Art 4-6

Agl"Oforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturel horticulture to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing
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Agroforestry News
Volume 4 Number 1
October 1995
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 4 Number 1
October 1995
Contents
2 3 Editorial & News Chestnuts special: Cultivation for nuts
3 4 9 11 13 15 17 19 Nut types & uses Flowering & pollination Pruning Feeding & irrigation Harvesting Diseases Insect pests Chestnut cultivars
39 40
Book review: Saponins News (Continued), classified ads
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officia ls of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed , and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes , Devon, Tag 6JT. U.K. Email: AgroResTr @ aol.com Website: http://members.aol.com/AgroResTr/homepage.html
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1
Page 1
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Editorial & News

There has long been a dearth of information about chestnuts in the English language, which this special issue hopes to remedy. Much of the information has been gleaned from French and Italian books and articles, especially the e:cellent Le Chfltaigner Production et Cultue by F.Bergougnouxand others. Although only the southern half of Britain is really suitable for nut cultivation of chestnuts (and only the very South and South West are possible commercial gro""";ng areas), a climate change giving a temperature rise of 2C (as we have seen this summer and likely to occur normally within the next 35 years) will make much of Britain suitable, the Southern half possible commercial growing areas , and the South and South West good commercial growing areas. So chestnuts planted now for nut production should become increasingly viable and profitable as the plantings mature. The collection of chestnut articles from Agroforestry Nev.s is being published this rmnth as a booklet, 'Chestnuts: libduction and Cultue'.
New trial grounds

In September we took over 8.3 acres of land, rented from Dartington Hall Trust, which will form our new trial grounds - not open to the general public. The land is agriculturally Class 2, being a typical Devonian red soil, and has been under arable cultivation for several years (not organic, but not too heavily sprayed either.) It is a single, fairly rectangular; field , gently south sloping at an altitude of 50-80 metres above sea level. The barley stubble which was left. when we took over was ploughed in just after the first significant rain after the summer drought (75 mm = 3" during the previous week which left the soil pleasantly moist). Brief rolling and harrovving created a good seed bed , then a seed mix of dwarl perennial ryegrass, creeping red fescue and wild white clover (8 Kg::2 Kg::O.25 Kg per acre) was sown and rolled in. Moist, warm September weather since sowing has ensured good germination. This mix was chosen as a low-maintenance ground coverbetv..een trees Vvtlich should only need mowing 1-2 times per season. A small area of the field has been sown with tares (vetches) as a green manure. This area, about 0.15 acre, will be used from 1996 onwards for shade trials of bush fruit and some vegetables, and as propagation/lining out aeas for nursery stock. Although the field boundary is marked by trimmed hedges (which must be retained), the site is relatively exposed to the prevailing S/SW winds . Hence the first trees to be planted this VoIinter will be forwindbreaks: the S/SW VoIindbreaks will consist of a single row of Italian alders (Alnus cordata) - although these don't leaf out early in spring , they retain their leaves late into' autumn and should protect cropping trees from wind damage. On the N/E sides of the field, windbreaks of vvillo'M5 are planned - these leaf out very early in spring (and aren't frost-sensitive) and will hence protect flowering crop trees from cold Easterly winds. Trials due for planting this Wnter include W3lnut and chestnut IBriety trials.
Open days planned

From 1996 onwards, we plan to have probably two open days a year (June/July and September/October time), to show interested folk around our research grounds in South Devon (both the forest garden site and the newtrial glOunds~ More details wll appear in .AJ;Jroforestry Nev.s in 1996.
Effects of the drought

Despite the hot, dry summer, there were very few casualties from our plantings at the Forest garden site at Dartington: most plants had been mulched with a black polythene mulch (a strip for hedges, squares for individual trees). None were watered at all during the summer, & the only species to suffer slightly were the (Continued on page 40)
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Chestnuts (2): Cultivation for nuts

Introduction
Chestnuts have for many years and remain today a major world nut crop. World production of chestnuts stood at about SOO,OOO tons annually in 1985, and has increased since, with the largest producers being China , Korea, Italy, Turkey, France , Spain, Portugal and Greece. All these countries have large, healthy and exparding chestnut industries. In Europe, after a low was reached in the 1970's, increasing acreages of chestnuts have been planted , with new varieties and less rugged terrain for planting reducing the role of the baditional rrountain orchards.
Nut types and uses

The French have long divided fruits from chestnut trees into two categories: Marrons and Cha:taignes. The categorisation is dependent on whether or not individual fruits have a single, whole seed or several smaller seeds divided by a papery skin (the pellicle} Marrons have a single 1Nh0ie seed 'Nithin a fruit; Chataignes have 2-S seeds within the single shell, with the kernel partitioned between each seed with a papery skin . Both types can haw several nuts wthin a single bur Since few trees produce 100% of one kind or nut or another, a variety is defined as a Maron if on average, under 12% of the nuts are partitioned; if under the same conditions, a tree produces on average over 12% of partitioned nuts, it is a ChcUaigne. To add to the confusion, several varieties have had the name 'Marron' misapplied, for example Don~e de Lyon (Syn: Marron de L}On) lNhich is a Chataignetype. The distinction is important because certain uses, and most commercial utilisation, of chestnuts demands Marrons, lNhereas Chataignes are usually only used for fresh eating -and even here they are more fiddly to eat than Marrons. Because there is no English equivalent to these two terms, they are frequently used here. Nut sizes vary betvo.een varieties and cops. Nuts can be dio.ided into foursize categories: Category A B Fruits per Kg Under 60 Fruits per Ib Under 28 Nut size (as in variety description) Large & very large Medium to large Small to medium Small
C D
61 -80 81 -100
Over 100
28 -36 37 -45
Over 4S
One factor.......tiich can greatly affect utilisation of nuts is the staining of the kEel wth colourfrom the shell. Approximate composition of fresh C.sativa nuts is (by weight): 43% water, 6.4% protein, 6% fat, 43% carbohyUrate, 1.S% crude fibre. The shell constitutes about lS% of the total weight of the nut. The composition of dried nuts, by weight, is 6% water, 10.7% protein, 7.8% fat, 70% carbohydrates, 2.9% crude fibre. The main uses of nuts ae: Fresh eating All varieties may be utilised for fresh eating , though of course the flavour is better in some than in others . Uses all sizes of nuts. Most chestnuts are eaten cooked (some, notably other species than C.sativa , are good raw), either by quickly roasting , or boiling for lS-20 minutes; steamed blarched chestnuts are a favourite French method.
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Flour producfon Some varieties are particularly noted for utilisation as chestnut flour; several are still used for this, notably in Corsica and Italy. Unlike most nuts, chestnuts are low in fats and hence are more akin to cereals than other eating nuts. To make flour, the nuts must be dried, then shelled and ground. The flour is often mixed vvith wheat flour or other foodstuffs; it is used to make a thick soup, porridge, in stews, to make bread, thin cakes/biscuits and chestnut ftters. Preserves, sauces, pun~s etc. Uses small sized nuts (Class D~ both Marrons and
Ch~Haignes .
natural marrons, canned Whole
This requires Marron-type nuts, with no colour staining, which peel well, which have firm flesh which doesn't disintegrate after processing. Requires nut sizes of 80-90 per Kg (Class B & C). Nuts are cooked and then conditioned in fletal containes. Flavour and appearance after cooking are important. Confections, ego cr)Staliised marrons, marrons glacis, marrons in alcohol, fozen marrons. Requires Marron-type nuts, with no colour staining , which peel well and with very firm flesh. Requires large nuts of si2BS 40-65 per Kg (Class A & 8).
Flowering and pollination

Chestnuts are monoecious, ie the male and female flowers are found on the same tree, but are distinct and separate. FloVvers are borne tenninally and sub-tenninally on fruiting branches (sub-terminally to centrally on branches of hybrids) from the leafaxils. The male f1olN8rs are yellow catkins, borne beM.een about midJune and mid-July. The female flowers are borne in groups of 5 at the base of bisexual catkins; each f1olNer, enclosing several ovules, can develop into a nut vvith one or many seeds - a marron in the first case, a chiltaigne in the latter. The periods of maximum pollen dispersion and maximum female receptivity rarely coincide for very long; the period of maximum pollen dispersion almost alv.ays occurs about a week before the period of maximum female receptivity. The unisexual male catkins release their pollen before the bise):Ual catkins. Individual varieties and tl8es are divided into one of fourflov..ering types depending on the nale f1ov.ers: 1. 2. 3. 4. a-stamen: Without starrens, hence cannot poduce any pollen. Trees sterile. brachv=stamen: Stamen threads very small, 1-3 mm long; little pollen. Tees practically sterile. meso-stamen: Stamen threads 3-5 mm long; little pollen. Tees practically sterile. long-stamen: Stamen threads 5-7 mm long; abundant pollen ~ut not aillBYS very fertile).
It can be seen from these types that only the latter; long-stamen types, are suitable as pollinators, and then only those vvith fertile pollen. In these trees , the male catkins appear noticeably thicker and 'bushier' than . trees of the filSt three types. Pollination of chestnuts is bound up with weather conditions at flowering time. Pollen is liberated in warm, dry conditions, and the vvind efficiently transports this pollen in conditims of low humidity. This is fine in Mediterranean conditions, but in moister climes like Britain and W.France, the natural viscosity of chestnut pollen makes vvind pollination unreliable, and good pollination occurs via insects, particula~y bees (both vvild bumble bees and honeybees), also -.ta butterflies, beetles and syphids. Cold or wet weather throughout the flowering period can lead to very poor pollination and subsequent nut production; ex:essive rain \oVashes the pollen fom the catkins to the gound. Warmth is essential during flowering for fertilisation to occur: optimum pollen germination occurs at temperatures of 27-30C. Given good conditions , pollination best occurs when the pollen-producing tree is up to 40 m away from the variety to be pollinated. In pactice, this rreans that at least eo.ery fourth tree in any direction is a pollinator Self-pollination is only possible vvith long-stamen type trees, but even these pollinate very feebly (under 10 nuts per 100 burs) compared with the same tree when well pollinated (165-225 nuts per 100 burs). Thus chesb1uts are practically self-sterile, and cross-pollination is essential. Planting only a single variety vvill never yield a good poduction of nuts -at least twJ varieties rrust be planted forcross-pollination.
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For cross-pollination to take place and maximise nut production , the pOllinating variety must be of
compatible flowering period: ie the period of pollen emission of the pollinator and the period of maximum recepti"';ty of the fermle f1oll.ers of the rrain tree coincide.
Pollination of female f1oy,.ers is possible over about a 30-day period , though the period of maximum
receptivity occurs from about day 8 to day 21 of this period (ie for about 2 weeks). Male flowering, on the other hand. lasts only for about 10 days. A pollinator should be able to supply pollen throughout this period of maximum receptivity; altematively, more than one pollinatorcan be used to gi-e a good co\erage. The cultivar descriptions given later include the times of maximum male flowering and female receptivity. These are displayed in table 1. It will be seen from this table that for the majority of varieties , any of the usuallong.stamen C.sath.e selections Wli pollinate veil , ie French selee.ons: Belle Epine Campanese MalTon de Che\.enceaux Marron de Goujounac Montagne American seleeions: Myoka Nevada Portaloune Precoce Carmeille Rousse de Nay Verdale
Silver Leaf
Poor genetic corrpatibilityVolith other varieties for pollination is noted in these ariety descriptions. Very few selected varieties have a period of maximum pollen production for late or very late flowering varieties; these ae often pollinated by1ate~o\'\ring wid trees nearby.
Rootstocks
To date, the only rootstocks 'Nhich have been developed and used for chestnuts are disease;esistant selections: there are no dwarfing rootstocks as such. In France, it is common to use seedling Castanea crenata (Japanese walnut) rootstocks, because of its resistance to ink disease. Sometimes the hybrid varieties Maraval, Marsol and Marigoule are used for the same reason; Maraval tends to produce a tree of 10\0V8r vigour. However, where ink disease is unlikely to be a problem (see later for more on the disease), there isn't much advantage in using specific rootstocks. In this case, seedling sweet chestnuts are often used as rootstocks. orvarieties are grown on theirown roots if theyare layered. Varieties of other chestnut species should always be grafted onto rootstocks of the same species ; graft incompatibility is common wth grafts of diffeent species.
MycolThizas
Mycorrhizas are beneficial fungi which live in symbiosis with plants in the soil. Not only do they significantly aid mineral nutrition (especially of nitrogen and phosphorus), but they proted the roots of their companion plant from attack: the fungal mycelium forms a cylinder which surrounds inoculated roots and forms a mechanical barrier against infection, the mycorrhizal fungus secretes antibiotic substances which encourage the root microflora to produce toxins against parasites, and the symbiosis alters the metabolism of the plant and allow it to s}Othesise fungicides against paasites. Ideally, roots of young plants would be inoculated with mycorrhizal material in the nursery or at transplanting; however, unless you can find fresh mushrooms of the corred species at the time , this is very difficult. Two methods worth adopting are to dig some soil from around the roots of large established chestnuts (preferably in forests), and to use this either in solution as a root dip or as an amendment to planting holes.
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Most of the mushrooms found beneath chestnuts in forests are mycorrhizal species. Known mycorrhizal species include: BolebJs edulis -the 'Cep' or'Penny bun', wth excellent edible rrushrooms Elaphomyces muricatus - not edible Gyroporus casBneus (Syn. Boletus c.)- the 'Chestnut boletus' has good qualit~ible nushrooms Hygrophorus rmrzuolus (Syn. Camarophyllus m.) - has e>r:ellent edible rrushrooms Lactarius chrysorrheus -mushrooms sometimes eaten (poor quality), cause gastric upsets in some people Lactarius vellereus -'Fleecy milk-cap', not edible. Leucopaxillus cerealis Russula aurora -has good qualityedible nushrooms Russula erretica - 'The sickener, poisonous. Russula betens - 'Fetid russula', not edible. In addition, some species of truffle (Tuber spp), with excellent edible mushrooms, are known to associate vvith chestnut.
Planning the planting

Altitude: In Northern locations (and the UK), planting at low altitude (beneath 100 m, 330 ft) is essential, as summer warmth must be maximised. Chestnuts (C.sativa) need an average annual temperature of 8-1 SoC (46-59F) and preferably over 1QC (SOF); Chinese and Japanese varieties need average temperatures about 2C (3}S.F) warmer. For good nut ripening, average temperatures in September and October should reach 14.5'C (58F) and 8.5'C (4rF) respecth.ely. Slope: Although planting on steep slopes has traditionally been used in Europe, this makes harvesting difficult and mechanical harvesting impossible. Terracing is still sometimes used on steep slopes, but genUe slopes orlevel areas are preferred . Soil: Should ha\E at least 2%organic matter (add manure if less)and a pH of 5.06.0 . Pollination: Since cross-pollination is the essential prerequisite to good cropping, the varieties to be used should be chosen to ensure plentiful pollen production so that all varieties are pollinated. It is now common practice to plant up to 4 varieties together, the more varieties lNhich are male-sterile, the more pollinating varieties are needed. Bees will ensure better pollination than the wind, and it it useful to place hives in orchards during the f1olA-ering period. Chestnut honey from such hives is relished and sold in Italy; it is bright in colour, strongly aromatic ..-.Ath a slight bitteness.
Planting
Planting distances depend on the rethod of pn.ming to be used: (a) With traditional'open-vase' pruning, ro'NS are normally 10 m (33 ft) apart with trees at 8-12 m (26-39 ft) in the row (8 m (26 tt) for varieties of low vigour, 10 m (33 ft) for moderate vigour, 12 m (39 ft) for very vigorous). This equals a density of 80-120 trees /Ha (3248 trees/acre). A variation is to plant at double density (10 m x 5 m [33 x 16 tt} = 200 trees/ Ha [80 trees/acre}), planning a thinning when the trees require more space; this improves early income from an orchard, but the disadvantages are (1) the value of the trees '#hich are removed rarely covers the costs of their culture and removal; (2) removal of tree roots is very difficult and increases the risk of ink disease; (3) the thinning must be carried out before the remaining trees suffer from croVvtling. The advantage of this option is maximised when seedling stocks (as opposed to grafted) are used, Wlen the best fuiting trees can be selected to etaining. (b) Using pruning to form a pyramid, a method recommended in recent years in France and Italy, takes advantage of the natural habit of chestnut to grow as an erect tree, and allows for closer planting of trees. Densities of 150-200 trees/Ha (60-80 trees/acre) are used, lNhich translates to planting distances of 6-8 m x 8-10 m (20-26 ft x 26-33 tt) . This method gives a quicker retum on the investment for large scale gro'Ners.
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&
Trees can be planted in either a rectangular or equilateral arrangement; in the latter, plants in adjacent rows are staggered so that any 2 plants are the same distance apart (eg. for a 10 x 10 m [33 x 33 tt] equilateral planting, roV\'S are 8.7 m [28% ftJ apart). Rectangular arrangements are slightly less dense and allow 'Nider raVvS for interpJanting. For good pollination , it is necessary to mix the varieties as much as possible; however, to facilitate the harvest (especially if it is mechanical) it is easiest to plant entire rows of a single variety. Pollen movement is limited in scope, hence no more than 3 consecutive rows of the same variety should be planted before a row of a pOllinatoris planted. See Fig 3a page 35) for examples of planting arangements. Planting should be undertaken between late November and early April, preferably in late autumn if weather conditions allow. Planting positions in large orchards should be marked out beforehand. Planting holes need not be prepared in advanced ; they should be about 30 cm (1 ft) deep by 40-50 cm (16-20") across for 2-3 year old bar-rooted stock. Dip the roots in water before planting, and make sure to avoid planting the tree too deeply.: Staking is not always necessary, but may be desirable where trees are to be grown on high stems where the sW3ying action leads to insufficient ancharge.
After planting
Like all tree fruits, chestnuts dislike transplanting (particularly those produced by layering). To ensure good survival in the fist year after planting: (1) Encourage root growth by using a nitrogen fertiliser equivalent to 50 g (1.75 oz) of N per tree immediately after planting. This can be achieved by mulching with 8 Kg (18 Ib) of farmyard manure or slightly less of compost; or by using 4}s' litres (8 pints) of urine; or 2.5 Kg (5 Jb) of seaweed meal; or 0.4 Kg (1 Ib) of hoof and hom; or 1.5 Kg (3Ib) of bonemeal; or by using a compound organic fertiliser- eg o0.5 Kg (llb)o! 10-10-10. (2) Equalise the root and aerial systems. Weak plants with a small root system should be cut down to 2 or 3 buds; very short shoot growth is pruned the following June, by pinching out the tips of unwanted shoots, 'vVith the aim of favouring the main trunk shoot; very well developed trees which are taller than 1.5 m (5 ft) are pruned doWl to the height equired for framev.K:lrk branches. (3) Irrigate if necessary (though if trees are mulched it may not be). In a very dry summer, unmulched trees may require 50 Htres (11 gallons)each for sufficient elfef. (4) Ensure there is no v..eed competition wthin 50 cm(20ft) of the plants -best achie\ed by using a rTlJlch. (5) In hot regions, lAhitev.esh the trunks against sun bun damage.
Interplanting
tn regions with sufficient rainfaU (INhere irrigation is not required), the soil beneath the chestnuts can be grassed down for grazing, though this requires trees to be trained with longer clean stems (eg. 1.4m [5 ft] for sheep, 2.1m f7 ft] for cattle) in the formation pruning stages. In dry regions , the ground is normally kept bare beneath chestnuts in ochards . Where there is sufficient rainfall, there is no reason why shrub or perennial crops cannot be grown beneath the chestnuts, as long as the understorey crops can tolerate the shade and dryness, and as long as harvesting is rrade wth the use of nets on ..ves. At standard spacings as described above, there is sufficient space between rows of young plants to grow other sun-demanding cultivated crops for up to 5 or 6 years. A general rule is: for each year after planting, allow an uncultivated diameter of 1.5 + (% x years) metres around the chestnuts. For example , in a 10 x 10 m rectangular planting scherre,:- in year 1, allow 2 m (6}s' ft) unculthated width of chestnut ro-ws, giving an inter-row width to cultivate of 6 m (20 fti
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Fig 18
Flglb
.(--- Cut tip at 1.2.-1.5m
14-5 It)
Too upright Too low
Fig lc
Too upright
Secondary laterals developing after laterals cut back by a third
Clean stem of 60-90 em (23 I)
foo upright
Fig 1 Open-vase pruning
in in - in - in - in
year 2, allow2Y2 m (8 ftl unculti\9ted wdth of chestnut OWS: inteHow width to culthate is 5 m (16}s' tt); year 3, allow 3 m (10 ttl unculti\9ted wdth of chestnut OWS: inter-row width to culthate is 4 m (13 ft~ year 4, allow3Y2 m (11 % ftl unculti\9ted wdth of chestnut ows: inter-row width to cult. is 3 m(10 ft~ year 5, allow4 m (13 ft) unculti\9ted wdth of chestnut OWS : inter-row v.ridth to culthate of 2 m (6% ft): year 6, allow4Y2 m (15 ft) unculti\9ted wdth of chestnut ows: inter-row v.ridth to culti\Bte of 1 m (3 ft~
To allow for permanent interplanting of different tree or shrub crops, nitrogen.fixing species etc, chestnut rows should be given wider spacing than for pure chestnut orchards; allow almost the whole extra width of the mature interplant species.
Pruning
Although mature fruiting trees may be managed with little pruning, formation pruning of young trees is essential for quick development and early fruiting at 4-6 years after planting (unpruned trees may take 15 years to reach good production). Pruning is easiest with a tree of good vigour, allowing a good choice of shoots - hence the importance of fertili sing during this period. The best time to prune in winter is in February. The chestnut fruits only on one-year old wood in good light, situated at the periphery of the crown . The aim in all pruning , therefore, is to obtain as large a crOIMl surface as possible which receives sunlight. In addition, recent research has found that fruiting branches decline in productivity after 2-3 years, hence pruning to encouege constant enewal of new fruiting branches is ad\Bntageous. There are tv.u methods of pruning which are both described here. The open vase form is the more traditional form, well-suited to varieties without a very erect habit: more recently, the pyramidal form has been used as it allo~ the tree to grow more upright (as is its natuel inclination) 1. To form an open vase f1alfstandard}- Fig 1 (page 16) Here the aim is to choose and rranage a nurrber of main fiame'MJrk branches . - If one-year old rooted plants t)0-100 cm [2-3 ftJ) have been planted, allowthese to gow for a further year. Year 1: If 2-3 year-old plants (1.2-1.5 m [4-5 ftl) have been planted , then cut the main shoot back to a height Wlich wll detemine ooere the frame'MJrk branches fork (usually 1.2 to 1.5 m (4-5 ftl). (Fig la) Year 2: choose 3-4 frame'MJrk branches. These should radiate around from the trunk at slightly different heights. The angle between these branches and the trunk should be near to 90 for good stability & future training. - The aim now is for the frame'MJrk branches to arch upwards, reaching an angle of about 3040 with the vertical. To achieve this, summer pruning in June is practised: the first shoots to emerge are often very erect and too vertical; these are pinched out, favouring the emergence of less erect shoots from immediately beneath the initial shoots . fig lb) - In general, vigorous and erect branches should never be left: a very open formation of the branches is the condition which promotes precocity of fruiting and productivity. Branches determined to grow into the centre should be cut back se"flrely. Year 3: framework branches should be cut back by one third of their increment to promote branch division. In summer, pinch out the tips of shoots growing towards the centre of the 'vase', of any likely to cross , and of any too erect. (Fig lc) When production commences, the branches are weighed down by the nuts, and tend to droop: this aids continued poduction. Ongoing pruning consists of removing shoots to allow better light penetration , removing branches of low vigour and those growing towards the centre of the tree. Unproductive fruiting branches should also be cut out every year or t'I.Q, to encouege new fruiting branches to gow. 2. To form a pyramid - Fig 2 (page 18) The main principle here is to manage a central leaderfaxis (eventually with a long pruning pole), and to choose lateral branches Wlich radiate all aound the aJ4s and fom the Main benches to suppot fruiting

Fog 2a
Fig 2b
Take out laterals nearest axis Take out laterals nearest axis
Pinch out over

summer
Cut out in winter too low
Too erect
faa low
Take out laterals nearest axis
Region of secondary laterals
Clean trunk of 60-90 em (2-3 ft)
Fig 2c
Fig 2 Pyramid pruning
shoots. The axis must alv.eys be a sbang shoot Yhich is higherthan anyof the tateals. Most of the pruning should take place in the summer betv..een June and August, in 2 or 3 sessions. In June, the pruning consists of pinching out shoot tips, to stop unwanted shoots from growing further (but the shoot is left in place with its leaves to help the tree grow); in August these shoots can be cut out completely - the lNOund 'Nill heal before winter. Winter pruning in February can be carried out to rectify insufficient summer pruning . Wlen the bare branches allowbettervisibility.
Year 1: Fanning an axis. In June, cut out the 2 or 3 laterals nearest to the axis - these threaten its
dominance. Also pinch out all other1ateral tips. (Fig 2a)
Year 2: Forming the main laterals. As in year 1, cut out the 2 or 3 laterals nearest to the axis; pinch out the tips of any strongly erect laterals, and in August cut these out completely. The laterals to be left to form the main lateral branches should make a large angle with the axis (about 60) and be spread out both radially around the axis and regu lar1y up the axis; make sure there is a vertical gap (along the axis) between two opposite branches joining the axis. Choosing these lateElls is sorretimes difficult -often the angles with the axis are acute or there is a length of axis without laterals. In these cases it is possible to train laterals by stretching them vvith twne tied to the lateral and to a stake. Adean trunk of 60-80 cm (24-32") is needed at the base of the alis. (Fig 2b) Year 3: Forming the secondary laterals. Once again, the 2 or 3 laterals nearest to the axis are cut out in summer. The main laterals are allov..ed to continue gro'A'ing as long as they do not become too vertical, and the secondary laterals allov.ed to grow from them where they have plenty of space -otherwise they are pinched out and emoved completely later. (Fig 2c) Ongoing pruning : From the 4th or 5th year onwards, annual pruning consists of removing shoots to allow better light penetration, and removing branches of low vigour at the edge of the crown. Unproductive fruiting branches should also be cut out every year or two, to encourage new fruiting branches to grow. In time the centlal axis""';l1 becorre increasingly difficult to rraintain, and tees becorre more rounded.
Renovation pruning of adutt trees

Renovation of unproductive mature trees usually means severely altering the form of the tree and the development it takes. Then tf some or all of the folloving: - Eliminate all branches ffiich gi\-e the tree a pointed fom. - Thin the cente of the tEe to gi>.e better light penetEition. - Remove dead wad from the lov.er and central parts of branches. - Remove small unproducti-.,e branches of lowvigour. - Remove overhanging branches Wlich obstruct any machinery to be used. - Cut out blanches Voilich are touching orcrossing. A different approach to renovation is to coppice trees , removing all existing aerial parts, and then graft on scions of suitable varieties to the strong shoots that are produced. It is important to thin the multitude of coppice shoots produced , grafting to only 4 or 5 at the most, and to train them into a less erect habit by tying doW1 to stakes.
Feeding & irrigation

Feeding consists essentially of supplying nitrogen and potassium. Excess nitrogen can lead to small nuts, a delay of tree maturity of 10-15 years, and increased susceptibility to anthracnose; nitrogen shortage leads to lack of Vgour(making fOllT1ation pruning difficult)and poorproducti\1ty. The follown9 amounts (of pure nitrogen and potassiurTj are recommended per tree:
Page 31
Year afterNitrogen planting 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Fertiliser Manure Compost Urine Seaweed meal Hoof & horn Bonemeal Fishmeal Wood ash 7-7-7 fertiliser
required Potassium required per tree per tree 50g(20z) 80g(30z) 100 9 (3)1, oz) 160 9 (5)1, oz) 150 9 (5)1, oz) 240 9 (8)1, oz) 320 9 (11 oz) 200 9 (7 oz) 250 9 (90z) 400 9 (14 oz) 450 9 (lib) 800 9 (lib 1202)
Radius to spread around each tee 1 m (3 ft) 1.5 m (5 ft) 2 m (6)1, ft) 2.5 m (8 ft) 3m(10ft) Beneath canopy
Nutriertt content of comnon organic fertilisers is:
% Nitrogen % Potassium 0.6 % (6g/kg, 1 oz/10 Ib) 0.5% (5g/kg, 1 oz/12Y:z Ib) 0.5% (5g/kg, 1 ozl12)1, Ib) 0.8% (8g/kg, 1 oz/8Ib) 1.1% (llg/l, 1 oz/4 pts) 2.0% (20g/kg, 1 oz/3Ib) 2.6% (26g/kg, 1 oz/2)1, Ib) 13% (130g/kg, 2 oz/Ib) 3 .5% (35g/kg, 1 oz/2 Ib) 10% av (100g/kg, 1)1, oz/lb)l% (lOg/kg, 1 oz/6Ib) 10% av (100g/kg, 1Y:z oz/lb) 7% (70g/kg, 1 oz/Ib) 7% (70g/kg , 1 oz/Ib)
From these two tables, a regime of fertilisers can be worked out, for example the first year requirements can be met by feeding each tree with 9 Kg (20 Ib) of manure plus 350g (1.25 oz) wood ash; or with 3 Kg (6% Ib) of seaweed meal. Considerable amounts of nitrogen and potassium are recycled via the fallen leaves if these are allowed to decompose beneath trees; up to 27 Kg of Nitrogen/Ha (24 Ib/acre) and 11 Kg of Potassium/Ha (10 Ib/acre). Chestnut leaves decompose quickly, with most nutrients released during the following spring-=autumn the year after leaf-fall. Fertilisers sho uld be spread early in spring (February to April). An alternative to the constant need for importing materials to supply nitrogen is to utilise nitrogen-fixing plants: interplanting chestnuts with good nitrogen-fixers (eg. Alders, EJaeagnus) at the rate of 33% N-fixers to 66% chestnuts (by canopy area) will mean that the chestnuts are supplied with the nitrogen they require . [See Agroforestry News, Vol 3 No 3, for more information of Nitrogen sources and N-fixing plants.] An alternative to importing potassium might be to grow comfrey (a n excellent dynamic accumulator of potassium) specifically to cut and mulch with ; comfrey leaves , if cut 4-5 times a season, can supply about 150g of Potassium per year. Hence 5 or 6 plants should be able to supply all the needs of a single tree. (the potassium made available in late summer will be largely utilised in the following spring by the tree.) These plants could be grown as an alley crop between rows of chestnuts, or even beneath the chestn uts themselves (though more would be needed per tree in shaded conditions.) As for Phosphorus, the requirements are not high. Unless so il analyses at 10-year intervals indicate a deficiency, then no phosphorus need be added. If manure , compost, seaweed meal , hoof and horn or a compound fertiliser is used as a nitrogen source, then plentiful phosphorus will be supplied in any case. Other good sources are wood ash and rock phosphate. The soil should be analysed every few years, and calcium added if the pH falls below 5.0. Irrigation is often required in regions with hot, dry, Mediterranean-type climates, though not in more northerly or oceanic climates . Trees under water stress vegetate poorly and yield badly irrigation can ensure good production of good sized fruits. Trees in these hot regions usually need some irrigation from about 3 or 4 years after planting. Irrigation may be needed as early as may, or when the soil starts to become quite dry, and may be needed up to harvest. Sprinklers, apart from being very expensive to cover large areas, are bad for soi l structure and their repeated wetting of foliage may increase leaf diseases. A better option is drip
Page 12
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/4 No 1
irrigation: two drippers per tree (drip rate 4 IIhour = 7 pints/hour) give sufficient coverage, and an irrigation of 34 mm /day/m 2 (ie 3-4 litres/daylm 2 = 4Y26 pints/da~yd2) under the canopy area is recommended in SE France. For a denser. planted orchard with almost entire canopy cover, this may require a filtered water supply of 30-40 m IHa/day (2700-3600 gallons/acre/day). In Italy, up to double these arrounts are recommended . .Actual arrounts wI! obviously vary INith climate and soil .
i
)
Production
Nut production starts in most varieties by the age of 5 years, less in some very precocious selections. For trees planted at 6 x 8 m (20 x 26 ft.), and pruned to a pyramidal fonn, average approximate nut yields per tree are:
Hybnds Indigenous
5th year 5-8 Kg (t1-1Slb) 2-4 Kg (4l1,-9Ib)
Sth year 15-20 Kg (33-44Ib) 6-10 Kg (13-22Ib)
10-12 years onv..ards 25 Kg (55Ib) 15 Kg (33Ib)
The e;.:pected yields for the mature trees of 10-12 years old and o'!r are: Hybnds: 5 tonnes ~OOO KgYH a (2 tons/acre) Indigenous: 3 tonnes ~OOO Kg YHa (1.2 tons/a",,)
Harvesting
The nuts are characterised by rapid growth and enlargement in the last phase of development: they quadruple in size in the last 6 weeks and double in the last 2 weeks up to ripening . Weather conditions in this period have a great bearing on the harvest: a period of rain and strong winds may cause the fall of premature nuts or burs, while a very dry or cold period may block the final development of nuts. Nuts harvested before natulCI.l nut-fall Qe picked off the tee) keep ~ry badly. Harvest is undertaken 'NIlen the nuts are mature and fall (either 'Within or out from the burs) - after nut-fall has started , then if bad weather looms, burs/nuts can be knocked off the tree: ripens within unopened burs conUnue to ripen for a about a week. The period of harvest can occur from mid-September for the earliest varieties to late October/early November for the latest. It is particular1y important to ensure a very quick harvest of nuts after they fall as a prolonged period on the soil in warm humid years affects the nuts (they may dry up in sun or absorb a lot of water in rain) and favours pests and pathogenic fungi. Nuts should be harvested daily (or at least every other day) for the typical 10-12 day period of nut fall for a particular variety. There are 3 methods of harvesting: 1. Manual harvest from the ground. Just before harvest: mow pasture or cultivate and roll cultheted land beneath tees. The harvest rate varies, depending on the speed and dexterity of the harvesters; but normal rates are 80150 Kg (175-330 Ib) per person per day. The rate is also dependent on the characteristics of the variety: some (eg. Belle Epine, Marron d'Olargues, Rousse de Nay) drop nuts to the ground and retain burs on the tree, which aids the harvest considerably; others (eg. Belle Rouge , Marigoule, Sardonne) drop their nuts either within or out of the burs, but the burs in any case also fall to the ground at the same time; in a few varieties (eg. Marron du Var, Marron Dauphine) the nuts fall almost always within burs , which slows harvest considelC.lbly. Harvest should be daily over the 'vVhole period of nut-fall, because nuts lying on the ground are very susceptible to attack by pests. Manual harvest is slow and laborious, necessitating seasonal labour on a large scale, and it is used to a lesser extent now than in the past, especially for the difficult to harvest varieties. On a small scale, though, it is the most economical method. Harvesters need thick rubber gloves to protect against bus. 2. Manual harvestwith nets - Fig 3b. (page 35) This is the best solution for those with a moderate number of trees up to small orchards. It necessitates investing in buying nets, but this can be rrinimised at the penning stage by planting varieties which ripen at different periods (eg. alternate rows of ea~y and lateiipening \8rieties ~
Page 13
To prolong net life, and achiew a much better quality of production, the nets should not be spread out on the ground, but are attached to wires: for each row, 3 parallel tensioned wires are set up, one along the raIN'S of trees at a height of 1.5 m(5 ft) and passing though the trees (supported by them); and another two between the rows of trees either side of the first wire at 1.2 m (4 tt) high, staked every 3 m (10 ft). The wires are spaced apart the width of the nets, typically 4 m (13 tt). The tension of the wires supports the nets and stops them bowng to the gound ....nen full of nuts. S:!e Fig 3b fora diagram of the alrangement. The harvest is then made daily, using a large ladle-like tool attached to a breast harness which is used to ladle th~ chestnuts out of nets into sacks. The adk ntages of using nets for harvesting are that the nuts never touch the soil; harvesting daily is more practical because the routine is very quick; and the harvest is of very good quality and hence economic value. 3. Mechanical harvest Just before halVest: mow pasture or cultivate and 1011 culti\B.ted land beneath tees. Mechanical harvesting is now important to the large~scale chestnut grower, though it can only be used in gently sloping terrain ~ in hilty areas like Corsica, manual hafVesting is still needed. The machinery needed is costly to buy or rent. Several types of machines are available in France (See list of suppliers later). It is important to realise that the volume of material picked up (nuts, burs and leaves) is 3-4 times that of the nuts alone. This mixture must then be sated/processed to finish up 'v'Kh pure nuts.
Postharvest processing
Nuts for long-term storage should be cured at 10~15 G C for a few days in a room with good ventilation and high humidity, this allov.s starches to com.ert to sugars. After the nuts are removed from burs (taking care not to damage them if the burs require pressure to C) to kilt any fungal spores on their open), they are usually dipped briefly into hot v..ater (eg. 1 hour at 52-68 G surface and any weevil larvae INithin nuts (this provides 100% control); they must be surface-dried after this process . Nuts which have been eaten by weevil lafVae, where the larvae have left the nut, can be floated off at this stage. Long term storage (ie 3-6 months or longer) of fresh nuts can be carried out (for suitable varieties) at a temperature bel'v\een 0~5GC (32-40F) at high humidity (65-70% relative humidity). Nuts should not be stored in la)ers thicker than about 15 cm(6 n ) and should be tuned occasionally For longer term storage, and nuts to be used for flour production , drying is necessary. In Southern Europe, traditional methods of drying were based on sun-drying , or kiln<lried over a wood fire (this gave the nuts a smoky flavour and inhibited moulds.) Drying was considered complete VYtlen the shells were easily separated from the kemels - in practice, when the water content reduced to about 6%. The drawback of this method is the often disagreeable flavour the nuts acquire. Mobile mechanical dryers are now used, 'Nhich complete the drying process much more quickly (a few hours as opposed to several days or weeks). Dried nuts can be fozen and stored for long periods.
Ongoing maintenance
Simple sanatory measures should be undertaken to minimise the risk of pests and diseases taking hold. This consists of, each winter, collecting and burning (or very hot composting) fallen branches, burs and bad fruits. Some commercial growers collect and bum all fallen leaves, but this seems an extreme measure, . since leaf diseases are rarely very damaging, and the nutrient content of the leaves themselves is considel3ble.
Page 14
.j
Diseases
Ink disease (Phytophthora cinnamomi & P.cambivora)
This is a widely distributed fungal disease, serious in some mature chestnut orchards in Europe, which attacks the root bark, starting at the extremities of the fine root hairs and progressing along larger and larger roots and finally attacking the base of the trunk . The roots cease growing and crack , releasing a flow of sap which turns black from the oxidation of tannins ; the name of the disease comes from the oozing of this black liquid from the tree base in the latter stages of the attack. The attack on the root system is accompanied by the progressive death of the uppemost shoots and little byliUle the Wlole crolNrl. The first visible manifestations of ink disease are the abnormal appearance of leaves at the top of the crolNrl, and a characteristic silhouette of the tree. The leaves turn pale but do not wither or faU ; the following year, a number of shoots wither and do not bear many leaves. The fruit burs at the extremities of branches become more visible and an outline of dead branches appears around the cro\o\fl. The dieback continues progressively over several years, sometimes up to 10 years; in wet years the disease progresses well underground, wth fewabove-ground signs. Wlile in dry years the aerial symptoms progress more. Phytophthora is not al...vays fatal - plants can recover if conditions are favourable. All chestnuts in their dormant (winter) state are susceptible to ink disease, and all are resistant when they are in active growth. In soils containing fungus spores, INinter temperatures must be very low for attacks to start, when the fungus may cause lesions to develop on roots of the dormant plant. When active growth (leafing out) resumes, then in genetically susceptible plants, the roots start to die, but in genetically resistant plants the roots recover, fonning barriers of cork. Thus the so-called resistant varieties (all C.crenata varieties and many hybrids like Maigoule and Maaval) can wthstand and ecover from attacks.
Preventative measures
1. The best fom of preventative measure is to plant onlyin 'v\ell-drained soils. \l\et and poody drained soils. especially heavy clays , suit the fungi pefectly. 2. Use resistant rootstocks if the disease is \idespread in
~ur
area.
3. Phytophthora is very susceptible to certain antagonistic microbes, notably Trichoderma viride and T.polysporum . T.viride is sometimes used to attack silverleaf in plums by inserting plugs into the trunk, and this may be a possible rrethod in chestnuts. 4. There is now evidence that P.cinnarromi can be entirely avoided if root systems are inoculated INith mycorrhizas of several fungi of the Basiomycetes group, in particular the species Leucopaxillus cerealis. This lAOuld need to be done in the nuse'Y or at planting tirre. (See 'Mycorrhizas' above).
Chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica or Cryphonectria parasitical

Chestnut blight was imported in North America in the late 1800's and proceeded to decimate the native American chestnut (C.dentata) population. It was first found in Europe in Italy in 1938 and caused great damage there, especially in Campania and Piedmont. It soon spread to France, and is now present in all chestnut growing regions except Brittany and the UK; it has been found recently in Belgium, Hungary and (in 1993) in SW Gennany. It mainly affects chestnuts , but can also be a minor disease on several oak species. The Japanese (C,crenata) and Chinese (C .mollissima) chestnuts have variable resistance to the disease. This parasitic fungus attacks the aerial parts of trees, infecting them via a natural or artificial wound (including pruning cuts. grafting etc) on a branch or shoot. Flat filaments form beneath the exterior surface of the bark, and these secrete toxins which force the cambium cells to collapse and blacken. The plant reacts in defence by fanning a barrier of cork beneath the areas attacked, but when the fungus is of a normally virulent strain it is able to attack this barrier as it forms and soon penetrates to the wood. When the attack reaches the wood, the plant is unable to form barriers beneath it and the canker it has formed continues to spead in height and vidth, ewntuallygirdling the banch. Once a branch is girdled, the upper part dies. the leaves on it drying up and reddening (appearing burnt); this is often rrasked by the bushy advantageous shoots that ae often produced just beneath the canker
Page 15
Very large cankers are soon produced as the fungus accumulates reserves from the shoot activity and before long (often within 3 years on susceptible trees) the main trunk is girdled. At this stage trees often shoot from the base as if theyhave been coppiced. Enormous numbers of fruiting pustules , the size of a pin~ead , develop on the infected bark and during moist weather, long orange-red tendrils made up of millions of spores sticking together, exude from the pustules. The huge numbers of spores ensure that the disease spreads very quickly; they are normally wind~ome , but can also be carried on the feet or beaks of birds , also on insects, small mammals and slugs.
Control
There are reports that if small cankers are plastered with moist soil taken from the base of the tree, the infection does not spread and the cankers heal over. This is presumably due to antibiotic soil organisms, but hasn't been canfimed as a reliable method of canto!. Treating and cutting out of cankers is effective but laborious and onerous; its must be followed by preventative protection of all wounds by disinfection. This method was successfully applied for 5 years in France (Ardeche) but v.as abandoned 'lhen biological cantol 'via hypovirulent strains becarre available. As the disease progressed in Italy, a biological control naturally emerged: these are the so~lIed hvoo'virulent strains of the fungus. It was observed that new bark arose around the cankered tissues which wasn't attacked by the disease; this bark drove back the edges of the cankers and grew beneath them and before long all the diseased pats '-\ere isolated, died up, died and fell off. The regression of the disease was caused by hypovirulent (HV) strains of chestnut blight: these are strains themselves infected with a virus, which are able to dominate the normal virulent strains, but which are not so damaging to trees - the cork barriers which trees form beneath cankers cannot be penetrated by HV strains. Thus an HVstrain possesses 3 essential IX>perties:(1) It only causes linited cankers on trees through v.ounds, Wlich heal ICIpidly, (2) When a tree is inoculated with an HV strain before or at the same time as a normally virulent strain , it protects the plant fom infection by the virulent strain; (3) If a canker caused by a virulent strain is inoculated at its edge with an HV strain, this causes the canker to heal in a rmUer of months (8-24 months, depending on the si:e of the cankeQ. Practical application of this phenomenon is now well advanced in France and could be introduced into any chestn ut growing region affected by chestnut blight in a short matter of time. The technique involves introducing suitable HV strains (that is to say, cOmpatible) to the virulent strains which are present. One does not treat all trees or all cankers, instead introducing the HV strains at certain points around the affected 20ne and allowng the natual spread of the newstrains to disseninate them widely. The actual introduction consists of inoculating the HV strain at the periphery of some of the cankers found on trunks and branches: holes of 5-6 mm diameter are made all around the canker at 2-3 em spacing apart, the holes made into healthy tissues but angled inwards towards the canker so that they enter diseased tissues further in, then a plug of mycelium of an HV strain is placed into each hole, and the holes temporarily covered with adhesi've tape (needs to stay in place for 24 hours.) Plugs of HV mycelium, containing all the common HV strains needed, are prepared by French laboratories associated with INRA and CNICM. The effects of inoculation should be obselVed within 8-18 months. If no regression of the disease is observed , then the HV strains introduced were not compatible with the virulent strain present; in this case, the virulent strain can be anal}6ed an appopriate HV strain obtained. The usual procedure is to initially inoculate 5 trees/Ha (2 trees/acre) and , after confirmation of positive results to then treat a sufficient number of trees to ensure protection in the whole area, normally 10-20 trees/ Ha (4-8 trees/acre). Many HV strains have now spread throughout Europe to the same extent as virulent strains, so that in many cases nov.: regression of chestnut blight OCCU!i naturally.
Page 16
Anthracnose (Mycosphaerel/a maculiformis)

This is a leaf disease caused by a bacteria which has two forms (anamorphs), Phyllosticta maculiformis and Cylindrosporum castaneicollum. It causes brown angled spots on leaves, sometimes very dense and numerous; in bad attacks. the leaves may fall prematurely (as early as September). severely hindering the photos:,nthetic processes which aid the growth and ripenirg of nuts. The bacteria overwinters on fallen leaves. Attacks are rarely very severe, but they are sometimes in cool, humid summers in susceptible locations, for example in valley bottoms where the dew is abundant and where mist persists in September and October. Variety resistance and susceptibility varies (see Table 2); Castanea crenata and most of its hybrids are resistant. Other minor diseases include Diplodina castanea and CrypfDdiaporf)e castanea - fungi which cause cankers on branches and young trees, particularly on trees grown in pastures , and sometimes a dieback of branches; rare. Prevention measures include keeping trunks free of grass and weeds to a reasonable diameter, and avoiding damaging bark of trees; cankers can be cut out. Coryneum modonium - a fungus causing long, thin cankers found in copses or in young trees in the understore~ Fusarium lateritium another minor fungus Ylhich sometimes causes cankers on branches and trunks; Powdery mildew (Microsphaeraa/phifDides) sometimes attacks ~aves in nurseries (this is the same disease which affects oak leaves.
Insect pests
There are 3 main insect pests (plus another in North America) described below which attack the developing burs and nuts. Without any control measures, it is quite common for 30-40% of the total nuts production in an orchard to be attacked by one or other of these pests, so they can cause large economic damage. To date, most commercial control involves use of insecticidal sprays applied between mid July and late September. This is unacceptable to organic growers and has the usual undesirable side effects of killing beneficial insects (naking trees even more susceptible to pests)as 'o\ell as polluting the en'ironment. Small scale and backyard gro'vYers should not suffer nearly so badly from pests as farge scale growers. To minimise pest darrege, ensuce that: (a) Nuts are halVested very quickly (daily) from the ground, or better stifl are collected in nets; (b) All early-falling, infested bus and bad nuts on hauesting ace collected and bunt.
It should be quite easy in theory to develop pheromone traps for the two moth pests, as has been done for the apple codling moth. This muld be an environmentally acceptable method of large & small-scale
control.
Chestnut moth (Pammenejuliana, Syn. P.fasciana)

Also called the early chestnut codling moth; moths lay their eggs on leaves in late spring (June~u ly); their reddish-yellow larvae eat into the burs in summer, and rarefy penetrate it to reach and eat the developing nuts. The attacka:l burs fall prematurely in July and August. One larva may attack several successive burs. The only indication of the presence of larvae is the appearance of frass (droppings) on the surface of burs , but damage often passes unnoticed until the burs fall ; the early-ripening varieties are generally most susceptible. The caterpillars weave a silky cocoon attached to branches in the autumn , from which hatches the adult moth next spring to start the cycle again. Sticky traps in mid-August are used in Europe for control.
Chestnut codling moth (Lespeyresia sp/endana)

From the same family as the apple codling moth, but with chestnut as its only host plant, this moth also lays its eggs on leaves in August-September. The yeUowsh-'Mlite larvae pierce the burs and enter into the nuts where they remain, eating the nuts, throughout their growth. The tiny hole they make in the burs is virtually invisible and the attack is not discovered until the nuts ripen. The larvae overwinter as cocoons in the litter or on the soil. Collection of leaves is sometimes practised for control; running poultry beneath
tr"''''c:. ::>lc:.n h",lnc:.
Page 17
Chestnut weevil or curculio (Ba/aninus e/ephas or Curculio e/ephas) .

This is a talMly-grey weevil , 9-10 mm long, IN'hich lay eggs on the developing nuts and whose larvae eat into them as they develop. The larvae pupate overwinter in the soil beneath trees. Other weevils/curculios (notably Curculio sayi and C.caryatrypes in North America) attack the nuts in similar ways. Some control of V\evil numbers can be achie\ed by running poult'Y beneath the tees before and afternut harvesting.
Oriental chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus)

A tiny ~all-forming all-female wasp; the wasps lay their eggs in the terminal buds and the de..elopirr;;! larvae cause shoots to become stunted. This has caused considerable damage in the SE U.S. but is not present in Europe. Some Japanese chestnut selection are resistant to the wasp. There is also considerable research taking place in Asia on biological control via the use of parasitic wasps which prey on this species. Minor insect pests of leaves include the European shot-hole borer (Xyleborus disper) which can cause considerable damage in young plantations , and another weevil (Peritelus sphaeroides) which attacks buds. Other animal pests which must be fenced out or controlled include squirrels, rabbits , deer, rats and field mice, and grazing animals unless tees are trained on high sterrs to allow grazing beneath.
Propagation of cultivars
Most varieties are either grafted or layered; the only exceptions are the French varieties which are populations ~g . Marron de Redan)
Grafting
Chestnuts (C.sativa and hybrids) are quite easy to graft or bud. Some incompatability problems with rootstocks occur, especially with the Chinese chestnut (C.mollissimcl. Generally speaking , hybrids should be grafted onto similar hybrid rootstocks and C.sativa varieties onto C.sativa seedlings. If all else fails, seedlings of the \Briety to be grafted neady al'NaYS oork . Budding: T-budding or Chip budding in mid-August to early Sept. There are reports that chip budding in spring after leafing out is 'ery successful. Grafting: Whip (Splice) or Whip & tongue graft in early spring. Established trees can be grafted using a kerf graft (notch graft).
Mound layering - Fig 4. (Page 37)

This ......orks well with many of the hybrids as well as some indigenous varieties; it is best with C.sativa and C.crenata.lt requires a welJ-drained , friable soil of pH 4.5 to 6.0. It produces plants on their own roots. See Fig 4 foran illustration. TII'JO to three year-old mother plants are spaced at 0.5-1 m (1 %-3 ft) in rows with 1 m (3 ft) between rows; if the propagation is mechanised (with tractor-lifting of layers), then rmvs are much wider apart. The mother plants can be planted in narrow trenches, about 20 cm(S") deep -this makes earthing up easier but makes non-chemical v..eeding harder. (Fig 4/1 ~ 1. The plant is cut down after planting - Fig 4/2b - (or an extra 1-2 years grov..1h for small plants - Fig 412a) to 10-15 em (4-6") above soille-.el or(if the mother plant is grafted onto a ootstock)above the graft union. 2. The layering process begins in late May - early June in the spring after cutting down. Some 2-10 shoots will have been produced. The very vigorous shoots (thicker than pencils/over 3S em (15"] high) are cut out, leaving 3-5 shoots of lower vigour (Fig 4/3). If any shoots have emerged from the rootstock (on grafted mother plants ~ these should be cut off as lov.as possible. 3. The remaining shoots ae de-leafed up to a height of 20 crr(S"). 4. Wrap thin (lh-1 mm), flexible copper wire around each shoot near the base, preferably just under a bud or 'Nhere a leaf has been cut (Fig 4/4). Only one or too turns around the shoot is necessary, more or excess
Page 18
tv.1sting may damage the shoot. This
we girdles the shoot as it gows, leading to oat de\elopment.
5. Earth up the shoots 'Nith well-drained earth, if necessalY mixed wth sand etc., to a depth of 1015 em (46") above the ..-.ire. Earth up once ortv.1ce over the surrmer to reach a depth of 2025 em (8-10"). 6. Roots are formed in July and August (Fig 4/5); if the mother plants were allowed to grow for an extra year or Mo, the layers are severed after leaf-fall (Fig 4/6a) and are usually grolNfl on for 1-2 years in the nursery to form 1 +1 (60-100 em, 2-3 tt) or 2+1 (1-1.8 m, 3-6 tt) plants. If the mother plants were cut down immediately after planting, then the new rooted shoots are cut back byup to a half fig 6b) - this stimulates vigorous glO'vvth and a betterroot sy.:;tem; they are severed after a further year's growth (Fig 7b~ Be careful (with grafted mother plants) to check jf any of the layers have emerged from the rootstock instead of the scion. After the layers are lifted , the old mother plant roots are usuaUy removed and discarded: their use for a second crop of la~rs is not recommended. An option, instead of girdling with wire, is to abrade the shoot bases with fine emery cloth, and rub in a slurry of 0.5% ISA (Hormone rooting powder); then earth up as normal. This method has been used successfully in North America. Layering by this method can also be undertaken in containers, the earthing up being achieved by the use of collars (bottomless pots) placed alOund the sterrs .
Softwood cuttings
Softwood cuttings can be taken but require ISA rooting hormone treatment and mist. It is a difficult procedure wt1ich oorks best wth etiolated shoots (e those glOwn in the dark).
Chestnut cultivars
It should be noted that some of the French cultivars are in fact populations, propagated by seed and thus variable in chaacteristics.
Adaption to soil and climate

The adaption of a variety to a particular climatic region is principaUy a function of its need for sun and above all heat. Most varieties from dry Mediterranean climates (eg. SE France, Italy etc) are not adapted to cooler, moister climates (eg. W France , UK, etc) due to lack of heat and increased susceptibility to anthracnose. On the other hand , varieties from Western areas can sometimes acclimatise to drier ctimates if they are 'Nell irrigated. The topographic situaUon (altitude, exposure etc.) is an important factor, in that it greatly affects the dates of leafing out, flowering and ripening; these in turn may have a large bearing on resistance to late spring frost damage, cross pollination, and to the commercial value of the fruits (early-ripening varieties generally fetching a betterprice.) Soil type does not have a large bearing on the adaption of different varieties (apart from Sardonne, which appears to require volcanic soils). Heavy soils are generally unsuitable for chestnuts in any case, but other.vise the soil type can sometimes influence the flavour of nuts, probably due to the capacity of vva.terretention in heavier soils which can produce in some varieties very large nuts with a large percentage of water and little f1a\Our. In areas where ink disease is very VoJidespread (eg. several areas of mainland Europe), it is essential to pla nt
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resistant \6rieties or trees grafted onto Jesistant rootstocks. Resistance to chestnut blight may be of great value where this disease is present (mainland Europe, North America), although the control by use of hypovirulent strains is now quite advanced in Europe. Japanese (C.crenata) and Chinese (C.mollissima) chestnuts have resistance to blight, and their hybrids sometimes display good resistance, eg Maigoule.
General characteristics
Origin/area of development
Most indigenous European cultivars are very old. Several have been maintained as populations rather than individual cultivars, '#hich means that the description given is of the overall average characteristics of the trees, nuts etc. Othes, especially the more recent culthars, are specific genetic selections. The older varieties are sometimes limited as to their adaptability, and are sometimes only productive in their region of origin. They do tend to be hardier, later to leaf out, and able to be grown at higher altitudes than the h)brid varieties. The hybrids are generally more adaptable as to location, though they require more careful cultivation. They have more demanding v-.ater requirements and rrust be inigated in aJeas wth dry summers.
Leafing out
An important characteristic, for if early-leafing cultivars are planted where they may be damaged by late spring frosts, production may be severely restricted. Leafing out occurs after the passage of sufficient cold over the wnter, and varies by as much as 6 v.eeks betv..een eally and late~eafing culthars. C.sativa cultivars require substantial warmth in spring to induce leafing, '#hich explains their later leafing times than h)brids, ....nich generally leaf out quite eaty and are susceptible to late fast damage. The tefITlS used refer to the follo"";ng approximate dates in Fence: Very early (VE): before 28 March Early (E) : 26 March - 15 Apnl Early-mid (EM): 15-30 Apnl Mid"ate (ML): 1-10 May Late (L) : 11-15 May Very late (VL): After 16 May
Flowering
An important characteristic. Note that many of the late-flowering cultivars rely on being pollinated by wild trees groy,.;ng nearby. Few selected cultivars flower late enough to pollinate these trees, though the best ' chance is wth Marron de Che\8nceaux. The tefITlS used in the table belowefer to the follo"";n9 approximate dates in Fence: Very early (VE) : 15-20 June Early (E) : 21-26 June Early-Mid (EM): 27 June -2 July Mid"ate (ML) : 3-8 July Late (L) : 9-14 July Very Late (VL): 15-20 July
Tree characteristics
Bearing: Most trees are erect or semi-erect, a few are spreading. Adult and elderly fruiting trees often become rounded and spreading, with horizontal or drooping branches, as a consequence of weight of fruits. Vigour & productivity: Much affected by the treatment in the first few years after planting. Good formative pruning allo'Ni rapid establishrrent and flUiting, Wlile a lack of puning can delayfruiting formany years. Disease and pest resistance/susceptbility: Notably to ink disease, anthracnose and chestnut blight. These are noted below Pollination: Essential for good productiv;ty. Good pollination can only be assured with the use of one or more of the indigenous longstamen types. See 'flov..ering' abo've for more infolTTlation.
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Harvesting period: When the mature nuts are ripe, they fall from the tree, sometimes with the burs which may be open or closed at maturity. With some cultivars, the fall of nuts is relatively quick, over a short period ; others fall over a prolonged period. The period of harvest can vary by up to 2 months between very early and very late maturing culthers; the terms used refer to the followng approximate dates in Fence: Very early (VE): before 10th September Early (E) : 11 ~25 September Early~mid (EM): 26 September ~ 10 October Mid4ate (ML): 11~25 October Late (l) : 26 October~ 10 NO\-ember Very late (Vl): Mer 11 November
Nut characteristics
Colour at maturity: May vary from chestnut-brown to mahogany or red, be dull or shiny and may have stripes. Some cultivars retain the colour and shininess for several months, while others fade and change quickly. Particula~y attractive colours are found wth Bouche Rouge, 8Jumette and Rousse de Nay Size: These ae defined in terns of nutslkg abo\e in 'Nut twes and uses'. Marron/Chataigne type: Defined abo\9 in 'Nut !)pes and uses' Natural storage: The nuts of some cultivars store very IN'BII naturally (eg. Marigoule, Marron de Chevanceaux, Laguepie, Roussette, Verdale) , while others spoil very quickly after falling . A general rule is that nuts tom Mid4ate and late tpening cu!ti\8rs naturally store better than Early~ripening culthers. Uses: See above for detailed descriptions of uses. For nuts which are destined for commercial processing (a big growth area), it is important that they are well adapted to mechanical shelling: nuts which have a smooth kernel with large, open winkles are easily shelled , whereas those with many fine wrinkles are very difficult to peel. Class: In Fance, class 1 applies to the best qualitlluts; class 2 to othes.
Synonyms of listed cultivars

