel. Cond. (S/m)
If the brick material is anisotropic, you will need to define the parameters in all
three dimensions, X, Y, and Z. To access all the parameters, use the scroll bars.
The parameters are as follows:
• Erelx,y,z
• Dielectric Loss Tanx,y,z
• Diel. Cond.x,y,z
Duplicate button:Clicking on the Duplicate button will add a new brick material
whose parameters are identical to the existing selected brick material.
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Delete button: To delete a brick material, click in its row, then click on the Delete
button. If any polygons currently refer to this brick material, the polygon is
changed to air.
Fill Pattern: This dialog box allows you to choose a fill pattern for the brick
material so that types are easily distinguishable while editing your circuit. Click
on the arrow buttons in the Pattern column, to advance through the choices
available.
You select Parameters ⇒ Metal Types to open the Metal Types dialog box which
allows you to define the characteristics of metal types for use in your circuit. The
default metal type is Lossless; this is defined for all xgeom files. All metal types
may be used on all levels and multiple metal types may be used on the same level.
These metal types may also be used for the box top and bottom.
A metal type specifies the metalization loss used by em. Since the metalization
loss is unrelated to the level on which a polygon is located, changing the metal
type of a polygon does not change the physical location of the polygon. It changes
only the metalization loss. Metalization loss is discussed in more detail following
the description of the dialog box.
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Default for Add Metalization: Choose a metal type from the drop list of defined
metal types. This metal type will be applied to any metalization added to the
circuit.
Default button:This button is a shortcut for selecting a metal type as the default,
rather than using the drop list discussed above. Click on the metal type to be used
as the default, then click on this button.
New button: The New button allows you to define a new metal type for use in
your circuit. When you click the New button, a new row appears. To customize the
name, edit the text entry box under the name column. You can then enter the
parameters of the metal type by editing the entries in the row:
Metalization Resistivity
• DC Resistance (RDC)
Metalization Reactance
• DC Reactance (XDC)
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Duplicate button: Clicking on the Duplicate button will add a new metal type
whose parameters are identical to the existing selected metal type. You select a
metal type to duplicate by clicking on a text entry box in its row of parameters.
Delete button: To delete a metal type, click in its row, then click on the Delete
button. If any polygons currently refer to this metalization, the polygon is changed
to lossless.
Fill Pattern: This dialog box also allows you to chose a fill pattern for the metal
type, so that types are easily distinguishable while editing your circuit. Click on
the arrow buttons in the Pattern column, to advance through the choices available.
Loss Definitions
There are two kinds of metalization loss specified. The first is DC, low frequency
loss. In this case, the skin depth is much thicker than the metalization. This is also
known as the electrically thin case. Thin film resistors at any frequency fall into
this case, as well as thin conductors at low frequency. DC resistivity loss is
independent of frequency. The units are Ohms/square with the value given by:
R DC = 1 ⁄ σ t
where:
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µ
R RF = skin effect coefficient ≈ π ---
σ
where:
–7
µ = 4π × 10
The above equation assumes that all of the current travels on just one side of the
conductor. This is a good approximation for microstrip. The equation should be
modified for other structures. Stripline, for example, has current of equal
amplitude on both the top and bottom of the conductor. In this case, you should
divide the RRF value by two, while maintaining RDC.
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the laboratory value, so the figures as calculated above are likely to be lower than
actual results. Table 1 provides calculated results of commonly used metals using
the equations above.
RRF
RDC RDC
σ (ΩHz-1/2/sq) XDC (Ω/sq)
Metal (Ω/sq) (Ω/sq) Ls (pH/sq)
(S/M) “Skin Effect” “Reactance”
t = 1 µM t = 1 mil
(microstrip)
The transition from electrically thin (DC) to electrically thick (RF) is properly
modeled in em. Thus em provides accurate results at low, high and transition
frequencies. If the skin effect coefficient (RRF) is set to 0.0, then the value of RDC
is used over all frequencies. This is the usual case for resistors. The example files
“res400.geo” and “res500.geo” show how to set up a 400 ohm and 500 ohm
resistor using lossy metal.
The top or bottom of the xgeom box may be set to a perfect matched waveguide
load or free space. WG Load is useful for modeling infinite arrays in em. The top
or bottom cover will then be terminated with a perfectly matched waveguide load.
Note this is not the same as an open environment and the method for modeling
radiating structures in an open environment has not changed. To model an open
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environment select Free Space, which sets the impedance of the cover to 377
ohms/sq, the impedance of free space. You should also note that the sidewalls are
always modeled as perfect conductors.
The surface reactance is specified in Ohms/square and is usually set to zero. See
section “Surface Reactance,” page 43 in the Em User’s Manual for an
explanation of surface reactance.
Parameters − Ports
Selecting Parameters ⇒ Ports opens the Port Impedance dialog box. Using this
dialog box allows you to view and modify the impedance values of all the ports in
your circuit simultaneously. There is an entry row for each port number, in which
you can enter the following values in their respective text boxes:
• Resistance (in ohms): R
• Reactance (in ohms): X
• Inductance (in nanohenrys): L
• Capacitance (in picofarads): C
Note that more than one port may have the same port number and they share the
same parameters. Also, negative port numbers use the same parameters as positive
port numbers, e.g. Port -1 and Port 1 use the same set of parameters. For a further
discussion of port numbers, see “Changing Port Numbering,” page 42.
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R + jX L
If there are too many ports to be displayed all at once, use the scroll bar to access
the entry rows for the other ports.
TIP
You may also enter the impedance value for a particular port by selecting Modify
⇒ Attributes when the port is selected in the xgeom window.
Parameters ⇒ Ref. Planes/Cal. Length also allows you to specify the calibration
length used for de-embedding. A box side has a reference plane or a calibration
length, but not both. Please note that it is possible for the calibration length to be
greater than the box length.
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NOTE: This dialog box is used only for standard ports. Setting Reference
planes/Calibration lengths for an auto-grounded port must be done
in the Modify Attributes dialog box. See section "Modify - Attributes"
on page 118 for details.
When you select Parameters ⇒ Ref. Planes/Cal. Length, the Reference Planes/
Calibration Lengths dialog box is opened. Each box wall (Top, Left, Right, or
Bottom) has a text box containing the following items:
Type field: Use the drop list to select either a reference plane or a calibration
length for the box side.
Length field: Enter the desired length for the reference plane or calibration length
for the box side.
Use Mouse button: This button allows you to set the reference plane length using
the mouse. After clicking on this button, a plus (+) cursor will appear in the xgeom
window. Click in the desired place in your circuit where the reference plane or
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calibration length should be. Once you click in the xgeom window, the length text
box is updated with the corresponding value. Reference planes will be drawn on
the circuit.
Xgeom may change the reference plane slightly so that it is aligned with the edge
of a cell. The actual position is indicated with a short vertical line at the actual
reference plane location.
To remove a reference plane, enter a value of zero in the Length field or click
outside the boxwall on that side. There is only one reference plane or calibration
length per box side. The same reference plane is used on all ports on all levels on
that side of the box.
Parameters ⇒ Parallel Subs. opens the Parallel Subsections dialog box, and allows
the removal of X or Y subsections for a specified distance from a box wall. This
feature is useful for reducing computational time although it may affect the
accuracy of the results. It is referred to as “Parallel Subs” because all subsections
in the specified region that are parallel to the selected box wall are removed. Refer
to the Em User’s Manual for more information about removing parallel
subsections before using this function.
Parallel
Subsections dialog
box.
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When you select Parameters ⇒ Parallel Subsections the Parallel Subsections
dialog box is opened, as shown in the figure on page 146. Each box wall (Top,
Left, Right, or Bottom) has a text box containing the following items:
Length field: Enter the desired length for the parallel subsection from the box
wall.
Use Mouse button: Click on this button to set the length using the mouse. Once
you click in the xgeom window, the length text box is updated with the
corresponding value.
To remove a parallel subsection, enter a value of zero in the Length field or click
outside the boxwall on that side.
Em will remove the appropriate subsections (Y for the left and right sides, X for
the top and bottom) up to the specified distance, shown as a grayed-out area. An
example is shown below. The Parallel Subsections option removes either X or Y
subsections over a specified distance from the box wall.
}
}
Only X subsections
(Y Subsections removed)
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The Help menu provides you with basic operating information such as the xgeom
version and licensing.
For platforms which support floating licenses, the License dialog box will allow you
to obtain or release a license.
The Users with Licenses scroll list will display a list of users who are presently in
possession of a license. If you do not have a license, the Get command button will
be enabled. Click on this button to obtain a license, if any are available. If you have
a license, the Release command button will be enabled. Click on this button if you
wish to give up your license.
This command opens a dialog box to provide system information, such as license
ID, display type, and memory available.
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Help - Debug
This command opens a dialog box which allows you to set the parameters of a
trace for debug purposes. This will be used to provide information to technical
support in case of a problem.
Help - About
This command opens a dialog box which provides the version number for xgeom
and licensing type information.
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Keyboard Shortcuts
Table 2 describes keyboard shortcuts used in xgeom. All keys are shown here.
Shortcut keys which also have a button on the tool bar are detailed in Table 3,
“Tool Bar,” on page 152. All of these functions may also be implemented by the
menu. Most shortcut keys are “control” keys, abbreviated with a “^” symbol. As
an example, to type a Control-P (^P), hold down the Control key and press the P
key. The DEL key is the Delete and/or Backspace key and the ESC is the Escape
key.
Key Meaning
^N New File
^O Open File
^S Save File
^Z Undo
^Y Redo
^X Cut
^C Copy
^V Paste
^E Duplicate
^A Select All
^T Reselect
^W Zoom Out
Space Bar Zoom In
Middle Mouse button
^L Previous View
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Table 2 Keyboard Shortcuts
Key Meaning
^F Full View
^U Up One Level
DEL Delete
NOTE: The ESC key may also be used to cancel actions. For example, if you
are in the middle of adding a polygon, pressing the ESC key will exit
the Add mode and the polygon will not be added to the circuit.
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Tool Bar
The tool bar consists of a row of buttons which appears just under the main menu
in the xgeom window. The tool bar allows you to access frequently used functions
quickly, without going through pull down menus. Each button, its use, and a
keyboard shortcut to access it, is described below.
Table 3 Tool Bar
Tool Bar button Name Menu Equivalent Keyboard Shortcut
New File ⇒New ^N
Document
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Table 3 Tool Bar
Tool Bar button Name Menu Equivalent Keyboard Shortcut
New View ⇒ New View None
Window
(View) of
Same
Document
Zoom In View ⇒ Zoom In Space Bar
Middle Mouse Button
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Tool Box
The Tool Box consists of a window of buttons which appears next to the xgeom
window on your display upon opening a circuit file. The Tool Box allows you to
access frequently used tools quickly, without going to the tools menu.
The table below identifies each button in the tool box and gives a brief description
of its functions. For more detailed explanations, see the corresponding menu
entry.
As you move your cursor over each button, a brief description of its function
appears in the Messages box in the status bar at the bottom of the xgeom window.
Note that the Metal Mode/Brick Mode button toggles between the two modes,
changing each time you click on the button.
The Tool Box is closed automatically when the last circuit file is closed. The tool
box can also be turned on or off by selecting View ⇒ Tool Box.
TIP
As with menu selects, pressing the shift key while clicking on the button will leave
you in the selected mode until you exit it explicitly. See “Shift Selecting Modes,”
page 18.
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Typing in Coordinates From the Keyboard
Polygons and points may be entered and moved by using the mouse or their
coordinates may be typed in directly. You can type in polar or Cartesian
coordinates either as absolute coordinates or relative coordinates. Relative
coordinates are relative to the last point entered. The following section shows you
how to enter in a rectangle by typing in the coordinates. The coordinate system
used is shown below. Use View ⇒ Measuring Tool to change the origin used for
Cartesian coordinates.
+Y 90°
135° 45°
180° 0°
+X 225° 315°
(0,0) 270° ( – 45° )
For this example, we will draw a rectangular polygon that is 60 mils wide and 30
mils high. First, start with a new xgeom window by selecting File ⇒ New from
the main menu. If during this example you type in the wrong numbers, just press
the Delete or Backspace key and the last entered point will be removed.
Now select Tools ⇒ Add Metalization ⇒ Draw Polygon and type in the X and
Y coordinates of the first point of the polygon. For this example, type
50,60
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and press the Return key. The point you are entering will appear in the left-hand
field of the status bar at the bottom of the xgeom screen. Moving the mouse
stretches a rubber band from the coordinates X=50 mils and Y=60 mils, just as if
you had clicked the left mouse button on that point. See the figure on page 159.
Note that coordinates are snapped to the nearest snap grid point; i.e., typing in
“50.01,59.98” would have the same result as “50,60”.
To enter the next point 60 mils to the right of this point, type
@60<0
A line appears starting from the first point you picked and ending 60 mils to the
right of it. The at sign, “@”, tells xgeom that the number you specify is a distance
from the last point that you entered. The 60 is the distance to move, and the less
than symbol (“<“) tells xgeom that the next number is the angle at which the point
is to be placed. Angles are defined in degrees as shown on page 157.
@0,30
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Another line of our rectangle appears. Once again we used the “@” sign to tell
xgeom that the coordinates we entered are relative to the last point. The first
number (0) is always the X value and the second number after the comma is the y
value. In this case the Y value is positive, so the new point is 30 mils above the
previous point.
Keyboa
rd
50,90 @0,30
Now type
50,90
At this point, your screen should look like the picture above. This time the number
was entered as an absolute coordinate just to illustrate that you may mix absolute
coordinates with relative coordinates.
Mixing absolute coordinates with relative coordinates on the same line is not
allowed; e.g., “50,@0” is not allowed. You may finish your polygon using the
same technique as the mouse: by clicking exactly on the last point entered, or
clicking on the first entered point. You may also type in the equivalent coordinates
to finish. The easiest way to complete a polygon is to type:
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This completes the polygon. Xgeom interprets the “@” sign as relative
coordinates. When none are given, zero (0) is assumed. In this case “@” is
equivalent to “@0,0” which is the same as clicking the mouse with the cursor on
the last point. This completes the polygon. Note also that typing in “@5” is
equivalent to “@5,0” and adds a point 5 units to the right of the last point.
You may mix mouse and keyboard entry of points. If the “@” sign is used for the
first point when the measuring tool anchor display is visible, the values are relative
to the anchor. Otherwise, a relative first point is treated as an absolute value.
Direct keyboard entry of coordinates can be used in place of mouse actions in most
circumstances, including while adding rectangles, moving objects and zooming.
Panning
Panning is accomplished through the use of scroll bars which appear on the edges
of the xgeom window. To cause the display to move in increments, click on the
arrow button at either end of a scroll bar. Alternately, place the cursor on the bar
at the center and drag the bar to the desired position.
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Index
A air-bridge 49
example 49–52
^A 86, 140
analyze 79
accuracy 136
anisotropic dielectric bricks 53
add
aspect ratio 90
dielectric bricks 102, 146
@ (at) sign 148–150
default brick material 127
attributes 16
polygon 102
dielectric bricks 108, 111
rectangle 102
modify
metalization 99–102
metalization 109
default metal type 129
ports 112
donut 64, 100
auto-grounded ports 29, 103
fan stub 70, 101
calibration lengths 112
interdigital capacitor 62, 100
reference planes 112
lange coupler 71, 102
autosave 82
meander 66, 101
parallel lines 69, 101 B
polygon 100, 102
backup 82
rectangle 61, 99, 100
backup file 25, 82
rectangular spiral 68, 101
balanced ports 33
round spiral 67, 101
bottom metal 122
points 19, 150
box parameters 119
making an error 20, 99
bottom metal 122
to polygon 99
maximum subsection size 120
polygons 104
sizes 119
ports 103
symmetry 121
auto-grounded 31
top metal 122
standard 30
Box Parameters dialog box 94, 119
via-ports 30
box size 119, 120
via 103
Brick Attributes dialog box 111
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Index
XGEOM
Parallel Subsections 136 double clicking 8
Port Attributes 16, 112 down one level 91
Port Impedance 34, 133 duplicate 15, 22, 84
Print Setup 80 clipboard 84
Reference Planes/Calibration Lengths 135 DXF
Resize 116 simplified write 82
Rotate 114 DXF export
Save As 78, 79 file 79, 82
Selection Filter 88
Snap Grid Setup 94, 106 E
Snap Objects 117 ^E 85, 140
Unit 122 edge-vias 42
Dielectric Brick Attributes dialog box 16 edit 83–88
dielectric bricks 16, 53–58, 102, 126, 127, 146 clip 85
add 102 copy 15, 22, 84
anisotropic 53 copy picture 87
application 53 cut 15, 21, 47, 83
attributes 108, 111 delete 15, 20, 85, 88
convert 118 duplicate 15, 22, 84
defining new types 127 multi-layer 87
fill patterns 128 paste 22, 84
materials 55, 56, 126 points 18
polygon 108 reselect 86
visibility 55 resize 23
dielectric conductivity 124 select all 86, 88
dielectric constant 124 select filter 87
dielectric layers 123 single layer 87
auto-grounded ports 30 single layer select 18
dielectric conductivity 124 undo 83
magnetic loss tangent 124 unselect 17, 86
magnetic permeability 124 em
Dielectric Layers dialog box 123 accuracy 136
dielectric loss tangent 124 invoking 79
dielectric thickness 124 low frequencies 132
dielectrics 123 subsections 1, 93, 120
direct entry 147 emergency backup 25
discontinuities 134 ESC 97, 141
donut 64, 100 escape key 97, 141
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Index
XGEOM
ctrl-W 140, 143 edit See edit
ctrl-X 83, 140, 142 file See file
ctrl-Y 140 help 75
ctrl-Z 140 modify See modify
DEL 85, 141 parameters See parameters
ESC 97, 141 startup 74
shortcut keys 8 tools See tools
space bar 140 view See view
table of keys 140 menu bar
accesses 7
L metal types 93, 128
lange coupler 71, 102 defining new types 129
lasso 16 fill patterns 130
Levels dialog box 44 Metal Types dialog box 128
License dialog box 138 metalization
lock 87, 91, 92, 119, 120 commonly used metals 132
loss 109 convert 118
definitions 130 fill patterns 130
formula 130 fill type 109
magnetic loss tangent 124 loss 109, 130
microstrip 131 modify attributes 109
stripline 131 reactance 129
tangent 124 resistivity 129
vias 47 thickness 130
loss tangent 124 type 109
lossless 109, 128 Metalization Attributes dialog box 16, 109
metalization levels 91
M invisible 92, 93
^M 93, 141 locked 92
magnetic loss tangent 124 unlocked 93
magnetic permeability 124 visibility 44
main menu 76–139 visible 92, 93
accesses 7 Metalization Levels dialog box 92
maximum cell size 120 metalization loss
meander 66, 101 vias 126
measuring tool 95, 114 metals
anchor 95–96 via-posts 93
menu microstrip
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Index
XGEOM
panning 150 copy 22
parallel lines 69, 101 delete 20
parallel subsections edit 18
delete 137 move 18
Parallel Subsections dialog box 136 select 14
parameters 119–137 polar coordinates 147
box 119 polygons 20
bottom metal 122 add 100, 102
box size 120 add points 19, 99
cell size 94, 120 brick 108
maximum subsection 120 copy 22, 84
number of cells 120 across layers 22
symmetry 121 cut 21
top metal 122 delete 21, 83, 85
brick materials 126 flip 22, 113
calibration lengths 134 modify 108
dielectric layers 123 move 21
metal types 93, 128 moving between layers 22
metalization 109, 111 paste 21
parallel subsections 136 resize 22, 23, 116
ports 34, 133 rotate 22, 23, 114
reference planes 134 select 14
units 122 snap 117
partitioning 124 Port Attributes dialog box 16, 112
paste 21, 22, 84 Port Impedance dialog box 34, 133
clipboard 84 ports 20, 25–36, 133
polygons 21 add 103
patch.geo 28, 48 auto-grounded 31
picture standard 30
export 79 via-ports 30
pivot point attached to polygons 16
flip 113 auto-grounded 29, 103, 112
rotate 115 calibration lengths 36
pointer 13, 97 example 36–39
pointer mode 13, 14, 21, 97, 141 reference planes 36
points calibration length 34
add 19, 150 de-embedding 27, 30
making an error 20 deleting 31, 103
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Index
XGEOM
Selection Filter dialog box 88 snap grid 106, 117
shift key 8, 18 Snap Grid Setup dialog box 94, 106
shift selecting 145 Snap Objects dialog box 117
shift selecting modes 8 snap setup 106
shortcut keys 8, 18, 99, 100, 102 space bar 140
ctrl-A 86, 140 S-Parameters 1
ctrl-C 84, 140, 142 spiral
ctrl-D 91, 141, 143 rectangular 68, 101
ctrl-E 85, 140 round 67, 101
ctrl-F 90, 141, 143 staircase mode 109
ctrl-H 140 standard geometries 59–71
ctrl-M 93, 141 donut 64
ctrl-N 76, 140, 142 fan stub 70
ctrl-O 77, 140, 142 interdigital capacitor 62
ctrl-P 100, 141 lange coupler 71
ctrl-R 99, 141 meander 66
ctrl-S 78, 140, 142 parallel lines 69
ctrl-T 86, 89, 140, 143 rectangle 60, 61, 100
ctrl-U 91, 141, 143 rectangular spiral 68
ctrl-V 84, 140, 142 round spiral 67
ctrl-W 140, 143 startup menu 74–75
ctrl-X 83, 140, 142 file 74–75
ctrl-Y 140 exit 75
ctrl-Z 140 new 74
DEL 85, 141 open 75
ESC 97, 141 status 97
space bar 140 status bar 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 94, 97, 103, 145, 148
table of keys 140 stripline
shorted vias 48 loss 131
simplified write 82 subsectional vias 43
single layer 87 subsections 110
single layer select 18 maximum size 120
skin effect 130 parallel 136
snap 19, 21, 94, 106, 117 size 110, 111
no x snap 107 triangular 109
no y snap 107 vias 43
none 106 X Min 110
snap distance 106 Y Max 110
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Index
XGEOM
previous 89 Z
redraw 96
^Z 140
status bar 94
zoom 89
tool bar 94
in 89
tool box 95
out 89
up one level 91
Z-partitioning 124
zoom in 89
zoom out 89
visible 91
W
^W 140, 143
WG load 128
window
status bar 94
tool bar 94, 142
tool box 95, 145
X
^X 83, 140, 142
X Max 110
X Min 110
xgeom
4.0 style 82
autosave 82
clipboard 21, 85
cut 83
exit 78, 82
menu bar 7
overview 1
window 94, 95, 145
Y
^Y 140
Y Max 110
Y Min 110
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
EM
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A Simple Outline of the Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Subsectioning the Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Zero Voltage Across a Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Input and Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Em Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Em Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Enhancements in Release 6.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Em User’s Manual Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Describing Menu Bar Accesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Invoking Sonnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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Em User’s Manual
3 Subsectioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Selecting Cell Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Setting the Maximum Subsection Size Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Defining the Subsectioning Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Changing the Subsectioning of a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Default Subsectioning of a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
X Min and Y Min for a Manhattan Polygon. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
X Min and Y Min for a Non-Manhattan Polygon . . . . . . . . 36
Using X Max and Y Max for any Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Using the Edge Mesh Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5 Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Port Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Box-Wall Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ungrounded-Internal Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Via Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Automatic-Grounded Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Special Considerations for Auto-Grounded Ports . . . . . . . . 54
Specifying Port Normalizing Impedances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Special Port Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Ports with Duplicate Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Ports with Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6 De-embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Enabling the De-embedding Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
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EM
Auto-Grounded Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
De-embedding Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
De-embedding Error Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7 De-embedding Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Defining Reference Planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
De-embedding Without Reference Planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Reference Plane Length Minimums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength 84
Reference Plane Lengths Greater than One Wavelength . . . 84
Non-Physical S-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Box Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Higher Order Transmission Line Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
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EM
param . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
outtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
SPICE and PSPICE keywords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The FREQ Data Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Analysis Control Keywords For em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Sorted Frequency Sweeps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Using END to Control the Order of Frequency Sweeps . . . 156
Frequency Interpolation of em Output Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
AUTO, FINDMIN and FINDMAX for Basic Analyses . . . 157
Overriding the FREQ Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
The OUT Data Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
netname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
meas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
delim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
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vi
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EM
18 Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
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viii
Table of Contents
EM
Editing the Run List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Starting an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Pausing an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Continuing an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Stopping an em Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Using the em Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Closing the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Re-Opening the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Saving the Contents of the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Invoking emgraph to Plot Response Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Invoking emvu to View Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Invoking patvu to View the Far-Field Radiation Patterns. . 279
Invoking a Text Editor to View Response Data . . . . . . . . . 279
Job Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Creating a New Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Opening an Existing Job File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Loading an Existing Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Saving a Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Reverting to a Saved Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Em Control Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Setting Multi-Frequency Caching Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . 283
Selecting Startup Run Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Setting Up a Default Simple Sweep for Analyses . . . . . . . . 285
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Input/Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
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Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
x
Chapter 1 Introduction
EM
Chapter 1 Introduction
Em performs electromagnetic analysis [75, 76, 78] for arbitrary 3-D planar [50]
(e.g., microstrip, coplanar, stripline, etc.) geometries, maintaining full accuracy at
all frequencies. Em is a “full-wave” analysis in that it takes into account all
possible coupling mechanisms. The analysis inherently includes dispersion, stray
coupling, discontinuities, surface waves, moding, metalization loss, dielectric loss
and radiation loss. In short, it is a complete electromagnetic analysis. Since em
uses a surface meshing technique, i.e. it meshes only the surface of the circuit
metalization, em can analyze predominately planar circuits much faster than
volume meshing techniques.
Em does a full three dimensional analysis that includes both 3-D fields and 3-D
currents. This is in contrast to 2.5-D analyses which, while including full 3-D
fields, allow only 2-D currents. Thus, a 2.5-D analysis does not allow vias or any
other vertical current.
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Em User’s Manual
The analysis starts by subdividing the circuit metalization into small rectangular
subsections. In an actual subsectioning, see , small subsections are used only
where needed. Otherwise, larger subsections are used since the analysis time is
2
Chapter 1 Introduction
EM
possible pair of subsections in the circuit.
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Em User’s Manual
If there is metalization loss, we modify the boundary condition. Rather than zero
tangential electric field (zero voltage), we make the tangential electric field (the
voltage on each subsection) proportional to the current in the subsection. The
constant of proportionality is the metalization surface resistivity (in ohms/square).
In short, Ohm’s Law.
There are three types of files associated with an em geometry file analysis: a file
which controls the analysis, a file which specifies the circuit geometry and circuit
response file(s). More than one circuit response file may be specified for an em
4
Chapter 1 Introduction
analysis. Which circuit response files are generated depends on the options
selected. In addition, em can generate a current density file and/or a SPICE
lumped element equivalent netlist file.
There are two other types of files associated with an em network file analysis: a
file which defines the network to be analyzed and a circuit response file. More
than one output response file may be specified for a network file analysis. The
EM
network file may cite circuit response files, execute a geometry file analysis, or
obtain external analysis frequency control from a control file.
.csv Output Comma separated value data for Excel. See -f option.
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Em User’s Manual
The analysis control file determines the frequencies for analysis. Its other uses are
detailed in Appendix II, “The Analysis Control File Format.” An example file is
given in the next section. If a name other than “ctl.an” is selected, a name ending
with “.an” is required.
The analysis control file is not mandatory. Analysis frequencies may also be
controlled through options selected in the em job window or by an internal
command in the case of a network file.
The circuit geometry file is generated with a geometry capture program such as
xgeom. Geometry files can also be generated by the interface provided by
Cadence or Barnard Microsystems and by the Sonnet programs gds, which
translates GDSII Stream files, dxfgeo, which translates DXF files, and ebridge,
which provides an interface between HP-EEsof’s Series IV or ADS layout module
and Sonnet. The file name is required to have a “.geo” extension.
The geometry file specifies the size of the box containing the circuit, the number
of and material properties of the dielectric layers as well as a polygonal
description of the metalization outline.
The circuit response file format can be selected in the Output File dialog box for
compatibility with popular circuit analysis programs. The circuit response file
contains automatically generated comment lines as well as any comment lines
from the analysis control and geometry files. The various types of circuit response
files are cited in Table 1.
6
Chapter 1 Introduction
ports. For example, if the number of ports is 14, the file extension is .s14. For more
details about this file type, please see the -SNP command option in Appendix I,
"The em Command Line"
The output for a network file analysis has a file name ending with “.rsp.” The
format of the data is determined by a command within the network file.
EM
Em Applications
Em is appropriate for a wide range of 3-D planar structures. The via capability
allows analysis of airbridges, wire bonds, spiral inductors, wafer probes and
internal ports as well as for simple grounding.
7
Em User’s Manual
quency where the circuits still have gain, poor performance results. Em
provides an analysis of a package prior to fabrication. Resonances can then
be dealt with on the computer rather than on the test bench.
Em is not appropriate for doing an initial design. Rather, the faster circuit theory
simulators (which do not typically include stray coupling) should be used for the
first cut. Em can then enhance the simulator performance by providing custom,
ultra-precise discontinuity data and by validating large portions of the final circuit,
including all stray interactions.
Em is designed to work with your existing CAE software. Since the output data is
in Touchstone or Compact format (at your discretion), em provides a seamless
interface to your CAE tool.
Em Origins
The technique used in em was developed at Syracuse University in 1986 by Rautio
and Harrington [75, 76, 78]. It was originally developed as an extension of an
analysis of planar waveguide probes [81]. The technique expresses the fields
inside the box as a sum of waveguide modes and is thus closely related to the
spectral domain approach.
The complete theory has been published in detail in peer reviewed journals. A full
bibliography of relevant papers is presented in Appendix V.
8
Chapter 1 Introduction
The major changes incorporated in Version 6.0 is the new UNIX interface which
EM
is compatible with WindowsNT 4.0 and Windows95 and the combining of em and
emgen into one program. This will allow you to run both electromagnetic and
circuit network analyses from an interactive window whose settings can be saved
in a file. Listed below are the new features and changes introduced in Version 6.0.
New Features
Multi-Frequency Caching: Multi-frequency caching (MFC) is a technique that
can dramatically reduce the em computation time when analyzing large circuits
over many frequencies without any loss in accuracy. MFC pre-computes
frequency independent data and stores it on your hard disk. This data is later
recalled while the simulation is performed. For more information about Multi-
Frequency Caching, see “Using Multi-Frequency Caching,” page 20.
Em Control interface: The em Control interface provides an interactive interface
to em. This interface consists of menus and dialog boxes which allow you to select
run options and execute em analyses. You may save the settings of the control
interface in a job file.
Run List: The em interface allows you to edit a list of command lines which form
a batch file for running analyses. The command lines are generated interactively
from the settings in the various em dialog boxes. This list is saved as part of the
job file. The job file contains the settings of the interface and must have a “.job”
extension. For more information about the Run List, please see “Running an em
Analysis,” page 272.
Direct Frequency Control: The em interface allows you to control analysis
frequencies directly through use of the Simple Sweep and Complex Sweep
options in the job window. Em analyses do not require an analysis control file,
although it is still possible to use one to control the analysis frequencies. For
information about specifying frequency control information, please see
“Specifying Frequency Control,” page 248 and page 260.
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Em User’s Manual
Changes
The combination of em and emgen: Em and emgen have been combined into
one program. Both are accessible through a windows interface activated by
selecting Em Control from the Sonnet menu in the Windows desktop Start menu.
In this documentation, emgen is referred to as the em circuit network capability
and is accessed by running a Network file analysis. The circuit network capability
must be purchased separately as an add-on to the em program.
Intelligent Frequency Control: This feature, previously only available in
emgen, automatically determines where to place frequency points for an analysis.
Intelligent frequency control is now available with em. For details, see “Entering
Intelligent Frequency Controls,” page 267.
10
Chapter 1 Introduction
For example, View ⇒ Open Graph means to move the cursor to View on the
menu bar, press and hold down the left mouse button, drag the cursor down the
EM
menu which appears until Open Graph is highlighted. Release the mouse button.
Emgraph is invoked to display the response data of the file being analyzed.
Invoking Sonnet
You use the Sonnet task bar, shown below, to access all the modules in the em
Suite. Opening the Sonnet task bar, for both Windows and UNIX systems is
detailed below.
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Em User’s Manual
UNIX
1 Open a terminal.
If you do not know how to do this, please see your system administrator.
12
Chapter 1 Introduction
Windows
1 Select Start ⇒ Programs ⇒ Sonnet ⇒ Sonnet from the Windows desktop
Start menu.
EM
The Sonnet task bar appears on your display.
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Em User’s Manual
Once the Sonnet task bar is open, for UNIX or Windows systems, clicking on any
given button opens the appropriate module. The table below shows which
modules are invoked by each button.
14
Chapter 1 Introduction
The translation programs, dxfgeo and gds, are accessed through the Sonnet task
bar main menu, as shown below. Select Convert Dxf for dxfgeo and select Convert
Gds for gds.
EM
For details on each program, please refer to the appropriate user’s manual.
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Em User’s Manual
16
Chapter 2 Important Options and Concepts
EM
Chapter 2 Important Options
and Concepts
In the previous chapter, we described the basics of running em: what input files
are required, how you set up and save a job file, and what the output results mean.
In this chapter we discuss the following techniques which are frequently used to
obtain more accurate results and/or shorter analysis times:
• De-embedding the port discontinuity
• Using multi-frequency caching (MFC)
• Using symmetry
• Invoking single precision
• Adjusting the subsectioning
• Removing parallel subsections.
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Em User’s Manual
18
Chapter 2 Important Options and Concepts
Run em with de-embedding enabled whenever you do not want to include the
effects of port discontinuities in your analysis results. In fact, the De-embed option
is selected by default whenever a new job file is opened. To enable de-embedding,
set the De-embed check box in the em job window to on, or specify an output file
with a “.d” file extension in the Output Files dialog box.
EM
The circuit “steps.geo” is shown above. The de-embedded and non-de-embedded
analysis results are shown below. The circuit is available in the Sonnet example
files.
De-embedded 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
10.0000000 0.513865 -141.5 0.857871 -53.90 0.857871 -53.90 0.513865 -146.3
P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.6763 0.0000) Z0=(44.73370 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.117753
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.2013 0.0000) Z0=(73.08549 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.044139
Primary 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
10.0000000 0.515668 152.64 0.856789 -163.5 0.856789 -163.5 0.515668 60.400
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Em User’s Manual
By storing and reusing the data in this manner, MFC significantly reduces the
required matrix fill time. In standard em analyses, matrix fill is completely re-
computed at each frequency. Thus, if you are analyzing at a large number of
frequencies (greater than four), and if matrix fill time is appreciable for your
circuit, enabling MFC will speed up your analysis. Since an analysis executes in
either the same or less time, this option should always be used except when cache
disk space is unavailable.
The MFC technique does require some time to pre-compute the frequency
independent data. Because of this pre-computation time, MFC does not provide
any advantage when you simulate at four or fewer frequencies. If you set up an
analysis to run at four or fewer frequencies, and you check the “Multi-Frequency
Caching” run option, em will automatically disable MFC for the simulation.
Circuits for which the matrix fill time is large will benefit the most from MFC.
Characteristics of such circuits include:
• Circuits with a large number of cells in the X and Y dimensions.
• Circuits with a large number of metallization layers.
• Circuits with vias.
• Circuits with polygons using diagonal fill.
• Circuits with polygons for which XMIN/YMIN is greater than 1.
It is important to remember that MFC only reduces the matrix fill time. MFC has
no affect on the matrix solve time.
MFC saves time by writing data to your hard disk and reusing that data later.
Therefore, you need to have hard disk space available in order to use MFC. When
em begins a simulation with MFC enabled, it displays the amount of disk space
20
Chapter 2 Important Options and Concepts
required, and where the data will be stored. In general, if you have disk space
available, it is recommended that you always run with MFC enabled. MFC will
not slow the simulation down.
If you wish to change the location where em will store the data, select File ⇒
Preferences from the em Control main menu, and enter a new disk location in the
Cache Directory dialog box. You may also set a Cache Limit in the same
EM
preferences window. This limit sets the maximum amount of disk space that you
will allow em to use for MFC. If a particular simulation exceeds this limit, em will
automatically disable MFC for that simulation. For details on how to set the
location and limit the amount of memory, see “Setting Multi-Frequency Caching
Parameters,” page 283.