Bastarrfo = Bastarde Capanelle = Carrpanese Cornballe = Maron Comballe Dauphinenque = Maron Dauphine de Collobrieres = Marron du Var Du Pont = Ridgely Eurobe/la = Siver leaf Goujounac = Maron de Goujounac Great American = Paragon Grosse de Loubejac = Montagne Grosse Rouge = Rousse de Nay Hative de Cadouin = Fbrtaloune Lyon = Doree de l}On Maraval 07 = MalSol Marron Cha/on Early = Chalon Marron Coujounac = Maron de Goujounac Marron de la fume = Sardonne Marron de Laguepie = Laguepie Marron de Lyon = Doee de l}On Marron de SaintNincent = Maron d'Olargues Marron de Vesseaux = Ebuche Rouge Marron de Villefranche = Montagne Marron des Pyrenees = Rousse de Nay Marron double de Goujounac = M. de Goujounac Marron du Luc = Maron du Var Marron Guepie = Laguepie Marron QuefCy = Ouerey Petite Fburette = Pourette Precoce Caprneille = fleecce Carrneille Precoce Ronde des \.ens = Precoce des \fcms Rossola = Rossa Rouge de Nay = Rousse de Nay Saint.Jean = Marron de Redan Saint.Jean-des-Marais = Marron de Redon Sardoune = S3rdonne Sobers Paragon = Paragon Tegbia = Tichjulana
Cultivar descriptions (C.sativa & its hybrids)

Aguyane: Indigenous French variety from SE & C.France (Ardeche, Lozere, Gard, Herault), grown at low altitudes (200-400 m). Tree: erect, very vigorous, productive if pollinated well. Flo\o\ers: Males are a-stamen type. Nuts: Marrons, triangular and characteristically pointed, reddish-brown but fading quickly after falling. Ripen eany (over a short period). Modelate-good adaption to mechanical shelling, moderate natural storage.
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f1avourgood~
Uses: principally for fresh consumption because of its ear1iness; also for canning (appearance very good, Class 2.
AJtre : Indigenous \Briety from Italy (Campania~ Anderson: C.sativa selection from the U.S. (New Jersey). Tree : Vigorous, very productive. Nuts: small, bright reddish-bro\o\'Tl , doW1Y. Arizinca: Indigenous French variety Southem Corsica, gro\o\'Tl betv.en 500 and 1000 m altitude. Nuts: Marrons ~ long.elliptical. Colour penetrates into the kernel. Ripens mid~ate . Very well adapted for mechanical shelling. Uses: 'ery good for flour production. Class 2. Bartram: C.sativa selection from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, spreading , productive; has large leaves. Nuts: Small, thickly pubescent at tip , dark reddish-mahogany, good quality. Nuts are rarely troubled by insect pests. Bastarde (Syns. Bastard, Bastardo): Indigenous French variety, gro\o\'Tl in SE France and Corsica. Poorly adapted to other regions. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, mahogany-reddish with black stripes, roundishelliptical. Ripens late over a short period. Adaptability to mechanical shelling is moderate to poor; natural storage good. Uses: Canning (l:ppearance & flavour good~ Class 2. Bastellicaciu: Indigenous variety from France (S.Corsica). Tree: very spreading. Flov..ers: Males are astamen type. Nuts: Chataignes, rredium size, ripen mid-late. Uses: fesh consurrption and flour Belle Epine: Indigenous French variety from Oordogne, dominates in some areas of SW France at low to moderate altitudes (1 00-600 m). Has shoWl good adaptabiJityto other regions. Tree: Mid leafing out; semierect, soon becoming rounded ; very vigorous (less so on Marsol rootstock~ fruiting rapidly by its Sth-6th year; very good producti"';ty; resistant to anthracnose. Flo\o\rs: Male catkins are long-stamen type, with good fertile pollen (Volill not pollinate Camberoune). Peak pollen dispersion 20 June-2 July, peak female recepti"';ty 30 June-11 July. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large, shiny mahogany-red but fading quickly after falling, long.elliptical, thick-shelled. Ripening mid-late, within a short period; good separation from burs. Natural storage is bad , moderate to good adaption to mechanical shelling. Uses: Canning (very good appearance, good f1a\Our), confectionalY, fresh. A very good, productive variety. Class 1. Bouche de Bacon: Indigenous variety from France (Ardeche~ Tree: good vigour. Nuts: Chataignes , medium to large, colour sometimes penetrates kernel. Mid-ripening. Uses: very good eating quality, mostly used fresh. Class 2. Bouche de Betizac: Hybrid of Bouche Rouge afld c.crenata, originating in France in 1962. Grown in SW, W & NW France from the Pyrenees to Brittany. Very adaptable to other regions. Tree: Early to leaf out; shape very erect; vigorous, fruiting very rapidly, good productivity. Very resistant to anthracnose. Unusual in that it retains green leaves well into November. Flo\o\rs: Males are a-stamen type. Flowering is a little before Boumette & Precoce Migoule. POllinated by most C.sativa long-stamen types. Nuts: Marrons, large, clear chestnut-red, quickly fading to dark brovvn, short.elliptical. Ripening eal1y, good natural storage, very good aptitude to rrechanical shelling. Class 1. Bouche de Clos: Indigenous variety from France (Ardeche~ resembles Bouche Rouge. Nuts: Marrons, medium size, ripen late to \ery late. Natual storage e:ccellent. Class 2. Bouche Rouge (Syn. Marron de Vesseaux): Indigenous French variety from Ardeche , dominates in some areas of SE France at moderate altitudes (300-500 m), progressively unproductive above 500 m. Often grown on its ovvn or VoIith Comballe and commercially knOIMl as 'Marron de I'Ardeche'. Not very adaptGble to other regions. Tree: Leafs out very late; tree very erect when young, vigorous and large growing; regular bearing. Very susceptible to anthracnose, in SW France it is common to see 80-90% of leaves falling 1-2 months early, affecting flo\o\r formation for the folfowng year. Flov..ers: Males catkins are a-stamen and brachy-stamen types; peak female recepti..,;ty 9-20 July. Pollination is often by nearby late.ftowering wild trees. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, attractive shiny red , lightly ribbed , elliptical, shell medium thick. Ripening very late (over a long period), moderate falling from burs. Slightly susceptible to chestnut codling moth and chestnut weevil. Natural storage is good, good adaption to mechanical shelling. Uses: Canning (good appearance & f1a\tOur), confectionary. Class 1.
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Bournette: A natural hybrid of Castanea crenata 'Tamba Gury' and C.sativa, found in France (Ardeche) in 1948. Grown extensively in SW France up to 400 m altitude, also in Brittany, and shows good adaptability to other regions. Tree: Leafs out early (quite susceptible to late spring frosts ); tree semi~rect , becoming rounded (on its own roots), moderately vigorous (on own roots or Maraval rootstock; more vigorous on Marsol rootstock1 fruits rapidly (Volithin 2-3 years), good producti'vtty. Resistant to anthracnose. Somewhat susceptible to over-producing (without pruning and sometimes irrigation, the nuts can be very small). FlolArs: Males are long-stamen type, but the pollen is not very fertile. Peak pollen dispersion 19 June - 2 July; peak female recepti'vtty 30 June - 10 July. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, an attractive clear chestnut brolNl1 (fades rapidly after falling~ VoIith many fine ridges and a large scar, short-elliptical, very regular, thin-shelled. Ripening early-mid (over a short period); the nuts fall well from the burs. Very well adapted to mechanical shelling, very good natural storage. Uses: Canning (very good appearance, good flavour), confectionaty, fresh. A good variety v...tJich tolerates very exposed locations in dry regions; very productive jf grolNl1 in nch soils v.ith plenty of manure. Class 1. Bourrue de Juillac: Indigenous variety from C.France (Correze), adaptable to different soils but doesn't like cold locations. Nuts: Cha.taignes, very good natural storage. Uses Good eating quality - used fresh. Class 2. Bracalla: Indigenous IlIriety from Italy(Campania). Nuts: \ery late npening. Tree: slow to start fruiting. Camberoune: Indigenous French variety from Dordogne, dominates in several areas of C. & W.France, often grolNl1 w th Belle Epine. May be quite adaptable to otherregions. Tree: Leafs out ealy-mid; tree semierect, becoming rounded with age; vigorous, productive bud sometimes irregular due to poor pollination. Flowers: Males are a-stamen type. Peak female recepti"";ty 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Marrons, small to medium, reddish (rapidly dulling after falling~ triangular. Ripens mid-late to late over a long period. Very well adapted to mechanical shelling, good natural storage. Uses: Canning (very good appearance, good flavour), confectionalY, fresh (good). Class 1 or2. Campanese (Syn. Capanelle) Indigenous French variety from Corsica , groVvTl at 200-900 m of attitude. FlolArs: Males are long-stamen type. Nuts: Marrons, small to medium, chestnut-feddish wth black stipes, . elliptical with shoulders. late ripening, often a short period. Badly adapted to mechanical shelling; good natural storage, but susceptible to chestnut codling moth. Uses: main use in Corsica is for flour; canning (appearance and f1a\Our very good). Class 2. Campbell No 1: A Layeroka seedling (C.mollissima x C.sativa~ selected in Canada (Ontano). Tree: productive, reliable. Nuts: Medium sized , sweet, freely falling from burs. Mid season ripening. Spines on burs are finer and softer than most. Canby Black: C.sativa selection made in Oregon, U.S. Tree: Dwarf tree, productive. Nuts: Medium sized, good f1a\Our, shell eas il ~ Canby West: C.sativa selection made in Oregon, U.S. Tree: Dwarf tree, productive. Nuts: Medium sized , good f1a\Our, shell easil~ Cassagnole: Indigenous ChtHaigne tpe from W.France (Lot, Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne). Class 2. Cecio: Indigenous IBriety from Italy (Tuscany). Nuts: lage. Chaitaigne O'isola: Indigenous French variety from SE France. Tree: quite erect, quite vigorous . FlolArs: Males are brachy-stamen type. Nuts: Chataignes, medium to large, chestnut-feddish, long-elliptical but irregular. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned. Ripens mid-late to late. Uses: Exclusively for fresh consumption; jn the past rruch used for flour. Class 2. Chalon (Syn. Marron Chalon Early): old C.sativa selection from France, was grolNl1 in the U.S. Tree: Productive, precocious. Nuts: Snall-medium, early ripening. Colossal: a hybrid of C.crenata, C.mollissima and C.sativa, deeloped around 1880 in Caifornia where it is still gro'M1. Tree: Vigorous, productive. Nuts: medium to large, sweet, easy to shell. Fall freely from burs. Dries and stOleS y..ell. Ripens rrid season. Corrive: an old indigenous variety from France, now little grolNl1. Tree: Vigorous. Nuts: medium sized, good f1a\Our, do not all feely fall flOm burs.
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Corson: C.sativaselection from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, spreading , very productive. Nuts: Medium sized , ridged, very pubescent at tip, good quality Dager: C.sativa selection from the U.S., a seedling of Ridgely. Nuts: Snail to medium, dark broVYfl, doWlY, good quality Tree: Vigorous, spreading , productive.
Darlington: C.sativa selection from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous . Nuts: Small to medium, dark brown , striped , thickly tomentose at tip , sveet, good quality Very ear1y ripening. Doree ete Lyon (Syn. Marron de Lyon): Indigenous French variety from C. & W.France, grown in Dordogne. Very adaptable to other regions. Tree: Leafs out late, tree is semi-erect (becoming rounded with age), moderately vigorous , moderate to good producti....;ty. Fto\ers: Males are brachy-stamen type. Peak female recepti"";ty 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Chataignes (the name Marron is misapplied to this variety), medium to large, an attractivt:! shiny chestnut,..ed . roundish-elliptical. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned. Ripens mid-late over a short period. Good natural storage. Uses: Exdusively for fresh eating. Productive at both low and medium altitudes. Class 2. Esclafarde: Indigenous variety from France (Ardeche~ Tree: moderately vigorous, sometimes an irregular producer. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large. kernel flesh is sometimes yello...... sh. Ripens early-mid. Class
2.
Garonne Rosso: Indigenous variety from Italy (Campania~ Nuts: ripen early-mid. Tree: good producti"";ty, rapidly fruiting. Garinche: Indigenous variety from France (Ardeche), very adaptable. Tee: leafs out eaty, tree semi-erect, a regular producer. Flo'vVers: males are long-stamen types. Nuts: Chataignes, ripen early-mid. The burs are distincti\e in theirsmall numbers of prickles. Uses: fesh eating. Class 2. Gellatly No 1: Hybrid of C.sativa and G. mollissima, selected in British Columbia. Tree: Productive. Nuts: Sweet, fall fleely from burs which are not very prickly. Early ripening . Gellatly No 2: Hybrid of C.sativa and C.mollissima, selected in British Columbia. Tree: Very productive. Nuts: good quaJit)t' Ripens earty-mid season. Fall feely from burs. Grosse Noire: an old indigenous ilriety from France. Nuts: lage, black. Good natual storage , dries \ell. Herria: Indigenous variety from Westem France (Pyrenees-Atlantique~ Flo'vVers: Female receptivity late, often pollinated bynearby wild trees. Nuts: Marons, medium sized. Late ripening. Imperiale: Indigenous French variety from SE France (Var). groVvfl in south-facing valleys at 300-600 m altitude. Tree: Rather erect (becoming rounded 'with age), moderately vigorous, hardy, regular producer. FlolNers: Males are brachy-stamen type. Nuts: Chataignes, large to very large, chestnut,..eddish with black stripes, eUiptical,..oundish. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned. Ripens mid-late to late, over a long period. Good natural storage. Uses: Fesh consulTlltion; previously for flour. Class 2. Insidina: Indigenous variety from France (Corsica ), groVYfl at 400-900 m alutude. FlolNers: males are astamen type. Nuts: Marrons. medium size, long-elliptical, ripen mid-late. Very well adapted to mechanical shelling. Uses: forflour and to rrake grilled marrons. Class 2. Laguepie (Syns. Marron de Laguepie, Marron Guepie): Indigenous French variety from C. & W .France, groVvfl in Tam-et-Garonne and around Umousin. Very adaptable to other regions. Tree: leafs out mid-late, tree is semi-erect (becoming rounded with age), vigorous, good productivity. resistant to anthracnose. FlolNers: Males are meso-stamen type. Peak female recepti"";ty 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Chataignes, medium to large, shiny mahogany-red, elliptical,..oundish. irregular. Over 25% of nuts are partitioned. Ripens mid-late, over a short period. Natural stOfage is moderate to good. Uses: Exdusively for fresh consumption - good quality. Class 1. La)'t:roka: Hybrid of C.mollissima'Skioka' x c. sativa, bred in British Columbia (Canada) and grown commercially in Canada. Tree: Vigorous, upright. pyramidal , timber-type growth. Ear1y bearing and very productive; blight resistant. Flo'vVers: Males are a-stamen type (sterile.) Nuts: Medium sized , sweet, mid season ripening , freely falling from burs. This variety readily propagates by layering. Sometimes overproduces. reducing nut size. There is some evidence that on its own roots this variety may tolerate quite alkaline soils.
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Lusenta (Syn . Lucente~ Hybrid variety of C.sativa x C.crenata from Italy (Campania~ Tree: leafs out very early to early. Flov.ers: mid season. Nuts: rrediocre fla\Our. Maraval: A natural hybrid of Castanea crenata and C.sativa. found in the Ardeche; grown in C. & W.France. Moderately adaptable to other regions, but dislikes oceanic climates with mild winters. Tree: leafs out very early (susceptible to late spring frosts); tree erect (almost fastigiate) , of moderate vigour. fruits rapidly, good producti\otty. Resistant to anthacnose and to ink disease on its ow roots. RequiEs very fertile soils; formation pruning is essential. Flov..ers: Males are long-stamen type. but the pollen isn't very fertile. Peak pollen dispersion 20 June - 1 July, peak female recepti\otty 28 June - 10 July. Nuts: Marrons. medium- large & v.large. shiny mahogany-red with a large scar, triangular & very regular, shell medium thick . Ripens mid-late over a short period. Natural storage is good, aptitude to mechanical shelling is mediocre. Uses: Fresh, canning , confectionary. Propagates well by layering; prefers rich soils, doesn't like dry soils or climates. Sometimes used as a rootstock for other vars because of its resistance to ink disease. Class 2. Maridonne: A hybrid of Sardonne and C.crenata, originating in France in 1962. Grown in Westem France including Charente-Maritime. Tree: Leafs our early-mid; shape semi-erect, moderately vigorous (more vigorous on Marigoule rootstock), fruiting rapidly, good productivity. Slightly susceptible to canker (Diplodina castanea) resistant to anthracnose. Drought resistant - fruits well even in dry situations. ~: Males are long-stamen type, but the pollen has very low fertility - cannot be used as a pollinator. Pollinated by most long-stamen C.sativa selections. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large, dull brown, striped, pubescent, 10ng.eUiptical. late rpening, good natual storage, v..ell adapted to rrechanical shelling. Class 1. Marigoule: A hybrid of Castanea sativa and C.crenata (Migoule x Brive), widely planted in France in the SW, SE (up to 400 m altitude) & Brittany. Quite adaptable (though it dislikes cool humid climates), dislikes dry and shallowsoils; bears irregularly in cold Northerly locations. Tree: Leafing out is early or v.early (very susceptible to late spring frosts); on its 0'Ml roots the tree is semi-erect, becoming rounded with age; very dense and 'Nith a very straight bole. The tree is vigorous (sometimes to excess) and v.large, fruiting rapidly (4th-6th year); moderately productive. Resistant to ink disease, chestnut blight and anthracnose; susceptible to sunbum, canker (Dipladina castanea) and bark beetles (Scalytes spp.). Requires a rich, fertile soil , plenty of fertilisation and regular pruning. Flov.ers: Males are long-stamen but the pollen is not very fertile. Peak pollen release 18-30 June, peak female recepti\otty 20 June-7 July. Nuts: Marrons, medium-large and v. large, shiny dark mahogany 'Nith a large scar, elliptical, thick shelled. The flesh is v.dense. Ripens early-mid (over a short period), with quite good release from burs. V. well adapted to mechanical shelling, natural storage good-v.good. Uses: Canning (appearance poor to moderately good, flavour good), confectionary. Marigoule propagates well by layering and its good growth on rich soils have led it to be considered for forestry use. Sometimes used as a rootstock. for other varieties because of its resistance to ink disease. Class 1. Marissard: Hybrid of Laguepi e and C.crenata, introduced in France in 1962. At home in the SW of France up to 400 m of altitude. Tree: Earfy to leaf out; semi-erect, of moderate vigour. Flov.ers: Males are brachystamen. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large and very large, elliptical.triangular. Well adapted to mechanical shelling. Ripen eaty-mid. Uses: fesh and canning. Class 1. Marlhac: Hybrid of Laguepie and C.crenata, introduced in France in 1962. Grown in the Atlantic west (Gironde, Dordogne, Charente). Tree: earfy-mid to teaf out; very vigorous. Floy.,ers: Males are brachystamen type. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large, mahogany-red, elJiptical.triangular. Ripening ear1y-mid. Natural storage is good, aptitude to mechanical shelling is good. Propagates well by layering I cuttings. Class 1 or2. Marron Comballe (Syn. Comballe): Indigenous French variety (popu lation), grown in Ardeche and Lozere (C.France) often at some altitude (400-650 m). Adaptability to other regions is moderate to good. A clone, CA106, is normally propagated from the population. Tree: very late to leaf out; tree is semi-ered, of moderate vigour, fruiting rapidly (5th or 6th year), of good productivity. Susceptible to anthracnose. Floy.,ers: Males are a-stamen and brachy-stamen types. Peak female recepti\otty 9-20 July. Pollination is often by nearby late-flolfoJring wild trees. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, shiny chestnut-red with distinct black. stripes, elliptical , thin shelled , rich sweet flavour. Ripening is very late, with an irregular fall from burs (better after dry weather). Very well adapted to mechanical shelling, natural storage very good. Uses Good for fresh consumption or processing. A rugged and adaptable variety. Note that most of the population are of Chataigne character. Class 1.
Page 25
&&
rE=
Marron Cruaud: Indigenous French variety, a clone from the population of Marron de Redan from Brittany (Morbihan, Loire Atlantique, life et Vilaine~ Moderately adaptable to other regions. Tree: leafing out midlate; tree is semi-erect, of moderate vigour and production, fruits rapidly. Susc. to anthracnose; chestnut blight is not present where cultivated. Flo'Ners: Males are brachy-stamen and meso-stamen types. Peak female reCepliy;ly 1-14 July. Nuts: Marrons, medium-large, mahogany-red with ribs & distinct stripes, longelliptical (often rounded and deformed). Colour penetrates a little into the large furrolNS. Ripens mid-late (over a short period), v.ith good fall from burs. Uses: fresh consumption - v.good flavour, also for process~g. Class 2. Marron Dauphin (Syn. Oauphinenque): Indigenous French variety from SE France (Gard, Herault, Lozere). Tree: leafing out late to very late; tree is semi-erect (becoming rounded with age), moderately vigorous, productive if well pollinated. Susceptible to anthscnose. Flovers: Males al8 a-stamen type. Peak female receptiy;ty 9-20 July. Often pollinated by nearby late-flo...-.ering wild trees. Nuts: Marrons, small to medium size, a clear chestnut-fed , elliptical. Ripening mid-late over a short period. Very well adapted to mechanical shelling, good natural storage but extremely susceptible to chestnut codling moth and chestnut weevil. Uses: Mostly for fresh consumption; also for canning (appearance and flavour good), and the larger nuts for confectionary. Class 1. Marron de Chevanceaux Indigenous French variety from W.France (Charente Maritime), adaptable to other regions. Tree: leaf out mid-late; tree is semi-erect, very vigorous with good productiY;ty. Flov.ers: Males are long-stamen types. Peak pollen dispersal 25 June - 10 July, peak female recepti'v1ty 5-15 July. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, shiny chestnut-brovvn to mahogany-red v.ith stripes, elliptical. Ripens midlate over a short period. Well adapted to mechanical shelling, good natural storage. Uses: Fresh (good), Canning (appearance and fla\Our very good~ Class 2. Marron de Goujounac (Syns. Marron Coujounac. Marron double de Goujounac): Indigenous French variety from W.France, dominating in parts of Oordogne, Lot and Lot et Garonne at low altitudes(100-300 m); may be adaptable to other regions. Tree: Leafs out early-mid; tree is semi-erect (becoming rounded with age), very vigorous (much less so on Maraval rootstock) and with very good productivity. Slightly susceptible to anthracnose. Flowers: Males are long-stamen type, with fertile pollen; peak pollen release 20 June - 2 July, peak female recepti'llity 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large, a clear chestnut-fed with black .stripes, long-elliptical. Colour penetrates well into the kemel. Ripens mid-late (over a short period). Good adaption to mechanical shelling, good natural storage. Uses: Canning (appearance very good, fla\Our good~ fresh. Class 1. Marron de Lostange: Indigenous French variety from the West of France. Nuts: medium sized , shell very easily. Class 2. Marron de Redon (Syns. Saint-Jean, Saint-Jean-des-Marais): Indigenous French variety (population) from Brittany (Morbihan, Loire Atlantique, Ille et Vilaine~ Moderately adaptable to other regions. Tree: leafing out mid-late; tree is semi-erect, of moderate vigour and production, fruits rapidly. Susceptible to anthracnose; chestnut blight is not present where this is culthated. Flovers: Males al9 brachy-stamen and rneso-stamen types. Peak female recepti'llity 1-14 July. Nuts: Chataignes, very large, mahogany-red with ribs and distinct stripes, long-elliptical (often rounded and deformed). Ripens mid-late (over a short period), with good fall from burs. Uses: ex::lusively for fresh consurrption - very good fla\Our. See also Marron Cruaud. Class 2. Marron d'Olargues (Syn. Marron de Saint-Vincenti Indigenous French variety from Herault (SE.France), grolMl there at moderate altitudes (200-700 m); poony adaptable to otherregions. Tree: leaf out late; tree is semi-erect, vigour moderate to vigorous, fruits rapidly (4th or 5th year) , good productivity. Susceptible to anthracnose. Flo...-.ers: Males are brachy-stamen type. Peak female receptivity 9-20 July. Often pollinated by nearby late-flo'Nering wild trees. Nuts: Marrons, medium size, chestnut-reddish with very distinct black stripes, long-elliptical. The larger nuts sometimes have a high percentage of partitioning. Ripening mid to mid-late (over a long period). Very good adaption to mechanical shelling, good natural storage. Uses: Canning (appearance good, fla\Dur very good~ confectionalY, fresh. Prefers south-facing slopes. Class 1. Marron du Var (Syns. Marron du Luc, de Collobreres): Old indigenous Fench variety. gfOlMl in SE France on S. slopes in cool mountain locations and valleys at 300-600 m altitude. Poorly adapted to other regions. Tree: leaf out late to very late; tree erect to semi-erect, vigorous when young but more moderate in vigour after a few years. Moderately productive. Susceptible to anthacnose .~: Males al8 brachy-stamen
Page 26
type. Peak female receptivity 9-20 July. Often pollinated by nearby late-flolAering wild trees. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large and very large, chestnut-reddish with very di stinct stripes, roundi sh-elliptical, thin shell. Partitioning in the large and very large nuts can be over 20% (ie putting them in the Chataigne class) but is much less in medium sized nuts. Nuts fall poorly from burs. Ripening is mid-1ate to late, over a long period. Good adaption to mechanical shelling , moderate to good natural storage. Uses: Canning (appearance good, flavour very good), confectionary (good), fresh (good). Renown and greatly appreciated for its good eating qualities. Class 1. Marron Pazzo: Indigenous \Briety from Italy (Tuscany). Nuts: lalge. Marrone di Bruzollo: Indigenous &riety from Italy. Marrone di Casl!ldelpiano: Indigenous '0riety from Italy (Tuscany). Nuts: lalge. Marrone di Chiusa Pesio: Indigenous variety from Italy (Campania). Flov.ers: males are a-stamen type; mid season flovering. Nuts: late ipening. Tree: slowto start fruiting. Marrone di Greve: Indigenous variety from Italy (Campania). FlolNers: males are a-stamen type; mid season flolJ.ering. Marrone di Luserneta: Indigenous \Briety from Italy. Marrone di M>rlo Fini: Indigenous 'ariety from Italy (Tuscany). Nuts: lalge. Marrone di M>rlo Grosso: Indigenous 'IlIriety from Italy (Tuscany). Nuts: lalge. Marrone di S.Giorgi: Indigenous o.ariety from Italy. Marrone di SUza: Indigenous \Briety from Italy (Campania). Nuts: Marons, small to medium, late ripening. Marrone di Verona: Indigenous o.ariety from Italy (Campania). Tree: slow to start fruiting. Marrone Fioretno: Indigenous 'Brietyfrom Jtaly(Campania). Tree: slow to start huiting. Marrubia di Sernezzo: Indigenous &riety from Italy. Marsol (Syn. Maraval 07): A natural hybrid of Castanea Cfenata and C.saUvq found in France (Ardeche) in 1948. Cultivated in C. & W.France, Brittany and the Pyrenees. Moderately adaptable. Tree: leafs out early (susceptible to late spring frosts); on its 01Ml roots the tree is semi-erect and well-branched , becoming rounded with age; grafted onto C.sativa or Marigoule it tends to be very erect with little branching. Moderate vigour, rapidly fruiting (4th-6th year). Resistant to anthracnose and ink disease. Flov..ers: Males are longstamen types, pollen not very fertile; peak pollen release 19-30 June, peak female receptivity 27 June - B July. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large (sometimes with abnormally large burs with over 3 nuts), shiny mahogany-red, very large scar, triangular to elliptical, shell medium thick. Ripens early-mid (over a short period). Natural storage and adaptability to mechanical shelling are moderate to good. Uses: Canning (appearance good, flavour moderate), possibly confectionary, fresh. Marsol propagates well by layering. Sometimes used as a Dotstock forothervarieties because of its esistance to ink disease. Class 1. Marzatica: Indigenous IBriety from Italy (Campania). Merculiana: Indigenous 'lIriety from Italy(Campania). Nuts: Marons. Merle: Indigenous variety from France (Ardeche) , often grown commercially in a mixture with Marron Cornballe. Tree: of moderate vigour. FlolNers: Males are a-stamen type. Nuts: MalTons, long-elliptical, ripening eady-mid. Uses: Mostlyfor fresh eating. Class 1. Moncur; C.sativa selection from the U.S., a seedling of Ridgely. Tree: Vigorous, spreading, very producti-.e. Nuts: Snail, light coloued , doWlY. Montagne (Syns. Grosse de Loubejac, Marron de Villefranche): Indigenous French variety from C. & W. France, grovvn in Dordogne and Lot et Garonne. Tree: leafs out mid-late; tree is semi-erect, vigorous , with good productivity. Flov.ers: Males are long-stamen type. Peak pollen dispersal 20 June - 2 July, peak female receptivity 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, elliptical. Colour penetrates into kernel. Ripens early-mid to mid-1ate (over a long period). Aptitude for mechanical shelling is moderate to good ; natural storage is poor. Uses: Mostly used fresh, some for canning (appearance and flavour good) and for
Page 27
'7&4
whole malTon processing. Class 1.
=
~riety
#!
Montellese: Indigenous
from Italy (Campania~
Montemarano: Indigenous variety from Italy (Campania). Nuts: MalTons, medium to large. Uses: Marrons
graces.
Myoka: Hybrid of C.salivaand C.mollissima,seJected in British Columbia. Not a synonym of Skioka. Tree: Upright, vigorous, timber-type gro'Nth. resistant to chestnut blight. Flo'hers: Males are long-stamen type. Good poilinator for Layeroka. Nuts: Medium sized, dark, sweet, good fla vour, easy to shell. Mid ripening, some nuts do not fall fom burs. Napoletana: Indigenous \Snely from Italy (Campania~ Tree: good plOducti'vity. Nuts: attactive, speckled.
Napoletanella: Indigenous 'lIriety from Italy (Campania~ Nuts: srmrt, moderately speckled.
Nevada: A hybrid, probably of C.sativa and C.mollissima. from the U.S. (Califomia). Tree: very vigorous and upright. Flov.ers: Males ale long-stamen type . Pollinates Colossal. Nuts: L3!)e. dark. late ripening. Nocella: Indigenous variety from France (S.Corsica), grown at 500-900 m of altitude. Flovers: Males ale astamen type. Nuts: Marrons, medium size, short-ellipticaL Ripening mid-late, very well adapted to mechanical shelling. Uses: Canning and flourClass 2. Nouzillard: C.sativa selection from Central France, Large, attractive.
\o\'aS
grown in the U.S. Tree: Very productil,. Nuts:
Numbo: C.sativa selection from the U.S. Tree: Compact. drooping. irregular cropping. Nuts: Medium to large, roundish. bright brolMl, striped , thinlytomentose. Pacora : Indigenous IBriety from Italy (Campania~ Tree: very productil..e. Nuts: rrediocre fla vour. Palummo : Indigenous \Briety from Italy (Campania).
C.dentata~
Paragon (Syns. Great American, Sobers Paragon): C.sativaselection from the U.S. (possibly a hybrid with former1y widely planted there. Tree: Spreading, vigorous, very productive; narrow leaves. Nuts: Medium to large, dull blOlMl , roundish, thicklytomentose, -.ery good quality.
Pellegrine: Indigenous French variety from SE France (Ardeche, Gard, Lozere). Tree: semi-erect to erect, very vigorous and productive. FlolM';'!rs: Males are a-stamen type . Nuts: Marrons, chestnut-feddish, ellipticaHriangular. Ripen mid-late over a short period. Very well adapted to mechanical shelling, good natural storage. Uses: mainly for fresh consumption; also for canning (appearance very good, flavour good - very aromatic). Class 1 despite its srmll fruits. Portaloune (Syn. Hative de Cadouin): Indigenous French variety from W.France, grown in Dordogne often Yvith 8elle Epine lNith \o\'hich is cross pollinates well. Tree: leafs out mid-late, erect, very vigorous, regular producer. Susceptible to anthracnose. Flo'M:!rs: Males are long-stamen. Peak pollen dispersal 20 June - 2 July, peak female receptivity 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Marrons, small to medium, chestnut-brown to blackish with large dark stripes, elliptical-roundish . Ripens ear1y-mid over a short period . Moderate to good aptitude to mechanical shelling, poor natural storage. Uses: Fresh , Canning (appearance good, flavour moderate). Class 2. Pourette (Syn. Petite Pourette): Indigenous variety from SE France (Ardeche, Gard, Lozere). Tree: very regular producer. Nuts: Marrons, small to very small. Uses: a very old variety known for making dried chestnuts and Ceme de marrons. Class 2. Precoce Carmeille (Syn. Precoce Capmeille): Indigenous French variety from W .France , grown in Dordogne and Lot et Garonne. Limited adaptability to other regions. Tree: leafs out ear1y-mid ; tree semierect, moderate vigour, good productivity. Flo'M:!rs: Males are long-stamen type. Peak pollen dispersal 20 June - 2 July, peak female receptivity 30 June - 11 July. Nuts: Chataig nes, medium to large, shiny mahogany-red with distinct black stripes, elliptical. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned . Ripens eaty-mid, over a short period. Uses: Exclusi-.ely for fresh consurrption. Class 2. Precoce des Pyrenees: Indigenous \8riety from France (Pyrenees-Atlantique} Nuts: Marons. Class 2.
Page 28
Precoce des Vans (Syn . Precoce Ronde des Vans): Indigenous French variety from SE France (Ardeche, Gard, Lozere). Tree: moderate vigour. Flo..-.ers: Males are brachy~s tamen type. Nuts: Marrons, small to medium size, chestnut-feddish , elliptical. Colour penetrates into the kemel . Ripens very early to early, over a short period . Uses: Exclusively for fresh eating because of its eainess . Precoce Migoule: A natural hybrid of Castanea sativa and C.crenata (Migoule x Brive), found in France. Grown in SW France, Brittany & SE France ~ very adaptable, doing well in the same areas that vines like. Tree: Leafing out is early (susceptible to spring frosts~ on its own roots , serri-erect and sparsely branched , moderately vigorous (more so on Marigoule rootstock~ good producti'-'ty, fruits very rapidly (within 2-3 years). Needs regular pruning to stimulate growth. Resistant to anthracnose. Somewhat susceptible to over~producing (without pruning and sometimes irrigation, the nuts can be very small). Flo...-.ers: Males are long-stamen type but the pollen is only moderately fertile; peak pollen release 15~30 June, peak female recepU'-'ty 25 June - 10 July. Nuts: Cha.taignes, medium (to large), an attractive clear mahogany, elliptical~ triangular with a large scar and medium thick shell. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned. Quite good release from burs. Ripening is early (over a short period). Natural storage is moderately good, good aptitucE to mechanical shelling. Uses: Used mainly for fresh consumption on account of its early ripening and good sized fruits. Propagates..-.ell by layering. Class 1 or2. Primato: Hybrid variety of C.sativa x C.crenata from Italy (Campania). Tree: leafs out very early; starts fruiting 'very early; very producti've. Flov..ers: very early. Nuts: ripen very early indeed. Prolific: C.sativa selection from Western U.S. Tree: Vigorous, spreading , producti've, reliable. Nuts: Medium sized, dark brown, good quality Quercy(Syn. Marron Querey): c.sativa selection from France, IN'aS groYoln in the U.S. Tree: Productive and early bearing. Nuts: Mediumsized, good quality Radulacciu: Indigenous \!Iriety from S.Corsica. Nuts: Chataignes. Uses: Esh use and flour CI 2. Ridgely(Syn . Du Pont): C.sativa selection from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, spreading, very productil.e. Nuts: Medium sized, dark, moderately doWlY, very good qualityand f1a\Our. Rosino: Indigenous B.lIgarian variety, a consistent high ;elder. Rossa (Syn . Rossolaj An old indigenous variety (population) from Corsica , grown there at low to moderate altitudes (50-600 m). Tree: semi-erect. good vigour and productivity. Flov..ers: Males are a-stamen type. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large (very regular), attractive clear shiny mahogany with black ridges, shape irregular (round to elliptical-triangular). Colour penetrates well into the kernel. Late ripening (over a short period). Good aptitude for mechanical shelling, natural storage good. Uses: Very good quality for fresh consumption or processing; extensively used in Corsica. A clone of this population ('Zalana') is noted for the non-penetration of colourinto the kenel, and for its ease of rrechanical shelling. Class 1. Rossa di 5.Mango: Indigenous \Briety from Italy (Campania). Tree: precocious . Nuts: Chataignes. Rougieres: Indigenous variety from France (Dordogne~ Nuts: Chataignes , medium size, ellipticalroundish. Uses: fesh eating ~good quality. Class 2. Rousse de Nay (Syns. Rouge de Nay, Grosse Rouge, Marron des Pyrenees): Indigenous French variety from the Atlantic side of the Pyrenees, Ylhere it is cultivated be~en 400-600 m altitudes. Tree: leafs out mid-late; tree relatiwly erect, moderately vigorous , good productivity. Flov-ers: Males are long-stamen types. Nuts: Chataignes , medium (to large), an attractiw shiny mahogany-red with distinct black stripes, elliptical and irregular. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned. Ripen late to very late, over a long period. Good natural storage. Uses: Exclusiwly for fresh consulTl'tion . Class 2. Roussette de Montpazier: Indigenous variety from SW France (Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne~ Nuts: Marrons, ellipticai-triangular, late ripening. Uses: excellent for fresh eating because of very easily removed shell. Class 2. Sardonne (Syns. Sardoune, Marron de la Bome): Indigenous Italian variety, cultivated in SE France up to 500m in altitude. Tree: leafs out late to very late; tree is quite erect, of moderate vigour, with good producti'-'ty if..-.ell pollinated. 3Jsceptible to anthacnose. Flov..ers: Males ale a-stamen type. Peak female
Page 29
receptil..ity 9~20 July. Often pollinated by nearby late-fiov.ering wild trees. Nuts: Marrons. medium to large, reddish with black stripes, elliptical, thin shelled. Ripens mid-late over a short period. Good aptitude to mechanical shelling, natual storage very good. Uses: Canning ~ppearance v. good, f1a\Our good~ C11 . Sauvage Marron: Indigenous variety from France (Lot, Correze), adapted to high altitude. Flov.ers: Males are long-stamen type. Nuts: Marons, ripen ea~y-mid. Class 2. Scott: C.sativa selection from the U.S. Tree: Open, spreading , very productil.re. Nuts: Small to medium, slightly ppinted, glossydark brown. Relathely free from 'N8evil attack. Settlemeier: C.mollissima x C.sativa hybrid from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, spreading, rounded . Nuts: medium to large. Silver leaf (Syn. Eurobella~ Hybrid involving C.sativa and other species, selected in the U.S. Tree: Productive, reliable. Undersides of leaves tum silvery grey as nuts ripen. Flov.ers: Males are long-stamen type and good pollen poducers. Nuts: Mediumto large, sY.eet, easifyshelled. Simpson: Corrplex hybrid in'-'Olving C.mollissima &C.sativa fom the U.S Tree: V. producti\.. Nuts: lage. Skioka: Hybrid of C.sativa and C.mollissima, the selection made in British Columbia. Tree: Vigorous, upright, timber~type growth. Flov.ers: Males are a~stamen (sterile); late f1ov.ering. Nuts: medium sized, dark, s...-.eet, mid-late ripening. Not all feely falling fom burs. Skookum: Hybrid of C.sativaand C.moflissimafrom the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, upright, very productive and reliable, moderately early bearing. Leaves drop quite early. Nuts: Medium sized, shiny, attractive, sweet, fall freely from burs. Ripens ea.y. Soulage Premiere: Indigenous French variety from SE France (Garet, Herault). Poorly adapted to other regions. Tree: erect, v.vigorous, productive. Susceptible to anthracnose. Flov..ers: Males are brachystamen type. Nuts: Marrons, medium to large, chestnuti'eddish with distinct black stripes, elliptical. Ripens v. early over a short period. Uses: Usually for fresh consumption because of its earliness; also for canning. Class 2. Styer: C.sativa selection from the U.S. Tree: Very vigorous, upright leaves large. Nuts: Small, dark brown , striped, pointed, torrentose at the tip. Sweet Portland: c.sativa selection fom the U.S. Nuts: SNeeterand betterfla'-'Oured than many. Tempestiva: Indigenous '8rietyfrom Italy (Campania). Nuts: Chataignes, sl'T8l1 size. Tichjulana (Syn. Tegbia~ Indigenous French variety from Corsica, grown at 400~1000 m of altitude. Flo...-.ers: Campanese is a good pollinator: Nuts: Marrons, small to medium sized , reddish with black stripes, round. Ripens mid-late to late, over a long period. Adaption to mechanical shelling moderate; natural storage good. Uses: fesh, f1our(very good\ canning ~ppearance and fta\Our moderate). Class 2. Trayanov: Indigenous B..J!garian variety, a consistent high -;elder: Tricciuda: Indigenous variety from France (S.Corsica). FIOJM:!rs: Males are astamen type. Nuts: Marrons, medium to lalge, short-elliptical. \ery well adapted to rrechanical shelling. Class 2. Verdale: Indigenous variety grown in W. & C.France (Cantal, Dordogne, Lot), Italy (under the name 'Verdole') and Switzerland (under the name 'Veretesa'). Very adaptable to different regions, including harsh climates and high altitude. Tree: leafs out late, tree is semi-erect, vigorous, with good productivity. Flo...-.ers: males are long-stamen type. Peak pollen dispersal 25 June ~ 5 July, peak female receptivity 5~ 15 July. Nuts: Marrons, small to medium, dark chestnut.orown with blackish stripes, elliptical. Very late ripening, over a short period. Natural storage very good. Class 2. Vignols: A natural hybrid of Castanea crenata and C.sativa. grown in W. & C.France. Moderate adaptability to other regions. Tree: Leafs out early~mid (later than most hybrids); tree is rather erect but soon becomes rounded with age. Very vigorous and moderately productive. Slightly susceptible to anthracnose. Flo...-.ers: Males are long-stamen type. Peak pollen dispelSal 15~28 June, peak female receptivity 22 June - 10 July. Nuts: Chataignes, large to very large, dark reddish, ellipticaliriangular, thick shelled. Colour penetrates some'Nhat into the kernel. Over 20% of nuts are partitioned. Ripens early-mid, over a short period. Modelate nalulal storage. Uses: Flesh consurrption .
Pa~e
30
rag 3a : Example planting arrangements

II
I!.
Il
F! II F!
Il
II
~
R
A
A A
S
~
A
~
!!
B
B
G
B
[!,
B
(!,
"
B
Q
~
c
'3
!<
g
co
C
C
13
P
D
G
(!,
il
A
<
cc.
A
R
B
~
R
A
l!>
S3
11
D
D
B
A
A
R
II A
G
B
II
II
[J
II
A
A
A A
G
[J
B
(}
" " II
~
" B
11
P
11
S
B
B
a~
c
c
"
"
c
C
B
B B
I>
13
"
D
Square planting. 2 varieties. both pollinators
Rectangular planting: wide iI1terrow width allows easier & longer intercrop cultivation. 3 varieties: A & C pollinators, B the main crop.
Equilateral planting: 4 varieties. B the main crop. 2 or 3 o( the others are pollinators .
/-----'~
,"' ---, "\

Fig 3b : Net harvesting system
~ ,
.~
(
(
'-
----, <, ,
-.., ,
1.5 m (5 fr)
I' "' "

Distance between wires depends on nel width & lree size; typically 4 m (13 fd.
ii*F -#
;;
Cultivars for the UK

Very few selections have ever been grown in the UK. There do exist good fruiting trees native to the UK, but a lot of work needs to be done to identify and study these. The southern half of the UK is most suited to chestnut cultivation for nut production and the best area is the SW of England. Only C.sativa selections and the hybrids between this and C.crenata & C.molllssima are feasible in the UK, the Chinese and Japanese chestnut varieties have no prospect at present of ripening their nuts in our climate . [ N8 but given a ~"C rise in mean temperatures , predicted to occurin the ne>t 50 ~ars , the situation rray change.) Cultivars should be chosen for 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Later leafing-Qut if possible; the earfier-Ieafing cuttivars should only be planted on sites not susceptible to late frosts. Very early leafing culthars are probably not lAable. Resistance to diseases is desmble but not essential. Pollination corrpatibility. Ripening times up to Mid-late, but probably no later than this, because the shorter growing season "WOn't allow time for nuts of Late culiil8rs to ripen. Adaptability. Some cultivars are known to be very adaptable from region to region; others a known to be very limited in their adaptability Flo.....ering times should be within the main period. ie early-mid to mid-late, to ensure that pollination will occur with one ormore of the chosen pollinating erieties.
In general, the cultivars most likely to succeed will be those from Western North America and from Western France, while those from Southern & Eastern France, Corsica , Italy etc are unlikely to like our moist condiUons The hybrids, while they will prefer our more moist soil conditions than those found in Mediterranean regions, are demanding in their requirements for feeding and care, and are very susceptible to late frost damage; nevertheless. if planted in favourable warm sites. many have good prospects here. Many of the C.sativa selections should do very well here. Remember that although most of the hybrids are long-stamen types, none have very fertile pollen and they should not be relied upon for pollination . Good pollinators are follov.ed by (Parr ) in the list below Of the cultivars listed below, most of the French selections can be obtained from nurseries in France; the N.Arnerican selections cannot be imported into this country from N.Arnerica, hO\oVever some of the older selections have been brought to Europe in the past (Eg. Numbo, Paragon) so they may be available; of the American hybrids, only seedlings to m them are available, many of ooich should bearwell. The follawng is a shOlt list of the culUl8rs most Ijkelyto succeed , taking into account the abOS' factolS: French hybrids Bouche de 8etizac Boumette Maridonne Marlhac Marsol Precoce Migoule Vignals American hybrids Campbell No 1 Colossal Gellatly No 1 & No 2 Layeroka Myoka (Poll) Nevada (Poll) Simpson Skioka Skookum French indigenous r:;.sativa) Selle Epine (poll) Doree de L~n Laguepie Marron Cruaud Marron de Che\Gnceaux (Poll) Marron de Goujounac poll) Marron de Lostange Marron de Redon Montagne (poll) Portaloune (poll) Precoce Carrneille (poll) American C.safva selections Darlington Numbo Paragon
Page 82
-Fig 4 Mound layering

'/././ /
-----~
Za. Grown for 12 years then cut down to 10.15 em (4-6-)
1. Planting of mother plants in trenches
2b. Cut down to 10-15 em (4-6-) after planting.
-v-,
", ,r .v ,
~~ /
3. MaylJune .(ter cuning down: very vigorous shoots removed.
4. After (3). shoots partially de-leafed and girdled with wire.
tt
.
6., Layer.; removed ~ ye" ~fter girdling" grown on

In
nursery beds.
5. Summer after girdling: mounded plant. new shoots staning 1 0 root
6b. Rooted shoots cut back the winter after girdling 10 stimulate vigorous growth.
7b . Well developed layers removed III.! years after girdling.
Table 1. Lealng & flowering times The periods of leafing out and flowering are shown below, relative to each other. See above for the approximate dates these refer to in France. The flowering table shows the period of maximum female flov.er receptivity, and also of ITBximum polle:n production ....nen the culti\8fS are long--stamen types:
'iRi"ifii' Maximum female receptivity
JUUUL Ma>:imum pollen production
~HHH~ Cultivar has max female receptivity at same time as max pollen plOduction
I
Selle Epine Bouche de 8etizac Bouche Rouge Boumette Camberoune Doree de Lyon Garinche Laguepie Lusenta Maraval Maridonne Marigoule Mal1hac Marron Comballe Marron Cruaud Marron Dauphine Marr. de Che\enceaux Marron de Goujounac Marron de Redan Marron d'OlaIQues Marron du Var Marsol Montagne Portaloune Precoce Carmeille Precoce Migoule Primato Rousse de Nay Sardonne Verdale Vignols
1
Leafing out tim IVE E EM M L ' VL
ill I
I
VE
~L:ujuu:UI
I
FIOWrin, time
II
ML
Innn1nnnnnnmnr
JUU UUUUUWUUUUUUI
lnnnnr nnnnnnr nr ""'''n''n''n''n''m''n''n''n''n''n''r Innnrnnnnnrr
1m""'' ' '!;'
Tlnlnnnnnnrnnr
I
I
Tlnrnnnnnrnr
Tln~nnnnn"rnnr
I I! I
I II II II
JUUUUUUlJUIUuuul'-;n;l; I "","",;F~ I "" ,nnnnnllnnnnn1 nnr
>nnrnnnnn~nnnnn~r
I Tln7nnnnnn r 1lJblUHHHHHH!Hn [UH~hnlnnnnr ",nnnn Innnnnr

I
I I
I I
~
Tllnnnnnnrnnnnnr "","n';1n';1n;Fnm ;;\; 1"nnnnnn"'n"'r' I

uuuuuuuuuuuuw~
II
III
uuuuuuUUUUUUI~,.",."~",,
I Innnnrnnnnnr Innn1nnnnnnrnnr Tll nnnnnnmnnnnnr li"'ffiin'iln'iln"nm" I"n"n;nn"nnnr' I mnnnnmnnnnnr
II III I
I
II II
JU
JUUUU~uuuuuuLuu,
I
uuuuuuwuuu'kn""nnnnew Ilnnnnnn(lnnnnnr l I JUI!JUUUUL.n..JULAJl.JUI~l M~I"""""",,",,,,,, nnr I Innnllnnnnnnr I JUlUUuuuuuuuuuuu1u o I..,",",",",,",,,,,, I Innnnnnnnnnrnnr I JUI!JUUUUuuuu~HHFl~tinnnnnmnnr
lnnrnnnnn1nnnnnr=iffinr
I
"I
ill
I !II I Ii ill
lnnnnnmnnnnnnr nnnnnl nnnr 1I1lnnnnr nnnnnr

ruuuuuwuuuuuu I
J
Innnnrnnnnnmr I Innnnnrnnnnn'lnnnnnnrrnr
~uuUUUUUUUI
I
Table 2. Ripening tmes and other information
The period of nut ripening is sho'Ml in relative tenns. The symbols .t correspond to recorded dates in France; xxx corresponds to an American description, though the actual dates in Europe may differ. The other columns show the followng information: Type: Marron (M) or Chataigne
~)
Size: Nut size; VS = very small, S:; small, M :; rredium, L :; large, vt.. :; very large. Thus M./... :; medium to large etc. Sep'" : Separation of nuts fom burs on falling; Gd = good, Md :; roderate, Irr:; irregular, Bad.
Shell: ,Aptitude to rrechanical shelling; \G :; very good, Gd :; good, Md :; rroderate, Bad.
Store: NatUial storage qualities; \G :; very good, gd :; good, Md :; rroderate. bad. Anthr : Resistance or susceptibility to anthracnose; VR :; very resistant, R :; resistant. S8 :; slightly susceptible, S = susceptible, \S = very susceptible. Hy/cl : Hybrid nature and class. H = hjJrid , 1 = class 1 fop quality), 2 = class 2 t:>econd quaJit'0. Ripening time Type Size Sep'n IShell Store Anth r Hy/cl VE ~ IEM Mil L VL M Md-Gd Md 2 Aguyane Anderron S Arizinca VG 2 M Ii M-L Md-Pr 2 M Bastarde Gd Bastellicaciu C 2 M ill M Gd Md-Gd 1 L-VL Belle Epine Bad R II M-L C 2 Boudle de Baron liI I M Boudle de BetEcic L VG Gd VR H.1 M M VG 2 Boudle de Cbs III III M Md Gd M-L Boudle Rouge Gd VS II II M-L M Gd VG VG Boumette R H.1 1111 VG C 2 Bourrue de JJiliac Bracalla S-M M Gd 112 VG Camberoune I I M S-M Gd Campanese Bad 2 II xx M Gd H CampbeQ No 1 M Canby Back Canby West M L Cedo Chaitaigne dlsola c M-L 2 II iii S-M Chabn M-L Gd Colossal xx H Md M Corrrve M Corron S-M Dager
Dar~ngton
xx C
Doree de Lyon Esclafarde Garinche Garrone Ro$O Gellatly No 1 Gellatly No 2 Grosse Noi'e Herria Imperiale Insidina
S-M M-L
L-VL
Gd
2 2 2
H H
xx xx
Gd Gd Gd
III il il III
M
C
Gd VG
2 2 2
Page 35

Table 2. (conI)
VE E
Laguepie Layeroka Maraval Maridonpe MarigoUIe Marissard Mar1hac Marron Conballe Marron Cruaud Marron Dauphhe Marc de Che\6nceaux Marron de Q::lujounac Marron de Los.ange Marron de Redan Marron dOlargues Marron du Var Marron Pazzo Marron di Casteidelp. Marrone di Chiusa P. Marron fIor1o Fini Marron Mlrlo Grosso Marrone di Suza Marsol Merculiana Merle Moncur Montagne Montemarano Myoka Napoletanela Nevada Nocella Nouzillard Numbo Paragon Pellegrine Portabune PoureUe Precoce CarmeiUe Pr8coce des Pyrenees Precoce des Vans Precoce Migoule Primato
Pro~fic
Ripening time VL IEMla llL
~II xx I
I
I
I
I !!
II
Iii I
.1 I Ii III III I II I I
I
I
II
Ii
1 II II II
xx
>sX
IType l Size Sep 'n Shell C M-L M I Gd I Md I M M-VL VG M L-VL M M-L Gd VG M-L I M Gd I M L-VL Gd M Irr VG M-L M-L M Gd 5-M VG M M-L M L-VL Gd I M M VL Gd C VG M M I M M-L Bad Gd L L
Store Anlh r Hy/el Md-Gd R 1 H R H,2 Gd H,l Gd R H,l Gd R H,l H,1/2 Gd 1 VG 5 2 Gd 5 1 Bad 5 Gd 2 1 Gd 55 2 Gd 5 2 1 Gd 5 Md-Gd 5 1
II
M M M M M
L L 5-M L-VL
Md-Gd Md-Gd
H,l
1
I M
I
M
,
II
I.
iii
I
Ii II I iii
I
I
I
I
M M M C M M C
5 M-L M-L M 5 L M L M-L M-L 5 -M 5-M 5-V5 M-L 5 -M M M M
Md-Gd Md
Bad
H H 2
VG
VG Md-Gd
Gd Bad Bad
Gd
Gd
Md
Quercy Radulacciu Ridgely Rossa Rossa di S.Mango Rougieres Rousse de Nay Rouss.de fIontpazier Sardonne
I I
C
1 2 2 2 2 2 1 H
I
I
II !!I I II
I
I
I
I I
I
I
M C C C M M
M M-L M M-L
I
Gd Gd
2
1
VG M-L Gd VG 5
2 2 2 1
AGROFORESTR Y NEWS Vol 4 No 1
Table 2. (cont)
Ripening time
VE E EM MLL sauvage Marron Scott Settlemeier Silver Leaf Simpson Skioka Skookum Soulage Premiere Styer Tempestiva Tichjulana Tricciuda Verdale Vignals VL
II
T~e l size
S-M M-L M-L L M M M-L S
Sep'n Shell
Store I Anthr Hy/el

2 H H H H H 2
xx
xx
M
Md Gd
S
Md VG Gd VG Md
II
C M M M C
S
5-M M-L 5-M L-VL 2 2 2 H,2
55
Importation of plants & seeds into Britain

Because of fears about Chestnut blight becoming established in Britain (despite the likelihood of it doing so via airborne spores or on the feet of birds) , there are restrictions on bringing material into Britain. These fall into tv..o categories: 1. From EC countries : Seeds can be imported without restriction. Plants must have a plant passport which states that they originate in areas known to be free of chestnut blight, or that no signs of blight have been observed near the place of poduction mer the past 90win9 season. 2. From non-EC countries: No plant material may be imported. Seeds may be imported but this is under review.
Recommended nurseries - Europe

Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, De'lln, TOg 6JT, UK Mail order nursery, supplies seedlings of Jlinerican hybrids; hopes to supply Fench cu/tivatS in future. Clive Simms, Woodhurst, Essendine, Samford, line, PEg 4LQ, UK Mail order nursery, sometimes has Anerican hybrid seedlings, also Anerican and Flench cultivafS. les Pepinieres Jean Coufi~ Chasteaux; 19600 LaIChe, FR,PI\JCE. A wholesale nUisery, only supplying lage orders. Offers a vel}' good range of native and hybid chestnuts. Nutwood Nurseries, ahool farm , Dnneley, Nr.CrelNe, Cheshire, CW3 90J , UK New nursery which supplies Anen'can hybn'd seedlings, also Irnerican and Flench grafted cuftivars. Pepinieres du Rmdailfan , Rue du Fbndaiffan, 46200 SJuillae, FRPNCE. A nursery which can supply small or/arge orders. Offers 5 of the most poductive vane ties. Pepinieres Lattte, Mendionde, 64240 Hasparen, FRANCE. A wholesale nursery which can handle smalf orders. Offers 15 cultivars of native and hybrid chestnuts, as well as Japanese chestnut cultivas,
Page 37
Recommended nurseries - North America

Burnt Ridge Nurser)( 432 SJmt Ridge Rd, Onalaska, 1M 98570, USA.. Supply several chestnut vaieties. R 0 Campbell , Carrpbeny Fann, RR 1, Niagara-on-the-lake, Ontario, LOS 1JO, C.ANADA. Supplies several cold-hardy chestnut selections. ChestniJt Hill Nurser)( RR 1, Ebx 341 , Alachua, FL 32615. U9\. Supplies the Dunstan hybh:J chestnuts. Grima Nut Tree Nursery, RR 3, Lakeshoe Rd, NiagalGl-on-the-fake, Ontario, LOS 1JO, C/lNAOA. Supplies seveel unusual cofdhardy chestnut vaieties. JerseyChestnut Farm, 58 Van Ou:yne Ave ., Wayne. NJ 07470, US\.. Musser Foress Inc, Dept NT-92, POBox 340, Indiana, ffi 15701-0340, USA.. Supplies Dunstan &other hybrid chestnuts. Nolin River NutTree Nursery, 797 Port Wooden Road, Upton, Kf 42784 . USA.. Northwoods Nurser)( 28696 SCramer rd , Molalla, OR 97038, US\.. Raintree Nursef)< 391 Butts Rd. Mo!on. WA 98536-9700, US".. Whitman Farms, 1420 Beaumont NW, Salem, OR 97304. Offers 4 varieties. Zilke Broilers Nurser)( Box 8, Baroda, MI 49101 , U!:A. Chinese chestnuts.
Processing & harvesting equipment

Bag-A-Nut, 10601 Thelesa Drive, JacksomH!e, Florida 32246. USA.. Small-scale, hand opeeted nut halVesters. Etablissements Cacquevel SA.E., Le Mesnil Rogues, 50450 Gatay, FRANCE. Mechanical halVe sting equipment. Ets Aubert et Cie, B.P.148, 24004 ~rigueux. FRANCE. Processing equipment. Mecanicagra, DOlT13ine de Lalanne, ~int-Maixant , 33490 S3.int-martin, FRANCE. Mechanical hafVesting equipment. S.a.Bobard Jeune, BP. 153, 17 Rue de Rmn , 21204 Eleaune Cede ~ FRANCE. Mechanical hafVesting equipment. So.Ma.Ref., Le Bas-Faget, Route depatementale 14, Fbmport, 24240 Sgoules, FRJrNCE. Mechanical hafVesting equipment.
References
Agro-Sur, 1990, 18:1, 30-34. Chestnut \Brieties gro'Ml in Chile. Bailey. L H: The 9.andard Cyclopedia of Hoticuitule. MacMillan, 1947. Bergougnoux, F et al: Le Chataigner: Production et Culture. (Chestnuts: production and culture.) Comite Nationallnteprofessionnel de la Chataigne et du Mat)n (CNICM). 1978. Burdekin, 0 A & Phillips, 0 H: Some Important Foreign Diseases of Broadleaved Trees. Forestry Commission , 1977.
Paqe 38
Cummins. James N: Registerof New Fruit and Nut \Brietles. Hortscience \01 26(8), August 1991. Duke, James A'. CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC f?ess, 1989. Howes, F N: Nuts, Theirproduction and 6teryday Uses. Faber& Faber, 1948. Jaynes, Richaid A:. Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA, 1979. L'Arboriculture Fruitiere. 365 (Dec 1984} Le Chataigner(The chestnut) L'Arboriculture Fruitiere. 399 (Oct 1987). 20-30: Chataignes et Marons. L'Arboriculture Fruitiere, 458 (Feb 1993). 34-38. Chestnut Ochard management. Moore, James N & Ballington Jr, James R: Genetic Resouces of Terrperate Fruit and Nut Cops, V2. ISHS. Phillips, D H &Burdekin, D A Diseases of Foest and Omamental Trees. Macrrillan. 1992. Reed, C A& Davidson. J: The Irrproved Nul Trees of North America. and howto grow them. Devin-Adair. 1954. Rivista di FlUtticoltUICl , Vo153 No 12 OJec 1991} Italian chestnut culti-ers. Rivista di FlUtticoltura , Vol 56 No 11 ~ov 1994~ 65-73. Propagazione. irrpianto. alle\Bmento e tecnica collUlale del castagno (::hestnut p()pagation. planting, taining and rranagement). Ryugo, Kay: Fruit Culture, Its Science and Ai. John IJIJiley. 1988. WesMood, MelIJn N: Terrperate-Zone Pomology. Timber Press, 1993. Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Imentory. Seed Saver Publications. 1989 &1993.
A variety list of AmericanlChineselJapanfSe chestnut varieties and their hybrids will be published in
Agroforestry News, Vol 4 No 2.
Book Review
Saponins (Chemistry and Pharmacology of Natural Products)
K Hostettmann & A Marston
Cambndge UnhersityPress. 1995; 548 pp; lB5.00 (Us $120.00)Hardback ISBN 0-521-32970-1 Although this authoritative text is aimed primarily at organic chemists and phamacognosists, it will be of interest to those plant enthusiasts who utilise or intend to utilise plants for medicinal purposes and as sources of saponins to use as soap substitutes. From early times, saponin-containing plants have found widespread medicinal application for, amoung other ailments, coughs, s)philis. rheumatism and gout. Four of the seven main chaptelS concentrate on saponin chemistry, covering nomendature, occurrence in plants (and marine organisms). distribution, anal)6is and detemination of chenical structures. Chapters four and five describe the pharmacological and biological properties of the three groups of saponins (triterpene, steroid. and steroid alkaloid saponins). Some general properties are first mentioned: many saponins form stable foams (they are emulsifielS). y,.ith the advantage over soaps that their salt.free nature makes them less affected by acid and alkaline conditbns; many are bitter; many cause haemolysis of blood -they destroy blood cell rrembranes. causing a elease of haermglobin. The high le\els of saponins in sorre plants
~p
to 30%) may protect them from fungal attack. and this
Page 39
i#
4F
g-
&
antimicrobial action often continues with plant extracts: several are fungicidal (eg. from alfalfa and primula roots) and some are antiviral (eg. from liquorice roots). Other medicinal actions include antitumour (eg. from Acer negundo, and possibly Soapwort and Ivy), anthelmintic (eg. Ivy), expectorant and antitussive, diuretic, and spermicidal (eg. Hedera nepalensis} Several are insecticidal {eg. the leaves of alfalfa and of l1ex opaca), whilst many have long been known and used as piscicides (fish killers) and moUuscicides (eg. Ivy, horse chestnuts} Despite these numerous properties, most saponins are of low oral toxicity to warmblooded animals as they are feebly absorbed into the body; and although vegetarians may ingest 5-10 times tQ8 quantity of saponins than heavy meat-eaters, this is not at all harmful (and probably has benefits} Prolonged e,,:>asure to e>eessive amounts, though , can be dangeous. The final chapter focuses on commercially important preparations and products. Important commercial sources of saponins, used on an industrial scale, are described and include Sarsaparilla root (Smilax spp.), Liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza spp.), Horse chestnuts (Aesculus spp), Ivies (Hedera spp, especially H.helix), Primula root (Primula veris & P .elatoir), Senega root (Polygala senega) , Gypsophila species, Ginseng (Panax ginseng)and E1eutherococcus species. Industrial production of soaps, detergents and foam products uses Horse chestnuts, Ivies, Peas, Cowslip, Soapwort and Sugar beet; Soapwort, Viola tricolor, Sanicle and Ginseng are often used in soaps and shampoos at S% concentrations. Medicinal products are also made industrially from Agave spp, Dioscorea spp and Yucca spp. Finally, extensive appendices list plants and the saponins theJOntain .
News (Continued from Page 2)

Etaeagnus umbellata which started losing its leaves in early September; however, plentiful rain reversed this trend and they now look healthyagain.
Seed, plant and book catalogues

Our new seed and plant catalogue is enclosed with this issue: we have more than doubled our range of seeds. The plant catalogue was sent out about a month ago. Thanks to all of you 'vYho have already placed orders or intend to do so -it really helps funding the YOrk of the AR.T.
Agroforestry News price increase

You'll see from the back page of this issue that s!Jbscription rates have been increased. Rates have not changed since the journal was started in 1992, but we are forced to make the increases because of the recent large increases in paper prices (they have doubled within a few months). As a special concession, subscribers due to renew now can still use the old rates, and anybody 'vYho wishes to pay in advance can do so at the old ales until Decerrber.
Classified Adverts: 25p/v.ord, minimum 5.00. 20% discount forsubse'bers.