This frequency is the maximum frequency at which the pre-computed data is valid
and is used as a cutoff frequency. Above the cutoff frequency, it is not usually
possible to compute frequency independent data. If your frequency analysis band
is entirely below <fmfc>, em runs with MFC enabled over your entire band. If your
band is above <fmfc>, em disables MFC for the entire simulation. If your band has
frequencies both above and below <fmfc>, em automatically uses MFC up to
<fmfc> and disables MFC for all frequencies greater than <fmfc>.
It is possible to disable the automatic cutoff. For details, see the -F option in the
Appendix I, "The em Command Line".
Using Symmetry
The microstrip circuit in “steps.geo” (see the circuit on page 19) is symmetric
about the horizontal center line. Em can take advantage of this, provided all ports
are also on the center line. This second condition is important. If there is a port off
the center line, em creates the port’s image on the other side of the center line and
shorts the two together, a result usually not desired.
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Em User’s Manual
If you want to short two symmetrical ports together you should identically number
the ports above and below the line of symmetry. Ports with the same number are
electrically connected together. This may be useful for designers interested in the
even-mode of a pair of coupled lines, as shown below.
This circuit cannot be run using This circuit may be run with symmetry,
symmetry. because the ports above and below the
line of symmetry are the same number.
For the "steps.geo" example file, your em analysis may take advantage of the
symmetry setting. Run xgeom and modify “steps.geo” using Parameters ⇒ Box
to open the Box Parameters dialog box. When you click on the Symmetry
checkbox, it toggles from Off to On and a dashed center line is drawn on the
circuit. Visually check to make sure the circuit really is centered on the center line.
If not, move the circuit until it is centered.
In electromagnetic terms, the symmetry option places a magnetic wall along the
center line. In terms of performance, the number of subsections is reduced by
nearly half, reducing the size of the matrix to one quarter of its original memory
requirement, and decreasing matrix solve time by about a factor of eight. Thus,
symmetry is a powerful tool in reducing both analysis time and hardware
requirements. You will always get identical analysis results when using
symmetry.
When finished, save the file under the new name “steps_sy.geo”. You may want
to add a comment or two indicating the modification as you store the file. You may
also obtain a copy of this file from the Sonnet examples by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples. If you are not familiar with Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples, see “Obtaining
the Example Files,” page 7 in the Sonnet Tutorial.
22
Chapter 2 Important Options and Concepts
EM
4 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button and enter a value of 10.0 in the
Start text entry box.
5 The Verbose and De-embed options are already on; therefore, click on
the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The output to the screen should be the same as the previous section, with one
possible exception. If a non-zero user time was displayed in the previous example,
the time should be about half that in this example. Note that the number of
subsections is cut by almost half. While not particularly important here, the
improvement in speed and memory use is very important for large circuits.
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Em User’s Manual
6 The Verbose and De-embed options are already on; therefore, click on
the Run command button to execute the analysis.
By invoking single precision, you cut the memory required by a factor of two. This
has a significant effect if your problem is large enough to cause em to swap out to
disk. For these big problems, use of single precision can result in an order of
magnitude increase in speed.
On some machines, the floating point operation speed is also increased because
single precision calculations can be done faster than double precision. The Sun
SPARCstation is such a machine.
In general, use the memory saver option on large circuits. It is not needed on small
circuits.
On occasion, the memory saver option can result in slightly different results. At
extremely low frequencies, when the subsections size is on the order of 0.0001
wavelength or smaller, single precision may not be enough to allow the matrix to
be accurately inverted. In this case, em issues a warning as corrupted results may
be generated. If you are using the memory save option at very low frequencies and
you notice non-physical results, eliminating the option and re-analyzing may
remove the problem.
24
Chapter 2 Important Options and Concepts
The easiest way to reduce subsection count is to reduce the amount of metal to be
analyzed. Any metal which is unlikely to carry significant current should be
removed. Distant ground plane regions in coplanar waveguide, for example. Also,
long, unneeded lengths of connecting transmission line provide no additional
information in an analysis and should be removed.
A second way to reduce subsection count is to simply use a larger cell size. It can
EM
be surprising how little a larger cell size changes results on many circuits.
Be careful not to reject viable options because of the dimensions being used. For
example, if you want to analyze a line 7.0 microns wide, the obvious potential cell
dimensions are 1 micron (for a seven cell wide line) and 7 microns (for a one cell
wide line). There are other options, also. For example, the cell size can be
specified to be 7/3 = 2.33333 microns resulting in a three cell wide line.
However, there are circuits which have very fine geometries combined with very
large overall structures. The fine geometry determines the cell size, requiring the
overall circuit to use a large number of cells.
To address this problem, you may specify a minimum and maximum subsection
size, in terms of cells, for each polygon. You use the parameters X Min, Y Min,
X Max and Y Max to do this. Chapter 3, “Subsectioning,” discusses this in more
detail.
A third way to reduce the number of subsections is to cut the circuit into pieces
and analyze each piece separately. For example, instead of analyzing an entire
bandpass filter, analyze half of it. Then, if both halves are identical, just use the
em circuit network capability, or a circuit theory program to cascade the half filter
analysis with itself.
25
Em User’s Manual
Most filters, and other structures as well, can be broken down into a number of
small circuits which can be easily analyzed. In fact, a pure circuit theory analysis
takes this “breaking down” to the limit. An example of this approach is discussed
in the beginning of Chapter 8.
26
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
EM
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
The Sonnet subsectioning is based on a uniform mesh indicated by the small dots
in the xgeom screen. The small dots are placed at the corners of a “cell”. One or
more cells are automatically combined together to create subsections. Cells may
be square or rectangular (any aspect ratio), but must be the same over your entire
circuit. The cell size is specified in xgeom in the Box Parameters dialog box which
is opened by selecting Parameters ⇒ Box. The analysis solves for the current on
each subsection. Since multiple cells are combined together into a single
subsection, the number of subsections is usually considerably smaller than the
number of cells. This is important because the analysis solves an N x N matrix
where N is the number of subsections. A small reduction in the value of N results
in a large reduction in analysis time and memory.
Care must be taken in combining the cells into subsections so that accuracy is not
sacrificed. Em automatically places small subsections in critical areas where
current density is changing rapidly, but allows larger subsections in less critical
areas, where current density is smooth or changing slowly.
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Em User’s Manual
However, in some cases you may wish to modify the automatic algorithm because
you want a faster, less accurate solution, or a slower, more accurate solution, than
is provided by the automatic algorithm. Also, in some cases, you may have
knowledge about your circuit that the software does not. For example, you may
know that there is very little current on a certain area of your metal. Or you may
have chosen a small cell size because you have a small dimension in your circuit,
but do not need the accuracy of a small cell size in larger structures within your
circuit. In these cases, you can change the method by which em combines cells
into subsections.
This chapter explains how em combines cells into subsections and how you can
control this process to obtain an analysis time or the level of accuracy you require.
There is also a discussion of selecting the cell size and how that may affect the em
analysis.
The following methods may be used to control the way in which em combines
cells into subsections:
• Selecting cell size.
• Setting the subs/lambda parameter.
• Defining the subsectioning frequency.
• Changing the subsectioning of a polygon.
• Using the edge mesh option.
TIP
Select a cell size that is smaller than 1/20 of a wavelength.
28
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
Most circuits require that your cell size be smaller than 1/20 of a wavelength.
EM
Larger cell sizes usually result in unacceptable errors due to incorrect modeling of
the distributed effects across the cell. Cell sizes smaller than λ/20 may increase
the accuracy slightly but usually increases the total number of subsections, which
increases the analysis time and memory requirements.
TIP
When possible, round off dimensions of your circuit so that they have a larger
common multiple.
Since your circuit geometry is snapped to the nearest cell, you must find a cell size
such that all of the dimensions of the circuit are a multiple of this cell size. For
example, if your circuit has dimensions of 30 microns, 40 microns and 60 microns,
possible cell sizes are 10 microns, 5 microns, 2.5 microns, 2 microns, etc. Large
cell sizes result in more efficient analyses, so choosing 10 microns is probably
best.
TIP
Calculate the X cell size and the Y cell size independently.
The X cell size and Y cell size do not have to be the same number. Calculate the
X cell size based on just your dimensions in the X direction, and your Y cell size
based on just your dimensions in the Y direction.
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Em User’s Manual
For example, if you have a spiral inductor with widths of 10 microns and spacings
of 11 microns, modify the 11 microns to 10 microns. You may now use a cell size
of 2, 2.5, 3.333, 5 or 10 microns instead of 1 micron, speeding up the analysis by
several orders of magnitude with little impact on circuit performance. This
concept is illustrated below.
Circuit 1:
Requires 80 cells
Runs slow, uses more memory
More accurate 8 µm
3 µm
1 µm cell size
1 cell
Circuit 2: 1 cell
Requires only 6 cells
Runs fast, uses less memory
Less accurate
8
4 µm
4 µm cell size
Circuit 1 takes more time and memory to analyze than circuit 2 even though they
have approximately the same amount of metal. This is because the dimensions in
circuit 2 are divisible by 4, so a 4 um cell size may be used. Circuit 1 requires a 1
um cell size. Think about the sensitivity of your circuit to these dimensions and
30
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
EM
The parameter Max. Subsection Size allows the specification of a maximum
subsection size, in terms of subsections per wavelength, where the wavelength is
approximated at the beginning of the analysis. The highest analysis frequency is
used in the calculation of the wavelength.
The default of 20 subsections/λ is fine for most work. This means that the
maximum size of a subsection is 18 degrees at the highest frequency of analysis.
Increasing this number decreases the maximum subsection size until the limit of
1 subsection = 1 cell is reached.
You might want to increase this parameter for a more accurate solution. For
example, changing it from 20 to 40 decreases the size of the largest subsections by
a factor of 2, resulting in a more accurate (but slower) solution. Keep in mind that
using smaller subsections in non-critical areas may have very little effect on the
accuracy of the analysis while increasing analysis time.
Another reason for using this parameter is when you require extremely smooth
current distributions using emvu. With the default value of 20, large interior
subsections may make the current distribution look “choppy”. Setting this value
to a large number forces all subsections to be only 1 cell wide, providing smooth
current distribution. Again, analysis time is impacted significantly.
The Max. Subsection Size parameter is specified in xgeom in the Box Parameters
dialog box which is opened by selecting Parameters ⇒ Box.
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Em User’s Manual
shows how these default subsectioning parameters are used. Notice in the corner,
the subsection size is just one cell. The current density changes most rapidly here,
thus, the smallest possible subsection size is used.
32
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
EM
Subsections are wide
and long away from edge
Cell Size =
As we go away from the corner, along the edge, the subsections become longer.
For example, the next subsection is two cells long, the next one is four cells long,
etc. If the edge is long enough, the subsection length increases until it reaches X
Max (100) cells, or the maximum subsection size parameter, whichever comes
first, and then remains at that length until it gets close to another corner,
discontinuity, etc.
Notice, however, that no matter how long the edge subsection is, it is always one
cell wide. This is because the current density changes very rapidly as we move
from the edge toward the interior of the metal (this is called the edge singularity).
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Em User’s Manual
In order to allow an accurate representation of the very high edge current, the edge
subsections are allowed to be only one cell wide. However, the current density
becomes smooth as we approach the interior of the metal. Thus, wider subsections
are allowed there. As before, the width goes from one cell to two cells, then four,
etc.
For Manhattan polygons, X Min and Y Min set the size of the edge subsections.
By default, X Min and Y Min are 1. This means the edge subsections are 1 cell
wide. When X Min is set to 2, the subsections along vertical edges are now 2 cells
wide in the X direction (see the figure on page 35). This reduces the number of
subsections and reduces the matrix size for a faster analysis. However, accuracy
may also be reduced due to the coarser modeling of the current density near the
structure edge or a discontinuity.
34
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
2 Cells Wide
(X Min = 2) 4 Cells
{
8 Cells
1 Cell Wide
(Y Min = 1) {
EM
2 Cells
4 Cells
Cell Size =
X
A portion of circuit metal showing how em combines cells into subsections for Manhattan polygons
when X Min = 2 and Y Min = 1.
If X min or Y min are greater than your polygon size, em uses subsections as large
as possible to fill the polygon.
NOTE: The subsection parameters, X Min, Y Min, X Max and Y Max are
specified in cells (not mils, mm, microns, etc.). For example, X Min =
5 means that the minimum subsection size is 5 cells.
Although the X Min and Y Min parameters are very useful options, it is not a
substitute for using a larger cell size. For example, a circuit with a cell size of 10
microns by 10 microns with X Min = 1 and Y Min =1 runs faster than the same
circuit with a cell size of 5 microns by 5 microns with X Min = 2 and Y Min = 2.
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Em User’s Manual
Even though the total number of subsections for each circuit may be the same, em
must spend extra time calculating the value for each subsection for the circuit with
the smaller cell size.
4 Cells
1 Cell by 1 Cell (2 * X Min)
on corner
Cell Size =
X
A portion of circuit metal showing how em combines cells into subsections for non-Manhattan
polygons, with X Min = 2 and Y Min = 1. Non-Manhattan polygons always have 1 cell wide edge
subsections. The next subsection in is 2*X Min = 4 cells.
36
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
As mentioned before, the Max. Subsection Size parameter can be used to control
the maximum subsection size for your circuit. You may also control the maximum
subsection size of individual polygons by using the X Max and Y Max parameters.
For example, if X Max and Y Max are decreased to 1, then all subsections will be
EM
one cell. This results in a much larger number of subsections and a very large
matrix which are the cause of increased analysis time. Thus, this should be done
only on small to medium size circuits where high accuracy is required.
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Em User’s Manual
X Min or Y Min values, this option can be very useful in reducing the number of
subsections but still maintaining the edge singularity, as shown below. This is very
often a good compromise between accuracy and speed.
In the case pictured above, X Min and Y Min are set to be very large, and the
frequency is low enough so that the Max. Subsection size parameter corresponds
to a subsection size that is larger than the polygon.
38
Chapter 3 Subsectioning
To invoke the edge mesh option, click on the Edge Mesh checkbox in the
Additional Options dialog box.
The Additional
Options dialog box
showing the Edge
EM
Mesh feature invoked
(box checked).
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Em User’s Manual
40
Chapter 4 Metalization and Dielectric Loss
EM
Chapter 4 Metalization and
Dielectric Loss
Metalization Loss
Metalization loss is specified in xgeom in the Metal Types dialog box which is
opened by selecting Parameters ⇒ Metal Types. Losses may be assigned to
circuit metal, top cover and ground plane. Sidewalls are always assumed to be
perfect conductors.
41
Em User’s Manual
Surface Resistance
The metalization loss is based on surface resistance. Two numbers are required.
The first parameter, RDC, determines loss at low frequency (where the conductor
is much thinner than the skin depth). Surprisingly, electromagnetic analyses often
predict zero loss at low frequency because they assume RDC is zero. RDC is useful
for thin film resistors as well as low frequency metal loss.
The second parameter is the skin effect coefficient, RRF. Em multiplies this
number by the square root of the frequency (in Hertz) to yield the ohms/square
value at high frequency. See the “Parameters - Metal types,” page 138 in the
Xgeom User’s Manual, for examples of RDC and RRF.
R DC = 1 ⁄ ( σt )
Em also properly models the transition between electrically thin (low frequency)
and electrically thick (high frequency) conductors. The transition frequency from
RDC to RRF is the square of RDC/RRF. At this frequency, and a relatively narrow
band around it, both coefficients are important.
Em’s modeling of loss is very precise if accurate values of RDC and RRF are used.
Expect the final result to be just as accurate as the values of RDC and RRF
specified.
42
Chapter 4 Metalization and Dielectric Loss
If an extremely precise evaluation of loss is needed, build (or find) and measure a
simple structure of the desired metalization. Then adjust the values of RDC (low
frequency) and RRF (high frequency) until the calculated loss matches the
measured value. Then you can use these values for any circuit which uses the same
metalization. You are now effectively using measured values for R DC and RRF.
The typical values given above work well as a first approximation.
EM
The alternative to using measured loss value to determine RRF is to develop a
physical model. Such a model would have parameters such as bulk conductivity,
bottom side surface roughness, top side surface roughness, metal porosity and
edge roughness as at least a few of its parameters. Developing such a model
accurately is expected to be very difficult and is beyond the scope of this analysis
software. Even if developed, such a model only converts the problem to that of
measuring the physical parameters needed for the model. Measuring the required
physical parameters (like metal porosity) is likely to be even more difficult than
measuring the loss and determining RRF in the first place.
Another aspect of loss is that the surface impedance of a good conductor has an
imaginary part which is equal to the real part. This reactive surface impedance is
physically due to the increased surface inductance caused by the current being
confined closer to the surface of the conductor. This surface reactance is included
in RRF. The effect is small, but potentially significant in certain cases.
Em’s loss analysis is not perturbational. It works just as well for 100 ohms/square
resistor material as it does for 0.004 ohms/square good conductor.
Surface Reactance
Surface reactance, Xdc, is specified, in ohms/square, in xgeom in the Metal Types
dialog box accessed by selecting Parameters ⇒ Metal Types. Em uses the same
reactance at all frequencies.
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Em User’s Manual
Until recently, the only surface resistivities of practical interest were pure real, i.
e., pure loss. With the growing application of superconductors in high frequency
work, surface reactance reaches significant levels. A superconductive effect
known as “kinetic inductance” slows the velocity of the electrons with no loss of
energy. This can be modeled as a surface inductance.
Surface inductance, Ls, is specified, in xgeom in the Metal Types dialog box
accessed by selecting Parameters ⇒ Metal Types. This parameter takes into
account the surface reactance at higher frequencies.
There are three recommended approaches to obtaining a value for Ls. A first order
approximation is to assume the metal is a perfect conductor.
R DC = 0 R rf = 0 Ls = 0
This model works well for moderate frequencies (less then 150 GHz) and
moderate circuit dimensions which are much greater than the London depth of
penetration.
The second approach is a model which is still valid at moderate frequencies, but
includes effects due to kinetic inductance. The kinetic inductance is a function of
temperature and can be approximated in the following manner:
R DC = 0 R rf = 0 Ls = µ0 λL ( T )
44
Chapter 4 Metalization and Dielectric Loss
where
–7
µ 0 = 4π ( 10 ) H/m
4
λ L ( T ) = λ0 ⁄ ( 1 – ( T ⁄ T c ) ) London depth of penetration at temp.
EM
T c = Critical (Transition) Temperature in degrees Kelvin
The third model should be used to account for high frequency effects or effects
due to small circuit dimensions. In these cases, the surface resistances
proportionality to ω2 begins to dominate and the following model is suggested.
The resistivity is a function of frequency-squared, and Sonnet presently does not
have a method to do this. Therefore, if you are analyzing over a broad band, you
need to have a separate geo file for each frequency, using the following
equations.1
R rf = 0
1 2 2
R DC = --- ω µ 0 ( λ L ( T ) ) 3 σ N ( η n ⁄ ( η n + η s ) )
2
Ls = µ0 λL( T )
where
ω = 2πf radians/sec
σ N = Conductivity of the superconductor in its normal state (Mhos/m3)
η n = Normal state carrier density (1/m3)
η s = Superconducting state carrier density (1/m3)
µ 0 and are as defined above
λL ( T )
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Em User’s Manual
• Dielectric Loss Tan: The dielectric loss tangent. The ratio (ε’’/ε’), where ε =
ε’ - jε’’, and ε is the complex permittivity of the dielectric layer material. The
ratio is dimensionless.
• Mrel: The relative magnetic permeability (µr) of the dielectric layer material.
• Magnetic Loss Tan: The magnetic loss tangent of the dielectric layer
material.
• Z-Partitioning: The z-partitioning parameter for the dielectric layer. Note
that the number of Z partitions only affects dielectric bricks. Changing this
value for a particular layer will have absolutely no affect on the analysis if
there are no bricks on the layer. If there are multiple bricks on the layer, the
Z subsectioning for all of those bricks will be identical.
The more partitions (better resolution) used in the Z-dimension, the more ac-
curate the analysis; however, analysis time and memory requirements also in-
crease.
Em uses the above parameters to calculate the total effective tanδ for the dielectric
material as follows:
46
Chapter 4 Metalization and Dielectric Loss
Here, ω is the radian frequency (ω = 2πf, where f is frequency in hertz). Note that
tanδ has both a frequency-dependent term and a frequency-independent term.
The above equation for tanδ can also be expressed in terms of conductivities as
follows:
EM
Both equations are equivalent. Each describes how em uses the input dielectric
parameters to compute loss in the dielectric material.
See “Parameters - Dielectric Layers,” page 133 of the Xgeom User’s Manual, for
information on setting these parameters.
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Em User’s Manual
48
Chapter 5 Ports
EM
Chapter 5 Ports
Port Types
All ports in em are two-terminal devices. In most applications, the first terminal is
attached to a metal polygon and the second terminal is attached to ground. Such
ports are referred to as grounded ports. Occasionally, however, it is useful to
attach the two terminals of a port between two adjacent polygons. These ports are
referred to as ungrounded ports.
When analyzing multi-port circuits to find S-, Y- or Z-parameters, all of the ports
in the circuit should be grounded. An ungrounded port can have a different ground
reference from other ports in the circuit, which, in turn, can corrupt the results.
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Em User’s Manual
Box-Wall Ports
- +
1
Box wall
port on
page 46.
50
Chapter 5 Ports
Ungrounded-Internal Ports
EM
- +
1
a) b)
51
Em User’s Manual
Via Ports
A via port has one terminal connected to a polygon on a given circuit level and the
other terminal connected to a second polygon on a circuit level above or below the
first polygon. An example of this port type is shown in below. See “Adding Via
Ports,” page 40 of the Xgeom User’s Manual, for information on how to create a
via port.
Upper Polygon
+
1
-
Via Port
Lower Polygon
The example file “patch.geo” has an example of a via port used in a patch antenna.
The example file “viaports.geo” shows conceptually how via ports are used in an
amplifier. The designer would analyze the four port in “viaports.geo” and then use
a circuit theory program to attach a transistor between the via ports, ports 3 and 4
in “viaports.geo”. Both example files can be obtained with the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command.
52
Chapter 5 Ports
In most cases where you need grounded ports, your first choice would be to use
auto-grounded ports (as discussed in the next section), especially since it is
possible to de-embed an autogrounded port. The two most common cases where
a via port would be used is when you wish to attach a port between two adjacent
levels in your circuit or when you want a port to go up to the box cover rather than
down to ground.
EM
Automatic-Grounded Ports
An automatic-grounded port is a special type of port used in the interior of a
circuit. This port type has one terminal attached to the edge of a metal polygon
located inside the box and the other terminal attached to the ground plane through
all intervening dielectric layers. An auto-grounded port with a reference plane
shift is shown below.
In many circuits, the addition of auto-grounded ports has little influence on the
total analysis time of the em job. However for some circuits, auto-grounded ports
may require some extra overhead calculations, thus increasing the total analysis
time. Therefore, they should be used only when they provide an advantage over
standard box-wall ports. Auto-grounded ports provide advantages over standard
box-wall ports when:
• the layout of your circuit does not allow a direct path for a feed line
to be connected between the port and the box wall (as in the figure
above), or
• your circuit requires a large feed structure to reach the box wall. If
all or part of your feed structure can be eliminated, using an auto-
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Em User’s Manual
Auto-grounded ports are similar to via ports with the exception of the following
characteristics:
• Via ports require you to manually create vias that extend upward
through the dielectric to the edge of a metal polygon. This is not the
case with auto-grounded ports. You simply place auto-grounded
ports anywhere a grounded port is needed. Em automatically
detects the presence of auto-grounded ports in the circuit and
connects the port terminals appropriately.
• Auto-grounded ports connect directly through all dielectric layers
to the ground plane. Via-ports allow the flexibility of connecting
between any two adjacent dielectric layers.
• Auto-grounded ports are de-embedded when the de-embedding
option is used, while via ports are not.
• Reference planes may be set with auto-grounded ports but cannot
be set for via ports.
54
Chapter 5 Ports
Auto-grounded ports can attach to the edge of any metal polygon in the interior of
a circuit. There are no restrictions on the loss parameters of the metal used in the
polygon. However, along the edge of the metal polygon where the port is attached,
em does force the cells to be lossless. For most circuits, this should have little or
no effect on the results. If, however, the port is attached to a highly lossy metal
EM
polygon, such as a thin-film resistor, the edge cell(s) of that polygon will be made
lossless, and the output results may be affected.
For example, you may want to see what the reflection coefficient of a structure is
when port 2 is connected to a 1.0 pF capacitor in parallel with a 10 ohm resistor
(a power FET input model), while the input is being driven with a source which
has a 35 ohm internal impedance. In this case, normalize port 1 to 35 ohms and
port 2 to 10 ohms plus 1.0 pF.
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Em User’s Manual
However, 60 ohm S-Parameters do have uses. Say you want to know what
percentage of power is absorbed by a 60 ohm load terminating port 2 of a two port
circuit. That is simply one minus the magnitude squared of S11, using 60 ohm S-
parameters. If you are interested in a different load, use a different normalizing
impedance.
In em, the default normalizing impedance is 50 ohms. If you would like a different
normalization, refer to the section “Parameters - Ports,” page 143 of the Xgeom
User’s Manual, on how to specify the normalizing impedance for each port.
The normalizing impedance is represented by four numbers. First is the real part
in ohms. Next comes the reactive part in ohms. Third is the inductive part in
nanohenries (nH). The last number is the capacitive part in picofarads (pF). The
inductive and capacitive part modify only the reactive portion of the load, they are
included so you do not have to manually re-calculate the reactive part at each
frequency.
56
Chapter 5 Ports
The resistance, reactance and inductance are all connected in series when the
specific normalizing impedance is calculated at each frequency of analysis as
illustrated below. The capacitance is connected in parallel with the result and then
the final normalizing impedance at the frequency of analysis is calculated.
R + jX L
EM
C
This capability should be used only by the most advanced users. If the above
discussion is not clear, seek assistance. Under no circumstances should this
capability be used on data which is to be incorporated in a circuit in a standard
circuit theory program other than Sonnet. Many such programs assume S-
parameters normalized to exactly 50 ohms.
For example, the 50 ohm S-parameters of a microstrip step junction look like a
very small shunt capacitance and a very small series inductance. In other words,
the reflection coefficient is almost zero and the transmission coefficient is almost
unity with a couple degrees of phase. If, instead of 50 ohm S-parameters, we were
to use S-parameters normalized to the characteristic impedances of the lines
connecting to each of the two ports (this is common in electromagnetics), the S-
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Em User’s Manual
parameters would look like a transformer between the two impedances. This
causes many circuit theory programs, which are expecting 50 ohm S-parameters,
to give grossly incorrect results.
All ports with the same number, as pictured below, are electrically connected
together. As many physical ports as desired may be given the same numeric label.
Such ports are sometimes called “even-mode” or “push-push” ports and have
many uses, including simulating thick metal or the even-mode response of a
circuit. See Chapter 18, “Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section,” for an
example of using “push-push” ports.
Ports may also have negative numbers as shown in the figure on page 59. This
feature can be used to redefine ground. Strictly speaking, em sums the total current
going into all the positive ports with the same port number and sets that equal to
58
Chapter 5 Ports
the total current going out of all the ports with that same negative port number. For
example, for a circuit with a +1 port and a -1 port, em sets current flowing into
port +1 to be equal to the current flowing out of port -1. Thus, they are sometimes
called “balanced”, “push-pull” or “odd-mode” ports. Coplanar lines can be
represented with balanced ports. See Chapter 17, “Coplanar Waveguide
Discontinuities and Balanced Ports,” for an example of push-pull ports.
EM
An example of push-
pull ports.
59
Em User’s Manual
60
Chapter 6 De-embedding
EM
Chapter 6 De-embedding
The figure on page 62 illustrates the general layout of a circuit to be analyzed with
em. The device under test (DUT), shown as a box in the figure, is the circuitry for
which we wish to obtain analysis results. The DUT is located inside the metal box
and is connected to one or more ports. The ports may be located on box walls, as
in the figure, or in the interior of the metal box (see Chapter 5 for a description of
port types available in em). Typically, transmission lines are necessary to connect
the ports to the DUT.
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Em User’s Manual
62
Chapter 6 De-embedding
metalization. Reference planes have been defined for port 1 and port 2 at the left
and right edges of the filter metalization, respectively. These reference planes
instruct em to remove the effects of the transmission lines up to the filter
metalization when de-embedding is enabled.
EM
Port 1
Transmission
Line
Port 2
Port discontinuities and transmission lines at the upper left and lower right
are removed from the em analysis results by enabling de-embedding.
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Em User’s Manual
The geometry file shown in the figure above, “filter.geo,” is available in the
Sonnet examples directory. You may use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a
copy of this file.
There are two methods for enabling de-embedding in em. The first method is to
set the De-embed option in the job window to “on”. The second method is to
specify an output file with a “.d” file extension in the Output Files dialog box. In
this case, the De-embed checkbox is automatically set to “on”.
64
Chapter 6 De-embedding
EM
De-embedded response file: filter.d
Starting subsectioning...done.
Circuit uses 455 subsections, 2 Mbytes.
Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Waveguide mode calculation time = 0 seconds.
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0. Analyzing entire circuit
Matrix fill time = 1 seconds. (DUT and transmission lines)
Reducing matrix.
Matrix solve time = 0 seconds.
De-embedding ports on left box wall.
First standard, 28 subs, 28.125 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0.
Reducing matrix. De-embedding
Second standard, 53 subs, 56.25 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz. Port 1
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0.
Reducing matrix.
De-embedding ports on right box wall.
First standard, 28 subs, 28.125 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0.
De-embedding
Reducing matrix.
Second standard, 53 subs, 56.25 mils -- Analyzing 10.000000 GHz.
Port 2
Loading matrix, source level 0, field level 0.
Reducing matrix.
Pre-computational time (seconds) -- Subsectioning: 0, Caching: 0
Analysis time per frequency (mm:ss) -- 0:02 user, 0:00 system, 0:02 real
Analysis time per function (seconds) -- Modes: 0, Fill: 1, Solve: 0
De-embedded 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
10.0000000 1.000000 -72.59 0.000641 17.050 0.000641 17.050 1.000000 -73.31
P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4556 0.0000) Z0=(51.78808 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041639
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4762 0.0000) Z0=(51.88224 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041650
Total time for 1 freq (mm:ss) -- 0:02 user, 0:00 system, 0:02 real
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Em User’s Manual
Listed below are some comments concerning the output information shown
above:
• Em begins the analysis by subsectioning the entire circuit contained
inside the metal box. This includes the DUT, port discontinuities
and all transmission lines.
• Em then analyzes the entire structure at the first frequency (10
GHz). S-parameter results for the entire structure are obtained. If
de-embedding had not been enabled, these S-parameters would be
output by em as the non-de-embedded results and the analysis
would be complete.
• After analyzing the entire structure, em de-embeds the port (#1) on
the left box wall. To do this, em creates and analyzes two
calibration standards. The listing shows the number of subsections
(28, 53) and length (28.125 mils, 56.25 mils) for each standard.
• Em then de-embeds the port (#2) on the right box wall in the same
manner.
• In the last block of information, em displays the de-embedded S-
parameter results along with the feed transmission line parameters
(Z0 and Eeff) and calculated discontinuity (R and C) for each de-
embedded port. “P1” and “P2” stand for “port 1” and “port 2”,
respectively. A detailed discussion concerning the port
discontinuities (R and C) is presented in the next section.
66
Chapter 6 De-embedding
Box-Wall Ports
EM
Box-wall ports have one port terminal connected to a polygon inside the metal
box, and the second port terminal connected to ground (see the figure on page 50).
The port discontinuity is modeled as a series resistor, R, and capacitor, C, shunted
to ground as shown below. If the circuit being analyzed is completely lossless, the
resistor value, R, is zero. Even with loss in the circuit, the capacitive reactance is
normally very large compared to the resistance.
S-parameters from em
without de-embedding
Device
Under
Test
R
Box-wall port C
discontinuity
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Em User’s Manual
68
Chapter 6 De-embedding
Ungrounded-Internal Ports
Ungrounded-internal ports do not have access to ground. For these ports, the two
port terminals are connected between abutting polygons. The port discontinuity is
again modeled as a series resistor, R, and capacitor, C, but is now connected
between polygons as shown in .
EM
S-Parameters from
Ungrounded-internal - + em without de-
port discontinuity
embedding
R C
Metallized Metallized
polygon polygon
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Em User’s Manual
S-parameters from em
-R -C without de-embedding
R C
Metallized Metallized
polygon polygon
Ungrounded-internal
port discontinuity
Auto-Grounded Ports
Auto-grounded ports have one port terminal connected to a polygon edge in the
interior of the metal box and the second port terminal connected to the ground
plane. The model for the port discontinuity is shown in the figure on page 71. This
discontinuity includes three components: a resistance, R, a capacitance, C, and an
impedance, Zvia. Zvia is the impedance associated with the via used to construct
70
Chapter 6 De-embedding
the auto-grounded port (see section “Automatic-Grounded Ports,” page 53, for a
description of auto-grounded ports). R and C are the open-end resistance and
capacitance of the polygon to which the auto-grounded port is attached.
Device
Under Test
EM
S-parameters
R from em
Auto-grounded Zvia without de-
port discontinuity
C embedding
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Em User’s Manual
D ev ice
U n d er Test
R -R
A u to -g ro u n d ed Z v ia -Z via
p o rt d isco n tin u ity
C -C
S -p aram eters fro m em
w ith o u t d e-em b ed d in g
72
Chapter 6 De-embedding
NOTE: Reference planes are not necessary for de-embedding. If you do not
EM
specify a reference plane in xgeom for a box-wall or auto-grounded
port, the reference plane length defaults to zero. This means that em
will not shift the reference plane for that port when de-embedding is
enabled. However, em will remove the discontinuity for that port.
Box-Wall Ports
The figure below shows a circuit with a length of transmission line, TRL, inserted
between a box-wall port and the device under test.
Transmission line
Device
TRL Under
S-parameters Test
from em without R
de-embedding C
Box-wall port
discontinuity
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Em User’s Manual
Transmission line
Device
-TRL TRL Under
Test
Block cascaded -R R
to negate port -C
discontinuity C
Box-wall port
discontinuity
The two previous figures illustrated how the reference plane for a single
transmission line attached to a box-wall port is shifted during de-embedding. In
general, there may be multiple transmission lines on a given box wall on one or
more circuit levels. This is illustrated in the next figure. In this situation, em shifts
the reference plane an equal distance for all transmission lines on the given box
wall. All coupling between the transmission lines is accounted for and removed.
74
Chapter 6 De-embedding
NOTE: When shifting a reference plane for coupled lines, em assumes the
following:
a) all coupled lines are either horizontal or vertical
b) the width of each coupled line is constant
c) the spacing between coupled lines is constant.
EM
1
Ports 2
N-coupled
. transmission
. lines
.
Box Wall
De-embedding shifts the reference plane an equal distance for all N-
coupled transmission lines on a given box wall. The coupling between
transmission lines is removed by the de-embedding process.
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Em User’s Manual
Auto-Grounded Ports
Device
Under Test TRL
Transmission line
R
Zvia
S-parameters from em
without de-embedding C
Auto-grounded
port discontinuity
76
Chapter 6 De-embedding
EM
Under Test -TRL
Transmission line
Zvia R -R -Z
S-parameters from em via
without de-embedding C -C
Auto-grounded
port discontinuity
De-embedding Results
The listing below shows the de-embedded results obtained earlier in the chapter
from the analysis of the example filter circuit (see page 63). This example
illustrates the format of the de-embedded data that is written both to your output
window and to the de-embedded results file (“.d” file extension).
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Em User’s Manual
De-embedded 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
10.0000000 1.000000 -75.45 0.000757 14.090 0.000757 14.090 1.000000 -76.37
P1 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4556 0.0000) Z0=(51.78808 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041639
P2 F=10.000 Eeff=(6.4762 0.0000) Z0=(51.88224 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.041650
78
Chapter 6 De-embedding
De-embedded
Code Description
S-Parameters
EM
nd N/A Port was not de-embedded. No data is available.
The “nd” error code indicates that the port cannot be de-embedded. Via ports are
the only port type available in em that cannot be de-embedded. Thus, you will get
this error code only when de-embedding circuits which contain via ports.
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Em User’s Manual
The “mp” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0 because
the circuit has multiple ports on the same side of the box. The reason for this is
that more than one value is required to describe the multiple modes associated
with coupled transmission lines.
The “sl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is too
short. We recommend that the length be at least one substrate thickness. See the
section “Reference Plane Length Minimums,” page 82, for details.
The “nl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is a
multiple of a half wavelength. In this case, em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0,
but the de-embedded S-parameter results are completely valid. See the section
“Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength,” page 84, for
details.
The “mv” code indicates that a single port number is used for multiple ports in the
circuit, and that the Eeff and Z0 values vary for the different ports.
Finally, the “bd” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and/or Z0
for an unknown reason. Low precision and box resonances in the calibration
standards are sources of error that occasionally lead to the “bd” code.
80
Chapter 7 De-embedding Guidelines
EM
Chapter 7 De-embedding
Guidelines
The previous chapter describes the basics of de-embedding: what it is, how it is
enabled, and what it does when enabled. This chapter presents guidelines for
obtaining good de-embedded results.
However, there are some basic guidelines concerning reference planes that should
almost always be followed. These guidelines are discussed below.
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Em User’s Manual
De-embedding does not require reference planes. Reference planes are optional
for all box-wall and auto-grounded ports. If you do not specify a reference plane
for a particular port in xgeom, em will assume a zero-length reference plane for
that port. This means that de-embedding will remove the discontinuity associated
with that particular port, but will not shift the reference plane for it.
As discussed in the next section, em may generate bad de-embedded results if you
attempt to remove a very short (but greater than zero) reference plane length.
However, if you de-embed without a reference plane, em will not attempt to
remove any length of transmission line at all. As a result, de-embedding without
a reference plane does not lead to any error. Therefore, we recommend that you
de-embed without reference planes rather than specify very short, non-zero,
reference plane lengths.
The only explicit restriction on the minimum reference plane length that you may
specify is that the reference plane must be at least three cell lengths long. If the
reference plane is less than three cell lengths long, em displays an error message
and stops. Otherwise, em performs the analysis with whatever reference plane
length you have specified.
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Chapter 7 De-embedding Guidelines
If, however, the reference plane is very short relative to the substrate thickness or
the width of the transmission line, em may generate poor de-embedded results.
This is due to one or both of the following reasons which are illustrated below
EM
First calibration standard is
too short. Port #1 interacts
with port #2.
1 DUT 1 2
Poor de-embedding results may be obtained when very short (but non-
zero) reference plane lengths are used.
• The port is too close to the device under test (DUT). There are fringing
fields associated with the port and separate fringing fields associated with the
DUT. If the port and DUT are too close, the fringing fields interact. The de-
embedding algorithm (which is virtually identical to algorithms used in de-
embedding measured data) is based on circuit theory and cannot handle fring-
ing field interaction. See [56] for a detailed description of the problem.
• The first calibration standard is too short. In this situation, the discontinu-
ity associated with port #1 interacts with the discontinuity associated with
port #2. As a result, the first calibration standard does not “behave” like a
transmission line and its S-parameters are invalid.
There is no precise rule as to how long a reference plane must be made in order to
prevent the above effects from corrupting the de-embedded results. The required
reference plane length is dependent upon the circuit geometry and the nature of
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Em User’s Manual
the analysis. However, we recommend that you use reference plane lengths equal
to or greater than one substrate thickness. This is sufficient for most types of
analysis.
At some point as the length of the reference plane approaches a multiple of a half-
wavelength, em is able to determine that the calculated values of Eeff and Z0 are
becoming corrupt. When this occurs, em outputs the error message “undefined:
nl” in place of the Eeff and Z0 values (see the section “De-embedding Error
Codes,” page 78). Note, however, that while em is unable to determine Eeff and
Z0, the de-embedded S-parameter results are still perfectly valid.
If the length of the reference plane is more than one wavelength, incorrect Eeff
results might be seen. However, the S-parameters are still completely valid.
Em’s calculation of Eeff is based on phase length. If the reference plane is, say,
365 degrees long, em first calculates Eeff based on a phase length of 5 degrees.
However, em has some “smarts” built in. If a non-physical result is seen, em
increases the calculated phase length by 360 degrees at a time until physical (i.e.,
Eeff Š 1.0) results are obtained. This usually corrects the problem.
Thus, it takes a particularly long reference plane before the Eeff calculation fails.
When it does fail, it suddenly jumps down to a value just above 1.0. Z0 and the de-
embedded S-parameter data still have full validity. This failure mode is rarely
seen.
84
Chapter 7 De-embedding Guidelines
Non-Physical S-Parameters
Generally, reference planes should not be set in xgeom such that they extend
beyond a discontinuity in the circuit. Doing so may result in non-physical S-
parameters.
To illustrate this problem, consider the circuit shown below. In this circuit, the
EM
reference planes do not extend beyond any discontinuities. When de-embedding
is enabled, the port #1 discontinuity is removed along with a transmission line of
width W1 and length L1. Similarly, the port #2 discontinuity is removed along
with a transmission line of width W2 and length L2. The de-embedded result is a
set of 2-port S-parameters for the block in the middle of the circuit.
L1
L2
W1 W2
Now, consider the figure on page 86. This circuit is identical to the circuit shown
above except that the length of the reference plane originating on the left box wall
has been increased. If em is run with de-embedding enabled on this circuit, it
“removes” a length of transmission line equal to the specified reference plane
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Em User’s Manual
length. This occurs even though the actual port transmission line is shorter than
the reference plane length. As a result, the de-embedded S-parameters are non-
physical.
Aragorn
Discontinuity
begins here
L2
W1 W2
L1
86
Chapter 7 De-embedding Guidelines
EM
W1
L2
W2 W4
W3
Box Resonances
Because em’s de-embedding algorithm is based on circuit theory, it is unable to
de-embed a structure contained inside a resonant cavity; a limit it shares with all
de-embedding algorithms. Thus, whenever you wish to de-embed a circuit with
box resonances, you must take the necessary steps to remove those box
resonances. (See Chapter 19 for a detailed description on identifying and
removing box resonances.) Note that if you do de-embed a circuit with box
resonances, em may generate a “bd” de-embedding error code: see section “De-
embedding Error Codes,” page 78. This error code indicates that em has detected
bad values for Eeff and Z0.
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Em User’s Manual
Even when higher order microstrip modes are evanescent, there can still be
problems. If the port is so close to the discontinuity of interest that their fringing
(evanescent) fields interact, the de-embedding looses validity. Again, this is a
problem which also arises in an actual physical measurement if the device to be
de-embedded is too close to the fixture connector.
88
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
EM
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
The em network file provides you with a powerful circuit analysis tool. Examples
of ways in which the circuit network capability may be used include:
• Cascading S-, Y- and Z- parameter data files. You can read and combine
multiple sets of S-, Y- and Z-parameter data files, including results from pre-
vious em runs. This is particularly useful when analyzing large, complex cir-
cuits which require subdivision for an em analysis. When analyzing a
network file, em will automatically interpolate between frequencies if there
are differences between the data files.
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Em User’s Manual
rapidly and are spaced farther apart in regions where the circuit response is
essentially constant. Em may also be set up to automatically find the frequen-
cies where the minimum and maximum responses of a circuit occur.
Note that the above sequence of steps is generalized for analyses which include
both electromagnetic and circuit analysis. In cases where the overall analysis is
restricted to either electromagnetic analysis or circuit analysis, some of the steps
are omitted.
90
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
EM
N ode 1 N ode 2 N ode 3
S -param eter S -param eter
1 file “res16.d” file “res16.d” 2
91
Em User’s Manual
Resistive Material
Transmission Lines
92
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
! **************************************************
!< FTYP RSP
!< PROG EM 6.0, id leslie1b.2986, on PC/DOS 95050501.
!< CMD em -dv -rres16.d res16.geo -- Sat Mar 27 12:24:46 1999
!< CKDATE Wed Mar 1 11:00:11 1996 ! Last time res16.geo was updated.
! Maximum subsection size is lambda/20 at 400 MHz. Estimated Eeff = 5.4.
! All dimensions are in mils.
! A = 200.000000(16), B = 200.000000(16), C = 275.000000, with 2 layers.
EM
! Lay H( mils) Erel Etan(d) Esigma Murel Mtan(d) Nz Subs
! 0 250.0000 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 1 17
! 1 25.00000 9.800000 0.000000 0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 1 0
! Estimated Memory: 1 Mbytes Subsection Total: 17
! Ports: 2 Box-Wall
! Circuit has loss.
! Loss parameters of metals used in circuit:
! Thin Film -- Rdc: 16.77 Rrf: 0 Xdc: 0 Ls: 0
! Circuit and excitation are symmetric about X axis.
! De-embedded 50 Ohm S-Params. Mag/Ang. Touchstone Format (S11 S21 S12 S22):
! Comments following s-parameters give port data with following syntax:
! P# F=x MHz Eeff=(x+jy) Z0=(x+jy) Ohms R=x Ohms C=x pF
! All box-wall reference planes are zero length.
# MHZ S MA R 50
! Pre-computational time (seconds) -- Subsectioning: 0, Caching: 0
! Analysis time per frequency (mm:ss) -- 0:00 user, 0:00 system, 0:00 real
! Analysis time per function (seconds) -- Modes: 0, Fill: 0, Solve: 0
!
200.000000 0.143614 -2.626 0.856388 -3.076 0.856388 -3.076 0.143614 -2.626
!< P1 F=200.00 Eeff=(6.3966 0.0000) Z0=(51.23505 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094942
!< P2 F=200.00 Eeff=(6.3966 0.0000) Z0=(51.23505 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094942
!
300.000000 0.143613 -3.939 0.856393 -4.614 0.856393 -4.614 0.143613 -3.939
!< P1 F=300.00 Eeff=(6.3968 0.0000) Z0=(51.23438 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094938
!< P2 F=300.00 Eeff=(6.3968 0.0000) Z0=(51.23438 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094938
!
400.000000 0.143611 -5.254 0.856400 -6.152 0.856400 -6.152 0.143611 -5.254
!< P1 F=400.00 Eeff=(6.3970 0.0000) Z0=(51.23348 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094934
!< P2 F=400.00 Eeff=(6.3970 0.0000) Z0=(51.23348 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.094934
! Total time for 3 freqs (mm:ss) -- 0:01 user, 0:00 system, 0:01 real
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Em User’s Manual
! File: cascade.net
! Date: March 27, 1999
! Cascade two s-parameter files.
DIM
FREQ MHZ ! Use MHZ freq units
CKT
S2P 1 2 res16.d ! Input resistor net
S2P 2 3 res16.d ! Input resistor net
DEF2P 1 3 RESNET ! Overall network
FILEOUT
RESNET Touch cascade.d S MA R 50 ! Define output data
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0 ! 200 - 400 MHZ
The network file “cascade.net” cascades S-parameter data files. Em reads S-parameter
data from the input file “res16.d”, and writes the resulting S-parameter data to the output
file “cascade.rsp”.
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a copy of the network file,
“cascade.net”. Presented below is a brief explanation of the above network file.
For a detailed description of the network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network
File.”
• The first line in the above, “!< FTYP NET”, is the header line. This
is a required line which identifies the file as an em network file.
• Following the header line in is a block of comment lines. All
comments begin with an exclamation point (!). Note that the
94
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
exclamation point does not need to be in the first column of the file.
Everything following an exclamation point on a given line is
considered a comment. There are no restrictions on the number or
location of comment lines which may be placed in an em network
file.
• The DIM data block defines units for circuit parameters specified
later in the network file. In our example, the frequency units are
EM
defined as MHZ.
• The CKT data block defines the network(s) to be analyzed. In the
above example, a two-port element, S2P, is placed between nodes 1
and 2 with S-parameters from input file “res16.d”. A second 2-port
element, S2P, is placed between nodes 2 and 3 with S-parameters
from the same file, “res16.d”. Finally, a 2-port network,
“RESNET”, is defined between nodes 1 and 3.
• The FILEOUT data block specifies the desired output results. In
this example, this block specifies that results for the network
“RESNET” should be stored using Touchstone (Touch) format in
the output file “cascade.rsp”. The final four fields, “S MA R 50,”
specify S-parameters, magnitude-angle format and a real
normalizing impedance of 50 ohms for all ports.
• The FREQ data block specifies the analysis frequencies. In this
case, the frequency is swept from 200 MHZ to 400 MHZ in steps of
100 MHZ. Note that the MHZ unit comes from the DIM block.
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Em User’s Manual
2 Click on the Network radio button in the File Type section of the job
window. The appearance of the job window will be updated and appear
as shown below.
3 Check that the default directory is correct. If not, use the Browse button
to select the correct directory and the file, “cascade.net” or edit the Start
In text entry box to enter the correct directory.
4 Enter “cascade.net” in the Network File text entry box.
5 The Internal Sweep radio button is already selected under the Frequency
Control section.
6 Click on the Run command button to execute the em analysis.
The listing on page 97 shows the resulting S-parameters stored in the output file
“cascade.d”.
96
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
EM
200.000000 0.250782 -5.307 0.748778 -6.262 0.748778 -6.262 0.250782 -5.307
300.000000 0.250310 -7.959 0.748702 -9.393 0.748702 -9.393 0.250310 -7.959
400.000000 0.249650 -10.61 0.748596 -12.52 0.748596 -12.52 0.249650 -10.61
The output file “cascade.d” is generated when the network file “cascade.net” is
analyzed with em.
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Em User’s Manual
geometry file
“res67.geo”
98
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
EM
Transmission
Line
67 ohm
Thin-Film
Resistor
Transmission
Line
The network file shown on page 100 will be input to em. Since this file is similar
to the network file described on page 94, we will only highlight the differences
between the two files here.
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Em User’s Manual
! File: combine.net
! Date: July 1, 1996
! Perform combined electromagnetic and circuit analysis.
DIM
FREQ MHZ
CKT
S2P 1 2 res16.d
S2P 2 3 res16.d
GEO 2 0 res67.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
DEF2P 1 3 ATTEN
FILEOUT
ATTEN Touch combine.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0
The primary distinction between the network file shown above and the file on
page 94 is that this file contains an instruction to perform a geometry file analysis.
The GEO keyword in the CKT data block instructs em to use the geometry file
“res67.geo” and command options “vd” to run an electromagnetic analysis. The
CTL keyword at the end of the GEO line specifies how em acquires the analysis
frequencies. CTL can be set equal to an external file, i.e., CTL=ctl.an, or it can be
set equal to the word “internal” as it is in the above example. When it is set to
“internal”, em automatically creates a temporary analysis control file using the
frequencies specified in the FREQ data block.
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Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
After first performing the electromagnetic analysis on the geometry file, em then
performs all required circuit analysis before outputting the requested results.
TIP
Before executing a GEO statement, em checks for the existence of data at the
specified control frequencies. If the data already exists, and the geometry file has
EM
not changed since the data was generated, em does not execute an electromagnetic
analysis, but uses the available data.
To obtain copies of the geometry file, “res67.geo”, and the network file,
“combine.net”, use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
In addition, if you wish to perform the analysis and you do not have file “res16.d”
available, you can obtain it also by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
The listing on page 102 shows the output file “combine.rsp”. This file contains the
overall set of S-parameters for the T-attenuator.
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Em User’s Manual
The output file “combine.rsp” is generated when input file “combine.net” is analyzed
with em. This file contains the overall set of S-parameters for the T-attenuator.
NOTE: When the above example is run, em generates two output files; one
has a “.d” extension and the other has a “.pd” extension. The file with
the “.d” extension is the standard em de-embedded results file. The
file with the “.pd” extension is a high precision data file used by the
circuit network capability. See section “High Precision em Output
Files,” page 148 for details.
102
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
EM
See “Using Ungrounded-Internal Ports,” page 107, for details.
16.77 Ω 16.77 Ω
1 2
103
Em User’s Manual
104
Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
Below is the network file that will be used for this example.
!< FTYP NET
! File: lumped.net
! Date: Sept 1, 1996
! Analyze T attenuator using lumped elements.
DIM
EM
FREQ MHZ
RES OH
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 lumped.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
RES 3 4 R=16.77
RES 5 6 R=16.77
RES 7 8 R=67.11
DEF2P 1 2 ATTEN
FILEOUT
ATTEN Touch lumped.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0
The network file “lumped.net” is used to insert the three T-attenuator resistors as
lumped elements.
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Em User’s Manual
The listing below is the output file “lumped.rsp”. Note that these results are
similar to the results given in for distributed elements.
The output file “lumped.rsp” shows the resulting S-parameters obtained when the T
attenuator circuit is analyzed using lumped elements.
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Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
In the example presented above, a pair of auto-grounded ports was placed at each
location in the em circuit layout where a lumped element would eventually be
inserted (see ). It is also possible to perform the same analysis using ungrounded-
internal ports, because each resistor in this example is a series lumped element
without access to ground (see ). Any time access to ground is not required for a
EM
lumped element, you can replace the pair of auto-grounded ports with a single
ungrounded-internal port.
The figure below shows a geometry file for the T attenuator with ungrounded-
internal ports at each lumped element location. Note that the gaps between
polygons at these locations have been removed. This is because you must attach
ungrounded-internal ports between two abutted polygons. This slightly impacts
the overall performance of the attenuator.
Z3
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Em User’s Manual
The network file shown on page 109 connects the desired resistors across the
ungrounded-internal ports of the network shown on page 107. Since ungrounded-
internal ports do not have access to ground, only a single node is specified when
connecting an element across them. See the RES statements in the CKT data
block.
! WARNING
Ungrounded-internal ports have one terminal connected to an edge
of a polygon and the second terminal connected to an abutted edge
of a second polygon. Ungrounded-internal ports do not have access
to ground. Therefore, only 1-port elements or 1-port networks may be
connected across ungrounded-internal ports.
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Chapter 8 Network File Analysis
! File: lumped2.net
! Date: Sept 1, 1996
! Analyze T-attenuator using ungrounded-internal ports.
DIM
EM
FREQ MHZ
RES OH
VAR
Z3 = 16.77
Z4 = 16.77
Z5 = 67.11
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 5 lumped2.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
RES 3 R^Z3
RES 4 R^Z4
RES 5 R^Z5
DEF2P 1 2 ATTEN
FILEOUT
ATTEN TOUCH lumped2.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
SWEEP 200.0 400.0 100.0
The network file “lumped2.net” connects the three T attenuator resistors across the
corresponding ungrounded-internal ports.
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain copies of the geometry file,
“lumped2.geo”, and the network file, “lumped2.net”.
To initiate the analysis once the input files are in place, do the following:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar to open the em program
window with a new job file.
2 Then click on the Network radio button in the File Type section of the
job window.
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3 Check that the default directory is correct. If not, use the Browse button
or edit the Start In text entry box to enter the correct directory.
4 Enter “lumped2.net” in the Network File text entry box.
5 The Internal Sweep radio button is already selected under the Frequency
Control section.
6 Click on the Run command button to execute the em analysis.
The listing below shows the S-parameter results obtained from the analysis with
ungrounded-internal ports. These results are very similar, but not identical, to the
results in for auto-grounded ports. The differences are primarily due to the change
in the gap size between polygons at the points where lumped elements are
inserted.
The output file “lumped2.rsp” contains the S-parameter results for the T attenuator
analyzed with lumped elements and ungrounded-internal ports.
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
EM
Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A
Filter Example
This chapter will provide an in-depth example of a filter in which a network file
analysis is used to make the circuit more manageable for your processing
resources. The circuit is a seven-section edge-coupled microstrip bandpass filter
(courtesy of Kaman Sciences, Inc.).
The filter as a whole presents a difficult analysis problem in that it could require
more memory than is available and/or excessive CPU usage; therefore, the circuit
will be broken down into smaller pieces for electromagnetic analysis.
For this entire structure, the response changes rapidly with respect to frequency.
This is not true, however, for the response of certain sections of the circuit. These
sections will become the subdivisions used to analyze the structure.
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Subdividing not only reduces the size of circuit to be analyzed, but allows us to
take advantage of the interpolation feature of a network analysis. Interpolation
requires fewer frequencies to be analyzed while providing the same level of
accuracy; therefore, analyses of the subdivisions are performed at a limited
number of frequencies.
Then a network file is used to connect the response data of the subdivisions to
simulate the full filter. Interpolation is automatically performed between
frequencies in the data files. This provides accurate response data for the filter at
a larger number of frequencies using fewer resources than would be required if the
circuit was approached as a whole.
Example Files
All of the files associated with this example are contained in one directory and
may be obtained using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples. To copy all the files using only
one command, type the following in the Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples Command text
entry box when it appears:
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
copyex bpfilter
This will copy a folder which contains all the example files related to this
example.
The filter to be analyzed is shown below, and is available in the file “bpf_w.geo.”
EM
The filter circuit, “bpf_w.geo,” with an aspect ratio of 1:4. The dashed
line shows the first place to split the circuit.
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Notice that the filter is symmetrical; therefore the first split should be to divide the
circuit in half and connect the halves after analysis.
! WARNING
This circuit is symmetrical about the y-axis and not the x-axis, nor do
the ports lie on the plane of symmetry; therefore, it would be
incorrect to set the Symmetry checkbox in the Box Parameters dialog
box.
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
Half of the filter still presents a difficult analysis problem; therefore, the circuit
will be broken down even further into eight geometry files. This breakdown is
shown below.
bpf_p5.geo
EM
bpf_p8.geo
bpf_p1.geo bpf_p2.geo bpf_p2.geo bpf_p3.geo
bpf_p6.geo bpf_p6.geo
Half of the filter circuit divided into eight separate “.geo” files.
Note that the breaks in the circuit are made where coupling is not a significant
factor. Places on the circuit where a high degree of coupling is present are kept
within an individual geometry file so that the coupling may be accurately
accounted for.
You may notice that some of the geometry files, for example, “bpf_p2.geo,” are
used twice instead of one file with a circuit that is twice the length. The division
was placed to optimize interpolation results. In order to prevent interpolation from
skewing the results each piece must be non-resonant and its length under λ/2. Each
circuit is 1/4 wavelength long in keeping with this stricture.
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You should insert ports in the individual files to connect them to the pieces on
either side. The figure below shows the first two individual files which make up
the filter as shown on page 113. These files, along with the other individual
geometry files, are available in the “bpfilter” directory that you copied at the
beginning of this chapter.
bpf_p1.geo bpf_p2.geo
TIP
Cell size may vary from geometry file to geometry file as long as the physical
dimensions of the circuit are preserved. Therefore, choose a cell size for each
circuit piece which provides the most efficient analysis without sacrificing
accuracy.
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
EM
In this case, each of the individual geometry files were analyzed at five
frequencies: 4.0, 7.75, 11.5, 15.25 and 19.0 GHz. The individual files are analyzed
at the same first and last frequency as the overall analysis and at enough points in
between to provide for reasonable interpolation of data at frequencies which fall
between these values.
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The Smith charts for file “bpf_p2.d” and a subset of only two frequencies. Em analyses
need to be performed at enough frequencies to allow accurate interpolation of data.
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
DIM
FREQ GHZ
EM
VAR The network file,
“bpfilter.net.”
CKT
S3P 1 2 3 bpf_p1.d !Insert data file bpf_p1.d
S4P 2 3 4 5 bpf_p2.d !Insert data file bpf_p2.d
S4P 4 5 6 7 bpf_p2.d !Insert data file bpf_p2.d
S4P 6 7 8 9 bpf_p3.d !Insert data file bpf_p3.d
S4P 8 9 10 11 bpf_p4.d !Insert data file bpf_p4.d
S4P 10 11 12 13 bpf_p4.d !Insert data file bpf_p4.d
S4P 12 13 14 15 bpf_p5.d !Insert data file bpf_p5.d
S4P 14 15 16 17 bpf_p6.d !Insert data file bpf_p6.d
S4P 16 17 18 19 bpf_p6.d !Insert data file bpf_p6.d
S4P 18 19 20 21 bpf_p7.d !Insert data file bpf_p7.d
S4P 20 21 22 23 bpf_p8.d !Insert data file bpf_p8.d
DEF3P 1 22 23 HALF !Define network HALF
FILEOUT
FILTER TOUCH bpf_p.rsp S DB R 50 !Define output filter as “bpf_p.rsp”
FREQ
SWEEP 4.0 19.0 0.05 !Analyze FILTER from 4.0 GHZ to 19.0 GHZ in 0.05 GHZ step
The listing for the network file, “bpf_p.net”, used for this example.
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The nodal network HALF is illustrated below. The network HALF is equivalent
to half the filter in “bpf_w.geo.” The network file then connects the two HALF
circuits, in the network FILTER, substituting the response data in place of the
circuit.
bpf_p1.d 2 bpf_p2.d 20
1
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
… 1
2
bpf_p7.d
3
4
1
2
bpf_p8.d
3
4
22
3 21 23
Once half the filter is defined, the two halves are connected to make a whole
circuit equivalent to that found in “bpf_w.geo.” Note that the circuit HALF on the
right in the figure below is reversed in both the vertical and horizontal directions.
2 22 3
1 1 HALF HALF 1 2
3 2
23
Graphical representation of the nodal network, FILTER, as defined in bpf_p.net.
Em is then instructed to run an analysis of the whole structure, from 4.0 GHz to
19.0 GHz in 0.05 GHz steps, placing the output in the file “bpf_p.rsp.”
The “.d” data files contain results of analyses at a subset of the frequencies just
cited above. The network file analysis includes interpolation at frequencies for
which data does not exist.
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
Full Filter
EM
Time &
Memory
Piecewise
Analysis
Number of Subsections
In this instance, 301 frequency points were required. The need to analyze even
more frequency points would increase the efficiency of using this method.
Conversely, you would derive less benefit from this method if less frequency
points were needed.
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The emgraph plot shown below depicts the measured response data,
“bpf_meas.rsp,” of the bandpass filter circuit as compared to the geometry file
analysis of the whole filter, “bpf_w.d,” and the network file analysis of the
subdivided circuit, “bpf_p.rsp.”
Alternate Approach
In the example in this chapter, the analysis of the individual files was performed
separate from the network file analysis. Using the GEO command in the CKT
block of the network file, it is possible to perform the electromagnetic analysis as
part of the circuit analysis. An example of a network file, “bpf_g.net” using this
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Chapter 9 Circuit Subdivision - A Filter Example
method is shown below. The analysis control file, “bpf_g.an” is available in the
“bpfilter” directory. Each of the circuits is analyzed from 4.0 GHz to 19.0 GHz in
steps of 3.75 GHz.
DIM
FREQ GHZ
EM
VAR
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 bpf_p1.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p1.geo
GEO 2 3 4 5 bpf_p2.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p2.geo
GEO 4 5 6 7 bpf_p2.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p2.geo
GEO 6 7 8 9 bpf_p3.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p3.geo
GEO 8 9 10 11 bpf_p4.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p4.geo
GEO 10 11 12 13 bpf_p4.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p4.geo
GEO 12 13 14 15 bpf_p5.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p5.geo
GEO 14 15 16 17 bpf_p6.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p6.geo
GEO 16 17 18 19 bpf_p6.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p6.geo
GEO 18 19 20 21 bpf_p7.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p7.geo
GEO 20 21 22 23 bpf_p8.geo OPT=vmd CTL=bpf_g.an !Analyze bpf_p8.geo
DEF3P 1 22 23 HALF !Define network HALF
FILEOUT
FILTER TOUCH bpf_g.rsp S DB R 50!Save output in bpf_g.rsp
FREQ
SWEEP 4.0 19.0 0.05!Set up control frequencies for analysis
The network file, “bpf_g.net” which shows an example of performing geometry file
analysis within a network file analysis.
The results using this method are identical to those obtained earlier in the chapter.
The only real change is a reduction in the amount of user intervention required.
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Note that an external analysis control file, analyzing at less frequencies than the
network file, was used in the GEO statements to take advantage of the
interpolation ability of the network analysis.
Before executing a GEO statement, em checks for the existence of data at the
specified control frequencies. If the data already exists, and the geometry file has
not changed since the data was generated, em does not execute an electromagnetic
analysis, but uses the available data.
This check saves having to run all eleven analyses over, when only one of the
geometry files has been changed.
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Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency Selection
EM
Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency
Selection
The frequency response of many circuits varies slowly in some frequency regions
and rapidly in others. For efficiency reasons, it is often desirable to analyze such
circuits with coarse frequency resolution in the slowly varying regions and fine
frequency resolution in the rapidly varying regions. Typically, however, you do
not know where the slowly and rapidly varying regions lie before the analysis is
performed. This makes it necessary to either analyze over the entire frequency
band with the fine resolution or to manually adjust the frequencies as the analysis
is being performed.
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Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency Selection
will be inserted.
EM
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain the geometry file shown above,
“amp.geo”.
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Listed below is the network file for this example. It is the AUTO keyword in the
FREQ data block that enables the intelligent frequency selection feature.
Specifically, the AUTO line in the listing below tells em to analyze nodal network
“amp” at 20 frequency points between 2.0 GHz and 20.0 GHz, with a precision of
0.010 GHz. The precision value specifies the finest frequency resolution allowed
for the analysis. Thus, for this example, all frequency points chosen by em will be
spaced by at least 0.010 GHz.
!< FTYP NET
! File: amp.net
! Date: Jan 1, 1997
! Amplifier example.
DIM
FREQ GHZ
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 amp.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
S2P 3 4 amp_dev.s2p
DEF2P 1 2 amp
FILEOUT
amp TOUCH amp.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
AUTO NET=amp N=20 2.0 20.0 0.010
! WARNING
The smaller the frequency “precision”, the longer the required
computation time. Be careful when you choose the precision value
for a particular analysis.
You may use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a copy of the network file,
“amp.net”, along with the transistor S-parameter input file, “amp_dev.s2p”.
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Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency Selection
Then click on the Run button or press the Return key to copy the two files to the
default directory.
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar to open the em program
window with a new job file.
2 Then click on the Network radio button in the File Type section of the
job window.
EM
3 Enter “amp.net” in the Network File text entry box.
4 The Internal Sweep radio button is already selected under the Frequency
Control section.
5 Click on the Run command button to execute the em analysis.
Note that this analysis may take a few minutes to complete. If you do not wish to
wait for the analysis to complete, you can obtain the output response file,
“amp.rsp” by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
The figure on page 130 shows the frequency response of |S11| and |S21| obtained
from the analysis. Notice that the frequency points are not evenly spaced. The
points are more concentrated near “corners” of the response and less concentrated
along “straight edges” of the response. Emgraph may be invoked from em by
clicking on the Open Graph button in the Output window or by selecting View ⇒
Open Graph from the main menu.
TIP
If you wish to use the intelligent frequency selection features of em for a geometry
file analysis, you may use the IFS command button in the Control Analysis dialog
box when editing a Complex Sweep or an Analysis Control File.
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Chapter 10 Intelligent Frequency Selection
The figure below shows a network file that will accomplish the task described
above. Here, the FINDMAX keyword has been specified in the FREQ data block.
This statement instructs em to determine the frequency of maximum |S21| for
network “AMP”, between 16.0 and 20.0 GHz, with a precision of 0.0010 GHz.
The precision value specifies the finest frequency resolution allowed for the
analysis. Thus, in this example, all frequency points chosen by em while searching
for maximum |S21| will be spaced by at least 0.0010 GHz.
EM
!< FTYP NET
! File: findmax.net
! Date: Sept 1, 1996
! Determine frequency of maximum circuit response.
DIM
FREQ GHZ
CKT
GEO 1 2 3 4 amp.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal
S2P 3 4 amp_dev.s2p
DEF2P 1 2 AMP
FILEOUT
AMP Touch findmax.rsp S MA R 50
FREQ
FINDMAX NET=AMP S2_1 16.0 20.0 0.0010
You can use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain a copy of the network file shown
above, “findmax.net”.
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Shown below is the sorted response file “findmax.rsp”. The maximum value of
|S21| is 2.128671 at 17.847 GHz.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
EM
Chapter 11 The em Network File
The em network file consists of several data blocks. These data blocks define the
circuit to be analyzed, designate how em should perform the analysis and
determine what types of output the analysis is to produce. It is not necessary to
create an em network file when the overall analysis is restricted to a geometry file.
In that case, you only need the geometry file, “.geo.” However, when circuit
analysis is to be performed, you must specify an em network file in the job
window.
Below you will find a detailed description of the em network file. This section is
primarily intended to serve as a reference. Thus, you may wish to skim it initially
and return later for specific details.
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DIM
[Define units used to specify circuit parameters]
VAR
[Define variables for use in CKT block]
CKT
[Define circuit to be analyzed]
Data
Blocks
FILEOUT
[Define output data files]
FREQ
[Define analysis frequencies]
OUT
[Define tabular output]
This is the general format of the em network file. This file consists of a header, optional
comment lines and several data blocks which provide the information to perform the analysis.
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Header Line
All network files must begin with the header line shown in , “!<FTYP NET”. This
line identifies the file as an em network file. If the header line is not present in a
network file, em will issue a warning message and then attempt to continue
processing.
EM
Comments
TIP
The string “!< ” (exclamation point - “less than” sign - space) is a special anti-
comment symbol recognized by em. When em detects a line beginning with this
string, it interprets the line as an uncommented line. For example, em would
interpret the line “!< input data” as “input data”. This anti-comment symbol may
be useful if you read em network files with other netlist programs.
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Data Blocks
Data blocks are sections in the em network file which specify particular types of
analysis information. Each data block begins with a special keyword to indicate
the type of information that it contains. Following the keyword are appropriate
parameter values for that section. Table 4 lists the data blocks which may be
included in em network files.
Table 4 shows the required order for the data blocks if they are present in the
network file. The only data block required to be present is the CKT block. All
other data blocks are optional.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
EM
parameter2 unit2
. .
. .
. .
parameterN unitN
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
...
The DIM data block is used to override the default units for em.
parameter
The parameter field designates a circuit parameter which can be specified in
various units. For example, frequency is a circuit parameter which can be
specified in HZ, KHZ, MHZ, GHZ, THZ, or PHZ. See Table 5 for a list of the
circuit parameters which can be specified in the DIM data block.
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unit
The unit field designates the particular unit which is used to specify a circuit
parameter. For example, HZ is a particular unit which can be used to specify the
frequency parameter. See Table 5 for a list of the units which can be specified in
the DIM data block.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
The parameters given in Table 5 may be included in a DIM block using any
combination and order. If more than one unit is specified for a given parameter,
em will use the final unit specified for that parameter.
Example
EM
The listing below shows an example of how the DIM data block may be used in
an em network file.
DIM ! DIM keyword indicates start of block
FREQ MHZ ! Frequency in megahertz
IND PH ! Inductance in picohenries
CAP PF ! Capacitance in picofarads
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VAR
name1 = value1
name2 = value2
. .
. .
. .
nameN = valueN
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
...
name
The name field specifies the alphanumeric name of the variable being defined.
value
The value field specifies the number which will be substituted for name
everywhere name is referenced in the CKT data block.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
Variables that have been defined in the VAR data block may be referenced in the
CKT data block by using a “^” symbol as follows:
parameter^name
EM
When em detects a “^” symbol in the CKT block, it will set parameter equal to the
value which corresponds to name. As an example, consider the VAR and CKT
data blocks listed below. In this example, em sets the Z-parameter equal to 50.0,
the E-parameter equal to 90.0, and the F-parameter equal to 1.0.
VAR
char_impedance = 50.0
electrical_length = 90.0
reference_freq = 1.0
CKT
TLIN 1 2 Z^char_impedance E^electrical_length F^reference_freq
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DIM
...
VAR
...
CKT
element1 nodes parameters
element2 nodes parameters
element3 nodes parameters
aa. . aaa.
aa. . aaa.
aa. . aaa.
elementN nodes parameters
defNp nodes netname1
[filename1]
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
element
The element field specifies a type of circuit element. Table 6 lists the circuit
elements which may be included in the CKT data block.
EM
Element Nodes Parameters Description
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
nodes
The nodes field specifies reference points to which circuit elements are connected.
Any positive integer value may be used. Node 0 is reserved for ground. Bracketed
nodes ([n]) are optional. If a bracketed node is not specified, it defaults to 0
(ground). For example, if you specify “RES 1 R=50.0”, a 50 ohm resistor is
connected between node 1 and ground. Conversely, if you specify “RES 1 2
EM
R=50.0”, a 50 ohm resistor is connected between node 1 and node 2. At each
location in the CKT block where a defNp statement is used, the node numbers are
reset.
parameters
The parameters field specifies the required parameter values for a given element.