Experienced tee planting! caring indiyduals and couple sought. House and stipend, cganic permaculture, Southem France. Faxexperience and \ielA'S to Japan: 81.3.5484.3447. ECO-LOGIC BOOKS specialise in books , rmnuals and 'videos forpennaculture, sustainable s)6tems design and pactical solutions to en'ironmental problems. Send s.a.e. forour FREE mail order catalogue to iro-logie books (liN), 19 Maple Grove, Bath, BA2 3f>F. Telephone 0225 484472. NUTWOOD NURSERIES specialise in nut tees only and can offertrees from ftA" to "Z" (well at least "Almond ft to "lMilnut"!) Send for our catalogue, FREE on receipt of a 9" x6" (AS) SAE. NUTWOOD NURSERIES, SCHOOL FARM, ONNaEY, CREWE, CHESHIRE, CW3 9QJ.
Page 40
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agIiculturel horticulture t( produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food mateIials, timber and other products. It can range from planting trees ir pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garder systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforcstry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Tmst fOUl times a year in October, January, April and JUly. Subscription rates are:
! 8 per year in Britain and the E. U. ( 14 un waged) 72 per year overseas (please remit in SterlIng) 32 per year for institutions.
<\. lisl of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on request for 3 x lst <.:lass stamps. Back issues cost 0.50 per copy including postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to 'Agroforestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Mnon, Dartington; Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK.
Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. lO07440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
==c=_
i\groforestry News
Volume 4 Number 2 January 1996
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 4 Number 2
January 1996
Contents
2 2 14 16 20 News Redcurrants Veneer grafting Plums: minor species Book reviews: Home-Grown Energy from ShortRotation Coppice I Tree Diseases and Disorders I Bob Flowerdew's Complete Fruit Book I The Fruit & Veg Finder I The RHS Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses I Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture
25 29 37
The yew: Taxus baccata Plums: minor species (cont) Chestnuts (3)
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody. somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K. Website: http://members.aol.com/AgroResTr/homepage.html Email: AgroResTr@ aol.com
Page 1
News
Weather ... again
1995 may prove to be a seminal year weather-wise for growers in the UK: the weather data for SW England, which shows the mean maximum temperatures for 1995 1.0C warmer than normal, mean
miniQ1ums above normal , winter rainfall increased and summer rainfall decreased , agree very well 'Nith1311 of the climate change scenarios. We can in fact expect this kind of 1lar to be the nom 'Nithin 10-20 years, which just shows how urgent the need is to persuade all growers, from gardeners to farmers, to start using perennial crops VoIhich can tolerate the type of drought we had this year. There is already great stress
o.re
on water resources in the UK, which simply will not cope with growers demanding more and more for irrigating annual cops.
Recent agroforestry research

Mainstream agroforestry research in the UK, conducted at the University level, concentrates on simple silvopastoral (ie trees dotted in pastures, usually with sheep grazing) and silvoarable (ie alley cropping of cereals betv.een lines of cop trees) systems. In silvopastoral systems, it appears that there is little reduction in total pasture production for at least 5 years after young trees are planted , and the sward composition is not significantly changed. Pasture production close to trees is reduced, even YVith VoIidely spaced trees, probably due more to sheep spending more time near trees for shelter than a shading effect. With trees spaced at 5 m (16 ft) apart, total PAR reaching the pastue is reduced by only 4-8% atter6 years. In silvoarable systems, wheat has been found to be resilient to PAR levels dOWl to 60% of normal , with yields unaffected. In an alley cropping system , the distribution of PAR across the alley flattens out as the trees grow. as long the rrean PAR in the alley reaches 60% of normal , yields of Vlheat are unaffected -with fastigiate hybrid poplars , this occurs roughly when the height of trees in the lines between alleys equals the width of the alley (thus 12 m (40 ft) wide alleys of wheat continue cropping normally until the trees reach 12 m high). For more spreading trees, the PAR levels VoIiIl probably reduce more quickly with respect to tree height.
Redcurrants
Description
The redcurrant is a deciduous shrub found in hedges and woods throughout Northern Europe. Cultivars are essentially draWl from three wild species, Ribes rubrum from Northem Europe to Siberia , Ribes sativum (Syn R.vulgare) from temperate westem Europe, and Ribes petraeum from mountainous areas of Europe and North Africa. Other minor Ribes species ha..e also been imolved in breeding newcultivars. These three species differ slightly from each other: R.rubrum is an erect shrub about 1 m (3 ft) tall; R.sativum is spreading, with drooping flower trusses, and often with brittle branches which break in exposed locations, and is the most productive of the three, VoIith the largest fruits; while R.petraeum is a vigorous shrub with large buds, late flowering, less productive and has the tartest fruits. Older varieties are often derived purely from one of these species, while most newer varieties are hybrids . A further species, R.muftiflotum from Eastern Europe. has been used in cross~reeding in recent years: this is late flowering and has resistance to leaf spot. Parentage if known is shown in Table 1 later in this article. The description given below is general to apply to all cuJthars. Redcurrants grow to about 1.5-2 m (5-7 ft) high and unlike the blackcurrant, their maple~ike, lobed , midgreen leaves lack glands and are not strong smelling when rubbed. Inconspicuous white flowers in ear1y spring (April-May) are follo\o\ed by small 5-15 mm round fruits. usually red, but sorretimes Wlite or
Page 2
p ,
*l
yellowsh-while. Fruits are borne in bunches (stngs) from spurs of branches aged 1-10 years, and ripen 70100 days after flov..ering. Whitecurrants are the same species, simply with Vvtiite or yellowsh-white fruits which tend to be borne less abundantly than red varieties: they are treated identically and are included in the cuttivar descriptions below. Red and whitecurrants are fairly long lived (25 years plus) plants , generally hardy to at least ;WOC.
History
Cultivated varieties were first mentioned in Gennany in the early 15th Century; by the late 16th Century they were commonly grown in Holland and had appeared in Britain where they soon became common in cottage gardens. By the 19th century. new varieties were being bred in North America . Their popularity in North America has declined, mostly due to the alleged risk of redcurrants spreading white pine blister rust despite the fact that they are generally resistant to the disease. Their popularity remains high in Holland, 'Nhere many of the recent varieties ha\. been bred. Commercial quantities of reclcurrants are grown in Russia , ScandinalAa and Eastem Europe - for example , about 100,000 tons are haNested annually in Poland. Nearly all are used for processing, for the fruits handle badly and are difficult to market fresh in good condition. Whitecurrants, on the other hand, are only grown by amateurs as theirlow yields make them unviable cornnercially.
Siting and Cultivation

Redcurrants thrive in a wide range of soils (they do not require as fertile do like shelter from strong winds (some varieties have brittle branches). and continue to fruit well in semi-shade. Soil pH should be acid to neutral important. They do not do well in shallow soils over chalk, nor do they varieties are fai r1y resistant to sping frust damage. a soil as blackcurrants), but they They are very tolerant of shade, (5.5 to 70), and good drainage is thrive in hot, dry locations. Most
Plants are usually grown as bushes, planted about 1.2 -1.8 m (4-6 tt) apart, although they can be grown as cordons or fans: cordons are planted at 38-45 cm (15-18") apart and fans at 1 m (3 ttl apart. Cordons and fans grow well on North walls, fruiting very well there in conditions of only 15% of normal PAR light conditi(J1s. Fruit ripening is delayed in such conditions by up to a week or two after the same variety in sunny conditions, and also llIIy be less \-\ell coloured and flaIDured (less s....eet). All plants ae grown on a short stem of 10-15 em (4-6") - reclcurrants do not stool like blackcoonts. Sites near\-\Qodlands rray lead to seious bird damage to fruits.
Feeding and irrigation

Mulch plants if possible as redcurrants respond well to a cool moist soil. Mulched plants rarely need watering - even in droughty years, plants have usually fruited by the time the soil gets dry. In a very dry year, then without irrigation the fruits may be smaller than normal, but for fruits destined for processing this is no great problem. Potassium is the most important nutrient for redcurrants. Nitrogen is only required on poor soils, and phosphorus requirements are very low. Standard recommendations for potassium feeding are to supply 12 2 g/m of potassium annually in late winter. This could be supplied by 1 Kg (2.2 Ib) of seav..eed meal or250 9 (8 oz) of \-\Qod ashes per plant An excellent alternative would be to use comfrey: grow one comfrey plant per 5-6 bushes nearby, and cut the comfrey leaves 4 or 5 times per season, scattering them between and around the bushes. [~e 'Potassium', Agroforestry News Vol 3 No 3 formore information.]
Page 3
Pollination
Most redcurrants have self.fertile f1ov.ers, though a few cultivars are partially self~teri le and thus set more fruits when cross-pollinated. Bees aid in pollination and should be encouraged where possible; flies also pollinate.
Pr.uning
Bushes: For the first 4 years or so , concentrate on building a frameYoQrk, to make a goblet-shaped bush with 8-10 main branches. Keep the centres of the bushes open , and cut back new growth by 50% each winter. Remove any shoots on the rmin stem beneath 10 em (4") to produce a clean stem Established bushes should be pruned lightly, by removing thin and overcrowded branches; remaining branches should have their side growths (laterals) shortened to one bud to encourage fruit spur production; the main leaders should be cut to lea-es about 8 cm(3") of newgrowth.
Cordons: For the first few years, concentlate on training a straight stem up to 1.5~1.8 m (5-6 ft). Remove 25% of the previous years' growth from the leader in winter to stimulate side shoot production. Cut laterals to 1~2 buds and remove suckers and shoots below10 cm (4"). Established cordons should have the leader cut back to 1 bud each winter: in addition , summer pruning in June should consist of cutting all current season side shoots to 5 leaves. For multiple-/eader cordons, treat each stem in the sarra way. General: One method to increase fruit size and numbers is to cut off part of the free ends of the strigs while the plants are flowering . Redcurrants are very tolerant of neglect, and lack of pruning will lead to smaller fruit sizes but yields remain high.
Harvesting
It is much easier and quicker to pick 1Nh0ie bunches (strigs) of fruits rather than individual currants, though there may be a few which are unripe and cannot be used. Don't pick the fruits immediately they have turned red , but wait a few days for the full flavOur to develop. Ripe fruits hang well on bushes, for 2 weeks or more. The fruits are easier to pick if their strings have clear lengths at the bases ~ some cultivars are noted forthis habit. Machine havesting is used forlarge plantations in wrope.
Ripe redcurrants are attractive to birds, and plants rray need to be netted to potect the ripening crop. Average yields from established bushes are about 4-6 Kg (9~ 13 Ib) per year, with cordons producing about 0.5-1 Kg (1-2Ib) per plant per year.
Fruit composition and processing

Ripe fruits make good eating raw: although not usually overly-sweet. they are rarely tart enough to be considered as lermn juice substitutes. Theyare also good cooked in tats, pies and puddings. Redcurrants make excellent preserves, including jams and jellies; they can be mixed with other fruits. They are high in pectin and jams/jellies containing them set well. Although jellies were always traditionally made, jams are equally good and the small seeds do not detract from the final product. Commercial varieties recommended for jam-making include Earliest of Fou'ands, La>ton's Perfection , and RabyCasUe. The fruits are excellent for home wne-making, and also feeze 'Nell.
Page 4
Other uses
The seeds, like those of blackcurrants, yields a valuable oil (gamma-linoleic acid) which extracted using solvents from dried and ground residues left from production of juices, preserves etc. The refined oil is a valuable ing2dient in cosrretic. dermatological, dietetic and phamaceutical pleparations. The fruits ha\ a medicinal action, being apeient, antiscoDutic, refrigerant and sialagogue in action.
The leaws can be used to
d~
yellow and the flUits pink to black.
Propagation
Varieties are propagated by hardwood cuttings . These are taken over winter (best in November), and should consist of 2530 em (10-12") cuttings of new growth, preferably about 1 em thick. Smaller cuttings may succeed if conditions are shettered. Cut to just below a bud at the base and leave 10 em (4") above ground. A good way to encourage cuttings to root is to plant them through a black plastic mulch: this keeps the soil warm and keeps weeds down. It can be left down until young plants are lifted after one of two years. Cuttings may also be planted directly into their permanent positions, ego in the understorey of a forest garden. The larger type of cuttings are preferable and weed control is important for the first year. It may be \oVOrth setting up a bed of coppiced plants to suppl~uttings on a egular basis. For cuttivars which are difficult to root, layering, grafting, and softwood cuttings in early summer (given mist) are all feasible. Seeds require 3-4 months of stratification , and germinate at low temperatures. Bushes grown from seed bear fruit at 2-3 years of age.
Pests and diseases

The only serious pesVdisease is that of birds eating the ripe fruits , especially pigeons and blackbirds. Netting rray be required to e>clude them Other minor pests and diseases include: leaf Spot Fungus: (also called Anthracnose) (Pseudopeziza ribis) Sometimes a problem in wet seasons, causing srrall broV>.fl spots on lea\eS V>k1ich may wither and fall. Made vorse by an e)(;ess of nitogen. Aphids: Notably the Redcurrant blister aphid (Cryptomyzus ribis) are common in spring when they cause new leaves to blister and curl and stunt new growth. Bushes are rarely damaged. Attract predators by planting, for example, Limnanthes doug/asii beneath bushes. Yields are not affected , but badly blistered leaves can be removed (with aphids on boad) and destroyed. American gooseberry mildew (SphaelOtheca mors-uvae) is a po\o\dery mildew which can cause defoliation and disfigurement of fruit. It is \oVOrst on gooseberries and is rarely troublesome on currants. Coral Spot (Nectria cinnabarina): A fungus, causing numerous coral red spots on old and dead wood, and can cause die-back of branches or even the death of a plant. Cut out and bum affected branches well below diseased areas, and perhaps paint wounds with Trichoderma viride paste. Currant clearNing moth! Currant borer (Synanthedon tipulifonnis): Larvae hatch from eggs laid on stems and bore into stems. Control by cutting out infected stems which show signs of wilting and die-back. Gooseberry sawflY! Curranw..orm (Nematus ribesi,,: Strips foliage from the plant just as leaves open fully, and again as fruits ripen. Rarely a problem on redcurrants.
Agroforestry use
Redcurrants are the most suitable of all the common bush fruits to use in agroforestry systems in the understorey. They thrive in much poorer soils than most fruits, require less inputs, and continue to fruit well in low light conditions. Theyare long Ii\ed and do not sufferfrom reversion disease like blackcurants.
Page 5
On the negati\ side, the ripening fruits are vulnerable to bird predation. If this is bad locally then one option would be to use redcurrants as a sacrificial crop to lure birds away from a more valuable crop ripening at the sarre time.
Cultivars
There are many cultivars of red and whitecurrants, although a relatively small selection are available commercially. Despite the differences in bush habit and season of ripening, there is in practice little difference between fruits of different varieties in lenns of taste and acidity. Whitecurrants generally give low yields compared lNith redcurrants, and these YAlite-fruited varieties are reputed 10 have lower Vitamin C levels. There also a few Pink currant varieties, possibly hybrids of red and white parents, though none are available corTlTlercially. Synonyms of common eultivars: American ~nder= Houghton Castle Belle de Versailles = Red \ersailles Chenouceau = FaYs Prolific Comet = Fays Prolific Defiance = Houghton Castle Eclipse = Red \ersailles Erstling aus Uerfanden = Earliest of Foulands Fowler's = London Matl:et Gennan's SJur= Prince Albert Goliath = RabyCastle Hollande Rose = Rosa Hollandische Grand Ruby = Fa~s Prolific Knight's = Rince Albert
London Red = London Maket Magnum Ebnum = Red \ersailles Mailing Redstatf. = Redstart. May's Victoria = Houghton Castle, also Rab)Castle Red Grape = Houghton Castle Rhum von Haaiem = Rince .AJbert Rivers' Late Red = Rinee Albert Scotch = London Matl:et. Skinners Red = RabyCastie Transparent = VVhite TIansparent. Versailles = Red \ersailles Victoria = Wilson's Long 8.JOch. Wilder = Fays Prolific
Most of the infonnation about cultivars is presented in tables 1 and 2 later. Descriptions of the main cultivars YAlich are available in the UKare also gh.en below.
Redcurrants:
Earliest of Fourlands: Large, bright red, juicy fruits in long strigs, ripening very early. Upright vigorous bush, \ry producti\. Resistant to leaf spot. Leafs out eelf in spring, flolAers mid season. Fay's Prolific (Syns. Chenouceau, Comet, Fay, Grand Ruby, Wilder): North American cultivar, a sprawling bush of moderate habit with brittle branches, susceptible to leaf spot. Flowers early; fruits large, dark red , thick skinned, easy to pick on loose medium-long stngs, early ripening with excellent sweet flavour; good yields. Leafs out rrid season. Jonkheer Van Tets: A leading Dutch cultivar, a seedling of Fay's Prolific. Dark red large fruits, good flavour. easy to pick on long trusses; thin skinned - may split in wet weather; heavy yields. Early ripening. Upright, \'igorous growth, some......nat brittle branches, rrildewand aphid esistant, ea.y floVo.ering. Junifer: Very early flowering ; gives heavy crops of very early ripening fruits. May be prone to frost damage. Laxton's No.1: Heavy crops of bright red, medium-large sized fruits borne in long bunches, easily picked, good raw; good flavour, small seeds. Early-mid season ripening; flolNers late - avoids frosts. Susceptible to leaf spot. \{gorous, upright and slighUyspreading bush , eaty to leaf out. Areliable clOpper. Raby CasUe: Fruits small-medium sized, on moderate length trusses, hangs well; moderate to heavy yields, late ripening. Small, compact bush, leafs out mid-season, flowers late; susceptible to mildew; very cold.oardy. Red Dutch: Very old cultivar, very cold hardy and resistant to leaf spot. Moderately producti\, fruits small, good fla\Our, on long stigs. Red Lake: American cultivar now popular in Europe. Very large, dark red juicy fruits of good flavour with thickish skins on long strigs, easily picked; heavy cropper, fruits hang well when ripe, seeds moderately large.
Page 6

Upright & moderately vigorous growth . Mid season rpening . f1ov-ers late -avoids frosts. Very cold hardy. Redstart (Syn Mailing Redstart): Medium sized fruits produced on moderate length sings ; good acid flavour. A hea\oY. reliable cropper, moderately vigorous, upright compact growth; late ripening, rrid-season flolAring . Sometimes groWl as a stooled bush.
Random: A leading Dutch cultivar. Late flowering ; fruits medium sized, red, acid , not very juicy, firm skinned , easy to pick, hangs well on moderate length trusses. Resistant to leaf spot and mildew. Late
season. Very producti\ (heavy yields) and hardy; strong branches, upright and >Jgorous. Rovada: Cross of Fay X Heinemann's Rote Spatlese. Late to very late ripening. Heavy crops of large fruits on long strigs. Stanza: Good flavoured , medium to large, deep red firm fruits, heavy cropper; short trusses but easy to pick. Mid to late season, late flo'Bling . Vigorous bush. Wilson's long Bunch: Crimson fruits, medium sized, good flayuur, in medium-long strigs. Semi-erect, slightly sprawling bush of moderate vigour, low to moderate yielding , susceptible to leaf spot and mildew. Late to leaf out, 'ery late flo..-.ering and ripening. Descriptions of pink and vflitecurrants continue on page 12.
Key to Table 1.
P/RiS : Denotes parentage by species if known; P = Ribes petraeum, R = Ribes rubrum, S = Ribes satiwm (Syn. R.wlgare). A 'x in more than one location denotes a h\}rid betv.een those species.
Flowering: DiI,ded into E(EMy), M (Mid), L (Lale). Ripening: Divided into VE (Very early), E (Early -Iale
Junefea~y
July), M (Mid - earlyl mid July), L (Lale-
end July), VL (Very late -Augusn Dates apply to average English conditions. lS Leaf spot: Indicates resistance or susceptibilityto leaf spot. VS very susceptible, S = susceptible, R = resistant. \R very resistant. BS = Branches brittle: Indicates if branches are notedly brittle & thus bushes needing extra shelter. SI = slightly brittle, ~s = brittle. MO = Mildew Indicates resistance or susceptiblity to American gooseberry mildew. Most cultivars are not susceptible. R = notedlyresistant, S = susceptible.
Key to Table 2.
Vig = Vigour: Indicates \igour of bush, \4g = vigorous, Mod = rroderate vigour, Low = low vigour. Habit Indicates bush habit, Upr= upright. Spr = Spreading . Crrp = compact. Yield: Indicates likelyyields in good conditions, Hy = heavy, Mod = rroderate, Lgt = light. Strig size: Indicates a-erage strig (truss) size, Lg = long, Md = rredium, Sm = small. Fruit size: Indicates relative fruit size of plants regular1y pruned, V.Lg = very large, Lg = large, Md = medium, Sm = small. Fruit colour: Indicates f(Jit colour if unusual. Fruit skin: Indicates if skin is noticably thin or thick. Thin-skinned fruits often break or are damaged on picking and must be used very Quickly, and they may split in ..-.et V>.eather; thick-skinned fruits are less likely to be damaged on picking or in wet weather - these varieties are also most suitable for fruits picked for selling. Thick-skinned fruits are not suitable for making jelly as the skins may not break on cooking; they are fine forjam though. Fruit flavour. Although the flavour of redcurrants doesn't vary a great deal, some have noted characteristics; sw= sV>.eet, ac = acid , j juicy nj = not juic): (also: v = very, sl = slightl)( q = quite) Easy pick (Easy Pk): Indicates if fruits are easy to pick - ie the strig habit makes the fruits easily reached and visible. Yes/No. leaf out (LO): Indicates relative time of leafing out, E = early, M = mid, L = late. May be useful in frosty locations etc.
Page 7
Table 1. Redcurrant cultivar Argus Piros Selle de St Gitles Bridgeford Red
R
x
flowering M L
ripening
VE
VL
x x x x x
I I
1Il~;
LS
BB MD
yes
Cascade
Caucasechi Champagne Chetrry Chiswick Red
Hii
mill
S
yes
Ciddy Hall
Correction Devinska Velkoplodna Diploma Duitse Zure Dutch Earliest of Fourlands x Faya Ptodna Fay's Prolific
VR
Iml
x
R
S
liD
VR
S
yes
Fertility x Fertodi Hosszufurtu Frauendorfi Goeggingers Pyriform x Gyongyosi Piros Hans Geelstel Heinemann's Rote SpiHiese . Heros Holl anac Rouge x Hosszufurtu Houghton Castle x x Jonkheer Van Tets x Junifer Karelskaja Kimere Krenewer Kriekjenever La Constante x Laxton's No.1 x Laxton's Perfection x London Market x Lopersumer Maarse Prominent Mallow Leaved x Millearn Red x Minnesota Moore's Ruby x Mulka Neapolsky Cerveny New Red Dutch x Northern Star x Perfection x Pomona Prince Albert x Pyme Upright x Raby Castle x
S
S
Ill'!
llil1B
R
S
lilll!
UI
R S
sl
I
I I i Iii liB
1111111
VR R
S S
Ill!
iii
s
S R S
yes yes
Iii liil
Iii
liIil
s
S
mii
VR
R
yes yes
S
D
mill
yes
Page 8
Table 2. Vig Redcurrant Cultivar Argus Piros Belle de St Gilles Bridgeford Red Cascade Caucasechi Champagne Vig Cherry Chiswick Red Giddy Hall Correction Devinska Velkoplodna . Diploma Duitse Zure Dutch Earliest of Fourlands Vig Faya Plodna Mod Fay's Prolific Fertility Fertodi Hosszufurtu Frauendorfi Goeggingers Pyriform. Gyongyosi Piros Hans Geelstel Heinemann's Rote Spatlese Heros Holl anac Rouge Hosszufurtu Vig Houghton Castle Vig Jonkheer Van Tets Junifer Karelskaja Kimere Krenewer Kriekjenever Vig La Constante Vig Laxton's No.1 Laxton's Perfection Vig Vig London Market Lopersumer Maarse Prominent Mallow Leaved Millearn Red Vig Minnesota Moore's Ruby Mulka Neapolsky Cerveny Mod New Red Dutch Northern Star Mod Perfection Pomona Vig Prince Albert Pyme Upright Low Raby Castle
Habit Yield Hvy
Strig size
Fruit size
Fruit colour
Fruit skin
Fruit Esy L flavourPk 0
Sm Sm
Lg VLg pale red deep red
sl.sw aC ,j
Gmp
Mod Hvy Hvy Mod
Upr Spr
Hvy Mod Hvy Hvy Mod Lgt Mod Hvy Mod Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Mod Mod Mod Hvy Hvy Hvy Mod Mod Mod Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Mod
Lg M-Ig
Lg Lg
brt red dark red thick sw
E
yes M
V.ac Lg Lg Lg Md Lg dark red dark red no L yes
Upr Spr Upr
thin
Upr Upr Spr Upr Upr Upr
Md Lg Lg Md
Md M-Ig V.lg Lg Lg
bright red crimson
sw V.ac
L yes E M
M-Ig
M-Ig
Spr
M-Ig Lg Lg Md
Sm Lg Lg S-Md bright red pale red V.ac,j yes
Upr Gmp
L M
Page 9
Redcurrant cultivar
flowering M L
VE
ripening L VL LS VS VR S S R S
BB MD yes
Red Champagne Red Cross Red dol Red Dutch Red Lake Red Versailles Redstart Rolan Rondom Roogwood Rosetta Rotet Rotewunder Rouge de Boulogne Rovada Rubina Rus . Nr 1 St. Annabes Seedless Red x Skinners Early Stanza Stephens No.9 Traubewunder Turiner Tydeman's Seedling Utrecht Verrieres Rouge x Viking Warners Grape Wilder W il son's Long Bunch. Wisniowa Czerwona Woolly Leaved Whitecurrant cultivar
x x
I
!ill
I~li
ul!Il
1111
ED
Iilli
l!I!!ill lill
m1ii
x
IlIII
I
!ill!
jiii
yes
I'll I'll!
x
S VR
llil!
mill!
iill
Ill/I
liil
VR S S R
jIll
Illl!
x x x x x
R S
S yes yes S
!!ii,
E
Iii!
flowering M L
1m!
10
R S S
VE
ripening L VL LS
BB MD
Biala z Lasku Bianca Dhugogronkowa Biala Echte Witte Pare! Goudouin x Grosse Blanche de Oesent Isposa Biala Patendls Sant Weisse Keiserliche Weisse Parel Werderska Biala Wersalska Biala White Cherry Wh ite Dutch White Grape x White Imperial x
Iliil
Iii
mIll
IiI
lili
Ill!!
1110 l!/m lili!!
!ll!l~rl I!
lilili
Page 10
G
Redcurrant cultivar Red Cham pagne Red Cross Red Dol Red Dutch Red Lake Red Versa illes Redstart Rolan Rondom Roogwood Rosetta Rotet Rotewunder Rouge de Boulogne Rovada Rubina Rus. Nr 1 st. Annabes Seedless Red Skinners Early Stanza Stephens No.9 Traubewunder Turiner Tydeman's Seedling Utrecht Verrieres Rouge Vik ing Warners Grape Wilder Wil son's Long Bunch Wisniowa Czerwona Woolly Leaved Whitecurrant Cultivar Vig Habit Yield Strig size Fruit size Fruit colour Fruit skin
;e;~
Vig Mod Vig Mod Vig
Spr Upr Upr Upr Upr Hvy Mod Hvy Mod Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Hvy Lg Lg Md Md Md Sm V.lg M-Ig Md Md dark red dark red
thin thick ac thick aC,nj yes. yes.
Vig
Hvy Hvy Mod Mod Spr Spr Hvy Mod Hvy Mod Hvy
Lg
Lg Lg
bright red
q.Sw
Vig Vig Mod
Sm M-Ig
Md M-Ig Lg
bright red deep red
yes. yes
V.ac Vig Mod Upr StU Mod Mod M-Ig Md Md dark red crimson L
Vig
Habit Yield Mod Mod
Strig size
Fruit size V.Lg
Fruit colour
Fruit skin
Fruit Esy L flavourPk 0 sw
Biala z La sku Vig Bianca Dhugogronkowa Biala Echte Witte Parel Goudouin Grosse Blanche de Desent . Isposa Biala Patendls Sant Weisse Keiserliche We isse Parel Werderska Biala Wersa lska Biala White Cherry Spr White Dutch Mod Spr White Grape Mod Low Upr Wh ite Imperial
Mod Mod white Mod L-md M-hy Mod Mod L-md Mod Mod Mod Mod
Md Lg
Sm M-Ig Md
milky yellow creamy white whitepink
Page 11
=
Whitecurrant cultivar White JOterborg White Leviathan White Pearl White Transparent White Versailles White Geelisteel Wisn iowa Biala Pinkcurrant cultivar Couleur de Chair Gloire de Sablons Rosa Hollandische Rosa Sport Tinka
illI
IUll'll ~lBil
E
flowering M L
VE
ripening
VL
LS
BB MD
I
U!I II
Ijji~lll
i!!l~
I
I
yes
flowering M L
VE
ripening
VL
IIlU/
IIllll
LS
BB MD
Pink currants
Rosa Hollandische pyn. HoUande Rose) Fruits reddish-pink. vtgorous bush, rroderately productive.
Whitecurrants
White Dutch: Very old cultivar. Mid season. A spraVYIing bush , fruits small , milky-yellow, excellent flavour on medium strigs. ModeJate y;elds, bush of rroderate vigour. White Grape: medium to large, creamywhite fruits of good flavour in long strigs; moderate yields. Mid season ripening. Spreading bush of rroderate vigour, cold haldy. White Pearl: Large yellowsh-white fruit borne in large strigs. Mid season. Moderate vigour but light yielding. White Transparent(Syn. Transparent): Large, transparent yellowish, rather acid fruit on long strigs; light to moderate yields , rrid to late ripening. S:rong, vigorous, upright bush. White Versailles: Large, pale yellow fruits with a good sweet f1a\.{)ur on medium length strigs. Moderate yields. Early to mid season ripening . Lage, vigorous, upright bush. Cold.f1ardy cultivars recommended for exposed locations: Houghton Castle, Raby Castle, Red Dutch, Red Lake, Random Stephens No.1, Wlite GlC3pe. Cultivars recommended for frosty locations: Fay's prolific, Houghton Castle, Laxton's Perfection, Mulka, Prince .Albert, Red Dutch, 3anza. Cultivars noted for fruits hanging well when ripe: Laxton's Perfection, Raby Castle, Red Dol, Red Lake, Random, Wilder.
Page 12
s
Whitecurrant Cultivar White Juterborg W hite Leviathan White Pearl White Transparent White Versailles Whitle Geelisteel Wisniowa Biala Pinkcurrant cultivar Couleur de Chair
GJoire de Sablons
Vig
Habit Yield
Strig size
Fruit size
S~md
Fruit colour
Fruit skin
Fruit EsyL flavourPk 0
Vig
Upr Upr Upr
Mod Vig
Vig
Lgt Mod Lgt Lgt Mod Mod Lgt
Md Lg Lg Md
Lg Lg Lg Lg
deep yellow
yellowish yellowish
pale yellow
ac sw
Vig
Habit Yield
Strig size
Fruit size
Fruit colour
pale pink
Fruit skin
Vig
Vig
Upr
Rosa Hollandische
Rosa Sport Tinka
Vig
Mod Mod Hvy
Md Sm
Lg Sm
white striped red

reddish-pink
ac ac
M-Ig
rose-pink
sw
UK Suppliers
J C Aligrove Ltd, The Nusery, Middle GOlen, Langley, Bucks. Tel: 01753620155.
Chris Bovvers & Sons, Vvhispering Trees Nurseries, W1mbotsham, Norfolk, PE34 BQB. Tel 01366..388752.
Deacon's NUlSery, Moorlliew, Godshill, Isle of Wght, P038 3HW, Tel: 01983<140750. Keepers Nursery, 446 Watenngbury Road, East Mailing,
~nt,
ME19 6JJ. Tel: 01622813008.
RVRogerLtd, The NUlSenes, F\ckenng, North Yoi1<s, Y018 7HG. Tel: 01751472226. Scotts NUlSenes (MelTiott) Ltd, Meniott. Somerset, TA16 5PL. Tel : 01460'72306.
J TV\edie, Maryfield Road Nusery, Maryfield, NrTerregles, Duntries, DG2 9TH . Tel: 01387720880.
American suppliers
Ribes species ae still p/Ohibited in sorre areas , so check locallybefore you order plants!
Bear Creek Nursery, POBox 411H, Northport, WA 99157. Cloud Mountain Fam & Nursery, 6906 Goodwn Rd, Everson, WA 98247. Tel: 206t}66-5859.
Edible Landscaping , Michael McConkevP 0 Box 77, Mon, VA 22920. Tel: 804J61-9134. A I Eppler Ltd, POBox 16513, Seattle, WA 98116-0513. Tel: 206tJ32-2211. North Star Gardens, 2124 Unilersity Ave., St Paul, MN 55114-1838. Tel: 612659-2515. Northwoods Retail Nusery, 27635 S.OglesbyRd, Canby, OR 97013. Tel: 503266-5432.
Oregon Exotics, Rare Fruit Nursery, 1065
Messinge~
Grants Pass , OR 97527. Tel: 503846-7578.
Southmeadow Fruit Gardens, Box SM, Lakeside, MI 49116. Tel: 616469-2865. Whitman Farms Nursery, 1420 Beaumont NW, Salem, OR 97304. Tel: 503685-8728.
Page 13
~-
~--
~~
Veneer grafting
The veneer graft (Fig.1)
This is a useful way of renovating established trees which have areas bare of branches. The scion must be
much smaller than the stock, and the method can only easily be used when the rind of the stock easily
sepajates from the IAOOd. Cut the scion V()ad transversely about 25 mn (1~) below the selected bud . Shave alNaY do'Ml to the pith on the opposite side to this bucf{ig.1a.) The scion is sepaated by another transverse cut. about 25 rrm (1 ") above the bud (Fig. lb.) Lay the scion on the surface of the stock limb as a marker and make two cuts through the bark down
to the wod at top and bottomof the scion.

Connect the tw:l cuts in the stock wh pa/CI.llel cuts spaced the 'v\dth of the scion . Remove the bark within the 4 cuts. Slide the scion into place so that the flat surface is in close contact with the wood of the stock and the scion is gripped by the sides of the stock bak (Fig.1c.) Secure the scion by tv.o small nails (thin with flat heads) driven through it into the stock lNOod [en) on Fig.1c). The edges rray be sealed using vex etc. TINO cuts are made in the stock bark, 25-50 mm (1-2") from the scion and extending a similar distance beyond it, to lei ease the tension of the be*; and to counteect shrinkage.
An extension of this is to use scions with several buds, which can be placed spirally or in line with the stock limb; if long scions are used , then the apical end can be left intact, protruding from the surface of the stock limb.
The veneer side graft (Fig.2)

Also called the spliced side graft, this is an excellent way of grafting small pot-grown plants, and is much used for conifers and evergreens, notably Abies sPP. Clematis spp, Cupressus spp, Juniperus spp and Thuja spp. The stock is cut f5t to a\Oid having to lay the scion doW1. The stock stem is cleared of lea'les in the tegion of the gaft. A cut is made, about 32 mm (1.25") long, along the side of the stock free of side branches and as close to the soil as possible. The width of the cut will be that of the scion. The cut is made through the bark and slightlyinto the mod. At the lov.er end of the fist cut, and inwm:l and dOW1ward cut is ITBde, about 5:' mm (0.2-0.25") deep, and the flap of bak/lM>od removed. This lea\es a short lip or tongue at the base fig . 2a and 2b.) The scion is cut with a long simple cut corresponding in length and width to that on the stock, and deep enough to expose the wood. A second cut is made across the base from top to bottom, slanting upward at the sarre angle as the tongue on the stocklfig.2c.) The scion is quickly put in place on the stock (held by the tongue) and firmly tied (Fig.2d.) If the stock and scion ale not the sarre size then the carmium layers should be rmtched along at least one side. Unless the plant is to be placed in huri1l conditions underglass, the gaft must be sealed. Once the gl3ft has taken, the head of the stock iSEmloved.
An extension to this is as follows: the second cut which makes a tongue is not made in the stock, thus a long flap is left intact. The scion is given 3 cuts: the first 5 em (2") long , the second a little shorter on the opposite side, and the third slanting across the base. The scion is then fitted to the stock with the longer side against the stock, the flap brought up and against the shorter side and tied etc (shown in Fig .2e.) This method is noted as useful for Camellia spp, Fagus spp, Ginkgo spp, Hamamelis molfis, lIex opaca and Magnolia grandiflora.
Page 14
a.
Fig 1.
Fig la.
--Fig Ie.
. . ':',
:
.. :
. .... "
,
.~
Fig lb.
.:.
./
,,:
,,'
..
'
.. '
,:
,':
" '.'
....
.,~
,-
. -,
'.
(~)
Fig 2e.
Fig 2a.
'.'
~
"
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Plums: Minor species

Introduction
The plums, for this article, are defined as those species in the Prunus subgenera Prunophora as classified by Ingram (1948). The exception are the 'sand cherries', P.besseyiand P.pumila, lJ.ihich despite their name and misplacing tax)nomicaUy are true plums and hence ae included. Domestication and utilisation of the North American plum species advanced rapidly in the 19th Century, in many parts of the country, plums then represented the most reliable source of fresh fruit for many farm families. By 1900, over 300 native plums cultivars had been described, including 37 inter-specific hybrids. The interest in plums declined in the 20th century as agriculture specialised , but there has been recent renewed interest. Most of the cultivars described below were bred prior to 1900 and several of them may have been lost to cultivation . All of the American species hybridise with the Japanese plum (P.salicina) and the cherry plum (P.cerasifera), and inteF-hybridise, but not so easilyvvith European plums. All of the species below have edible fruits. In addition, the seeds from most species can be eaten if they are free of bittemess (caused by hydrogen cyanide, a poison that gives almonds their characteristic flavour). The fruits of all species can be used for dyeing, giving a dark greYiJreen colour. The leaves of some (eg. P .americana & P .salicina) give an olive green dye. Most species and cultivars are self-sterile and require cross pollination forgood crops of flUit. For British conditions, the best fruiting species are usually P.angustifolia watsonii, P.besseyi, P.maritima and P.simonii. Propagation of species by seed is relath.ely easy, most species requiring 2-4 months of cold stratification before sO\Mng. Culthars must be propagated bygrafting, orby root cuttings forthe suckering types.
Prunus alieghaniensis -Alleghany plum, Porte~s plum, American sloe. faslem USA. A small tree or shrub growing 3.5~ m (11-20 tt) high with erect branches, hardy to -20"C (zone 5~). Few thorns. White f1ov..ers are produced in April , before or wHh the leaves. Fruits are 12-16 mm (Yz"+) across, dark blue or purple with a blue bloom, acid (varying from austere to pleasant), and the stone is clinging ; ripens in August-5eptember. Fruits edible raw or cooked - usually used cooked in native range. Suckers profusely, resistant to black knot. Tolerates limestone soils. The natural variety davisii bears blue fruits. Moderately resistant to COW'l gall. Prunus americana (Syn P.palmeri) - American plum, Ri"", plum, Wild plum. W.N.America. A widely distributed species, a small. spreading, thorny, graceful tree to 6-10 m (20-32 ttl high with brittle branches which suckers vigorously (forming thickets in the wild). Flov..ers are large, white and fragrant, appearing in March-May, before or with the leaves. Fruits are 25 mm (1") in diameter, mostly red or yellow, hard and tough-skinned, ripening over a long period in late summer, with free or clinging stones and pulpy goldenl'ellcw flesh of pleasant aromatic flavour; the skin is astringent. Fruits , ripening in August, are produced in abundance and are mostly used cooked & in preserves. A hardy species (to -30"C, zone 3-4), late flov..ering and at home on light and calcareous soils. Often used as a rootstock and in windbreaks. Selections from the Western half of its range often have much more palatable fruit, and from these have been selected many good cultivars. It floV\rs well in Britain but rarely fruits well here. Moderately resistant to Armillaria sp (honey fungus) and resistant to oot knot nerrntodes. Prunus americana mollis (Syn P.lanata)-Inch plum This is a variety with a dense round crown and pubescent shoots from Iowa, from which several cultivars have been selected. Fruits are round, yellow and red, 20-30 mm (a round 1") across, with flat stones. Hardy to zone 5. Prunus angustifolia (Syn P.chicasa)- Chickasaw plum, Mountain chery. Southem USA. Thinly branched, bushy.topped small tree or shrub usually only 2.5-3 m (8-10 tt) high (sometimes double~
Page 16
t
forming dense thickets, hardy to -20C (zone 6). Has slender reddish zig-zag branches with thorns. White tlOlhers in March-April, preceedingthe leaves, are follolhed by cherry-like shining fruits v.tlich are 16-18 mm (0.7") across, thin-skinned , yellow or bright red, with a soft, juicy (sometimes watery when ripe) , tart to svveet pulp - good eaten raw or cooked. Fruits ripen early. Needs hot summers to thrive and prefers warmer parts of Britain, though e'en there it does not poduce fruit freely; likes sandy soils.
Prunus angustifolia varians - Big Chickasaw plum. Southern & Central USA. A larger, more robust variety, 'Which prefers more fertile soils. Has gi-en rise to rrany eal1y-fruited culti\Brs. Prunus angustifolia watsonii (Syn P.watsonii)- Sand plum, Sandhill plum Southem USA. A bushy variety, grovving only 1-2 m (3-6 ft) high, vvith thornier and more zig-zag branches, smaller flowers and larger fruits (average 2.1 em (0.8") across, exceptionally to 2.7 em (1.1 ") ) with thicker skins : quickly forms thickets up to 20 m (66 tt) across. Likes sandy soils and hot summers. Prized for its fruit where native; several varieties bred from this. Fruits ripen in July to ear1y September, over a 3-4 week period; the heaviest yielding selections produce over 4 Kg (9 Ib) of fruit, with prostrate forms yielding more than upright bushes. Plants start producing fruit at about 3 years of age, and fruit soluble solids content varies from 919%. This variety is not always recognised by modern botanists, but it is uniquely adapted for growth in a climate characterised by high heat (40C) and drought in summer and biUer cold (-30C) in mid-winter. Main insect pest in N.America is the plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) , and major diseases are bro'Ml rot (Monilinia frutico/a) and bacterial leaf spot (><anfhomonas campesUs pv.prum). Sandhill plum jam and jellies, traditionally popular, have recently been produced commercially and are described as 'pleasingly tart vvith an apricot-like flavour; other recent innovations include a fruit spread and syrup. Unlike the type species, this subspecies thrives in Britain. Prunus besseyi - Westem sand chefTY. USA. A small prostrate shrub gro'v'v'ing only 1 m (3 tt) high. hardy to -35"C (zone 3). White flowers are borne on the previous year's 'M)od in April- May and are follov..ed by svveet purple-black fruits, up to 18 mm (0.7") across, ripening July-September. Various slNE!et-fruited selections have been made. Does not fruit well in Britain. P.besseyi has been used to improve the cold hardiness of Japanese plums , and is also sometimes used as a dwarfing plum and peach rootstock. It is a true plum despite its name!. It flowers very well in Britain, wth some forms fruiting abundantly Prunus bokhariensis - Bokhara plum. Himalayas. Closely related to P.salicina . a small tree with white flowers appearing before the leaves. It is sometimes cultivated in N.lndia forits edible fIJit, eaten IClworcooked in pies, peselVes etc. Prunus cocomilia -Italian plum Naples plum Northern Italy. A thomy small tree or shrub, related to P.cerasifera . gro'v'v'ing to 5 m (16 ft) high; hardy to -20C (zone 6). White fla..vers appear with the leaves in late April are followed by roundish or oblong yellow fruits. 30 rnm (1.2") across, wth a good flalDur, relished in Italy Fruits are rarely produced in Bitain. Prunus consociflora. Chinese wid peach . Cental China . Closely related to P.salicina , a small tree to 6 m (20 ft) high vvith shining bro....." young shoots; hardy to 20"C (zone 6). Very abundant flowers in April, before the leaves. are followed by fruits in late autumn very similar to cheny plums (P.cerasifera), 2 cm (0.8") across wth a good ich fla\Our. Prunus curdica. Southem AImenia. A low shrub, only about 50 em (18") high, with solitary flowers appearing with the leaves in April, followed by rounded, bluish-black fruits. Hardy to -20C (zone 6). Intermediate in habit between P.spinosa & P .insititia. Prunus gracilis - Oklahoma plum, Praine chefTY. s.w. USA. A low thicket-forming bush to 1.5 m (5 ft) high. occurring on dry sandy soils ; hardy to -20"C (zone 6). Susceptible to black knot. White f1ov.ers appear before the leaves. Fruits are roundish, 12-18 mm OIi...Q.7") red with a light bloom. Needs hot summers to thrive; drought hardy. Fruits were collected for sale in markets.
Page 17
Prunus gymnodonta. Manchuria. A shrub with crowded unarmed branches and large leaves. White flowers, appearing with the leaves, are follov.ed by edible fruits. Close to P.salicina -may be a form of it. Hady to -23C (zone 5~ Prunus hortulana - Wild goose plum Hortulan plum Cenllal & Southem USA. A single stemmed tree or shrub to 10 m (33 ft) high. hardy to _20C (zone 6), with thinnish peeling bark. White flov.ers are produced in April and May, before the leaves, on one year-old wood. Fruits are roundish, red to yellow, 18-30 rnm (0.7-1.2") in diameter; flesh is firm, acid, juicy, pleasantly flavoured, with a tough skin a nd clinging stone. Late flov.ering and slow to come into bearing; fruits ripen in September-October. Several cultivars available. Needs hot summers to thrive - doesn't fruit well in Britain. Flower buds are reportedly edible. Resistant to oat knot nerretodes and bown rut. Prunus hortulana mineri
This is nearer to P.americana and represents the and firmer; several culti\ars ..vere selected.
no~hlN3rd
extension of the goup. Fruits are laterripenirg
Prunus maritima (Syn P.acuminata. P.pubescens)- Beach plum Shone plum. Eastem USA. A low, straggling, thorny bush, 13 m (3-10 ft) high and to 2 m (7 ft) wide, which prefers drier soils; hardy to _35C (zone 3). Requires a minimum of 60 em (2 ft) annual rainfall. Fragrant white flowers in April or May, before the leaves. Fruits f1at-round, are usually dark purple (sometimes red or yellow) with a heavy bloom, 12-25 mm (lS,-1") in diameter; the flesh is faity firm. sweet and juicy and the stone is free or clinging. Tough skinned. Fruits range from inedible to rich in flavour (as good as European plums), and ripen late summer. Very late floVo.ring, cold hardy, drought tolerant and producth.e; several cultivars available. Of commercial importance in North America, this species thrives in Britain, flowering profusely, and prefers coastal locations. It is sorretimes used as a sand/dune binderP.maritima f1ava has yellow fruits. Prunus mexicana (Syn P.arkansana)- Big tnee plum, Mexican plum SW. USA. Mexico. A shrub or small tree up to 10 m (33 ft) high, haldy to -20C (zone 6~ drought-resistant and free of suckers. Closely related to P.americana. White f1oVo.rs are follo...-.ed by dark purplish red roundish fruits, 25 mm (1") or so across, with a bluish bloom; poor quality. Sometimes gathered for culinary use. Occasionally used in the USA as a non.suckering rootstock. Modeately resistant to honeyfungus V\rmillaria sp~ Prunus munsoniana - Potawatamie plum. Wild goose plum Cent",1 USA. A suckering shrub to 3m (10 It) high or more, forming thickets. White flowers produced in April to May. Fruits are oval to round, 15-25 mm (0.6-1") a'cross, thin.skinned, bright red or yellow in colour with yellow, juicy, aromatic flesh of good f1a'()ur; the stones ae clinging. Fuits ripen in PtJgust-September. Hardy to -20C (zone 6). Needs hot summers to thrive. Many cultivars selected. Resistant to root knot nematodes and brown rot of fruits; f1ov.ers are frust-resistant. A parent of the Maianna rootstock selections.
Prunus ngra (Syn P.americana var.nigra) - Canada plum Canada black plum N.E. North America A very cold-hardy species - to -40C (zone 2) - sometimes cultivated in Canada, closely related to P .americana. Small trees to 9m (30 ft) high; fragrant lNhite floVo.rs in late ~ril follov.ed by oblong fruits, 20 30 mm (around 1") across, red, orange or yello>Msh. v.ith astringent skin and a lage stone; ripen in PtJgustSeptember. Has gi\en rise to sorre good fruit-bearing varieties W'iich bear moderate crops.
Prunus X orthosepala (Hybrid: P.angustifolia ..tsonii XP.americana) Found wid in the US<\.
Much-branched spreading shrub to 1.5 m (5 tt) high. 'Nith zig-zag dk brown branches . White flowers (May) are fol1o..-.ed by late-ripening, round juicy palatable bloomy fruits. 25 mm (1") in diameter, red with white dots.
Prunus pumila - Dwarf cherry. Sand cherry. Northeastem N.America. A small shrub to 1 m (3 ft) high, hardy to -25C (zone 4). White floVo.rs in late April-May, on the previous year's mod, are follo...-.ed by oval-roundish. 1 em (O.4M~ purple-black fruits, often sour and astringent, ripening July-September. Sometimes used as a plum rootstock; hybrids with other American species have been bred.
Page 18 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 2
Prunus rivularis (Syn P.reverchonii)- Creek plum, Hog plum Southem USA (Oklahoma, Te,""s.) A slenderstemmed shrub, 0.6-2.5 m (2-8 ft) high with grey bark and chestnul-brown twigs , forming dense thickets . The \Yhite f101NefS appear in ApriJ-May before or with the leaves and are followed by round ish fruits, 10-25 mm (0.4-1") in diameter, usually yellow, blushed orange or crimson : very variable in quality; ripening in August..september. This species tolerates limestone and drought. Hardy to about -1 (zone
aoc
8.)
Prunus salicina
(Syn P.triflora) - Chinese plum Japanese plum China. A diverse species; small trees grolNing 69m (20-30 tt) high are vigorous, productive, early bearing , and more tolerant of black knot, reaf blight and plum curculio than most species. New shoots are often shining reddish or cinnam:m-brolMl. Fruits are large (50-70 mm. 2-2.6"), pointed, yellow, red or green , with clinging stones; yields are usually high . The flesh is white, yellow or red, with a good flavour (although inferior to P .domestica~ The fruit keeps and travels well. Soluble solids content averages at 17%. This species is susceptible to Spring frosts because it flowers early (Early April), and also needs hot summers to ripen its \HOod, thus is not likely to fruit well in the U.K. (Late f1o'M:!ring selections such as Gaviota may fruit best). Less cold hardy than P.domestica (to around -15C, zones 6-8) and is susceptible to brown rot. Widely grown in Asia and N.America , with many cultivars selected; several hybrids between this and P.hortulana and P.angustifolia have been bred. Does not cross pollinate with P.domestica. Tolerates periodic flooding ; moderately resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria sp). Only hybrids of this species are included in the cultivar table below- there are many pure varieties available as -.....ell.
Prunus simonii - Apricot plum Simon plum. N.China. An upright. conical tree to 6 m (20 ft) high with large smooth-skinned fruit (25-60 mm, 1-2.4") which are dark to purplish-red, with firm aromatic yellow flesh and a clinging stone; variable flavour, sometimes bitter with an almond--like astringency, but can be excellent, fragrant and very palatable. The fruits travel well. Flowers open in March to May, before or with the leaves, borne on short spurs on wood 2 or more years old and singly on the last year's growth. No longer found in the wild. Hardy to -20C (zone 6). For good fruiting in the U.K., late flowering forms must be chosen; does best in the Pacific areas of N,America and has good potential in the UK though f10vers can easilybe damaged by frosts. Prunus spinosa - Blackthom, Sloe. Europe, Asia minor, N.Africa. A vigorous, thomy, suckering shrub to 3-8 m (10-27 ft) high, with small round fruits, 13 mm (%") in diameter. Thicket..forming. FlolNers are produced early (March & early April) and are frost hardy. Fruits, best in October or November after a frost, are dark blue to shiny black with a bloom; the flesh is greenish, acid and bitter. Very frost and drought resistant; hardy to _25C (zone 4). It has been used as a rootstock for P.domestica. Forms with sweet fruits have been selected in the past, notably by Michurin in Russia; fruits are usually preserved or used in liqueu5. In France the unripe fruit is pickled like an oliYl. The f1oY\ers are edible and d}8s made from leaves , fruits, baric Good hedging plant, toleating maritime exposure. Prunus subcordata - Califomia plum, Klamath plum, Oregon plum. Pacific plum Sierra plum,
Westem Plum. W.N.America (Califomia & Oregon). This species resembles the Eurasian species nearer than any other American species. It forms thickets of small spreading shrubs or trees, often only a few feet high but up to 10 m (33 ft) high along streams. Has reddish young shoots and black bark on older shoots. Hardy to -23C (zone 5). Fragrant white flowers appear in April before or with the leaves . It is a heavy cropper of fruits which are round to oblong, 25-30 mm (1-1.2") across, dark red or purplish; the flesh is sub..acid, occasionally astringent, and the stone clinging (although some selections have free stones~ Fruits ripen August-September. This species is selfsterile and requires cross pollination to assure fruit set. Thrives in the U.K. ; was sometimes planted around settlements in N.America. Moderately resistant to C[)V\f1 gall, lesion and ing nematodes; resistantto honey fungus (Armi llaria sp); susceptible to blossom rot. This species is being tested as a dwarfing rootstock for plums and peaches . W,rk at Oregon State Uni...ersity in the 1940's-1960's ga..e several named selections.
Prunus subcordata kelloggii - Sisson plum N.Califomia. This is a taller and more slender variety, with grey bark.. It has larger , yellow or red fruit which have fairly free stones; the flesh is soft and palatable. It is late f1c::M'ing, self-sterile and susceptible to bown rot. continued on oaae 29.
Page 19
Book Reviews
Home-Grown Energy from Short-Rotation Coppice
George Macpherson
Farming Press, 1995; 214 pp ; ]4.95. ISBN Q-85236-289-7. This book is aimed at arable farmers and presents an attractive case for them moving some of their arable land into short-rotation coppice production - willow and poplar species which are planted densely from cuttings and coppiced ~sually) on a 3-year rotation.
It begins by outlinog the reasons for farmers to make the change (overproduction of food in the EU, climate change caused by burning fossil fuels, and lack of other viable alternatives at present, the coppice itself needing low labour, fertiliser and chemical use and able to use existing equipment) and explaining the uses and markets for short-rotation coppice wood. Interest at present is mainly concentrated on using the Vv'Ood, in a chipped fom, for both heating and forelectricity production on a srmll, local scale.
The chapter on siting , soils and climates includes a useful list of soil types along with the recommended willow and poplar species and clones. Wet conditions are neither necessary nor desirable for willow cultivation - it will grow almost anyw11ere except in very shallow or alkaline soils: wet conditions in winter Vv'Ould make the harvesting of coppice (Ising fOli3ge harvesters) very difficult. The economics of growing the coppice, harvesting and chipping it, and selling it to an electricity producer are detailed, along with information on grants etc. Emphasis is given that growing the coppice under the EU set-aside scherre makes the econonics much more attractive. Several chapters now detail all aspects of cultivating willow and poplar for short-fotation coppice. Planting material is in the form of cuttings, and emphasis is given to using several different clones in mixtures. Varieties ale recommended and the latest esuits of SNedish results of bleeding new clones are detailed. Establishing a stand involves cultivating a fine tirth (as with any other arable operation) and planting the cuttings at high density. Weed control is rightly emphasised as very important, both in the year after planting and at every harvest: uncontrolled weeds can reduce yields by 50% and actually smother low willow plants very easily. At present, the only rarge-scale method for controlling weeds which can be recommended is the use of herbicides. Alternatives, such as use of black plastic mulches or hand weeding, can be used on a very small scale, while use of mechanised cUltivation may damage both roots and shoots of the plants. More research is urgently needed to solve this problem and come up with a solution to the veed problem .....-tlich can a\Oid the use of chenica! control. There are few significant pests or diseases of willow: although a large number of insed species is supported , these rarely become a problem. Rabbits and deer are the vvorst pests - fencing is needed to keep these out - and only one disease is Significant, a fungal rust. This rust may attack one or two clones badly in a year but a mixed done stand is esilient. Unlike traditional coppice (for example, svveet chestnut on a 10-year rotation~ short-rotation coppice requires inputs of fertilisers to maintain production: these are about 20% of the levels needed by cereals. Most arable farmers will presumably use chemical fertilisers to supply nutrients, although the use of sewage sludge is ecommended by the author: At harvest. yields of 24-36 tonnes per Ha per year (fresh weight, oven dry yields are about 50% of this) are achievable. Chipping is necessay as buming of bales of shoots is unsatisfactqr. Further arguments for short-rotation coppice are made in a chapter titled 'the green credentials'. As a fuel, biomass from coppice is very clean, and of course is C02-neutral, so using it instead of fossil fuels will reduce overall C02 emissions . Willows are also good wildlife value, particularly for inseds and birds. The process of growing and harvesting short-fotation coppice is truly efficient - the energy value of the wood chips is 10-25
Page 20
=
times the energy used in all aspects of production. The author argues that the effects of transporting wood chips on rural roads will be no more than agricultUial traffic at present. and that fears of drying up of groundwaters are unfounded, as water requirements are similar to winter wheat. The negative effects of herbicide use are not mentioned, but until the problems of weed control without chemicals are solved, short-rotation coppice rray not attlact those imolved in sustainable land use. A final chapter looks at possible developments in short-rotation coppice in the next few years , notably with the use of Miscanthus (elephant grass) and Phalaris (Reed canary grass ); and at further uses of biomass, for instance comerting into a fuel forvehicles.
Tree Diseases and Disorders .