The parameters must be specified in the order given by Table 6.
defNp
The defNp field defines a nodal network of one or more elements in the CKT
block. The “n” in defNp is equal to the number of ports in the network (all of
which are referenced to node 0). The nodes listed after defNp become ports in
ascending order. Networks may be included as elements in subsequently defined
networks.
netname
The netname field assigns names to nodal networks defined with defNp. All
assigned names must be unique; only alphanumeric characters are allowed; and
the first character cannot be a number.
filename
The filename field specifies the alphanumeric name of an output file in which 50
ohm S-parameter results will be stored. This field is optional. Note that an output
file can also be specified with the FILEOUT data block.
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You may include the string “$BASE” in filename. Upon detecting this string, em
substitutes the network file name, minus the “.net” extension, for “$BASE”. For
example, if the network file is named “filter.net”, and you specify
“$BASE_new.rsp” for file name, em will create an output file named
“filter_new.rsp”.
Example
The listing below shows how the CKT data block may be used in an em network
file.
CKT
S2P 1 2 filter.nd ! Read data in filter.nd
RES 2 3 R=100.0 ! Insert 100 ohm resistor
GEO 2 0 via.geo OPT=vd CTL=internal ! Analyze via.geo with em
GEO 3 4 feed.geo CTL=feed.an ! Use control file feed.an
DEF2P 1 4 Net1 $BASE_Net1.rsp! Define network Net1
Input data files may contain more than one “data set”. A “data set” consists of a
Touchstone or Super-Compact header line, and a block of S-, Y- or Z-parameter
data. The S-, Y- or Z-parameter block may contain one or more frequency points.
The figure on page 147 shows the general format of an input data file with three
data sets. Note that in addition to the header lines and parameter blocks, the figure
also has three DATA_TAG lines. DATA_TAG lines are optional lines which you
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
can insert into an input file to distinguish one data set from another. In the example
below, the first set has the tag “transistor,” the second set has the tag “feedline”
and the third set also has the tag “transistor.”
!< DATA_TAG transistor
[Touchstone or Super-Compact header line]
[S, Y or Z parameter block]
EM
[Touchstone or Super-Compact header line]
[S, Y or Z parameter block]
Input data files may contain more than one data set. To distinguish one data set
from another, optional DATA_TAG lines are inserted into the data file.
When you use an SNP statement to read an input data file, em determines whether
or not you have specified the tag field (see Table 6 on page 143). If you have not
specified a tag, em simply ignores any DATA_TAG lines and reads all data
present in the input file. Conversely, if you have specified a tag, em looks for a
matching DATA_TAG line in the input file. If em does not find at least one
matching DATA_TAG line, it issues an error message and stops. If em finds one
or more matching DATA_TAG lines, it reads the data from each matching set.
The “Use last data sets only” option gives you additional control over the reading
of an input data file. This option instructs em to exclude all data sets in the input
file except the final set with a tag which matches the tag specified in the SNP
statement. If no tag is specified, the last data set in the file is read. This option is
available in the Advanced Options dialog box, which is accessed by the Additional
Options command button in the job window when a network file is selected.
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The circuit network capability advanced option, Do not check for consistency,
may be used to override the geometry file consistency checks described above.
When enabled, this option instructs the circuit network capability to read all data
present in the em output file, regardless of consistency. This option may be
selected in the Advanced Options dialog box, which is accessed by the Additional
Options command button when a Network file is selected in the job window.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
The high precision output files contain S-parameter data in real/imaginary format.
They are primarily intended for internal use by em. Generally, you do not need to
be concerned with these files. However, it is recommended that you save the
“.pnd” and “.pd” files whenever you save corresponding “.nd” and “.d” files. This
will ensure that the high precision data is still available should you need to re-
analyze in the future.
EM
The FILEOUT Data Block
The FILEOUT data block is an optional block which defines the output data files.
The listing below shows the syntax for the FILEOUT data block.
DIM
...
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
netname1 format filename1 [param][outtype] [impedance]
netname1 SPICE filename2 [SPICE keywords]
netname2 format filename3 [param][outtype] [impedance]
aa. aa. aaa. aaaa. aaaa. .
aa. aa. aaa. aaaa. aaaa. .
aa. aa. aaa. aaaa. aaaa. .
netnameN format filenameN [param][outtype] [impedance]
FREQ
...
OUT
netname
The netname field references a nodal network defined in the CKT block.
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format
The format field indicates the format type to use for the output data. Valid options
are:
SC Super-Compact format.
filename
The filename field specifies the name of the file which will store output results. If
no extension is specified, the default extension of “.rsp” is used. The same
filename may not be used in multiple FILEOUT statements.
You may include the string “$BASE” in filename. Upon detecting this string, em
substitutes the network file name, minus the “.net” extension, for “$BASE”. For
example, if the network file is named “filter.net”, and you specify
“$BASE_new.rsp” for filename, em will create an output file named
“filter_new.rsp”.
param
The param field is an optional field which is used to specify the desired output
parameter type. S (S-parameters), Y (Y-parameters) and Z (Z-parameters) are
available. If param is not specified, it defaults to S. Note that you must specify
the param field if you have specified the outtype field. Not used with the SPICE
format.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
outtype
The outtype field is an optional field which specifies the format of the output data.
This field can be set to MA (magnitude-angle in degrees), MR (magnitude-angle
in radians), RI (real-imaginary) and DB (magnitude in dB-angle in degrees). If
outtype is not specified, it defaults to MA. Note that you must specify the outtype
field if you have specified the impedance field. Not used with the SPICE format.
EM
impedance
The impedance field specifies the normalizing impedances for each port in the
network referenced by netname. Table 7 describes the available options for the
impedance field. If you do not specify impedance, default settings are “R 50” for
S-parameter data and “R 1” for Y- and Z-parameter data. Not used with the
SPICE format.
Argument Description
TERM nr1 ni1 nr2 ni2 ... nrN niN First port in netname is normalized by the complex value,
nr1 + jni1. Second port in netname is normalized by the
complex value, nr2 + jni2, etc. Valid only for S-parameter
data.
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These keywords are optional when using the SPICE or PSPICE format and may
be placed in any order at the end of the line. If these values are not specified by
the user, then the default value is used.
CMIN: Minimum allowed capacitance (pF). The default value is 0.1 pF.
LMAX: Maximum allowed inductance (nH). The default value is 100.0 nH.
RMAX: Maximum allowed resistance (ohms). The default value is 1000.0 ohms.
KMIN: Minimum allowed mutual inductance (dimensionless ratio). The default
value is 0.01.
RZERO: Resistor to go in series with all lossless inductors (resistance in ohms).
Needed for some versions of SPICE. The default value is 0.0
Example
The figure below shows an example of how the FILEOUT data block may be used
in an em network file.
FILEOUT
Net1 Touch file1.rsp S MA TERM 0 80 50 0 50 0
Net2 SC file2.rsp
Net3 SPICE file2.rsp CMIN=1.0 LMAX=10.0
Net4 Touch file3.rsp Y RI R 100
Net5 Touch file4.rsp S MA
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
EM
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
keyword1 parameters1
keyword2 parameters2
aaa. aaaaa.
aaa. aaaaa.
aaa. aaaaa.
keywordN parametersN
OUT
...
keyword
The keyword field specifies an analysis control keyword. Below are listed
analysis control keywords that are recognized by em.
parameters
The parameters field specifies all required information for the given keyword.
The keyword descriptions below detail the required parameters for each keyword.
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END: END
Sort and analyze all frequencies (not yet analyzed) which precede the END key-
word.
STEP: STEP f1 f2 … fN
Discrete frequencies at f1, f2, …, fN.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
EM
The search for the minimum is constrained to frequencies which fall on a grid
controlled by prec, f1, and f2 (see description of AUTO). If Nfreq is specified, the
total number of frequency points analyzed is limited to the endpoints f1 and f2,
plus Nfreq points between f1 and f2. Note that while frequencies are selected to
determine the minimum frequency response of network, all networks in the circuit
are analyzed at each selected frequency.
Notice that the frequencies for the SWEEP statements overlap. By default, em
sorts all analysis frequencies in ascending order before performing an analysis.
Thus, if the above FREQ block were used in em, the analysis would be performed
with the following frequency order: 2.0, 5.0, 10.0, 13.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25.0 30.0.
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You could also set up the example shown on page 155 so that frequencies from
the two SWEEP statements are not sorted. This is done in the example below.
FREQ
STEP 2.0 13.0
SWEEP 10.0 30.0 10.0
END
SWEEP 5 25 10
Here, an END statement has been inserted between the SWEEP statements. This
statement tells em to analyze at all frequencies before END first, and then analyze
the frequencies following END. For the example in , the analysis would be
performed with the following frequency order: 2.0, 10.0, 13.0, 20.0, 30.0, 5.0,
15.0, 25.0. You could also include multiple END statements in the FREQ block.
Then, all frequencies above the first END statement would be analyzed first, all
frequencies between the first and second END statements would be analyzed
second, etc.
You may specify one set of analysis frequencies in the FREQ block of a network
file and a second set of analysis frequencies in an external analysis control file
referenced by a GEO statement (see “The CKT Data Block,” page 142). When
you do, em performs the electromagnetic analysis only at the set of frequencies
specified in the external analysis control file. Em then interpolates the
electromagnetic analysis output data to obtain results at the set of frequencies
specified in the FREQ block.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
EM
AUTO NET=GEO N=20 1.0 20.0 0.10
You may specify an analysis control file (“.an”) along with a network file (“.net”)
in the em job window. When you do, the information contained in the analysis
control file overrides any information contained in the FREQ block of the network
file. You may include any of the keywords and parameters described above in the
analysis control file.
Note that specifying an analysis control file along with a network file overrides
only the information contained in the FREQ block of the network file. If the
network file contains a GEO statement (see “The CKT Data Block,” page 142)
which references an external analysis control file, the external analysis control file
is not overridden.
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DIM
...
VAR
...
CKT
...
FILEOUT
...
FREQ
...
OUT
netname1 meas1 [meas2 ...] filename1 [DELIM=delim]
[COM=com]
netname2 meas3 [meas4 ...] filename2 [DELIM=delim]
[COM=com]
aaa. aa. aaaaa. aaaa. . aaaaaaa.
aaa. aa. aaaaa. aaaa. . aaaaaaa.
netname
The netname field references a nodal network defined in the CKT data block.
meas
The meas field specifies the type of measurement to output. Table 8 shows the
measurement types which may be specified in the OUT block. A single line may
include multiple measurement types.
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Chapter 11 The em Network File
meas Description
EM
MAG[pxy] greater than 9. Examples: MAG[S1_1], MAG[Y11],
MAG[Z10_20].
ANG[px_y] Phase angle of px_y or pxy in degrees (See MAG for details).
or
ANG[pxy]
filename
The filename field specifies the alphanumeric name of the file in which the
tabular data will be stored. You can send multiple measurements to the same
filename. In this case, the measurement data will appear in multiple columns
separated by the specified delim.
You may include the string “$BASE” in filename. Upon detecting this string, em
substitutes the network file name, minus the “.net” extension, for “$BASE”. For
example, if the network file is named “filter.net”, and you specify
“$BASE_new.out” for filename, em will create an output file named
“filter_new.out”.
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delim
The delim field is an optional field used to specify the delimiter between columns
in filename. SPACE, TAB and COMMA delimiters are available. If the delim
field is not specified, em defaults to TAB.
com
The com field is an optional field used to specify a comment string. This string
will precede all comments in filename. The comment string may be one or more
characters in length. If the com field is not specified, em defaults to “!”.
Example
Below is an example of how the OUT data block may be used in an em network
file. Notice that the same output file may be specified on multiple lines.
OUT
Net1 MAG[S1_1]ANG[S1_1] file1.out
Net2 RE[Z2_1]IM[Z2_1] file1.out DELIM=SPACE COM=##
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Chapter 12 Using Diagonal Fill
EM
Chapter 12 Using Diagonal Fill
This chapter discusses the use of the diagonal fill option for a metal polygon.
When a polygon is first added to a circuit, the default fill type is staircase. The
metal will be “filled” in using whole cells, thus a diagonal edge would resemble a
staircase. An example of this is shown in the figure on page 162.
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On the left is the outline of the polygon with the metal fill turned “off”. On the
right is the polygon with the metal turned “on” with a staircase fill. As can be seen,
the cell fill makes a staircase approximating the diagonal edge of the polygon.
Note that the error caused by such an approximation decreases as the X and Y cell
sizes are decreased. Thus, it is possible to make this error arbitrarily small by
choosing sufficiently small X and Y cell sizes. However, for a coarser cell size,
the diagonal fill option, which uses triangular subsections on the edge, may
provide a better fit.
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Chapter 12 Using Diagonal Fill
This fill option involves additional computation time. However, depending on the
circuit, using this option may allow a given level of precision to be achieved more
quickly. The circuit on page 162 is shown below with diagonal fill.
EM
A Coupled Open-Miter with Diagonal Fill
As an example, a right angle mitered bend which is closely interacting with an
open end will be analyzed. Attempts to model this discontinuity using a circuit
theory based program do not include the fringing field interaction between the two
discontinuities.
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Notice that there are “gussets” where the miter polygon attaches to the
transmission line shown on the left in the figure below. Due to the nature of the
triangle subsections used in diagonal fill, acute angles (less than 90 degrees)
cannot be modeled. Em automatically cuts acute angles off, as illustrated on the
right. Thus, the tabs on the miter polygon.
On the left, “openmite.geo,” with a closely interacting mitered bend and open end
discontinuity. If the mitered region is captured as a simple triangle, without tabs, as
shown on the right, the vertices with acute angles are cut off.
This analysis required more time due to the use of diagonal fill to model the mitre
accurately. Once included, however, the em analysis time is relatively insensitive
to the amount of diagonal fill.
Circuits with diagonal edges may benefit from using diagonal fill. The edges of
such structures are frequently much better approximated with the diagonal edges
allowed by diagonal fill. Include it only on polygons with diagonal edges that
carry significant current. See references [42] and [68] in the Sonnet Bibliography
for a detailed description of diagonal fill (triangle subsections).
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Chapter 13 Vias and 3-D Structures
EM
Chapter 13 Vias and 3-D
Structures
Up to this point, most of the consideration has been with two-dimensional (2.5-D)
structures, i. e., only X and Y current has been needed. However, em can handle
full 3-D current as well. The third (Z) dimension of current is handled by a special
kind of subsection called a via.
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Em’s vias use a uniform distribution of current along their length and thus are not
intended to be used to model resonant length vertical structures. Keep the via
lengths small with respect to a wavelength.
To create vias, use xgeom to specify one or more polygon edges as edge-vias (see
Chapter 4, “Using Vias,” in the Xgeom User’s Manual for details). Em places
subsectional vias (called “via-posts”) along the entire length of all edge-vias. Vias
always go up from the selected polygon edge with the length of the via equal to
exactly the thickness of the dielectric layer. The via-posts are rectangular
cylinders with a horizontal cross-sectional area equal to one cell. If you make the
cell size smaller, the vias become smaller with more of them along the edge-via.
Of course, the length of the edge-via is unchanged. Current in a subsectional via
is uniform through out the body of the via and is Z directed. Via loss is determined
by the polygon from which the via originates.
Restrictions on Vias
The height of the via should be a small fraction of a wavelength. The via height is
the same as the thickness of the substrate or dielectric layer it penetrates. So, for
ground vias, this is usually no problem.
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Chapter 13 Vias and 3-D Structures
The vias were captured by placing a polygon on the ground level indicating the
periphery of the ground via. A square was used to model a via that is actually
round. Such a model gives surprisingly accurate results. If an even more accurate
model is needed, an octagon can be used.
After the polygon is in place at the base of the via, each side of the base polygon
is converted into vias going up. See “Making Entire Polygons Vias,” page 57 in
EM
the Xgeom User’s Manual for details.
Note that the top end of the via, shown below, is a “hat” which is larger than the
via itself. There are no restrictions on the polygons at the top of a via. Em’s
subsectioning algorithm handles the subsectioning accurately.
A simple via to ground. On the top, as it would appear in xgeom (top view). On
the bottom, a view in perspective.
An analysis of the above via at 10 GHz with de-embedding gives an S11 phase of
148.32 degrees. A perfect short circuit is 180 degrees. This means the via has an
inductive phase of about 32 degrees.
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A Conical Via
One may simulate a conical ground via with a staircase approximation. Simply
divide, say, a 100 µM GaAs substrate into four 25 µM substrates. Then put
polygons (and specify edge-vias) at appropriate places to form a step
approximation to the via sides. For an example, see the file “cvia.geo” in the
examples directory. This circuit is a conical via to ground placed in the center of
a through line, the purpose being to measure the via inductance.
You may use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples to obtain the file “cvia.geo”. Then select
xgeom from the Sonnet task bar and open the file “cvia.geo”.
The “cvia.geo” file is a very detailed model of a conical via. If you are modeling
a large circuit (say, an inter-stage matching network) with multiple vias, you may
want to use a simpler model for faster analysis.
A more complex structure using simple vias is the 20 µM wide shunt stub off a 50
ohm transmission line shown below (courtesy Raytheon Research Division). The
stub is near enough to the via/capacitor combination that there is significant
coupling, causing the error seen in the circuit theory calculation as compared to
the measured and simulated em results shown on page 169.
PORT 1 PORT 2
VIA
MIM
CAP
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Chapter 13 Vias and 3-D Structures
The em analysis accurately models the coupling and would have eliminated a re-
design and re-fabrication cycle. The circuit theory analysis requires only a fraction
of a second per frequency while em requires 13 seconds per frequency (HP-710).
But, in this case, since the circuit theory analysis yields the wrong answer, taking
the time to perform an electromagnetic analysis has a very high return.
1.0
EM
Circuit Theory
analysis chart
0.9
Mag S21
Em Data
0.8 Measured
0.7
10 15 20 25
Frequency (GHz)
If the circuit had been spread out (the stub straightened out and kept at least 100
µM from any other components), circuit theory would probably have provided an
accurate analysis and electromagnetic analysis would be unneeded. This circuit,
“raystub.geo,” can be obtained using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
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170
Chapter 14 Dielectric Bricks
EM
Chapter 14 Dielectric Bricks
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Em User’s Manual
Level 1 Level 0
Dielectric Brick
Dielectric
Layer
Level 0 Metal
Dielectric
Layer
Level 1 Metal
All realizable values for the dielectric constant, loss tangent and bulk conductivity
can be used. Furthermore, it is possible to set these parameters independently in
each dimension to create anisotropic dielectric bricks.
Em is appropriate for simple structures using dielectric bricks; however, for more
complicated circuits you may need a full 3-D electromagnetic analysis tool like
Micro-Stripes from KCC Ltd. Micro-Stripes is a powerful full 3-D EM analysis
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Chapter 14 Dielectric Bricks
tool based on the Transmission Line Matrix (TLM) technique, and is ideal for the
analysis of waveguide components, non-planar circuit structures, transitions and
antennas. Micro-Stripes is available in North America through Sonnet Software.
EM
The use of dielectric bricks is appropriate for applications where the effects of
dielectric discontinuities or anisotropic dielectric materials are important.
Examples of such applications include dielectric resonators, dielectric overlays,
airbridges, microstrip-to-stripline transitions, dielectric bridges and crossovers,
microslab transmission lines, capacitors and module walls.
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However, there are two important considerations. First, a dielectric brick located
in the interior of a circuit (not touching a box wall) represents a discontinuity in
that circuit. Thus, no reference plane should be set so that it extends from the box
wall beyond the leading edge of the dielectric brick. This is similar to the
restriction that reference planes should not extend beyond metal discontinuities in
the circuit.
The second consideration concerns the creation of the two “thru-line” standards
used to perform the de-embedding. To create the standards for a given box wall,
em identifies all metal polygons in the circuit which have an edge in common with
the wall, and then creates one thru-line extending from that edge for every such
polygon. If there are also dielectric bricks with an edge in common with the given
box wall, em also creates “dielectric brick thru-lines” which extend from that
edge. In short, this makes it possible to de-embed ports on box walls where one or
more dielectric bricks have an edge in common with that box wall.
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Chapter 14 Dielectric Bricks
Dielectric bricks can be made of any dielectric material (dielectric constant, loss
tangent and bulk conductivity) and can be placed in any circuit layer. This allows,
for instance, “alumina” bricks to be created in an “air” circuit layer. However, it
is also possible to reverse this scenario. Dielectric bricks made of “air” can also
be created in alumina circuit layers. This is an important consideration to
EM
remember. Depending upon the circuit geometry for a given application, this
ability to reverse the dielectric characteristics may simplify the circuit and make
it faster to analyze.
Diagonal fill is not allowed for dielectric bricks. All dielectric bricks must use
“staircase fill”. Thus, dielectric bricks with curved or rounded edges must be
stairstep approximated. Note that the error caused by such an approximation
decreases as the X and Y cell sizes are decreased. Thus, it is possible to make this
error arbitrarily small by choosing sufficiently small X and Y cell sizes.
Patvu does not support dielectric bricks. Circuits containing dielectric bricks can
be analyzed with patvu, but the radiation effects of the dielectric bricks are not
accounted for in the analysis.
Ebridge
The ebridge interface to the HP-EEsof Series IV or ADS circuit analysis program
does not create dielectric bricks.
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176
Chapter 15 Antennas and Radiation
EM
Chapter 15 Antennas and
Radiation
To this point, this manual has been focused on using em for the analysis of high
frequency circuits and transmission structures. However, there is a large class of
radiating structures for which em has proven very useful. This chapter describes
how to use em to analyze 3-D planar radiating structures, such as microstrip patch
arrays and microstrip discontinuities, using the “Open Waveguide Simulator”
technique. The underlying assumptions of this technique are described in detail.
Common modeling mistakes are also pointed out. Examples are provided to
illustrate the correct use of the modeling technique.
If you find that these modeling techniques are not sufficient to handle your design,
then you may need a full 3-D electromagnetic analysis tool like Micro-Stripes
from KCC Ltd. Micro-Stripes is a powerful full 3-D EM analysis tool based on
the Transmission Line Matrix (TLM) technique, and is ideal for the analysis of
waveguide components, non-planar circuit structures, transitions and antennas.
Micro-Stripes is available in North America through Sonnet Software.
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Background
Since em is an analysis of 3-D planar circuits in a completely enclosing,
shielding, rectangular box, the analysis of radiating structures is not an
application which immediately comes to mind.
The waveguide simulator inspired what we now call the Open Waveguide
Simulator Technique described in the next section.
Providing a termination for the end of the waveguide requires a little more
thought. Any waveguide mode can be perfectly terminated by making the top
cover resistivity in em equal to the waveguide mode impedance. This can be done
in xgeom automatically at all frequencies and all modes by selecting “WGLOAD”
from the metals in the Top Metal drop list in the Box Parameters dialog box.
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Chapter 15 Antennas and Radiation
Waveguide
Walls
η
Z TE = ------------------------- f > fc
fc 2
1 – ----
Waveguide
f Termination
EM
fc 2
Z TM = η 1 – ----
f > fc
f Array
Patches
v c mπ 2 nπ 2
f c = ------ ------- + ------
2π A B
Substrate
The waveguide simulator for infinite arrays inspired the technique described here. In this side
view, the waveguide walls form images of the array of microstrip patches, simulating an infinite
array. vc is the velocity of light in the medium filling the waveguide.
In a phased array with the array scanned to a specific direction, a single waveguide
mode is generated. The em software can model the waveguide simulator of that
infinite array just by setting the top cover impedance to the impedance of the
excited waveguide mode.
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carefully prepared, these conditions are easily violated, yielding incorrect results.
When the conditions are met, useful results can be obtained, as shall be
demonstrated.
First Condition: Make both of the lateral substrate dimensions greater than one
or two wavelengths.
When using the Open Waveguide Simulator, we view the sidewalls of the
shielding box as forming a waveguide whose tube extends in the vertical direction,
propagating energy from the antenna toward the “Termination” in . Radiation is
then approximated as a sum of many waveguide modes. If the tube is too small,
there are few, if any, propagating modes, violating the First Condition.
Second Condition: Make sure the sidewalls are far enough from the radiating
structure that the sidewalls have no affect.
Another way to look at this condition is to consider the image of the structure
(discontinuity or antenna) created by the sidewall. Position the sidewall so that the
image it forms has no significant coupling with the desired structure.
If you are using patvu, the larger the box the better. Patvu assumes that S-
parameters from em are from a perfect open environment. If some of the power is
reflected due to a box that is too small, the input power calculated by patvu will
be slightly incorrect. Patvu then calculates antenna efficiencies greater then
100%. If this occurs, the box size should be increased.
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Chapter 15 Antennas and Radiation
Third Condition: Place the top cover outside the fringing fields (i.e., near field)
of the radiating structure, preferably a half wavelength.
If this condition is violated, the resistive top cover becomes involved in the
reactive fringing fields which form the near field of the radiator. This changes
what would have been reactive input impedance into resistive input impedance,
overestimating the radiation loss.
EM
Do not place the top cover thousands of wavelengths away from the radiator.
Extreme aspect ratios of the box should be avoided. Empirical data for patch
antennas has shown that a distance of about 1/2 wavelength works best.
This value is a compromise. As shown by the equations on the previous page, all
TE modes have a characteristic impedance larger than 377 ohms (Ω), while all TM
modes are lower. Thus, while a 377 ohms/square top cover does not perfectly
terminate any mode, it forms an excellent compromise termination for many
modes. This approximates removing the top cover of the box. If the box is large,
it, in turn, approximates radiation, as shall be demonstrated.
Fifth Condition: The radiating structure can not generate a significant surface
wave.
In general, any surface wave is both reflected and refracted when it encounters the
edge of the substrate. This boundary condition is different from either the
conducting wall of Sonnet or the infinite substrate provided by a true open space
analysis.
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Free Space
Top Cover
Double Patch
Antenna
Feed point
Radiation can be simulated by including a lossy top cover, a lossy dielectric layer
(optional) and by placing the sidewalls far from the radiator (drawing not to scale).
Place the top cover one half wavelengths from the radiator.
The feed point is created in xgeom by creating a via to ground at the feed point.
Then the ground end of that via is specified as a port, just as one would specify a
more typical port on the edge of the substrate at a box sidewall. A file showing an
antenna similar to this one is named “patch.geo” and is available using the Sonnet
⇒ Copy Examples command.
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Chapter 15 Antennas and Radiation
Validation Example
For validation, we offer work performed by E. Ongareau of Matra Defense,
Antennas & Stealthness Dept., France, as presented at the 1993 EEsof User’s
Group meeting at HYPER in Paris. (Reprinted with permission.) The antenna is a
triple patch structure, with a top view shown below. The antenna is a test
realization intended only for validation. It is not designed for optimum VSWR.
EM
Top view of a triple patch antenna (courtesy of Matra Defense). The central patch is
fed with a coaxial probe (indicated by a down pointing triangle). Each patch is
resonant at a different frequency to increase the overall antenna bandwidth.
Good results are also regularly obtained on single microstrip patch antennas. We
cite this example as one of the more sophisticated antennas analyzed using the
Open Waveguide Simulator technique.
In this antenna, each patch has a slightly different resonant frequency, resulting in
an increased bandwidth. The antenna is fed from below with a coax probe attached
to the central patch. The feed point is indicated with a triangle.
The substrate is 3.04 mm thick with a dielectric constant of 2.94. The drawing is
to scale with substrate dimensions of 200 mm x 100 mm. The top cover is 200 mm
above the substrate surface. Cell size is 0.78125 mm square. A loss tangent of
0.001 is used in both air and substrate. The small air loss helps terminate the
propagating modes.
The antenna geometry file, “tripat.geo,” is available using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command.
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The chart below shows the result. We see that the resonant frequencies of each
patch (i.e., the low VSWR points) have differences between measured and
calculated of about 1%. This is typical of most analyses of patch antennas using
this technique. The differences in resonant frequency (i.e., the reflection zeros)
then determine the differences in the rest of the VSWR plot. The degree to which
these differences are due to analysis error, fabrication error and measurement error
cannot be determined from this data.
7
Measured
Calculated
6
4
VSWR
1
1%
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Chapter 15 Antennas and Radiation
EM
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Em User’s Manual
186
Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
EM
Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model
Synthesis
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Class of Problems
The SPICE generation capability is intended for any circuit which is small with
respect to the wavelength of the highest frequency of excitation. Typically, 1/20th
wavelength is an appropriate limit. (If a circuit is too large, split it into two or more
circuits and analyze each separately.) This limitation is due to the circuit theory
limitations of modeling a circuit with lumped elements. The Sonnet
electromagnetic analysis is not intrinsically limited in this fashion.
The model generated by the analysis includes any lumped elements (including
mutual inductors) between any ports of the circuit layout. Lumped elements from
any port to ground are also included. The synthesis capability does not allow
internal nodes (nodes which are not connected to a port in the layout) with the
single exception of the internal node required to specify a resistor in series with an
inductor.
Any circuit which requires internal nodes for an accurate model should be split
into several parts so that the required points become nodes. Internal ports without
ground reference give incorrect results. Any internal ports should be carefully
specified and checked for reasonable results.
The SPICE file generation capability is usually not appropriate for large
microwave circuits because such circuits are usually larger than a small fraction
of a wavelength.
The SPICE model synthesis capability is fast enough that it can be used on circuits
with hundreds of ports.
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Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
EM
appropriate error message.
Make sure the frequency is not too low. In circuits with vias, when the subsection
size is less than 10-5 wavelength, numerical precision can be a problem. For
example, if the subsection size is 1 mm, it would be unwise to analyze below 1
MHz.
If the frequency specified is low enough, em warns you that you may need
quadruple precision. The quadruple precision option can be enabled by clicking
on the Quad Precision checkbox in the Additional Options dialog box. Be aware,
however, that Quad Precision can slow the analysis down substantially; use the
option only when necessary. Analyzing the circuit at a higher frequency is often a
better solution.
After completing the analysis, always do a “reality check” for reasonable values.
If you have bad data, the frequency may be too high or too low. If the frequency
is too low, the solution may have unity S-parameters, causing a strange SPICE
model. To be absolutely sure your results are good, select a second pair of
frequencies, different from the first pair by, say, a factor of two, and re-analyze
the circuit. You should obtain similar results between the two analyses.
To use the SPICE generation option, click on the Output Files button in the job
window, which will open the Select Output Files dialog box. Set the .lc name
checkbox to “on” and enter a file name in the corresponding text entry box. This
will select the SPICE option specifying the default value of 1 for the displayed
precision for the lumped element values. This results in output like “C1 1 3
12.1pf”.
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If you wish a higher number of digits, you must open the Additional Options
dialog box and enter -xn in the Advanced text entry box, where n is an integer
value from 0 to 7. When working with very small structures, specifying, for
example, “-x4” may be desired. This results in output like “C1 1 3 0.0312pf”.
Values from 0 to 7 may be used. The digits 8 or 9 generate the same output as 7.
Any capacitors with a value of 0 are not included in the model. Any inductors or
resistors which are essentially open circuits are also excluded.
To reduce the number of lumped elements in the model, open circuit limits can be
specified in the Spice Control dialog box, shown below. This dialog box is used
when editing Complex Frequency controls or an Analysis Control file.
All calculated component values which fall outside the allowed range specified by
the user in the frequency controls are excluded from the resulting lumped model.
The RZERO entry is provided for those versions of SPICE which need inductors
to have some small loss to avoid numerical difficulties. The default value of 0.0
disables this capability.
Output is sent to the file ending in “.lc” specified in the Output Files dialog box.
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Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
In most cases, the de-embedding option should also be used. Otherwise the small
shunt capacitance from the port discontinuity is also included in the lumped
model.
PSpice Option
A SPICE lumped model can also be generated using PSpice output format. All of
EM
the rules and assumptions described in the previous section for .lc SPICE files still
apply. To generate a SPICE lumped model in PSpice format, specify "-pspice"
under Advanced Options in em control. See "SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files
Using Electromagnetic Analysis" on page 565 in the Sonnet Application Notes
for an illustration of the use of PSpice output format. The output file name
extension is ".psp".
For a single line, the L and C distributed parameters are each a single number. For
N-coupled lines, L and C become N by N matrices. When metal loss is included,
we now also have an R matrix. The resistance is in series with the inductance.
When there is dielectric loss, a G matrix is also calculated. The conductance is in
parallel with the capacitance. The synthesis determines whether a G or R matrix
are needed only from the calculated S-parameters. The circuit geometry is not
referenced at any time.
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To generate RLCG matrices, select a “.lct” file in the Output Files dialog box and
enable the De-embed option. De-embedding is often required as described in the
previous section. The “ctl.an” file needs only one frequency specified. If two
frequencies are specified, two RLCG matrix sets are generated.
Your “.geo” file must be an N-coupled line with ports 1 through N as input and
ports N+1 through 2N as output. The input of line M should be port M and its
output should be port M+N. The software does not check for this condition, but
issues a warning message if the number of ports is not an even number. This
restriction does not apply to generating “.lc” files, only generating “lct” files.
There is no limit on N.
The results are per unit length, where a unit length is the de-embedded length of
the N-coupled line. The length must be short compared to the wavelength at the
frequency of analysis.
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Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
5 Click on the Output Files command button to open the Select Output
Files dialog box.
EM
6 Click on the .lc name checkbox to set it to “on.” The default name of
“steps.lc” will appear in the corresponding text entry box. Click on the
OK button to close the dialog box.
7 Click on the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The lumped model is stored in the file specified in the Select Output Files dialog
box, “steps.lc”:
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The first line indicates the open circuit limits. For example all capacitors less than
0.1 pF are excluded from the model. These limits can be modified as discussed in
“Using The SPICE Option,” page 189.
The next line documents the analysis frequencies. This is followed by the SPICE
lumped model. In this case we have two capacitors to ground (node 0) and one
inductor connected between port 1 and port 2. Ground is node 0 and all the
remaining node numbers correspond to ports of the same number.
If two decimal places of precision are desired, open the Additional Options dialog
box by clicking on the Additional Options command button in the em job window.
Enter
-x2
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Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
1 2
EM
Equivalent circuit of a two-port structure generated by em’s SPICE option.
Mutual inductances also exist between all inductors, but are not shown. Any
component whose value is outside of the open circuit limits are not printed in
the SPICE output file.
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Top
Level
The top level of the byte-reversal network. The byte order on input (left side) is
reversed on output (right side). This is a top view.The arrow heads indicate
connections between levels (down vias).
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Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
Bottom
Level
EM
The bottom level of the byte-reversal network. The triangles indicate connections
between levels (up vias).
A copy of the above file, “br32.geo” can be obtained using Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples.
The circuit was analyzed at 10 and 15 MHz, where each line is about 1 degree
long. If you wish to perform the analysis yourself, do the following:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The main window with a
new job window will appear on your display.
2 Enter “br32.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
3 Click on the Simple Sweep option in the Frequency Control section.
Enter 10.0 in the Start text entry box and 15 in the Stop text entry box.
4 Select MHz from the Frequency Unit drop list at the end of the Simple
Sweep.
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5 The Verbose and De-embed options are already selected, so you need
take no action on these items.
6 Click on the Output Files command button to open the Select Output
Files dialog box.
7 Click on the .lc name checkbox to set it to “on.” The file name “br32.lc”
is automatically input in the corresponding text entry box. Click on the
OK button to close the dialog box.
8 Click on the Additional Options button. The Advanced Options dialog
box will appear on your display.
9 Enter “-e” in the Manual Options text entry box. This option reduces the
number of subsections at cross-over points. Click on the OK button to
close the dialog box and apply the option.
10 Click on the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The lumped model is stored in the file specified in the Select Output Files dialog
box, “br32.lc”.
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.subckt bytervrs 1 2 3 4 . . . 63 64
C1 a1 0 a14.5pf
C2 a1 2 a 1.6pf
C3 a1 25 a0.7pf
C4 a1 55 a0.1pf
EM
.
.
.
C57 1 64 0 9.1pf
L1 1 33 77.2nh
L2 2 34 77.3nh
.
.
.
L32 32 64 79.6nh
K1 L1 L2 0.2
K2 L1 L3 0.1
.
.
.
K70 L31 L32 0.2
.ends
Nodes 1 - 64 correspond to the ports of the same number in the circuit layout, .
Node 0 is ground. For example, C1 represents the capacitance from port 1 to
ground. L1 represents the inductance from port 1 to port 33 (i.e., port 1 is
connected to port 33). There is also a capacitance (not listed above) from port 33
to ground.