Heinz Butin
Oxford Unh..,rsity Press. 1995; 252 pp; l9.50 (Hardback) ISBN 019-854932-6.
This authoritati\e book. translated from the Gennan original, details all the common diseases and disorders found on Northem European forest and common ornamental trees. Tree species are not discussed in order, but instead the book is organised by the type of disorder: thus there are chapters on damage to flo1M'!rs and seeds, damage to seedlings, damage to leaves, damage to buds and shoots , barK damage, wilt diseases, wood damage (in standing and fallen timber) and growth abnormalities. The advantage of such organisation is that similar diseases which affect simitar spedes can easily be located; the disadwntage is that, to look up diseases of a specific4'e, the indexmust alv.ays be used.
Descriptions of the more important diseases are accompanied by brief details of the usual control measures , and rrost of the diseases and disoders are illustlated wth e)((;ellent, ~ry high qualltydraVoJings. A chapter on epiphytes (algae and lichens) and mycorrhizas found on trees , and parasitic plants found on trees (mistletoe , doddes and toothlAOrt) is an unusual but inteesting addition to the book.
Bob Flowerdew's Complete Fruit Book

Bob Flowerdew
Kyle Cathie Ltd . 1995; 256 pp; B9.99 haldback. ISBN 1-856261859 This attractively presented book is split into two main sections: the first deals with individual fruits within categories of orchard fruits (standard temperate tree fruits from apples and pears to figs and mulberries), soft, bush & cane fruits (including some less common species like cranberries and chokeberries), annual tender fruits (which are often classed as vegetables - ego tomatoes, peppers , squash , melons etc) , perennial tender fruits (eg . Citrus, olives, Kiwis etc; some able to be cultivated in mild temperate areas , others only in glasshouses) tropical and subtropical fruits (for tropical gravvers only! But interesting to read about mangos, avocados etc.) , shrub and flower garden fruits (including many interesting specles like JunebelTies, barberries, medlalS, Comelian cherries etc~ and finaflynuts (both tel1l>erate and tlOpical}
Page 21
===
For each fruit, details are given of cultivation methods, weed and pest control, harvesting and storing, a history of usage, medicinal and culinary uses, wildlife value, propagation, and a recipe involving the fruit. Also given are very brief details of a few of the more common varieties which may be available, although for the less common fruits there are often none mentioned. Clear and colourful photographs accompany every fruit, usuallyshowng the plant and a close up of the bits. As always with Bob Flowerdew, organic methods of cultivation are the norm and it's good to see these present~d clearly and simply, with no recourse to chemical methods even considered . Welcome notes on companion planting ae also included Wth most fruits. The second and shorter part of the book deals with more general aspects of fruit growing, with chapters on planning fruit gardens; glasshouse and container culture; orchards; garden maintenance induding fellility, water use, pest and disease control, pollination and companion planting; harvesting and storing fruits; and brief notes on otherby~products such as d)es and wod for tuming and srroking. Those VoIith a serious interest in fruit varieties, and in less-common fruits, VoIiIl find detail on these rather lacking and sorretimes missing ~ dearty Mr Flov.erdew has firrited his research to the rrore easily avaifable references, and doesn't ....ant to sVBmp readers "";th information. Overall this is a splendid book lNtlich should appeal to odinary gardeners and make a great introduction for them to the wide number of fruits, many virtually unknown, which can be grown and for which there is good potential forimprovement.
The Fruit & Veg Finder

Jeremy Cherfasl HORN 8rogdale Horticultural Trust
HDRA(Dist: Moodand Publishing Co.) 1995; 367 pp; lB.99. ISBN 0-90534320-4. The 5th Edition of The Vegetable Finder has expanded to include fruit, and although this covers some of the same ground as the well knoVoAl Plant Finder, The Fruit & Veg Finderhas the Gdvantage that it indudes descriptions of many of the fruits , and also indudes several of the less common fruits and perennial vegetables vilich are not recognised as edible in rijlinstream litelClture. Brief sections describe common fruit tree rootstocks , tree forms, fruit varieties recommended for flavour, for northern Britain, and for late flowering. There is also a list by UK county of the origins of some apple, pear and plum varieties. The main part of the book lists the varieties of fruits and vegetabes available in the UK. Species are ordered in alphabetical order of common name, apart from some of the rarer varieties listed by Latin name. This sometimes means having to search in more than one place to see if there is a listing; it would help if there was an index of Latin names to speed searches, although the contents pages do list every species alphabetically as they appear. Another improvement which would make searching faster would be to indicate at the top of listing pages lNtlich fruiUveg is being listed, as one can open pages and not realise ....mere you are unless )OU recognise a \Briety name. Descriptions of F1 varieties of vegetables are deliberately not given. Descriptions of fruit varieties are taken mostly from nursery catalogues, sometimes VoIith additions from the expertise of Brogdale. Hence if nurseries do not give information about varieties, it is usually lacking in the listing. It should also be remembered that rrost nurseries do not gi\9 information about the deYJbacks of a \Briety. I'm sure that The Fruit & Veg Finder will become an essential reference to fruit and veg enthusiasts, helping them track doW1 fruit varieties and encouaging 'Aider use of a rrore diverse range of edible plants.
Page 22
I
I
The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses Deni Brown
Doning Kindersley, 1995; 424 pp; 35.00 (Hardback). ISBN 0-75 13-020-31. This extensive book, a companion volume to 'The RHS Encyclopedia of Plants and Flowers', covers over 1000 herbs groWl for cullnal)'. aromatic, medicinal, and econonic uses. It is split into fourmain sections. A section on garden designs, illustrated with photos and drawings, covers fannal, informal and container gro'Ning, along with purposeful designs and interplanting of herbs with fiONers and vegetables. The main uses of herbs are briefly covered, including culinary, medicinal and cosmetic uses. 'Herbs in the wild' emphasises the importance of herbs to people and highlights the dangers of overexploitation. Regions of the oor1d are highlighted, voith major herbs and threatened species descibed. The first of the two main sections is the catalogue section: this gives detailed botanical descriptions of species, along with colour photographs to aid identification. Symbols show the hardiness, parts of the plant that are used and Yhat they are used by. The second main section is the dictionary section: this gives detailed information on the uses of each herb, including for cooking and medicine. Both traditional and modem uses are described, including Chinese, Ayurvedic, and native American medicinal uses. A section at the end of each plant entry describes growth and cultivation and gives details of harvesting. Thus if botanical and medicinal information are both required, the species rrust be looked up tvice. The final part of the book deals with cultivating herbs and includes siting , planting, routine care, propagation and indoor gardening. The harvesting and processing (drying and utilising) of herbs is also given space hee. As the use of herbs and the importance of plant chemicals in both traditional and modem medicine become more widely recognised, this is a good time for this authoritative, comprehensive and readable herbal to be published and becore the new'Mrs Grieve' for the 1990's.
Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture

Miguel A Altieri
Intemied iate TechnologyPublications, 1995; 433 pp; 16.95 (paperback) ISBN 0-8133-1718-5 (paperback), 0-8133-1717-7 (hardback) The field of agroecology provides the basic ecological principles for how to study, design and manage agroecosystems which are productive and sustainable, socially just, viable and culturally sensitive. This excellent book describes the theoretical basis of agricultural ecology, and the design and practice of altemative production systems, including chapters on traditional forms of agriculture, organic farming , po[yculture systems, cover cropping, agroforestry systems, pest, disease and weed management, pasture and soil management. It goes far beyond the normal one-dimensional view of agroecosystems to embrace the understanding of ecological and social levIs of co~voJution , stlJcture and function . Modem agriculture is an artificial ecosystem that requires constant human intervention, and the ecological equilibrium in such systems is very fragile. This potential instability is because natural ecosystems reinvest a major proportion of their production to maintain the physical and biological structure needed to sustain soil fertility and biotic stability; artificial monocultures have low species/genetic diversity, open mineral cycles, short-term crops and soil-destructive practices, all of which lead to instability. True stability is not simply achieved with simple agricultural techniques: "Stable production can only take place within the context of a social organisation that protects the integrity of natural resources and nurtures the harmonious interactions of hurrans, the agoecosystem, and the emironment. n
Page 23
The ecological
sustainabilit~f
an aglOecosystem increases wth the followng strategies:
Constant \egetatiw cover to maintain/build soil stocture and fertility and protect water resources ; Nutrient recycling through crop rotation, c()p/animal mixed systems, agroforestry, intercropping; Efficient use of sun/soil/wter resources, by using pol)CUltures ; Small harvest of nutrients in relation to total biorrass; Maintenance of a high esidual biolTBss (lAfOody/herbaceous etc.) f\4aintaining biodilBrsity.
Of course, in the real lNOr1d sustainability must also be achieved in terms of work (the physical tasks required of a farm) , economics and socioeconomically. It is no coincidence that traditional sustainable systems tend to be srrall scale, selfsustaining, lowinput - moderate output, dhersified. The efficiency of an agroecosystem can be measured by energy flow: all inputs (solar radiation , human labour, fertilisers etc) and outputs (vegetable and animal products etc) are expressed in energy terms, and the outpuVinput ratio is calculated . This ratio decreases with use of fossil fuels . thus for labour-intensive maize growing in Mexico the value is about 30, while for intensive mechanised production in the USA it is only 2.5, that is 12 tiITes less efficient. Polycultures, that is growing more than one crop in the same space at the same time, are perhaps the single most important factor lacking in modern agriculture, and which is extremely important for long term sustainabifity. Though they have been lost in modem agriculture, most traditional agricultures were/are based on polycultures - 80% of the cultivated areas of W.Africa are still polycultures. Some agroecosystems in the Philippines include over 600 cultivated and managed plants, which is as many are found in some natural ecosystems. The few polycultures still used in modem agriculture are very simple in comparison , for example undersowing cereals ....tth grass/legume mixtures. Total yields in polycultures are usually greater than would be obtained from similar areas of monocultured crops, and the overall yield is stabilised to a greater degree with greater diversity. Polycultures also use natural resources more efficiently, and pest problems are usually much reduced. The natural tendency to'Nards complexity is achieved, and vvith increased crop biodiwrsity, less external inputs are required to maintain the cop community. Agroforestry systems can form some of the most sustainable polycultures, which are particularly well adapted to the circumstances of small farmers. The complex vertical structure of the three-dimensional physical environment supports greater species diversity. Tree products may be obtainable over a larger part of the year, thus evening out labour requirements and income; external inputs may be minimised, especially with the use of leguminous trees and mycorrhizal associations: the risk of failing crops and the consequences thereof are much reduced. Most traditional polycultures include the use of trees as multipurpose crops. The transition to"lNards sustainable agriculture is not going to be easy Tt'e structure of corporate agriculture and the organisation of agricultural research (focusing on short-term problems) prevent ecological research recommendations from being incorporate into agricultural management systems; investment in sustainable technolcgies won't take place if immediate profits are not available. Indeed, the emphasis on bigger yields continues with high-tech. biotechnology claimed to be the new technological fix. Sustainable agriculture is not about quick fixes to solve the next little problem; it requires long-term holistic research, an ecological perspective for all land use, producer-consumer cooperatives lNhich encourage local markets and selfsufficiency, smaJf-scale and family-oriented farming, and challenges from consumers and society to current agricultural agendas. The problems facing us in this challenge are summed up by the author in his final remarks: ''The requirements to develop a sustainable agriculture clearly are not just biological or technical , but also social , economic and political, and illustrate the requirements needed to create a sustainable society. It is inconceivable to promote ecological change in the agricultural sector without advocating comparable changes in art other interrelated areas of society. The final requirement of an ecological agriculture is an evolved, conscious hurran being Mose attitude tOWird nature is that of coeXstence, not e>ploitation."
Page 24
The yew: T axus baccata

Introduction
The yew is native to Europe (from Scandinavia and W.Russia to Spain), Asia Minor and North Africa It is a very long-lived tree. possibly up to 4000 years, and was sacred to the Druids, who built their temples nearby a practise continued byChristians as displa}ed by the nuITtler of yew trees found in chuchyards. In Britain it is found mainly on chalk and limestone, often as an understorey in mixed deciduous woods but sometimes as pure stands. Little has been planted in woodlands - most arise from seeds spread by mistle thrushes and blackbirds. All through the middle ages until gunpowder came into general use, yew wood was more valued than any other for bow manufacture, and although Spanish-grown wood was considered best, yelMi throughout Europe v.ere drastically reduced in nurrbers.
Description
Taxus baccata, the English or Common yew. is an evergreen tree gro.....;ng 12 to 25 m (40-85 tt) high with a roundish crown. The w110le tree is non-resinous. It grows into a densely branched tree, developing a short massive trunk with age to 6 m (20 tt) or more in girth. Individual trees vary greatly in crown and bole fonn . with fluting very common. In old trees the heartY.-ood rots but the tree continues to grow. forming a series of arched and twsted. Branches sorretimes put doW1 new roots through the lOtting heaft\MJod.
Shoots are long, outspread and sometimes ascending . ""';th reddish-brown , thin , scaly bark (young shoots are green). The tiny buds at shoot tips ae yellowsh~reen. wth leaf~ike scales. The needles (leaves) appear spirally arranged in erect shoots, but ranked in pairs on more horizontal shoots. The needles are 1-3 cm (0.4-1.2") long, linear, convex and shining on the upper side, paler and yellowish below; they taper to a horny point. They snap off if pulled, but fall singly leaving rough scars when they are shed natuGlly. The yew is dioecious, so the male and female flowers (strobili) usually appear on different trees between February and early April. The Male flowers are stalked, a round 6 mm (0.25") cluster of yellowish stamens, from the axils of leaves on the previous year's branchlets, which shed golden pollen : female flowers are tiny, solitary, green, resembling growth buds, also from leafaxils. Plants occasionally change sex, and monoecious plants ~th both sees of f1ov..ers) are sometimes found. F\:>Jlination is \ia the wnd. On female trees , f!\lits are fleshy red berries about 10mm in diameter, containing a single seed. Fruits ripen in autumn betv.een September and November. The seeds are usually 2-sided, 6 rnm (0.25") long, olive-brown. Fruiting begins at about 20 years of age and continues to a great age - 650 year-old trees have been recorded as yielding 30-50 Kg of f!\lits . Fruit yields are larger in hot dry summers; seed production is usuallyprolific, wth some seed normally produced e-.ery year.
Cultivation
Yew is an extremely easy plant to grow - it is tolerant of cold, heat, drought, full sun and deep shade, exposure, pollution , wet and dry soils, and any pH. Severe maritime exposure can damage plants. It is hardy to about -25C. Plants produce very little fibrous root and should be planted in their final positions w11en still srrall. Male and female trees must be grown if fruits are required. The fruits, on the female trees, are mainly produced on the undesides of one.year old branches.
Page 25
Yew is a strong shade-bearer, tolerating deep shade, and grows Quite sloVoAy (20-30 cm = 8-12" per year) GrolNth of 4.5 m (15 ft) in 20 years can be expected. They cast a deep shade and little will grow beneath them. The use of standad plastic tleeshelters is not recommended, as failues can occur due to O\erheating.
Pests, diseases & problems
There are few pests. Roe deer and some breeds of sheep appear to suffer no harm from browsing yew foliage, though cattle and horses may be killed (see below). An aphid , known as Yew Scale, can damage yew hedges and topia~, causing a sootymould.
Yew is very resistant to honey fungus, but susceptible to phytophthora root rot which can be a serious problem in nurseries. The needles can be damaged by several fungi of minor importance, and branch cankers are not uncommon. The commonest decay fungi of heartwood is Laetiporus sulphureus ('chicken of the 'IIOods'). Young shoots ae sometimes damaged by late frosts.
The bark is very soft and branches or even the whole tree can be killed if the bark is removed by constan friction such as bychildren climbing the tree.
Uses
The red fleshy cup of the fruits is gelatinous, very svveet and edible raw, but the crushed seeds are very poisonous. The seeds are harmless if swallowed uncrushed, nevertheless this is not recommended. The fruits should only be eaten wth great care and childen should not be encouaged to do so.
Female flower
Male flower
Taxus baccata
Immature & ripe fruit
Cross section throU! ripe fruit
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No ,
Extracts from the leaves are insecticidal, being a contact poison YoIhich is effective against beetles , flies (including livestock pests), Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), Forest moth (Lymantria monacha), the Apricot tent caterpillar (Malacosoma neustria) and the Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis). The leaves are used in a decoction and the aclle ingredients are believed to be the alkaloids ephici1e and taloine .. The timber is highly valued. It is tough, strong , heavy, very durable, very hard, elastic, close and usually straight-grained (sometimes curly and irregular); the hearr.....ood is golden orange-brown , the sapwood pale yeUowsh-white. It is one of the densest timbers of all conifers, and dries rapidly with little distortion, though needing some care . The wood , though moderately difficult to work, works well and finishes with a smooth, glossy surface. It is used for furniture, parquet flooring , panelling, external and internal joinery, gate and fence posts , bows (archery), mallets, handles, pump machinery, and turnery like candlesticks, door knobs, egg cups and pepper mills. It makes good firewood . Minor fluting can increase the value of the timber for veneers. The 'v\Ood is bURlt as an incense. Hedging - responds well to trimming; commonly used for thick ornamental hedges and topiary work. Even very old trees resprout well after cutting back. Clipping is normally practised in August-8eptember, with more drastic cutting back in May New hedges should be planted up wh plants at 45 cm(18") spacing. Some dvvarf, spreading culthers can be gOIMl as a ground cover - notably'Cavendishii' and 'Repandens'. Eating of yew leaves remains a common cause of death in livestock, which can succumb very quickly after eating withered/cut foliage. Death in cattle (by heart failure) occurs some 4 hours after eating more than 0.3 grams of fresh leal.es per Kg of body weight. Needles, shoots and seeds at! all poisonous.
Medicinal uses
In recent years, modem medicine has examined the yews dosely for the compounds they contain . Of particular interest is the substance Taxal , found initially in the Pacific Yew (Taxus brevifolia) but also present in the common yew. Taxal shows great promise as an anticancer drug, notably for ovarian cancer. Exploitation of the Ricific ~w for Taxal extraction has led to its suvival being theatened in sorre areas. Taxal concentrations vary INidely be~en yew species and even be~en culthers - amounts between 100 and 900 ppm are common. About 20% of Taxus baccata trees have been found to contain equivalent amounts of Taxal in their needles and bark as found in the barK of Taxus brevifolia (the usual commercial source). Taxus baccata needles also contain high amounts of dosely related compounds, which can be processed to produce taxol and another medicinal compound, Taxotere; needles could be harvested annually on a sustainable basis forth is purpose. The English and other species of yew have been used in the past as herbal medicines , usually by utilising a decoction of the shoots. This is now knoW"! to be highly dangerous and should not be tried . A speciallyprepared, non-toxic tincture is sometimes used byhomoeopathic ph)6icians for rheumatism and arthritis.
Cultivars
Numerous ornamental cultivars have been selected over many centuries, which are not always easily distinguishable. These include columnar fOOllS, conical forms, spreading and dwarf forms. The cultivar list below includes only those of knoW"! sex - necessary information for seedlfruit production. The females YoIhich fruit most prolifically are 'Elegantissima' and 'Lutea'.
Females:
Adpressa:
~reading,
shlUbby to 6 m (20 ft) high.
Adpressa AJrea : Spreading , shlUbby to 3 m (10 tt) high; needles goldenyelJowand variegated. Adpressa Erecta: Upright, conical, to 36 m (10-16 ft) high. Aurea: Bushy, compact shrub to 4 m (13 tt); young shoots and needles )!!lJowsh.
Page 27
Cavendishii: LoW """;de-spreading, to 1 m (3 ft) high. Good gound cover. Cheshunensis: Upright, fast go""";ng, conical lage shrub/small tree. Dovastoniana: Tree or shl1Jb to 3-5 m (10-16 ft) high; sorretimes male. Dwarf White: Small, slowgro""";ng; needles Wth a narrow V\'hite margin. Elegantissima: Vigorous , spreading; fruits abundanti)! Young shoots &needles )lIowsh. Ereta: Upright, bushy, to 8 m (26 ft) high. Fastigiata: Broad colurmar, 4-7 m (13-23 ft) high. Lutea: Fltlits are yellow, abundant. Upight shrub to 3-5 m (10-16 ft) high. Repandens: DlA8rf, spreading, only40-50 em (16-20") high but 2-6 m (7-16 ft) spread. Repans Aurea: LOIN; spreading bush; needles ~rrow-margined. Standishii: Dense, colurmar, slowgro""";ng; needles golden ~lIow. Variegata : Washingtonii : Corrpact shrub , 1.5-2 m (5-7 ft) high. Sometimes male.
Males:
Adpressa Variegata: Large, openbranched shrub. Young needles golden. Dovastonii Aurea Spreading srra!! tree; needles )allow-margined. Fastigiata Aureomarginata: Male form of Fastigiata wth needles )9l1ow-margined. Glauca: Loose, uprght, "';gorous shltlb; needles bluishgreen. Neidpati1ensis: Colurmar to conical tee. Semperaurea: Suubby, to 2 m (7 ft) high and wde; needles usty-yellow.
Propagation
Seed can be very slow to germinate, taking 2 or more years. If possible, sow when it ripens in autumn expect germination 18 months later. Stored seed should be given 3-7 months warm follo.ed by 2-1 months cold stratification before sowing. Dry s:eed can be stored at 2C for up to 6 years without loss o viability. There are about 13,500 seeds/ t9 , of vJlich about 11 ,000 ae viable (6,100 seedsllb, 5000 .;able)
Cuttings of half;ipe terminal shoots , 5-8 em (2-3") long, taken in July-August often succeed. They nee warmth and shading, and should oot by late September; transplant in late spmg. Cuttings of ipe teminal shoots Wth a heel , taken in Octoberand given shading , often succeed.
References
Bean, W; Trees and 9'lrubs Hatdy in the Bitish Isles, \blume 4. John Muray. 1978. Bown, Deni: The Royal Horticultural Society Encylopedia of Herbs and Their Uses. Dorling Kindersley 1995. Dallimore, W & Jackson: A Handbook of Conifeae and Ginkgoaceae. Gordon, A G: Seed Manual forForest Trees. HMSJ. 1992. Grainge, M &Ahmed , S: Handbook of Rants wth Pest-Control Properties. VViley, 1988. Krussmann, Geld: Manual of Culti'.ated ConifelS. B T Batsotd, 1984. Las-Polski, 1987, No.5, 1315. Lincoln, W World Woods in Colom Stobart, 1986. Lines , Roger. Minor Species in \'\essex. Quarterly Joumal of Forestry, October 1992. Phillips , 0 &Burdekin , D: Diseases of Foest and Ornamental Trees. Macrrillan, 1992.
Paqe 28
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No
Plums: Minor species (continued)

Prunus X sultana - Wickson plum (Hybrid: P. salicina xP. simonii). Tree or shnJb hybrid, hardy to -20C (zone 6). The fruits of named selections are large with a maroon skin and yellow flesh, sirrilar to Japanese plum;, and are eaten Jawor cooked. Prunus thibetica Wesl China. Resembles P.salicina, a small tree up to 6 m (20 ft) high, fOffiling thickets. Has bluish-pink flowers opening
with the lea\E!s.
Prunus umbel/ata - Black sloe, Flatvoods plum. Hog plum Sloe plum, Southem sloe. S.E. USA. A mggy, single-stemmed tree 3-6 m (10-20 ft) high, densely crolNrled, thorny, hardy to -1 aoc (zone 8); sometimes forms thickets. Small ......nite f1o...-..ers produced in April-May with or just before the leaves. Fruits are round, 10-20 mm (0.4-D.8") across, dark purple, red or yellow with a tough skin; the flesh is sour and very bitter and only edible cooked and sweetened. The natural varieties injucunda and larda are later flov.ering and ripening. Tolerant of ring nematodes, resistant to CO'WTl gall. Prunus ursina. Bear plum. W.Asia: Turkey-Syria.
A slightly thorny shrub to 3 m (10 tt) high. White flowers appear before the leaves and are followed by
smooth roundish fruits, 25 mm P.cerasifera.
(1~)
across, violetmd. May be a natural variety or sub-species of
Prunus ussuriensis (Syn P.triflora var.mandshurica) - Ussurian plum. Manchuria, E.Russia. A late f1olM3ring tree normally 4-6 m (13-20 tt) high (occasionally taller), which comes into bearing early. White flov-.ers open in April along INith the foliage. Fruits are round to ellipsoid, greenish yellow to dark red, juicy INith a pleasant flavour. Hardy to _23C (z 5). Some forms are v.cold hardy with sweet flavourful fruits. May be a natUial variety/sub-species of Psalicina. H}bridises easily\rVith American & Japanese plurrs .
Cultivar list
A huge number of cultivars have been bred, especially from the American species, in the last 100-150
years, many by Fruit research stations in the USA and Canada. The selections included below all have fruit of reasonablequality(fair or better). Because of the large number of cultivars, only brief details are given in the table below. Despite the fact that many of these were developed at the end of the last century, quite a few are still available from American nUiseries - you are advised to consult Cornucopia, the Fruit, Berry and Nut Im.entory or NAFEX (North American Fruit Explorers) for latest supplierlists. The parentage is given lNtiere knoWl - for some cultivars it is complex and unknown. Abbreviations used here are hort.min. ::: hortulana nineri; ang.var. = angustifolia \8rians. Fruit size is either in mm (diameter); or Ige = large, m-I = medium to large, med ::: medium, s-m = small to medium, sm = small. Fruit colour is the main colourof the skin -often ffUits are speckled, blushed ordotted in addition. Fruit gualitvdescribed the eating qualityof the flesh: fai( gd = good, \lgd = \ry good, e>e = excellent. Ripe period: ely = early, e-m ::: early to mid, mid, m-I ::: mid to late, late. Yield: poor, fair, mod::: moderate, gd = good, hW = heavy. Tree vig/hab describes main features of tree vigour and habit: bush = dwarf variety forming a bushy shrub, low- low vigour, mod::: moderate vigour, vig:: vigorous; upr= upright, spr:: spreading. Cultivar Acme Admiral Schley Advance African Aitkin Parentage P.nigra hybrid P.americana P.americana P .angustifolia \Brians P.nigra fruit fruit size colour 50mm dk red yellow dk red Ige m-I dk red m-I dk red fruit qual exc v.gd gd gd gd ripe period yield late gd mid e-m gd tree vig/hab
vig low,spr vig
Page 29
1F-=-%
Minor ~Ium;: cultivar table Parentage Cultivar Alderman Alhambra Alice Allfruit Allie ~ AlphaMAmericana America American Eagle American Golden P .salicina h}brid Jap*Amer hybrid P.americana fTK)lIis P.X sultana P.nigra? P.americana P.munsoniana Xsalicina P .americana fTK)lIis P .hortulana P .americana X salicina P.americana P.arnericana P.americana P.americana P .munsoniana P.nigra P.americana P.americana P.americana P .americana P .americana? P.americana P.X sultana P.americana P .angustifolia IBrians P.americana P .hortulana P .arnericana P .hort.min. X P .salicina P.maritima P.americana P.besseY; P.americana P.americana P .angustifolia vatsonii P.arnericana P.americana P.nigra P.americana P.americana P.angustifolia Xsalicina P .munsoniana P.americana P.americana P.salicina Xamericana P.arnericana P .hortulana P.arnericana P.americana P .americana fTK)lIis P.nigra P.americana AmerJap hybrid P. X sultana
:
size fruit colour fruit qual
i&i
dk red red red red red
yellow
......",
""'---
fruit ripe period yield
tree vig/hab
Ige Ige Ige med med Ige

35mm
gd v.gd gd
v.gd
upr ely
mid
gd
fair fair
gd gd gd gd
Ames
Anderson Annual Bearer
Apple
Apricot Arkansas Assiniboia Atkins Bailey Baldwin Baraboo Barkley Barnsback Bartlett Bean
red dk red gold 40mm red med purple Ige dk red Ige med red 25mm red yellow med Ige red dk red m-l Ige dk red red med green med Ige red Ige med
30mm purple yellow s-m It red med
ely
mid late mid mid mid mid mid
gd gd
fair
vig,spr vig ,spr vig mod,sp
gd gd
fair fair
gd gd gd gd gd
fair
e-m
mid mid
gd gd gd
bush low,spr vig,upr vig,upr vig vig,spr
mid mid v.ely mid
Beaty
Bender Benson
Ber~iII
Best of All
Beta
Bixby Black Beauty Blackhav.4<:
Ige med Ige med sm Ige Ige m-I med Ige Ige m-I Ige Ige
dk red red red dk red

yellow
gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair
gd gd gd hvy hvy gd gd gd
low,upr
spr ely
late late vig vig vig vig,spr
red dk red
purple
18mm black
Blaugh
Bluemont Bomberger Bouncer Bounty Brittlewood
Brookl~
gd gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair
ely
mid mid late
vig
vig
Bruce (Bruce's Early) Brunswick
Bryan Budd
Bursoto California Captain Captain Bacon Captain Watrous Caro Carstesen Carver
Cel
Chabot Blood
red red purple red dk red dk red 40 mm dk red m-I red dk red Ige red Ige Ige red red med gold med red Ige red Ige Ige red dk red med sm red yellow med red med
ely
mid mid
gd gd gd gd gd
fair
vig,upr
v.ely
gd hvy gd gd gd
upr,spr vig,spr vig,spr
gd gd gd gd gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair
ely
mid
upr
ely
mid late vig vig vig vig
mid
ely
late late
gd
gd gd
n~",,,
'In
IF;
;:
Minor ~Iums: cultivar table Parentage cuttivar Chalko Champion Cheney Cherry P. X sultana P.americana P.nigra P.nigra P.munsoniana P .americana P.americana P.munsoniana P.munsoniana P.X sultana P.hortulana mnen P.angustifolia \Brians P.americana P.americana P.americana P .besseY; X P .hort.min. P.americana rrollis Amer. hybrid P.americana P.americana P.americana P .hortulana mneri P.nigra P .hortulana P .hortulana P .munsoniana P.americana P .munsoniana Xsalicina P.umbellata P.nigra P.americana P .munsoniana P .hortulana mnen P.americana P.salicina Xbessey; P.salicina Xmahaleb P.americana P.americana P.amencana P .americana rrollis P .munsoniana P.americana P.munsoniana P.nigra P.munsoniana P.hortulana P.americana
size
fruit colour
fruit qual
fruit period
ripe
yield hvy
tree vig/hab vig ,upr vig,spr
m" Ige med m-I med Ige Ige Ige
dk red red red red red red
gd
fair fair [ate mid
40mm orange
Choptank
Christie
City
Cleveland Clifford Climax Clinton Cluck Colman Colorado Queen Comfort Compass Consul Convoy Cook Choice Cottrell Craig Crescent Crimson Culberson Cumberland Curry Cyclone Daisy Dander Dandy Davenport Davis Decker Deep Creek Deep Purple Delight Dennis De Soto Diana
purple scarlet 45mm dk red
gd gd v.gd gd gd gd gd
fair fair
e-m e-m m-I

mid v.ely late mid mid
hvy gd hvy gd gd gd gd
fair
vig
vig vig,spr vig,spr
vig
vig
med med Ige med sm Ige sm med Ige Ige med m-I m-I med Ige Ige Ige
red red red red red dk red red red red

yellow
gd
fair
upr
bush vig,upr
ely
mid
gd
fair
20mm purple
ely
late mid mid mid v.ely late
gd
gd gd gd gd gd
fair
vig
red It red dk red

yellow purple
dk red red
40mm purple 30mm yellow med yellow
gd v.gd gd gd gd gd exc v.gd v.gd

fair
gd
fair
vig vig,spr bush
ely
mid v.Jate
ely
mid mid
hvy gd
bush
Ige m-I med med Ige Ige Ige sm Ige med med Ige sm Ige med Ige
red red red red red

yellow yellow
gd gd
fair
low
vig,spr
40mm purple
40mm orange yellow
Don
Dorsett Douglass Downing Dropmore Blue Drouth King Dunlap Dunlap No.1 Dura Eagle Early Large Red #8
gd gd gd gd gd gd
v.gd
ely ely
mid mid late
hvy
low,spr vig,upr
ely
mid late mid mid late
30mm red 35mm purple
red red
green
Amer.hybrid
P.angustifolia 'Brians P.bokhariensis P.angustifolia \Brians P.mantima P.americana P .nigra X salicina
Early Red
Eastham Edith Elite
~
dk gm It red red red dk red dk red
gd gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair
mod gd
vig,spr vig
ely ely hvy

mid late
bush low,spr
gd gd gd
vig,upr low,spr
Page 31
Minor Qlums: cultivar table Parentage Cultivar Ellis Emerald Emma Esttter P.munsoniana Xhortulana P .salicina Xamerica na P.americana P .hortulana mnen P.americana P .nigra P .nigra P .salicina Xmunsoniana P .angustifolia Xsalicina P.americana P .munsoniana P .munsoniana P.munsoniana P.nigra
size Ige
fruit colour
fruit qual
ripe fruit period yield
tree
vig/hab
red
yellow
Etta
Eureka
Eva
Excelsior Explorer Fairchild Fancy Fanning
Fawn
Fin de Sieele first First Sweet Fitzroy Forest Garden Forest Rose freeman Freestone Gale Gates Gaviota
Amer-Jap h)IJrid
P.nigra? P.americana Amer.species P.hortulana mnen P .munsoniana P.amencana P.americana P.americana p.salicina xamericana P.americana P.americana P.america na P .americana fTK)lIis
Ige med med Ige Ige sm med m-I m-I Ige med med Ige med med m-I
red dk red
yellow purple
red dk red
purple yellow yellow
gd gd gd gd gd gd exc gd v.gd
fair
gd
late mid v.ely mid
poor
vig ,upr vig
ely
mid mid mid
gd
fair fair fair
hvy gd gd mod mod

fair
vig
red red red

yellow
ely
v.ely
red
yellow
30mm red 25mm cnmson cnmson m-I
Ige s-m med

v.lge
Gaytord Gaytord Gold Gem

Gloria Glow
Amer.h)IJrid
Goff Gold
Golden Golden Beau\, Golden Boy Golden Queen Grace Grayson Grenville Guinea Egg Haag Hammer Hancock Hansens Hanson Harvest Hawkeye Heep Hendrick Hiawatha
P.amencana P.americana P.munsoniana ,Xsalicina 25mm P.hortulana p.besseyi Ige P.americana med P.americana P .munsoniana Xamericanamed 50mm p.nigra h)IJrid P.americana P.americana p .hort.min. X americana P.maritima p.besseyi P.amencana P.americana P.americana P .angustifolia \Brians P .munsoniana? Amer.hybrid P .americana P.amencana P .munsoniana p.salicina Xang .var. P.americana
med med med Ige Ige Ige med m-I
It red red red dk red red gold red red

crimson
exc gd gd gd gd gd
fair fair
ely
late late
vig,spr
mod
vig
ely
v.ely late mid mid mid
hvy gd hvy
vig vig
red
orange
gd gd gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair fair
late
mod low
vig ,spr
gold
orange
mid v.late
poor
mod
gold gold
yellow
Ige m-I
red red dk red
30mm crimson blue
Ige med Ige
purple red red 30mm red red m-I yelloW med

v. lge
exc gd gd gd exc gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair
mid
m-I
mid mid poor
vig mod,sl vig ,spr
ely ely ely

mid
gd
fair
gd hvy
gd
fair fair
Hilltop
Hinkley Holiser Holland
sm Ige med Ige Ige
purple dk red yellow
ely ely
mid mid mid
vig vig vig
bush.~
red
yellow yellow
gd gd gd gd
gd
vig, s~
Holt
..... _ __ 'l .....
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 N<
fi
Minor (;!Iums: cultivar table Parentage cultivar Homestead Honey.yood Hoosier Hughes Hunt size fruit colour fruit qual fruit period ripe
yield
tree vig/hab
Ida Idall
Imperial Indiana lona Iowa Beauty Ironclad Iroquois Isabella Itasca Jennie Lucas Jessie Jewell Jones Juicy Kaga Kanawha Kappa Keith Kelsaw Kickapoo Klondike Kober La Crescent laire
Lake III
Lake IX Lake X Lake XXII lang langsdon lannix Late Conical Late Rollingsbne Le Duc Leib Sour Leonard Lillie Lizzie Lone Star Lottie Louisa Luedloff Red Macedonia Mankato Manor Mansan Marble Marcellus
pr
spr
"
02
P.americana sm P.besseY; 20mm m-I P .hortulana P.munsoniana med P.munsoniana Xamericanamed P.americana med P.ffiunsoniana Xhort.min. Ige sm P.americana P .hortulana mineri med P.hortulana mineri med med P.americana P.americana med P.hortulana mineri med P.americana med P.nigra med med P .angustifolia 'lBrians P.americana med P .munsoniana med P.americana med P.munsoniana Xsalicina 40mm sm P .americana X simonii P .hortulana med Amer.hybrid P.americana Ige P.sal icina Xmunsoniana Ige P.americana med P.americana s-m P.americana Ige P.americana Xsalicina sm P.X orthosepala 30mm P.subcordata P.subcordata P .subcordata P .subcordata v.lge P.americana Ige P.hortulana mneri sm P.salicina Xmunsoniana med P .X sultana Ige P.americana med P.americana med P.X sultana Ige P.americana med P.americana med P.americana Ige P .angustifolia ISrians med P.americana mollis Ige P.americana med P.americana P .munsoniana med m-I P.americana Amer.hybrid P.besseY; X hortulana sm sm P.hortulana mneri med P.americana mollis
dk red
purple
v.gd
fair
dk red red dk red red red

yellow
gd
fair fair fair
late late mid late late late
vig,spr
low
gd gd
fair fair
red
yellow
vig,upr bush
gd
fair fair
ely
mid mid mid mid
dk red
dk red
dk red
purple yellow
gd
fair fair
gd gd gd
low,spr
low
vig upr,spr vig,spr
red red dk red gold

crimson
gd
fair fair fair
ely
mid mid mid late mid mid
red
dk blue orange
red red
yellow
gd gd gd v.gd v.gd gd
fair fair
gd
ely
mid
vig
hvy
gd vig low
bush bush
ely
mid mid late
red
yellow green
gd v.gd gd exc v.gd gd

fair
ely
v.ely mid mid
yellow yellow
vig
It red red
yellow yellow
mod
vig
gd v.gd gd
fair
red It red dk red

yellow yellow
late mid mid mid
mod
v.gd
fair
red
'White
exc gd gd gd
fair v.gd fair
vig,upr vig,spr
ely
mid
red
It red
mod
mid late late mid vig
red red
purple
gd
v.gd fair
gd gd
vig
dk red
It red
gd
fair
"""
Page 33
Minor ~Iums : cultivar table Cultivar Parentage Marcus Marion Marjorie P.americana P.americana P.americana P.americana moHis
size
fruit colour
fruit qual
tree vig/h
Ige med Ige
dk red red
yellow
Mary
Ma(ytand Mason Maynard McCartney Melon Milton Minco Miner Mississippi Missouri Monitor Munson Mussey Nebraska Nellie Nellie Blanche Never Fail Newman Newton Newtown Egg NewUlm Nimon Nome Nona Norther Noyes Ocheeda Odegard Ohio
Amer.hybrid
P .angustifolia -.arians P.X sultana P.angustifolia -.arians P.americana P .munsoniana h}brid P .hortulana mneri P .hortulana mneri P.munsoniana P.munsoniana P .americana X salicina P .angustifolia -.arians P.americana P.hortulana mneri P.americana P.americana P.americana P .munsoniana P.americana P.americana P.americana P.hortulans Xmunsoniana P.americana P.salicina Xmunsoniana P.nigra P.americana P.americana P.nigra P.munsoniana P.salicina Xbesse~ P.americana Amer-Jap hybrid P.arnericana P.munsoniana P.nigra P.munsoniana P.americana
II red sm red red med 35mm dk red med gold yellow med 25mm dk red dk red med med red Ige red red med Ige red med red red Ige med red Ige yellow Ige yellow Ige red 25mm red Ige red m-I purple
30mm cannine med crimson
gd gd gd gd
fair
ely
mid mid' v.ely
vig ,u
gd gd gd gd gd spr
gd
v.gd
ely
mid v.ely late late mid late
vig vig,u
v.gd
fair
gd v.gd gd gd gd gd
fair
mod vig
vig.s
m-I ely
v.late late
hvy
gd gd gd gd gd
fair
vig.s
m-I
mid mid late mid mid mid
gd gd gd gd gd
Oka
Omega
Opata
Oren Osage Oxford Patten Patten Pattersons Pride Pearl Peerless Pembina Piper Piram Plunk Poole Pride Pottawattamie Prairie Prairie Flov-er Premium Presley
P.nigra hybrid
P .americana mollis P.americana P .nigra hybrid P.americana P .angustifolia -.arians P.americana P.munsoniana P.munsoniana
P.nigra hybrid
P.hortulana mneri P.americana P .hortulana mneri
red dk red s-m red Ige red 25mm red Ige dk red med red Ige black Ige red m-I purple 30mm red red med Ige dk red red med m-I purple 40mm red It red Ige Ige dk red Ige red Ige red m-I yellow Ige dk red 25mm red 25mm red 50mm dk red med red med dk red med red
m~
Ige
gd gd gd gd gd gd
fair
vig,u vig,s vig ,s vig
mod ,
ely
v.ely
gd gd gd
fair
e-m
mid
gd
poor
mod vig upr spr vig vig

vig vig
vig ,sp
ely
mid mid late v.ely mid mid v.ely
hvy gd gd hvy
poor
gd gd gd gd
fair
low
bush vig
gd
poor
gd gd gd exc exc gd gd gd gd gd
fair
late
m-I m-I
mid mid
gd hvy gd gd gd gd gd
low
vig,up
vig ,up vig vig
gd gd gd gd gd
ely ely ely

late late mid
mod spr
vig
0'::),.'1/:> ':\4
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 Nc
Minor ~Iums: cultivar table Parentage cultivar Price Quaker Quality Queen Rachel Ragland Raribank Red Diamond Red Glass Red Orna Reed Robinson Robusfo Rockford Rollingstone Roulette P.americana P.americana moHis P.americana P.americana P.hortulana mneri P.salicina Xang.var. P.maritima Amer.hybrid P .hort.min. X domestica Amer hybrid P .hortulana P .munsoniana P .angustifolia Xsalicina P.americana P.americana P.munsoniana P .salicina Xmunsoniana P.munsoniana P.americana mollis P.salicina Xbesseyi Amer.hybrid P .angustifolia \Brians P.americana P.salicina X besseyi Amer.hybrid P.nigra? P.americana P .subcordata P.americana P.besseyi P .angustifolia Xsalicina P .salicina h}brid P .munsoniana P.americana P.nigra P.nigra P.americana P .munsoniana P .americana X salicina
P .besse~
size
fruit colour yellow
fruit qual
fllJit ripe period yield
tree vig/hab
yellow purple 40mm maroon
Ige Ige s-m Ige sm med
dk red
purple gold
gd gd
fair
mid mid
v.gd
fair mid
upr ely
vig bush mid late bush vig vig,spr vig bush
red
Ruby Ruby
Sada St. Anthony Salsberry Sanders Sanderson Sapa Sapalta Saskatchewan September Sierra Silas Wilson Sioux Six Weeks Skinner's Favourie Smiley Smith Smith Red Snelling Snyder Sophie South Dakota Speer Splendid Sprite SQuibnocket Steinman Stoddard Sucker State Sunrise Sunset Supreme Surprise Tecumseh Terry Texas Belle
~
red red dk red 20mm red m-I red med purple 25mm dk red med red med dk red red sm Ige red Ige purple Ige sm sm
30mm maroon purple sm Ige It red 25mm purple purple
v.gd gd gd gd gd
fair fair
ely
mid mid mid
gd gd gd
fair
mod gd gd gd
gd gd
fair
gd exc
fair
mid mid v.ely v.ely mid
gd
hvy
bush
med Ige Ige Ige Ige med m-I Ige Ige m-I Ige
red red
crimson
gd gd gd gd
fair
bush
ely ely
mid
red
yellow yellow
gd gd
fair
gd
fair
ely
mid
red dk red
purple
South Oakola Ruby(Ruby)
P.americana P.americana P.salicina Xmahaleb P.maritima P.americana P.americana P.hortulana P.americana P.americana P.nigra hybrid P.americana hybrid P.americana Xsalicina P.americana mollis P.munsoniana
dk red red 30mm red med yellow med red s-m purple med dk red sm purple med
crimson 30mm red
gd exc gd gd gd
fair
hvy
gd gd gd gd
e-m
mid mid late late
vig,upr bush vig,spr vig
vig
vig,upr vig,spr poll bush bush
gd
fair
m-I Ige Ige med Ige m-I
dk red red dk red dk red dk red

It red
50mm 30mm dk red
gd gd gd gd v.gd gd gd gd exc exc

fair
m-I m-I ely

late mid late late mid late mid mid mid
hvy
gd
hvy
gd gd gd
vig
vig,spr vig vig
hvy
gd gd gd
mod
vig vig vig ,upr
gd gd
fair
ely
low
,2
Page 35
e;Toka Tokeya Truro Underwood
"'"
+#
size fruit colour red dk red red dk red purple dk red red red red red crimson red red yellow red purple red orange red
oF"
Minor glums: cultivar table Cultivar Parentage
fruit qual exc gd v.gd fair gd gd gd gd v.gd fair gd exc gd gd exc v.gd gd gd gd gd fair gd gd gd gd gd gd gd fair gd gd gd fair gd gd gd
"
M
hvy
tree vigfha
m-I US.~ Value mid Van Buren late Venus ely Vermilion late Vick mid Virgie Wagner mid Wallace mid vig gd Waneta late gd Ward October Red late vig,sp hvy Waugh e-m vig Wayland v.1ate gd vig,sp Weaver m-I gd vig ,up Welcome mid gd vig Wessex bush gd Whitaker yellow e-m fair mod White Prune red Whyte dk red mid Wickson e-m poor vig dk red Wier red Wilder dk red mid Wild Goose red v.ely vig,spr gd Wolf crimson mid gd vig,spr Wood dk red mid hvy mod,s Wooten mid red World Beaer cannine v.late gd vig,spr Wragg yellow mid vig gd Wyant cannine mid gd low Yellow Sweet yellow Yellow Transparent yellow ely vig Yukon red ely References Akin, J S: Search for the DanderPlum. Pomona. 64, \til xxiv No.4 (1991). Bailey, L H: The Sandard Cytopedia of Hoiticulture. MacMillan, 1947. Bean, W J: Trees and S1rubs Hardy in the Bitish Isles, \blume 3. John Muray, 1976. Facciola, S: Comucopia. 1990. Gibson, M D: The Nati'fl Pacific Plum. NNGA56th Mnual Report, 102-103, 1965. Hedrick, U P: The Plums of New York. New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 1910. Moore, J & Balfington Jr, J: Genetic Resouces of Terrperate Fruit and Nut Cops. 15I-IS. Payne, J et al: Neglected Natie Fruit Trees and Slrubs. NNGA81st Mnual Report, 76-92, 1990. Reid, W & Gast, K: The Potential for Domestication and Utilisation of Native Plums in Kansas. In Janick, & Simon. J: Newcrops. John Wley, 1993. Rom, R & Canson, R: Rootstocks forFruit Crops . John Wley. 1987. USDA: Seeds of \!\body Plants in the United Sates. USJA Agriculture Handbook No.4S0. 1974. WesMood, M N: Terrperate-Zone Pomology. Timber Press. 1993. Whealy. K & Demuth , S: Fruit. Berry and Nut Imentory. 2nd Ed. Seed Saver Publications. 1993. Paqe 36
m-I P.americana Xsimonii P .besseyi X simonii 30mm P.americana Xhort.min. Ige P.americana Xsalicina Ige P.americana Ige P.americana Ige P.americana mollis med P.munsoniana v. lge P.americana med P.munsoniana Xamericanamed P.hortulana mneri med P.americana sm P.americana Ige P.americana Xsalicina Ige P.rivularis X m-I P.salicina Xhortulana P .hortulana 25mm P.americana 25mm P.americana m-I Amer.hytJrid m-I P .munsoniana P.americana P.nigra med P. X sultana SOmm P.americana Ige P .munsoniana med P .munsoniana 30mm P .americana mollis 20mm P.americana 30mm P .munsoniana P .hortulana 2Smm P.americana v.1ge P.americana 30mm P.americana Ige P.angustifolia ~rians med P.nigra? med
late ely late
mod,p upr vig vig vig spr upr
gd gd gd mod gd
Chestnuts (3)
Cultivars of JapaneseChinese/American chestnut origin
Varieties of the American chestnut (C.dentata) are still sometimes grown in North America outside of the natural range of the species (eg. Western U.S.), where they are often safe from chestnut blight; but few if any are commercially available now American chestnuts boe smaller nuts than other species, but the nuts were very sweet and rich eaten raw. More commonly planted are various hybrids between this and the Chinese and Japanese chestnuts, seeral of ......nich are blight-fesistant and ae gro'Ml commercially.
Chinese chestnut (C.mollissirra) varieties are often grown in North America. The Chinese chestnut is
resistant (but not imm une) to chestnut blight - cankers usually heal, and is highly resistant to ink disease. It is susceptible to honey fungus (Arm illaria spp) though (other chestnu ts are not) . It requires slightly warmer conditions than 3rveet chestnut. T he nuts ae sv.eeter and richer than most European chestnuts. Japanese chestnut (C.crenata) varieties are commonly grown in North America, Southern Europe, and other parts of the \oVOrld. T he Japanese chestnut is also highly resistant to blight (though slightly less so than the Chinese chestnut) and is highly resistant to Ink disease. It requires slightly warmer conditions than the SWeet chestnut. T he nuts ae coarser and stalCh ier than those of otherchestnuts. Abundance: C .rrollissima selection fom the U.S. Nuts: rich brolNfl, good fla\Our. Easily shelled. Alachua: Hybrid of C .dentata and C.moJlissima from the U .S. Tree: Vigorous, upright, productive. Immune to chestnut blight. Nuts: Mediurrsized. sv.eet, easilyshefled.
HlM: Small to medium. dark, fair quality.
Alpha: C.crenata selection made in the U.S., seedling of Parry. Tree: Upright, very vigorous, productive. Ripens \ry early. Appalachia: Hybrid of C.dentata and C.mollissima from the U .S. Tree: Vigorous, large, upright, early bearing (2-4 years). Immune to blight. Nuts: Mediurrnized, s.....eet, easily shelled. Armstrong: Thought to be a C .mollissima x C.dentata hybrid from the U.S. Tree: Very upright. Nuts: medium sized, very s\oVet. AU-Cropper: A C.moflissirna selection from the U.S. (Alabama)T ree: Very producti\-e. Nuts: Small to medium, dark chocolate boWl, glossy, att/active. Ripen rrid season. Fall feely from burs.
AU-Homestead: A C.mollissima selection from the U.S. (Alabama)Tree: Very productive. Nuts: Small to medium, very dark chocolate boWl. Late ripening (over a long period). Fall moderately well from burs. AU-leader: A C.mollissima selection from the U.S. (Alabama)Tree: Very producti\-e. Nuts: Medium sized, daik chocolate boWl, glossy and attractive, fall freely from burs. Mid season ipening. Beta: C.crenata selection rrade in the U.S Nuts: Small, light bOINfl, good quality: Ripens eady. Biddle: C.crenata selection rmde in the U.S Tree: Rounded, ";gorous, reliable . Nuts: Mediumsized, bright brolNfl, broad, dOWlY, fair quality. Ripens rrid season. Bill's Earliest Hybrid involving C.mollissima, selected in British Columbia. Nuts: Very early ripening; fall freely from burs . Black (Syn. Dr Black): C .crenata selection made in the U.S. Tree: Rounded, dense, vigorous, productive. Nuts: Small to medium, irregular, dark brolNfl, good quality: Early ripening. Black Beauty: C.mollissima selection from the U.S. Tree : Moderately productive. Nuts: Small to medium. Early ripening . Nuts fall feely from burs. Boone: C.dentata x C.crena ta hybrid, selection made in the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, productive, precocious. Nuts: Medium to large, light bOINfl, doWlY, good quality: Ea rly ripening.
Page 37
is
7T
Carolina: C.dentata x C.moliissima hybrid from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous , spreading , productive, early bearing (2-4 years). Immune to chestnut blight. Nuts: large to very large, shiny chocolate brown, very sweet.
Carpentar: Hybrid of C.dentata and C.mollissima from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, productive. Immune to chestnut blight. Flovers: Males ale long-stamen type. Nuts: rredium sized, reddish-bro1M1, sy,.eet. Carr: C.rrollissima selection fom the U.S. (North Carolina). Nuts: Very small, sv.eet, very dOIM1Y. Clapper: C.nnllissima hybrid from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous , upright (timber-type).
Coe: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (Califomia ) Tree: Upright, somewhat spreading vvith age. Nuts Medium sized, very sVo.et.
Crane: C.mollissima selection made in the U.S. in 1963 (possibly a hybrid). Tree: upright, very early to bear (2-3 years), resistant to chestnut blight. FlolNE!rs: Males are long-stamen; mid-season. Nuts: medium to large, dark cherry-red, good fla\Our. Natural storage is..ery good. The bus are exceptionally large. Clapper: Ahybrid of C.dentata and C.rrollissima , selected in the U.S
Douglass: C.mollissima x C.dentata hybrid from the U.S. (New York) Tree: Upright. Nuts: Small, swee flavour.
Douglass #1: Hybrid of C.dentata and C.mollissima from the U.S. (New York). Tree: Productive, bligh resistant. Nuts: Snail, good fJa\Our.
Douglass #1A: Hybrid of C.dentata and C .mollissima from the U.S. (New York). Tree: Productive, bligh resistant. Nuts: Mediumsized, very good sv.eet f1a\Our. Early ripening. Douglass #2:
H~rid
of C.dentata and C.rrollissima from the U.S (New York). Nuts: Mediumsized.
Douglass Manchurian: Hybrid of C.dentata and C.moJlissima from the U.S. (New York). Tree: Very blight resistant. Nuts: Mediumsized, good quality Dulaney: C.dentata selection tom the U.s. Nuts: Mediumsized, good quality Dunstan: C.dentata x C.mollissima hybrid from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, precocious (bears in 3-4 years) highly blight resistant. Nuts: Easy to shell, \/ary good t1a\Our.
Eaton: Possibly a seedling of 'Sleeping Giant' (C.mollissima x (C.crenata x C.dentata)), selected in the U.S. in 1970. Tree: very like C .mollissima, early bearing . Nuts: medium sized , sweet with a good flavour. Early ripening.
Ederra: A recent C.crenata selection from France. Tree: Fruits quickly. Nuts: Marrons, large, very sweet. Ripens early-mid. Etter: C.dentata xC.rnollissima hybrid from the U.s. Tree: Upright, vtgorous , blight esistant.
Felton: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. Tree: Rounded , moderate productivtty. Nuts: Small, dark brovm, good quality. Early ripening .Ford's Sweet C.dentata x (C.crenata x C.mollissima) hybrid from the U.S., introduced in 1980. Tree: Upright, vigorous, timber-type grovvth; heavy bearing, early to start bearing (3-4 years). Nuts: Small, sYteet. Ginyose: C.crenata selection . g01M1 in Italy and Chile. Griffin: C.dentata selecUon tom the U.s. Nuts: Medium sized, verydo'M1Y, good quality:
Grimo 1420: A C .mollissima selection or hybrid from Canada (Ontario). Tree: Very productive. Nuts: Medium sized. Hale (Syn. Eighteen Months1 C.crenata selection made in the U.S. Nuts: Medium to large, dark bro1M1 , good quality
(Califomia~
Tree: Very early bearing .
Hathaway: C.dentata selection from Michigan, U.S.A. Tree: Productive, reliable. Nuts: Medium sized , light coloured . sYteet.
Henry VIII: C.mollissirra selection from the U.S., Crane x Orrin. Tree: Vigorous at first, slowing once bearing begins. Nuts: rredium sized . shiny mahogany, ......;th a very good fJa\Our. Kernel is yellowsh.
Page 38
Heritage: American hybrid selection of C.dentata x C.mollissirm. tree: Very vigorous and erect, precocious (bears in 2-4 years), straight-boled INith a good timber form. Low producti".;ty, blight-resistant. Nuts: Small, elongated, chocolate bo......n, very slNeet. Nuts fall veil from burs. Ripens late, mer a short period. Hobson: C.mollissirna selection from the U.S. (Georgia). Tree: Productive, reliable, early bearing. Nuts: Small, very slNeet. Honan: C.rrollissima selection fom the U.S. (Oregon). Nuts: Small, fair quality. Ipharra: A recent C.crenata selection from France. Tree: Quickly fruiting, very productive. Nuts: Marrons, very large, sv..eet. Ripens \ery early. Ishizuki: C.cenata selection. Jersey Gem: C.mollissirna selection from the U.S. (Orrin x Nanking~ Tree: Rounded, moderately vigorous, reliable, very productive. Nuts: Medium sized, mahogany-red, glossy, good flavour; kernels are a rich yellow. Nuts ripen and dlOp over a short period. Natural sto13ge good. Kent (Syn. Extra Early): C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey). Tree: Rounded, productive, early bearing. Nuts: Snail to medium, dark, good quality Ripens \ery early. Kerr: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey). Tree: Vigorous, rou nded, very productive. Nuts: Small to medium, dark bro......n, broad. Early ripening. Ketcham: C.dentata selection from New York. Tree: Vigorous, productive. Nuts: Small, oblong, downy, sweet. Killen: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey). Tree: Upright, open, moderately vigorous and productive. Nuts: Lalge, light blOlMl, slightly ridged, good quality Ripens old season. Kuling: C.mollissima selection from the U.S. (Georgia). Tree: Vigorous, quite upright. Nuts: Small to medium, freely fall from burs. Good natural storage.Kungki: C.mollissima selection from the U.S. Tree: vigorous, rapidly starts fruiting (3 years). Nuts: Mediumsized, very attractive. Linden: H}brid from the U.s Flov..ers: Males al8long-stamen type. Nuts: rredium sized. Manoka: A selection of C.mollissima, selected in British Columbia. Tree: Upright. timbertype growth, productive. Nuts: Mediumsized, dark broV\'Tl, easily shelled, good flallur. Yellowkemels. Marki: A recent C.crenata selection from France. Tree: Quickly fruits. Nuts: Marrons, large to very large, very slNeet. Ripens ealy-mid. Martin (Syn. Col. Martin): C .crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey) Tree: Vigorous, open, productive. Nuts: Mediumto large, bright reddish-broV\'Tl, broad. Ripens nid season. McFarland: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (Califomia). Tree: Spreading, very productive. Nuts: Medium sized, good quality Early ripening. Meiling: C.mollissima selection made in the U.S. (possibly a hybrid). tree: Quite upright, heavy and early bearing ,. Nuts: srrell to medium sized, good f1a\Our, ear1y ripening. Good stoege qualities. Mossbarger: Hybrid involving C.mollissima from the U.S. Tree: Very productive. Nuts: Medium sized, slNeet, good natual storage. Murrell: C.dentata selection film the U.S. Nuts: Mediumto large, good fla\Our. Nanking: C.mollissima selection made in the U.S. in 1949. (possibly a hybrid) Tree: Spreading, vigorous, very ear1y to bear (2-3 years), reliable and productive. FlolNers: mid season. Nuts: medium sized, dark tan , some split on falling. Ripen nid-late. Nevada: A hybrid selected as a pollinator for Colossal. Flov..ers: Males are long-stamen. Nuts: Smallmedium, dark broV\'Tl, very sVoJeet. Orrin: C.mollissima selection made in the U.S. in 1963. Tree: erect, low vigour, early bearing. Flov..ers: Late. Nuts: medium to large, dark mahogany with a light scar, good flavour, good natural storage. Easy to shell. Otto: C.dentata selection fom the U.S. Nuts: Medium sized, oblong, ~ry do'MlY at tip, rich & very s...veet.
Page 39
Parry. C.crenata selection made in the U.S. Tree: Open, spreading, moderate vigour; large leaves. Nut Large , dark brolMl, ridged , fair quality.
Penoka: A selection of C.mollissima, selected in British Columbia. Tree: Upright, timber-type growth producti-.e, reliable. Nuts: Mediumto large, good f1a\Our, easily shelled.
strip~d .
Prolific: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. Tree: Compact; leaves small and narrow. Nuts: Small, long Early ripening.
Reli~nce: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey), seedling of Parry. Tree: Dwarfish spreading, drooping, very productive and earfy bearing; may overbear. Nuts: Small-medium, light brown long, ridged, fairquality. Ripens rrid season.
Revival: Hybrid selection of C.dentata x C.mollissirna from the U.S. Tree: Vigorous, upright, spreading upper canopy. Precocious (bears in 2-4 years), heavy and reliable annual cropper. Blight resistant. Nuts large, dark reddish{)rolMl, sv..eet, easily shelled. Ripens O'er a short period.
Rochester: C.dentataselection from the U.S. Tree: Very vigorous and producti\. Nuts: Small to medium dull brown, rounded, doWlY at the tip, ex:ellent quality Ripens late.
Sleeping Giant A hybrid of C.mollissima, C.crenata and C.dentata, selected in the U.S. in 1960. Tree Vigorous, some'vVhat spreading, a heavy and reliable bealer, VYith large leaves. Blight resistant. Nuts: srra medium sized, attractive, good qualit)( easily shelled.
Success: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey), seedling of Parry. Tree: Upright, productive Nuts: Medium to large.
Superb: C.crenata selection made in the U.S. (New Jersey), seedling of Parry. Tree: Vigorous, ver productive. Nuts: Mediumsized. broad, fair quality. Earfy ripening. Tanzawa: C.ctenata selection , gOVvTl in Italy and Chile. Tsuboka: C.clenata selection, gOIMl in Jtalyand Chile.
Wards: Hybrid of C.dentata and C.mollissima from the U.S. Tree: Very vigorous. Nuts: Small, swee yellowkemels. Ripens eaty-mid. Watson: C.dentata selection rom the U.S. Nuts: Snail to medium, slightlydoWlY, good quality
Willamette: C.dentata x C.mollissima hybrid, from the U.S. Tree: Of moderate vigour, semi-erect, ver productive, precocious (bears in 2-4 years). Blight resistant. Nuts: Very large, reddish-brown, sweet, easil shelled.
Classified Adverts: 25piword, minimum 5.00. 20% discount for subscribers.