Mutual inductance K1 inductively couples the port 1 to port 33 line (L1) to the
port 2 to port 34 line (L2), also generating cross-talk. The mutual inductance
causes cross-talk whenever either the port 1 or port 2 line carries a time varying
current. A quick inspection of this file reveals the worst cases for cross-talk (i.e.,
largest mutual inductors and capacitors).
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The sub-circuit was placed in a complete SPICE file with an example analysis
shown below.
0.15
0.05
0.00
-0.05
Port 57 (Forward)
-0.10
-0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (nS)
A SPICE analysis was performed using the em synthesized model of the byte-reversal network.
Shown here is the cross-talk to the port 25 - port 57 line caused by a 1 Volt signal with a 10 pS
rise time on port 1. All ports are terminated in 50 ohms. Analysis courtesy of CONTEC
Microelectronics USA.
Other Techniques
Classical techniques use, for example, just an electrostatic or just a magnetostatic
analysis to derive a model. This is adequate for uniform transmission lines
embedded in homogenous dielectric (no different layers). In an arbitrary
predominantly planar circuit, as we have here, a single static analysis provides
only half a circuit model, just the capacitors or just the inductors.
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Chapter 16 SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis
Since em is a full dynamic analysis, both the inductive and capacitive portion of
the model are obtained with one analysis (at two frequencies).
In addition, the techniques usually used for the static analyses are of a volume
gridding variety (e.g., finite elements, finite difference). Even under the
simplifications allowed by static analysis, the circuit shown in is well beyond the
capability of such software tools.
EM
However, because em is a surface meshing analysis, it can analyze the circuit of
in under 1 minute on an HP-710 using about 1 Mbyte of memory. The SPICE file
is generated after analyzing two frequencies.
The model which results has 1057 capacitors, 32 inductors and 70 mutual
inductors. If loss is included, the model would also include resistors. Many of the
capacitors in the lumped model are 0.1 and 0.2 pF, just over the default minimum
capacitance of 0.1 pF. A much simpler model (with a little less accuracy) is
possible by including the command “CMIN 0.3” in the ctl.an file. Nearly all of the
1057 capacitors are then excluded from the model because they are too small.
Note that the experimental approach to modeling this circuit involves building the
circuit, measuring a 64 port structure (requiring 2080 separate complex
measurements at each frequency), developing and entering an appropriate 1000+
element model in a circuit simulator, and optimizing each of the 1000+ variables
for a best fit. Such a task is well beyond the state-of-the-art.
In contrast, by using the em analysis, the total, end-to-end time is a few minutes.
This includes the time required for manual circuit layout capture and inspection of
the final results.
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202
Chapter 17 Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and Balanced Ports
EM
Chapter 17 Coplanar Waveguide
Discontinuities and
Balanced Ports
Em also handles coplanar waveguide well because ground planes and dielectric
layer thicknesses can be made any value while still maintaining full accuracy and
without compromise in speed. This section describes a very simple, yet important,
coplanar waveguide discontinuity, the short circuit. A second example is the
coplanar cross junction. The cross junction also illustrates the use of level-to-level
vias to form airbridges. Airbridges are needed to suppress the slot line mode as
well as provide a ground current return path in some cases.
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Notice that both ground ports have been labeled “-1”, while the signal port is
labeled “1”. This represents a balanced port. Any number of ports can have the
same positive or negative labels. This is done in xgeom by selecting the ports in
question and opening the Port Attributes dialog box by selecting Modify ⇒
Attributes. Em sums the total current going into all the positive ports with the
same port number and sets that equal to the total current going out of all the ports
with that same negative port number. Thus the name “balanced”, or “push-pull,”
port.
Slot line can be represented by removing one of the “-1” ports, above. Be careful,
however, the sign of the slot line port can be reversed by swapping the remaining
“-1” port with the “1” port. It is possible, in fact, to get an S21 phase of 180
degrees for a zero length line. This happens if the ports on either end of a slot line
have opposite sign.
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Chapter 17 Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and Balanced Ports
Note that we end the width of the ground lines just before they would have
touched the sidewall. If the side of the ground line touches the side wall, it shorts
out to the sidewall, thus allowing ground current to return via the sidewall instead
of through the ground line. This defeats the purpose of the balanced port. Be sure
that your ground lines touch the sidewall only at the location of negative port
numbers when using balanced ports.
EM
For large coplanar (or slot line) structures, there may be significant current on the
outside edges of the ground strip. This can be verified with emvu. If this current
is undesired, it can be eliminated by connecting the outside edge of the ground
strips to the sidewalls of the box about a quarter wavelength from each port. This
forms a quarter wavelength shorted (slot line) stub. At the port, the stub presents
an open circuit to the current which, otherwise, would have started flowing along
the outside edge of the ground strip.
You can get a copy of the coplanar short, “cosht.geo”, using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command. To analyze the circuit, perform the following:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The main window with a
new job window will appear on your display.
2 Enter “cosht.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box.
3 Click on the Simple Sweep option in the Frequency Control section.
Enter 10.0 in the Start text entry box.
4 The Verbose and De-embed options are already selected, so you need
take no action on these items.
5 Click on the Run command button to execute the analysis.
The result is
A perfect short is 180 degrees; therefore, the short is about 11 degrees inductive.
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It is possible to get the same result in less time. Notice that the circuit is physically
symmetric. To add in symmetry, you would select Parameters ⇒ Box in xgeom.
If this were the only change you made before analyzing the circuit, it would not
work.
The reason for this is that when a circuit is symmetric, em does not subsection any
part of the circuit below the center line. After subsectioning the circuit, em checks
to make sure all ports have at least one subsection. But notice that the “-1” port
below the center line is still there. This port does not have any subsections and em
prints an error message to that effect and terminates. So also remove the lower of
the two “-1” ports and save the circuit under “cosht_sy.geo”. An analysis of this
circuit provides almost identical data in much less time.
Whenever you see an error message stating that there are no subsections for a
given port, check for ports below the axis of symmetry, if symmetry is turned on.
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Chapter 17 Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and Balanced Ports
must be continuous between all ports. Otherwise the ground current on one side is
interrupted. If this happens, very strange results are seen, both in the em analysis
and in actual measurements.
EM
A coplanar cross junction with airbridges (dotted lines) to short out slot line
modes and to provide a return path for current.
The airbridges are indicated by dashed lines. Both ends of each airbridge are
supported by a via (indicated by the up triangle) which also provides electrical
connection to the ground conductors. The airbridges are 1.5 µm above the GaAs.
This circuit is stored in the file “cocross.geo” in the examples directory and is
accessible with the Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples command.
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208
Chapter 18 Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section
EM
Chapter 18 Thick Metal with
Arbitrary Cross-
Section
To analyze the thick metal, set up the dielectrics so that there is one layer of
dielectric with the same thickness as the metal. Then, place a polygon representing
the top side of the thick metal on the top side of that dielectric layer. Also place a
polygon representing the bottom side of the thick metal on the bottom side of that
dielectric layer.
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Next, place ports on both top and bottom sides. To connect the top side port to the
bottom side port, give both ports the same number. This is done in xgeom by
selecting the ports in question and opening the Port Attributes dialog box by
selecting Modify ⇒ Attributes.
As many physical ports as desired may be given the same numeric label, and all
ports with the same label are automatically connected together. Such ports can be
called “push-push”, in contrast with the “push-pull” ports of the previous chapter.
For extremely thick lines, where the assumption that there is no current wrapping
around the edge might not be valid, vias must be included along the edges of the
line so that current flowing there is included. Note that vias, representing Z-
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Chapter 18 Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-Section
directed current, are not needed to represent current flowing along the edge of the
line. They are only needed for current which flows over and around the edge of
the line, a rare situation in most planar high frequency circuit designs.
Top Current
No Current
EM
Around Edge
Bottom Current
A trapezoidal cross-section transmission line viewed in perspective. If the line has no
current going around the edge, it can be modeled, as shown, as two infinitely thin sheets
of current, one at the top and the other at the bottom of the actual metal.
If a more detailed cross-section is desired, one can use more than two levels of
infinitely thin metal to model the cross-section. Do not place metal on the interior
(i.e., metal which is not on the top, bottom or edge) of the thick line. There is no
current inside a good conductor and there is no need to waste subsections there.
Do not place vias at the edge of the substrate next to a sidewall on a port. In this
situation, the vias short out to the sidewall. This shorts out the port. Such a
situation can be identified by the port refection coefficient magnitude close to
unity and the phase close to 180 degrees, a short circuit.
The example directory contains an example of a thick step junction in a file called
“thkstep.geo”, which can be obtained by using Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples.
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212
Chapter 19 Package Resonances
EM
Chapter 19 Package Resonances
The circuit is designed, fabricated and meets all specifications. But before you are
ready to ship you need to consider the package around the circuit. Once the lid
goes on, it must be tested for package resonances and chip-to-chip coupling.
Em can help with the package design. Recall that em analyzes a circuit in a
conducting 6-sided metal box. The sidewalls of the box are always perfect
conductors. Thus, you can find out on the computer early in the design cycle if the
package is going to have resonances or evanescent waves that are of any concern.
As an example, we analyzed a model of an amplifier in a box, shown in the figure
on page 214. The circuit is stored in the file “package.geo” in the examples
directory, and can be obtained using the Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples command.
We have left the transistor location open in this circuit for two reasons. First, the
electromagnetic analysis performed by em does not support active devices. If you
want to use the circuit network capability of em to include a transistor, place an
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We have also included the bias lines, ports 3 and 4, to make sure that a package
resonance does not kill the bias isolation. Feedback through bias leads is a
significant cause of low frequency oscillations and smoked devices.
The amplifier model is only approximate, we do not need exact line widths and
precise layout. The purpose of this analysis is only to check for resonances. The
detail used in this case is probably more than is needed. A simpler circuit should
be sufficient for a package resonance search.
The lowest resonance found was at 31.7625 GHz, shown on the plot on page 215.
Given the approximate nature of the way we captured the circuit, we can conclude
that there is a package resonance somewhere around 31 -32 GHz. There may be
other resonances; the search was not exhaustive. Coupling between bias ports,
which is not shown, also becomes large at resonance, making instability a virtual
certainty.
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Chapter 19 Package Resonances
This package has big problems at resonance. Fortunately, with the em analysis in
hand, modifications can be made and tested before costly fabrication.
A second analysis was performed from 20 GHz to 60 GHz with the top cover
removed; i.e., selecting Free Space as the Top Metal in Box Parameters. This
analysis showed several low Q (wide bandwidth) resonances, none of which
exceeded 35 dB down. The plot is shown on page 216.
EM
A related application of this analysis is to use the circuit package as the resonant,
frequency determining element in an oscillator design.
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Box resonances can also corrupt de-embedding results. Because em’s de-
embedding feature is based on circuit theory, it possesses the same limitation that
all de-embedding algorithms share. It is unable to de-embed a structure contained
inside a resonant cavity (box). This means that if a box resonance exists for a de-
embedding calibration standard, the final S-parameters should be suspect.
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Chapter 19 Package Resonances
To obtain an example of data with a box resonance use Sonnet ⇒ Copy Examples
to get the file “open_120.geo”.
EM
2 Enter “open_120.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box in the job
window.
3 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button under Frequency Control. Then
enter 24.0 in the Start box, 24.6 in the Stop box and 0.1 in the Step box.
4 The default value of GHz is already set, as well as the default options,
Verbose and De-embed so no action need be taken on these items.
5 Click on the Run command button to execute the em analysis.
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Here we see the effects of a box resonance with the jump in phase, at 24.3 GHz,
of the de-embedded open end. The sudden steep phase change in S11 is a sure clue
of a box resonance. Note that Eeff and Z0 are also affected. This is because there
is also a resonance in at least one of the standards that em creates for de-
embedding.
In some cases, the standards do not have a box resonance and Z0 and Eeff are
unaffected. To see an example of this, reduce the top layer thickness from 1000
mils to 50 mils. The box resonance moves to 24.85 GHz while the Z0 and Eeff
calculations remain smooth.
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Chapter 19 Package Resonances
EM
24.3000000 1.000000 -172.2
!< P1 F=24.300 Eeff=(7.7543 0.0000) Z0=(29.14039 0.000000) R=0.00000 C=0.311480
Notice that the resonance detection information is printed out before, not after, the
frequency of analysis. Also note that the S-parameters are the same; the resonance
has not been removed. We see box resonances listed for the primary structure (the
open end) and for both standards.
The box resonance information tells us that the resonance is Transverse Electric
(TE), i.e., there is no Z directed electric field which is perpendicular to the
substrate surface. Several of the modes are (0,1,*) indicating that there is no
variation (first digit) of field in the X direction, which is the direction of the open
stub, and a half sine wave of variation (second digit) in the Y direction.
The “*” in the mode number indicates that the variation in the Z direction is
unknown. Since we generally have several different dielectrics as we go along the
Z axis, a mode number here is not always clear.
The digit in front of the parentheses is the mode significance. The mode
significance can be used to compare one resonance with another, but has no
physical meaning. For example, the first mode in the primary structure has a
significance of 8. This means that we are closer to exciting this mode than we are
to the second mode, which has a significance of 1. The most important mode is the
(1,0,*) mode in the first standard, with a significance of 29.
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One way to remove a box resonance is to change the size of the box, either larger
or smaller, to move the resonant frequency out of band. If the problem occurs in
de-embedding, you may be able to change the length of the calibration standard in
xgeom to move the box resonance out of the band of interest.
If you wish to model a sheet of resistive material in the box, rather than removal
of the top cover, setting the top cover to that resistivity is accurate no matter how
close the cover is to the circuit. It is an approximation only when used to model
the removal of the top cover.
If you wish to analyze the circuit with the top cover removed, perform the
following:
1 Select em Control from the Sonnet task bar. The em main window with
a new job window will appear on your display.
2 Enter “open_120.geo” in the Geometry File text entry box in the job
window.
3 Click on the Editor command button to the right of the Geometry File
text entry box to invoke the xgeom program with the “open_120.geo”
file open.
4 Select Parameters ⇒ Box to open the Box parameters dialog box. Click
on the Top Metal drop list and select Free Space from the metals avail-
able in the drop list. Click on the OK command button to close the dia-
log box and apply the changes.
5 Select File ⇒ Save As to open the Save As dialog box. Enter “open-
loss.geo” in the file name text entry box and click on the OK button to
save the file.
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Chapter 19 Package Resonances
6 To analyze the file, enter “openloss.geo” in the Geometry File text entry
box in the em job window.
7 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button under Frequency Control. Then
enter 24.0 in the Start box, 24.6 in the Stop box and 0.1 in the Step box.
8 The default value of GHz is already set, as well as the default options,
Verbose and De-embed
EM
9 Click on the Run command button to execute the em analysis.
Most of the resonance has been removed. To remove the resonance more
completely, the top cover can be moved closer to the substrate surface. In fact, if
the cover is moved to within 50 mils, there is absolutely no indication of a
resonance left.
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With the top cover off, em is also including radiation loss in the de-embedded
discontinuity (see the S11 magnitude). The loss has a secondary effect in making
Eeff and Z0 complex as well.
Taking the top cover off works, provided the sidewalls of the box are large enough
to form a propagating waveguide up to the top cover, or you can place the top
cover close enough to the substrate surface to catch the fields in the box mode.
High order “box” modes tend to be confined primarily to the substrate and are
difficult to remove in this manner. As you make the box bigger by increasing the
substrate surface area, the modes “loosen up” so that they can propagate to the top
cover and become absorbed.
To completely absorb any single waveguide mode, set the surface impedance of
the top cover equal to the impedance of the waveguide mode. If you have multiple
modes to absorb, setting the impedance to 377 ohms/square (Free Space Top
Metal) is a nice compromise because some modes are above 377 ohms and others
are below.
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Chapter 20 Viewing Tangential Electric Fields
EM
Chapter 20 Viewing Tangential
Electric Fields
One reason em is so fast is that all of the electric and magnetic fields are solved
for analytically, with “pencil,” “paper” and many equations. The computer need
only do an FFT and solve for the current distribution.
However, on occasion, you want to view the fields, not the current. You do this
with what is called a “sense layer”. The sense layer is a rectangular patch of
conductor placed where you want to see the tangential electric field.
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You set the reactance to such a large value so that the sense layer has little
influence on the original fields. An intuitive analogy is to view a sense layer like
inserting a sheet of paper (very high reactance) into the fields. Because the
reactance of the sense layer is high, the currents are very small. The sheet of paper
does not change the fields. When capturing the sense layer, it is best to set X Max
and Y Max to 1 for the best image. See the “Adjusting the Subsectioning,”
page 24.
But even though they are small, what are the currents? The current density is
proportional to the tangential electric fields over the area of the sense layer. This
is just a two dimensional version of Ohms Law: Current is proportional to
Voltage.
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Chapter 20 Viewing Tangential Electric Fields
An example is shown below as viewed by emvu. You may use the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
Examples command to get a copy of the geometry file, “tane.geo.” The “tane.geo”
file is based on the “gap20.geo” file.
EM
The tangential electric fields just above a gap discontinuity. The input voltage comes
from the left. Strong fields are present across the gap, especially at the corners. This
analysis was performed at 1 GHz.
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226
Chapter 21 Accuracy Benchmarking
EM
Chapter 21 Accuracy
Benchmarking
In this chapter, we describe a precise benchmark, based on [21], [22] and [24],
which allows the evaluation of DMAC for any 2.5-D or 3-D electromagnetic
analysis down to the 1 x 10-8 level of accuracy.
An Exact Benchmark
What we need to calculate DMAC is an exact benchmark. One source of an exact
benchmark is stripline. The characteristic impedance of a stripline has an exact
theoretical expression K(k) is the complete elliptical integral of the first kind. For
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w
η 0 K ( k' )
Z 0 ε r = ------ ------------
4 K( k)
πw
k = tanh --- ----
2
k' = 1–k
2 b
η 0 = 376.7303136
The expression for K(k) cited above provides an accuracy of about 1 x 10-8. When
programmed on a computer, the following values are obtained for three different
transmission line impedances (unity dielectric constant):
Z0 (ohms) w/b
25.0 3.3260319
50.0 1.4423896
100.0 0.50396767
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Chapter 21 Accuracy Benchmarking
Each of the above three benchmarks are available via the Sonnet ⇒ Copy
EM
Examples command. To get the 50 ohm line, to get the file “s50.geo.” The other
benchmark circuits are in “s25.geo” and “s100.geo.”
The “b” dimension is exactly 1.0 mm, the “w” dimension is given by the above
table and the length of each line is 4.99654097 mm with a dielectric constant of
1.0. Each of these lines is precisely 0.25 wavelengths long at 15.0 GHz. The
geometry files have the subsectioning set so the lines are 16 cells wide and 128
cells long. Analysis time is a few seconds on an HP-710.
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Since the current distribution is symmetrical about the center line, using either one
or two subsections across the width of the line gives the same amount of error.
We find that a one or two subsection wide line gives 5% to 6% error. If there is
not much stray coupling, circuit theory can often give a better result. When the line
is 16 cells wide, we see about 1% error, much more reasonable. We have found
(and you can verify) that convergence is very strong: Double the number of cells
per line width and the error is cut in half.
When we vary the number of cells per wavelength, along the length of the line, we
see an inverse square relationship. Double the number of cells per wavelength
along the length of the line and the percent error decreases by a factor of four.
16 2
E T ≅ -------- + 2 -------
16
NW ≥ 3 N L ≥ 16
NW N
L
where
NW = Number of cells per line width,
NL = Number of cells per wavelength along line
length,
ET = Total Error (DMAC) (%).
This equation estimates subsectioning error only. For example, any de-embedding
errors are added to the above error. This error estimate should be valid for any
electromagnetic analysis which uses roof-top subsectioning.
Notice that the quantities used for the error estimate are in terms of cells, not
subsections. Cells are the smallest possible subsections size. In Sonnet,
subsections in the corners of polygons are one cell on a side. Subsections along
the edge of polygons are one cell wide and can be many cells long. Interior
subsections can be many cells in both dimensions.
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We have found that, for most cases, the cell size is the important parameter in
determining error. Or in other words, the smallest subsection size is important. For
example, the stripline benchmark geometry files, mentioned before, are set to
make the lines 16 cells wide, even though those 16 cells may be merged into only
4 or 5 subsections. It is the 16 cells which determine the level of error, not the 4
or 5 subsections.
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In performing this error evaluation, we also found that the error in characteristic
impedance due to NW is always high, never low. Also, there is very little variation
in the error for different impedance lines. The above equation can be very accurate
in evaluating error. And, finally, for NL above about 40 cells per wavelength, all
the error is in the characteristic impedance. The error in velocity of propagation is
essentially zero.
The above equation can be very accurate in evaluating error. With this precise
knowledge of the error, we can now do something about it!
However, let’s say that our circuit has resonant structures. Let’s say it is a low pass
filter. It is easy to verify by means of circuit theory that the low pass filter is very
sensitive to the high impedance lines. This means we can expect about 5% error,
even though the high impedance lines only make up half the filter.
Given this information, there are several courses of action. First, if 5% error is
acceptable, no further effort is needed.
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More likely, we wish to analyze the filter with less error. Since we now know the
error in the characteristic impedance is 5%, we can physically widen the line so
that the characteristic impedance is 5% lower to compensate for the known
increase in characteristic impedance due to subsectioning the line only one cell
wide. Very precise analyses are possible using this compensation technique.
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Chapter 22 Range of Analysis
Validity
The cell size is important factor in determining the accuracy. By using a smaller
cell size, metal edges can be more accurately defined and the current distribution
is better represented. The trade-off is increased execution time. A quantitative
description of accuracy versus cell size is given in Chapter 21, “Accuracy
Benchmarking.”
The trade-off between execution time and accuracy increases the degrees of
freedom available to the design engineer.
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Subsection Size
There are actually two limits on subsection size, a minimum and a maximum.
When we refer to a cell, we have in mind the minimum limit. For example, a
circuit may cover 10,000 cells. Em can use variable size cells, which we refer to
as subsections. That same 10,000 cell circuit could be subsectioned into only 200
variable sized subsections. The maximum limit determines the size of the largest
subsection (which may cover many cells).
With a maximum frequency in mind, the cell size should be set so that a single cell
is no more than a fraction of a wavelength at the maximum frequency of analysis.
The default of 20 subsections/λ is fine for most work. This means that the
maximum size of a subsection is 18 degrees at the highest frequency of analysis.
Increasing this number decreases the maximum subsection size until the limit of
1 subsection = 1 cell is reached.
As the limits of subsection size, both maximum and minimum, are made smaller,
the em analysis is asymptotically exact. Given sufficient computer resources, an
arbitrarily accurate answer may be achieved.
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Chapter 22 Range of Analysis Validity
Dielectric layer thickness and dielectric constant have no impact on the accuracy
as long as the layers are greater than 0.05 microns thick. For layers thinner than
0.05 microns, numerical precision may not allow accurate answers. The substrate
area has no impact on accuracy. However, it does have a secondary impact on
analysis time.
All coupling between all subsections is calculated and included in the analysis,
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even coupling between patches of metalization which are not connected to
anything.
Numerical Precision
Em experiences a numerical precision problem (difference between two large
numbers) if the subsection size gets too small. For example, if the subsection size
is several microns and the frequency is a few kilohertz, there are precision
problems. The results quickly become obviously bad. A higher frequency of
analysis, or use of quadruple precision can solve the problem. At a higher
frequency, the subsection becomes larger, in terms of wavelengths.
The precision problem also arises with vias. This is especially true if, in addition
to the small cell size, the via is in a thin layer, say a micron or less. Unreasonable
results are seen as high as several hundred MHz, or even 1 GHz. The net effect of
the loss of precision makes the via appear to have a very long phase length. These
problems become worse if the Memory Save option is used. Again, use of the
quadruple precision option can solve the problem in exchange for increased
analysis time.
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Chapter 23 Time Required for Analysis
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Chapter 23 Time Required for
Analysis
There is no simple rule for calculating the time required for a particular analysis
although there are guidelines, presented below, which will afford you some
measure of control over that time.
The amount of time required is closely related to the number of subsections, which
is printed out when em is run with the Verbose option. After a few trials, you will
have a good idea of whether an analysis is a few seconds, a few hours, or just
totally hopeless by looking at the number of subsections.
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The most important factor in the execution time required is the amount of memory
required by em compared with the amount of memory you have. This is also
printed out by em if you use the Verbose option. If em says you need 36 Mbytes
and you have 16 Mbytes installed, then it is a good idea to kill the run quickly.
You can reduce the memory required by using the Memory Save option, which
makes the analysis single precision. You can also try to reduce the area of
metalization in the circuit. Try to eliminate any metal that is not carrying current
and make connecting lines as short as possible (but not too short, see Chapters 6
and 7 on de-embedding).
For most circuits, the following equation can be used to estimate the amount of
memory that will be used by em:
B = K*N2
For UNIX systems, you can check the memory actually used by typing the “ps”
(process status) command. Consult your system administrator or UNIX manuals
for details on the “ps” command.
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Chapter 23 Time Required for Analysis
To check how much of your system’s memory is actually available for your use,
select Help ⇒ System Info from the em Control main menu. The System
Information dialog box appears on your display and contains the information on
system memory use.
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The “Wall”
When using circuit theory analysis, an increase in circuit complexity gradually
produces an increase in analysis time. With an electromagnetic analysis, the
increase happens suddenly. A mere doubling of circuit complexity (say, by using
a smaller subsection size) can result in one, or even two, orders of magnitude
longer analysis. We call this the “Wall” (see the charts below).
Circuit Theory
Time
Complexity
Electromagnetics
Time
Complexity
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Chapter 23 Time Required for Analysis
To avoid the wall, start with no loss (metal or dielectric) and use a large
subsection size. Perform the first analysis at a single frequency to evaluate how
EM
long an analysis takes. Then, provided you get fast results, try adding loss or
making the subsection size smaller. Keep going until the analysis is as long as you
can tolerate and then let it run over a full range of frequencies, perhaps overnight.
The main factor in analysis time is the number of subsections. Em prints out the
number of subsections if the Verbose option is used. As you gain experience with
em, you will get a good feel for what can be tolerated. For example, on a Sun
SPARCstation 1 with 16 Mbytes of memory, up to 1700 subsections (lossless) or
1200 subsections (with loss) can be calculated in an hour or so. At this point the
computer runs out of memory and starts swapping to disk, resulting in huge
increases in time.
To avoid the frustrations of getting on the slow side of the wall, start lossless with
big subsections. You may find that big subsections provide all the accuracy you
need!
First, keep in mind that em has two stages in the analysis. In the first stage, em fills
a large matrix. The matrix has one row/column for each subsection. This is where
em is calculating the coupling between every possible pair of subsections. In the
second stage, em is solving the matrix. Here, em is performing matrix inversion-
like functions and is calculating the currents which allow all boundary conditions
to be met. The different parameters affect each stage of the analysis differently.
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During analysis of the first frequency in a run, em prints out the amount of time
spent on various portions of the analysis. If the time spent in any particular section
of the analysis is less than one second, it is not printed out. Sections which are
timed include the waveguide mode calculation (prior to matrix fill), the matrix fill
and the matrix inversion.
Parameters which have no effect on analysis time include the substrate thickness,
cover height and number of ports. Each of these parameters is unlimited and have
no impact on speed while still maintaining complete accuracy.
Including metalization loss increases the matrix solve time only. And this is only
if the rest of the structure is lossless. If there is any dielectric loss or ground plane
(or top cover) loss, there is virtually no additional impact from also including
metalization loss (the whole calculation is already fully complex). The matrix
solution time is increased by about a factor of four (if it becomes complex).
Metalization loss has no impact on any other segment of the analysis.
Including dielectric loss, or ground plane or top cover loss, makes the entire
calculation complex. The matrix solve time is increased by about a factor of four,
while the matrix fill time is increased by about a factor of two.
In calculating the values for the matrix elements during the matrix fill, several two
dimensional Fourier Transforms must be calculated. The size of the Fourier
Transforms is the same size as the substrate in terms of cells. If a substrate is 128
x 64 cell, each Fourier Transform is 128 x 64 elements. Memory storage is
required for only one Fourier Transform at a time and this is usually much smaller
than the matrix being filled.
For large substrate dimensions (as measured in terms of cells), it is best to use a
power of two. With a substrate dimension of 32 cells, there is little difference
when a power of two is used. However if the substrate dimension is 512 cells,
noticeably slower execution results if one were to use 500 cells. With a power of
two, a FFT algorithm is automatically used to evaluate the Fourier Transform
which significantly improves processing time.
For non-binary substrate sizes, the analysis is speeded up by the use of chirp Z-
transforms in place of discrete Fourier Transforms for the matrix fill calculations.
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For all the above detail, keep in mind that if the substrate is small (less than
256x256 cells), the Fourier Transform time is of little consequence.
If the Quad Precision option is used, all matrix fill operations are performed in
quadruple precision. Depending on the computer and specific problem being
solved, this can add substantial time to the analysis. The precision used in the
matrix solve is not affected by the Quad Precision option.
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Matrix fill time is proportional to the number of subsections squared for large
circuits.
The number of subsections, for a given cell size, can be reduced by minimizing
the number of vertices and the number of diagonal lines in the polygonal
description of the circuit. If the circuit is symmetric with no more than two ports,
with both ports on the axis of symmetry, invoke the symmetry option for a
significant memory and time savings.
The matrix solve time is proportional to the number of subsections cubed and is
the main limitation on the analysis at this time.
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Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File
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Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis
of a Geometry File
There are two types of analysis that may be done in em: Geometry File or Network
File. This chapter describes how to invoke em and set up the analysis of a
geometry file. Chapter 25 will describe the analysis of a network file.
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Invoking em
You start the em program by selecting em Control from the Sonnet task bar. If you
do not know how to invoke the Sonnet task bar, refer to “Invoking Sonnet,”
page 11. When you select em Control, the main window with a new job window
will appear on your display as shown below.
Directory drop
down list
Directory text
entry box
Em job window.
When em is started, the main window opens with a new job file already open. How
to manipulate job files is discussed in “Job Files,” page 279.
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Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File
• To analyze a geometry file, click on the Geometry radio button under File
Type in the job window.
The job window will appear as shown in the figure on page 246. The Frequency
Controls and Options now available in the job window are those appropriate for
analyzing a geometry file. This window’s appearance will vary slightly for an
analysis of a network file.
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Analysis Input Files
This section will discuss specifying, and editing, the geometry file.
To select the geometry file for analysis, you must specify the directory and the file
name. The directory is entered in the box labeled “Start In :” and the file name is
entered in the File text entry box just above the Directory text entry box.
• Select the directory and file name.
You may enter these several different ways:
• Use the Browse button to browse the file system for the file name;
this will set both the directory and the file name.
OR
1 Set the directory by either:
• Editing the Directory text entry box
• Selecting a previously used directory from the Directory drop down
list.
2 Set the file name by either
• Editing the File text entry box
• Selecting a previously used file name from the file name drop down
list.
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You may wish to make changes to a geometry file before running an analysis by
editing the circuit in the xgeom program.
• Click on the Edit command button, which appears after the File text entry
box, to invoke the xgeom program with the geometry file open.
For details on how to use xgeom to modify your circuit, please see the Xgeom
User’s Manual.
! WARNING
You must save the circuit geometry file in xgeom for the changes
made in the editing session to be available before running an
analysis.
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Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File
1 Click on the Simple Sweep radio button in the Frequency Control section of
the job window.
2 Enter the Start, Stop and Step values in the appropriate text entry boxes.
EM
If you wish to analyze at only one frequency, enter that frequency in the Start text
entry box. Otherwise, Start provides the beginning frequency, Stop the ending
frequency and Step the spacing. For instance if the Frequency Units were set to
GHz, then the values of 2, 10, 2 would start an analysis at 2 GHz and end at 10
GHz with steps of 2 GHz (e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 GHz)
TIP
If you omit the step value in a simple sweep, the circuit is analyzed at two
frequencies, the start and stop values.
Select the units for the analysis frequencies from the Frequency drop list. The
choices are Hz, KHz, MHz, GHz, THz and PHz. The default setting upon opening
a new em interface is GHz.
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This will enable the Edit button to allow you to set up a complex sweep.
2 Click on the Edit command button which appears next to the Complex
Sweep radio button.
The Analysis Control dialog box will appear as shown below. This dialog box
allows you to edit frequency control information. For details on how to edit the
complex sweep, see “Editing Analysis Controls,” page 264.
There may be times where you will wish to analyze multiple circuits at the same
set of frequencies. Rather than specifying frequency control information on an
individual basis, you set the up the information once in an analysis control file.
You then specify the analysis control file as input to control each analysis. An
analysis control file may be used to control the analysis frequencies for either a
geometry or network file. You may specify an analysis control file and edit the
contents in the same manner as a Complex Sweep. For details about the contents
and syntax of an analysis control file, see Appendix II, “The Analysis Control File
Format.”
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Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File
• Click on the Analysis File radio button under Frequency Control in the em
job window.
Enter the file name of the desired analysis control file.
NOTE: The default directory for the analysis control file will be the same as
the input file specified in the top of the job window. If you wish to use
EM
a control file from a different directory use the Browse command or
type the complete or relative pathname of the file.
You may edit the specified analysis control file by clicking on the Edit command
button. This will open the Analysis Control dialog box. For details on using the
dialog box to edit your file, see section “Editing Analysis Controls,” page 264.
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If this option is on, an output file containing the de-embedded response data is
produced. The name defaults to the circuit geometry file basename with a “.d”
extension. For example, if the input file is “steps.geo” then the response file is
automatically named “steps.d”. If you wish to name the output file differently see
“Specifying Output Files,” page 270.
Memory Save Option: The system matrix is filled in single precision which
reduces memory requirements for storing the matrix to one half of that of double
precision. If this option is not used, the matrix is stored in double precision. This
option affects only the matrix storage and the matrix solution. The precision of the
matrix fill calculations is not affected.
Make emvu File Option: Outputs current density information for the entire
circuit which can be viewed using emvu. For details on using the emvu program,
see the Emvu User’s Manual.
The file name for the current density information defaults to the input file
basename with the extension “.jxy”. For example, if the input file is “steps.geo”,
then the current density file will be named “steps.jxy”. If you wish to name the
output file differently, see “Specifying Output Files,” page 270. If the “.jxy” file
already exists, it is renamed “.jxb” and output is sent to the new, empty, “.jxy” file.
In this case, any previous “.jxb” file is lost.
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1 Click on the Additional Options command button in the job window to open
the Additional Options dialog box, shown below.
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The dialog box contains sections for selecting run mode, output parameter type,
output data format, output file format, and various options as well as a text entry
box for entering advanced options.
2 Select the Run Mode.
To execute em in the normal manner and perform a full analysis, you click on the
Full Analysis radio button.
If you click on the Calculate Memory Usage radio button, em will calculate the
number of subsections followed by an estimate of the number of Mbytes of
memory required. The actual analysis is not performed.
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This option affects only the matrix fill calculations. This option and Memory Save
are completely independent.
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Chapter 24 Em Interface: Analysis of a Geometry File
7 Enter any desired advanced options in the Advanced Options text entry box.
This text entry box allows you to enter advanced command options that are not
otherwise available. For details on the options and their specifications see
Appendix I, “The em Command Line.”
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Chapter 25 Em Interface: Analysis of a Network File
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Chapter 25 Em Interface: Analysis
of a Network File
There are two types of analysis that may be done in em: Geometry File or Network
File. This chapter describes how to set up the analysis of a network file in em.
Chapter 24 describes the analysis of a geometry file.
For details about invoking em, see “Invoking em,” page 246.
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The job window will appear as shown below. The Frequency Controls and
Options now available in the job window are those appropriate for analyzing a
network file. This window’s appearance will vary slightly for an analysis of a
geometry file.
This allows you to select the network file which you wish to analyze.
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Chapter 25 Em Interface: Analysis of a Network File
You may also change directories by picking one from the drop list attached to the
Start In text entry box.
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Editing a Network File
You may wish to make changes to a network file before running an analysis by
editing the contents of the file.
• Click on the Edit command button, which appears after the File text entry
box, to invoke Notepad, or Vi, with the netlist file open.
Notepad is an ASCII text editor, available on all Windows platforms. For details
on how to use Notepad please see the appropriate documentation in your Windows
package. For details on the network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network File.”
! WARNING
You must save the network file for the changes made in the editing
session to be available before running an analysis.
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The Frequency Control section of the job window for a network file analysis.
A simple sweep functions the same when used to analyze a network file or a
geometry file. For details on the simple sweep, see “Setting up a Simple Sweep,”
page 248.