Experienced tree planting/ caing indilAduals and coupl e sought. House and stipend, ~anic perrnaculture, Southem France. Faxexperience and IJelNS to Japan: 81.3.5484.3447. ECO-LOGIC BOOKS specialise in books, rmnuals and v;deos forpennaculture, sustainable s)6tems design and pactical solutions to en'ironmental problems. Send s.a.e. forour FREE mail order catalogue to a:o"ogic books ~N), 19 Maple Grove, Bath, BA2 3AF. Telephone 0225 484472.
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AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No;
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturei hOliicultuI produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing j mp.terials, timber and other products. It can range from planting tre\ pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest ga systems incorporating layers of tali and small trees, shrubs and gr~ layers in a self-sustaining, interGolmected and productive system . Agn::f(;restly News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust limt:s a year in October, January, April and July. SubscriptIon rates are: 18 per year in Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged) '22 per y<'ar c,verseas (please remit in Sterling) 32
Oi1
pe~
year for institutions.
/\. list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, avail request for 3 x 1st class :;tamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per, inc1udi'lg postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payab 'Agroforestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research T 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK.
Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. [007440), witli object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through book AgrolorestlY News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donat and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which incl1 various practical research projects.
Agro fore stry News

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Volume 4 Number 3
April 1996
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 4 Number 3
April 1996
Contents
2 4 7 15 28
38
News Soap plants Elaeagnus Pear rootstocks Diospyros virginiana: the American persimmon Book reviews: Alternative Silvicultural Systems to
Clear Cutting in Britain I Natural Woodland I Prirwiples of Forest Pathology I Herbs and Herb lore of Colonial America Video reviews: Forest Gardening with Robert Hart I Gaia Theory with James Lovelock
40
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered .9" the advice of a qualified practitioner: somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even. tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or-misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford . ~Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial. Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, Tag 6JT. U.K. Email: AgroResTr@ aol .com Website: http://members.aol.com/AgroResTr/homepage.html
Page 1
News
Alder phytophthora
"Forestry Commission Research Note 277: Phytophthora Oisease of Alder: The situation in 1985" describes the current state of research on this recently discovered disease which mostly attacks the native alder (A.glutinosa) but can also affect Aincana and Acordata. Thet disease, which is caused by a fungus resembling P.cambivora , is now known to be widespread throughout most of England and Wales. The increase in disease between 1994 and 1995 was relatively small. Most of the affected trees are in riparian sites or on land that is subject to flooding from adjacent rivers 'Nhich suggests it may be transmitted via the flow of water. Symptoms of affected trees are small, yellowed , sparse foliage which frequently fall prematurely. tarry or rusty spots at the base of trees, and eventual death.
No cause is suggested for this sudden increase in the disease (it has probably been present for many years and not noticed). One possibility worth looking at is that riparian alders are simply becoming more stressed by the frequent sunmer droughts and thus nure susceptible to the disease.
New Publications from the A.R.T.

The past few months ha\e seen the publication of se-eral new titles:-
Chestnuts: Productbn and Culure

1st Edition, No-.ember 1995. I!:EN 1-874275-26-2. /l5, 52 pages.
A complete guide to growing chestnuts, mainly for nut production but includes coppice production.
Subjects covered include different chestnut species; silviculture and coppice ; flowering and pollination; nut types and uses; rootstocks; mycorrhizas; planting; intercrops; pruning ; feeding and irrigation; production and harvesting; processing of nuts; diseases and pests; propagation ; chestnut cultivars in Europe and North America; culthars for the UK; sources - nurseries, equiprrent supplies etc. The first comprehensive guide to chestnut cultivation in the English language, this is essential reading for anybody interested in glOwing chestnuts on a srmll or large scale. Price: 8.00
Hazelnuts: Production and Culture

1st Edition, NO\ember 1995. I!:EN 1-874275-27-0. /l5, 27 pages.
A complete guide to growing hazels, both for nut production and coppice pole prodLdion . Includes details
of pollination , siting , pruning , harvesting, processing , storage and cultivars. A comprehensive guide to growing hazelnuts. Price: 8.00
Walnuts: Production and Culture

1st Edition , Febuary 1996. t<EN 1-<17427528-9. AS , 28 pages. A complete guide to growing walnuts, both for the valuable timber and for nut production. Includes walnut silviculture and uses, rootstocks, siting and planting, feeding and irrigation , pruning , pollination , harvesting , cultivar selection, extensi...e cultivar notes, nut processing , pests and diseases , propagation and sources. A comprehensive guide to \"Blnut growing in Bitain and othertemperate climates . Price: 8.00
Page 2
Plums: Production, Culture and Cultivar Directory.

1st Edition. Febuary 1996. tffiN 1-874275-29-7. AS. 60 pages .
This is a comprehensive guide to growing plums, including the different plum species, also bullaces,
damsons and mirabelles.lncludes descriptions of all the different plum species, a minor plums cultivar list, the cherry plum , rootstocks; Cultivation of European plums including siting, pollination, pruning , harvesting,
pests and diseases; European cuttivar selection which indudes tables of flowering characteristics,
descriptor lists of cultil.ars for specific situations, and descriptions of over 250 cuttivars; cultivar descriptions of buUaces, darrsons and mrabelles; and sauces. A must for all plum growers.
Price: 10.00
Plant availability, spring-summer 1996

Many of our container-groWl plants \Nill contim.e to be available over the spring and summer. Please see enclosed sheet for a list of available species (including a few new ones), and refer to the main catalogue produced last auturm for descriptions, prices Oncluding postage)and an Older form.
Open days 1996

Please see enclosed details (m the reverse of the plant a'Bilabilitylist) of our tv.<:> open da}S in 1996.
Agroforestry - definitions and scope

Although Agroforestry News concentrates clearly on the practical aspects of tree and shrub crops, v..e have been reminded recently that the use of agroforestry/forest gardening must also be viewed in a wider social and ecological contet. Leakey (1) suggests that instead of viewing agroforestry as a set of prescriptions for land use, "agroforestry practices can be seen as phases in the development of a productive agroecosystem , akin to the normal dynamics of natural ecosystems. Over time, the increasing integration of trees into land use systems .. can be seen as the passage towards a mature agroforest of increasing ecological integrity." Wyant (2) in turn defines ecological integrity as "a state of system development in which the habitat structure, natural functions and species composition of the system are intel3cting in ways that ensure its sustainabilityin the face of changing enVronmental conditions, as veil as both intenal and eJotemal stresses." Leakey goes on to suggest a definition of agroforestry as: "" a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource management system that. through the integl3tion of trees in farm and rangeland, diversifies and sustains srrnllholderproduction forincreased social, econorric and en~ronmental benefits." Although the authors of these ideas work in tropical agroforestry, where alleviation of poverty and mitigation of deforestation are the main aims, the implications are general: agroforestry systems, because of their increasing complexity and the difficulty of integmting them with present-day mechanical farming , are most suited to smallholders and gardeners (and Permaculturalists). This ties in well with Frank Hemming's comment (3) that ''the forest garden" can be seen as a basic productive unit in a decentralised society 'Nhere plant-based products provide for most needs. This implies a very radical change from our present society in Britain wth implications forall aspects of life." Whilst the transformation of society into something more decentmlised, democratic, self-sufficient and sustainable is rather more than the TlJst can aim to achie\e, hopefully the ART. and Agroforestry News is helping in a srrall way by promoting the use of sustainable wody crops . (1) Roger Leakey. Definition of /groforestry revisited. Pgroforestry Today, Vol 8 No 1. (2) James Wyant: Pgroforestry-an ecological pespectiw. Agroforestry Today, Vol 8 No 1. (3) Friends of the Forest Garden, Newsletter No.8, Feb 1996. [Available by donation from Jane Powell, Priory Cottage. 3 Sandfold Road. O';old. OX4 4PU.)
Page 3
Soap Plants
Many plants contain saponins in low concentrations, in leaves, seeds and sometimes roots. One propelt of saponins is that they form a lather in water which is a gentle but effective cleanser. This article highlights the main plants Wlich can easily be utilised in this way to provide home production of soap substitutes. The adrantage of saponins over other soaps is that they are salt-free and thus are less likely to be affected by alkaline or acid conditions for example, hald water).
Saponins are also toxic glycosides (though poorly absorbed into the body, and destroyed by heat) and
have numerous medicinal uses , both traditional and modem. Many saponins are steroids and are used, fo example, as the starting materials for the production of steroidal hormones. Saponins also often have insecticidal ormolluscicidal poperties.
Several plants have been and still are exploited for the industrial production of saponins used in soaps detergents and other products. These include horse chestnuts (Aesculus spp), Ivy (Hedera helix), cowslip (Primula), soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) and sugar beet (Beta) . Saponins at a concentration of about 5% are frequently employed in soap, sharrpoo and bath salt fomulations.
Soap plants
Aescuvs species ~orse chesnut family} Small to large deciduous trees which grow on most sites. Most species of horse chestnuts, including the common tree found in Britain, have seeds rich in saponins. They lather well in cold water when rubbed bet'oNeen the hands, and can also be cut into small pieces and infused in hot water. The drawback is tha they do impart a distinctiloe odour of horse chestnuts. Dry seeds of A.hippocastaneum contain 3-6% saponins .
Species which can be used in this way include A.califomica, A.x camea, A.chinensis, A.f1ava , A.glabra, A.hippocastanum, A.indica, Aparviflora, Apavia, and Aturbinata.
Agave species
~oes}
Small and medium shrubs (or, more accurately evergreen perennials) from warm desert areas of North America. They need a very well drained soil and are only hardy to about _10C. Several species from Southern N.America have been used , usually by using the leaves in water, but also sometimes by using the roots in the sarre \Al3YS as Yuccas. Species wth saponaceous lea-es include Aamericana, Aparryi and Autahensis.
Artemesia abroanum (Southernwood) A small shrub grolNing only 1m high, which likes a sunny well-drained site. The leaves can be used as a soap source. Ceanothus species
North American shrubs , both evergreen and deciduous, 'Nhich like a well-drained soil and sunny location. Ceanothus species are good nitrogen-fixing plants. In many (pemaps all) species, the flowers can be used as a saponin source which also imparts a pleasant aroma. The fresh flowers are merely rubbed in water. Care should be taken to remove any green stalks adhering to the flowers. as these impart a weedy smell. Recommended as a skin cleanser. The fresh green seed vessels may also be used , though these often have a resi nous coating that is apt to cause a yellowsh stain; the foliage of some species can also be used.
Includes C.americanus , C.cuneatus, C.divergens, C.fendleri, C.integerrimus, C.ovatus , C .prostratus, C .purpureus , C.sanguineus. C .thysiflorus, C.velutinus.
Page 4
Chenopodium caHfornicum (Pig weed)

A weedy Califomian perennial plant INith a spindle-shaped root up to a foot long, brittle when fresh but very hard when dried. The fresh root can be readily crushed and forms a good lather when agitated with water. Drted roots can be grated or ground. The native annual Chenopodium album (Pigweed, Fat hen) can be l!.sed in the sarre way.
Chlorogalum pomeridianum(Amole, Soap lily, California soap pianO A bulbous perennial plant from Califomia, 'Nhere it groINS in sun on well-drained soils. Slender, grass-like ieaves are follo.....ed in summer by a slender, tall f1ov.er stalk. The bulb is bottle-shaped, fairly deep in the ground, and thickly covered in a layer of coarse brown fibre. The bulb, after the outer layer is peeled off, is very rich in saponins. It can be crushed and rubbed in water to give an effective cleanser, particularly valuable for delicate fabrics and for using as a hair shampoo (reputedlyanti<landruff). The peeled bulbs can also be crushed and rubbed directly onto the material to be washed. Bulbs can be dried and stored, and also gated into flakes. Clethra alnifolia A large shrub from Eastern N.America, which likes a shady site and soil on the acid side. The flower stalks are used as a soap sauce.
Cucurbita foe tidissima (Buffalo gourd, Mssouri gourd) A relative of squashes and pumpkins, this annual gourd has foliage which emits a strong garlicky odour. It requires similar conditions to other squashes. The roots and the pith from the gourds has been used as a soap source (the gourds can be cut up into pieces and simmered in water). It is a second-rate source, though, not recommended for skin or clothes; "To wear under-clothes thus washes, one must be indifferent to the prickles of the ough hailS and broken fibre that are of necessitymingled IAith the v.ater." Dianthus caryophylus (Carnation, Clove pink) A popular garden flower, a low growing evergreen perennial which likes sun and a well drained soil. The leaves are rich in saponins and ae simmered in IABter to extract them. Used for clothes and on the skin. Dioscorea spp tfams) Several species of these tropical climbing or trailing plants contain saponins in their tubers. They are utilised commercially for steroid production. Species used thus include D.deltoidea and D.elephantipes. In temperate climates, these can be treated like potatoes, lifting the tubers before frosts and replanting in spring. Euphorbia 'lOfflsoniana Roots are used. Gleditsia species t-ocusts) Trees and shrubs vmich like a sunny, well..cJrained site. The pulp from the seed pods of several species can be used as soap. Includes G.caspica, G.delayi, G.japonica, G.lTBcracantha and G.sinensis. Gymnocladus species Leguminous trees requiring sun. Fruits of two species (G.chinensis and G.dioica) are high in saponins and can be used as a soap forfabrics and the skin. OnlyG.dioica is toly hardy in temperate climates. Gypsophila species Perennials from Europe 'Which like sun and a well-drained soil, often grown as garden ornamentals. Traditionallyused as soap substitutes, the saponins Urn these plants are some of the most useful as soap sources. The saponin content is very high, over 10% in some species, is very soluble in water and lathers in dilutions of only 1;1000 in water, hence they are often added to detergents as a foaming agent. TIM) of the most effecthe are G.acutifolia and G.paniculata.
Page 5
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Hedera helx (Ivy) Vigorous climber which tolerates deep shade. The lea-es of this conmon European plant contain saponis in significant quantities. These saponins have a strong molluscicidal effect (ie kill snails and slugs). They are boiled VoJth soda to exract them and the eJillract is used as a hairrinse. Mesembryanthemum crystaJljnum (Ice Plant) A South African annual plant, now often grown in the vegetable garden for its edible leaves. The crushed foliage is used as a saponin source , but presumably cannot contain large amounts as this would affect its edibility. Panax japonicus Perennial wich likes a shadysite. The oats contain 5%saponins. Philadelphus species Sh rubs which tolerate most sites. P.lewisii from W.N.America has bark, leaves and flowers which all lather well in cold water. likes a loamy soil and sun or part shade. Several other species have leaves used in the same ways, including P.coronarius, P.delavayi, P.microphytlus , P.pubescens and P x virginalis. Phytolacca americana (poke~ed) A North American tali-growing perennial which tolerates most sites. The roots are rich in saponins, which can be e>.racted by cutting the oots into pieces and sirnnering in 'AElter. Primula species tp.veris, Cov-slip and P.elatior, Oxlip) These small perennial hems contain 5-10% saponins in theirroots ; once used as a cornnercial source. pteridium aquifnum (Bracken, Brake) Very common fern (perennial) which likes acid soils. The rhizomes are rich in saponins and lather readily in INCIter. Sapindus drunmondii (Soap ber~ A deciduous North American tree, needing sun and a sheltered site - hardy to only _1Oo e. It produces fleshy berries containing 1-2 seeds. The berries contain saponins, which lather readily when the berries are rubbed in water. The yellow berries, turning black as they dry, are a conspicuous feature in winter as they persist until sping. The related species Smu~orossi can be used sinilar1y. Saponaria species f:)oapwort, Bouncing Be~ Soaproot) One of the best known European soap plants is the soapwort, Saponaria officinalis, a perennial which grows in most soils both in sunny and shady sites. The saponins are extracted by briefly boiling (up to 30 minutes) and infusing the whole plant (including the roots) . The extract is still used for cleaning and restoring delicate fabrics, but can also be used as a hair and body wash (though it may leave you with a boiled cabbage odout)
Similar uses can be made of S.ocj1Tloides and the closely related ragged robin family (Lychnis flos~uculi and Lfulgens)and cafTl)ion famty (Silene dioica and Slatlfolia)
Shepherdia canadensis ~usset Buffalo berr)i A medium North American shrub growing 2.5m high, which likes a sunny, well-drained site. A good nitrogen fi)Qng plant. The fuits {vvtlich are edible)contain saponins, etracted by macerating in lIBter. Solenostemon aromaticus (Indian borage) A tender annual from Malaysia, needing a warm, sheltered, well<lrained site. The leaves (which are edible) are used as a soap souce.
Page 6
Trichosanl1es species
~nake
gourds)
Annual climbing/scrambling plants from Eastern Asia, needing a hot sunny site. The fresh or dried fruits of several species ae used, including T.cucurreroides and T.O\igera .
Withania sormifera
An Asian annual plant. The foits are rich in saponins.
Yucca species fioap roots)

These desert plants from southem N.Arnerica, forming small evergreen shrubs vvith slNOrd-shaped leaves, have long been used as soap sources. Many have large, thick rootstocks in which are found saponins. The roots are freed of bark and broken into convenient sizes. Then , when needed, a piece is mashed with a stone or hammer, dropped into water and rubbed vigorously. An abundant lather quickly forms and after removing the root fragments, the infusion is used to wash clothes (particularly 'WOol) and is said to be a particularfy good body and hair wash. The plants need a very well drained soil and several are hardy in Britain (the best are underlined belo~. Species of use include Y.aloifolia, Y.angustissilTB , Y.baccata, Y.brevifolia, Y.constricta, Y.elata, Y.filamentosa, Y.filifera, Y.glauca, Y.qloriosa , Y.harrimania~ Y.recurvifolia, Y.rupicola, Y.schidigera, Y.smalliana, and Y.......nipplei.
References
Agroforestry ResealCh Trust: Database of Useful Alants, 1996. Saunders, C F: Edible and Useful Wid Plants of the United Sates and Canada. Do-er, 1976. Stevenson, M C: The Zuni Indians and TheiUses of Rants. Do\r, 1993. Hostettmann , K & Marston, A:. Saponins . Carrt:lridge Uni\rsity Press, 1995.
Elaeagnus
The genus Elaeagnus consists of 30-40 deciduous and evergreen shrubs and small trees, often with prickly branches, from S.Europe, Asia and N.America. The young leaves (alternate) and branches are covered INith slivery or brolMlish scales; the fuchsia~ike flowers are usually fragrant, borne in clusters from the leaf aJlils; f"-lits contain a single seed and attlct several species of wtdlife. Elaeagnus species are fast graINing and excellent INind-resisters, tolerating maritime exposure. All can be used in hedges and INindbreaks; they are very tolerant of pruning - evergreens should be pruned in spring after they have fruited. The deciduous species like full sun but tolerate part shade, the evergreens tolerate quite deep shade; they have excellent potential as understorey crops and green manure shrubs . They are good in any soil apart from waterfogged soils, and are drought tolerant They are fast growing and the hardy species are very good in Entain . .AJI species ae resistant to honeyfungus. The flowers are small but produced in abundance, and are pollinated by insects including bees; the fruits
which follow are usually edible, containing a single large seed (also usually edible, it can be eaten with the
- fruit though the seed case is rather fibrous and may be spat out); the fOJits are very attractiw to birds. The fruit of many members of this genus is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A, C and E, flavanoids and other bioactive compounds. They are also a fairfy good source of essential fatty acids, 'Nhich is fairiy unusual for a fruit. They are being investigated as a food that is capable of reducing - the incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers. Ripe fruits can be picked byhand or
Page 7
beaten flOm the branches onto sheets below Elaeagnus form a symbiotic relationship with Frankia bacteria in root nodules, much in the same way as legumes do with Rhizobium bacteria. Species lNhich do this with Frankia bacteria are called actinorhizat, they are found primarily in the temperate zone (whereas most legumes are tropical) and are especially important in high4atitude countries like Britain where conditions are generally unfavourable for mos~ legumes. Frankia nodules form on all Elaeagnus species, and have done so on all species grown to date by the A.R.T. in Britain - artificial inoculation appears unnecessary, but if desired it can be undertaken by crushing" root nodules from an Elaeagnus already possessing them, making a slurry with water, and dipping the roots of plants in il. The strains of Frankia which infect Elaeagnus are generally also compatible with other members of the 8aeagnaceae farrily (Hippophae and Slepherdia) as v..ell as Myica species. Via this symbiosis, Elaeagnus species fix large amounts of nitrogen, with Nitrogen accumulation rates (ie amounts made available to other plants via leaf fall, root and nodule turnover) recorded of up to 240 Kg/Ha/~ar (100 Kg/acre/year, or 24g/m2 /year). For this reason, Elaeagnus are excellent companion plants; when grown in orchards at normal spacing, they can increase yields significantly. They can also be used as the major source of Nitrogen for other crops, by interplanting a proportion of the crop area. Orchard crops like apples and pears require similar-height Elaeagnus species at a proportion of about 3:1 Crops:Elaeagnus for their Nitrogen supply, while more demanding tree crops require about 2:1 Crop:Elaeagnus. In most temperate areas, including Britain, only the hardier species are recommended for hedging and interplanting: E.angustifolia, Ecommutata, Ex ebbingei, Emultiflora, Epungens, Ex reflexa and E.umbellata. In Britain, the most vigorous deciduous species appears to be E.umbel1ata, and the most vigorous evergreen E.x ebbingei. As well as being of great use in fruiting and forest gardens, Elaeagnus are widely used in forestry as ecosystem improvers (eg. as an N-fixing understorey beneath crop trees, to reclaim degraded soils and as soil-improving nurse trees). They are often planted in alternate rows with a tree species, and don't usually compete for light due to their shrubby form. Interplanting of Eangustifolia and Eumbellata with black walnut (Juglans niga) has been shoWl to significantlyincrease the height and dianeter of the y.,alnut trees. Other effects include the wlnut leales being higherin Nitrogen, A1osphorus, Calcium and Magnesium
Elaeagnus angustifolia
Oleaster, Russian olive
A deciduous large shrub or small tree from Europe and W.Asia, gro'Ning 7 m (23 tt) high and in spread, sometimes more; hardy to zone 2 (-40C); tolerates part shade, salt and air pollution. It has silvery branches, often thorny, with silvery scales when young, silvery willowlike leaves, silvery flowers in June and yellowsh-silvery fruits ripening in October. Plants prefer a continental climate and are apt to be cut back in se\ere wnters in Britain because the sumner is often not WHm enough to full yripen the v.ood. This species is often cultivated in Europe and Asia for its edible fruits; there are many named varieties and some of these are thornless. 'King Reel' is virtually thornless and has very large fruits. Very tolerant of pruning, even right back into old 'M)od. The ffov.ers are s-..veetly and heavily scented. Fruits hang on the plant through much of the winter (bird predation permitting), the pulp gradually drying out. Bushes start fruiting at 3-6 years of age. Thi s species is considE8!d v.eedy in some parts of the W)r1d. Uses; edible fruit - raw or cooked as a seasonng in soups: dry, sweet and mealy; it can also be made into jellies or sherbets. The oval fruits are about 10mm (0.4") long (slightly less in width), and contain 17 amino acids, with total sugars making 54% of the composition. In China they are made into a beverage. When dried, the loose skin peels off easily to reveal the cream-coloured soft pulp. EXpected fruit yields are 7-9 Kg (16-20 Ib) per plant. The seed is edible - raw or cooked. The seed oil, flowers and leaves are used medicinally. Plants can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, tolerating maritime exposure. An essential oil obtained from the flowers is used in perfumery. A gum from the plant is used in the textile industry in calico printing. Leaves are used as goat and sheep fodder. The oood is had. fine.grained: used for posts, beams, carving, domestic items, makes a good fuel. Bee plant. This species is now sometimes groVyfl as a biormss crop on a 3.year rotation; in
Page 8
pakistan it is \Blued as a polladed fuel and foddercrop.
Elaeagnus angustifolia orientalis (Syn E.orientalis)
Trebizond date
A large deciduous shrub from W.Asia, grolNing to 12 m (40 ft) high; hardy to zone 2 (-40C); tolerates part shade. This sub-species is only slightly thorny, but does not flower so freely in Britain as the species. The flo'Mlrs are very fragrant and are rich in nectar Occasionally cultivated for its edible fruit, there are some named varieties. The fruit used to be commonly sold in the rmrkets of Iran and Turkey but is rarely found there nowadays. Uses: edible fruit raw or cooked: slNeet and mealy, about 20 mm (0.8") long, of better quality than the type. It is eaten fresh or made into sherbet and preserves. Edible seed - raw or cooked. Plants can be gtOVYTl as a hedge in eJposed positions, toleaUng maritime exposure. Bee plant.
Elaeagnus commutata (Syn E.argentea) Silverberry, Wolfberry

A medium deciduous shrub from N.America , typically growing 3 m (10 ft) high and 1.5 m (5 ft) in spread, but sometimes almost double that; hardy to zone 2 (-40C). Branches are thornless and reddish-brown, leaves are silvery on both sides; a profusion of fragrant silvery f10'Mlrs appear in May-June, followed by round silvery fruits ripening in September. Tolerates very alkaline soils and should grow well on chalk. Plants prefer a continental climate and are liable to be cut back in severe winters in Britain mainly because the wood is not fully ripened in our cooler summers. It can regenerate from very old wood and so can be cut back severely if required . Resents root disturbance. Plants produce suckers quite freely, often sendi rg them up at sorre distance fom the plant. Rants start fruiting at a )Dung age -often after2 years. Uses: edible fruit raw or cooked : 10 mm (0.4") long, dry and mealy, good when added to soups they also make an excellent jelly. Edible seed - raw or cooked. Plants can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, tolerating maritime exposure. The fibrous bark is used in weaving and rope making. Dried fruits are used as bead s. 132!e plant.
Elaeagnus X ebbingei
A large evergreen shrub (semi-deciduous in colder areas) : a hybrid of E. macrophylla and E. pungens. Grows to 5 m (16 ft) in height and spread; hardy to zone 6 (-20C). White fragrant flowers appear in October-November, follov..ed by fruits ripening in April-May, leaves are silvery beneath. Tolerates deep shade and can be gOVYTl under trees. The cultivar 'Salcombe seedling' is said to flower more abundantly than the type. The cultivar 'limelight' produces a good crop of fruits even on small bushes . Plants produce a fair crop of edible fruit and seeds most years in Britain. Since this is a hybrid species yields may be improved by growing a selection of cultivars or one of the parent plants nearby for cross pollination . E. pungens is perhaps the best candidate for this. Rants produce ~ry aromatic f1ov.ers in late auturm and early \o\'inter. Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked: about 2cm (0.8") long and 1em (0.4") wide, pleasant tasting with a slight acidity (astringent if unripe). Edible seed - raw or cooked, with a peanut-like taste. Plants can be grown as _ a hedge in very exposed positions, tolerating maritime exposure. Very resistant to damage by salt winds and tolerant of regular trimming. Strong vigorous growth, it is faster growing than E. macrophylla and can be planted in the line of an old shelterbelt of trees that is becoming bare at the base and it will in time fill up the empty spaces and climb into the bottom parts of the trees. Bee plant. Makes a large ground cover -plant.
Page 9
Elaeagnus multiflora
iii
Elaeagnus formosana
An evergreen shrub from TailNan, unknoWl hardiness. Toteeles very alkaline soils and quite deep shade. Uses: edible fuil - raw or cooked.
Elaeagnus fragrans
A medium deciduous shub from C. and SJapan, unknoW1 hardiness. Toleates part shade.
Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked. Edible seed - raw or cooked. Plants can be grown as a hedge in
exposed positions, tcleating maritime exposure. Bee plant.
Elaeagnus glabra
A large, vigorous, evergreen shrub from China and Japan, growing 6 m (20 tt) high; hardy to zone 8 (12 C). Branches are thornless; bears white fragrant f1o~rs in October-November, followed by orange and silver fruits in spring. Very shade tolerant, it can be planted under other trees and will eventually climb up into them. Closely related to E pungens, diffemg in its unamed branches and thinnermore glossy leaves.
Q
Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked, oval and about 15mm (0.6") long. Edible seed - raw or cooked . Plants can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, tolerating maritime exposure. Bee plant. The substance Epigallocatechin fem this species is antibacteial in action and used in taditional Japanese rredicine.
Elaeagnus gonuanthes
A medium deciduous shub from China, unknoWl hardiness. Toleates part shade. Uses: edible fuit - raw or cooked. 6:tible seed -raw or cooked. Bee plant.
Elaeagnus latifolia Bastard oleaster

A deciduous shrub from India, hardy to zone 9 (-5C). Needs full sun. Not very hardy in Britain and is unlikely to succeed outdoos even in the rrilder areas of the countlY. Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked: acid and somewhat astringent, mainly used in preserves, pies etc. Edible seed -raw or cooked. Bee plant. The V()od is a good fuel.
Elaeagnus macrophylla
A medium sized, rounded, evergreen shrub from Japan and Korea, growing to 3 m (10 ft) in height and spread; hardy to zone 8 (-12C). Branches are erect, thornless and silvery; leaves are silvery both sides, becoming green over the season; o,.ery fragrant sil\ery f1ov-.ers appear in September-November, followed by reddish fruits ripening the following May. Tolerates deep shade. Succeeds in the warmer counties of Britain , though plants can succumb to 'vVind-rock in very wet seasons; they are also sometimes damaged by voles. The f1ov.ers are very aromatic. Thicketforming . Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked : 16 mm (0.6") long (somewhat less wide) , somewhat astringent unless fully ripe. A potentially very valuable ClOp, ripening as it does in IPril and May. Edible seed -raw or cooked . .Plants can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, they are very tolerant of maritime exposure. Very tolerant of regular trimming , they can also be cut back alrrost to the gound and wll resprout. Rather
Page 31
slow growng though. B3e plant. Can be used forground co\er.
Elaeagnus maritima
An evergreen shrub from Japan and Korea, unknown hardiness. Tolerates deep shade. This species is probably a h~rid, E. glabra x E. macrophytla. Uses: edible fuit - raw or cooked. Edible seed -rawor cooked.
Elaeagnus montana
A medium deciduous shub from C. and s.Japan, unknoWl hardiness. Tolerates part shade. Uses: edible fuil - raw or cooked. Edible seed -raw or cooked. Bee plant. Hedging.
Elaeagnus multiflora
Goumi, Gumi, Cherry elaeagnus
A medium sized, spreading , deciduous (sometimes semi-evergreen) shrub from China and Japan, growing 3 m (10 ft) high and 2 m (7 ft) in spread; hardy to zone 6 (-20C); tolerates part shade. Branches are scaly, leaves are silvery beneath; pale yellow f1oV\rs appear in April-May are follo'..\ed by dark reddish-brown fruits ripening in July An easily cultivated plant, Wlich tolerates atrrospheric pollution. Cultivated for its edible fruit in Japan, there are some named varieties. Plants can crop in 4 years from cuttings and bear heavily in Britain. The fruit is well hidden in the shrub and is quite difficult to harvest without damaging the plant. The ssp E. multiflora ovata produces brown fruits on long stalks which may be easier to harvest. The synonym E. longipes is sometimes accepted as a distinct species, differing mainly in having very long peduncles about 2.5cm (1") in length. Fruits should be alloV\d to hang until completely ripe until picking. Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked: 15-20 mm (0.6.Q.8") long, tangy, juicy and pleasantly acid when ripe, they are usually made into pies, preserves etc. In Japan, whole branches are cut off with their ripe fruits and sold in markets as such. Edible seed - raw or cooked. Bee plant. Medicinally, the leaves are used in the treatment of coughs; the fruit is prescribed in the treatment of watery diarrhoea; the root is astringent, a decoction is used to treat itch and foul sores. Plants can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, tolerating maritime exposure . Often used as a rootstock for evergreen species that are hard to grow from cuttings; it fequently sprouts from the base and can outeompete the scion.
Elaeagnus oldhamii
An evergreen shrub from S.China, unknoWl hardiness. Tolerates part shade. Uses: edible fuit - raw or cooked. Edible seed -raw or cooked .
Elaeagnus pungens
Thomyelaeagnus
A medium/large dense, vigorous, spreading evergreen shrub from Japan, grovving up to 4 m (13 ft) in height and spread, though often less; hardy to zone 7 (-15C). Branches are brown and thorny; silvery white fragrant f1o'v\!rs appear in October-November, followed by fruits, brown ripening red , the following May. Tolerates deep shade. The foliage can be daraged in se..ere "";nd<;hill conditions. This is a potentially valuable fruit crop, fruiting as it does in April and May; there are a number of named varieties. The floV\rs are very s'Neetly scented . Closely related to E. glabra. Succeeds Wlen planted under trees that have become bare at the base, in time it scrambles up into the tree and fill out the bottom. Several
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A GROFORES TRY NEWS Vol 4 No 3
cultivars exist, some of which are thornless or with few thorns. 'Variegata' is the most vigorous of the named culthers. Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked: 12-15 mm (0 .5-0.6") long, VJith a nice sub-ucid fla\Our 'NIlen fully ripe but astringent if eaten before it is fully ripe. Can be made into preselVes, drinks etc. Edible seed - raw or cOoked , with a taste reminiscent of peanuts. Medicinally, the leaves and the stems are concocted and used in the treatment of asthma, cough, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids etc; the seed is used to treat watery diarrhoea; the root is astringent and is applied to sores, itchy skin etc. Plants can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, toleating maritime exposure. Bee plant.
Elaeagnus pyriformis
A deciduous shub from the Himalayas (Assam), unknoW1 haroiness. Uses: edible fuit - raw or cooked. 8:lible seed -raw or cooked. Bee plant.
Elaeagnus X reflexa
A large, vigorous, evergreen shrub, a hybrid of E. pungens and E. glabra. Gro'WS to 4.5 m (15 tt) high; hardy to zone 7 (-15C); tolerates deep shade. Branches have few thorns. Fruiting as it does in April and May, this plant has e:cellent potential as a foit crop. It wll clirrb into trees if planted underthem. Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked . Edible seed - raw or cooked. Can be grown as a hedge in exposed positions, tolerating maritime exposure. It can also be planted in windy gaps under trees in shelterbetts and will in tirre fill in the gaps and clinil into the tees. Bee plants .
Elaeagnus thunbergii
An evergreen shlUb flOm S.China, unknoWl hardiness. Toleetes part shade. Uses: edible fuit - raw or cooked. 8:lible seed -raw or cooked. Bee plant.
Elaeagnus umbellata (Autumn olive, Autumn elaeagnus)

A large deciduous shrub from E.Asia, gro'Ning 4.5 (13 tt) m high and in spread; hardy to zone 3 (-35"C); tolerates part shade, very drought tolerant. Branches are often thorny, leaves are bright green, silvery beneath; yeJlowsh-vvhite, fragrant flov.-ers are produced in May-June, follov.ed by rounded sil~ry brown (ripening red) fruits in September-Qctober. Somewhat similar to E. multiflora, but flowering a few weeks later. Sometimes cultivated for its edible fruit, there are several named varieties: 'Cardinal' is a hardy plant which fruits prolifically, 'Ellagood' retains its fruits well into winter; 'Elsberry' is a large plant with large fruits about 12 mm (%") across; 'Red Wing' bears large fruits which are especially sweet; other recent selections made for quality edible fruits include 'Brilliant Rose', 'Jazbo' , 'Jewel', 'Ruby Red', 'Sparkling Blush', and 'Sweetntart' - all with large, tasty fruit. Flowers are rich in nectar and very aromatic. Plants can fruit in 6 years from seed. Includes the natural variety 'parvifolia' (Syn. E.palVifolia~ Fruits should be allowed to hang until corll>letely ripe until picking. This species is considEBd v.-eedy in some parts of the 'v'Dr1d. Uses: edible fruit - raw or cooked: 8 mm (0.3") in diameter, juicy and pleasantly acid, they are tasty raw and can also be made into jams, preselVes etc. The fruit contains about 8.3% sugars, 4.5% protein, 12mg per 100g Vitamin C. Mature bushes in the VJild yield about 650g (1 Ib 7 oz) of fruit over 2-3 pickings, whereas reported yields for a mature 'Cardinal' bush are some 16 Kg (36 Ib). The halVested fruit stores for about 15 days at room temperature. In Japan, whole branches are cut off with their ripe fruits and sold in markets as such. Edible seed - raw or cooked. Medicinally, the plant is astringent, cardiac, pectoral. Very -tolelant of maritime
Page 13
exposure, it makes a good informal hedge, succeeding even in very exposed positions. The wood is a good fuel. Makes a good bee plant, with nectar comprised 28% sugars. Nurse plant and dune stabiliser. Can be glOlNIl as a biorrass crop on a 3-year rotation.
Elaeagnus yoshinoi
A deciduous shub from C.Japan. unknoWl hardiness. Toleetes part shade.
Uses: edible fuit - raw or cooked. Edible seed -raw or cooked.
Propagation
Most E1aeagnus species can be popagated fom seed, by cuttings, and bylayering.
Propagation by seed
Flov.-ers of the deciduous species are at least partially self-fertile, and seedlings come relatively true from seed. Seeds of roost species can eitherbe SOWl in auturrn and allov.ed to O\.erwinter in cold telll'eratures, or stratified in storage. Dried seeds in good storage condiUons remain viable for 2-3 years. Note that the hybrid species wll not carre true from seed. Species E.angustifolia E.commutata E.multiflora E.pungens E.umbellata
No seeds/l<g 11 ,500 8,400
Stratification &other treatments required 8-12 v.eeks. Seeds often vait fortheirsecond season befoe genninating unless the seed shell is C3cked or nicked 9-13 v.-eeks. SJ'Ning in autum1 in sometimes recommended. 4-8 v.1<s Not dormant - sow in spring. 8-16 v..eeks
59,700
Propagation by cuttings
1. Semi-ripe cuttings: take these in July-September. They should be 7-10 cm (3-4") long terminal shoots, 'Nith or without a heel. Give hormone rooting powder/dip treatment and keep moist with a polythene covering. These W)rk v.-e11 wth most species elCept E.angustifolia (jifficuJt) 2. hardwood cuttings: take these in October-November. They should be 10-12 cm (4-5") long terminal shoots. with or 'Nithout a heel. Give hormone rooting po\o\der/dip treatment, bottom heat of 15-20C (5968F) and keep evergreen species moist with a polythene covering. Allow to grow on for 12 months before transplanting . Good formost species, especiallyevergreens like Ex ebbingei; difficult w:h E.angustifolia.
Other methods
All species rray be la}Ered in September-October. Lea\ for 12 months before transplanting . E.angustifolia, E.commutata and E.umbel1ata often produce suckers which can be dug up and transplanted . These species can also be JXlpagated by using lOot cuttings in vmter.
Page 14
Pear rootstocks
Introduction
uke other fruit varieties, pears must be grown on rootstocks to preserve cultivars bred for good fruiting habit. Seedling pear rootstocks have been used for thousands of years , and remain the most common type of stock used in the world today, these are sometimes wid seedling trees that can be taken advantage of, and sometimes seedlings raised in nurseries. Only comparatively recently have dwarfing and clonal stocks , notably quinces (Cydonia oblonga been developed, and their use has increased rapidly, especially for commercial pear production.
The main pear rootstocks

The major characteristics of pear rootstocks are summarised in Tables 1-5, with extra details about the origin and usage of stocks gien here:
Seedling rootstocks
pyrus cOlTYTlunis seedling t;ommon pear) Open-pollinated seedlings of Williams (Williams Bon Chretien , Bartlett), Beurre Hardy, Beurre D'Anjou and Winter Neils have often been used as rootstocks in Europe , though their use has declined dramatically in recent decades INith the introduction of clonal stocks. Fruits are susceptible, especiaUy in the first year of fruiting, to be covered with small spots and patches of colour. The rootstock can sometimes overgrow the scion. Other Pyrus species Many other pear species have been used as seedling rootstocks; most species have very good graft compatibility. The species descibed here fall into the fOIJOWlg geographical origins:Europe: P.caucasica, P.cordata , P.nivalis. Mediterranean: P.amygdaliforrnis , P.elaeagrifolia , P.gharbiana , P.longipes , Pmamorensis , P.syriaca. Mid Asia: P.pashia, P.regelii, P.salicifolia. East Asia: P.betulifolia, P.calleryana , P.dimorphophylla, P.fauriei, P.hondoensis, P.kawakamii, P.koehnei, P.pseudopashia, P.pyrifolia (syn. P.serotina~ P.ussuriensis.
Seedling selected rootstocks

INRA Fieudiere Origin: IVIgers, France from controlled pear crosses. Scions growlNith a dense canopy Used almst e)'Clusively in France forcidercultivars . Kirchensaller Origin: Jork, Germany. Scions grow INith an open canopy Used in Gemany. Retuziere series _ Origin: France ; Nine seedling selections obtained by pollinating Beurre Hardy, Old Home, Kirchensaller and other varieties .
. Clonal pear rootstocks

BP1 Origin: South Africa ; P.communis clone selected from seedlings of open pollinated A.F .De Wett with P.communis.
Page 15
06
Origin: A clone of Pyrus calleryana , much used in Australia and New Zealand for Asian pears, now being tried in Europe .
Old Home
Origin: Old P .communis cultivar from USA, selected for resistance to fireblight and ease of propagation bi hardlMJod cuttings.
Origin~ Oregon , USA; clones of P.communis seedlings of crosses between Old Home and Fanningdale."a
The best 13 selections are included , some of which have been named (OH x F 51 = Broklin , OH x F 333 = Brokmal). Oregon 1 (Oregon Pear Rootstock 1, OFR 1 ) Origin: Oregon, USA.. P.communis selection .
Old Home X Farmingdale series (OH x F)
Oregon 211, 249

Origin: Oregon, USA.. P.calieryana selection s.
Oregon 260, 261, 264

Origin: Oregon, USA.. P.betulifolia selections.
Clonal quince rootstocks

BA29 (paBA 29. Provence a 8A29) Origin: Ailger, France; clonal quince selection. Available "rus-free. Abate fetel, f<aiser & Williams may necessitate an intestem.
Ct.s. series Origin: Pisa , Italy; clonal selections of seedlings of crosses between Marring Quince A and quince. Ct.s. 212 is the rrost promising, nowused corrmercially. Mailing Quince A(Malling A Quince A QA) Origin: East Mailing, 81gland; clonal selection of quince (:ydonia oblonga) Produces good quality fruits; virusfree (EMLA) material is obtainable. Incompatible with Abate Fetel, Kaiser, Williams; necessary to use an intermediate stock with Beurre Hardy, Beurre Precoce Morettini, Conference. Mailing Quince C fJjatiing C, Quince C, QC) Origin: East Mailing, 8lgland ; clonal selection of quince. Virusfree (EMLA version) available. Requies a clean, fetile soil and best forvigorous culthers.
PQ Lapage C provence Q Lapage C) Origin: France; clonal quince selection .

Quince Adams (Adams Q) Origin: Belgium; clonal quince selection. Demands a clean, fertile soil, suited to vigorous cultivars. Grafted plants need accurate pruning to remain producth.e. Good for vigorous culti\6rs; incorJl)atible wth Williams.
Sydo Origin: France; clonal quince selection . Doesn't respond v..ell to dense plantings.
Other clonal quince rootstocks with similar characteristics and performance to Quince Adams include Pillnitz, Palestine , Caucasian, R"ovence Quince and Fontmay.
Other clonal rootstocks

Winter BananalM26 A very dwarfing combination of the apple rootstock M26 with an interstem of the apple cuttivar Winter
Page 16

Table 1. Pear rootstocks lised in increasing size orde r The size of rootstocks is expressed as a percentage of standard trees, plus as a heigtt when used with a scion cultivar of average vigour - note that these distances will vary by up to 30% smaller or larger, depending on the scion cultivar. The spread of the tree is usually slightly less than the height. Orchards are usually planted at distances slightly larger than the full spread expected to ensure good light penetlOtion plant at distances equal to the ru ximum height e>{)ected, but \Bry these IAith the \oigour of the scion. Rootstock W inter Banana/M26 Amelanchierspp. sdlg Oregon 211 Sorbus spp. sdlg Oregon 249 P.syriaca sdlg P.fauriei sdlg Mailing Quince C Crataegus spp. sdlg Ct.s.212 Sydo Williams (Bartlett) Cydonia oblonga sdlg Mailing Quince A Quince /!dams BA29 PQ Lapage C OHxF51,513 BP1 Ct.s.411,412,414 Retuziere BH15, K15,OH11 06 OHxF 34,69,87,230,333 P .cordata sdlg P. longipes sdlg
% std Height
5-10% 1-1Yzm (5 ft) 15% 1 Yzm (5 tt) 15% 1Yzm(5tt) 15% 1Yzm(5ft) 25 % 2Yzm (7Yz tt) 30% 3m (9 It) 40% 3Yzm (12 tt) 45% 4m(131t) 45-60% 45% 4m (13 ft) 45% 4m (13 It) 50% 4Yzm (15 tt) 50-60% 4}1m (15 It) 50% 4Yzm (15 tt) 50% 4Yzm (15 tt) 55% 5m (16 It) 55% 5m (16 It) 60% 5Yzm (18 tt) Low 5}1m (18 It) Low 5Yzm (18 ft) Low 70% 70% 70% 70% 5Yzm 6Yzm 6Yzm 6Yzm 6Yzm (18 ft) (20Yz tt) (20Yz tt) (20Yz tt) (20% tt)
Rootstock P.pyrifolia sdlg OH xF 40 OH x F 217, 267, 361 P.amygdafiformis sdlg P.caucasica sdlg Retuziere BH13, F26, K32, OH20, OH33 Ct.s.407,410 4}1m (15 It) Kirchensallir OH x F 9, 220 P .calferyana sd lg P.communis sdlg P .d imorphoph~la sdlg P.nivalis sdlg P.pashia sdlg Old Home OHxF 18,97, 112,136,340 Oregon 1 P.elaeagrifolia sdlg P.ussuriensis sdlg INRA Fieudia-e OH xF 198 Oregon 260,261,264 P.betulifolia sdlg
% std Height 70% 75% 80% 80% 80% 6Yzm (20Yz ft) 7m (22 It) 7m (23}11t) 7m (23}11t) 7m (23}11t)
High 8m (26 It) High 8m (26 It) Anjou 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 90% 8m (26 It) 100% 9m (29}1 It) 100% 9m (29Yz tt) 100% 9m (29Yz ft) 100% 9m (29}1 It) 100% 9m (29Yz tt) V.high10m (33 It) 110% 10m (33 It) 110% 10m (33 It) 130% 12m (39 It)
Worldwide rootstock usage

Europe/Middle East Clonal quinces and seedling P.communis have long been used. More recently, selections for hardier and lime-tolerant quinces, semi-dwarf P.communis, hardy P.caucasica , drought and lime-tolerant P.amygdaliformis and P.salicifolia, and Sorbus interstems for dwarfing have been made. P.amygdaliformis is used in former Yugoslavia, P.elaeagrifolia in Turkey and P.betulifolia is often used in Israel. Asia: Mostly seedling P.betulifolia(China~ P.calleryana (China), P.communis (Japan), P.koehnei, P.pashia (India). P.pynfolia (Taioon), P.ussuriensis (China). -North America: Mostly P.communis seedlings, with P.calleryana seedlings in the south and west. There is increasing used of clonal quince'Nhere cold winters and alkalinity are not problems. P.betulifolia and OH x F selections are coming into use for both Asian and Western varieties. Various clonal dwarfing stocks are being dewloped. Southern Hemisphere: AustlOlia, New Zealand & South Africa mainly use seedling P.calleryana, P.communis and donal quince stocks; also clonal 06 and seedling hGthoms.
Page 17
Rootstocks in Britain
Nearly all pears gro'Ml for sale in Britain use the Mailing stocks, Quince A or Quince C. There isn't much to choose between them , though Quince C is slightly less vigorous and produces a slightly smaller tree. Both are suitable for all tree fanns including bushes, dwarf pyramids, cordons, espaliers and fans. Both produce their first fruit crops 4-5 years after planting rraiden (1 year-old) trees. The major drawbacks of these two quince stocks are their intolerance of dry, calcareous and poor soils; their susceptibility to fireblight and honey fungus; and their limited range of size control of the pear scion
~c
Several other rootstocks have potential to be useful in Britain. To use these, you'll probably have to
grafUbud them yourselves, but this is an easy procedure. Some of the more interesting dv.rarfing stocks include: Amelanchier spp. - Aalnifolia dwarfs to about 15%, while A lamarckil & A .laevis will probably be larger, perhaps 25-30%. Graft compatibility may be a problem, and plants will need pennanent staking . Producth.4ty and o\Erall disease esistance is \Cry good. Sorbus spp. - several members of the rov.ran-whitebeam family are suitable. The whitebeam itself (S.aria) is not, because of its susceptibility to fireblight; the rowan (S.aucuparia) is more resistant, while S.decora, S.intermedia and S.latifolia are immune. Dwarfing is again around 15% or slightly more. Trees do not need staking unless exposed, but graft compatibility may be a problem. Productivity is low but overall disease resistance is good. Crataegus spp. - our native halNthoms are unfortunately not too suitable, because of their susceptibility to fireblight; but they may be useful VYhere already gro""';ng, for top-grafting pears onto. C.coccinea and C.prunifotia are immune to fireblight and are more suitable. HaVYthoms dv.rarf to a similar degree as quince stocks (45-60%), they don't need staking . and ha-e good general disease Esistance. Althoug h it is deeply unfashionable in Britain to plant pears (except perry pears) on moderate to high vigour stocks, this is still common practice in most parts of the world, and the possibility should not be dismissed. Stocks of greater vigour may have several advantages - a much longer productive life, for example, or much better anchorage. Some possibilities ae: OH x F series - the American OH x F series of rootstocks, not yet available in Britain , has a good range of size effects, from 60% to 110% depending on selection . Two of these, OH x F 51 (60% dwarfing) and OH x F 333 (70% dv.rarfing) are now being used commercially in parts of Europe. The series very good anchorage and compatibility, high productivity, moderately good disease resistance (very resistant to fireblight), and good tolerance of different soil and climatic conditions. The stocks can also be easily propagated byhardlNOod cuttings. Pyrus calleryana - this is one of the most promising Pyrus seedling rootstocks, dwarfing to about 90%. It has very few suckers, good anchorage and graft compatibility, high productivity, is very tolerant of most soils, and is extremely disease resistant. If considering a vigorous stock then this has considerable advantages mer the traditional Pyrus communis (see belo.....,. Pyrus communis - used traditionally in Britain as a vigorous seedling stock, and still used for perry pears. It has few suckers, anchorage and graft compatibility is very good, productivity is high, and it has good tolerance to diffeent soil conditions . The dawback is its susceptibilityto many diseases. Pyrus betu lifol ia, Pyrus pyrifolia and P.ussuriensis- these are the best vigorous Pyrus stocks for Asian pears, dwarfing to 50% (due a genetic incompatibility), 70% and 100% respectively. Asian pears are ' incompatible wth quince, and sorretimes short-lived on seedling P.communis stocks. Perry pears continue to be produced mainly on vigorous seedling perry rootstocks (P.communis or P.nivalis). Many of the perry cultivars are very susceptible to fireblight though, so it may be worth considering a resistant stock (eg . P.calleryana) to increase their resistance to this serious disease. Most perry cultivars are incompatible with quince stocks, but can utilise these if an interstem is used of Beurre Hardy or Old Home.
Page 18
.4% Table 2. Rootstock characeristics Rootstock S _ eed ling Amelanchier spp. Crataegus spp. Cydonia oblonga
~ .am ygda liformis
Root suckelS None Few Sey V.few None V.few Few Few V.few V.few V.few Many Few
Root anchorage V.poor Mod Poor V.good V.good Good V.good V.good Good V.good V.good Poor Good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good Good V.good V.good Mod
Uniformity Good Mod Poor V.good Mod Mod Good Mod Mod Mod Mod
Good Mod Mod Mod
Graft compatability Poor Mod Mod V.good V.good Good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good
V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good
Prop by layering
No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No Yes Oiff
Prop by cuttings No No No No
P.betulifolia P.calJeryana P.caucasica P.comm unis P.cordata

P.dimorphoph~la
s/mod s/mod
No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No
P.elaeagrifolia P.fauriei P.koehnei P.longipes P.mamorensis P.nivaliS P.pashia P.pyrifolia P.salicifolia P.syriaca P.ussuriensis Sorbus spp. Seedling selecton INRA Fieudiere KirchensalJer Retuziere series Clonal pear Anjou BP1 ,BP2,BP3 06 Old Home OH x F series Oregon 1 Oregon 211 ,249 Oregon 260,262,264 Williams (Bartlett) Clonal quince BA29 Ct.s. series Ct.s.2 12 ' Mailing Quince A Mailing Quince C PQ Lapage C Quince ,Adams Sydo Other clonal selectons Winter Banana/M26
V.few Few None V.few Sey None Few
V.poor Good Mod Good Good Good V.good Good Good V.good V.good V.good Good V.good Good
V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good Mod
V.good V.good Poor
V.few
V.good
V.good
None None V.many V.few V.few None None None

Sey
V.good Mod V.good V.good V.good Good V.good V.good
V.good Good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good V.good

Mod Mod Good Mod Mod Mod Good Mod Mod
Diff
Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
V.poor
Many Sey Sey
V.poor V.poor V.poor V.poor
Yes Yes
Few
Poor
Page 19
Notes and key to table 2

Root suckers: Many pear rootstocks produce suckerslsprouts, some very many, which must be removed regularly to sustain scion gowth. The relative measures used here are: None - V.few(very few) - Few - Sev (several) - Many- V.many (very many) Anchorage: Tree anchorage depends on strong foot growth, something which many dwarfing stocks do not po?sess. The elative measures used here are: V.poor (very poor) - Poor - Mod (moderately good) - Good - V.good (very good) Generally, trees wth V.poer or QQQ[ anchorage need staking. often fortheir Wlole life. Trees on quince roots need support for best performance. Quince roots are much branched and fibrous, but large roots are brittle and tend to break under the weight of crop and 'Nind. Other dl,wJfing stocks including haWhom and Serbus spp. can be gown v.;thout support. Uniformity: This is a measure of the genetic unifonnity of the rootstock, and hence the unifonnity of its effects the scion cultioar. The relative measures used here are: V.poor (very poor - not unifom) - Poor - Mod (moderately good) - Good - V.good (very good) Clonal rootstock selections are invariably very unifonn by definition; seedling selected rootstocks also have a high degree of uniformity (since this is one of the criteria by which they were selected). Seedling stocks show natural variability, but this varies in range from species to species, ego P.betulifolia has very good uniformity whereas P.syriaca has -.ery poor uniformity. Graft compatibility: Most scions graft \Nell to pear rootstocks, but with others (notably Amelanchier spp., Quince stocks and Sorbus spp.) incompatibility often arises and grafts fail unless an interstem (interstock) is used. \1rus content can affect conpatibHityof the scion. The elative measures used here are: V.good (very good) - Good - Mod (moderately good) - Poor - V.poor (very poor) Quince and incompatible pear scions must be double-worked with a compatible interstem (ie a short stem of another variety which is grafted betv.een the stockand the scion). Beurre Hardy has been used for many years as an interstem variety, though Old Home is often used in preference now as it induces higher yields . Pear cultivars incompatible INith quince include Beurre Giffard, Bosc, Bristol Cross , Clapp Favorite, Coscia, Dr J.Guyot, Doyenne d'Ete, Eldorado, Fanningdale, Forelle, Laxton's Superb, Seckel, Starkrimson, Williams (Bartlett), Winter Nelis and ffiian pealS). Some pears are incompatible INith ha'hthom, INhere Old Home can again be used as an interstem; however, Old Home is incompatible with Sorbus spp. There is good graft compatibility between pear species, but thee is natural variation in corrpatibilityin all seedling populations. Prop byla}Ering : Indicates if the stock can be lDPagated by layering ormarcottage. Terns used are: Yes \
=can be la}8red, Diff =can be l a~red but difficult, No =cannot be la~red.
Most clonal quince stocks can be IDpagated by layering. Prob by cuttings: Indicates if the stock can be propagated by hardVvQOd cuttings in winter. Tenns used are: Yes, Diff = difficult, No = cannot be propagated by hardwood cuttings; s/wood = can be propagated by softv..ood cuttings in sumner.
Page 20
Table 3. Roostock effect on fruiting cultivar Rootstock

Producti~ty
Start of fruiting V.fast Fast Fast Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Slow
Tree size
15% 45-60% 50-60% 80% 130% 90% 80% 90% 70% 90% 100% 40% 70% 90% 90% 70% 30% 100% 15%
Carl< spot
Fruit quality Good Good V.good
Fruit size Lge Med Med<ge Lge V.lge Lge Med Med Med Lge Lge Lge Med Med Lge Lge Med Lge Sm-med
Seedling Amelanchierspp. Crataegus spp. Cydonia oblonga P.amygdalifonnis P.betulifolia P.caileryana P.caucasica P.communis P.cordata
P.dimorphoph~la
P.elaeagrifolia PJauriei P.longipes P.nivalis P.pashia P.pyrifolia P.syriaca P.ussuriensis Sorbus spp.
V.high High V.high Mod Mod-high High High High Mod High High Low-mod Mod Mod Mod High Low-mod High Low
S MS MS
Good Good Good Good Fair
MS
Fair Fair Fair Good
Seedling selecton INRA Fieudifre Mod High Kirchensallfr Retu~ere BH13. F26. 1<32. OH20. OH33 . Retu~ere BH15. K15. OH11 High Clonal pear Anjou BP1 06 Old Home OH x F series OH xF 9 OHxF18 OH xF 34 OH xF 40 OH x F 51 OHxF69 OH xF 87 OH xF 97 OHxF112 OH xF 136 OHxF198 OHxF217 OHxF220 OH x F 230 OH xF 267 OH xF 333 OH xF 340 OH xF 361 Oregon 1 Oregon 211 Oregon 249 V.high High High Low V.high High High High V.high V.high High High High V.high V.high High V.high High V.high High High Mod Fast Mod V.slow Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod Mod
V.high 90% High Low

90% Low 70% 100% 60-100% 90% 100% 70%. 75% 60% 70% 70% 100% 100% 100% 110% 80% 90% 70 80% 70% 100% 80% 100% 15% 25%
Med
Good VS S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S V.good Fair Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good
Med Lge Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med Med V.lge Lge Lge
Page 21
~~
Rootstock
Producti"';ly
Start of
fruiting
Mod Mod Slow
Tree size
Corl< spot
Fruit quality Good Good V.good Good
Fruit
size
Med V.lge Lge
Clonal pear t;ont)

Williams (Bartletl) Oregon 260,261,264 High High V.high High V.high High V.high V.high V.high V.high High Low-mod
50%
110%
Clonal quince
BA29
55%
45% High Low Low 50% 45% 55%
Ct.s. senes
Ct.s.212 Ct.s.407,410 Ct.s.411 Ct.s.412,414 Mailing Quince A Mailing Quince C PO Lapage C Quince Pdams Sydo
Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast
Mod
V.good V.good V.good Good Good
Med Med Lge
50%. 45%
5-10%
Other clonal selectons

Winter Banana/M26 Lge

Productivity Strictly speaking, the measure used here is yield efficiency, that is yield of fruit per unit area . The scion cultivar obviously affects this measure. Very vigorous rootstocks will yield more per unit area when a weak vigour scion is used with them . To apply these measures to areas of several trees assumes they are planted at maximum density for the stock involved, ie vigorous stocks at large spacing, dwarfing stocks at close spacing etc. Relatie measures used here are: V.high (very high)1 High I Modlligh I Mod !noderate)I Low-mod I Lowl V.low(very low) Start of fruiting: A measure of the precocity of the scion cultivar (ie how long before it starts fruiting) with respect to diffeent rootstocks. Relati>e measures used here are: V.fast (very fast, 2-3 yrs) - Fast (3-5 yrs) - Mod (moderately fast, 6-7 yrs) - Slow (8-9 yrs~ V.slow (1 0+ )fs) Dwarting stocks geneelly induce plecociousnes~ and Vgorous stocks delay the start of flUiting. Tree size: Indicates relative size of fully grown tree on the relevant rootstock, compared with a standard pear (100%) for the same scion cultivar. Percentage of standard is given for most stocks; 'Low' is around 60%. 'High' alOund gO%. Cork spot This is a disfigurement of the fruit, similar to bitter pit; often caused by a calcium deficiency or poor calcium uptake by the rootstock. A few stocks make the scion cultivar susceptible. Relative measures used are: VS = very susceptible, S = Susceptible, MS = Moderately susceptible. If blank then not susceptible. Fruit quali1y Indicates the overall quality of the fruits produced on that rootstock. Relative measures used here are: V.good (very good) - Good - Fair Fruit quality is generally good on quince stocks. Fruit firmness at harvest is greater when grown on P.betulifolia, P.catieryana, P.pyrifolia and P.ussuriensis than when grown on quince or P.communis. Rootstocks affect acid content (particular1y malic and citric acids) more than sugar levels. P.betulifolia and P.pyrifolia induce lower acids, whilst Quince, P.catieryana and P.ussuriensis result in similar acid levels to P.communis. A fruit disorder affecting fruit quality and sometimes caused by rootstock is black-end (hardend), caused by P.pyrifolia and P.ussuriensis. Fruit size: Indicates relative fruit size compared with seedling Pyrus communis (counted as Medium). The relative terms used hele are: V.lge (very large) I Lge Qarge) I Med~ge (medium to lalge) I Med (medium) I Sm-med (small to medium)
Page 22
Table 4. Rootstock tolerance of soil and clirmtic conditions Rootstock Seedling Amelanchierspp. Crataegus spp. Cydonia oblonga P .amygdaliforrnis P .betulifolia P .calleryana P.caucasica P.communis P.cordata
P.dimorphoph~la
Cold
Winter Summ Dry hot soil
Wet
soil
Calc soil
Acid soil
Clay
soil
Sandy Poor soil soils
T T
I I
T T MT
VT
MT MT
I
MT MT
I VT I I
MT MT T
I
T
VT
MT T T MT
VT VT
MT MT T T
VT
MT
I
T
VT I
VT
T T
I
T T
I I
T T MT T
I
T T T
I
T MT T
I
T T T MT
I
T T
VI
T T T T MT T MT MT T T T T MT MT MT MT MT T
P .elaeagrifolia PJau riei P .gha rbiana P.hondoensis P.kawakamii P.koehnei P.longipes P.mamorensis P.nivalis P.pashia P.pseudopashia
MT T T
I
T
I
T MT
VI
T MT T MT MT
VT
I
T MT T M T M T MT T MT
T,
VT
MT
VI VI
T MT T
VI I
VT VT
MT MT
T
I
MT MT
I
T
VI
P.pyrifolia
P.regelii P.salicifoHa P.syriaca P.ussuriensis Sorbus spp.
T M T MT MT
I
VT I I
VT
M T
I
MT
I I
VT
T T MT
MT MT T
I
M T MT T MT T MT MT MT MT T T
VT
MT MT MT
MT T T
Seedling pear selecton Kirchensaller T Retuziere series Clonal pear Anjou
MT
T
I VT
T
VT
BP1
06
Old Home
OH x F series
OH xF 51 OH xF 333
Oregon 1
T MT T T
I
T MT MT MT T
VT
Oregon 211 ,249 Oregon 260,261,264 Williams (Bartlett)

Clonal quince BA29
T T T T MT MT MT T T
VT
MT T
I
MT T MT M T M T MT MT T T MT T MT MT
T T T T T T T
VT VT I VT
T MT T T T T T
VT
MT M T T T MT
I I
T T
M T T
T T
MT M T T
MT
VT
MT
I
T T MT T MT MT
Page 23
Ct.s. 211 Ct.s.212

Mailing Quince A Maili ng Quince C
T T T
VI VI
T
VT VT
VI VI
I I
-1F"'
Table 4. (Cont) Rootstock PO Lapage C Quince Mams Sydo Other ~Ional selectons Winter Banana/M26 T , Winter Summ Dry hot soil Cold I VI Wet soil VT Calc soil VI VI I T Acid soil T MT Clay soil VT
Sandy Poor soil soils MT
VI
MT
VI

The relative measures used forall soil/clirmtic conditions ae: VI = Very intolelant I = Intolerant MT = moderately tolerant T = Tolelant VT = Very tolerant
Winter cold: indicates rootstock tolerance to cold wnter climates. Quince stocks are not very cold-hardy, whilst many pear stocks are. Approximate hardiness ~e killing terrperatures} are: VI =hardy to -20C. I -40C.
=hardy to -24C, MT =hady to _27C, T =hardy to -30C, VT =hardy to
Summer heat indicates rootstock tolerance to hot summers+warm winters (Mediterranean conditions). Quince are generally not well-suited to these conditions; pear rootstock tolerance varies widely, with Mediterranean species doing best as \Quid be elPected. Ory soil: indicates toleence to dIY. shallowsoils . Wet soil: indicates toleence to VIet soils lhigh v..ater tables} Calc soil: indicates toleance to high soil pH {e calcium-rich/alkaline soils} Acid soil: indicates toleance to acid soils vtth a pH of 4. Clay soil: indicates toleence of clay'heavy soils . Sandy soil: indicates toleence of sandy soils . Poor soils: indicates tolerance of poor infertile soils. Quince and other dwarfing stocks often require a fertile soil to crop well , lNhereas some of the deep-rooting pear stocks can still grow and crop well in poor soils .
Pa~e
24
Table 5. Ro05tock resistancefsusceptbility to pests & diseases Rootstock Seedling Amelanchierspp. Crataegus spp. Cydonia oblonga P.amygdaliforrnis P.betulifolia p .callel)'ana P.caucasica P.communis p.cordata
p.dimorphoph~la
Aphid VR VR VR MS R VR MS S VS VS R S
Woolly Cro......." Fire blight gall
Nema- Collar todes rot
Leaf spot
Pear Honey decline Canker Mildew fung o
R R VR R R S S MS MS
P.elaeagrifolia P.fauriei P.kawakamii P.koehnei P.longipes P .mamorensis P.nivalis P.pashia P.pseudopashia P.pyrifolia P.regelii P .salieifolia P.syriaca P .ussuriensis Sorbus spp. Seedling selecton INRA Fieudiere Kirchensaller Clonal pear Anjou
S R MS S R R VR S S S S S VR S VR VR R VR VS
R R R-VS R VS R S S VR R VR VR S VS VS VS VS MS MS MS S S R MS R R VS VS S S S MS S S S VR R-VS R VS MS VR VR VR S VR VS VS VS VS VS VS S S
R R R R R MS MS S R R R
R R VS R R R MS MS MS R R
MS VR VR R VR R MS R R R R MS MS MS MS R R VS MS VS VR R VR MS VR VR VR R VR VR R VR VR VR VR R
R R MS R R MS MS MS MS R MS MS MS R MS
R
VR R VR VR R R MS MS
R
MS R R VR R
VR R R
MS VS
VS S R S R MS MS MS MS MS R MS VS VS VS VS VS
R MS MS R R R MS R R R MS R R VR R VR VS
R VS
MS R
R S S S S S R S R R VR VR VR VR R R
R MS S S R MS R MS R MS S R R MS MS MS MS MS MS MS
VS
VS VS VS VS VS VR VS R R R R
MS MS R MS MS MS R MS R R R
R R R R R R R MS MS MS
BP1 06 Old Home

OH x F selies Oregon 1
Oregon 260,261,264 Williams (Bartlett)

Clonal quince
BA29 Ct.s.212
MaJilng Quince A Mailing Quince C
PO Lapage C
Quince Adams
Sydo
Other clonal selectons Winter BananafM26
VR
Page 25

For each pest/disease, the follo\ing relative measures of resistance/ susceptibilityare used: VS
= Very susceptible, S = Susceptible,
MS = Moderately susceptible , R = Resistant.
= Very resistant.
All of the pests/disea ses in this table exist in Europe and North America. Rootstock resistance to diseases can be transmitted to some degree to the scion , hence rootstock resistance to fireblight, fungal leaf spot, cankf r and mild ew may be of consideable interest Wlere these diseases ae prevalent. Woolly aphid: the molly pear aphid (Eriosoma pyricofa) , also called the pear root aphid , is distinct from the 'v\Oolly apple aphid . and can darmge pear roots . Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) a soil-borne bacterium, entering plants via wounds, and causing rounded , irregular galls v.hich are eventuallY1M)ody and fissuled. Most seious in nUlSeries.
Fireblight(Erwinia amylovora}: the most serious North American pear disease, also in Europe since 1957. It affects many of the Rosaceae family, including ornamental trees and shrubs. Infection is usually via the flowers, and the bacterium spreads down the shoots, which wilt and die, the affected leaves tuming black. Several pears, quince, Crataegus monogyna and Sorbus aria are very susceptible, although other Crataegus/Sorbus spp. are resistant or immune (eg . C.coccinea , C.prunifolia , S.aucuparia , S.decora , S.interrnedia, S. l atifolia~
Nematodes: Root lesion nermtode (Praty/enchus vulnus)can cause lesions and damtge to roots. Collar rot (Phytophlhora cactorum ): sometimes involved in root diseases, and able to cause a collar rot in some species . It emains a mnor disease of ITDst pear rootstocks. Fungal leaf spot (Fabraea maculata or Dip/ocarpon mespil~ causes reddish or brown spots on leaves; with severe infections, fruits may become cracked , small lesions may appear on young shoots and premature defoliation may occur. Pear nurseries sometimes suffer badly but orchard infections are usually minor. Pear decline: this is an induced SCion/rootstock incompatibility caused by a mycoplasma transmitted to trees by pear psylla insects ~acops~la spp .} The pathogen nigrates through the phloemdolMlward to the union ; if the rootstock is susceptible, the phloem just below the union is killed, effectively girdling the trunk. In time, the roots starve and the top then declines or wilts and dies. All seedling stocks are somewhat variable in theirtolel3nce, e>eept those of P.b.etulifolia Wlich are all resistant. Canker: Bacterial canker (Pseudomonassyringae pv. syringae) is a bacterium W"iich can cause a blosSlm blight and occasionallycankers. Mildew. Pow::lery mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha) is a fungus which distorts leaves, especially on young shoots , covering them with a white powdery growth. Pears are rather less susceptible than apples, with most stocks shoving resistance . Honey fungus (Armillaria mel/ea): Also called oak root rot, bootlace fungi and shoestring fungi, this is a common pathogenic fungi found in 1M)odlands and orchards, spreading via its bootlace~ike rhizomorphs. Infection through the roots often leads to eventual death, hence rootstock resistance may be an important factor if the disease is widespread in the locality. Most quince stocks are moderately susceptible, while several pearseedling and clonal stocks showesistance.
Other diseases:
Viruses: Several viruses commonly affect pears . Rootstocks with noted resistance to common viruses include INRA Fieudiere , Ct.s. 212, Mailing Quince A & C, PQ Lapage C and Sydo; BA29 and the Retuziere series are notedly susceptible. Pear scab (Venturia pinna) is a fungal disease causing very similar symptoms to apple scab - spots and blisters on leaves and fruits, sometimes premature defoliation and deformed , split fruits. P.ussuriensis is resistant.
Page 26
--
~~
--=-
---
---~-
-~-
----
---::;-
--
Propagation
Seedling stocks : Pear seeds require 1-4 months of stratification , depending, on species: P .calleryana & PJauriei need 1 month, P.betulifolia needs 2 months, P.communis, P.elaeagrifolia, P.ussuriensis needs 3 months, P .pyrifolia needs 4 months. Amelanchier spp. require 3-6 months and Sorbus spp. 3 months stratification. Clonal stocks: These are propagated by trench or mound layering (quince stocks} or by hard'M:)()d cuttings (some quince and pear stocks). For difficult to root selections , root cuttings, root suckers or leafy cuttings lTBy be taken . Trench
la~ring
is canied out OI.er winter and spring; mound
la~ring
over the grow;ng season.
Hard'M)od cuttings are taken in autumn and treated with IBA hormone rooting medium ; bottom heat in the propagation bed irrproves rooting. Root cuttings are taken in late winter and can be cleft grafted immediately with a scion cultivar, prior to IBA treatment to encourage rooting. Semi-nardwood cuttings under mist is more successful than hardwood cuttings for many pear species, especially the Asian and Mediteranean species.
Future prospects
Research is under way in many parts of the INOrld to develop new pear rootstocks , particularly dwarfing stocks which lack the compatibility problems associated with quince. Tolerance to alkaline soils is being bred from P.amygdaliformis and P.elaeagrifotia; whilst winter hardiness, hot-climate tolerance, good compatibility, tolerance of wet and alkaline soils, and resistance to many pests and diseases comes from P.betulifolia , P.calleryana and P.communis.
Suppliers
Europe Deacon's NUlSery, Godshill, Isle of Wght, P038 3HW, UK Tel : 01983<340750. Quince A& C. Frank P.matthev..s Ltd, Berrington Court, Tenbury Wells, Wores, WR15 8TH , UK. Tel: 01584-810214 . Quince A & C, P.communis -wholesale . Plandorex, Domaine de Comay, 45590 Saint-Gyr-en-Val, Orleabs, FRANCE. Tel: 38 76 23 79. BA29, Sydo. Scotts NUiseries (Merriott) Ltd, Merriott, Somerset, TA16 5PL, UK Tel: 01460-72306. Quince A& C, pear USA: TRECO supplies byfar the wdest range, including the OH xF series and quince stocks. BearCreek Nursery, PO Box411H, Northport, WA 99157 . Grootendorst Nurseries, 15310 Red !trow H'Nf., Lakeside , MI 49116. Tel : 61~692865. NRSP5/tR-2 Virus-test Fruit Tree Collection, IfREe, WSU , Rt. 2, 8)x 2953A, Prosser, WA 99350. Rocky MeadowOrchard & Nursery, 360 RockyMeadowNW, New Salisbury, IN 47161. Tel: 812347-2213. TRECO, Oregon Rootstock and Tree Co., 10906 Monitor-McKee Rd . NE, Woodburn , OR 97071. Wholesale.
References
Luckwll , L C & Pollard, A:. Peny Pears. University of Bristol, 1963. Moore, J N & Ballington Jr, J R: Genetic Resouces of Terrperate Fruit and Nut Cops , Vol 2. IsrtS, 1990. Ogawa , J M & English, H: Diseases of Temperate Zone Tree Fruit and Nut Crops. Univ. of Califomia, 1991. Phittips, 0 H &Burdekin, D A Diseases of Foest and Ornamental Trees. Macrrillan, 1992. Rom, R C & Canson , R F: Rootstocks forFruit Crops. Wiley, 1987. Speciale portinnesti: Pero. Rivista di FlUtticoltUla No 9, 1994. Westv.ood, M N: Terrperate-Zone Pomology. Timber Press , 1993.
Page 27
Diospyros virginiana:
The American Persimmon
Introduction
One of the few hardy members of the ebony family, the Am erican persimmon is a tree well knoWl in North America , and which deserves to be better known in Europe. Not only does it produce large crops of edible fruits with very little attention , but it also has valuable timber and bears flowers which produce good bee forage.
The persimmon is native to the Eastern United States from Florida to Connecticut, and its culture has been extended to southern Canada and westwards to Oregon in the northwest. It is so prolific in parts of America
that it is 50rretimes considered a \heed on account of its suckeing habit.

persimmon, Butter 'NOod . Possum\Ood , Possum apple and \Arginian date palm
Other common names for this stately North American tree include Common persimmon, Eastern
Description
The persimmon is a spreading deciduous tree, occasionallygro'vVing to 30m (100 ft) high but more usually to 12-20 m (40-65 ft). It has a rounded crown and outspread or pendulous branches . The bark on olde trees is very distinctive, fissured in a fouF-squam pattem into rectangular blocks of sootygrey.
Branches end in markedly zig-zag t'Nigs , because shoots lack well-defined terminal buds. The side buds are small , pressed close to twgs , pointed , coneshaped , ~lIowsh green .
The altemate leaves are oval-elliptic, 6-12 cm (2Yl-5") long, pointed at the apex, glossy deep gmen above and tighter beneath , on a short downy stalk. In the autumn they tum to spectacular colours of yellow to crimson before falling at the fist frosts.
Tiny "lNhite male flo..-..ers (1 em , Yl" long) are borne in clustelS of 1-3, usually in the leaf axis or on very shor dOIM1Y stalks . Female f1ov..ers are larger, solitary, greenish-yellow. Flov..ers are borne on one-year-old wood near the branch tips. Both sexes are bell-shaped, 'vVith 4 petals. Flowering occurs in early summer (June July in Northern areas & UK) and most trees are dioecious (ie bear male or female flowers only). The sex of dioecious trees can only be determined by examining the flowers. Some trees bear both sexes o f10INE!rs , and on male trees, occasional bise)QJaf flov.ers occur. Pollination is via insects, including bees insects may cross pollinate tees up to 50-100 m (150-300 tt) apart.
Fruits are typically 2.5-3 em (1"+) wide, though often larger (to 5 em , 2") on named cultivars. They are green before ripening, becoming yellow or orange as they ripen; they are round , and become sweet and edible (often after the first frosts), though before they ripen they can be very astringent Oust like kak persimmons/ Sharon fruit). Like other persimmons, they bear a persistent 4-tobed calyx. When fully ripe the pulpy fruit has a delicious flavour. Fruits often persist on the tree well into winter, then making the tree very ornamental. Fruits contain up to 6 or more large brown seeds, though several cultivars set seedless fruits Fruits ripen betv.een September and November, depending on the culti-er.
Diospyros virginiana naturally develops very strong , deep tap roots and few lateral and fibrous roots . Wild trees often suckervigorously. The tree is hardy to zone 4 (-2S0C).
There exist t'M) races of the Persimmon, a 90-chromosome 'Northern' race (earlier ripening , more cold hardy, pubescent leaves and shoots , larger fruit) and a 60-chromosome 'Southern' race (smooth leaves & t'Nigs, smaller fruit), "lNhich do not cross pollinate. Most cultivars have been selected from the 'Northern race.
Page 28
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No:
Cultivation
The persimmon is easy to grow, and is the hardiest member of the persimmon family. though young trees are slightly for their first few years. Growth of young trees is fast, about 4.5 m (15 tt) in 10 years; growth
slow.;; once fruiting COmTlences.

It prefers a deep , loamy, fertile, well.<frained soil, but tolerates almost any soil which is not waterlogged, It
needs a sheltered site (disliking exposure), and full sun (it tolerates part shade but does not fruit well there). A soil pH range of 5.8 to B.O is peferred. Wlen planting . aJlowfar a tree spread of 6-9m (20-30 ftl. The tree is drought resistant.
For fruit production, plants of both sexes are usually needed, though a few cultivars will set seedless fruits without pollination. Areasonablywann summer is required for fruits to ripen. Because of its tap-rooted nature, persimmons are often difficult to transplant. Container-gro\oVll or rootpruned plants are much more likely to transplant successfully. The roots are naturally black, so don't worry that they are dead. Because of their deep-rooting nature, persimmons are well-suited to interplanting with other, more shallow-rooted, species. Persimmons are relatively free of pests and need little maintenance, yet with proper pollination they are reliable croppers; they are thus one of the best low maintenance fruit trees for the home garden. The harvest is e)(f.ended, wth fruits often pesisting on the tee into wnter. For Northern areas, .....nere summers are short, early-ripening cultilars should be chosen. Like many other fruit trees , a natural thinning (fruit drop) occurs in summer. After this , hand thinning can be undertaken (where branches can be reached!) to increase fruit size and reduce overbearing if it seems likely. Overbearing can lead to the tee becorring biennial in copping. American persimmons have not been highly bred, and good fruiting trees are usually obtained from seedlings of cultivars. Seedling female trees start to bear fruit at about 6 years of age, cultivars somewhat ear1ierthan that: pecocious selections 12 years after grafting. FlUiting continues for50 years or more. Pruning can be undertaken in winter when trees are donnant. The wood is brittle, so it is wise to build a sturdy framework of branches while the tree is young. Train trees to an open centre or modified central leader form. If the aim is to pick fruit by hand, then trees can be kept low-headed and planted rather closer (5-6m , 16-20 ft apart). Once bearing has commenced, some pruning may be needed to stimulate new growth on which fruit will be borne in the following season. The tree naturally drops some of the branches which have borne fruits, so is naturally self-pruning to a degree. Suckers arising from rootstocks should be removed. In warm areas, trees are susceptible to sunscald in winter, and here the SW side of trunks should be protected wth a tree guard of .....nite latex paint. Pests and diseases rarely pose a problem. In North America, black spot of the leaves (a fungal disease) is sometimes a problem; several cultivars are notedly resistant. Persimmon wilt can also be a problem in areas >Mth long hot seasons. American persimmons often drop from the tree when ripe , though many selections hold their ripe fruits well into the 'Ninter. A net or soft rrulch beneath tees may help cushion theirlanding. Aten-year-old tree should 0 eld 20-45 Kg (50-100 Ib) of fruit per year.
Fruit uses
The fruits are edible and delicious when ripe, often after a frost; before then they are astringent. The astringency is caused bya compound, leucodelphinidin, Wiich bonds to poteins in the nnuth. Ripe fruit is pulpy and very soft, usually too soft b be transported commercially (the main reason why it has hardly become a commercial crop). Ripe fruits have a soft, smooth , jelly-like texture, a honey-like slNeetness, and a richness "akin to apricot 'Nith a dash of spice". Persimmon fruit are softer and drier than kaki/oriental
AGROFORES TRY NEWS Vol 4 No 3
Page 29
=
persimmons, but have a richer flavour. When ripe, the skin is almost translucent and the calyx (the green cap to Wlich the stem is aUached)separates readily from the fruit. Ripe fruits contain on average 35% total solids, 0.88% prolein, 20% sugars and 1.4% fibre. They are also high in Vltamin C. Frosts are not essential to ripen the fruits , with early-ripening selections often ripening their fruits during the autumn before any frosts. Ripening continues aftedight frosts but ceases at tenperatures of 4 "C (25"F). Fruits can be ripened artificially. but the fruit must already be nearing ripeness on the tree - hence the importance of choosing appopriate culti\8rs.
Near-ripe persimmons will ripen in time just with storage in a wann place in the kitchen; to accelerate
ripening, put the fruits into a plastic bag with a ripe apple for about a week, or sprinkle fruits with a spirit (eg whisky) and seal them in a plastic bag for1-2 'Neeks. Fresh fruits can be stoed for about 2 m:mths at a terrperature just abo\e freezing. Drying removes persimmon astringency naturally and preserves the fruit for winter use. American Indians extracted the pulp by rubbing the fruit through a sieve, then formed the pulp into sticks which were dried in the sun or in an oven . Alternatively, fruits can be squashed and dried whole (but watch out for seeds). Fruits of some late-i"ipening cultivars can be left hanging on the tree into VoIinter, VoIhen they tum sweet, dark and dry, resembling dates. Freezing near-ripe fruits also removes astringency; frozen fruits are delicious in themselves, slightly softened like ice cream - the pulp can be pre-mixed with cream if desired. To freeze pulp, simply rub through a colander into bags and put straight into the freezer. Some cultivars are noted for retaining their flavour after freezing , including 'John Rick', 'Lena' and 'Mais Burton'. Persimmons can also be cooked into pancakes , pies, cakes and biscuits; and made into jams, preserves and molasses. American Indians used them in gruel, cornbread and puddings. Spiced fruit bread remains a popular use in North America. Recommended cultivars for cooking include 'Beavers', 'John Rick' and 'Manis Burton'. Any astringency still present in the fruits is accentuated by cooking , but can be removed by the addition of}S teaspoon of baking soda for each cup of pulp. Cast iron utensils shouldn't be used, or the pulp '1.411 tum black . Persimmon bread is made by simply adding persimmon pulp to the f1our'yeast mix. Like other fruits, persimmons can be fermented . American Indians made an alcoholic beverage from persimmons and honey locust pods ; in the American South , persimmons have been mixed with cornmeal (maize) and brewed into '''simmon beer" . No doubt vinegar could also be made as it is with oriental persimmons .
Other uses
The tree makes a fine ornamental specimen , although it is usually recommended that the tree doesn't overhang pavements as the fruit. when it drops, can make a slippery mess! The flowers in early summer are deliciously fragrant, the leaves turn to beautiful colours in autumn, and fruits which hang on the tree give interest in wnter. The fruits have good potential as a self-feeding fodder crop for livestock. All livestock, particularly pigs and poultry, but also cattle and horses, relish the ripe fruits as they fall from trees. Different selections drop their fruit betvveen September and February, making a succession possible. Unripe fruits are high in tanninsand toxic, especially to horses. The fruits are attractive to wildlife, particu larly opossums, deer, songbirds, and faxes; also rabbits and squirrels. The seeds may be roasted and ground , to use as a coffee substitute; reports do not rate this beverage too highly. Ar1 edible oil can also be obtained bm the seeds , said to taste like peanut oil. The leaves can be used to make a herbal tea , they contain Vitamin C. The tea , antiscorbutic in action , isn't particularly flawurful but the lea\es can be rrixed V>.1th other heros etc to rrake a mxed tea .
Page 30
Diospyros virginiana
&
-#
The bark has been used as a fish poison; it also has a long list of traditional medicinal uses by Nort American Indians: it is highfyastringent.
The tree consists almost entirely of straw-coloured sapwood, the heartwood being a small central core o dark brolMl or black. The commercial timber is the sapwood , which is straight, fine and even grained heavy, exceptionally hard, tough , elastic, stable and resistant to shock and wear. It is valued for turnery utensils, carving, shoe lasts, plane stocks, golf club heads (still the major source), textile shuttles (for which it is .still imported into India) etc. It is suitable for any purpose which requires a heavy, close, compact wood 'Nittf outstanding ability to wear very smoothly. Selected logs 'Nith wavy grain are sliced for veneers fo cabinet v.ork. The pelSimmon is a good bee plant --it is valued for honey production in Noth America.
The American persimmon has been used as a rootstock for the oriental persimmon (Diospyros kakl) , bu this is no longerrecommended as it leads to poorgrowth and decline of the scion.
Cultivars
Several cultivars have been selected and bred in North America, and are still in demand as 'home orchard trees; an orchard industry based on it has ne'er developed.
Several cultivars are noted as sometimes producing male as well as female flowers . These will pollinate but are not usually reliable enough for pollination every year. Self-fertite cultivars include Early Golden Meader, Rubyand Szukis; but el.en these often poduce better crops wth cross pollination.
Cultivars from the tINa races (Northern and Southern) do not cross pollinate. Most cultivars belong to the Northern (90 chromosome) race. Those noted as from the Southern race include Ennis seedless, Knowles and Penland. all of vfiich set seedless fuits wthout pollination ; Caggs is also pobably Southem.
Similarly. rootstocks must be of the same race as the scion variety. Compatibility is rarely a problem as most cultivars are of Northern race. Vigorous seedlings of Ruby are sometimes recommended for use as rootstocks.
Cultivars with notedly omamental autumn leaves include Gehron (reddish\ Morris Burton (bright yellow and Wabash (bright red).
Several of the better cultivars are grolMl commercially in Indiana for fruit pulp canning, including Early Golden. John Rick and Rpher. Fruits noted fordrying quickly on the tlee into
a, date~ike
fruit include Dooleyand Sweet lent
Best recommendations forNorthem areas and short-summer areas (like the UK) include {with those setting fruit 'Nithout pollination underlined]: Early Golden and John Rick (which ripen their wood early as well as ripening quickly); also Garretson, Meader, Miller, Runkwitz and Szukis. All of these cultivars are currently available in North America. For other suitable \8rieties , see the 'cold aeas' colurm in Table 1. Common
s~onyms:
American Honey = Josephine Daniel Ebone = Ebone Honey = Josephine Little's Ruby = Ruby
Mitchellena = Lena New Hampshire NO.1 = N.H.No 1 Owen = Knowes Pennland's S;edless = Fenland
Marion is sometimes listed as a synonym of Miller; these two varieties are distinct, but are now often confused.
Page 32
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No :
Table 1. Cultivar Beavers Begole Blagg Bolton Boone Burrier Campbell #10 Craggs Delmas Dooley Early Bearing Early Golden Edris Elder Evelyn Ennis seedless Fehrmann Festirnoon Florence Gailey Gardner Garretson Gehron Geneva Red GlideVo.eIl Golden Gem Golden Supreme Grayville Hamilton Hicks John Rick Josephine Juhl Kansas Killen Knowes lady Maryland Lena Marion Meader Mildred Belle Miller Missouri Manis Burton NC-10 Ne\\bold N.H.No 1 Penland Pieper Pipher Ruby Runkwtz Shoto
Tree vig desc upr
Bear -ing Prod
Ripen start
Ripen Male period Hws
Req poll yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no yes yes no no no no yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes no no yes yes no yes yes yes no yes yes yes no yes no yes yes yes yes no no no yes no yes yes
Cold areas no
Black spot
Needs thinning
vig
Prec heavy heavy early Prec good good long late early early mid-late late mid mid Prec ely-mid mod late v.early heavy early mid Slow late heavy mid early ely-mid late mid late mid mid-late late mid-late early early mid v.early mid early late mid early late ely-mid early ely-mid short
no yes no no yes yes yes yes Res
yes
yes
yes many yes
no
cmp
Prec good
bi Prec
long long
yes no yes no no yes yes
vig
heavy vig
upr upr
Prec heavy Prec Prec Prec heavy Slow heavy good Prec heavy Prec Slow good
long short
mod
yes
Susc
no
yes
vig 1M<
upr vig vig 1M< upr
yes
long long long long

yes
yes yes
yes
upr
late v.early heavy late heavy early v.early
long mod
no yes yes yes no yes Res
pass
1M<
vig vig
late good late Mod heavy ely-mid mid
long
Page 33
A-
A5#t~
Table 1 (cant)
Cultivar Smeech Sweet Lent Szukis TaQ.le Grove Tatum Wabash Waterloo Weber William Woolbright Yates Tree Bear vig desc -lng Prod Ripen start late Ripen Male period flw.; long v.long
Req poll yes yes no yes yes no yes yes yes yes no
Cold
areas
Black Needs
spot
thinnin
yes yes no
spr
Slow
good v.late heavy early

good early mid early early
yes
vig heavy vig
most
Bi
heavy
mid v.early
Susc
Key to Table 1
Tree vig = tlee vigour: vig = vigorous, Y.k = v..eak "";gour, cmp = corTl>act. Tree desc = tree description: upr= upright, spr= spreading.
Bearing: Prec = precocious (quick to start bearing), Mod = moderately precocious, Slow = slow to sta bearing, Bi = tends to biennial beaing. Prod = productivity heavy, good productivity. Ripen St;;lIt: relative time of the start of fruit ripening: ea6y, mid, late etc.
Ripen period : indicates the length of time over which fruits ripen: long, mod = moderate, short. Lat ripening selections vith long fnJit ripening tirres hold theirfruits on the tee '\ell into wnter.
Male f1ws: indicates if the cultivar also produces some male flowers in most years: these cannot usually b relied upon forsatisfactolY pollination though.
Req poll : indicates if the cultivar requires cross pollinaten for fruiting to take place. Most cultivars do; thos lNhich do not wll set seedless foits if not pollinated.
Cold areas: indicates if the cultivar is suited to more Northern areas where cool short summers are th norm. Black spot: indicates any knoW1 resistance/susceptibility to black spot of leaves. Res = resistant, Susc susceptible.
Needs thinning: 'yes' means that the tree tends to produce so many fruits that thinning is often necessar to either achieve a good fnJit size and/or prevent breakage of branches. Male pOllinatos
Note that kaki/oriental persimmons will not cross pollinated with American persimmons. Pollinators are needed for all cuitivars except those able to set seedless fruits. These can be male seedlings, or selectee cultivars which ale either male orbise)QJal. These include: Ennis seedless: Male tee which also poduces sorre fruits - see abo\e for details. Gailey a good pollinator- see below for details. George: Male tee , seedling of 'Kilen'. Meader: a good pollinator- see below for details. Mike: Male tee, a seedling of 't1llen'. Szukis: a good pollinator- see below for details. William: Male t1ge, fast gowing and a good pollinator Produces a fewfruits in sorre years.
Page 34
Table 2. Cultivar Beavers Begole

81agg
Size
s-m Ige Ige
Shape Colour
flat flat
-fla\oQurflesh fresh ckd froz

red mod gd gd gd mod gd exc exc exc v.gd v.gd gd gd gd m od gd exc gd gd
skin
seeds
Bolton Boone Burrier

Craggs
v.lge
med med m-I med med med m-I Ige med s-m Ige med sm med sm
soft
Delmas Dooley Early Bearing

Early Golden
yellow oblong yellow soft conic yelloworange soft redyellow yellow yellow oblong yelloworange .
tough tough v.gd thin
many few/none
few
many few, lge
Edris
Elder
Ennis seedless Evelyn Fehrmann Festimoon Florence Gailey Gardner Garretson Gehron Geneva Red GlidelAEll Golden Gem Golden Supreme
Grayville
dk orange
soft
few/none few/none few/none small

exc
conic
soft
poor orange-red red blush

exc gd gd gd exc gd mod mod exc exc exc gd gd exc gd gd gd gd mod gd gd gd gd exc gd gd mod m od gd gd gd gd gd exc exc
v. lge
Ige med m-I med med
none if unpoll none

few
long
It gold
soft
orange-red
v.lge
sm med m-I
Hamilton Hicks John Rick Josephine

Juhl
gd
tough
none jf unpoll none if unpoll
round
yellow yellow
yellow & red yellow & red
v.lge
med m -I med Ige sm med m-I
soft fi rm soft firm
exc
thin few tough tough few tender few small
Kansas Kitten Kno ...... es Lady Maryland Lena Luther Marion Meader
Mildred Belle
ovate
flat
orange orange-red orange yellow orange orange-red yellow pale yellow yellow-red pale yellow yellow-red yellow yellow & red
soft
gd
tender noneifunpoll tender tender few

few
v.lge
Ige med Ige Ige s-m sm Ige sm sm m-I flat
Missouri Morris Burton

NC-10 N.H.No 1
gd
Penland Pieper Pipher

Ruby
conic
soft soft
tough tough
none sm/none if unpoll none if unpoll
med+
med Ige med m-I
Runkwtz
Shoto
firm
tender few tough many tough few
Smeech Sweet Lent
" 3
Page 35
Table 2 (coni)
-f1aw u r Cultivar Szukis Table Grove Tatum Wabash Size m-I oblong sm Ige Ige v.lge Shape Colour orange
fil111
flesh fresh gd gd exc exc gd exc gd
ckd
froz
skin
seeds
poor
small/none
Water1oo
Weber Woolbright
soft
Yates
1ge+
yellow
noneifunpoll
Key to Table 2
Shape, Colour: indicates fIJit characteristics. Flesh: indicates flesh (ruit pulp) characteristics - colour or firmness.
Size: indicates relati>ve fruit size. sm = small , med = medium, Ige = large, S-iTI = small to medium, m1 :; medium to large etc.
Flawur fresh/ckd/fR)z: indicates fIJit fla\Our fresh, cooked and tozen. exe = 8J11Cellent, v.gd = very good,
gd :;; good , rrod = moderate, poor. Skin : indicates toughness of the bit skin. Seeds: indicates the SiE or number of seeds usuallyfound in flUits.
Propagation
Seed: There are 1500-3900 seeds/Kg (680-1800 lib), wilh an average of 2600/Kg (1200/Ib). Seeds should be stratified for 2-3 months. Germination takes about 3 weeks . Protect seedlings from strong sun for the first few weeks. Too seed lea\es preceed normal leaves. Budding : Shield budding with long heavy buds in summer is sometimes recommended . Also successfu are chip budding, ing budding and patch budding.
Grafting: Whip grafting just below the ground .surface on 1-2 year old seedling stocks is recommended. Also cleft grafting (on large trees). Grafting is most successful if the rootstock leaves are just starting to unfun (the scion is cut vfien fully dormant and kept in a fidge until needed) Suckers: Dig and tansplant if not fom a grafted plant.
Cuttings: HardVoJOod - from 2-3 year--old wood , 30 em long , seal ends with wax. Root cuttings take quite well - seal ends also. Cuttings of half;ipened wood , taken in July-August and given protection (eg in a cold frame) may also oork. Layering in spring .
Suppliers
Incredibly, there are no cultivars available at present from the UK or Europe. Seedlings of good fruiting cultivars are available from the A.R.T. , and other seedling stock is available from several other nurseries. Seeds are also a\Gilable fum the AR.T. Several nurseries in North America can supplynamed selections, including the folloliYlg:
Page 36
Bear Creek Nursery PO Box 411H, Northport, WA 99157, USA.. Burnt Ridge Nurser)( 432 Burnt Ridge Rd, Onalaska, 'M 98570, USI\, Tel: 206B85-2873, Chestnut Hill Nurser)( Rt 1, Ebx 341, i'Jachua, FL 32615, US\., Tel: 800{)69-2067, Grimo Nut Nursery, RR 3 La keshoe Road, Niagaa-on-the-lake, Ontario, LOS 1JO, CPNADA Hidden Springs Nurser)( 170 Hidden !:prings Lane, CookvUe, TN 38501, U~ . Tel: 615-268-9889. Jersey Persimmon Farm, 58 Van Duyne Ave, Wayne, NJ 07470, USA. Tel: 201-6941220. Co/d-hardy
vars
John Gordon Nursery 1385 Carrpbell Blvd, Amherst. NY 14228-1404, USA.. Early varieties especially Louis Gerardi Nursery 1700 EHighv.ay 50, O'Fallon , IL 62269 , US\.. Offers 10 varieties Louisiana Nursery Rt.7, Ebx 43, Opelousas.LA70570, USA.. Tel : 318-948-3696. Nolin River NutTree Nursery, 797 Port Wooden Rd, Upton, Ki 42784 , USA.. Tel: 502-369-8551. Northwoods Relail Nurser)( 27635 SOglesbyRd, Canby, OR 97013,US'I, Tel : 503-266-5432, Oregon Exotics , Rare Fruit Nursery, 1065 Messingec Grants Pass, OR 97527, U~. Tel: 503-846-7578. Pampered Plant Nursery, PO Box 3, Bournonnais, IL 609140003, USA.. Tel: 815-937-9387. Wiley's Nut Grove Nurser)( 2002 Le~ngton Ave, Mansfield, OH 44907, U~ . Tel: 419-756--0697.
References
Bailey, L H: The Sandard Cyclopedia of Hoticulture. MacMillan, 1947. Bean, W J: Trees and Slrubs Hardy in the Efitish Isles. John Muray, 1974. Califomia Rare Fruit Growers Journal No 19: Uses of the R!rsimmon Tree. Duke, J A Handbook of 8jjble Weeds. CRC A'"ess, 1992. Facciola, S Cornucopia. 1990. Krussmann, G: Manual of Boad-leaved Trees & Shrubs. B T Batsford, 1984. Lincoln, W A: Wor1d Woods in Coloue Stobart, 1986. Northem Nut Growers Association Pnnual Reports:Vol 47 (1956): American Persimmon varieties and their desirability, Persimmon evaluation - further notes. Vol 48 (1957~ The .American Persimmon as
v..e see it.
Vol 50 (1959): My Five Years wth Persimmons. Vol 54 (1963): Some Improved Varieties of the Imerican Persimmon. Vol 57 (1966): Persimmon Vari eties. Vol 81 (1990~ Neglected Nati'S Fruit Trees and Slrubs. Pomona. Vol xxviii No 2 (Spring 19 95~ Too New American Persimmons. Reich, L: Unconmon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Pddison-Wesley, 1991. Smith, J R: T ee Crops: A Penn anent ,Agriculture. Island A'"ess , 1987. USDA: Seeds of V\body Plants in the United 3ates. ,Agriculture Handbook No.450, 1974. Whealy, K & Demuth. S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Imentory. Seed Saver Pubs, 1993.
Page 37
Book Reviews
Alternative Silvicultural Systems to Clear Cutting in Britain: A Review Cyril Hart
HMSO, 1995; 101 pp ; fl5.95 . ISBN 0-11-710334-9,
This booklet (Forestry Commission Bulletin 115) is written for landowners and foresters who want t convert their woods or forests from uniform, even-aged stands to mixed, irregular, uneve n ~aged stands , i particular to those looking for altematives to extensive clear cutting , with the aim of achieving divers structure , biological dilErsity and sem-permanent or continuous foest cover. The bulletin errphasises fourkey conside.ations influencing the use of iregularforeslry:
1. The use of i,-egular systems is possible on a lIicIe range of sites in upland &lo-..Mand Britain. 2. The key to success is continuity:Jf management. 3. The costs, calculated using conentional econonics, can be high conpared 'With clear cutting. 4. The potential to produce non-market benefits (ie those not considered by conventional economics) can be high. These include soil, 'Alter and clirrete protection to rrention just a few
Most of the bulletin consists of descriptions of 44 examples of alternative silvicultural systems in use i Britain, classified into shelteNOod, group selection , single tee selection and othersilv;culturaJ systems.
ShelteM'Ood systems are used VYflen a forester wishes to use the old stand to provide seed and shelter fo the regeneration and earty development of a new crop. The old stand is felled in 2-3 stages over 10-3 years, depending on the circumstances. The new crop regenerates and becomes established under the changing conditions produced by manipulating the retained seedbearers in the old stand; the amount o shelter produced by overhead andl or side shading can be used to stimulate the formation of mixed stands Some planting may also be undertaken to reinforce the stocking or diversify the mixture. The phased removal of the old stand may be effected over quite large areas, or may start from several small nucle VYflich are gradually extended , or it can be done in strips. In all these shelteM'Ood systems the two stands one mature and the other young , grow on the same site for several years. More irregular sheltef"INood systems proceed on a continuous basis, etaining continuous foest coYer.
In group selection systems , the grolNing .stock of trees is arranged in groups of varying dimension appropriate to the requirements of each species (smaller for shade-tolerant species, larger for ligh demanders). These groups are dispersed through the forest to form a continuous mosaic; the dimensions allo.ed for each group make sure they retain their identity. Access to the groups is provided by a networ of rides and paths. These systems are flexible and particularly suited to small stands where intensive VY'Orking is possible; they accommodate a vvide range of species. They require skill and care to manage though.
In the single tree selection system, felling and regeneration are distributed over the whole managemen area. The fellings remove Single trees and are combined with thinnings with the aim to perpetuate a structure in which all age and sizes of trees are mixed together over every part of the stand. Continuous forest cover is maintained and the environment is stable and appears unchanging. This system is commonly used in rreinland BJrope (eg. mountainous aeas of SNitzertand) as 'natural' or 'perpetual' fores to provide soil, water and climate protection; it is not very common in Britain. A system of extraction paths aids harvesting and reduces damage to regeneration. The system is particula~y well suited to small woods VYflere intensiYe management is possible. It does require great Skill, and is applicable chiefly to shade tolerant species; contol of brovvsing anirrals can be difficult.
A chapter on the economics of irregular forestry attempts to take into account environmental and socia benefits, but concludes that it is only likely to be attractive where silvicultural, aesthetic and environmenta reasons rather than economic viability are the overriding factors, and that these are easier to justify fO state-owned forests where the owners are acting wholly in society's interests. Finally, the Bulletir concludes that cleaFcutting foresters may have difficulty in adjusting to the rrore
Page 38
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No:
innovative and opportunistfcapproaches required to manage irregular systems. A key factor in the success of examples of irreg ular forestry in Britain has been continuity of ownership/management, something relatively rare these days. Nevertheless, successful examples show that these more sustainable forestry systems can be ifllJlemented in aitain .
Natural Woodland: Ecology and Conservation in Northern Tem perate Regions

George F.Peterken
Cambridge Unil.ersity Press , 1996: 522 PP: 127.95 (paperback, 75 .00 (hardback) ISBN 0-52 1-36792-1 (paperback, 0-521-36613-5 (hardback, The aims of this book from an eminent British ecologist are to summarise our understanding of the original natural temperate forests of North America and Europe; to construct a view of natural woodland in Britain, which can act as a reference point for ecologists and foresters; to develop nature conservation policies and practices for British woods and plantations; and to raise the level of interest in and appreciation of nonintervention reserves and long-term ecological esearch. The structures and range of habitcts found in natural woods are described, along with how woods grow, die and regenerate in the absence of human influence; the role of disturbances in their ecology is emphasised . Examples of virgin and old growth forests in Europe and North America to outline the dynamics and structure of natural temperate ooodiand. he cultual Significance of natuel 'N)odland is also discussed. This knowledge of woods is then applied to nature conservation issues in British woods and forests, particularly the maintenance of 'untouched' reserves ; the management of native broadleaved woods; and the design of conifeous plantations.
Natural Woodland is fascinating scientific account of woodland natural history for all concerned with the management and ecologyof natural and conmerciallAOodlands.
Principles of Forest Pathology

F H Tainter & F A Baker
John Wley, 1996: 805 pp : !li0.00 (hardback) ISBN 0-471-12952-6. This authoritative volume describes both the principles of forest diseases and the biology and management of such diseases, aining to be of use to both students of fCBSt pathology and practising fOlesters. The book is divided into two main sections. The first deals with the principles behind forest diseases, concentrating on causes of disease (induding allelopafly, insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria , mycoplasmas, viruses, parasitic plants , climate , chemicals and nutrient defiCiency), but also describing major disease impacts (eg. chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease), the infection process and disease ecology, and principles of disease rmnagement. The second half of the book concentrates on the biology and management of forest diseases. This contains detailed descriptions of all the main tree diseases found in the North American continent. Each disease is dearly profiled , with description of its importance, susceptible species, distribution, causal agent(s) and their biology, diagnosis, and control measures. Diseases are split into chapters by their effects, ego root diseases, rusts, cankelS , diebacks, mistletoes, wood decays etc. Induded in this part of the book is a good geneel overview of the role of mycorrhizas in forming symbiotic relationships wth trees.
Page 39
Herbs and Herb Lore of Colonial America

Colonial Dames of America
Dover Publications , 1995; 74 pp; B.95. ISBN 0-486-28529-4.
ThiS booklet makes dear the importance and usefulness of herbs amoung settlers in the Amer wlonies. It is basically a herbal, with descriptions of over 50 herbs and plants with mostly medicinal u but also dyes, disinfectants, taste enhancefS etc. Ea ch plant is illustrated by a drawing taken from e herbals and accorrpanied by anecdotal and infamative descriptions.
Video reviews
Forest Gardening with Robert Hart
Iota Pictures/Green Earth Books. 1995: 48 nins: 15 .00. ISBN 1-900322.(J1 03.
Gaia Theory with James Lovelock

Iota Pictures/Green Books, 1995; 52 rrins ; 15.00. ISBN 1-870098-62-5. Distributed by Green Earth Books/Green Books, Foxhole, Dartington, Totnes , Devon, TQ9 6EB. add 1.50 P & P per video v.hen ordering from them.
Ple
Forest Gardening with Robert Hart describes three gardens. Robert Hart's only gets 15 minutes (the seems a bit of a misnomer) and is clearly the hardest to capture on camera because of its maturity. Ro himself briefly describes the basics of multi-storey design, mulching, compost and companion plant The second location is Plants for a Future in Cornwall. Here Ken Fem describes a selection of unus plants with edible or other uses. Filming was on a windy day and the sound quality is poor in places at point. Finally, Mike & Julia Guerra's suburban garden is visited and they describe how forest gar techniques fit into a pemaculture design. .
Gaia Theory with James Lovelock describes how Jim Lovelock's early career of inventing the Elec Capture Detector, and then VoIOrking for NASA, Jed him and his colleague Lynn Margulis to formulate Gaia Hypothesis that the planet is a self-regulating organism. The video goes on to describe mathematical models which he developed to support these ideas , and how these and criticisms from scientific community have helped the hypothesis to evolve and mature. The only fault with this video is some of the graphs do not appear at all clearly; nevertheless, this makes fascinating viewing and recommended.
Classified Adverts: 25plword, minimum 5.00. 20% discount for subscrbers.

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NUTWOOD NURSERIES specialise in nut tees an and can offer trees from "A" to "z " ~II at least "Almond" to "V\elnut"!) Send for our catalogue, FRE on receipt of a 9" xS" (AS) SAE. NUTWOOD NURSERIES . SCHOOL FPRM. ONNaEY. CREW CHESHIRE. CW3 9QJ.
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AGROFORES TRY NEWS Vol 4 N
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Agroforeslty is the integration of trees and agriculturel horticulture to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food, materials, timber and other products. it can range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and gfOund layers in a ~elf-3ustaining, interconnected and productive system . .'\grofol"estlY News is published by the Agroforestry Research TlUst four times a year in October, January, April and July. Suhscription rates Hre: 18 per yenr in Britninand the E.U. (14 unwaged) 22 per year 0v"rseas (please remit in Sterling)
:~ 2 pet year for institu(ions.
A list of back issue contents is included in our cunent cataiogt,e, available on request for 3 x I st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per copy induding postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make ch~ques payable to 'Agroforestry Research TlUst', aad send tf): Agroforeslr)' Research TlUst, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Reseal'ell Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and otheJ crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
---Volume 4 Number 4
July 1996
t& ~
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 4 Number 4
July 1996
Contents
2 4 6 News Diospyros lotus: the Date Plum Pears: cultivation & varieties
7 10 11 12 13 Pruning Pests Diseases Harvesting & yields Pear Gultivars
29 34
Mycorrhizas Book Reviews: Cherries / Mushrooms: The Art of

Cultivation / How To Make A Forest Garden / Edible Mushrooms & Other Fungi / Food and Feed from Legumes and Oilseeds
37
Black walnut (1): Silviculture
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody , somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestsy Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K.
Page 1
News
Tweed Horizons Agroforestry Demonstration Site
Th4s site, recently set up in the Scottish borders by Earthward , aims to demonstrate land use diversification through the interplanting of trees in a pastoral landscape. Seven contoured strips of woodland on the steeply sloping 4 Ha (10 acre) site are designed to provide several benefits: livestock health maintained through shelter and better pasture production; stock shelter in winter improved; summer shade for reducing stress through overheating; understorey forage for poultry; erosion control; soil building through leaf fall; coppice craft production; wild fruit and fungi production ; and landscape improvement. The combined product of all these features should give all round economic benefits , particularly directed at marginal farming landscapes. Contact: Derek MackenziewHook, Project Manager, Earthward, Tweed Horizon s, Newtown 3t Boswells, Roxburghshire, TD6 OSG. Tel: 01835 822122.
North Wyke agroforestry & bi-cropping trials

The agroforestry trial (part of a nationwide network of identical trials) consists of treewpasture systems using trees at different densities and grazing sheep beneath . At North Wyke, ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is the main tree used, although some sycamore was planted but didn 't succeed; hybrid larch has also been used on other sites. Trees were planted into an established grass sward in 1987 w 8 at spacings of 2 x 2 m , 5 x 5 m , 10 x 10 m , and none (con trol) which is equivalent to 2500, 400, 100 and 0 trees per He ctare respectively. All except the 2 x 2 m trees were protected with tree guards - the closely spaced trees (at Farm Forestry spacing) were not intended to be grazed beneath . Then , throughout the grazing season, the grass was grazed down to 5 cm by introducing an appropriate number of sheep. The trees at 5 and 10m spacings were pruned as needed to maintain a good form . As may be expected, the trees in the pasture did not produce as large a volume of timber as the farm forestry trees, but most interesting was that, after 7-8 years of growth . the carrying capacity (ie the number of sheep supported) of the areas with 5 and 10m spaced trees was not significantly different from the open pasture, and the growth in weight of the sheep was not decreased in the pasture with trees. The bi-cropping trials involved a continuous cloverw winter wheat cropping system. The system is started by thickly sowing white clover (Trifolium repens) at a seed rate of 6 w 12 Kg per Ha , to produce a good sward. North Wyke have mainly used the variety 'Donna' , but they have found that the variety is not too important. In October, the clover is mown and removed (to make silage ), and winter wheat is sown at standard seeding rates (a short straw bread wheat is chosen). The following February, an application of Nitrogen is made at 50 Kg/Ha: if this is not done then the clover competes too strongly with the wheat. The crop then grows unaided until harvest. After the grain and straw are harvested, the clover recovers quickly until the cycle starts again in October when the clover is cut. Wheat yields are about 60% compared with conventional yields, but financial returns are overall 90% of conventional returns, because only a third of the conventional quantity of Nitrogen is used, and because there is very liUle disease or pest trouble (slug populations are low, spider and beetle populations are high, aphids are reduced greatly because the wheat is not so Nwrich and sappy). The only problem North Wyke have found is competition from annual Poa grasses (due to the large seed bank inherited), and these are sometimes killed off with herbicides just before the wheat is sown. Despite these problems , there is great potential for this to become a truly sustainable system of ce real growing.
New seeds arrived

Thanks to everyone who ordered seeds fro m our last seed catalogue . We have unexpectedly been able to secure supplies of the following , which are now available:
100 107 142F

155H
Actrnidia arguta Amelanchier lamarckii Gfycyrrhiza glabra Myrica Pennsylvanica
156 165T
182
Myrtus commun is Pueraria lobata Viburnum rentago
Forestry Commission Research Information Note 278: Poplar and Willow Clones for Short Rotation Coppice
This note lists the poplar and willow clones (varieties) most suited for growing as short rotation coppice in the UK, and which will be acceptable under the Woodland Grant Scheme. The main criteria for choosing these clones is health (clones very susceptible to disease are not listed) and acceptable yields. The willow clones listed are given a mix code , to aid in establish ing a polyclonal mixture of clones which are varied in their responses to different diseases.
New name for Agroforestry News?