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The Verbose option is set to on by default in a new job run. This option will cause
em to display messages in the output window during program execution
describing the present state of the analysis.
EM
There are additional options available for a network file analysis in the Additional
Options dialog box. These options provide advanced control over em’s execution.
• Click on the Additional Options command button in the job window to open
the Additional Options dialog box.
The dialog box contains three options and an Advanced Option text entry box. To
select an individual option, click on the checkbox. The option is on if a check
appears inside the checkbox. The options and their use are described below.
Use last data sets only Option: This will exclude all data sets present in an
existing em response file except the final set with a tag which matches the tag
specified in the SNP statement. See “Using Data Tags,” page 146.
Do not check for consistency Option: Em will not check for geometry file
consistency. All data sets in an existing em response file are read regardless of
consistency. See “Geometry File Consistency,” page 148 for details.
Force Running Option: This will ignore any existing analysis data. All em
analyses are run at all frequencies.
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Advanced Options: This text entry box allows you to enter advanced command
line options that are not otherwise available. For details on the options and their
specifications, see Appendix I, “The em Command Line.”
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Chapter 26 Em Interface: Run
Controls
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You add frequency controls by clicking on the Add, Add IFS... or Add Separator
command buttons in the Analysis Control dialog box. Entries will appear in the
Frequency Control Entries list box.
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EM
This dialog box allows you to define one of four types of sweeps: a simple sweep,
single frequency, exponential sweep or linear sweep. You select the type of sweep
by clicking on the respective radio button. You then enter the required
specifications for that sweep type in the text entry boxes. The sweep types and
associated data are described below. An entry line will appear in the Frequency
Control Entries list in the Analysis Control dialog box when you click on the OK
command button.
Sweep: An entry line starting with SWEEP specifies a list of analysis frequencies.
Three numbers specify a start, stop and step. Step provides the increment between
frequencies. For example,
The start, stop and step are all checked for error conditions. As many SWEEP lines
may be used as is needed. When complete, the frequency list is sorted. There is no
limit on the number of frequencies.
Single Sweep: An entry line starting with STEP followed by up to three discrete
frequency points as desired. The text entry boxes are FREQ1, FREQ2 and
FREQ3. You may enter up to 3 individual frequencies if desired. For example,
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Chapter 26 Em Interface: Run Controls
EM
This dialog box allows you to define one of three types of sweeps: an auto sweep,
a find minimum sweep and a find maximum sweep.You select the type of sweep
by clicking on the respective radio button. You then enter the required
specifications for that sweep type in the text entry boxes which appear. The sweep
types and associated data are described below. The command will appear in the
Frequency Control Entries list in the Analysis Control dialog box when you click
on the OK command button.
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resolution allowed for the analysis. All frequency points chosen by em will be
spaced by at least the precision value. The Parameter text entry box defines the
parameter for which you wish to determine the minimum value. For instance,
“S2_1” would be S21. The Number of Points text entry box is the number of
frequencies between the start and stop frequency at which em will analyze. This
optional value can be used to set a reasonable limit on the number of iterations in
the analysis.
Find Max: Find Max functions in the same manner as Find Min except that it
determines the frequency where the circuit response reaches a maximum.
Entering a Separator
• Click on the Add Separator command button to add an END statement to the
Frequency Control Entries.
The END command causes em to sort and analyze all frequencies not yet analyzed
which precede the END keyword. A separator is used to force a particular order
of frequencies.
After you have entered a frequency control, you may wish to change it.
• Click on the entry in the Frequency Control Entries text box.
The entry will be highlighted in reverse video. Click on the Edit command button
to open the appropriate dialog box to edit the command. The same dialog box that
was used to enter the command will now appear. Click on the Delete command
button to delete the entry.
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Chapter 26 Em Interface: Run Controls
• Click on the SPICE command button in the Analysis Control dialog box to
open the SPICE dialog box.
EM
The SPICE dialog box allows you to enter the parameters necessary for producing
a SPICE lumped model. The parameters are defined below. To enter a value, edit
the respective text entry box.
Rmax: This value specifies the largest resistor allowed for inclusion in the SPICE
lumped model, in ohms. The default value is 1000.0 ohms.
Cmin: This values specifies the smallest capacitor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in pF. The default value is 0.1 pF.
Lmax: This values specifies the largest inductor allowed for inclusion in a SPICE
lumped model, in nH. The default value is 100.0 nH.
Kmin: This values specifies the smallest mutual inductance allowed for inclusion
in a SPICE lumped model; it is a dimensionless ratio. The default value is 0.01.
Rzero: This value specifies the resistor to go in series with all lossless inductors,
in ohms. This parameter is provided for those versions of SPICE which require
inductors with some small loss, to avoid numerical difficulties. The default value
of 0.0 disables this capability.
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NOTE: The higher of the two values, the entered subsectioning frequency or
the highest frequency specified in the analysis, is used as the
subsectioning frequency.
When you are done editing an analysis control file, you may save the file under
the same name, or a different name by clicking on the Save command button and
the Save As command button, respectively.
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• Click on the Output Files command button in the job window to open the
Select Output Files dialog box.
EM
To select an output file, click on the checkbox and edit the accompanying text
entry box with the desired file name, if the default name is not acceptable. The file
name defaults to the basename of the input geometry file with the appropriate
extension. For example for a non-de-embedded response file the extension is
“.nd”. If “steps.geo” is the input file, then the output file would default to
“steps.nd”. The type of output files are described below.
.nd name: This file type contains response parameters with no de-embedding
done. The file name must end with a “.nd” extension. This is the default output file
if the De-embed option is not set.
.d name: This file type contains response parameters with de-embedding
applied.The file name must end with a “.d” extension. Selecting this output file
will also set the De-embed option in the job window. This output file is selected
with the default file name if the De-embed option is set.
.jxy name: This file type contains current density data for use with the emvu
program.The file name must end with a “.jxy” extension. Selecting this output file
will also set the Make Emvu File option in the job window. This output file is
selected with the default file name if the Make Emvu File option is set.
.pnd name: This file type is a high precision circuit response file with no de-
embedding. The high precision output files contain S-parameter data in real/
imaginary format with more precision than a “.d” or “.nd” file. They are primarily
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intended for internal use when executing a GEO line in a network file. Generally,
you do not need to be concerned with these files. However, you may wish to create
a high precision file if you plan on re-using the data in a network analysis.
.pd name: This file type is the same as the “.pnd” file except the response data is
de-embedded.
.lc name: This file type contains a SPICE lumped model suitable for
incorporating as a “.subckt” directly in a SPICE deck. For a detailed discussion of
the SPICE file options, see Chapter 16, “SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis.” The
file name must end with a “.lc” extension.
.lct name: This file type contains a SPICE distributed N-coupled line RLCG
matrix in SPICE format. For a detailed discussion of the SPICE file options, see
Chapter 16, “SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis.” The file name must end with a
“.lct” extension.
Running an em Analysis
This section discusses running an em analysis: starting, stopping, pausing and
viewing run lists.
The run list allows you to set up a sequence of em jobs, to be run one after another.
The run list contains a list of command line equivalents of the options and files
specified in each job. Multiple entries in the run list may be used in a batch like
manner to execute multiple analysis runs.
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Chapter 26 Em Interface: Run Controls
• To view the run list, click on the Show Run List toggle button, or select View
⇒ Run List from the main menu.
The run list will appear at the bottom of the job window as shown below.
EM
The em job window with the run list displayed.
To hide the run list, click on the Hide Run List toggle button, or select View ⇒ Run
List from the main menu.
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“Not Run” means the command line has not yet been executed. The -dv is for the
De-embed and Verbose options which are set by default at initialization. As you
use the interface to select files, frequency controls and run options, this command
line will be modified to reflect those choices. For instance, if you select the
geometry file, “steps.geo” and the analysis control file, “ctl.an”, then the entry
would appear as follows:
Once the entry has been executed by clicking on the Run command button, the
entry will start with “Finished:” in place of “Not Run.”
It is possible to have multiple entries in the run list. When the Run command
button is clicked, all the entries which have not yet run will be executed. This
allows you to set up multiple analyses of the same or different circuits and execute
with one action.
• To add a new entry to the run list, click on the New command button.
The default entry of
will be highlighted. The highlighted entry will be affected by actions taken in the
job window.
You may wish to add an additional entry to the run list which is similar to an
existing entry in the run list. To do so, you may copy an entry and add it to the run
list as described below.
1 Click on the entry you wish to copy.
This entry will be highlighted, indicating it is the active entry.
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2 Click on the Copy command button to the right of the run list.
This will enable the Paste Above and Paste Below command buttons.
3 If you wish the new entry to appear above the current entry, click on the
Paste Above command button.
The new entry is highlighted, as the active entry, above the original command. The
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Paste Below command button operates in the same manner, except that the new
entry appears below the original.
If you wish to delete an entry from the run list, perform the following:
1 Click on the entry to make it the active entry.
2 Click on the Cut command button to delete the entry.
The entry deleted by the Cut command is now available for the Paste Above and
Paste Below commands.
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Starting an em Analysis
• Click on the Run command button in the job window or select Run ⇒ Start
Run from the em main menu.
Em will execute the analysis, and the Output window, shown below, will appear
on your display. If the verbose option is set, em will output status messages as it
executes.
Em output
window.
Pausing an em Analysis
• Click on the Pause command button at the bottom of the Output window or
select Run ⇒ Pause Run from the em main menu.
This will stop the execution of an em analysis until the Continue command button
is clicked.
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Continuing an em Analysis
• Click on the Continue command button at the bottom of the Output window
or select Run ⇒ Continue Run from the em main menu.
This will start execution of an em analysis which has been paused.
Stopping an em Analysis
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• Click on the Stop command button at the bottom of the Output window or
select Run ⇒ Stop Run from the em main menu.
This will abort the em execution. Data from frequencies that have been completed
will be saved, but data from the frequency currently being processed is lost.
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You may save the contents of the Output window in a text file.
• Select File ⇒ Save As from the main menu.
This opens the Save As dialog box which allows you to save the contents of the
Output window, as a text file, to the specified file name.
You may observe your response data using the plotting program, emgraph, by
invoking the program directly from the output window.
• Click on the Open Graph button at the bottom of the Output window.
This will invoke the emgraph program with a Cartesian graph. For information on
using emgraph, see the Emgraph User’s Manual.
Emgraph may also be invoked by selecting View ⇒ Graph from the em main
menu.
Note that emgraph will not load a file when analyzing a network; open the desired
file from within the emgraph program.
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You may observe the far-field radiation patterns of your analysis data using the
visualization tool, patvu, by invoking the program directly from the output
window.
• Select View ⇒ Open Patvu from the menu of the output window.
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This will invoke the patvu program with a far-field plot for the default data. For
information on using patvu, see the Patvu User’s Manual.
You may observe your response data file using the ASCII text editor, Notepad, on
Windows systems and the Vi editor on UNIX systems, by invoking the program
directly from the output window.
• Select View ⇒ Open Data from the menu of the output window.
This will invoke Notepad on Windows, or Vi on UNIX, with the response data file
open. For information on using these editors, please see the appropriate
documentation for the program.
Notepad, or Vi, may also be invoked by selecting View ⇒ Data from the em main
menu.
Note that em will not load a file when analyzing a network; open the desired file
from within the text editor program.
Job Files
A job file is used to store all the run options set in the em window that control an
analysis. This section will discuss opening job files, creating new job files and
saving job files.
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A job file allows you to save to disk all the run options and input and output files
that have been specified for a particular analysis run.
• Select File ⇒ New from the main menu.
A new job window will appear in your display. You may use this window and its
dialog boxes to specify input files, output files and run options to control an
analysis run. You may then execute the analysis.
You can open an existing job file in em. The file extension must be “.job”.
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Open File dialog box for
UNIX
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If the file you want to open is not in the scroll list, change to another directory by
double-clicking a directory name in the scroll list or by typing a different name in
the text box above the scroll list and clicking Open. This will open a task window
containing the specified job file.
3 Click Open.
A job window will be opened containing the specified job file.
To open the file in one step, double-click the document name in the scroll list.
If the file you want to open is not in the scroll list, change to another directory by
double-clicking a directory name in the scroll list or by typing a different name in
the text box above the scroll list.
The job file will replace the old job in the active job window.
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To save the current job file, select File ⇒ Save from the main menu.
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When you save a job you can change its name or location. When you change a job
file’s name or location you make a copy of the job file.
• Select File ⇒ Save As from the main menu.
This opens the Save As dialog box, similar to the Open File dialog box shown in
the figure on page 281, which allows you to change the name or location of your
job file.
Enter the directory and file name under which you want to save the file. Then click
on the Save command button or press the return key.
This command is useful if you have made changes to a job file which you wish to
discard.
Em Control Preferences
The preferences dialog box, accessed by selecting File ⇒ Preferences from the
main menu, allows you to control program settings for em Control.
To set the default cache directory and a limit on cache memory perform the
following:
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references dialog
box.
2 Enter the desired directory for Cache memory in the Cache Directory text
entry box.
You must enter the complete path of the directory name. A directory called
"sonnet_cache" is created in the specified directory. Any value entered in this text
box overrides the global value, if any, entered in the sonnet.ini file. For details
about the sonnet.ini file, see Chapter 8, "Initialization File" in the Sonnet
Installation Manual.
3 Enter the desired limit, in Megabytes, in the Cache Limit text entry box.
Enter the maximum amount of disk space available to use for the cache data. If
you do not wish to limit the amount of disk space, leave “None” in the text entry
box. If a particular simulation exceeds this limit, em will automatically disable
MFC for that simulation.
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You may specify startup run options in the Preferences dialog box. The run
options specified are set for all subsequent jobs.
1 Select File ⇒ Preferences from the main menu.
The Preferences dialog box appears on your display as shown on page 284.
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2 Enter the command line run options you wish to have as default in the
Startup Options text entry box.
Any options you enter will be set when a new job window is invoked. For
example, entering “-vd” sets the Verbose and De-embed options. For details about
command line options, see “The em Command Line,” page 287.
Clicking on the Set to Top Window button enters any options presently set in the
job window into the Startup Options text entry box. For example, if the Verbose,
De-embed and Make emvu file options are set in the main job window and the
Quad Precision option is selected in the Additional Options dialog box when you
click on the Set to Top Window button, then "-djqv" appears in the Startup
Options text entry box.
3 Click on the OK command button.
This closes the dialog box and applies your entries. These preferences are used in
all subsequent em jobs, including additions to the run list, but not for the present
job.
You may specify a default simple sweep in the Preferences dialog box. The simple
sweep specified will be used in any subsequent em jobs.
4 Enter the Start, Stop and Step values in the appropriate text entry boxes in
the Startup Simple Sweep section of the Preferences dialog box.
If you wish to analyze at only one default frequency, enter that frequency in the
Start text entry box. Otherwise, Start provides the beginning frequency, Stop the
ending frequency and Step the interval between analysis frequencies. For instance
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if the Frequency Units were set to GHz, then the values of 2, 10, 2 would start an
analysis at 2 GHz and end at 10 GHz with steps of 2 GHz (e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10
GHz)
5 Select the desired frequency units from the drop list.
You may select from Hz, KHz, MHz, GHz, THz, and PHz. This sets the units used
for the specified frequencies.
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Appendix I The em Command Line
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Appendix I The em Command
Line
This appendix details the em command line. The command line appears in the Run
List in the main em window. This chapter also serves as syntax guide for a batch
file or for the OPT field in a GEO command in a network file.
Options discussed here, that are not available through em Control, may be entered
in the Advanced Options text entry box in the Additional Options dialog box.
These will be identified as advanced options.
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where [options] is a list of command line options and [files] is a list of input and
output files.
The [options] list is made up of one or more groups of options, with each group
preceded by a minus sign (-). For example, the following are equivalent ways to
express the same <options> list:
-vdmjbx5
-v -d -m -j -b -x5
Options
-h List frequently used options to your screen. This is only available as an advanced
option.
-m Memory saver option. The system matrix is filled in single precision which
reduces memory requirements for storing the matrix to one half of that of double
precision. On some computers, matrix solution time is also faster. If this option is
not used, the matrix is stored in double precision. This option affects only the
matrix storage and the matrix solution. The precision of the matrix fill calculations
is not affected (see “-q”).
This is available as the Memory Save option in the Options section of the job
window. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-q Quadruple precision option. If cell size is less than about 10-5 wavelengths and
vias are used in the circuit, numerical precision can cause numerical error. This
option switches the matrix fill calculations to quadruple precision so that very low
frequency analysis is accurate. For example, for a cell size of 1 micron and a
frequency of 1 GHz, errors are often seen, and the -q option should be used.
Be aware, however, that Quad Precision can slow the analysis down substantially;
use the option only when necessary. Analyzing the circuit at a higher frequency is
often a better solution.
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This option affects only the matrix fill calculations. The matrix is still stored and
solved in double (or single, if “-m”) precision. This option and “-m” are
completely independent.
This is available as the Quad Precision checkbox in the Additional Options dialog
box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
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-z parameters are normalized to 1 ohm independent of port terminations. If no option
is specified, S-parameters are stored.
These options are available under the Parameters section of the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
This option is available under the File Format section of the Additional Options
dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-n Specify a name for the output SPICE sub-circuit (see -x) or for the S-parameter
output data. For example, “em -x -nModel_name”.
This is an advanced option and is available only by editing the Advanced Options
text entry box in the Additional options dialog box.
-r Specify the file for circuit response (usually S-parameter) data. Specifying a
command line file name which ends with a period followed by “nd” or “d” is
equivalent to specifying the option. This option is usually used when the desired
response file does not end with “.nd” or “.d”, for example, “-rAnswer.s2p”.
This is an advanced option and is available only by editing the Advanced Options
text entry box in the Additional options dialog box. Note that this option will only
function if all output file types are turned off in the Output Files dialog box.
-g Specify the file for circuit geometry. Default file is “cir.geo”. Specifying a
command line file name which ends with a period followed by “geo” is equivalent
to specifying the option. For example, “-gFile.geo”.
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This option is available in the Geometry File text entry box in the job window.
Available only for a geometry file analysis.
-a Specify the analysis control file. Default file is “ctl.an.” Specifying a command
line file name which ends in a “.an” is equivalent to specifying the option. If the
option “-astdin” is specified or if the analysis control file does not exist, the user
is prompted for a start, stop and step frequency in MHz.
These options are available in the Frequency Control section of the job window.
-j Outputs current density information. Specifying a command line file name which
ends with “.jxy” is equivalent to specifying the option. If the “.jxy” file already
exists, it is renamed “.jxb” and output is sent to the new, empty, “.jxy” file. In this
case, any previous “.jxb” file is lost.
This option is available by selecting the Make emvu file option in the job window
or by specifying a “.jxy” file in the Output Files dialog box. Available only for
geometry file analyses.
-J Outputs current density file containing subsectioning information only. Emvu will
show circuit as completely red, but can be useful to view subsectioning. If the
“.jxy” file already exists, it is renamed “.jxb” and output is sent to the new, empty,
“.jxy” file. In this case, any previous “.jxb” file is lost.
This option is available by selecting Generate Subsections Only in the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
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This option is available by selecting a “.lc” file in the Output Files dialog box and
entering the values in the SPICE dialog box accessible in the Analysis Control
dialog box. However, if you wish to use the number of digits you must enter -xn
in the Advanced text entry box in the Additional Options dialog box. Available
only for geometry file analyses.
EM
other words, the edge subsections are always one cell wide regardless of X Min or
Y Min. When used in conjunction with large X Min or Y Min values, this option
can be very useful in reducing the number of subsections but still maintaining the
edge singularity.
This option is available as the Edge Mesh option in the Additional Options dialog
box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-F Force multi-frequency caching (MFC) to run above the cutoff frequency for box
resonances. By default, the MFC algorithm computes a cutoff frequency above
which box resonances may occur. MFC is then enabled for all frequencies up to
the cutoff frequency. This option forces MFC to be enabled at all frequencies. You
may use this option when there are no box resonances present in the frequency
band over which you are analyzing. Note, however, if you use this option and
there are box resonances present in the analysis band, the s-parameter results over
the entire band may be corrupted.
-X SPICE distributed N-coupled line RLCG matrix synthesis. The geometry must be
an N-coupled line. Only a single frequency need be specified. Output are the L and
C N x N matrices for the N-coupled line. If there is metal loss, R is also generated.
If there is dielectric loss, G is also generated. Output file name is “spice.lct”,
unless there is a file ending in “.lct” on the command line.
This option is available by selecting a “.lct” file in the Output Files dialog box.
Available only for geometry file analyses.
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-d The circuit is automatically de-embedded to the specified reference planes (see the
geometry file description). This is the only case in which the reference plane
information is used. Specifying a command line file name which ends with a
period followed by “d” is equivalent to specifying the option.
This option is available by selecting the De-Embed option in the job window or
by specifying a “.d” file in the Output Files dialog box. Available only for
geometry file analyses.
-b Detects potential box resonances and prints out a warning message just before the
frequency data in the output file.
This option is available as the Detect Box Resonances option in the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-e This option disables the detection of polygon edges on other than the present level
for subsectioning purposes. If thin dielectric layers are used (for example,
capacitor dielectrics), this option is not recommended. May result in a less
accurate, but faster analysis.
This option is only available by entering it in the Advanced text entry box in the
Additional Options dialog box. Available for both geometry and network file
analyses.
-P Outputs higher precision numbers (more significant figures) to the response file.
This option is available as the High Precision Output option in the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
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This option is available as the Mag/dB option in the Additional Options dialog
box. Available only for geometry file analyses.
-f Outputs comma separated value data for use in common spread sheet programs
such as Excel by Microsoft Corporation. The output file will be named
“basename.csv.” For example, if you are analyzing “steps.geo” with the -f option,
the output file would be named “steps.csv.” This filename extension is reserved
EM
for Excel.
This is only available as an advanced option.
-ver Prints out the present version of em and license id and exits. Must be the first
option on the command line. All other options are ignored.
This option is available only as an advanced option. All other options must be off,
and this option entered into the Advanced text entry box in the Additional options
dialog box for it to function properly.
-Oforcerun Ignore any existing em analysis data. All em analyses are run at all frequencies.
This option is available as the Force Running option in the Additional Options
dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-Ofs<int> Specify the field size (number of characters) for network output results. The <int>
value must be > 2. For example, if -Ofs7 is specified:
• 2 is stored as 2.00000
• -3 is stored as -3.0000
• 4e-9 is stored as 4.00e-9
The default field size is 8 for S-parameter magnitudes and 6 for S-parameter
phases.
This option is only available by entering it in the Advanced text entry box in the
Additional Options dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-Olast Exclude all data sets present in an input file except the final set with a tag which
matches the tag specified in the SNP statement. See “The CKT Data Block,”
page 142 for details.
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This option is available as the Use last data sets only option in the Additional
Options dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-Onocheck Do not check for geometry file consistency. All data sets in an existing em
response file are read regardless of consistency. See “Geometry File
Consistency,” page 148 for details.
This option is available as the Do not check for consistency option in the
Additional Options dialog box. Available only for network file analyses.
-SNP This option outputs a Touchstone format frequency sorted response file.
Input/Output Files
The input and output files specified on the em command line vary depending upon
the type of analysis being performed.
For a network file analysis, you must specify a network (“.net”) input file on the
command line. Generally, this is the only file specified on the command line when
analyzing a network file. All other input and output files are usually specified
within the network file. The only exception is an analysis control file (“.an”). If
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you specify an analysis control file along with a network file on the em command
line, em will ignore all information contained in the FREQ block of the network
file and will instead use the information contained in the analysis control file.
Analysis Input file. The file name must end with “.an”. This file can set the frequencies for
EM
Control File analysis, among other things. For executing from a batch file, if the file does not
exist, you will receive an error message.
When performing a network file analysis, if you specify an analysis control file in
the command line, em will ignore all information contained in the FREQ block of
the network file and will instead use the information contained in the analysis
control file. This is the equivalent of selecting Analysis File under Frequency
Control in the job window.
Circuit Input file. The file name is required to end with “.geo.” The circuit geometry file
Geometry can be created with a geometry capture program such as xgeom, see the Xgeom
File User’s Manual. If the circuit geometry file does not exist, em terminates.
Network Input file. The file name is required to end with “.net.” The network file can be
File created with an ASCII text editor, such as Notepad or Vi. For details on the
network file, see Chapter 11, “The em Network File.”
Circuit Output file. The file name should end with “.nd” or “.d”. If the file ends with “.d”,
Response automatic de-embedding is enabled. Otherwise, the file name must be specified
File with the -r option. This file contains the N-port circuit parameters (e.g., S-
parameters) of the circuit being analyzed. This file can be used for input directly
to any of a number of high frequency circuit analysis programs. If the analysis is
run with High Precision invoked (-p), the resulting circuit response file will end
with “.pnd” or “.pd” extension.
If the -SNP option is used, then a Touchstone format frequency sorted response
file is output with the extension ".s<n>p" or ".s<nn>" where <n> is the number of
ports when the number of ports is less than 10 and <nn> is the number of ports
when the number of ports is greater than 10.
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Current Output file. The file name usually ends with “.jxy”. This file stores current density
Density File information on the file for later viewing by emvu. Analysis time is increased by
this option and the file can take up a large amount of disc space if the circuit is
large with many ports.
SPICE File Output file. The file name should end with a “.lc” or a “.lct.” The “.lc” file contains
a lumped model of inductors, capacitors, resistors and mutual inductors. The “.lct”
file contains LCRG matrices for N-coupled transmission lines. These matrices
represent the distributed parameters of the transmission lines. See Chapter 16,
“SPICE Lumped Model Synthesis,” for a detailed discussion of the SPICE
options.
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Appendix II The Analysis Control File Format
EM
Appendix II The Analysis Control
File Format
The analysis control file controls the frequencies used for analysis as well as other
analysis parameters. The file is required to have a name ending with “.an”. If no
file name is specified in the command line, em looks for “ctl.an” in the current
directory. If that file is not found, em returns an error message.
Any line with a first non-space character of “!” is ignored. Any blank line is also
ignored. Comments following any complete line of data are allowed.
In the keywords that follow, only the specified number of letters (3 or 4) are
significant. Upper and lower case letters are allowed. Additional letters may be
used but they do not alter the program’s execution. For example, “VER”,
“VERSION” and “VERTRFGH” all have the same effect. There may be no more
than 255 characters per line.
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VER Any line with the first three characters “VER” is taken to specify the em version
number. Up to five characters following the end of the first space characters
following “VER” are read into em. This information is required for compatibility
with future versions. The VER line should be the first non-comment line in the
file.
ANN When the response file is created, the analysis parameter file is searched for any
lines beginning with ANN. The remainder of any lines found are listed in the
heading of the circuit response file. This is useful for the automatic documentation
of the em analysis output.
HZ Frequency units can be specified by a line with “HZ”, “KHZ”, “MHZ”, “GHZ”,
KHZ “THZ”, or “PHZ”. The frequency units can be changed as often as desired within
the same analysis file. All frequencies specified on a FRE line must be in the units
MHZ most recently specified. If no units have been specified, MHZ is assumed. If no
frequency units were specified in the command line, the frequency units in effect
HZ at the end of the analysis file is used for the circuit response file. Frequency units
specified in the command line have no effect on how the analysis file is read.
SWEEP A line starting with SWEEP specifies a list of analysis frequencies. SWEEP may
be followed by one, two or three numbers. One or two numbers specify one or two
frequencies. Three numbers specify a start, stop and step. The start, stop and step
are all checked for error conditions. As many SWEEP lines may be used as is
needed. When the file is complete, the frequency list is sorted. Duplicate
frequencies are not removed. There is no limit on the number of frequencies.
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EEFF Followed by a floating point number, specifies the effective dielectric constant
(Eeff) used to calculate the wavelength for satisfying the subsections/wavelength
parameter. If not specified, or if it is less than 1.0, the parameter is ignored and a
simple estimate of Eeff is used.
END Sort and analyze all frequencies (not yet analyzed) which precede the END
keyword. Used to force a particular order of frequencies.
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STEP Followed by as many discrete frequency points as desired.
CMIN Followed by a number, specifies the smallest capacitor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in pF.
LMAX Followed by a number, specifies the largest inductor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in nH.
RMAX Followed by a number, specifies the largest resistor allowed for inclusion in a
SPICE lumped model, in ohms.
KMIN Followed by a number, specifies the smallest mutual inductance allowed for
inclusion in a SPICE lumped model, dimensionless ratio
RZERO Followed by a number, specifies the resistor to go in series with all lossless
inductors, in ohms. Needed for some versions of SPICE.
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example, if prec = 0.10, f1 = 1.0 and f2 = 2.0, the algorithm is constrained to the
following frequencies: 1.00, 1.10, 1.20, 1.30, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60, 1.70, 1.80, 1.90 and
2.00.
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Appendix III LEVEL1 and LEVEL1plus
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Appendix III LEVEL1 and LEVEL1plus
This appendix describes the restrictions on the software for the LEVEL1 and
LEVEL1plus suites.
LEVEL1 Suite
The LEVEL1 suite includes the following Sonnet products, with the limitations
cited below: xgeom, em, emgraph, emvu, dxfgeo, and patvu. The circuit network
capability is available as an add-on purchase, but is not available in the LEVEL1
demo.
• One metalization layer available.
The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of metalization layers; LEVEL1
is limited to one metalization layer. The option to add another dielectric layer, and
hence another metalization layer is not available. The Add Below and Add Above
buttons in the Dielectric Layers dialog box in xgeom are disabled.
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Appendix III LEVEL1 and LEVEL1plus
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The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of ports in a circuit. A maximum
of 4 ports are allowed in the LEVEL1 suite. After 4 ports have been added to a
circuit in xgeom, the Add Port button on the tool box and the Tools ⇒ Add Port
menu item are disabled.
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LEVEL1plus Suite
The limitations on the LEVEL1plus suite are the same as the LEVEL1 suite with the
following exceptions:
• 128 Megabyte memory limit.
The full Sonnet suite allows use of an unlimited memory space, although most
users limit the memory to the size of their physical memory. LEVEL1plus limits
you to the use of 128 Megabytes of memory (twice that of LEVEL1) regardless of
the memory available.
The full Sonnet suite allows an unlimited number of internal ports. LEVEL1plus
suite allows internal ports. Note that these ports are counted as part of the 6 port
limit.
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Appendix IV Warning and Error Messages
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Appendix IV Warning and Error
Messages
The following is a list of error and warning messages that may be generated by
em. When warning messages occur, em continues to run. A warning message
should be considered important to note, but does not necessarily mean that you
have done anything wrong. When error messages occur, em does not continue to
run.
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Warning Messages
Below <freq> use of Memory Saver (-m) may result in error.
At extremely low frequencies, when the subsections size is on the order of 0.0001
wavelength or smaller, single precision may not be enough to allow the matrix to
be properly inverted. In this case, very strange results are generated. For example,
S21 may be different from S12. In such a case, eliminate the -m option and re-
analyze.
This means that a polygon has been found that does not contain any subsections.
Look at the xgeom file at these <x,y> locations. One reason a polygon may not
have metal is because it is outside of the xgeom box. Another reason might be
because the polygon is too small. Any polygon that is smaller than 1 cell by 2 cells
may have missing subsections. No current is allowed to flow in the X or Y
direction in these locations.
Circuit outside of box at (<x>, <y>), level <n>. All circuit out-
side of box is ignored.
This means that em found part of the circuit to be outside the xgeom box. To find
the problem area, bring up xgeom and go to level <n>. Make sure your origin is
set to “Top Left” (using View ⇒ Origin). Then use the ruler to determine the
location of the coordinates given by <x> and <y> in the warning message. If the
circuit is only slightly outside the box (less than a half a cell), this message may
be ignored. To correct the problem, you may snap the offending polygon(s) to the
grid (using Edit ⇒ Snap).
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Appendix IV Warning and Error Messages
This message means that something may be wrong with de-embedding. Some
possible causes for this problem are box resonances, higher order propagating
modes, and short reference planes or calibration standards. Try taking out the
reference planes or making them longer. If you do not have reference planes, then
try specifying a calibration standard for the side specified in the error message.
EM
Usually a reference plane or a calibration standard length of 2-3 substrate
thicknesses is sufficient.
The subsections/wavelength parameter was less than 6 in the geometry file <geo
file> being analyzed. The em analysis requires that the parameter have a minimum
value of 6 subsections/wavelength. This minimum value is used in place of the
value specified in the geo file.
Some computers do not support quad precision. This message occurs when quad
precision is attempted on a computer that does not support quad precision.
Precision problems have been found with ultra-thin layers. When this occurs, the
data may be incorrect. Try setting the thickness a little larger than 0.05 microns.
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Em User’s Manual
Your “.geo” file must be an N-coupled line with ports 1 through N as input and
ports N+1 through 2N as output. The input of line M should be port M and its
output should be port M+N. The software does not check for this condition, but
issues a warning message if the number of ports is not an even number. This
restriction does not apply to generating “.lc” files, only generating “lct” files.
There is no limit on N.
Error Messages
Bottom ref. plane must be more than 3 cells long.
The reference plane associated with the bottom side of the box is too short for
accurate de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove
the reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
308
Appendix IV Warning and Error Messages
This message applies only to PCs. Make sure your key is properly connected to
your parallel port. If you have multiple keys connected, try switching them
around.
EM
The reference plane associated with the left side of the box is too short for accurate
de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove the
reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
The “-x” option requires an even number of frequencies for analysis. Change your
analysis control file so there are an even number of frequencies.
The analysis has determined that the circuit has a port below the line of symmetry
and symmetry is enabled. This is not allowed. When symmetry is enabled, all
ports must be located on or above the line of symmetry. To perform the analysis,
either remove the port below the symmetry line, or disable symmetry.
The analysis has determined that the circuit has an invalid port located on the
ground plane. Box-wall, auto-grounded, and ungrounded-internal ports cannot be
located on the ground plane. Via-ports can be located on the ground plane, but the
port MUST be attached to an edge via (the edge-via and the port must be on the
same polygon edge).
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Em User’s Manual
The analysis has determined that the circuit has a standard port connected to the
edge of a single polygon, located in the interior of the metal box. This is not
allowed. Box-wall ports must be located on a box-wall. Ungrounded-internal
ports must be connected between two abutting polygons.
The reference plane associated with the right side of the box is too short for
accurate de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove
the reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
This message is printed when the cell size of your circuit is larger than 1/3
wavelengths. Results from such an analysis would be incorrect. Check the units
used in xgeom and your frequency units in the ctl.an file. If these are correct, you
will need to use a smaller cell size or a lower frequency.
The reference plane associated with the top side of the box is too short for accurate
de-embedding. Usually the easiest way to fix this problem is to remove the
reference plane. De-embedding is still valid for zero-length reference planes.
310
Appendix IV Warning and Error Messages
with an error message. The format of the error message is “undefined: <code>”,
where <code> is a code which indicates the reason that em is unable to determine
the de-embedded results. Table 9 describes the various error codes which may be
displayed by em.
EM
De-embedded
Code Description
S-Parameters
The second column of Table 10, labeled “De-embedded S-Parameters”, gives the
status of the de-embedded S-parameters corresponding to each error code. Error
code “nd” indicates that the port was not de-embedded, therefore the status is not
applicable. Error codes “mp”, “nl” and “mv” have a status of “Valid”. This
indicates that while em was not able to determine Eeff or Z0, the de-embedded S-
parameter results are completely valid. Error codes “sl” and “bd” have a status of
“Caution”. This indicates that you should be cautious about using the de-
embedded S-parameter results as they may be corrupt.
The “nd” error code indicates that the port cannot be de-embedded. Via ports are
the only port type available in em that cannot be de-embedded. Thus, you will get
this error code only when de-embedding circuits which contain via ports.
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Em User’s Manual
The “mp” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0 because
the circuit has multiple ports on the same side of the box. The reason for this is
that more than one value is required to describe the multiple modes associated
with coupled transmission lines.
The “sl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is too
short. We recommend that the length be at least one substrate thickness. See the
section “Reference Plane Length Minimums,” page 82 for details.
The “nl” code indicates that the length of the first de-embedding standard is a
multiple of a half wavelength. In this case, em is unable to determine Eeff and Z0,
but the de-embedded S-parameter results are completely valid. See the section
“Reference Plane Lengths at Multiples of a Half-Wavelength,” page 84 for
details.
The “mv” code indicates that a single port number is used for multiple ports in the
circuit, and that the Eeff and Z0 values vary for the different ports.