It has been apparent for some time now that the title of this journal is both offputting and confusing to quite a lot of people who believe that 'Agrofo restry' must mean conventional farming techniques with the odd tree thrown in for good measure , whereas the A.R.T . and this journa l both concentrate on intensive agroforestry systems like forest gardens and unusual tree crops , as well as profiling more common tree , shrub and perennial crops w hich other magazines tend to present rather too simply for the fruit enthusiast. For this reason, we're think ing of changing the title of the journal , perhaps to Tree Crops (formerly Agroforestry News). Does anyone have strong opinions about this, or ideas for a suitable title? We 'd like to hear what you think , so please drop us a line if you'd like. We're not thinking of changing anything else like the format or presentation particularly.
Nitrogen-fixers update
Some interesting information has come to light in a book we 've just got hold of ('Management of Biological Nitrogen Fixation for the Development of More Productive and Sustainab le Agricultural Systems', editors J K Ladha & M B Peoples; Kluwer, 1995) :o A ll ey cropping in the tropics , with prunings from the nitrogen-fixing trees used as mulch , can lead to gains of 60-180 Kg N/Ha/year to the alley crop itself. These amounts are potentially enough to sustain an N-hungry crop if they are made available at the times when needed. An ongoing problem in alley-cropping seems to be the competition between surface-feed ing tree roots and the crop in the alley ; this is especially significant in the tropics w here water competition is often intense. It should also be noted tha t temperate N-fixing trees & shrubs can fix similar amounts of nitrogen as tropical species , though the amounts vary from species to species. o Below ground Nitrogen contributions (from root turnover and nodule decay) from N-fixing trees and shrubs to other crops, are very similar in quantity to above ground contributions (from leaf & branch litter). Because most measurements to date have only taken into account above ground contributions , this means that most figures for amounts of N co ntrib uted by tree and shrub croos are orobablv low bv a factor of about 2.
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Diospyros lotus: the Date Plum

Introduction
Diospyros lotus (synonym D. japonica), commonly called the date plum , false lote-tree , or lotus plant, is one of the lesser-known members of the persimmon genus (in the ebony family , Ebenaceae) , yet in many parts of temperate Asia (especially China) it is widely cultivated as a fruit tree, rootstock, and for other useful products.
Description
The date plum is a small or medium sized deciduous tree, growing up to 6-12 m (20-40 ft) high in cultivation , but sometimes double that in the wild where it is native (China, Japan and the Hima layas, from Manchuria to Yunnan, found in mixed mountain forests); and to about 6 m (20 tt) in spread. It has a rounded crown. Young branches are brownish and pubescent; older branches become grey but remain pubescent. Winter shoots lack a terminal bud . On older trees the bark becomes furrowed and cracked. Leaves are oval and pointed, 5-12 cm (2-5") long by 25-50 mm (1-2 ~ ) wide, both sides pubescent at first but eventually only pubescent on the veins below ; they are dark green, glossy, leathery and tough , and alternate on stems. Flowers are tiny (males 5 mm, females 8-10 mm long), urn-shaped, greenish-yellow tinged red , appearing from the leafaxils, mainly on one-year old shoots; female flowers are produced singly , males in clusters of 1-3 on downy stalks . like other persimmons , this species is usually dioecious, hence male and female flowers are produced on different plants. Flowering occurs in July in Britain and pollination is via insects, including bees. On female plants , fertilised fruits form; these are round (cherry tomato-shaped and sized), 15-20 mm across , green when immature, ripening to yellow or reddish-purple with a bluish bloom. They have a blackcurrant-like aroma. The four-lobed calyx remains attached to the base of the fruit and grows with it. like most other persimmons , fruits remain high in tannins and very astringent until they ripen , often after a frost; then the taste varies between plants from insipid to tasty. Fruits contain 0-8 small, flat, black seeds, and continue to hang on the tree well after the leaves fall in autumn. Winter hardiness is to zone 5 (-21 CD, _5 F); it is fully hardy in Britain.
Uses
The fruits develop freely in Britain. Unless the summer is particularly hot (when they may ripen in October) , they usually need to be bletted (picked and stored in the cool) or frosted before they lose their astringency and become edible; when fully ripe they are then sweet with a floury texture, date-like , rich and delicious. The fruits usually remain on the tree after leaf-fall , thus can be picked in November after frosts. The fruits may also be dried, losing their astringency; if left on the tree to shrivel, they take on a
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The fruits are also used medicinally in Chinese medicine, being antifebrile (ie used as a febrifuge against fevers) and secretogogue. Much used, especially in Asia and North America, as a rootstock for cultivars of the Oriental persimmon (Diospyros kaki). The date plum is more cold-hardy than the Oriental persimmon, and some of this extra cold-hardiness affects the scion cultivar when grafted. Hence in colder Asian regions, D.kaki scions are grafted high on D./otus rootstocks. The date plum is also grown commercially for its unripe fruit, which are processed to provide a so urce of tannins . These tannins (and those from unripe fallen O.kaki fruits) are widely used as a deproteinizing agent in the brewing process of sake (rice wine). Falling fruit can be used for pig fodder in the late autumn and earty winter . The wood is durable, pliable and resists rotting. It is used for construction, joinery etc. The flowers provide bee forage.
Cultivation
The date plum needs a warm position in full sun to fruit well, but it does tolerate partial shade. It prefers a deep , fertile, moist but well-drained loamy soil and some protection from the wind. Young plants are somewhat frost susceptible. The growth rate is slow to moderate - about 3 m (10 ft) in 10 years. It is best to transplant container-grown plants as the tap roots are very susceptible to damage on transplanting. Trees can be trained against a wa ll as a fan or espalier; or in the open as bush trees. There are no serious pests of diseases in temperate zones.
Propagation
Seed: There are approximately 8000 seeds per Kg (3600 per lb). Seeds need a short period (4 weeks) of co ld stratification before they germinate. After this, sow in the warmth and germination occurs within a few weeks. First year growth is 20-30 cm (8-12"). Cuttings: half-ripe wood, taken in July-Aug ust, placed in a frame or cool greenhouse. Layering in spring. Container-grown plants are available from the Agroforestry Research Trust.
References
A.R.T.: Planl dalabase. 1996.
Bathgate, J C: The rare fruit that many plant but few recognize. Fruit Gardener, Vol. 25 NO.5
(Oct 1993).
Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, Vol. 2. John Murray, 1974. Krussmann, G: Manual of Broad-leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford , 1984-6. Pijpers, 0 etc.: Th e Complete Book of Fruit. Admira l Books, 1986. Plants For a Future: Plant database, 1995. Schaffer, B & Andersen , P: Handbook of Environmental Physiology of Fruit Crops, Volume 1. CRC Press, 1994 .
Page 5
Pears: cultivation & varieties

Introd uction
This article concentrates on the cultivation and uses of the common pear , Pyrus communis; a future article will cover the increasingly popular Asian pears (derived from P.pyrifolia and P .us5uriensis) . The common pear is an entirely cultivated form , possibly derived from P.caj.Jcasica and P.nivalis; it is naturalised in Northern Asia and Europe , including Britain. The fruits of wild trees are small, hard, gritty, sour, astringent and are not improved by cooking . Perry pears were selected and bred from wild P.nivalis trees , to be used for making the alcoholic cider-like drink, Perry (Perry pears are to be covered in a future article). The first record of pears cu lti vated in Britain is from around 800 AD , when severa l cultivars were grown for dessert and cooking. Many cultivars were brought over from France in the 13th & 14th centuries, and by the 17th ce ntury numerous new varieties were being ra ised and imported from France and Belgium. Pears are much longer-lived trees than apples , especially on seedling stocks; such trees may live for 2-300 years. Pears generally need more warmth and sunshine than apples to grow and fruit well ; young leaves are more prone to wind damage , and flowering is earlier and hence more susceptible to late spring frosts.
Siting
The chilling requirement for most pears is 500-1500 hours (below 7C (45F). and pears do well in a warm to hot, dry summer. Low humidity aids in controlling fireblight. The growing season for pears varies from 100-180 daysd depending on variety . Fully dormant trees can withstand temperatures as low as _26C (-1 5 F) without injury. If possible, choose a warm she ltered position which isn 't prone to late frosts. Adequate shelter is necessary to ensure warm conditions for pollination and as protection for the fruit and foliage. In Britain, many of the late-ripenin g cultivars require the protection of a south or west facing wa ll for the production of quality fruit and for scab protection. Pears grow well in a variety of soils (best in sandy loams or clay loams, but othe r can be accommodated by use of rootstock - see Ag rofo re stry News, Vol. 4 No 3). The common Quince stocks are tolerant of wet soi ls, but are rather susceptible to drought; neither do they do well on thin soils over
cha lk.
Flowering and pollination

All pear cultivars should be regarded as self-sterile, and hence all need pollen from another cultivar to set a good crop of fruit. The single exception is Improved Fertility, which is selffertile ; Conference is not, although it may set parthenocarpic (seedless) fruits without pollination , most of which are misshapen. Some cultivars are triploids , and hence have no fertile pollen; these will need to be planted with two other compatible varieties for all to be pollinated . Such triploids include Beurre Alexandre Lucas , Beurre d'Amanlis, Catillac, Doyenne Boussoch , Jargonelle, Marechal de la Cour, Merton Pride , Pitmaston Duchess, Uvedale 's St Germain and Vicar of Winkfield . Other (diploid) varieties with infertile pollen include Beurre Bedford , Bristol Cross and Margeurite Marillat. There are also two incompatibility groups of pear cultivars , within which varieties are self- and cross-incompatible . These are: Beurre d'Amanlis 2. Fondante d'Automne Pnkoce de Trevoux 1. Conference Laxton 's Progress Seck le Laxton 's Superb Williams' B. Chret Louise Bonne of Jersey
Page 6
Flowering lasts for about 2-3 weeks, depending on cultivar. The flowering period itself also varies by 3 weeks from the earliest to latest flowering varieties; this period corresponds approximately to the second to fourth weeks of April in Southern England. For cross pollination to be successful, compatible varieties must overlap significantly in their flowering periods - by at least a week . See the flowering table later for an indication of the flowering group of each cultivar. A minimum of 1 pollinator to 8 main cultivar trees should be planted. Pollination is via insects, primarily drone flies and bluebottles , and also by bumble (wild) bees. Flowering is rather early to attract much activity from hive bees. Flower initiation in pears occurs about 60 days after full bloom, ie around midsummer the year before flowering occurs. Flower buds are formed on term inal s of shoots and short spurs two years old or older. Most pears flower every year, although Beurre Hardy and Doyenne du Cornice on quince rootstocks tend to flower lightly following a heavy crop year.
Planting and pruning

Nearly all pears bear fruit on short spurs on 2-year old and older wood, thus after planting and formation pruning, the main object of pruning is to induce spur formation . Pruning for the different forms is basically the same as that for apples (see Fig.1 for examples of a dwarf pyram id, spindle, cordon and vertical axis tree). Trees on dwarfing stocks, such as Quince C, may need staking permanently. Varieties vary in their growth form , but are often described as upright or pendulous; the pyram id form of prun ed tree is nearest to the natural growth habit of such varieties, more so than the bush form . Heavily pruned pears tend to become upright, while lightly pruned pears tend to spread. Most pendulous pear trees are tip bearers and should only be pruned lightly because they make few fruiting spurs.
Standards & half standards

For standards, use seedling pear rootstocks or a vigorous clonal stock (some of the OH x F stocks are suitab le). for half standards , use a moderately vigorous stock , for examp le the Quince stock BA29 (now available in the UK) . pruning is basically the same as for the bush tree (below), except that the main stem is grown on to 1.2-1.5 m (4-5 ft) for a half standard and 1.8-2. 1 m (6-7 ft) for a standard, before cutting; this may take two seasons. Train them to a cane during this period and leave any side shoots to help thicken the stem, but pinch back any vigorous laterals in the summer to about 6 leaves. Once the tree has formed a stout trunk, remove all laterals below the head .
Bush trees
The best all-round rootstock is Quince A, which shou ld be planted at 3.5-4.5 m (12-15 ft) apart. For fertile soils and vigorous cultivars , Quince C can be used and planted at 3-4.3 m (10-14 tt) apart. The aim is to produce a goblet-shaped tree with a strong framework of branches growing outwards and upwards. At planting, cut back the maiden whip to a bud at 70-75 cm (27-30~) . In the second winter, select 3-6 evenly spaced branches and prune the leader of each by a half to two-thirds to an outward facing bud, and remove any shoots on the main stem beneath the selected branches. In the 3rd and 4th winters, the leading shoots of each branch should continue to be pruned as above. In addition , laterals not required as part of the framework can be spur-pruned by cutting them back to 3-4 buds ; strong laterals selected as branches should be cut back by a quarter to a third to an outward facing bud . In all but notably spreading cultivars , shoots crowding the centre should be removed. In latter winters, and with established bushes, laterals should be pruned back to 3-4 buds to induce spu r formation. For tip-bearing cultivars , only the strongest laterals should be pruned back, and the leaders can be pruned back by a third.
Page 7
Dwarf pyramid
Spindle
, "
Cordon
Figure 1. Tree shapes.
Vertical axis
Page 8
Cordons
For cordons, the more dwarfing Quince C rootstock is preferable ; plant trees at 60 em (30n) apart and at an ang le of 45, with the scion part of the graft upwards and preferably the tops pointing northwards. Cordon rows should be spaced at 1.8 m (6 tt) apart. At planting , cut back any side shoots longer than 10 em (4H) on the maiden to 3 buds ; from then on, prune in the summer on ly. Summer pruning takes place at around mid-July in S.England (late July or early August further north or in wetter western regions), when all mature side shoots longer than 20 em (s n) arising from the main stem are cut back to 3 leaves; those arising from spur systems are cut back to 1 leaf. Repeat in September to prune shoots too immature earlier in the summer. The leader is trained up a cane throughout the summer, and is on ly pruned back (by a third) in winter if growth is very weak; once the cordon has reached the desired height, the leader is pruned back to 1 cm (O.S") each May.
Dwarf pyramids
Use a Quince rootstock, planted at 1.2-1.S m (4-5 tt) apart in the row with at least 1.B m (6 tt) between rows, which should preferably run North-South. At planting, cut back the main stem of a maiden to a bud SO cm (20 ") above the gro und, and cut any side shoots to a bud 12 cm (5 from the main stem. In the second winter , cut back the leader to leave 2S cm (10 ") to a bud on the side of the shoot opposite the cut made the previous winter (helps to keep the stem straight) . Prune laterals to 15-20 em (6-B ") to a downward or outward facing bud. Remove blossoms on the central leader for the first few years to encourage the growth of side branches. Subsequently, summer and winter pruning are practised. With summer pruning (at similar times as for cordons), cut mature branch leaders to S-6 leaves, prune laterals ari sing from the branches to 3 leaves and those arising from existing laterals or spurs to 1 leaf. Repeat in late September to catch immature growth and secondary growth from the earli er prun ing . Winter pruning consists of cutting the central leader to allow 20-25 cm (B-l 0 ") of growth . When the trees reach about 2 m (7 ft) high, they may be kept at this height by pruning the ). central leader in May to 12 mm (O.S R
R )
Espaliers
Training pears as espaliers is an excellent use of a wall or fence , and they will benefit more than, say, apples, from such a location. Quince A rootstock is most suitable, planted at 3.54.S m (12 - 15 ft) apart; in fertile soils where only 2-3 tiers are required , Quince C can be used at 3-3.5 m (10- 12 ft) spacing . Wires are stretched at 30-4S cm (12-1B ") apart to train the tiers along. At planting, the maiden is cut back to a bud about 5 cm (2 ") above the first wire , preferably with two buds closely below it, facing left and right. which will form the first tier. In the first sum mer, tie the shoot from the top bud to an upright cane; the shoots from the two lower buds are also tied to canes, initially fixed at 4So because shoots grow more vigorously at that ang le rathe r than horizontally. In October, lower both side shoots and canes to the horizontal and tie them to the first wire. Repeat th is procedure to form subsequent tiers. The leading shoot of each existing tier should be pruned only if growth has been poor, when the previous summer's growth can be cut back by a third to a quarter to an upward facing bud. Established espaliers are pruned in summer at the same time as for cordons . For each tier , prune mature laterals longer than 22 em (9") which arise directty from the tiers to 3 leaves, and those arising from existing spurs to 1 leaf. Spurs arising from the central stem should be treated sim il arlr The leading shoots from the tiers are not pruned in summer, but are tied at an angle of 4S ; in the autumn, after leaf fall , they are tied down horizontal. Once a tier has reached the required length, prune back its leader to 12 mm (O.S") each May.
Page 9
Spindle bush
This form is quite similar to the dwarf pyramid. Unlike that form, laterals arise all along the stem rather than in regular order. The spindle form is established by cutting the maiden at 60 em (2 ft), forcing la terals starting at 30 em ( 1 tt) above the ground. In early summer, strong co-leaders are removed to maintain a single-leader tree . Lateral shoots are either tied down to the horizontal , or if the variety is precocious (eg. Williams Bon Chretien) then early cropping pulls the branches down with little need for tying.
Vertical axis
This is very much like the spindle bush , except that training consists of developing a central leader with fruiting branches arising around the leader in natural order. As the branches become bent down by cropping, they are systematically renewed so as not to become large branches. This system needs only modest pruning.
Thinning
Natural fruiUet drop occurs in June. Most varieties do not need thinning ; two which may over produce are Beurre d'Amanlis and Fertility. For these, manual thinning can be undertaken by thinning each cluster to 1 or 2 fruits.
Feeding and irrigation

Pears on quince rootstocks always benefit from a mulch over the growing season which retains soil moisture. A shortage of water can result in poor shoot growth , heavy fruitlet drop, small fruits , poor fla vo ur, and skin cracking. In dry weather, standard recommendations are to apply 50 litres/m 2 water over the rooting area per 10 days. Commercial orchards use 1015 tons of farmyard manure per acre per year, or artificial fertilisers which supply 29-48 Kg (63-105 Ib) of N per acre per year, 27-54 Kg (60-120 Ib) potash pel rear, and 2441 Kg (5490 Ib) phosphate every 23 years. These rates are equal to 712 g N/m Iyea r + 71 4 g K20/m2/year + 25 g P20 5/m2/yea r. Nitrogenfi xing species planted in a ratio of 1: 1 by area with the pear trees could supply all the nitrogen required here; scattered comfrey plants growing beneath the pear canopy and cut regularly with the leaves used as mulch cou ld supply the potash and phosphate.
Pests
Birds, especially tits, may peck ripening pears. Difficult to control , but fruits can be netted with mesh or muslin bags . Alternatively, use a small piece of card for each fruit as follows: use 7 x 7 cm (3 x 3 N) pieces of card, make a hole in the centre and a slit from the centre to the edge. Slide the card over the stalk end of the pear; it is held in place by the stalk. Birds find this prospective perch in fact very unstable, and soon avoid it. Bullfinches occasionally attack flower buds in winter, especially with the cultivars Conference, Dr Jules Guyot, Merton Pride and Williams Bon Chretien; Beurre Hardy and Doyenne du Comice are rarely attacked . Attacks are worst where trees adjoin hedges or woodland, though plentiful ash (Fraxinus excelsior) seeds reduce attacks as they are preferred food. Aphids (including the pink pear bedstraw aphid, Oysaphis pyri. and woolly aphid, Eriosoma pyrico/a) infest young growth and distort the leaves. En courage predator numbers by planting flowering plants near the pear trees which attract hoverflies . and attract aphideating birds in winter.
Page 10
Pear leaf blister mites produce pustules in young leaves . Severe attacks may cause premature leaf fali , but most do little permanent harm . Infested leaves can be hand picked an d burnt. Pear midges produce small orange-white maggots which feed in the young fruitlets, which distort, discolour and drop prematurely. Collect and destroy infested fruitlels to remove number of maggots which carryover to the following season. Running poultry beneath trees is also effective. Winter moth caterpillars feed on the leaves , flowers and fruitlets . Pla ce grease bands around trunks (and stakes if still in place) in late October to trap the wingless females as they climb up the trees from the soil to lay their eggs. Keep in place until the end of March . Pear & cherry slugworms are larvae of the pear sawfly (Caliroa ceras/). They are black , slimy, slug-like caterpillars which graze away the leaf surface, and which can build up over Ihe years into substantial populations. Running poultry or cultivating beneath trees should contro l the problem; affected leaves can be picked off and burnt. Codling moths are an occasional problem , but are nowhere near as serious as on apples; routine control measures are not usually necessary, but pheromone traps can be used. Wasps are sometimes a problem in late summer. Traps using sticky juice can be hung in trees.
Diseases
Scab (Venturia pirina) is most serious in moist climates , where fruits may develop blackish scabs and in severe cases may crack. On leaves it produces olive-green blotches , and affected shoots become blistered and scabby. Unlike apples, it affects fruits before leaves .; too much nitrogen increases susceptibility. Try to encourage good air circulation, shred fallen leaves with a mower (spores overwinter on leaves) and choose resistant cultivars if it is likely to be a problem. Fireblight (Erwinia amy/avara) is probably the most se riou s pear disease. Originating in North Am erica, it spread to the UK in the 1950's and has spread widely in Europe since. Attempts to control the disease by destroying affected plants failed , and it is now widespread in Britain so uth of N .Yorkshire. The very susceptible cultivar Laxton's Superb was grubbed from British commercial orchards in the 1960's. The fungus , spread by blossom infection, causes the flowers to blacken and shrivel ; it then spreads down th e shoots causing them to die back, and the leaves on affected shoots blacken and wither but do not fall. Cut out and burn affected wood, disinfecting secateurs after each cu t. Where trees are rarely fertilised or pruned , even the most susceptible varieties are rarely seriously damaged . Blossom infection occurs most readily when mean daily temperatures reach 18 C (65F), not such a common occurrence in the UK during flowering, except on varieties which regularly produce summe r blossom, ego Laxton 's Superb, and it is on these varieties that the major attacks have occurred ; Perry pear orchards (which flower later) are also severely affected, often via hawthorn hedges. Many rootstocks show resistance , which will aid culUva r resistance. Any practice that encourages sappy growth should be avoided , hence try not to fertilise in spring and minimise pruning . Similarly, only irrigate (if necessary) in late summer to aid fruit swelling, as earlier irrigation will encourage shoot growth. Hawth orn hedges should be
~\Injrl""rl
Page 11
Canker (Neetria gal/igena) causes cankers on stems and branches. Susceptibility varies between cultivars, and in moist areas, choosing a resistant cultivar is the best procedure. Some control can be given by cutting out all cankered wood from September to December. Fungal leaf spot (Fabraea maeulata or Dip/ocarpon mespill) causes reddish or brownish spots on leaves; severe attacks can lead to premature defoliation and cracked fruits. Only a serious problem in pear nurseries. Powdery mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha) is a fungus which distorts leaves , covering them with a white powdery growth. Pears are less susceptible than apples and it is rarely serious. Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) is frequently a problem on pears, causing fruits to rot , mummify and eventually fall. Affected fruits should be removed and burnt. Honey fungus (Armillaria melle a) can cause the sudden death of pear trees, as it does apples. Rootstocks vary in susceptibility, with most quince stocks susceptible; most P.communis selections and some other Pyrus species are resistant. Stony pit is a viral disease which produces depressions in the skin with hard areas of tissue below . It may be severe in susceptible cultivars (eg. Beurre d'Amanlis, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne du Cornice) and is rare in others (eg. Williams). Pear rusts (Gymnosporangium spp.) are fungi which cause damage on leaves, shoots and fruits of pears in Europe and North America. None are significant in Britain.
Harvesting
Time of picking is of great importance; the fruits are not left to completely ripen on the tree, but are picked while they are still firm (if picked when ripe on the outside, they will be overripe and mealy inside) . The best test of readiness is to lift the fruit slightly and twist it gently on the stalk; if it parts easily from the spur when lifted to the horizontal then it is time to pick. Except for late-ripening cultivars, pick selectively because not all fruits ripen together. Once off the tree, store in a cool place; they will ripen in a short time. Fruit of late ripening cultivars mustn't be' picked too early, or they ten d to shrivel and fail to develop their full flavour. Fruit of very late ripening cultivars should be left on the tree as long as possible, then all picked w hen the first fruits drop.
Yields
Pears on quince stocks come into bearing a year or two later than apples on moderate rootstocks - 4-6 years or so; trees on pear stocks may take a decade or more. Typical yields for trees tra ined in different ways on Quince rootstocks , compared with standards on seedling rootstocks , are as follows: Dwarf bush Pyramid dwarf 3-5 Kg 8-121b Single cordon 2-3 Kg 4-6 Ib
Bush Average yield
Espalier 7-9 Kg 15-20 Ib
Fan 5-14 Kg 12-30 Ib
Standard 36-109 Kg 80-240 Ib
18-45 Kg 9-18 Kg 40-1001b 20-401b
Page 12
Storage
Coolness. darkness, and humidity with some air circulation are the essentia l condit ions for good storage; fruits should be placed in stora~e as soon as possible after picking. The best D temperature to store pears is 0_1 C (32-34 F) . This is diffi cult for amateurs, the best com promise for small quantities being to store fruit in the bottom of a refrigerator; the temperature should not fall below freezing. Fruits are best laid on trays or shelves for easy inspection, and should not be wrapped on placed in plastic bags . There is only a slight change in the skin co lour of pears, from green to yellowish-green, at low temperatures . Proper ripening and conditioning takes place if those fruits nearing ripeness are brought into a warm room for a few days before eating. At these optimum conditions, many late-ripening cultivars will store for 3-6 months (eg. Confe rence and Doyenne du Comice , 3 month s; Willia m s Bon Chretien , 6 months) . These periods are doubled in commercia l stores with refrigerated gas storage using an atmosphere of 6% CO 2 and 15% 02.
Undercrops and agroforestry use

Pea rs grown on Quince rootstocks are susceptible to drought, and any plants grown beneath them wilJ increase this susceptibility. As long as an area free of vegetation is kept around the trunk, plants can be grown; deep-rooting plants may be preferable to grasses as they will compete less directly with the sha ll ow surfa ce-feed ing roots of the rootstock . Pears grown on seedling pear rootstocks are much stronger trees , and give much more potentia l for underplanting. Pears need good light to fruit: shading reduces fruit yields and quality , and the formation of flowe r buds on spurs depends on light received by the spur leaves. Thus in a forest garden they must almost always be placed as canopy trees as part of the tallest layer. The only exceptions are those varieties which are known to tolerate low light levels (eg those which tolerate north wall conditions) - for example Jargonelle - and cooking varieties , which will be most tolerant to low light levels. Because there are few really dwarfing pear rootstocks, thoug h, pears on (say) the common quince stocks sti ll ma ke trees on the large side for the understorey unles s very large upper canopy trees are used. Underplanting pears with herbs and soft fruit is ce rta in ly feasible (Robert Hart has successfully done this) and increasing lo cal diversity like this no doubt in creases pest and disease resistance .
Pear Cultivars
The pears in this article are categorised as dessert or cu linary; perry pears are cove red in a future article. There are hundreds of pear cultivars , but this article concentrates on about 70 of the most popular and common in Europe. For a more extensive coverage of pear variet ies , see Directory of Pear Cultivars (to be published by the A.R.T. later this year). The ideal dessert pear is juicy or 'buttery ', with a good sweet-acid blend and a strong delicious aroma. Most dessert pears can be used for cooking (culinary purposes) , but they need to be picked before they are fully rip e and cooked very slowly in syrup . True cu li nary varieties are hardy and prolific, and their fruits are not acid , but are hard and lacking in flavour and ju ice; th ey keep ve ry well. Only a few culinary varieties are described below, as their popularity is now low. Pear fruits are usually classified into the fo ll owing shapes (see figure 2):
Page 13
--.
Calabasse
Turbinate (bergamotte)
Round
Best flavoured cultivars

Beth Beurre d'Amanlis Beurre Hardy Seurra Superfin Doyenne du Cornice
Gorham Josephine de Matines Marie-Louise Merton Pride Olivier de Serres Onward Seckle Thompson 's Williams ' Bon Chretien
Cultivars preferring a South or Wes,t wall in Britain

Almost at! good dessert cultivars will do welt ' on a South wall. The following really need the extra protection and warmth of a South wall to ripen their fruit well in Britain .
Seurra Seurra Seurra Seurra
Bedford d' Anjou Diel Easter
Seurra Hardy Seurre Superfin Doyenne du Cornice Emile d'Heyst
Josephine de Malines Passe Crassane (5 wall) Seckle
Tip bearers
These fruit mostly at the tips of shoots , and require little pruning:
Jargonelie
Josephine de Malines
Page 14
A&
Pyriform Conical Oval Turbinate belong here. Calabasse
With a distinct waist. Tapering with no waist. Usually russetted, without any red colour. Top-shaped ; russetted or green when rip e, Bergamot cultiva rs Long with little or no waist.
Several cultivars are not directly compa tible with Quince rootstocks; to utili se such stocks , they are grafted or budded with an interstock - a piece of wood from a second cultivar between the incompatible wood and the quince, Beurre Hardy is most commonly used as the interstock variety, though many others can be used, for example Doyenne du Comice, Glou Morceau, Pitmaston Duchess and Vicar of Winkfied,
Synonyms of pear cultivars

Anjou = Beurre d'Anjou d'Anjou = Beurre d'Anjou Bartle tt = Williams' Bon Chretien Belle Lucrative = Fondante d'Automne Beurre Bosc = Calebasse Bosc Beurre Bugiaf = Vica r of Winkfield Beurre d 'Arenberg = Grou Marceau Beurre de Hardenpont = Grou Marceau Beurre d'Esperen = Emile d'Heyst Beurre Easter = Easter Beurre Bergamotte d'Esperen = Huyshe's Bergamot Bergamotte d'Pentacote = Easter Beurre Bergamotte Esperen = Huyshe's Bergamot Bloodgood = Jargonelle Comice = Doyenne du Com ice (;lI rMn = Vir:::Ir of Winkfip.lr! Doyenne de Juillet = Doyenn e d'Ete Dumont = Beurre Dumont English Jargonelle = Jargonell e Epargne = Jargonelle Erdelyi Mezes = Doctor Jules Guyot Fondante de Charneu = Legipant Giffard = Beurre Giffard Hardy = Beurre Hardy Le Cure = Vicar of Winkfield Marie-Louise Delcourt = Marie-Louise Mailing Concorde = Concorde Santa Claus = Fin du Oixneuvieme Siecle Seckle = Seckel Soeur Gregoire = Fin du Dixneuvieme SiEkle Trout Pear = ForeUe VArlllRm = RIl'lr:k Worr:A!':.tAr
::
,.
,::'
~~ '
"
,"
':o..: ',:~,
'-',
';to '
" 0 0"
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Pyriform
;;- '
.~' t:..~"
Conical
Page 15
Cultivars for warm wet areas (SW England, W Wales & Ireland)
Scab is the most damaging disease in these areas of high rainfall. The following cultivars are either scab-resistant or vigorous enough to withstand mild attacks: Seurre Dumont Seurre Giffard
Seurre Hardy
Bristbl Cross Catillac Conference Doctor Jules Guyot
Ourondeau Jeanne d'Arc Fin du Dixneuvieme Sieele Laxton's Foremost Glou Red Williams Legipont Gorham Louise Bonne of Jersey Hessle Onward Improved Fertility Precoce de Trevoux Jargonelle Souvenir de Cong res
Cultivars for cool wet areas (NW England & W Scotland)

As well as scab, pears in these areas have to cope with a shorter growing season: Catillac Conference
Durondeau
Gorham Hessle Improved Fertility
Jargonelle Louise Bonne of Jersey
Table 1. Flowering times, pest & disease resistance

The average relative date of full flowering is indicated in the first column : day 1 is equivalent to April 8th in Southern England, but the correspo nding date will of course vary with location. This is an average and in different seasons can vary by as much as a month. The first set of columns (AG) indicate the spread of flowering from first flowering to last flowering . The spread of flowering is marked with ' x' , with ' f' indicating where full flowering occurs. When choosing cultivars with compatible flowering times , try to choose them with the same ' f' period, and at the very least with adjoining 'f' periods. Each of these co lumns represents about 5 days, and they correspond with the relative date of flowering (as above) as follows (with the average date in S.England represented in brackets): A = day 1-6 (April 8-13) 0 = day 18-22 (April 25-29) B = day 7-12 (April 14-19) E = day 23-27 (April 30- May 4) C = day 13-17 (April 20-24) F = day 28-32 (May 5-9) G = day 33-37 (May 10-14)
After columns A-G, the column marked 'Poll' is used where the cu ltivar cannot be relied upon for pollination. In this column, 'trip' means it is a triploid; 'inf' means it bears infertile pollen. The remaining columns list any known disease or pest resistance or susceptibility. Codes used in these columns are: T = tolerant SR VR = very resistant
= slightl y resistant S = sus ceptibl e MS = moderately susceptibl e
R = resistant VS = very susceptib le
The diseases and pests represented in these columns are (see above for more details): scab pear scab mild mildew cank = apple & pear cankerbblt = blossom blight fblt = fireblight spit = stony pit
moth = codling moth bfch = bullfinches
Page 16
Table 1 diseases & pests flowering A1 B rCD E F G poll scab ieank fblt Imild bblt spit moth bfch r I m . x f x ...
Alexandrina Bivort Baronne de Mello Bellissime d'Hiver Beth Beurre Alexandre Lucas 12 x f lxlx _ I _ 23 I . . . x f x Beurre Bedford 13- xfxx Beurre d'Amanlis 13 . x f x x Beurre d'Anjou Beurre d'Humboldt 17 f x x x Beurre de Jonghe x f x x 16 Beurre Diel x f x x 20 Beurre Dumont 17 Beurre Giffard 19 Beurre Hard y x f x x 21 Beurre Superfin 16 1 _ x f x x x Black Worcester 22 _ Bristol Cross . f x f x 24 Calebasse Bose Catillac 20 I _ x f x x x f x x Clapp's Fa vourite 21. . x f x Concorde ml Conference 17 I _ x f x x x f x x Doctor Jules Guyot 20. Doyenne d'Ete 14 1 Doyenne de Merode f : Doyenne du Cornice x f x x . Duchesse d'Angouleme 16 x f x x x Durondeau 16 x f x x Easter Beurre 17 Emile d'Heyst 15 . x f x x x f x x Fertility 19 I _ x f x Fin du Dixneuvieme Siecle 2 x xx _ Fondante d'Automne 20 xf x x Forelle 14 x f x x x 21 Glou Morceau x f x x Glou Red Williams 20 23 ', . x f x Gorham m x f x Harrow Delight Harvest Queen m I_ x f x 19 _ x f x x Hessle 19 x f x x Huyshe's Bergamot x f x 20 Improved Fertility x f x x x 16 Jargonelle 22 Jeanne d'Arc Josephine de Malines 19 r Kieffer 20 Laxton's Early Market f . . f x x Laxton's Foremost 22 _ . . f x x . Laxton's Record x f iX _I _ m Laxton's Satisfaction
l~ I~ ; I~ ~I xl
l
trip inf trip VS S
VR
S S
S S
S MR
S
trip MR VR
;~~;x:_ 1
x x x.1inf
trip
S R
MS VS
R S
VR
I MS
S
VR VS MS R
S S
MS
S
S
S
MR
MS I S S MS MS
MR MS
MR MS
S S
23: x
; Ix
MS
VS MR MS MR
MR
S
VS S
S
VS
S R
VS MR
R
VR
VS
R
VR VR R R
VR
trip
:1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~
R R R
R MR MR
22 1 -ixi xIx
Page 17
Table 1 (cont)
flowering diseases A Be DIE F IG poll scab cank fbll mild
&
pes t s
I
bbll spit moth bfch
21 22 LE~gipont 22 Louise, Bonne of Jersey 14

Laxton's Superb Laxton's Victor
Marguerite Marillat Marie-Louise Merton Pride Merton Star Nouveau Poiteau Olivier de Serres
17
Onward
Packham's Triumph Passe Crassane Pitmaston Duchess Precoce de Trevoux Roosevelt Seckel Souvenir du Congres Thompson's Triomphe de Vienne Vicar of Winkfield Williams' Bon Chretien Winter Nelis
x x 22 x f x x trip 19 I 21 . x f Ix x 23 x x 18 x f x x . x f x x 23 14 x f x x 15 . I X f I X X 20 x f x x trip 11 x f x x 19 x x f x x 20 x f x x 19 x f x 19 x f x x 21 x f x x 13 x f x x trip 20 x f x x 22 f x x x
x f x f x x f x x f x x f x x f x
x x x
rnf
S R VR
vs
MR
I
IS
R MR MS MS VS R MS R S S VS MS MS VS MR VS S VS S MS MS MS MR MS
T
S MR
MS
VS
Table 2. Ripening dates of pear cultivars.

This table displays the approximate ripening dates of pear cultivars . It assumes that cultivars are picked from the tree at the appropriate time (see cultivar descriptions for times of picking) , and have been sufficiently ripened in the summer. In the UK this is sometimes difficult for late ripening selections .
If the fruit are stored in typical amateur conditions - cool and dark but not controlled cold storage - then the period for which fruits can be expected to store are marked with 'x'. The additional period for which fruit can be expected to store in controlled cold storage is marked with's'. The dates used below refer to the average dates when fruit is grown in Southern England ; it will vary with location and season.
Page 18
AsP
Table 2 Cultivar
. #5
July
Aug
ripening Sept Oct Nov Dec I
d ate s Janl FeQ Ma 1 April
May
Alexandrina Sivorl Saronne de Mello Beliissime d'Hiver 8eth Beurre Alexandre Lucas 8eurre Bedford Beurre d'Amanlis Beurre d'Anjou Beurre d'Humboldt Beurre de Jonghe 8eurfe Di el Beurre Dumont 8eurre Giffard 8eurre Hard y Beurre Superfin Black Worcester Bristol Cross Calebasse Bose Catillac Clapp's Favourite Concorde Conference Doctor Jules Guyot
x x
Ix x x
xxx l xxx
xxx x x x xxx xxx xxx x x x xxx i x xx i
x xx xx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xxx
xxx l xx J
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx x x s s s sss sss x xx xxx xxx x xx xxx x x x x x x xxx xxx xxx xxx x x x xxx l xxx l xxx xxx xx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx X x x xx xxx sss sss sss sss SSS x xxx sss
I I I
Doyenne d'Et! Doyenne de Merode Doyenne du Cornice Duchesse d'Angouleme Durondeau Easter Beurre Emile d'H eyst Fertility Fin du Dixneuvieme Sieele
x x
x x x x
xxx xx x xx xxx x x x x s s S
X X X X
5 S5 555 SSS
I
xxx
xxx xxx x x x x
x x
xxx i x x xxx xxx xxx xxx x x x
Fondante d'Automne Forelle Glou Marceau Glou Red Williams Go rham Harrow Delight Harvest Queen Hessle Huyshe's Bergamot Improved Fertility Jargonelie Jeanne d'Arc Josephine de Malines Kieffer Laxton's Early Market Laxton's Foremost Laxton's Record
I
~)(tnn'!,: S~ti ... f~r.tinn
x x x xxs l SSS SSS I

xx xx
xx x sS x x xS s
xxx
xxx xxx xxx xxx
x x
x x x x
x x x x x x IS
I
xxx xxx xxx
x x xI sss
x xx
x x x x
)( )()()(
I
Page 19
k
Table 2 (conI)
CuUivar Laxton's Superb Laxton's Victor Legipont Louise Bonne of Jersey Marguerite Marillat Marie-Lou ise Merton Pride Merton Star Nouveau Poiteau Olivier de Serres Onward Packham's Triumph July Aug r i P Sept Oct
e n i n g
Nov Dec
d a I Jan Feb,
Mar. April May
xx xx x x x x x x x x J x x x x x x x 555
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
555 555
x
XXX ! XXX
xxx
x x5
5 55
X X X
X X X
xxx
555
sss sss
' X
Passe Crassane Pitmaston Duchess Precoce de Trevoux Roosevelt Seckel Souvenir du Congres Thompson's Triomphe de Vienne Vicar of Winkfield Williams' 80n Chretien Winter Neils
x x xxx
x xxx x x xxx xxx xxx xxx x x x 555

X X X X X X X X X
xxx xxx xxx xxx
xx x xx5
555
X X X
xxx x x x x x x
555 555 555
Cultivars tolerating low light/north wall conditions

Jargonelie Williams' Bon Chretien (NE)
Cultivars for Northern areas (including Scotland)

Beurre d'Amanlis Black Worcester Catillac Clapp 's Favourite Conference Duchesse d'Angouleme Durondeau Emile d'Heyst Gorham Louise Bonne of Jersey Margeurite Marillat Thompson's Triomphe de Vienne Williams' Bon Chretien Winter Nelis
Hessle I m proved Fertility Jargonelie
Cultivars with frost-resistant flowers

These are useful in gardens with frost-pocket problems; any of the late flowering selections are also useful (those with full flower after day 20). Note that only Durondeau below is also suited to Northern areas. Doyenne du Cornice Durondeau Passe Crassane
lin
Cultivar descriptions
Note that recommended picking times for the fruits given in these descriptions refer to the Southern half of Britain; further north they will be delayed accordingly.
Culinary cultivars
Bellissime d'Hiver Tree: Vigorous (even on Quince rootstock) , upright, well spurred, reliable cropper (part self~ fertile). An old French pear. Fruit pick October. Large , oval , green to pale yellow, with a red flush and conspicuous dots ; flesh white, soft. Considered one of the best cooking pears. Black Worcester (VeruJam) Tree: Moderately vigorous, hardy, a moderate cropper. Fruit: pick October. Large, bergamot shape, covered in reddish~brown russet; flesh pale yellow, crisp, rather gritty, good cooked flavour . Catillac Tree: Vigorous , spreading and weeping; a regular and heavy cropper. Extremely hardy and a triploid. A very old French pear; has large flowers. Fruit: pick late October ~ early November. Roundish ~ bergamot in shape, large, dull greenish white with a reddish flush, smooth skinned ; flesh hard, greenishwhite but cooks to a deep red with a fine flavour. Although classified as culinary, quite acceptable for dessert in the Sp ring. Doyenne de Merode Tree : Vigorous , sturdy and low spreading. Cropping good , tending to biennial. An old Belgian variety. Fruit: pick mid August mid September. Roundish to oval , medium to large, yellow flushed red with brownishgrey spots and mottling; flesh white, fairly smooth , juicy, sweet , subacid: thin skin. Also makes a sprightly dessert pear. Kieffer Tree: Vigorous, hardy, early to start bearing , reliable and good cropper in a warm location . A hybrid of the European and Asian (P.pyrifolia) pears , notable for being practically immune to fireblight. Fruit: pick late October. Medium to large, long , golden yeUow with a crimson flush; flesh yellowish white, coarse, crisp, juicy, not sweet, sometimes astringent, but good for canning and cooking. Vicar of Winkfield (Beurre Bugiat, Curato, Le Cure) Tree: Vigorous, upright, cropping excellent. A triploid from France. Fruit: pick October. Long calabasse , very large, pale green shading to pale yellow, smooth skinned; flesh pale yellow, firm , dry, very good fla vour when properly ripened . See also in the dessert listings: Beurre Superfin, Calebasse Bosc, Clapp's Favourite, Conference, Doyenne du Cornice, Gorham, Hessle, Kiefer, Legipont, Pitmaston Duchess, Seckel, Williams' Bon Chretien.
Dessert cultivars
Alexandrina Bivort Tree: Compact, upright: a good cropper. Fruit: pick late July. Small, green. Baronne de Mello Tree: Hardy, regular and good cropper. Moderately vigorous , upright. Fruit: pick October (ripens over a long period). Small , goldenbrown , russetted ; flesh soft, melting, aromatic, very good flavour.
Beth Tree: Moderate vigour, upright, a good reliable cropper. , spurs freely. Starts fruiting at an early age. A recent introduction , from Beurre Superfin X Williams' BC . Fruit: pick late August - early September. Pale yellow covered with fine golden brown russet , small to medium sized; flesh white, juicy, sweet, melting, excellent flavour. Beurre Alexandre Lucas Tree: Vigorous , upright, spreading with age, quite hardy; a mod- heavy cropper. Triploid. Fruit: pi \=k October. Large , ripening yellow with a red fJush; flesh white. juicy, melting, arom. Beurre Bedford Tree: Compact, upright, good cropper. Not a good pollinator. Fruit: pick mid-late September. Large , ye ll ow, good flavour. Beurre d'Amanlis Tree: Vigorous, straggling , with a pendulous habit; needs plenty of room . A very hardy tree, cropping well. An old French variety; a triploid. Fruit: pick mid-late September. Pyriform . medium or large sized, yell owish-g reen , russetted; flesh yellowish, smooth, sweet, melting, very jui cy, good aroma, good fla vo ur in warm season. Beurre d'Anjou (Anjou, d'Anjou) Tree: Vigorous, hardy, early to start fruiting and a good cropper. An old French variety. Fruit: pick October. Conical , large, light green ; flesh white , firm , smooth (s lightl y gritty), melting, very j uicy, with a delicate aroma and ri ch flavour. Beurre d'Humboldt Tree : Of moderate vigour, usually a good regular cropper but sometimes biennial. Fruit: pick October. Calabash shaped, medium to large, fawn-yellow with patches of russet and greyish spots ; flesh white, very juicy and sweet, good flavour. Also good for cooking. Beurre de Jonghe Tree: Upright, a IitUe spreading, weak in vigour; a good cropper. An old Belgian pear. Fruit: pick October. Oval, medium sized, pale green fading to pale yellow , covered with patches of dull russet. Flesh cream coloured, smooth, pleasant flavour. Beurre Diel Tree: Vigorous, spreading, hardy, productive. A triploid. Needs a warm location. Fruit: pick October. Oval , large , dull yellow sometimes with a brown flush ; flesh white, sweet , melting, smooth when properly ripe otherwise tends to be coarse. Gd flavour when ripe- a problem in Brita in. Beurre Dumont (Dumont) Tree: Spreading, good cropper; old trees can become biennial. An old Belgian pear. Fruit pick October. Large , conical. greenish-yellow flushed cinnamon -brown; flesh white, very smooth and melting, sweet, juicy, aromatic. excellent flavour. 8eurre Giffard (Giffard) Tree: Moderately vigorous, spreading, productive. Very hardy old French variety. Fruit: pick August - September. Medium size, dull greenish-yellow, dotted and flushed red. Flesh tinged yellow, crisp, tender. juicy, aromatic, distinct refreshing vinous flavour. Beurre Hardy (Hardy) Tree: Vigorous , upright, slow to come into bearing , quite hardy. A regular heavy cropper in a warm position . Not a good pollinator as it sometimes sheds its pollen before the flowers open . Scarlet autumn co lours. An old French variety. Fruit: pick mid-September to October. just before it readily parts from the tree . Turbinate , large, yellowish-green, heavily patched with bronze russet and an occasional red flush. Flesh white or pinkish, smooth , juicy, sweet, aromatic, good flavour with hints of rosewater. Beurre Superfin Tree: Moderately vigorous, spread ing , and a moderate to good cropper. An old French pear. Fruit: pick mid-late September. Round to conical, medium sized, yellow with russet patches and a slightly rough skin ; flesh pale yellow, sweet, very smooth texture, delicate aroma , excellent flavour. Should be eaten when the skin is still fairly firm because it begins to ripen at the core. Also good for bottling and canning.
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Bristol Cross Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright at first but spreading with age. A very heavy cropper, freely spurring. Not a good pollinator as pollen is infertile. Good in wet areas. Not directly compa tible with Quince rootstocks. raised in the UK (Avon) in 1920. Fruit: pick mid-late September. Calabasse shaped , medium to large, greenish-yellow' with some golden russet. Flesh white , usually smooth but sometimes a little coarse textured, juicy, swee t, melting, slight aroma, moderate to good flavour. Calebasse Bose (Beurre Bose) Tree: Large , upright, straggling tree; very reliable and productive cropper. Fruit: pick October. Ca labasse shape, medium to la rge, dark yellow with brownish russetted skin; flesh white, tender, aromatic, juicy, smooth , good flavour. Also good for cooking and drying. Clapp's Favourite Tree: Vigorous, upright, hardy, very prolific cropper. From the USA. Fruit: pick August - September. Long ish oval , medium to large, pale yellow with red flush and streaks, smooth skinned; flesh pale yellow , smooth (sometimes a little coarse), crisp, sweet, slightly sub-acid, very juicy, fair flavour. Also good for canning . Concorde (Ma/Ung Concorde) Tree: Moderately vigorous , upright, precocious, very hea vy cropper. A recent British introduction: Doyenne du Com ice x Conference. Part self-fertile. Fruit: pick October. Medium to large, similar to Conference in appearance - light green turning to pale yellow as they ripen ; flesh melting, sweet, juicy, good quality and flavour. Conference Tree : Moderately vigorous, upright at first but spreading with age , fairly compact, we ll spurring, hardy. Regular, reliable and heavy cropper which comes into bearing at an early age. Bred in the UK (Berks), introduced in 1894. More susceptible than most to wind damage. Fruit: pick mid-late September. Calabash shaped, medium to large, dull green turning to greenish yellOW, with some gOlden-brown russet. Flesh creamy white with a pinkish tinge , sweet, very juicy, smooth texture, thin skin, melting pleasant flavour. May set fruit without pollination wh ich are often mis-shaped. Also quite good for cann ing and bottling. Doctor Jules Guyot (Erdelyi Mezes) Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright at first becoming slightly spreading, well spurred. Very heavy cropping, sometimes tending to bear biennially. Precocious , self-fertile. Fruit pick mid August - mid September. Oval-pyriform , medium to small , skin a little rough , pale yellow with faint flush and russet dots or patches; flesh white, smooth, fair flavour. Doyenne d'Ete (Doyenne de Juillet) Tree : Of weak growth, a small upright tree but a heavy and regular cropper. Fruit: pick mid July - mid August. Small, conical, pale yellOW with a brownish-red flush; flesh white, smooth , swee t, very juicy, quite good flavour. Doyenne du Cornice (Cornice) Tree: Vigorous, upright, spreading with age. Needs a warm location for good cropping, which is then regular and moderate. An old French variety; su lphur-shy. Fruit: pick October, in several batches, leaving as late as possible. Turbinate to oval-pyriform, large, pale yellow, with a sl ight red flush & fine russet around sta lk & eye. Flesh white, smooth , juicy, v.sweet, melting, rich flavour; thick skin. Also good for bottling and canning. Duchesse d'Angouleme Tree: Vigorous, upright. hardy. Cropping very good . Fruit: pick late October. Very large, round, yellowish-green with dots and patches of brown-red russet; flesh almost white, very tender , sweet, juicy, aromatic, good flavour and quality. Durondeau Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright, compact , very hardy, a regular and heavy cropper. Autumn foliage is crimson. An old Belgian pear, part self-ferti le and quite hardy. Fruit pick late September - late October (leave as long as possible). Long conical, quite large, yellow with a red flush; flesh white, sweet, juicy, melting , sub-acid and refreshing, good flavour and quality; skin medium to thick. Can set fruits of good flavour without po llination .
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Easter Beurre (Bergamotte d'Pentacote, Beurre Easter) Tree: Vigorous , a moderate cropper. Li kes a warm site. Fruit pick October. Pyriform, medium size, yellowish-green with patches of russet ; flesh white, tender, aromatic, juicy, sweet. melting, with an unusual musk flavour. Emile d'Heyst (Beurre d'Esperen) Tree: Weak to moderate growth, making a spreading, pendulous semi-dwarfing tree. Hardy and heavy cropping; attractive autumn colour . An old Belgian variety. Fru it: ,pick late September - October. Oval, small , pale yellow with much russetting , skin a little rough; flesh white , smooth, v.juicy, v.sweet , melting , sub-acid , good rose-water fla vour. Fertility Tree : Moderately vigorous , upright at first , then tending to spread. Makes a pyramidal tree . Cropping extremely heavy - may need thinning. An old English va riety . Fruit: pick mid -late September. Round to conical, small. pale yellow covered with russet , rough skinned; flesh white or greenish-white, juicy, fair to poor flavour. Liable to storage rots . Fin du Dixneuvieme Siecle (Santa Claus, Soeur Gregoire) Tree : Vigorous, upright. Cropping moderate. Leaves turn claret red in Autumn. An old French pear, needs a warm site. Fruit: pick October. Roundish-conical, ve ry large , dull brownish-red , covered in russet ; flesh creamy wh ite, smooth to gritty, sweet, melting , exce llent flavour. Fondante d'Automne (Belle Lucrative) Tree : Small, spreading , semi-dwarfing habit. Hardy; cropping reliable and good to heavy. Will not pollinate Louise Bonne, Seckel or Williams ' BC. Foliage red in Autumn. Fruit: pick September (while still green). Short, roundish, smooth , green with patches of brown russet. ripening yellow; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, excellent musky flavour. Forelle (Trout Pear) Tree : Vigorous (though rather dwarfed on Quince), spreading , cropping moderate. Fruit: pick October. Short pyriform, medium size, greenish-yellow with brilliant scarlet flush and many dots, skin smooth; flesh white, smooth. sweet, delicate aromatic flavour. Glou Marceau (Beurre d'Arenberg, Beurre de Hardenpont) Tree : Moderate to vigorous growth, compact , spreading , needs a warm location . Crops regularly and heavily and sometimes needs thinning . Fruit: pick October-November (over a long period , needing a number of pickings). Ovalpyriform, medium to large , greenish-yellow ripening to yellow in store , smooth skinned; flesh white, smooth, me lting, very sweet. rich excellent flavour . Glow Red Williams Tree : A sport of Williams' Be . Leaves , shoots and fruits all have considerable red colouring, making it more resistant to fungus diseases. Fruit: pick late August - early September. Crimson skinned . more disease-resistant than Williams '. Gorham Tree : Moderately vigorous , upright and well spurred . Hardy, moderate to good cropper. Raised in the USA in 1910: Williams' BC x Josephine de Malines . Fruit: pick late August - early September. Conical-pyriform, small to medium, greenish-yellow with russet, smooth skinned; flesh white, tender, juicy, sweet, good musky flavour. Good for canning and bottling (retains white colour). Harrow Delight Tree : Hardy, productive. A recent Canadian introduction showing impressive fireblight resistance. A cross involving Williams ' BC. Frui t: pick August. Pyriform , medium sized , yellow with a red flush ; flesh smooth . juicy, good quality and flavour. Harvest Queen Tree: Productive, hardy. A recent Canadian introduction showing impressive fireblight resistance. A cross involving Williams' BC. Fru it: pick August. Medium size; flesh good quality.
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Hessle Tree : Vigorous , upright, spreading with age: very hardy , and cropping is excellent. Originated in Yorkshire (N.England). Fruit: pick October. Round to conical, small, pale yellowish-brown with ru sset dots, fairly smooth skin; flesh pale yellow, juicy, a littl e sweet, pleasant. Good for cooking also. Huyshe's Bergamot (Bergamotte d'Esperen, Bergamotte Esperen) I.mg: Upright, spreading, part se lf-fertile, a prolific cropper in a good location. Likes a warm position - not suitab le for wet or cold areas. An old Belgian variety. Fruit pick October. Round to conical, medium sized , greenish yellow with dark russet patches. Flesh pale yell ow, very smooth, soft, aromatic, excellent flavour in a good season. A good keeper. Improved Fertility Tree: Moderately vigorous , upright at first but spreading with age. Hardy and cropping very heaVily. A sport of Fertility, part serf-fertile (a tetraploid). Fruit pick mid-late September. Round to con ical, small, yellow, heavil y russetted; flesh white to greenish -white , firm , coarse, ju icy, sweet. fair flavour. Needs thinning , otherwise fruits are too small. Jargonelle (Bloodgood, English Jargonelle, Epargne) Tree: Moderately vigorous, straggling, with long spreading branches: heavy cropping . Will tolerate low light levels . A tip bearer and triploid. Not very compatible with Quince rootstocks. Fruit: pick early August. Long conical, medium sized, greenish-yellow with a slight flush ; flesh pale yellow, sweet, very tender and juicy, good slightly musky flavour. Jeanne d'Arc Tree: Weak, upright habit; early to start cropping, which is regular. An old French variety. Fruit: pick late October (as late as possible). Pyriform , medium sized , lemon yellow when ripe , skin fairly smooth; flesh white, smooth although a little coarse around the core , very juicy, sweet sub-acid, flavour strong and sligh tly aromatic. Josephine de Malines Tree: Weeping , moderate growth (very small on Quince) , very reliable , hardy and heavy cropping. A tip bearer which likes a warm location. Fruit: pick October (as late as possible). Short conical, small to medium, pale green and yellow with russet around stalk; flesh pinkish at centre , very smooth, melting , sweet, aromatic, fine flavour. Laxton's Early Market Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright. Raised in the UK (Beds): Marie-Louise x Doyenne d'Etat Fruit: pick mid-late July. Conic or short pyriform, small to medium , yellow with extensive dull red flush and stripes; flesh white, soft, smooth , juicy, sweet, slightly sub-acid. Laxton's foremost Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright, good cropper. Raised in the UK (beds): Fruit: pick mid-late Septembe r. Conic, medium to large, yellow with occasional faint red flush and stripes , comp letely russetted; flesh wh ite , soft, coarse, very juicy, sweet, fine flavour. Laxton's Satisfaction Tree: Compact, upright, cropping good. Raised in the UK (beds). Fruit: pick October. Large , bright yellow with russet patches and a red flush ; flesh white, tender, juicy, sweet, excellent fla vou r. Laxton's Superb Tree: Vigorous, an excellent cropper. Highly susceptible to fireblight and no longer grown. Fruit: pick early-mid August (over several pickings) . Medium sized, ye ll ow flushed red; flesh juicy, good flavour. Laxton's Victor Tree: Raised in the UK (beds). Fruit: pick October.
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Legipont (Fondante de Charneu) Tree: Medium to strong vigour , crops well and regularly. An old Belgian pear. Fruit: pick late September. Long pyriform, medium size , green shaded with pale yellow and covered with large roundish grey spots, sometimes slightly flushed red; flesh white, smooth, juicy, sweet , sub-acid , aromatic, good flavour. Also good for canning and bottling. Can bear crops without pollination. Louise Bonne of Jersey Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright, spreading with age. Hardy and an excellent regu lar cropper. Will not pollinate Fondante d'Automne. Not very compatib ly with Quince. Fruit: pick m id-late September. Pyriform, medium sized, yellowish-green with red flush and spots; flesh wh ite, smooth, melting, sweet, slightly sub-acid , aromatic, good flavour. Marguerite Marillat Tree: Vigorous , ve ry upright with stout shoots. Cropping exceptionally good , borne on small upright branches. Not very compatible with Quince . A poor pollinator, but partly self-fertile. Fruit: pick September. Long calebasse (irregular), very large, golden yellow with brilliant red flush and slight russet, skin a littl e rough; flesh pa le yellow, very juicy, fair flavour. Marie-Louise (Marie-Louise De/court) Tree: Moderate to weak vig our, spreading, stragg ling , hardy; cropping good but slow to start. Not very compatible with quince. Fruit pick October. Long ova l, med i um size , pa le green to yel low with patches of russet, skin smooth; flesh white, a little coarse, juicy, flavour distinctive and good. Merton Pride Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright, hardy, freely spurrin g, regu lar and light to good cropper (but sometimes bie nnial). Not compatible with Quince. Raised in the UK: Williams' BC x Glou Morceau . Not a good pollinator. Fruit: pick early-mid September. Conical to pyriform. large, golden yellow with brown russet; flesh melting , smooth , juicy, fine texture, excellent flavour. Merton Star Tree: Of weak growth and sparse branches but which spur freely. Cropping quite good. Fruit: pick early-mid September. Conica l to pyriform , medium size , greenish yellow with patches of golden-brown russet; flesh creamy white, smooth , firm, juicy, good flavour. Nouveau Poiteau Tree: Fruit: pick October. Oval-pyriform, large, pale greenish -ye ll ow almost comp letely covered with russet and a slight red flush; flesh sweet, very melting and rich flavour. Olivier de Serres Tree: Of weak growth, making a small dwarfish , spreading tree. Cropping irregular. Needs a warm sheltered position. An old French variety. Fruit: pick late October. Round , small to medium in size , olive green with a rough fawn russet; flesh wh ite , half melting, smooth, juicy, with a good bri sk musk flavour. Onward Tree: Moderately vigorous , upright but spreading with age , well spurred. Cropping regular and good. Raised in 1948 in the UK (Surrey): Laxton's Superb x Doyenne du Cornice. Fruit: pick early-mid September. Short conical to bergamot, med-Iarge, pale ye ll ow green, patches of brown russet and pink ish red flush; flesh creamy white, smooth , soft , juicy, sweet, exc. flavour. Packham's Triumph Tree: Of weak to moderate vigour, compact, upright, moderately spreading, spurs freely. Crops heavily and regu larly but has a tendency to drop the crop. Needs a warm sheltered position. Not compatible with Qu in ce . Raised in Australia (NSW) about 1896: probably Uvedale's St Germain x Williams' Be. Requi res only low win ter chilling. Fruit: pick late September - October (leave as late as possible). Conical-pyriform, medium size, bright yellow with russet mottling and sometimes a faint orange flush; flesh white, smooth , juicy, sweet, flavour good if properly ripened.
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Passe Crassane Tree: Of weak to moderate vigour, compact and bushy , well spurred, hardy; cropping fair. Needs a warm position and ample water during the growing season. Has a tendency to flower for a second period, hence very susceptible to fireblight. An old French variety. . Fruit: pick late October (as late as possible). Round oval (uneven), large, dull pale greenishyellow flushed slightly orange when ripe, with spots of russet and patches of fawn around the stem, sk in rough; flesh white, smooth, very juicy, flavour very good - sub-acid with slight aniseed hint. Pitmaston Duchess Tree : Very vigorous, upright but spreading with age makes an open tree ; cropping good to "heaVy. A trip loid from the UK (Worcs) around 1865: Ouchesse d'Angouleme x Glou Morceau. Fruit: pick mid-late September. Pyriform, very large (often averaging 500g/1 Ib or more each), pale yellow with brown russet and a slight reddish flush, skin slightly rough but thin; flesh creamy white, smooth, very juicy, slightly sub-acid, excellent flavour. A good dual purpose variety, also suited to aU culinary uses including bottling and canning. Precoce de Trevoux Tree : Low to moderate growth, cropping regular and very good. Starts bearing early. Fruit pick mid-late August. Pyriform or conical, sma ll to medium, yellow speck led with greenish dots and streaked light red; flesh white, smooth, juicy, sweet, slightly sub-aCid. Roosevelt Tree: Vigorous growth, compact, upright; cropping very good. A Fren ch variety. Fruit: pick October. Oval, very large, golden yellow flushed red with conspicuous dots, skin SmOoth; flesh white, juicy, melting, aromatic, sweet, flavour quite good to good. Seckel (Seck/e) Tree: Of weak growth, slender , upright, compact. Cropping fairly reliable, moderate to good. Needs a warm position and best on pear rootstock. From the USA; part self-fertile. Fruit: pick October. Round, oval, small, dark brownish-red with white dots, skin rough; flesh yellow, tender, smooth , juicy, v.sweet & rich, exc aromatic sp icy flav. Gd for cooking, canning. Souvenir du Congres Tree : Moderately vigorous, upright, spreading, well spurred; cropping good , part self-fertile . Not compatib le with Quince. An old French variety. Fruit: pick September. Calabasse shape, large , bright yellow with red flush and streaks of cinnamon russet; flesh yellowish, smooth, very sweet, juicy, musky flavour. Thompson's Tree: Moderately vigorous, upright, cropping fair to good (irregular), hardy. Leaves turn red in Autumn. Not compatible with Quince. Best in a warm location. Fruit; pick late September - October. Oval pyriform, quite large, pale golden yellow with russet, skin rough; flesh white , smooth, sweet, juicy, buttery, excellent flavour. Triomphe de Vienne Tree : Of low vigour, hardy, cropping heavy and very reliable. An old French variety. Fruit: pick late August - mid September. Pyriform-oval , small to medium, yellow with a re d flush and russet patches, skin smooth; flesh white, v.smooth, sweet, v.juicy , good flavour. Williams' Bon Chretien (Bartlett) Tree: Moderately vigorou s, quite spreading, quite hardy, well spurred and a good cropper. Prone to forming water shoots at the inside of the tree. Not v.compat. with Quince rootstocks. Fru it: pick mid-late August. Pyriform, medium to large, pale green turning to golden-yellow with patches of russet and numerous russet dots and red streaks on the sunny side , skin smooth; flesh white, very smooth , sweet, juicy, slightly su b-acid , with a good strong musky flavour. Good for bottling and canning , and grown commercially on a large scale. Winter Nelis Tree: Of weak to moderate growth (good on pear rl s) ; hardy and a regular, fairly gd cropper. Fruit: pick October. Round-conical, small, dull greenish-yellow covered with dark brown russe t: skin rough; flesh greenish-white, smooth, translucent, very sweet and juicy with a delicate perfume and outstanding rich flavour.
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References
Baker, H: The Fruit Garden Di splayed. Cassell, 1989. Facciola, S: Cornucopia. 1990 . HDRA Advisory Note: Pear tree pest and disease management. Newsl etter 129,1992. Hills, L 0 : The Good Fruit Guide, HDRA , 1984. MAnF Technical Bulletin 26: Flowering Periods of Tree and Bush Fruits. HMSQ, 1973. MAFF Bulletin 133: Apples and Pears. HMSQ, 1958. MAFF Bulletin 208: Pears. HMSO, 1973. MAFF leaflet 571: Fireblight of Apple and Pear. HMSO , 1984. Moore, J N & 8allin9ton , J R: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops , Vol. 2. ISHS , 1990.
RHS: RHS Dictionary of Gardening . 1992.