Finally, the “bd” error code indicates that em is unable to determine Eeff and/or Z0
for an unknown reason. Low precision and box resonances in the calibration
standards are sources of error that occasionally lead to the “bd” code.
312
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
Sonnet Theory
[1] Aki Kogure, "Automatic SPICE Models and S-Parameters Analysis," Design
Wave Magazine, No. 20, March 1999, pp. 145 - 151. (Japanese Article)
[2] Shigeki Nakamura, "Top Interview: Electromagnetic Analysis is not Difficult -
Big Rush to Install PC Version," Electronic Products Digest, Vol. 16, No. 1,
January 1999, page 48. (Japanese Article)
[3] James C. Rautio, “Comments on ‘Revisiting Characteristic Impedance and Its
Definition of Microstrip Line with a Self-Calibrated 3-D MoM Scheme,’ ” IEEE
Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 47, No. 1, January
1999, pp. 115 - 117.
[4] Aki Kogure, “Why Electromagnetic Analysis is Necessary,” Design Wave
Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 19, January 1999, pp. 27 - 38. (Japanese Article)
313
Em User’s Manual
[5] James C. Rautio and George Matthaei, “Tracking Error Sources in HTS Filter
Simulations,” Microwaves and RF, Vol. 37, No. 13, December 1998, pp. 119 -
130.
[6] J.C. Rautio, “-Electromagnetic Analysis for Microwave Applications,”
Computational Electromagnetics and Its Applications, Vol. 5, Boston:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 80-96.
[7] Yasumasa Noguchi, Shin-ichi Nakao, Hideaki Fujimoto and Nobuo Okamoto,
“Characteristics of Shielded Coplanar Waveguides on Multilayer Substrates,”
Electronic Information and Communications Univerisity Meeting, Electronics
Society Conference, June 29, 1998. (Japanese Article)
[8] Aki Kogura, “Sonnet, KCC Electromagnetic Analysis Software for Antenna
Analysis,” Electronics Update, Vol. 13, No. 146, 1998, pp. 58-59. (Japanese
article.)
[9] Erik H. Lenzing and James C. Rautio, “A Model for Discretization Error in
Electromagnetic Analysis of Capacitors,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 2, February 1998, pp. 162-166.
[10] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Analysis for Microwave Applications,”
Computational Electromagnetics and Its Applications, Kluwar Academic
Publishers, pp. 80-96.
[11] J. C. Rautio, “Retracing Key Moments In the Life of Maxwell,” Microwaves &
RF,” Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1997, pp. 35-51.
[12] Keisuke Ogawa, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Influence of Microstrip Conductor Offset in Microstrip Transmission Line,”
Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, Japan Institute
for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, 11th JIPC Annual
Meeting, March 1997, pp. 83-84. (Article in Japanese.)
[13] Yusuke Hamada, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Input Impedance of Equipment Housing with an Aperture for EMI Estimation
Inside the Housing,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of
Tokyo, Technical Report of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and
Communication Engineers of Japan, EMCJ 97-29, July 1997, pp. 45-50. (Article
in Japanese.)
314
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[14] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility
inside Equipment Housing with an Aperture,” Faculty of Science and
Technology, Science University of Tokyo, The Journal of Japan Institute for
Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Vol. 12, No. 5, August 1997,
pp. 369-373. (Article in Japanese.)
[15] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Analysis of
Electromagnetic Field Coupled through an Aperture of Equipment Housing,”
EM
Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, The
Transaction of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and Communication
Engineers of Japan, Vol. J80-B-11, No. 9, September 1997, pp. 809-811. (Article
in Japanese.)
[16] Keisuke Ogawa, Yasuhiro Kido, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji
and Eimei Shu, “Radiated Emission from PCB with Microstrip Conductor
Offset,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo,
Technical Report of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and
Communication Engineers of Japan, Vol. EMCJ 97-77, November 1997, pp. 23-
29. (Article in Japanese.)
[17] Yusuke Hamada, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Influence of a PCB Inside Equipment Housing with an Aperture on Resonant
Modes,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo,
Technical Report of the Institute of Electronics, Information, and
Communication Engineers of Japan, EMCJ 97-78, November 1997, pp. 31-37.
(Article in Japanese.)
[18] Hiroaki Kogure, Yusuke Hamada, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Resonant Modes inside Equipment Housing and Susceptibility of Printed
Circuit,” Faculty of Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, Japan
Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Papers of
Electromagnetic Behavior Society, Vol. 6, No. 3, November 1997, pp. 1-5.
(Article in Japanese.)
[19] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Analysis of
Electromagnetic Field inside Equipment Housing with an Aperture,” Faculty of
Science and Technology, Science University of Tokyo, The Institute of
Electronics, Information, and Communication Engineers of Japan, Transaction
on Communications, Vol. E80-B, No. 11, November 1997, pp. 1620-1624.
(Article in Japanese.)
315
Em User’s Manual
316
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[31] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility of
the Multilayer Printed Circuit inside the Equipment Housing,” Communication
Engineers of Japan Technical Report of the IEICE, EMCJ96-19 (1996-07), pp.
13-18, July 1996.
[32] Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu, “Susceptibility of
Multilayer Printed Circuit inside Equipment Housing,” Asia-Pacific Conference
on Environmental Electromagnetics (CEEM 96) Xi'an China, November 1996,
EM
pp. 263-266.
[33] Hiroaki Kogure, Keisuke Ogawa, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Electromagnetic Distribution of Multilayered Printed Circuit - Analysis of
coupling to other layers,” Japan Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging
Electronic Circuits, Papers of Electromagnetic Behavior Society, Vol. 5, No. 2,
pp. 1-10, Oct. 1995. (Article in Japanese.)
[34] Hiroaki Kogure, Keisuke Ogawa, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Analysis of Current Distribution of Multilayered Printed Circuit,”
Communications Engineers of Japan Technical Report of IEICE, EMCJ95-19
(1995-07), pp. 1-8, July 1995. (Article in Japanese.)
[35] J. C. Rautio, “EM-Analysis Error Impacts Microwave Designs,” Microwaves and
RF, September 1996, pp. 134-144.
[36] James R. Willhite, “Turning Clean Theory into Reality,” Wireless Design and
Development, March 1996, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 19-20.
[37] J. C. Rautio, “Response #2. Comments on Zeland's Standard Stripline
Benchmark Results - MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of
Microwave and Millimeter- Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 6,
November 1995, pp. 415-417.
[38] J. C. Rautio, “EMI Analysis from a Wireless Telecommunication and RF
Perspective,” Proceedings of the 1995 Nepcon West Conference, Anaheim, CA,
USA, pp. 749-755.
[39] J. C. Rautio and Hiroaki Kogure, “An Overview of the Sonnet Electromagnetic
Analysis,” Proceedings of the 1994 IEICE Fall Conference, Tokyo, pp. 325-326.
[40] J. C. Rautio, “An Ultra-High Precision Benchmark For Validation Of Planar
Electromagnetic Analyses,” IEEE Tran. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. 42, No.
11, Nov. 1994, pp. 2046-2050.
317
Em User’s Manual
318
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[53] J. C. Rautio, “EEsof Joins Forces With Sonnet Software,” EEsof Wavelengths,
Vol. 8, No. 3, Sept. 1992, pg. 14.
[54] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Design of Passive Structures - Emerging
Technology in Microwave CAD,” IEEE MTT-S Newsletter, Fall 1990, pp. 21-
22.
[55] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Microwave Design,” RF/Microwave Applications
Conference, Santa Clara, CA, March 1992, pp. 105-109.
EM
[56] J. C. Rautio, “Experimental Validation of Microwave Software,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, Panel Session PSB Digest, Albuquerque,
June 1992.
[57] J. C. Rautio, “Current Developments in 3-D Planar Microwave
Electromagnetics,” Microwave Hybrid Circuits Conference, Oct. 1991, Arizona.
[58] J. C. Rautio, “Current Developments in 3-D Planar Microwave
Electromagnetics,” Microwave Hybrid Circuits Conference, Oct. 1992, Arizona.
[59] J. C. Rautio, “Current Developments in 3-D Planar Microwave
Electromagnetics,” Microwave Hybrid Circuits Conference, Oct. 1993, Arizona.
[60] J. C. Rautio, “Current Developments in 3-D Planar Microwave
Electromagnetics,” Microwave Hybrid Circuits Conference, Oct. 1994, Arizona.
[61] J. C. Rautio, “Experimental Validation of Electromagnetic Software,”
International Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided
Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 4, Oct. 1991, pp. 379-385.
[62] J. C. Rautio, “Electromagnetic Microwave Analysis,” IEEE International
Microwave Symposium, Workshop WSA Digest, Albuquerque, June 1992.
[63] J. C. Rautio, “EM Visualization Assists Designers,” Microwaves and RF, Nov.
1991, pp. 102-106.
[64] J. C. Rautio, “Reviewing Available EM Simulation Tools,” Microwaves & RF,
June 1991, pp. 16A-20A.
[65] “Generating Spice Files Using the em Electromagnetic Analysis,” Sonnet
Application Note 104a, Dec. 1998.
[66] J. C. Rautio, “A New Definition of Characteristic Impedance,” MTT
International Symposium Digest, June 1991, Boston, pp. 761-764.
319
Em User’s Manual
320
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
Imperfectly Terminated Multiport When Measured with a Two-Port Network
Analyzer,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-31, May 1983, pp.
407-412.
[81] R. F. Harrington, Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1961, section 8-11, pg. 8.
Sonnet Applications
[82] John F. Sevic, "A Sub 1 Ω Load-Pull Quarter-Wave Prematching Network Based
on a Two-Tier TRL Calibration," Microwave Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, March
1999, pp. 122-132.
[83] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen, "Parameterization of
Arbitrary Geometrical Structures for Automated Electromagnetic Optimization,"
International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.
9, No. 2, March 1999, pp. 73 - 85.
[84] Jack Browne, "Technology Fuels Firm’s Entry Into Filter Market," Microwaves
& RF, Vol. 38, No. 1, January 1999, pp. 113-118.
[85] Mansoor K. Siddiqui, Arvind K. Sharma, Lenonardo G. Callejo, and Richard Lai,
"A High-Power and High-Efficiency Monolithic Power Amplifier at 28 GHz for
LMDS Applications," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1998, pp. 2226 - 2232.
[86] Søren F. Peik, Raafat R. Mansour, and Y. Leonard Chow, "Multidimensional
Cauchy Method and Adaptive Sampling for an Accurate Microwave Circuit
Modeling," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46,
No. 12, December 1998, pp. 2364 - 2371.
321
Em User’s Manual
[87] Mohamed H. Bakr, John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua (Steve)
Chen, and Kaj Madsen, "A Trust Region Aggressive Space Mapping Algorithm
for EM Optimization," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1998, pp. 2412 - 2425.
[88] Y. C. Chen, L. Ingram, R. Lai, M. Barsky, R. Grunbacher, T. Block, H. C. Yen,
and D. C. Streit, “A 95-GHz InP HEMT MMIC Amplifier with 427-mW Power
Output,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8, No. 11, November
1998, pp. 399 - 401.
[89] R. Lai, M. Barsky, T. Huang, M. Sholley, H. Wang, Y. L. Kok, D. C. Streit, T.
Block, P. H. Liu, T. Gaier, and L. Samoska, “An InP HEMT MMIC LNA with
7.2-dB Gain at 190 GHz,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8,
No. 11, November 1998, pp. 393-395.
[90] Huei Wang, Richard Lai, Yon-Lin Kok, Tian-Wei Huang, Michael V Aust,
Yaochung C. Chen, Peter H. Siegel, Todd Gaier, Robert J. Dengler, and Barry R.
Allen, “A 155-GHz Monolithic Low-Noise Amplifier,” IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 11, November 1998, pp. 1660-
1666.
[91] Charles Trantanella, Mitch Shifrin, and Brian Bedard, “Low Cost, Plastic
Encapsulated Mixers for C/X-Band Applications,” IEEE GaAs IC Symposium
Technical Digest 1998, November 1998, pp. 131-134.
[92] Jakub J. Kucera and Urs Lott, “A 1.8 dB Noise Figure Low DC Power MMIC
LNA for C-Band,” IEEE GaAs IC Symposium Technical Digest 1998,
November 1998, pp. 225-228.
[93] David E. Meharry, “Multi-Octave Transformer Coupled Differential Amplifier
for High Dynamic Range,” IEEE GaAs IC Symposium Technical Digest 1998,
November 1998, pp. 221-224.
[94] J.S. Hong, M.J. Lancaster, R.B. Greed, D. Voyce, D. Jedamzik, J.A. Holland,H.J.
Chaloupka, Jean-Claude Mage "Thin Film HTS Passive Microwave Components
for Advanced Communication Systems", Accepted for IEEE Trans. on Applied
Superconductivity.
[95] Nanju Na, Kwang Lim Choi and Madhavan Swaminatham, "Characterization of
embedded resistors for high frequency wireless applications," 1998 IEEE Radio
and Wireless Conference Proceedings, August 1998, pp. 117-120.
322
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[96] Tony Yeung, Jack Lau, H.C. Ho, and M.C. Poon, "Design Condsiderations for
Extremely High-Q Integrated Inductors and Their Application in CMOS RF
Power Amplifiers," 1998 IEEE Radio and Wireless Conference Proceedings,
August 1998, pp. 265-268.
[97] Brian K. Kormanyos, Ronald W. Kruse, and Debra R. Follensbee, "A High
Efficiency MMIC Power Amplifier for Phased Array Antenna Applications,"
1998 IEEE Radio and Wireless Conference Proceedings, August 1998, pp. 333-
EM
334.
[98] Robert W. Jackson and Zhaoyang Wang, “Circuit Model for Coupling Between
MMIC’s in Multichip Modules Including Resonance Effects,” IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 46, No. 7, July 1998, pp. 959-965.
[99] John H. Mayer, "Simulation advances accelerate RF designs," Military &
Aerospace Electronics, June 1998, pp. 19 -22.
[100] Alan L. L. Pun, Tony Yeung, Jack Lau, François J. R. Clément, and David K. Su,
"Substrate Noise Coupling Through Planar Spiral Inductor," IEEE Journal of
Solid-State Circuts, Vol. 33, No. 6, June 1998, pp. 877-884.
[101] Kyu Yong Kim, Yong Chung and Yong Su Choe, “Low Side Lobe Series-fed
Planar Array at 20 GHz,” IEEE 1998 AP-S International Symposium, Altlanta,
Georgia, June 21 - 26, 1998, pp. 1196 - 1199.
[102] A. Torabian and Y. L. Chow, “Rapid Analysis of High Q and High Order Patch
Filters,” IEEE 1998 AP-S International Symposium, Altlanta, Georgia, June 21 -
26, 1998, pp. 1906 - 1909.
[103] Z. Wang and R. W. Jackson, “A CAD Algorithm for Coupling Between
Dielectric Covered MMICs in Multi-Chip Assemblies,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S
International Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, June 1998, pp. 33-36.
[104] D. Prieto, J.C. Cayrou, J.L. Cazaux, T. Parra, and J. Graffeuil, “CPS Structure
Potentialities for MMICs: A CPS/CPW Transition and a Bias Network,” 1998
IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, June 1998, pp. 111-114.
[105] J.S. Hong, M.J. Lancaster, D. Jedamzik and R.B. Greed, “8-Pole
Superconducting Quasi-Elliptic Function Filter for Mobile Communications
Application,” 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, June
1998, pp. 367-370.
323
Em User’s Manual
324
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
[117] F.W. Van Keuls, R.R. Romanofsky, and F.A. Miranda, “Several Microstrip-Based
Conductor/ Thin Film Ferroelectric Phase Shifter Designs Using (YBa2Cu3O7-
d,Au)/SrTiO3/LaAlO3 Tunable Ring Resonators,” (accepted by Integrated
Ferroelectrics).
[118] F.W. Van Keuls, R.R. Romanofsky, N.D. Varaljay, F.A. Miranda, C.L. Canedy, S.
Aggarwal, T. Venkatesan, and R. Ramesh, “A Ku-Band Gold/BaxSr1-xTiO3/
LaAlO3 Thin Film Conductor/Ferroelectric Microstripline Phase Shifter for
Room Temperature Phased Array Applications,” (submitted to Microwave and
Optical Technology Letters)
[119] Zhaoyang Wang, and Robert W. Jackson, "A CAD Algorithm for Coupling
Between Dielectric Covered MMICs in Multi-Chip Assemblies", to appear in
IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Symposium Digest, June 1998.
[120] G. Subramanyam, F.W. Van Keuls and F.A. Miranda, “A Novel Tunable
Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using a Thin Film HTS/Ferroelectric/Dielectric
Multilayer Configuration,” (accepted by IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques).
[121] Guru Subramanyam, Fred Van Keuls, and Félix A. Miranda, “A K-Band Tunable
Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using a Thin-Film Conductor/Ferroelectric/Dielectric
Multilayer Configuration,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8,
No. 2, February 1998, pp. 78 - 80.
[122] Lei Zhu and Ke Wu, “Revisiting Characteristic Impedance and Its Definition of
Microstrip Line with a Self-Calibrated 3-D MoM Scheme,” IEEE Microwave
and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 8, No. 2, February 1998, pp. 87 - 89.
[123] Jia-Sheng Hong and Michael J. Lancaster, “Cross-Coupled Microstrip Hairpin-
Resonator Filters,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 46, No. 1, January 1998, pp. 118-122.
325
Em User’s Manual
[124] F.W. Van Keuls, F.A. Miranda, R.R. Romanofsky , C. H. Mueller, R. E. Treece
and T.V. Rivkin, “(YBa2Cu3O7-d, Au)/SrTiO3/LaAlO3 thin film conductor/
ferroelectric phase shifters and their potential for phased array applications,”
Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 3075 (1997).
[125] Brad Ryan Heimer, Lu Fan, and Kai Chang, “Uniplanar Hybrid Couplers Using
Asymmetrical Coplanar Striplines,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2234-2240.
[126] Jia-Sheng Hong, Michael J. Lancaster, “Theory and Experiment of Novel
Microstrip Slow-Wave Open-Loop Resonator Filters,” IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2358-
2365.
[127] Pin-Pin Huang, Tian-Wei Huang, Huei Wang, Eric W. Lin, Yonghui Shu, Gee. S.
Dow, Richard Lai, Michael Biedenbender, and Jeffrey H. Elliot, “A 94-GHz
0.35-W Power Amplifier Module,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2418-2423.
[128] Daisy L. Ingram, D. Ian Stones, Jeffrey H. Elliot, Huei Wang, Richard Lai, and
Michael Biedenbender, “A 6-W Ka-Band Power Module Using MMIC Power
Amplifiers,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45,
No. 12, December 1997, pp. 2424-2430.
[129] Mark S. Mirotznik and Dennis Prather, “How to choose EM software,” IEEE
Spectrum, Vol. 34, No. 12, December 1997, pp. 53-58.
[130] “CAD Roundtable: benchmarking the future of design,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, November 1997, pp. 31-42.
[131] Alan Conrad and Jack Browne, “EM Tools Enhance Simulation Accuracy,”
Microwaves & RF, Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1997, pp. 133-136.
[132] Robert W. Jackson and Ryosuke Ito, “Modeling Millimeter-Wave IC Behavior
for Flipped-Chip Mounting Schemes,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 10, October 1997, pp. 1919-1925.
[133] Robert W. Jackson and Sambarta Rakshit, “Microwave-Circuit Modeling of High
Lead-Count Plastic Packages,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 10, October 1997, pp. 1926-1933.
[134] Robert W. Jackson and Ryosuke Ito, "Microwave Modeling of Flipped Chip
Packaging Schemes," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Techniques, October
1997.
326
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[135] Ryosuke Ito and Robert W. Jackson, "Circuit Modeling of Isolation in Flip-Chip
Microwave Integrated Circuits", 1997 Conference on the Electrical Performance
of Electronic Packaging Proceedings, San Jose., pp.217-220, October 1997.
[136] I. Toyoda, T. Tokumitsu, and M. Aikawa, “A Basic Concept of Microwave
Design Automation Based on Three-dimensional Masterslice MMIC
technology,” in 27th European Microwave Conf. Proc., Sept. 1997. (To be
published)
EM
[137] K. Nishikawa, I. Toyoda, and T. Tokumitsu, “Miniaturized three-dimensional
MMIC K-band upconverter,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letter, 1997.
[138] George L. Matthaei, Neal O. Fenzi, Roger J. Forse, and Stephan M. Rolhing,
“Hairpin-Comb Filters for HTS and Other Narrow-Band Applications,” IEEE
Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 8, August
1997, pp. 1226-1231.
[139] T. Tokumitsu, K. Nishikawa, K. Kamogawa, I. Toyoda, and K. Nishimura,
“Three-dimensional MMIC technology and application to millimeter-wave
MMIC's,” 1997 Topical Symposium on Millimeter Waves Digest, July 1997.
[140] “Sorting Through the Myriad of Software Options,” Wireless Systems Design,
Master Reference, Vol. 2, No. 8, July 1997, pp. 78-81.
[141] Marinus (Ron) Korber, Jr., “New Microstrip Bandpass Filter Topologies,”
Microwave Journal, Vol. 40, No. 7, July 1997, pp. 138-144.
[142] K. Kamogawa, K. Nishikawa, C. Yamaguchi, M. Hirano, I. Toyoda, and T.
Tokumitsu, “A Very Wide-tuning Range 5-GHz-band Si Bipolar VCO Using
Three-dimensional MMIC technology,” in IEEE International Microwave
Symposium Digest, June 1997, pp. 1221-1224.
[143] I. Toyoda, K. Nishikawa, T. Tokumitsu, C. Yamaguchi, M. Hirano, and M.
Aikawa, “Three-dimensional Masterslice MMIC on Si Substrate,” in 1997 IEEE
Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium Digest, June 1997, pp. 113-116.
[144] Gregory L. Hey-Shipton, Neal O. Fenzi, and Kurt F. Raihn, “HTS Diplexer &
Low Noise Amplifier RF Module,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 295-298.
[145] Shen Ye and Raafat R. Mansour, “A Novel Split-Resonator High Power HTS
Planar Filter,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 1, pp. 299-301.
327
Em User’s Manual
[146] Michael J. Lee and Joseph A. Faulkner Jr., “Power Combining Port Impedance
Model,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2,
pp. 543-546.
[147] J. S. Hong and M. J. Lancaster, “Microstrip Slow-Wave Open-Loop Resonator
Filters,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2,
pp. 713-716.
[148] T. Gokdemir, U. Karacaoglu, D. Budimir, S. B. Economides, A. Khalid, A. A.
Rezazadeh and I. D. Robertson, “Multilayer Passive Components for Uniplanar
Si/SiGe MMICs,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium
Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 761-764.
[149] M. N. Tutt, H. Q. Tserng and A. Ketterson, “A Low Loss, 5.5 GHz - 20 GHz
Monolithic Balun,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium
Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 933-936.
[150] Kunihiko Sasaki, Junshi Utsu, Kazuoki Matsugatani, Kouichi Hoshino, Takashi
Taguchi, and Yoshiki Ueno, “InP MMICs for V-Band FMCW Radar,” IEEE
MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 937-940.
[151] Michael Case, Mehran Matloubian, Hsiang-Chih Sun, Debabani Choudhury, and
Catherine Ngo, “High-Performance W-Band GaAs PIN Diode Single-Pole
Triple-Throw Switch CPW MMIC,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 1047-1050.
[152] Y. Hwang, J. Lester, G. Schreyer, G. Zell, S. Schrier, D. Yamauchi, G. Onak, B.
Kasody, R. Kono, Y. C. Chen, and R. Lai, “60 GHz High-Efficiency HEMT
MMIC Chip Set Development for High-Power Solid State Power Amplifier,”
IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp.
1179-1182.
[153] D. L. Ingram, D. I. Stones, T.W. Huang, M. Nishimoto, H. Wang, M. Siddiqui, D.
Tamura, J. Elliot, R. Lai, M Biedenbender, H. C. Yen, and B. Allen, “A 6 Watt
Ka-Band MMIC Power Module Using MMIC Power Amplifiers,” IEEE MTT-S
1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1183-1186.
[154] H. Wang, R. Lai, Y. C. Chen, Y. L. Kok, T. W. Huang, T. Block, D. Streit, P. H.
Liu, P. Siegel, and B. Allen, “A 155-GHz Monolithic InP-Based HEMT
Amplifier,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 3, pp. 1275-1278.
328
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
[157] J. J. Komiak, S. C. Wang, and T. J. Rogers, “High Efficiency 11 Watt Octave S/
C-Band PHEMT MMIC Power Amplifier,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1421-1424.
[158] A. R. Barnes et. al., “A 6-18 GHz Broadband High Power MMIC for EW
Applications,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 3, pp. 1429-1432.
[159] Yon-Lin Kok, Mark DuFault, Tian-Wei Huang, and Heui Wang, “A Calibration
Procedure for W-band On-Wafer Testing,” IEEE MTT-S 1997 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1663-1666.
[160] Daniel G. Swanson, Jr., “Optimizing Combline Filter Designs Using 3D Field-
Solvers,” IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Workshops,
WMA: State-of-the-art Filter Design Using EM and Circuit Simulation
Techniques, June 1997.
[161] J. W. Bandler, “EM Optimization Using Space Mapping,” IEEE MTT-S
International Microwave Symposium Workshops, WMA: State-of-the-art Filter
Design Using EM and Circuit Simulation Techniques, June 1997.
[162] George L. Matthaei, “Some CAD Techniques for Planar Microwave Filter
Design and Some Observations Regarding Dispersion,” IEEE MTT-S
International Microwave Symposium Workshops, WMA: State-of-the-art Filter
Design Using EM and Circuit Simulation Techniques, June 1997.
[163] W. R. Gaiewski, L.P. Dunleavy, and A. Castro, Jr., “Analysis and Measurement
of Mode Polarizers in Square Waveguide,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 6, June 1997, pp. 997-1000.
[164] G. Avitabile, A. Cidronali, and C. Salvador, “Equivalent Circuit Model of GaAs
MMIC-Coupled Planar Spiral Inductors,” International Journal of Microwave
and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 4, July 1997, pp.
318-326.
329
Em User’s Manual
330
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[175] Andreas Vogt and Wilhelm Jutzi, “An HTS Narrow Bandwidth Coplanar Shunt
Inductively Coupled Microwave Bandpass Filter on LaAlO3,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 45, No. 4, April 1997, pp. 492-497.
[176] Keisuke Ogawa, Hiroaki Kogure, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Influences of Finite Ground Conductor Width and Microstrip Conductor Offset
on Characteristic Impedance of Microstrip Line,” Papers of Electromagnetic
Behavior Society, Vol. 6. No. 2, pp. 14-20, November 1996. (Article in
EM
Japanese.)
[177] Kenich Kamitani, Naoko Yoshita, Hideki Nakano, Kohji Koshiji and Eimei Shu,
“Multilayered printed antenna with dotmatrix-like director - Relation between
the characteristics and the dot density,” Papers of Electromagnetic Behavior
Society, Vol. 6., No. 2, pp. 27-33, November 1996.
[178] Lu Fan, Kai Chang, “Uniplanar Power Dividers Using Coupled CPW and
Asymmetrical CPS for MIC's and MMIC's,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, December 1996, pp. 2411-2420.
[179] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen, Piotr A. Grobelny,
“Optimization Technology for Nonlinear Microwave Circuits Integrating
Electromagnetic Simulations,” International Journal of Microwave and
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, January 1997, pp. 6-28.
[180] Jack Browne, “Evaluate RF Designs With An EM Simulator,” Microwaves and
RF, January 1997, pp. 123-124.
[181] Jack Browne, “EM Simulators Run Under PC Windows,” Microwaves and RF,
December 1996, pp. 163-164.
[182] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “Use EM Software For Component Optimization,”
Microwaves and RF, January 1997, pp. 65-74.
[183] I. Toyoda, T. Tokumitsu, and M. Aikawa, “Highly Integrated Three-dimensional
MMIC Single-chip Receiver and Transmitter,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech., Vol. 44, No. 12, pp. 2340-2346, December 1996.
[184] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “EM Software Aids Microwave Characterization,”
Microwaves and RF, December 1996, pp. 98-108.
[185] Jack Browne, “Top Products of 1996,” Microwaves and RF, December 1996, pp.
189-199.
331
Em User’s Manual
[186] Bill Oldfield, “The Stripline Forward Coupler,” Microwave Engineering Europe,
February/March 1996, pp. 39-40.
[187] Jack Browne, “The Changing Colors of Microwave CAE,” Microwaves and RF,
November 1996, pg. 17.
[188] Janine Sullivan, Alan Conrad and Jack Browne, “Software Tools Grow With The
Power Of The PC,” Microwaves and RF, November 1996, pp. 31-37.
[189] C.W. Turner, “V-Shaped transmission-lines for superconducting circuits and
MMICs,” Microwave Engineering Europe, October 1996, pp. 43-48.
[190] Charles J. Trantanella, “Modeling and Simulation of MMICs and Interconnects
in Microwave Packages,” DTIC (Defense Technical Information Center) or
NTIS (National Technical Information Service) Report # ADA321689,
November 1996.
[191] David Sanchez-Hernandez and Ian D. Robertson, “Some Experimental Results of
Printed Antennas for the Benchmarking of Sonnet em Electromagnetic
Simulator,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-
Aided Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 6, November 1996, pp. 419-429.
[192] Robert W. Jackson and S. Rakshit, “Microwave Modeling of an Elevated Paddle
Surface Mount Package," 1996 Conference on the Electrical Performance of
Electronic Packaging Proceedings, Napa Valley, pp. 57 - 62, October 1996.
[193] David Sanchez-Hernandez, Q.H. Wang, Ali A. Rezazadeh and Ian D. Robertson,
“Millimeter-Wave Dual-Band Microstrip Patch Antennas Using Multilayer GaAs
Technology,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 9,
September 1996, pp. 1590-1593.
[194] Kenji Kamogawa and Tsuneo Tokumitsu, “A Novel Antenna Using Ceramic/
Polyimide Multilayer Dielectric Substrate,” Technical Report of IEICE MW95-
47 (1995-07).
[195] Kenji Kamogawa, Tsuneo Tokumitsu, and Masayoshi Aikawa, “A Novel
Microstrip Antenna Using Alumina-ceramic/Polyimide Multilayer Dielectric
Substrate,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol.
1, pp. 71-74.
[196] Shinji Mino, Yasufumi Yamada, Yuji Akahori, Mitsuho Yasu and Kazuyuki
Moriwaki, “Loss Reduction in a Coplanar Waveguide on a Planar Lightwave
Circuit (PLC) Platform by Quenching,” Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol.
14, No. 8, August 1996.
332
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
Cheung Tang and Chandra M. Kudsia, “Design Considerations of
Superconductive Input Multiplexers for Satellite Applications,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1213-1228.
[200] T. Tokumitsu, M. Hirano, K. Yamasaki, C. Yamaguchi, and M. Aikawa, “Highly
Integrated 3-D MMIC Technology Being Applied to Novel Masterslice GaAs-
and Si- MMIC's (Invited Paper),” in IEEE GaAs IC Symposium Digest,
November 1996, pp. 151-154.
[201] Kenjiro Nishikawa, Tsuneo Kokumitsu, and Ichihiko Toyoda, “Miniaturized
Wilkinson Power Divider Using Three-Dimensional MMIC Technology,” IEEE
Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 6, No. 10, Oct. 96, pp. 372-374.
[202] M. Aikawa, T. Tokumitsu, and K. Nishikawa, “Advanced MMIC Technology for
the Next Generation 3D MMICs and Master-slice Technology (Invited Paper),”
in 26th European Microwave Conf. Proc., September 1996, pp. 748-753.
[203] K. Nishikawa, K. Kamogawa, T. Tokumitsu, M. Aikawa, M. Hirano, and S.
Sugitani, “Highly Integrated Three-dimensional MMIC 20-GHz Single-chip
Receiver,” in 26th European Microwave Conf. Proc., September 1996, pp. 199-
203.
[204] R.R. Mansour, “Design of superconductive multiplexers using single-mode and
dual- mode filters,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 42, pp. 1411-
1418, July 1994.
[205] S.H. Talisa et al., “High-temperature superconducting four-channel filter bank,”
IEEE Trans. Appl. Superconduct., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 2079-2082, June 1995.
[206] Salvador H. Talisa, Michael A. Janocko, D.L. Meier, John Talvacchio, C.
Moskowitz, D.C. Buck, R.S. Nye, S.J. Pieseski and George R. Wagner, “High
Temperature Superconducting Space-Qualified Multiplexers and Delay Lines,”
IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996,
pp. 1229-1239.
333
Em User’s Manual
[207] George L. Matthaei, Stephan M. Rohlfing and Roger J. Forse, “Design of HTS,
Lumped-Element, Manifold-Type Microwave Multiplexers,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1313-1321.
[208] Kurt F. Raihn, Neal O. Fenzi, Gregory L. Hey-Shipton, Elna R. Saito, P. Vince
Loung and David L. Aidnik, “Adaptive High Temperature Superconducting
Filters for Interference Rejection,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1374-1381.
[209] Robert W. Jackson, “A Circuit Topology for Microwave Modeling of Plastic
Surface Mount Packages,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 44, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 1140-1146.
[210] Dan Swanson, “Multilayer Transitions in FR4,” 1996 Wireless Workshop,
Sedona, AZ, October 1996 (also available in the “Library” at http://
www.rfglobalnet.com, 1997).
[211] Robert Jackson, “Modeling & Application of Plastic Surface Mount Packages on
Typical PCBs,” 1996 Wireless Workshop, Sedona, AZ, October 1996.
[212] Robert Jackson, "Modeling Millimeterwave IC Behavior for Flipped Chip
Mounting Schemes," invited paper for the 1996 WRI International Symposium
on "Directions for the Next Generation of MMIC Devices and Systems", N.Y.,
N.Y., September 1996.
[213] Jan Snel, “Ceramic Multilayer Microwave Components Work at the Philips
Ceramic Innovation Centre,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 Multilayer Microwave Circuits
Workshop, pp. 217-227.
[214] Anthony M. Pavio, “Multilayer Couplers, Hybrids and Baluns,” IEEE MTT-S
1996 Multilayer Microwave Circuits Workshop, pp. 183-203.
[215] D. Mirshekar-Syahkal, "Computation of Equivalent Circuits of CPW
Discontinuities Using Quasi-Static Spectral Domain Method," IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 6, June 1996, pp. 979-984.
[216] Zhi-Yuan Shen, Charles Wilker, Philip Pang and Charles Carter, III, “High-
Power HTS Planar Filters with Novel Back-Side Coupling,” IEEE Trans. on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 6, June 1996, pp. 984-986.
[217] T. Tokumitsu, K. Nishikawa, K. Kamogawa, I. Toyoda, and M. Aikawa, “Three-
dimensional MMIC Technology for Multifunction Integration and Its Possible
Application to Masterslice MMIC,” in IEEE 1996 Microwave and Millimeter-
Wave Monolithic Circuits Symposium Digest, June 1996, pp. 85-88.
334
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[218] Long Tran, Michael Delaney, Russ Isobe, Derek Jang and Julia Brown,
“Frequency Translation MMICs Using InP HEMT Technology,” IEEE MTT-S
1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 261-264.
[219] Paul D. Cooper, Patricia A. Piacente and Robert J. Street, “Multichip-on-Flex
Plastic Encapsulated MHDI-Low Cost Substrateless Manufacturing for
Microwave and Millimeterwave Modules,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 219-222.
EM
[220] J.A. Lester, Y. Hwang, J. Chi, R. Lai, M. Biedenbender and P.D. Chow, “Highly
Efficient Compact Q-Band MMIC Power Amplifier Using 2-Mil Substrate and
Partially- Matched Output,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 153-155.
[221] Y. Hwang, P.D. Chow, J. Lester, J. Chi, D. Garske, M. Biedenbender and R. Lai,
“Fully-Matched, High-Efficiency Q-Band 1 Watt MMIC Solid State Power
Amplifier,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest,
Vol. 1, pp. 149-152.
[222] Francois Colomb, Kevin Eastman and John Roman, “Characterization of Metal
on Elastomer Vertical Interconnections,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 75-77.
[223] Long Tran, Russ Isobe, Michael Delaney, Rick Rhodes, Derek Jang, Julia Brown,
Loi Nguyen, Minh Le, Mark Thompson and Takyiu Liu, “High Performance,
High Yield Millimeter-Wave MMIC LNAs Using InP HEMTs,” IEEE MTT-S
1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 1, pp. 9-12.
[224] J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernacki and S. H. Chen, “Parameterization of Arbitrary
Geometrical Structures for Automated Electromagnetic Optimization,” IEEE
MTT-S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 1059-
1062.
[225] D. Sturzebecher, J. Leen, R. Cadotte, J. DeMarco, T. D. Ni, T. Higgins, M.
Popick, M. Cummings, B. VanMeerbeke, T. Provencher, B. Kimble, K.
Shalkhauser and R. Simons, “20 GHz LTCC Phased Array Module,” IEEE MTT-
S 1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 991-994.
[226] I. Toyoda, T. Tokumitsu, and M. Aikawa, “Highly integrated three-dimensional
MMIC single-chip receiver and transmitter,” 1996 IEEE MTT-S International
Microwave Symposium Digest, June 1996, pp. 1209-1212.
335
Em User’s Manual
[227] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “High Power 6-18 GHz H/V Switch Designed in
Channelized Wafer Scale Fabrication Process,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 955-958.
[228] Hiroaki Tanaka, Yutaka Sasaki, Takuya Hashimoto, Yoshikazu Yagi and Youhei
Ishikawa, “Miniaturized 90 Degree Hybrid Coupler Using High Dielectric
Substrate for QPSK Modulator,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 793-796.
[229] Der-Woei Wu, “A High-Efficiency HBT Cellular Power Amplifier with
Integrated Matching Networks,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 767-770.
[230] J.W. Bandler, R.M. Biernacki and S.H. Chen, “Fully Automated Space Mapping
Optimization of 3D Structures,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 753-756.
[231] G.L. Creech, B. Paul, C. Lesniak, T. Jenkins, R. Lee and M. Calcatera, “Artificial
Neural Networks for Accurate Microwave CAD Applications,” IEEE MTT-S
1996 International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 733-736.
[232] G.L. Matthaei, N.O. Fenzi, R. Forse and S. Rohlfing, “Narrow-Band Hairpin-
Comb Filters for HTS and Other Applications,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 2, pp. 457-460.
[233] S. Chaki, T. Takagi, Y. Tsukahara, H. Matsubayashi, N. Andoh, Y. Sasaki and M.
Otsubo, “A Miniaturized X-band 4-Stage LNA Designed Using a Novel Layout
Optimization Technique,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1213-1216.
[234] Mark D. DuFault and Arvind K. Sharma, “Millimeter-Wave Hemt Noise Models
Verified Thru V-Band,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International Microwave
Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1321-1324.
[235] Mark D. DuFault and Arvind K. Sharma, “A Novel Calibration Verification
Procedure for Millimeter-Wave Measurements,” IEEE MTT-S 1996
International Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1391-1394.
[236] Tsang-Der Ni, James DeMarco, Dana Sturzebecher and Mike Cummings, “High
Frequency Hermetic Packages Using LTCC,” IEEE MTT-S 1996 International
Microwave Symposium Digest, Vol. 3, pp. 1627-1630.
336
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[240] J.S. Hong and M.J. Lancaster, “Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using Degenerate
Modes of a Novel Meander Loop Resonator,” IEEE Microwave and Guided
Wave Letters, Vol. 5, No. 11, November 1995, pp. 371-372.
[241] Daniel G. Swanson. Jr., “Guest Editorial,” International Journal of Microwave
and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September
1995, pg. 301.
[242] Nitin Jain and Peter Onno, “Efficient Use of Commercial Electromagnetic
Simulators for Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Circuits,” International Journal
of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5,
September 1995, pp. 302-323.
[243] John W. Bandler, Radoslaw M. Biernacki, Shao Hua Chen, William J. Getsinger,
Piotr A. Grobelny, Charles Moskowitz, and Salvador H. Talisa, “Electromagnetic
Design of High-Temperature Superconducting Microwave Filters,” International
Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.
5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 331-343.
[244] Daniel G. Swanson. Jr., “Optimizing a Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using
Electromagnetics,” International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave
Computer- Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 344-351.
[245] George L. Matthaei and Roger J. Forse, “A Note Concerning the Use of Field
Solvers for the Design of Microstrip Shunt Capacitances in Lowpass Structures,”
International Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided
Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5, September 1995, pp. 352-358.
[246] Inder J. Bahl (coordinated by), “MIC Simulation Column," International Journal
of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 5,
September 1995, pp. 359-367.
337
Em User’s Manual
338
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[257] Makoto Hirano, Ichihiko Toyoda, Masami Tokumitsu and Kazuyoshi Asai,
“Folded U-Shaped Micro-Wire Technology for GaAs IC Interconnections,”
IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 44, No. 12, Dec. 1996,
pp. 2347-2353.
[258] Satoshi Yamaguchi, Yuhki Imai, Tsugumichi Shibata, Taiichi Otsuji, Makoto
Hirano and Eiichi Sano, “An Inverted Microstrip Line IC Structure for Ultra-
high-speed Applications,” 1995 IEEE International Microwave Symposium
EM
Digest, Orlando, FL, May 1995, pp. 1643-1646.
[259] R. H. Blick, R. J. Haug, D.W. van der Weide, K. von Klitzing, and K. Eberl,
“Photon- assisted tunneling through a quantum dot at high microwave
frequencies,” Applied Physics Letters, Dec. 1995.
[260] D.W. van der Weide, “Delta-doped Schottky diode nonlinear transmission lines
for 480-fs, 3.5-V transients,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 65 (7), August 1994.
[261] K. F. Raihn, N. O. Fenzi, E. R. Soares, and G. L. Matthaei, “An Optical Switch
for High Temperature Superconducting Microwave Band Reject Resonators,”
IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp.
187-190.
[262] J. A. Costello, M. Kline, F. Kuss, W. Marsh, R. Kam, B. Rasano, M. Berry, and
N. Koopman, “The Westinghouse High Density Microwave Packaging
Program,” IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave Symposium, Orlando,
Florida, pp. 177-180
[263] M. A. Schamberger, and A. K. Sharma, "A Generalized Electromagnetic
Optimization Procedure for the Design of Complex Interacting Structures in
Hybrid and Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits,” IEEE MTT-S 1995
International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1191-1194.
[264] C. M. Jackson, T. Pham, Z. Zhang, A. Lee, and C. Pettiete-Hall, “Model for a
Novel CPW Phase Shifter,” IEEE MTT-S 1995 International Microwave
Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1439-1442.
[265] J. W. Bandler, R. M. Biernaki, S. H. Chen, R. H. Hemmers, and K. Madsen,
“Aggressive Space Mapping For Electromagnetic Design,” IEEE MTT-S 1995
International Microwave Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 1455-1458.
[266] I. Toyoda, T. Hirota, T. Hiraoka, and T. Tokumitsu, “Multilayer MMIC Branch-
Line Coupler and Broad-Side Coupler.” IEEE MMWMC Dig., S-5, June 1992,
pp. 79-82.
339
Em User’s Manual
340
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
[278] D.W. van der Weide, “Planar antennas for all-electronic terahertz systems,”
Optical Society of America, Vol. 11, No. 12, December 1994.
[279] D.W. van der Weide, R.H. Blick, F. Keilmann, and R.J. Haug, “Electronic
Picosecond-pulse Interferometer Probing the Millimeter-wave Response of a
Quantum- Dot System,” Summary for OSA Topical Meeting on Ultrafast
Electronics and Optoelectronics/Quantum Optoelectronics, March 13-17, 1995,
Dana Point, CA, USA.
EM
[280] -, “Focus on CAD/CAE: A Benchmark guide Through The EM Simulation
Maze,” Microwave Engineering Europe, May 1995, pp. 23-26.
[281] -, “CAD Benchmark: Electromagnetic Simulators,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, Nov. 1994, pp. 11-20.
[282] -, “EM CAD Benchmark: The Vendors Respond,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, December/January 1995, pg. 12.
[283] -, “Entry Level CAD/CAE: An Independent Review,” Microwave Engineering
Europe, Nov. 1992, pp. 11-19.
[284] -, “CAD Review: The 7 GHz Doubler Circuit,” Microwave Engineering Europe,
May. 1994, pp. 43-53.
[285] G. L. Matthaei and G. Hey-Shipton, “Concerning the Use of High-Temperature
Superconductivity in Planar Microwave Filters,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech., Vol. MTT-42, No. 7, July 1994, pp. 1287-1294.
[286] J. Bandler, et al., “Microstrip Filter Design Using Direct EM Field Simulation”
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-42, No. 7, July 1994, pp. 1353-
1359.
[287] D. G. Swanson, Jr., “Using A Microstrip Bandpass Filter To Compare Different
Circuit Analysis Techniques,” International Journal of Microwave & Millimeter-
Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, Jan. 1995, pp. 4-12.
[288] U. L. Rohde, “Feedback,” Microwaves and RF, Aug. 1994, pg. 13.
[289] Jack Browne, “Simulation for Wireless Markets,” Microwaves and RF, Aug.
1994, pg. 17.
[290] Jack Browne, “Crosstalk,” Interview with Jim Rautio, Microwaves and RF, Aug.
1994, pp. 47-48.
341
Em User’s Manual
342
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
for Multilayer MMIC's,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1993,
Atlanta, pp. 145-148.
[305] D. Willems and I. Bahl, “A MMIC Compatible Coupled Line Structure that uses
Embedded Microstrip to Achieve Extremely Tight Couplings,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp. 581-584.
[306] H. Wang, et. al., “A High Gain Low Noise 110 GHz Monolithic Two-stage
Amplifier,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp.
783-785.
[307] J. W. Bandler, et. al., “Minimax Microstrip Filter Design using Direct EM Field
Simulation,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp.
889-892.
[308] J. W. Bandler, et. al., “Multilevel Multidimensional Quadratic Modeling for
Yield- Driven Electromagnetic Optimization,” IEEE International Microwave
Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp. 1017-1020.
[309] R. R. Mansour, F. Rammo, and V. Dokas, “Design of Hybrid-Coupled
Multiplexers and Diplexers using Asymmetrical Superconducting Filters,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp. 1281-1284.
[310] A. K. Rayit and N. J. McEwan, “Coplanar Waveguide Filters,” IEEE
International Microwave Symposium, June 1993, Atlanta, pp. 1317-1320.
[311] C. Sinclair and S. J. Nightingale, “An Equivalent Circuit Model for the Coplanar
Waveguide Step Discontinuity,” IEEE International Microwave Symposium,
June 1992, Albuquerque, pp. 1461-1464.
[312] D. Willems and I. Bahl, “An MMIC-Compatible Tightly Coupled Line Structure
Using Embedded Microstrip,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. MTT-
41, No. 12, pp. 2303-2310, Dec. 1993.
343
Em User’s Manual
344
Appendix V Sonnet Bibliography
EM
345
Em User’s Manual
346
Index
Index
EM
A intelligent frequency selection 129
internal 100
accuracy
network file 144, 250, 257
cell size 233
SPICE file 189, 268
Add command button 265
analysis control keywords 154
Add IFS command button 267
ANN 154
Additional Options dialog box
AUTO 154
geometry file analysis 39
END 154
network file analysis 261
ESWEEP 154
advanced options 262
FINDMAX 155, 300
Advanced Options dialog box 198
FINDMIN 155, 300
air bridges 165, 203
LSWEEP 154
amp.geo 127
STEP 154
amp.rsp 129
SWEEP 154
analysis
analysis controls, See frequency control
continuing 277
analysis frequencies
geometry file 245–255
default 285
network file 97, 257–262
units 249, 286
output window 277
ANG 138, 159
pausing 276
anisotropic dielectric bricks 172
running 272–277
ANN 154, 298
starting 276
antennas 177–185
stopping 277
anti-comment symbol 135
Analysis Control dialog box 250
AUTO 128, 154, 157, 267
analysis control file 6, 90, 148, 156, 157, 249,
auto-grounded ports 53, 54, 103, 302
260
de-embedding 70, 76
comments 6, 269
editing 251, 264 B
format 297–299
$BASE 146, 150
geometry file analysis 245, 250
$BASE_new.rsp 146
347
Em User’s Manual
348
Index
EM
geometry file analysis 39
D network file analysis 261
.d 102 Advanced Options 198
data blocks 94 Analysis Control 250
CKT 95, 100, 136, 142, 143, 145 Frequency Control 265
DIM 95, 136, 138, 139 Intelligent Frequency Control 267
FILEOUT 95, 136, 149, 150 main window
FREQ 95, 100, 128, 136 with run list 273
overriding 157 Open File 281, 282, 283
syntax 153 Preferences 283–286
OUT 136 Save As 283
VAR 136, 140 Select Output Files 271
data files 89 SPICE 269
cascading 90 dielectric bricks 171–175, 302
data tags 146 air 175
DATA_TAG 146 applications 173
DB 159 de-embedding 174
de-embed option 251, 271 ebridge 175
de-embedded data 271 limitations 175
de-embedding 17, 18, 61–88, 292 parameters 173
auto-grounded ports 70, 76 patgen 175
box-wall ports 67, 73 subsectioning 173
coupled transmission lines 74 vias 174
enabling 62 dielectric constant 235
error codes 78 dielectric layer thickness 235
example 62 digital interconnect 187
guidelines 81 digital, high speed 196
higher order modes 88 DIM 95, 136, 137, 138
output format 77 discontinuity 17
port discontinuities 66 coplanar cross junction 203, 206
reference planes 72, 81, 84 coplanar short 203
349
Em User’s Manual
350
Index
EM
patch.geo 52, 182 frequency
raystub.geo 169 interpolation 156
res16.d 92 points 89
res67.geo 101 resolution 125
steps.geo 192 response 125
steps_sy.geo 22 selection 125
tane.geo 225 sorted sweeps 155
thkstep.geo 211 subsectioning 270
thkthru.geo 210 frequency control
tripat.geo 183 adding 265
via.geo 166 analysis control file 250
viaports.geo 52 complex sweep 249, 264
exponential sweep 154, 266 editing 264, 268
exponential sweep 266
F information 263
!<FTYP NET> 134, 135 intelligent frequency selection 267
fields, viewing 223 internal sweep 260
filename 145, 159 linear sweep 266
FILEOUT 95, 136, 149, 150, 151 saving 270
files separator 268
input 297 simple sweep 248
output 270, 297 single 265
fill specifying 248, 260
diagonal 163 SPICE 268
filter example 111–123 sweep 265
filter.geo 64 Frequency Control dialog box 265
filter.net 146 fringing fields 88
filter_new.rsp 146 FTYP NET 94
FINDMAX 130, 155, 157, 268, 300 full analysis mode 253
findmax.net 131
findmax.rsp 132
351
Em User’s Manual
H K
KHZ 298
header line 94, 134, 135
kinetic inductance 44, 303
high precision data file 271, 272
KMIN 269, 299
high speed digital example 196
HZ 298 L
I LEVEL1 301–303
IM 159 auto-grounded ports 302
Impedance 151 dielectric bricks 302
IND 138, 143 dielectric layers 301, 302
inductors 89, 143 kinetic inductance 303
infinite array 178 maximum number of ports 303
input files 297 maximum subsection size 303
Intelligent Frequency Control dialog box 267 memory limit 302
intelligent frequency controls 89 metalization layer 301
AUTO 128 parallel subsections 302
automatic 267 vias 302
find maximum 268 XMAX 303
find minimum 267 XMIN 303
FINDMAX 130 YMAX 303
FINDMIN 130 YMIN 303
specifying 267 LEVEL1plus 301, 304
interface basics 15 maximum number of ports 304
memory limit 304
352
Index
EM
LSWEEP 154, 266, 298 TEM 88
lumped elements multi-frequency caching 17, 20–21
capacitors 89, 138, 143 directory 284
inductors 89, 138, 143 memory 284
inserting 89, 102 parameters 283
resistors 89, 138, 143
transmission lines 89, 143 N
lumped model 187, 296 N-coupled line 188, 191, 296
lumped.geo 106 Netname 145, 158
lumped2.geo 109 network file 112, 118, 133
lumped2.net 109 analysis 90, 97, 120, 257–262
comment line 94, 135
M comment lines 94
MAG 159 data blocks 94, 136
magnetic wall 22 detailed description 94
main menu editing 259
accesses 11 frequency control 260
main window header line 94, 134, 135
with run list 273 internal sweep 260
make emvu file option 252, 271 interpolation 112
Manhattan Polygon 34 run options 260–262
maximum frequency 234 selecting 258
maximum subsection size 31, 37, 303 nodes
Meas 158 CKT 145
memory available 239 normalizing impedances 55
memory save option 252 number of points
menu bar automatic 267
accesses 11 exponential sweep 266
messages 305–310 find maximum 267
metal, thick 209 find minimum 267
metalization layer 301 linear sweep 266
353
Em User’s Manual
354
Index
EM
verbose 251, 261
de-embedding without 82
RZERO 269, 299
short length 82
remove top cover 220, 222 S
RES 138, 143
s100.geo 229
res16.d 92
s25.geo 229
res67.geo 101
s50.geo 229
residual error 229
Save As dialog box 283
resistance 42
SC 150
resistors 89, 143
Select Output Files dialog box 271
thin film 41, 42, 90
sense layer 223
resonance
separator 268
box 216, 218, 292
Set to Top Window command button 285
response data
simple sweep 248
plotting 278, 279
default 285
response file 6
single 265
RMAX 269, 299
single precision 23
run list
slot line mode 203, 206
viewing 272
SNP 144, 293
run options
S-Parameters 7
advanced 262
generalized 55
calculate memory usage mode 253
SPARCstation 24
de-embed 251, 271
speed 24
detect box resonance 254
SPICE 150, 187
do not check for consistency 261
command button 269
edge mesh 37, 254
dialog box 269
force running 261
option 290
full analysis mode 253
output file 272
generate subsections only 253
parameters 268
geometry file analysis 251–255
CMIN 269
high precision 254
KMIN 269
355
Em User’s Manual
356
Index
conical 168
edge 166
example 166
ground 168
inside dielectric bricks 174
level-to-level 165, 203
loss 166
EM
posts 166
precision problem 235
restrictions 166
subsectional 166
via ports 52
via.geo 166
viaports.geo 52
W
The "Wall" 240
warning messages 305–307
warnings 108, 128, 248, 259
waveguide simulator 178
wire bonds 165
X
-x 290
xgeom 22
Free Space 220
geometry file 6
menu bar 11
XMAX 37, 303
XMIN 34, 36, 37, 303
Y
YMAX 37, 303
YMIN 34, 36, 37, 303
Z
Z current 165
Z-Partitions 174
357
Em User’s Manual
358
Sonnet Application Notes
Sonnet Application Notes
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Previous Modeling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thick Metal Approximation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Implementation and Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
APP NOTES
Simplified Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Initial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Rotating the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Analyzing Half of the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Class of Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Using The SPICE Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
dxlv
Sonnet Application Notes
Other Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
dxlvi
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em
APP NOTES
Analysis of Lange Couplers
Using em
Summary
This application note describes a technique to accurately characterize the coupling
characteristics of the Lange coupler in em. The technique may be extended to any
problem set including coupled lines separated by distances on the order of the
metal thickness.
Introduction
One of the best known and popular planar power divider networks is the Lange
coupler. This structure is used on many microwave and millimeterwave MMICs
and hybrids.
547
::
Sonnet Application Notes
Thru S21
measured em (thick metal)
Coupled S21
Lange couplers are used in a wide range of both hybrid and MMIC microwave and
millimeterwave components for signal splitting and combining. Typically, Lange
couplers are utilized to provide equal power with quadrature phase splitting. In
power amplifier development, where multiple components are combined using an
array of input and output couplers to achieve high power levels, the accuracy of
the coupler performance is critical to maximizing overall output power and
efficiency. Any unbalance in the performance of the Lange coupler will result in
power dumping to the Lange terminating resistor, thereby resulting in lower than
expected output power and efficiency.
548
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em
This application note will show that em accurately predicts coupler performance
through the use of a thick metal model for the coupled line section of the Lange
coupler. This results in significantly improved probability of first pass success.
The technique to be outlined below can be applied to any structure where metal
thickness may impact circuit performance.
APP NOTES
the Lange coupler performance.
Thru S21
Coupled S21
em (zero thickness)
S-parameter data of 60 GHz Lange coupler thru and coupled port response.
Circuit theory, em analysis, and measured performance are shown.
549
::
Sonnet Application Notes
In order to more accurately predict the performance of the Lange coupler in the
electromagnetic simulation, a thick metal model for the coupled line section has
been developed. This is effected by creating a second metallization pattern
identical to the first, spacing the two structures to accurately reflect the desired
metal thickness, and connecting the two structures with vias. For metallization
where significant etchback occurs, slanted walls can be implemented to more
accurately predict the results of the impact of metal thickness on coupling. The
figure below shows a simplified cross-section model of how to approximate non-
vertical wall metallizations.
<=>
<=>
As stated above, the metal thickness is modeled by spacing the two metallization
patterns appropriately. This is accomplished by incorporating an additional
dielectric layer between the substrate material and the open region (air) above it.
This additional dielectric layer is modeled simply as an air layer with the thickness
550
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em
of the metal being modeled. The figure below shows the xgeom dielectrics
window from the 60 GHz Lange coupler geometry file showing the additional
dielectric layer used to simulate the metal thickness.
Additional 3.4 µm
thick dielectric layer to
allow simulation of
thick metallization
structures.
APP NOTES
Xgeom dielectrics window from the .geo file of the 60 GHz Lange coupler.
551
::
Sonnet Application Notes
air-
bridge
metal
plated metal
The edge vias connecting the two metallization patterns are clearly evident. In this
case, vias at the ends of the thick metal transmission line structures are sufficient
for accurate modeling. (See Chapter 18, “Thick Metal with Arbitrary Cross-
Section” in the Em User’s Manual for details on the correct use of vias in
modeling thick metal.)
The feed structure on the four ports of the Lange coupler are not implemented
using the thick metal model. This simplification does not add appreciable error to
the modeled results, and reduces the analysis time.
552
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em
The plot below shows a performance comparison between the measured thru and
coupled port transmission characteristics and the predicted result from the
electromagnetic analysis run with the thick metal model. Improved correlation
between predicted and measured results are shown.
Thru S21
em (thick metal)
measured
APP NOTES
measured
em (thick metal)
Coupled S21
Measured and em data for 60 GHz Lange coupler thru and coupled port data.
Simplified Analysis
The previous work results in an excellent level of accuracy in the analysis of
Lange couplers as is required for final verification prior to a design release.
However, the time required to perform the analysis is commensurate with the level
of accuracy required.
This section details a procedure for simplifying the Lange coupler analysis,
providing a high level of accuracy in a correspondingly reduced time span. This
approach is amenable to the preliminary design phase, where optimization of
design parameters (i.e. - line width and spacing as well as coupled line section
length) can occur quickly. Final analysis in the mode discussed previously would
be performed following the preliminary design phase.
553
::
Sonnet Application Notes
Xgeom .geo file of a four coupled line structure used in the simplified em analysis
of a Lange coupler with metal thickness. Note the port renumbering and lack of
vias to speed the analysis.
Element one above utilizes the inverse of the approach J. Lange [1] used in the
development of the Lange coupler. See the Sonnet User’s Manual or contact
Sonnet Software, Inc. for further information concerning elements two through
seven listed above.
Table 1 presents the relative performance of each of the approaches: 1) full Lange
coupler analysis using a zero thickness metal model, 2) full Lange coupler
analysis utilizing the thick metal model, and 3) the simplified coupled line
structure. Thru and coupled port magnitude and phase at a single frequency (60
GHz) and analysis time per frequency data is presented to provide a trade-off
matrix between speed and accuracy. This analysis work was performed using em
Version 4.0 and timing performed on a Sun Microsystems SPARCstation 20.
Relative analysis times running under Version 5.1 or above on Windows should
be similar or faster.
554
SAN-101A: Precise Electromagnetic Analysis of Lange Couplers Using em
Summary
A highly accurate method to model the performance of a Lange coupler through
the use of a thick metal model has been presented. Methods to reduce the analysis
time with the goal of allowing efficient optimization of critical Lange coupler
parameters have also been outlined.
APP NOTES
References
[1] 1. J. Lange, “Integrated Stripline Quadrature Hybrids,” IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, December 1969.
555
::
Sonnet Application Notes
556
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis Strategies for Diagonal Structures in em
APP NOTES
Strategies for Diagonal
Structures in em
Summary
The em electromagnetic analysis works best with rectangular (Manhattan)
structures since such structures are easily subsectioned. Diagonal (non-
Manhattan) structures are more difficult to analyze, requiring additional
subsections or the inclusion of diagonal subsections. Both increase analysis time
and memory requirements.
557
::
Sonnet Application Notes
It will be shown that modifying the geometry to make use of the inherent
Manhattan nature of the structure results in significantly reduced analysis times
and memory (RAM) requirements with minimal degradation in the resulting
accuracy.
Introduction
The em electromagnetic analysis subsections structures created on an underlying,
user-defined rectangular grid. Structures which have rectangular edges, otherwise
known as Manhattan, are most easily, quickly and accurately analyzed.
558
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis Strategies for Diagonal Structures in em
Different approaches used to analyze this structure with em range in analysis time
from 8 seconds to 6 minutes per frequency. All analyses were performed on a 400
MHz Pentium II processor running Sonnet Release 6.0. Loss and de-embedding
are included in the analysis.
Initial Analysis
The xgeom layout of the baseline filter is shown in the figure below. Cell size was
chosen to allow diagonal subsections to exactly follow the long diagonal edges of
the filter. However, the ends of the filter are now only approximated, as can be
seen with close inspection of the circuit as shown in the magnified section. This
shortens the subsectioned metal at each end of the resonator by about 1/2 cell, so
APP NOTES
the drawing of the resonator was lengthened by 1/2 cell at each end as
compensation.
The plot below shows the result of the em analysis compared with measurement
and with circuit theory analysis. Analysis time was 6 minutes per frequency and
required 66 MB of RAM to analyze.
559
::
Sonnet Application Notes
The error in the em analysis is primarily in the center frequency while the circuit
theory analysis is in error in both frequency and response shape. The circuit theory
also predicts incorrect loss. The error in the center frequency in the em data is
approximately 1%.Unfortunately, the cost of this 1% accuracy is 6 minutes of
analysis time per frequency point and the need for 66 MB of RAM. Can we do any
better?
0.3
Measured
Em Analysis
(1%)
0.2
S21
0.1 Circuit
Theory
(5%)
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
F(GHz)
Em, circuit theory and measured results [2] for the 35 GHz bandpass
filter.
560
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis Strategies for Diagonal Structures in em
The figure below shows the xgeom layout of the filter rotated by 30 degrees so
that the filter section is horizontal. The filter resonator sections are now
orthogonal whereas the feed lines are on a diagonal.
APP NOTES
Xgeom layout of the 35 GHz bandpass filter rotated 30o so that the filter
resonators are horizontal.
561
::
Sonnet Application Notes
The plot below shows the analysis results for this structure. We see improved
agreement between the measured and modeled data. Analysis time reduced to 1
minute 24 seconds per frequency and the analysis required 31 MB of RAM to
solve. Simply by changing the way we looked at the circuit, we decreased analysis
time by 4X and RAM requirements by 2X.
1.0
0.8
Measured
0.6 em (1%)
|S21|
0.4
Circuit Theory
0.2 (5 %)
0.0
20 25 30 35 40
Frequency (GHz)
The results of the em and circuit theory analysis compared to measured
data. The rotated filter analysis shows very good correlation to the
measured result.
562
SAN-102A: Comparison of Analysis Strategies for Diagonal Structures in em
APP NOTES
The geometry file for the half filter.
An added benefit of analyzing the filter in pieces is that since we now have a
broadband (non-resonant) structure, we can analyze at fewer frequencies....then
interpolate to obtain the greater number of frequencies required to generate the
complete filter response. This effectively increased the savings in analysis time,
also. In this case, we analyzed every 5 GHz, 1/5 the required number of
frequencies for the full filter. Adding in the interpolation effect, analyzing half the
filter decreased the analysis time by 10X. This works out to be an equivalent time
of about 8 seconds per frequency.
Conclusion
We have demonstrated several strategies for analysis of a diagonal structure using
Sonnet. Analysis times ranged from 8 seconds to 6 minutes, depending on the
strategy used and the accuracy required.
563
::
Sonnet Application Notes
References
[1] I. Bahl, “MIC Simulation Column,” International Journal of Microwave and
Millimeter-Wave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol.1, No. 4, pp. 412-419,
October 1991.
564
SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis
APP NOTES
Using Electromagnetic
Analysis
Summary
This application note describes how to use em to automatically derive SPICE
models from a full wave electromagnetic analysis. The model generated is
compatible with OrCAD Pspice1 and OrCAD PSpice A/D as well as other popular
time domain circuit simulation packages. This capability is useful for circuits
which are small with respect to the wavelength of the highest frequency of
interest. This includes structures such as discontinuities like step, tee, and cross
junctions. The primary application is expected to be the generation of SPICE
models to predict cross-talk and propagation delay in high-speed digital
interconnects. Use of this command option causes em to automatically take the
results of the electromagnetic analysis of a circuit and synthesize a lumped
element equivalent model of inductors, capacitors, resistors, and mutual inductors.
This information is then formatted into an ASCII SPICE ".subckt" definition
ready for inclusion in a SPICE input file. This application note provides the basic
elements of an em spice analysis through some simple directions and an example.
565
::
Sonnet Application Notes
Introduction
Em includes an option which synthesizes SPICE models2,3. This allows a given
circuit layout to be analyzed electromagnetically with the result used to synthesize
a SPICE lumped element model. The SPICE model consists of resistors,
inductors, capacitors, and mutual inductors and is written to disc in ASCII format.
The sub-circuit can then be incorporated in a complete circuit and analyzed using,
for example, PSpice or PSpice A/D, to obtain time domain responses. The primary
use of this capability is intended to be cross-talk analysis of high speed digital
circuits. The examples in this note are compatible with Pspice but are general
enough to be used in other SPICE type simulators after some modifications.
Class of Problems
The SPICE generation capability is intended for any circuit which is small with
respect to the wavelength of the highest frequency of excitation. Typically, 1/10th
wavelength is an appropriate limit. If a circuit is too large, split it into two or more
circuits and analyze each circuit separately.
The model generated by the analysis includes any lumped elements (including
mutual inductors) between any ports of the circuit layout. Lumped elements from
any port to ground are also included. The synthesis capability does not allow
internal nodes (i.e., nodes in a circuit which are not connected to a port in the
layout; series RL, LC, and RC are considered single lumped elements). Any
circuit which requires internal nodes for an accurate model should have the
appropriate point specified as a port. All ports must have a ground reference. The
SPICE file generation capability is usually not appropriate for microwave circuits
as such circuits are usually larger than a small fraction of a wavelength. However,
there are exceptions. For example, a de-embedded step discontinuity has zero
physical size and can be used with this capability. The SPICE model synthesis
capability is fast enough that it can be used on circuits of up to several hundred
ports.
566
SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis
APP NOTES
fraction of a wavelength.
• Make sure the frequency is not too low. When the cell size is less
than 0.00001 wavelength, numerical precision can be a problem.
For example, if the cell size (or vertical via length) is 1 mm, it
would be unwise to analyze below 1 MHz. If you are approaching
the lower frequency limit, or want to test for a numerical problem,
you can use the Memory Saver option in em Control to turn on sin-
gle precision (double precision is default) and see if the result
changes.
• After completing the analysis, always do a “reality check” for rea-
sonable values. If you have bad data, one of the above problems is
likely to be at fault. To be absolutely sure your results are good,
select a second pair of frequencies, different from the first pair by,
say, a factor of two, and re-analyze the circuit. You should obtain
almost the same answer.
567
::
Sonnet Application Notes
Capacitors and inductors that would be printed out as zero at the specified
precision are excluded from the listing. The option “-pspice” is equivalent to “-
pspice6”.
Output is sent to a “.psp” file with the same prefix. For example, the input file is
“pspice.geo” so the spice output file is “pspice.psp.”
An Example
The example circuit is shown in the figure below. The circuit layout can be
imported from GDSII, DXF, Series 4, or entered directly using xgeom. The ports
are then specified and will translate to nodes in the lumped element netlist. This
circuit is a simple example of three coupled printed circuit traces connected to
three terminals of some pc-board mounted device. It is expected that there will be
significant crosstalk between the lines and added propagation delay due to the
discontinuities.
Geometry of example circuit under investigation shown using Sonnet xgeom . This
circuit is on a 25 mil thick substrate of relative dielectric constant 9.8. em simulation
of this circuit will produce scattering parameters as well as a complete spice
compatible subcircuit.
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SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis
This example geometry is in the Sonnet example directory (pspice.geo). For this
example, the two frequencies chosen were 100 and 125 MHz. You may specify
these frequencies either by using the analysis control file, “pspice.an” or by
entering a two point sweep in the Frequency Control section of the em Control
window. Use of the analysis control file is shown below.
APP NOTES
The em Control window showing the use of the analysis control file.
Remember that you must click on Additional Options command button and enter
“-pspice” in the Advanced Options text entry box in the dialog box which appears
on your display.
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The following is the resulting SPICE model in ".subckt" form (... indicates
information left out):
The file containing this model can be simply included in the spice circuit file with
a ".INC" statement and then connected as needed into the spice netlist.
Alternatively, a symbol can be created for this model and used in a schematic
capture program such as OrCAD Schematics1. Schematics contains a Symbol
Creation Wizard feature which allows symbols to be created quickly from existing
models. For smaller models, there is an option to enter the components
individually using the schematic entry method. This was done for this example
and is shown in the figure below.
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SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis
Inductor
Coupling
APP NOTES
Block
Netlist generated for half of the circuit in the first figure. Only the circuit for ports
1,2,3,4 is shown here. Note the inductor coupling block highlighted in the diagram.
This coupling along with all other parasitics are computed automatically by em. The
circuit is displayed using OrCAD Schematics.
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Sonnet Application Notes
The circuit shown above is a complete circuit ready for analysis by PSpice or
PSpice A/D. Only the generator, which is a digital clock for this example, and the
port terminations needed to be added to the circuit generated by em. The generator
was connected to port 3 to check for crosstalk between port 3 and port 1. An
example Pspice analysis is shown below.
Time domain response of the circuit showing the crosstalk between the lines 1-2 and
3-4. Nearly 2 volts is generated at port 1 from a 5 volt clock signal at port 3. The data
is displayed using OrCAD Probe.
Other Techniques
Classical techniques use, for example, just an electrostatic or just a magnetostatic
analysis to derive a model. This is adequate for uniform transmission lines
embedded in homogenous dielectric (no different layers). In an arbitrary
predominantly planar circuit, as we have here, a single static analysis provides
only half a circuit model, just the capacitors or just the inductors.
Since em is a full dynamic analysis, both the inductive and capacitive portion of
the model are obtained with one analysis (at two frequencies).
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SAN-104B: Generating PSpice Files Using Electromagnetic Analysis
In addition, the techniques usually used for the static analyses are of a volume
griding variety (e.g., finite elements, finite difference). Even under the
simplifications allowed by static analysis, circuits more complicated than shown
in Figures 1 and 2 quickly go beyond the capability of such software tools.
Note that the experimental approach to modeling this circuit would involve
building the circuit, measuring a 6 port structure, developing and entering an
appropriate model in a circuit simulator, and optimizing each of the variables for
a best fit. Such a task is time consuming and error prone.
APP NOTES
In contrast, by using the em analysis, the total, end-to-end time was about one
hour. This includes the time required for manual circuit layout capture and
inspection of the final results.
Conclusion
We have shown how the SPICE model synthesis capability of em can be used to
quickly derive lumped models of complex circuits, provided the circuits are small
with respect to wavelength. The only input information required is the circuit
layout. The lumped model is synthesized based on results of a complete
electromagnetic analysis of the layout. The capability can be used on typical
workstations to model circuits of up to several hundred ports, allowing timely
generation of models of complex circuits which can not be accurately evaluated
in any other way.
[1] PSpice, Schematics, and Probe are products of OrCAD Corp. 9300 S.W. Nimbus Ave-
nue, Beaverton, OR 97008-9625
[2] Sonnet User’s Manual, Sonnet Software, 1020 Seventh North Street, Suite 210,
Liverpool, NY 13088
[3] J.C. Rautio, “Synthesis of Lumped Models from N-Port Scattering Parameter Data,”
IEEE Tran. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. 42, No. 3, March 1994, pp. 535-537.
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