Phillips , 0 H & Burdekin , 0 A: Diseases of Forest and Ornamental Trees. Macmillan, 1992. Schaffer, 8 & Andersen, P C: Handbook of Environmental Physiology of Fruit Crops, V 1. eRG Press , 1994. Simmons, A: Simmons Manual of Fruit. David & Charles, 1978. Whea ly, K & Demuth,S; Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Pub li cations, 1993 .
Suppliers
For home-propagators, 8rogdale can supply grafting wood of several hundred varieties. Otherwise, there are a good range of varieties available in the UK from the following nurseries:
J C All grove Ltd, The Nursery, Middle Green, Langley, Bucks. Tel: 01753-520155.
Brogdale Horticultural Trust, Brogdale,Farm, 8rogdale Road, Faversham, Kent, ME13 8XZ Chris Bowers & Sons, Whispering Trees Nursery, Wimbotsham, Norfolk, PE34 80B. Tel: 01366-388752. Deacon's Nursery, Moor View, Godshill, Isle of Wight, P038 3HW. Tel : 01983 -840750. Keepers Nursery, 446 Wateringbury Rd, East Mailing, Kent, ME19 6JJ. Tel: 01622-813008. R V Roger Ltd , The Nurseries, Pickering, N Yorks, Y018 7HG. Tel: 01751 -472226. Scotts Nurseries (Merriott) ltd , Merriott, Somerset, TA16 5PL . Tel: 01469-72306. Thornhayes Nursery, St Andrews Wood, Dulford , Cu ll ompton, Devon , EX15 2DF. Tel: 01884246746.
J Tweedie Fruit Trees , Maryfield Road Nursery, Maryfield, Nr Terreg les, Dumfries, DG2 9TH.
Tel: 01387-720880.
Perry and Asian pears will be covered in Agroforestry News, Vol 5 No 1 (October 96).
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Mycorrhizas
Introduction
Mycorrhizas are specialised structures which develop where certain fungi co lonise the tissues of fine roots. The fungi help in the mineral nutrition of the plant in return for carbohyd rates and other substances such as vitamin s. Th is mutually beneficial relationship is ca lled symbiotic or a symbiosis . It has become evident over the last 20 years than most woody species, and many perennials and annuals as well (eg. cerea ls, grasses, clovers). not only form mycrorrhizal relationships wit h various species of fungi , but sometimes depend on them for healthy growth and survival. Some orchids and pines, for example, cannot grow normally without specific mycorrhizal fungi. In the symbiosis, the fungal threads (hyphae) permeate the soil more intimately than plants roots and take up nutrients and water which they then transfer to the plant ; their ma in action is to improve mineral nutrient uptake, particularly of phosphorus but also of boron , copper, nitrogen, potassium, selenium, sulphur and zinc. The mycorrhizal association can also reduce drought and temperature stress , increase root longevity, improve nitrogen fixation (in legume s and other N-fixing plants) and provide protection from some pathogens (eg pathogenic fungi) . The hyphae can also directly transfer nitrogen and phosphorus from a plant rich in the mineral to one poor in it, thus forming a route for nitrogen-fixers and dynamic accumulators to directly aid other plants. Growth of plants wit h mycorrhizae in ideal conditions can be 4-5 times a much as Si milar plants without. Mycorrhizas tolerate a wide range of soils types and pH , but they are much reduced by soil disturbance, bare soils , and by excess nitrogen (hence many modern agricultural practices are detrimental). The turnover of hyphae is very rapid , thus they can respond more Quickly to cha nges in soil conditions than roots . In a healthy ecosystem, mycrorrhizal mats are formed of many species, covering virtually the whole of the topsoil volume and linking with many species of plants . The rate of mineral soil weathering is accelerated by a healthy mycorrhizal commun ity. There are 4 main groups of mycorrhizas found on the roots of woody plants, each associated with certain families of plant; a fifth is associated with the Orchidaceae (orchids) . The 4 main groups concerned with woody species are:
Group A (Ectomycorrhizas)
Plant hosts: Family Aceraceae Betulaceae Genus Acer Alnus Betula Carpinus Corylus Castanea Common name Maples Alders Birches Hornbeams Hazels Chestnuts
Fagaceae
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Family Fagaceae Juglanaceae Pinaceae
Genus Fagus Quercus Carya Juglans Abies Cedrus Larix Picea Pinus Pseudotsuga Tsuga Populus Salix
TiUa
Common name Beeches Oaks Hickories, Pecan Walnuts Firs Cedars Larches Spruces Pines Douglas fir Hemlocks Poplars Willows Limes Strawberry trees Manzanitas Eucalyptus
Salicaceae Tiliaceae Ericaceae Myrtaceae
Arbutus Arctostaphylos Eucalyptus
These are formed by many of the common forest mushroom species , mainly in the Basidiomycetes family [ego species of Agaricus, Agrocybe, Amanita, Boletus, Cantharellus, Chroogomphus, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Gomphidius, Hygrocybe, Hygrophorus, Inocybe, Laccaria, Lactarius, Leccinium, Phofiota, Pisolithus, Russula, Scleroderma, Suiflus, Trich%maJ, but also by a few Ascomycetes [eg o species of Tuber (truffles)]. Some are found mainly with young plants and are called 'early stage fungi ' eg o Thelephora spp. while others occur only with fairly mature trees (,late stage fungi ' ) . eg o Amanita, Russula, Trich%ma . Most fungi are not hostspecific, with a few exceptions such as Chroogomphus, Gomphidius, Leccinium, and Suillus (eg. SuiJIus grevillii which is only found on larch and S.lakei with Douglas fir.) . Where fungi are hostspecific, it is usually to a whole genus , not a single species. Pisolithus tinctorius is a superior species which colonises the roots of most conifers and hardwoods under a broad range of grow!ng conditions
Epidermis Fungal sheath Epidermis
Fungal sheath
Ectomycorrhizal root ('''p.od f,~ M;lIec)

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Host receptivity (ie the number of fungi a plant species can form associations with) varies widely; for example, alders (Alnus spp) have relatively few associates , whereas Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga) has perhaps 2,000. Typical woodland trees may be associating with 10-20 mycorrhizal species. Fungus ' preferences for host are indicated by the typical locations they are found in; ego Amanita citrina with beech. These mycorrhizas can be seen with the naked eye or a magnifying glass, because the fungus forms a sheath around the root tip, suppresses root hair formation , and usually alters the growth of short roots , encouraging many more short roots than would otherwise be the case. The root tips can be seen covered in white, and many fungal threads or strands can be seen around the root. Young plants in the nursery are commonly found with fruiting bodies of Laccaria proxima, L.laccata and Thelephora terrestris. Early stage fungi like these can improve the growth of young plants and reduce fatalities from root diseases .
Group B (Ectendomycorrhizas)
Plant hosts: Family Betulaceae Genus Common name Alders Birches Hornbeams Hazels
Alnus Betula Carpinus Cory/us Castanea Fagus Quercus
Fagaceae
Chestnuts Beeches Oaks Firs Cedars Larches Spruces Pines Douglas fir Hemlocks Poplars Willows
Pinaceae
Abies Cedrus Larix Picea Pinus Pseudotsuga Tsuga Populus Salix
Salicaceae
These appear to be adapted to high -stress or high-nutrient situations , and are particularly common in nurseries, especially with pines. They are formed mainly with species of Discomycetes (cup fungi, with fruiting bodies cup or saucer shaped). The structures are similar to those of group A, and can be seen similarly easily.
Group C (Endomycorrhizas)
Plant hosts: Family Betulaceae Genus Common name Alders
Alnus
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-~
-~-
-----Genus Cupressus Juniperus
-----~
Family
Cupressaceae Taxodiaceae
Common name
Cypresses Junipers
Redwood Poplars Willows
Sequioa
Populus Salix
Salicaceae
+ most other hardwoods excepting those listed for A & B.
These mycorrhizas form several different structures, but those with woody plants are usually known as VA (or AM) mycorrhiza. Here , the fungi involved belong to the Zygomycetes [ego G/omus sppj, a group which do not form obvious fruiting bodies but spread by soil-borne spores and physical contact (and thus are not well adapted for widespread dissemination). These mycorrhizas are not easily visible as they do not form sheaths, nor do they suppress root hairs; instead , they penetrate the root and grow between and within cells through the root cortex. There is little fungus-host specificity and Glomus species (for example) form mycorrhizas with nearly all species mentioned. Group C mycorrhizas are extremely good at utilising insoluble sources of phosphorus, for example rock phosphate.
Group 0 (Ericoid mycorrhizas)

Plant hosts: Family Ericaceae Genus Arbutus Arctostaphylos Gal/una Gaultheria Oxydendrum Rhododendron Vaccinium Common name Strawberry trees Manzanitas Heathers Sourwood Rhododendron Blueberries, Cranberries
These are formed by, amongst others. the fungi Hymenoscyphus ericae & Oidiodendron griseum. A few members of the Ericaceae also readily form mycorrhizas of group A type, notably Arbutus and Arctostaphylos.
Mycorrhizas in nurseries
The benefits of mycorrhizas in nurseries are substantia l, including reduced loss of plants from root diseases, better stress tolerance (eg. from drought), better growth and increased rooting percentage of cuttings, a higher success with layering and possibly also better germination of difficult-to-start seeds. To maximise the beneficial conditions for mycarrhizas to form, it is important to: 1. Keep soil aeration high 2. Reduce or (better still) cease the use of fungicides 3. Do not overfeed plants with inorganic fertiliser. 4. Reduce handling of stock (which is detrimental to Group C especially) and preferably raise container-grown plants.
Page 32
Most Group A fungi in particular produce vast quantities of airborne spores which are circu lating in the air, especially in the common fru iting seasons (summer & autumn). In time, these are likely to land and inoculate seed beds and even container-grown plants. Further to the above, there has been great interest in recent years in the possibilities of active inoculation of young plant roots with relevant mycorrhizal fungi species . This procedure is likely to greatly increase the chances of mycorrhizas forming on nursery plants, and increase their health and growth not only in the nursery but also after planting out. Inoculation is usually via spores or vegetative mycelium , which can either be introduced into seedbeds or potting composts, or mixed to form a slurry into which plant roots are dipped or which is watered onto seed beds or containers , drenching them well [this last procedure may not be as effective, since UV light has adverse effects on spores). This procedure is now becom ing common in parts of North America, notably with pine seedbeds and Piso/ithus tinctoria (Group A); and Douglas fir nursery beds with Rhizopogon vinicofor (Group A). One way of inoculating young plants is to gather sufficient (a handful or so) mycorrhizal roots from an established plant, mix these with water and liquidise , then use this mix either as a root dip or use water it thoroughly straight onto the seed bed or containers. In theory, spores of some fungi can be collected by gathering their fruiting bodies (mushrooms) at maturity; however, this may be time consuming and the spores need to be utilised quickly as they do not store well. Mycorrhizal root dip inoculants are starting to become commercia ll y available, and as far as we know, the Agroforestry Research Trust is the first to use these in Britain. From spring 1996, all our nursery stock (both for our own use and for sale) has been inoculated with a mixture of spores of Entrephosphora columbiana, Glomus etunicatum, Glomus ctarum, & other Glomus species [all group C) plus Pisolithus tinctoria [group A).
Mycorrhizas in gardens
Mycorrhizas shou ld form by themselves given time, from the huge number of spores circulating in the atmosphere. To speed up new populations (for example, where few woody plants have been grown before) , the best method is to remove a few handfuls of soil from beneath nearby similar species (only to a depth of a few cm/a couple of inches) and spread this around each new plant.
References
Aldhous, J R & Mason, W L: Forest Nursery Practice. Fe Bulletin 111, HMSO, 1994. Kiflham , K: Soil Ecology. Camb rid ge University Pre ss, 1994. Macdonald, B: Practical Plant propagation for Nursery Growers. Batsford , 1990. Miller, 0 0: Mycorrhizae of Nut Trees. In NNGA 77th Annua l Report, 1986. Read , 0 J et al: Mycorrhizas in Ecosystems. CAB International, 1992. Troeh , F R & Thompson, L M: Soils and Soil Fertility. Oxford University Press, 1993.
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Book Reviews
Cherries: Crop Physiology, Production and Uses
A D Webster & N E Looney (Editors)
CAB International. 1995; 513 pp; 85.00 ISBIl 0-85198-936-5.
This large volume is probably the most comprehensive text written on the subject of sweet and sou r cherries. Cherries, especially sweet cherries , remain a very popular fruit crop and they are grown commercially in over 40 countries of the world. In the last 25 yea rs major advances have been made with new varieties being bred with improved fruit size, better disease resistance and more reliable fruit set. New dwarfing rootstocks are also being introduced , which will revolutionise cultivation and make protection from bird damage Quite feasible.
This book provides a comprehensive review of all these topics and all aspects of the botany, production and use of sweet and sour cherries, making it a definitive reference work for fruit growers. It is divided into five main sections. The Introduction covers the taxonomy of sweet and sour cherries (plus short descriptions of other cherry species cultivated for fruits) , a brief history of their cultivatio n, and statistics about world -wide distribution and production. ' Plant Materials' covers sweet and sour cherry cultivars (with good descriptions of all the main varieties in the world, in clud in g many unknown in the UK), and rootstocks. 'Crop Physiology and Husbandry' includes the propagation of cherries, orchard selection (including climatic requirements), planning and establishment, flowering and pollination , nutrient and water requirements, pruning and training. 'Crop Protection' covers orcha rd floor vegetation management (includ ing the use of mulches and green manures) and cherry diseases, pests and disorders (contro l measures described include chemical, biological and behavioural controls). 'Harvesting, Handling and Utilisation' covers harvesting, handling and methods of processing fruit including canning, freezing , drying, preserves, jui ces and wines/ liqueurs.
Mushrooms: The Art of Cultivation

Brig. Harmander Singh (Retd.) .
Sterling Publishers Private Limited , 1991 ; 120 pp; 9.00 ; distributed by Cardiff Academic Press ISBN 81-207-13 16-8 This useful small book is written and published in India, with the aim to enable mushrooms to be grown with the least investment and with whatever materials are conveniently to hand; this aim makes it an excellent text for folk in temperate climates to approach mushroom cultivation in a low cost and low-tech way, es pecially as the book concentrates on the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus). An overview described the three main operations in mushroom cultivation: composting , spawning and casing. Shelf and tray growing systems are then described (with useful tips such as using discarded app le boxes, packing cases etc.) as well as the system of growing in large polythene bags (the advantage of which is that they are discarded after a crop, making hygiene easier). Buildings and layouts are covered for the more commercially-scaled venture. The three main operation s are then covered in detail. Composting, the most important stage, in volved stacking and turning a straw-manure mix; at the correct temperature this is placed in trays or beds. Spawning is then undertaken, and the mixture tamped down. Two to three weeks later, the compost is covered ('cased ' ) with special sterilised soil (a peat-chalk mixture is used in the UK; alternative
Page 34
soil.sand mixes are given here) and kept warm. In a further two to three weeks , cropping begins and continues for 68 weeks. Other topics covered include crop management, cropping, pests and diseases (unfortunately, only chemica l control measures are mentioned), and hygiene (of vital importance, especially for the organic grower). The cultivation of three other species is briefly des cribed: Agaricus bitorquis, Pleurotus osfreatus (the Oyster mushroom) and Volvarea volvacea (grown on straw). which are equally suited to temperate areas . A selection of mushroom recipes end the book .
How To Make A Forest Garden

Patrick Whitefield
Permanent Publications, 1996; 192 pp; 14.95 ISBN 1-85623-008-2 This longawaited book is a welcome addition to the practical information available to prospective forest gardeners. It is a stepbystep guide to creating a forest garden, going into more detail and assuming less expertise than Robert Hart's seminal Forest Gardening. The first two chapters discuss the reasons why one might want to grow a forest garden, and gives an overview of what a forest garden consists of. It's good to see here a discussion of true food yields ie inputs compared with outputs, as well as the oft-forgotten fact that food is produced in small areas (gardens) at much higher productivity than on a farm scale. It is also good to see a section on the commercial possibilities: these tend, though . to be rather simpler agroforestry systems, like aJley crops of vegetables between lines of dwarf fruit trees. Proper emphasis is made . though , of the fact that forest gardens are suited first and foremost as home gardens. because the diversity which is desirable makes harvesting a single product slower and therefore commercia ll y more expensive . The next two chapters look at the principles of forest garden design: looking at the piece of land and the needs of its stewa rds . light and shade , concepts for different layouts, access, plant spacing (especially of trees and shrubs) and interactions (Patrick is somewhat doubtful about the positive benefits of aromatic herbs on other plants), succession and the stages of planting. taking account and advantage of microclimates, and soils. The use of nitrogenfixing plants and dynamiC accumulators is also covered, though I'd like to have seen a few more species mentioned here; and there is an omission in describing the ways other plants can benefit from nitrogen fixers that of regular root turnover in the N-fixing plant, which is estimated to add as much nitrogen to the soil as the leaf litter itself. Pest control rightly concentrates on slugs which are ca n certainly be a problem in the early stages of a forest garden; the control measures suggested are to encourage frogs or keep ducks. The next chapter covers preparation. planting and maintenance. A good review of mulches (includ ing using clearance mulches prior to planting) is followed by a section on planting. Proper emphasis is given on planting enough low plants to make an effective ground cover quickly, otherwise " .. the forest garden can become a source of endless work rather than the low-maintenance garden it was intended to be." Maintenance covers feeding (via mulches of compost etc. and liquid manures), a general attitude to pests and diseases, and how to approach the maintenance of self-seeding annual plants and perennials. The next four chapters concentrate on choosing plants for the garden. which are restricted to those with edible products. This starts with a general discussion of climate, soil and other effects ; sho rt lists are given of plants for coastal sites, frosty sites and chalky and poorly drained soils. An excellent section describes how to choose fruit varieties, and includes a list
Page 35
on trees covers seven 'obvious' ones and about a dozen others. A little more informatio about what to look for in choosing varieties of these tree crops may have been useful. Th chapter on shrubs (inc luding climbers) covers nine 'o bvious ' ones and over a dozen others more would ha ve been nice. The chapter on vegetables describes over 60 an nual an perennial ed ible plants, plus a short section on mushrooms. These usually (but not always include reco mmended planting distances which will form a reasonable ground cover.
Fi,n ally, there is a ve ry useful chapter which follows the actual design process for a real-lif e*ample, where all the information in the book is brought together to make a garden design. li s t of further reading and suppliers of plants and seeds completes th e book. Eight larg colour plates and many black & white photographs and line drawings are also included.
This book will hopefully encourage mainstream and other gardeners, wary at present to star planting trees and shrubs in their food garden s, to do just that. Every practica Permaculturalist and budding or existing forest gardener should find it excellent reading.
How To Make A Forest Garden is available from the A.R. T. for 17.20 including postage & packing in the UK (Ee/Europe 18.70, elsewhere worldwide 21.00 including air ma postage.)
Edible Mushrooms & Other Fungi

Michael Jordan
Blandford (Cassell), 1995; 128 pp; 9.99 ISBN 0-7137-2586-9
At last, a book de voted to the edible fungi hunter! Edible Mushrooms & Other Fungi contain~ details on over 90 species of edible fungi found in Britain and across Europe. A page i devoted to each mushroom , with details of where to find them and at what tim e of year detailed notes on identification , culinary advice often with a recipe , and a good quality colou photograph. The introdu ction briefly covers the history of mushroom use in Europe identification, and has a sensible discussion on the dangers of poisonous species. A fina chapter covers preparation and cooking in more detail. The book should prove valuable te anyone interested in hunting for edibl e fungi.
Food and Feed from Legumes and Oilseeds

E Nwokolo & J Smartt (Eds)
Chapman & Hall , 1996;419 pp; 59.00 ISBN 0-412-45930-2
The first half of this book argues the need to increase co nsu mpti on of pulses in the developing world, and goes on to detail many of the annual legum es suited mainly to tropica climates, though lupins, faba beans , runner beans, peanuts and soybeans are included. Ea ct has a chapter devoted to it which includes agronom y and botani cal notes , utilisation nutritional composition, and anti nutritional factors (ie substances, often poisonous, whict need processing or removal to ensure palatability). The second part of the book looks at oj crops , again mostly tropical but including sunflower. Neither the legume or oil crops sectiom include any information about tree or shrub crops. The book promotes high-tech solutions te overcome nutritional defi Ciencies and genetic engineering techniques to improve thE production and quality of food plants . Page 36
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No '
Black walnut (1): Silviculture

The black or American walnut. Juglans nigra, is one of the more neglected members of the walnut family, yet it is fast growing , bears edib le nuts of good quality, and produces an excellent timber of decorative quality that is much in demand, and will be increasingly so as unsustainab le supplies of tropical hardwoods run out. The first in the series about this fine tree concentrates on its cultivation for silviculture, already popular in North America and mainland (particularly Eastern) Europe.
Description
Juglans nigra is a large rounded tree, growing eventually to a height of 50 m and spread of 25 m in Eastern North Ame ri ca, where it is native ; but about half this size in Britain. It has a tall dark brown trunk with deeply furrowed bark. Young branches are downy .
Leaves are compound, 30-60 cm (1-2 tt) long, with 15-23 ovate leaflets each 6-12 cm (2.5-5~) long ; they are dark green, somewhat downy beneath but shiny above, and often have a very sma ll or absent termina l leaf - a good identifier of the species. The foliage is abundant, more so than the common wa lnut (J.regia). Black walnuts forms mycorrhi zal associations with various species of fungi, notably Glomus species. Seedlings which have been inoculated with such fungi show increased growth.
Siting
Black walnuts need a site which is not susceptible to late spring frosts ; good light is also necessary. An ideal would be mid-slope on a sheltered South or so uth-west aspect. Soil requirements are fairly exacting: moderately fertife, deep, well drained, of medium texture and near neutral pH (6 to 7). Very sandy and clayey soils are un suitable, though growth is good on chalk and limestone where there is at least 60 cm (2 tt) depth of soi l. Because they are deep rooting, trees are very drought resistant once estab li shed. Warm summers are needed for the tree to th ri ve, and at present only the Southern half of Britain is really suitable unless the site is very favourable; however, with global warm in g, Northern England may be suitable within 10-20 years .
Planting & establishment

Seedling trees are the usual planting stock used for forestry (often undercut a year before planting to encourage a fibrous root system), althou gh there are a sma ll number of clones selected and propagated in North America. These may be useful for a small area, but represent a dangerously small genetic va ri ability for a forestry planting ; a min imu m mixture of 10-25 clones has been mooted as being sustainable in a forestry planting, and this number simply are not available at presen t. One cheaper option is to use a named selection with good timber form, or seedlings from it. The seedli ng s will be va ri able, of course, but a larger proportion will be of good form than trees from a random seed source. If
the parent was also late-leafing then most of the seedlings will inherit this trait which can b of great value in avoiding late frost damage . 'Fonthill ' is a selection made for good timbe form and both grafted trees and seedlings from this are available in North America 'Patterson ' and ' Putney' are also of good form : 'Purdue No l' is another which show exceptional timber form but also gives heavy yield s of nuts. If possible , plant out container-grown plants wh ich are not rootbound: bare-rooted transplan suffer a lot of stress on transplanting . Late Autumn is the best planting time. To establish stand , several optio n s are available: plant individual trees at 3-4 m (10 - 13 tt) spacin [equivalent to 625-1100 trees/Ha or 250-444 trees/acre) : or plant in small groups of 4-6 tree at 12-15 m (40-50 tt) spacing [equiva lent to 180-420 trees/Ha or 72-180 trees/acre): or plan in rows , 3-4 m between trees in rows with the rows 12- 15 m apart [equivalent to 170-28 tre es/Ha or 68-112 trees/acre). These l atter two planting schemes allow for wide spaces o alleys between trees , where intercropping can take place for several yea rs (see be low Another important facto r to consider is nut production : at close spacing, this is likely to b much suppressed , wh ile at the larger spacing there is good potential for fruiti ng. If nu production is a factor, then dual-purpose cultivars may need to be planted. The long-term aim is to finally obtain 40-88 trees/Ha [1 6-35 trees/acre), well spaced at 11 -1 m (50 ft) apart or so . Hence the close-spaced planting will require several gradual thinnings whereas the group planting will require just one th inning only a few years after planting t leave the best tree of each group. Direct seed in g of wa lnuts is another possibility. To protect from predator damage, they wi need to be protected with tree shelters which are driven in about 5 cm (2ft) to the soil. Prior t this, the seed, preferably pregerminated with the root emerging in spring, is buried about 2 mm (r) deep. Growth in this system is reportedly excellent and there is no transplantin shock. Good weed control around young trees up to the age of abo ut 10 yea rs is essent ial , especiall if moisture is going to be limiting . Grasses seem to be the most detrimental herbage in thi respect. A diameter of at least 1 m (3 ft) needs to be kept weed free , and using blac polythene mulch mats is probably the best way of achieving this. Many foresters would us herbicides but we do not advocate the use of chemicals .)
Intercropping
The intercrop should be small or slow growing, because the walnuts will need full overhead fight and ample side light. Suitable intercrops CQuid be cereals (winter cereals may be better, since most of their growth occurs while the walnuts are dormant) , grasses or forage for livestock (only if the walnuts were well protected), cutting hay, vegetables/market garden crops, Christmas trees etc. Sweet corn has been successfully intercropped in the USA. There is some evidence that if the intercrop is covering the soil well in the spring, then bud burst is delayed in the walnuts (presumably because the soil is slower to warm up); this may be an advantage in helping to avoid late spring frosts . Intercrops can be planted for 10-15 years after planting , depending on the alley width. Eventually the shading will reduce the viability for most intercrops unless they are shadetolerant. Various intercropping trials have been undertaken with nitrogen-fixing woody species in North America. The legume Black locust (Robinia pseudo acacia) will rapidly overtake and suppress walnut growth; but it could be interplanted and coppiced for polewood, firewood etc. It stimu lated growth of the black waln ut. Three actinorhizal nitrogen-fixers have also been tried, alder (Alnus glutinosa), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbelfata) and Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia). All three stimulated growth of black walnut trees (i ncreasing both height and stem diameter), but alder will presumably also overgrow the walnuts. Interplanting with Elaeagnus shrubs may have other significant benefits, for examp le increased shelter and decreased competition from grasses. The Elaeagnus eventually get shaded out, wh ile the alders eventually die out from jug lone allelopathy. Herbaceous nitrogen fixers also benefit the walnut trees, for example vetches and clovers. Interplanting with Hairy vetch (Vicia vil/osa) increased diameter and height growth better than crown vetch (Coronilla varia) and Lespedeza cuneata. One point to note is that black walnut has allelopathic effects on some other plants - ie suppresses their growth via the chemical Juglone. which is found in leaves and roots. This chemica l is rapidly degraded by soil bacteria, but nevertheless has detrimental effects (probably via root interactions) on apples and white pines in particular.
Pruning
Black wa lnuts don't have a ve ry strong central axis, and to ensure a sing le straight stem, formative pruning is necessary - for example to correct a forked leader. A clean, straight bole of at least 1.5-3 m (5-10 tt), preferably more (if possible, to 6 m/20 ft by the use of long pruning saws). is essential to ma ximise the value of the timber. Side branches of the bottom 2-3+ m (7-10+ ft) should be cut close to the stem with secateurs or a pruning saw before they become too thick (under 5 cm, 2~ in diameter). Pruning of large branches should be undertaken either in March, or in July or August , since cutting between these leads to excessive sap weeping. At anyone time, never prune higher than the lower 50% of the stem, or more than 33% of the crown, otherwise growth will be greatly reduced. Start pruning when trees are over 3 m (10 ft) tall.
Growth and thinning
Black walnut grows well in Britain, reaching about m high in 10 years. It has no significant pest or disease problems , and is less susceptible than the com mon walnut (J.regia) to honey funQ us (Armillaria mellea). The
only possible problem is with deer browsing on young trees; if these are numerous nearby then extra protection may be necessary. Rabbits also browse on winter shoots but trees are easily protected. For timber , black walnuts should be open grown, ie always with good side light to encourage well-developed crowns and ensure m aximum radial growth of the stem. For group plantings, a single thinning shou ld suffice a few years after planting when the best tree is clear. For individual plantings , thinning should begin well before any crown competition or canopy closure begins - the first thinning u sually within 10-15 years; a total of 5 thinnings may be necessary, roug hly once every 10-15 years. Final crop trees should be selected on the basis of vigour and stem quality (good straight length , free of scars and large knots, straight pattern of bark). For an initial planting at 3 x 3 m (10 x 10 tt) ( 1111 trees/Ha or 445 trees/acre), the thinning regime (based on North American experience) should be as follows (dbh = diameter at breast height):Takes place when dbh is: 8.6 em (3.4") 14.0 em (5.5") 21.1 em (8.3") 30.2 em (11.9") 42.4 em (16.7") No trees to remove No trees to leave
Thinning 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
508 trees/Ha (204 trees/acre) 603 trees/Ha (241 tr/acre) 268 trees/Ha (107 trees/acre) 335 trees/Ha (134 tr/acre) 147 trees/Ha (59 trees/acre) 188 trees/Ha (75 trIac) 83 trees/Ha (33 trees/acre) 105 trees/Ha (42 trees/acre) 45 trees/Ha (18 trees/acre) 60 trees/Ha (24 trees/acre)
Note that in this scenario, tree diameter is just large enough for the butts to be saleable for veneer at the time of the 4th thinning. In good conditions, the annual increment of stems can reach 1 cm (0.4 -) per year. On good sites, a stem diameter of 30 cm (1 tt) (the minimum required for saleable butts) is reached in about 40 years, but the diameter and value continue to increase. Hence rotation periods are flexible based on a minimum range of about 40-80 years.
Timber uses
The wood is a rich dark brown to purplish-black (with lighter sapwood), coarse and mostly straight grained, quite heavy. strong. very durable (resisting fungal and insect attack). heavy and hard . It dries rather slowly, is easy to work with hand or machine tools . holds nails and screws well. and polishes to a high finish giving a satiny surface. Good quality black walnut commands very high prices and is mostly used for slicing veneer for decorative purposes (cabinet work); other uses include rifle butts and high class joinery, plus uses in aircraft and shipbuilding , musical instruments , clock cases, carving and plywood manufacture. Some of the most attractive wood comes from the root crown area from which fine burr walnut veneers are obtained.
Cultivation of black walnut for nut production will be covered in Agroforestry News, Vol. 5 No.
1.
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;;,<w.-.f.lrestry is the integration of trees and agriculture/ horticulture I ,..:luce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing fool [;laterials, timber and other products. It can range from planting trees i pa~tures pro'/iding shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garde ,'},stem; incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and groun layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agmtorestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust fOt times" year in October, January, April. and July. SubsGription rates are:
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list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, availabl 011 request for 3 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per cop iacil.lding postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable t ' Agrof0Testry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestf'j Research Trus' 46 r''.Inters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK.
Agl'oforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No . 1007440), with III oiJjcct to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, an agrotorestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklet! Agroforestty News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donation and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which include various practical research projects.
_-:::o>_ _ _
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_ _ _ .. " . ,.-
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Agroforestry News
I
Volume 5 Number 1 October 1996
:0
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 5 Number 1
October 1996
Contents
2 3 8 14 20 24 News Black walnut (2): Uses Plants and Climate Change in Britain Forest Gardening: Climbers Hardy Citrus and citrange Book reviews: Review of Potential Effects of Climate
Change in the U.K. / Tree-Crop Interactions / Cultivated Plants of the World / Pruning & Training Fruit Trees / How To Identify Edible Mushrooms / No-Tillage Seeding / Forest Gardening / The Permaculture Plot
28 36
Perry Pears Asian Pears
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed , and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops , if unknown to the reader, should be tested ca refully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misu se of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K.
Page 1
News
Open days
OUf two open days this year went well, with about 15 people turning up on each occasion. The first in June was a warm sunny day, whilst the September day was typical Devon autumn weather - non-stop drizzly rain and a gale force wind . It should be interesting for people to see the forest garden and trials site as they mature and more gets planted; In future years we'll probably ha ve one open day per year in early autumn.
Hillier Arboretum
For those who haven 't heard of it, the Hillier- Arboretum , near Ramsey in Hampshire, is about 180 acres of mainly trees. shrubs and perennials , all labelled (some 42 ,000 species in all one of the largest in the world). It's a good place to visit to view unusual fruiting species etc., although there isn 't a public index to locate specific plants. In September some notable highlights were Japanese Raisin trees (Hovenia dulcis) flowering well (the flower stalks starting to swell to form the edible 'fruits'); Pepper trees (Zanthoxylum spp) laden with their spicy black fruits; numerous hawthorns (Crataegus spp) bearing fruits, including the deliciou s C.arnoldiana; Plum yews (Cepha/otaxus spp) fruiting well in both sun and shade ; Kiwi fruits climbing 12m (40 tt) into trees (with plenty of fruits 10m/30 tt up!); rare 'Nutmeg ' trees (Torreya spp) freely bearing their edible nuts; and a range of bamboos. The arboretum is open all year except over Christmas and entry is 4 . More details from: The Sir Harold Hillier Gardens & Arboretum, Jermyns Lane, Nr Ram sey, Hants, S051 OQA. Tel: 01794 368787.
Additions to 96/7 Plant List

The following are now available and didn't quite make it into the catalogue:Genista tinctoria 4.00 30-50 cm (12-20ft) Juniperus virginiana 3.50 10-20 cm (4_8") Ribes alpinum 3.50 10-15 cm (4-6") Pinus coulteri 3.50 10-20 cm (4-8") Zanthaxylum piperitum 5.0015-25 em (6-10") Pinus pumila 4.00 10- 15 em (4-6") Zizyphus jujube 4.00 15-20 em (6-8") Citrus x tatipes: Anather cald-hardy citrus, this is a hybrid from Asia which bears fruits edible raw ar cooked. Seems hardy to about -5 ar _1O o needs shelter indoors over the winter. 5.00,20-30 em (8-12").
e-
Prunella vulgaris : Self heal. A native perennial plant , growing in most soils as long as they ft are not tao dry. It grows to about 15 cm (6 ) high and makes a good ground cover in sun or part shade. The leaves are edible (need washing to remove bitterness) and have many medicinal effects. Bees and butterflies like the plant. Very hardy. 3.00, Perennial.
S~rbus latifolia: Service Tree of Fountainbleau. A small to medium sized tree from France , growing to 14 m (45 tt) high (4 min 10 years). Hardy to _20 C , wind tolerant , grows in most soils and in sun or part shade. The fruits (15 mm across), which ripen in October, are edible (usually after frosts or bletting) , with a delicious flavour. This Sorbus is immune to fireblight disease. 4.00, 15-20 em (6-8").
Vaccinium vitis-idaea: Cowberry, Mountain cranberry. An evergreen prostrate ericaceous shrub from Europe, growing 25 cm (10") high and spreading widely. Likes sun or part shade _ and an acid soil; hardy to _20C. The fruits, ripening in August-October , are edible, used like c ranberries ; plants are self-fertile, pollinated by bees . The leaves are medicinal and the plant makes a good ground cover. 4.00 , Trailing.
Page 2
New index to Agroforestry News

A new index is now available , covering Volumes 1-4. This is now a whole booklet on its own , hence it is for sale separately for 3.00 including postage (2.60 without postage if you're using the catalogue order form) from the A.R.T. at Dartington.
Black walnut (2): uses

Introduction
The black walnut, Juglans nigra, is native to Eastern North America (hence its alternative common names of Virginian walnut . American walnut, Eastern black walnut) , and has been cultivated for a long time in Europe, where it is now naturalised.
Natural range of the black walnut, Juglans nigra
Page 3
The black walnut is a large , fast growing , deciduous tree , growing up to 50 m (160 ft) high in its native habitat, though in Britain rarely more than half that. It is pyramidal when young , becoming spreading and round crowned with age though usually with a long trunk. It has brownish-black bark, deeply furrowed into diamond-shaped ridges , and downy young branches (an easy way to tell it apart from the Common or English walnut, Juglans regia). Leaves are compound, 30-60 cm (1-2 ft) long with 15-23 leaflets each about 6-12 cm (2Y-:-5 ") long ; they are fragrant when rubbed. The leaflets are a glossy dark green above and downy beneath; the terminal leaflet is often small or absent - another good identifying feature. The leaf stalk is 1-6 cm (Ya-2 Ya" ) long, often broadened at the base. Leaves turn a bright yellowishgold in autumn. Male catkins are 5-10 cm (2_4 ") long , developing from the leafaxils of the previous year's growth. Female flowers occur in terminal spikes of 2-5 small green flowers borne on the current year's shoots. Flowering takes place in Mayor early June in Britain, over a period of about 10 days . The flowers mature at different times on the tree (the females usually at peak receptivity about 4 days before the males are at peak pollen shed), so that self-fertility is usually limited. Flowering and fruiting of seedling trees begins at about 12-15 years of age. Pollination is via the wind . Fruits are borne singly or in pairs , round , 4-5 cm (2 -) wide, with a thick rough hull (husk) enclosing a single nut which is irregularly and longitudinally furrowed , with rough edges. The husks turn from green to yellowish-green when ripe , and usually drop intact with the nut inside. The nuts are 25-40 mm (1-1Ya") across (larger in some cultivars), thick-shelled and enclose an edible kernel. Fruiting often tends to biennial, with heavy crops every other year. The root system typically consists of a deep taproots which mat penetrate more than 2 m (7 tt), with long lateral roots and feeder roots that normally concentrate at a depth of 10-20 em (4-8 "). The tree is winter hardy to zone 4 or 5 (ie where average minimum winter temperatures reach -21 to _29 C). It casts quite a dark shade.
Uses
The unripe fruits are pickled in vinegar (husk and all) - a distinctly acquired taste.
Walnut, kernel halves and shell print from a 'Thomas' black walnut, real size.
Page 4 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 5 No 1
The nut kernels are of course ed ible - don't believe any books that say otherwise , or that say the nuts are inferior in ffavour to standard 'English' walnuts (J.regia ). The kernels of the black walnut have a fuller , richer, more robust flavour than English walnuts , which is retained on baking , hence many of the traditional Ame rican recipes using it are for baked foods including cakes , pies , breads etc. ; ice cream is another traditional use. The kernels are high in polyunsaturated fats , protein and carbohydrates, plus Vitamins A, B , C, and linoleic acid [20 .5g Protein , 59,3g fats, 14 .8g carbohydrates , 0.22 mg thiamine, 0 .1 1 mg riboflavin , 0.7 mg niacin per 1~Og]. They do not store well for longer than a fe w months. The only drawback is that black walnuts are one of the hardest nuts to crack , and many conventional nut crackers will not cope; several specialised crackers/extractors have been designed and are available in North America. There is now evidence that eating walnuts gives protection from heart disease. The oil expressed from the kernels is sweet and edible, used raw or cooked ; it does not keep for very long. The sap of the tree is edible, tapped in the same way as maple sap; it can be concentrated to make a syrup, or used to make wine, beer etc. The ground shells left over from removing kernels are used as an excellent abrasive (very hard, light, non-toxic, doesn't pit or scar) on stone , metals and plastics , and also as the gritty agent in some soap and dental cleansers (they are even used by NASA to clean the exterior surfaces of the space shuttle!); they are also used in paints, glue, wood cements and as a filler in dynamite. The husks (hulls) left over from husking machines are a valuable resource as a pasture fertiliser. They are high in nitrogen and phosphorus , and although they contain anti-germinant chemicals which can be detrimental to annual crops , perennial grasses and clovers thrive with a husk mulch ; earthworm populations are also stimulated . Each Kg of husked walnuts yields about 2 Kg of husks, hence large quantities of husks can soon be generated . The husks do not compost well (they are too heavy and a pile becomes anaerobic) and are best applied fresh to pasture. Recommendations from organic farmers in North America who use husks successfully are to apply at 10-15 tons per acre (25-38 tons/Ha , or 2.5-3.8 Kg/m2); a drawback about using it fresh in autumn is that husk breakdown may not be complete when winter temperatures stop grass growth , and leaching of the nutrients may then occur. However, spreading fermenting husks can result in chemical imbalance problems in the topsoil. Growth stimulation of the grasses begins within a short time of application - weeks rather than months. The bark, husks and leaves have aU been used in traditional medicine. All these parts contain jug lone , which is a chemical known to be antlhaemorrhagic (used to stop bleeding) and fungicidal/vermifugal (the leaves & husks are used against skin fungi like athletes foot and parasites like ringworm). An extract from the heartwood is used in treating equine laminitis. Fast dyes are obtained from the from husks, leaves , and bark. The husks readily stain the skin with a persistent brown stain , and have long been used to dye wood , hair, wool , linen and cotton. The bark and fresh green husks dye yellowiSh-brown with an alum mordant; the dye brown with an alum mordant; the dried husks dye golden brown (alum mordant) , dark brass (chrome mordant), coffee (cooper mordant), camel (tin mordant), charcoal grey (iron mordant) and light brown (no mordant). In the past the black walnut has been widely used as a rootstock for the common walnut, Juglans regia, but this is no longer recommended because of 'blackline disease' - a viral disease which causes a delayed failure of the graft union when the rootstock is a different species of walnut. The black walnut is highly valued as a timber tree in many areas , including North America (where it is native) and Austria , France, Germany, Hungary, Romania and (former) Yugoslavia in Europe; it is seen as a high-quality replacement for diminishing tropical hardwoods. American studies comparing the costs and returns of black walnut and Douglas fir plantations show the walnut to be about 7 times as profitable over an 80*year rotation .
Page 5
The timber is coarse and mostly straight grained, a rich dark brown to purplish-black with light sapwood, strong, tough , extremely durable, heavy and hard. It is easy to work and resistant to fungi and insect pests. It is valued for high quality cabinet work, joinery , shipbuilding, musical instruments, veneers, gunstocks, plywood; it also makes excellent fuel.
Agroforestry uses
The leaves of black walnuts contain a substance, jug lone, which has allelopathic (ie negative) effects ' on many other plants, including apples ; this occurs beneath and near the walnut canop/ where leachate from rain falling on leaves, leaf litter, and walnut root exudates can affect other plants . In practice, plants in alleys or gaps between walnuts are unlikely to be affected for some years - basically until the walnut roots and intercrop roots start to meet and mingle, which may be 10 or more years for plants in the centre of wide alleys. Juglone is rapidly degraded in the soil by bacteria, so that root-root contact is more likely to cause negative effects than juglone from leaf litter or leachate. Black walnuts can be intercropped with fenced pasture, for cutting hay, market gardening crops, arable crops, Christmas trees, nurse trees/short-rotation tree crops, or Nitrogen-fixing shrubs. Fenced pasture in alleys could be used for sheep grazing, although the cost of fencing is likely to be too high in most cases. Horticultural crops under consideration for intercropping in the U.S. include vegetables, soft fruit, bare-rooted nursery stock and flower bulbs. Crops can be grown for 9-15 years before shading effects become large. Several arable crops have been intercropped with black walnuts, including sweet corn, soya beans and wheat. The advantage of winter wheat is that it grows during the walnuts' dormant season. The alleys used for the arable crop must be set to a convenient width for tractor cUltivations etc; and these alleys must be slowly reduced in width year-by-year, as shading and juglone effects gradually increase. A grass and intercrop-free strip each side of the walnuts must be maintained , which needs to be between 1m/3 ft for winter wheat and 2m (6-7 tt) for spring-sown intercrops. With rows of black walnuts planted 12 m (40 tt) apart, arable crops can be grown for about 9-15 years before shading becomes a problem. Douglas fir grown as Christmas trees have been successfully intercropped in Oregon: the black walnuts planted at 4.5 m (15 ft) spacing , with the firs at 1.5 m (5 ft) spacing between . The firs are harvested by 7 years after planting - longer than this and they start to show signs of juglone growth-inhibition. The firs also act 'as a nurse crop to the walnuts and encourage stra ighter growth. Apart from Christmas trees, other nurse trees can be interplanted to aid the early growth of the walnuts and force straighter growth. Some of the Nitrogen-fixing trees can achieve this , ego common alder (Alnus g/utinosa) and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia ), but care must be taken over species choice so that the walnuts are not out-competed too quickly, and that when the intercrop is removed , the stumps remaining are not susceptible to honey fungus (Armillaria mellea). Alder is recommended in N.America, which is removed after 1215 years (by which time is being affected by juglone) for firewood. There is plentiful evidence from North America that interplanting black walnut plantations with Alders or Elaeagnus improves the growth of the walnuts substantially (20-50%+ improvements in diameter and height) . Elaeagnus umbel/ala has performed particularly well in this respect , and is recommended as shrub interplant; E.angustifolia and Caragana arborescens also succeed but are not so vigorous in British conditions. When using this species it should be remembered that it is faster growing than the walnuts, so either plant 4-5 m (13-16 ft) away from walnut plants , or plant after the walnuts have established and are already above head height.
Page 6
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---~-
------=----
--=-
Seed propagation
There are on average about 90 seeds p er Kg (41 seeds/lb) (range: 24 to 220
seeds fKg ; 11-100 seeds/lb) - seed s from

large-fruited culti vars towards the lower end of the range. Seeds require stratification for about 16 weeks before
sowing: mix with moist sand or com pos t

and keep cold (in a fridge, for example); keep an eye out for roots starting to
emerge in the spring.

Seeds shou ld be sown in deep containers (eg. 'Rootrain ers') or seed beds and covered with 25-50 mm (1_2H) of media.
Predation from mice can be a bad problem, especially with outside seed beds ; these should be protected , and deep containers should be kept off the ground . Sowing in seed beds is best at a density of 160 seeds/m2 , to aim for a seed lin g density of 80 seedlings/m 2 . In commercial nurseries using outdoor seed beds, mechanical root pruning at a depth of 20-25 cm (8-10 ~ ) is often carried out to encourage more lateral roots , but this is difficult on a small scale.
Germination occurs within a 3-5 weeks . The average germination rate is about 50% , and seed lin gs grow rapidly to a height of 30-60 cm (1-2 ft) in the first year. The cu lti vars ' Beck ', ' Fonthill' , 'Minnesota Native ', 'Myers ' (=' Elmer Myers '), 'Patterson ', 'Putney ' and 'Thomas ' are noted for their vigour and st raight form ; seed from these is likely to produce a higher percentage of timber trees of good form than unnamed seedlings . Late leafing is also highly heritable; from the above list, 'Myers ' and 'Thomas' are very late leafing.
References
Agroforestry Research Trust: Useful Plants databa se, 1996. Beineke, W F: Corrective Pruning of Black Walnut for Timber Form . Cooperative Extension Service Purdue University. Chenoweth, Bob: Black Walnut. Sagamo re Publishing, 1995. Duke, James A: CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press , 1989. Evans , J: Si lvicu lture of Broadleaved Wood land . Forestry Commission Bulletin 62 ; HMSO , 1984. Ga rrett, H E etc: Walnut Agroforestry. MU Guide G5020, University of Missouri-Columbia. Ga rrett, H E & Jones, J E: Black Walnut Agrofo restry as a Land-use Alternat ive. NNGA Annu al Report 84:47 58 (1993). Jaynes, Richard A (Ed): Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA, 1979. Merwin, Miles: Intercropping Black Walnut in Oregon's Willamette Valley. The Temperate Agroforester, Volume 4 Number 1 (January 1996). Phillips , D H & Burdekin , D A: Diseases of Forest and Ornam ental Trees. Macmillan , 1992. Reed, C A & Davidson, J: The Improved Nut Trees of North America. Devin-Adair, 1954. Salati n, J F: Walnuts in Organic Farming. Wal nu t Counci l Bulletin , Vol um e 20 Number 3
Plants and climate change in Britain

I ntrod uction
This article and the conclusions drawn from it are based on the recent DOE publication (*) , which defines a scenario based on the latest Met Office climate models looking forward to 2050, assuming moderate world economic (GNP) growth and assuming that no major global policies of reducing major greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide and methane) are enactdd. Such policies are being mooted and even promoted by some of the industrialised nations (e9 Britain) which have started to understand the dramatic changes which climate change is likely to force in many areas of life; but even so , many of the so~called 'developing' nations seem to have no intention of holding back their rapid industrialisation - in their view, calls for emissions controls equate to the industrial nations keeping hold of their economic advantages. Global policies in these areas may take effect in the long-term , but even jf emission of greenhouse gases were stabilised now, global warming would continue for several decades due to the long-term cause and effects cycle. It should also be noted that, although they have now started to do so, the Met Office models used here have not taken into account various positive feedback mechanisms which Gaia theory has predicted and verified. These feedbacks may well cause the rate of global warming to increase faster than predicted. Gaia theory also suggests that continued stress on the self-regulated climatic system may cause it, at some unknown stage, to suddenly jump to a new steady state. If such a jump happened in reality it would have catastrophic effects. Global warming is now inevitable and the price to pay may be dear. There is mounting evidence that global climate is changing as a result of human acti vities. It is now accepted by the world 's leading scientists that the global warming of the last 100 years is unlikely to be entirely due to natural causes. The 1985-1994 decade, both globally and for the UK, has been about 0.2 C warmer than the average of the 1961-1990 period; during this decade alone the average global C02 concentration has risen by about 5%. Average global temperatures will be about O.9C warmer by 2020 and 1.6 C warmer by 2050. If greenhouse gas emissions are still not reduced, warming will continue at 0.2 to 0.3 C per decade. Because it is so difficult to relate to figures such as 'an average rise of 0.2 C' - after all , a fifth of one degree seems a tiny amount on paper - I will emphasise what this means in geographical and botanical terms. The general changes in climate predicted for the UK include: Average temperature rises of about 0.2 to 0.3C per decade, with a slower rate of increase in winters compared with summers, and in the Northwest of the UK compared with the Southeast. This equates to a southward climate shift of about 65 Km (40 miles ) per decade, or an altitude shift of 50 m (150 ft) downwards per decade. Extremely warm (hot) seasons and years will occur with increasing frequency. Annual rainfall will increase by about 2% per decade, mostly in the winter. Average wind speeds wit I increase, notably in winter and with greatest increases in the South of the UK. Average sea level will rise by about 7 cm (21.1: ") per decade, more in the South and East. Note that this rise is predicted to continue for several centuries after greenhouse gas emissions are stabilised.
Some effects of these changes will be: An increase in soil droughtiness (especially in the South of the UK) and soil erosion. A northward shift of natural habitats, wildlife species and farming zones by 200-300 Km (125190 miles) by 2020 and by 350-500 Km (220-310 miles) by 2050. Insects and ephemeral weeds will shift northwards readily; larger plants with greater difficulty.
Page 8
1961-1990
average
Scale 1:10 ,000 ,000 (A grid square is 50 Km [80 miles] square.) The map shows Britain and N.France with climate bands marked in different shades. The maps for 2020 and 2050 show the movement of these bands Northwards.
Currently the frequency of a 1995-type droughty summer is 1 year in 90. Th e frequency of a very mi ld winter (eg 1988/9) is 1 ye ar in 30. In the next decade, the following changes are expected:
A temperature increase of
O.s oC, equivalent to a shift Southwards of 130 Km (80 miles , 2% grid squa res ) or an altitude reduction of 100 m (330 ft) . The frequency of a 1990type sum m er in c reases to 1 year in 25. In the NW UK, summer and winter rainfall increases by 2-3%. In the SE UK, summe r rainfall decreases by 2-3%.
A few niche species disappear, eg o hart's tong ue fern. Overall UK timber productivity increases by 3%.
An increase in insect species due to Northward migration from continental Europe, including new pest specie s. A small decrease in plant species due to loss of Northern and montane types. A decrease in annual crop yields in the Southeast of the UK. Increased opportunities for annual and perennial crops in the North and West. A significant increase in timber yields, especially in the North.
Implications for conservation

The current strategy is to protect areas of conservation value, often in isolated sites. In the future, the species distribution will change with the climate, and many existing reserves may become less valuable as species die out. For species to spread Northwards they will require corridors which may be difficult through existing farmland etc. One important consequence is to the choice of provenance (ie where the parents are located) of seeds for the planting of native species and wildlife areas. In the last decade it has become standard practice to prefer seed of local origin for growing native trees. In the near future, though, this cannot be justified. Climate change will occur too rapidly for species to adapt in an evolutionary sense, or for large-seeded species to move Northwards fast enough to stay in their climatic-evolutionary zone. An oak tree planted in the Midlands, for example, will be adapted best for the climate of Southern England in 2020 and Northern France in 2050. We simply don't know how long global warming will continue, so it seems only prudent to use a mixture of seed from a variety of sources, including local but also more Southerly and Continental sources.
Implications for agriculture

Production of arable and other field crops may shift Northwards and Eastwards due to limited water availability in summer and higher temperatures. The use of winter green manures will become even more important due to increasing winter rainfall. Grassland productivity in the North and West will be sustained by warmer winter temperatures, but the wetter winters may reduce any advantage by making grassland too wet to graze without poaching. Adverse soil effects and increased incidence , of pests, weeds and diseases may reduce or negate any yield increases due to climate change. Increasing sea levels increase risk of coastal flooding; it isn't wise to acquire low-lying land in the near future! Warmer and drier summers will increase opportunities for cultivating new crops including perennial biomass crops, ego Miscanlhus.
Implications for forestry

The majority of UK commercial forests use introduced conifer species on short rotations; these can, at least, be replaced relatively quickly with other species or species from other origins, which are better adapted. Yields of these species are expected to increase in Central and Northern UK by about 25% by 2050. In Southern UK, lower rainfall and increased droughtiness will reduce general productivity and drive sensitive species (eg Beech) from marginal sites. Urban trees will be particularly stressed. Increased droughtiness may increase insect pest damage and the fire hazard. The same implications for provenance of planted young seeds apply as to Conservation plantings (see above). Using a range of seed provenances from zones up to 400 miles Southwards would be advantageous, and at each thinning of the forest stand, the less adapted trees are more likel y to be removed.
Page 10
Summer 2020
Expected changes compared with present include: Temperatures are 0.6 to 1C warmer:
Scotland & Ireland a.soc, equivalent to a 160 Km (100 miles, 3 grid squares) shift Southwards.
Midlands , N.E ng land, Wales a.BoC, equ ivalent to a 210 Km (130 mi les, 4 grid squares) shift Southwards. SE & SW England 1"e, equivalent to a 260 Km (160 miles , 5 grid squares) shift Southwards. The frequency of a 1995type summer increases to 1 year in 10.
In Southern England, summer rainfall decreases by 5% more drought prone.

In Wale s & Central England, winter rainfa ll increases by 5%, summer rainfall remains
the same.
In Northern England , Scotland & Ireland , summer and winter rainfall increases by 4% - mo re flood prone.
Disappearance of ptarmigan, mountain hare. Expansion of range of most butterflies and moths. Increase in overall UK timber productivity of 7%.
Implications for Tree crops & Agroforestry

he scenario of climate changes which will occur in Britain make the whole area of tree crops and agroforestry even more important. Increasing winter rainfall will make winter soil cover vital to avoid leaching and soil erosion losses ; increasing summer droughts will mean annual crops are increasingly reliant on artificial irrigation , and that perennial . shrub and tree crops which require litUe or no irrigation make even more sense. Increasing wind speeds and number of storms will make hedges, windbreaks and shelterbelts even more important to protect other crops. Increasing temperatures, summer maximums and winter minimums, will generally increase the range of perennial. shrub and tree crops which can be cultivated. Warm winters may cause problems (in terms of early bud break) for species which require quite a lot of winter chilling (some apples. for example). Most shrub and perennial crops persist for 15-30 years, so the climate for the second half of their life may be significantly different; it may be worth planting some species suited to the climate in 2020 right now (with shelter). and certainly will be within the next 10 years. As for tree crops, many are very long-lived (Perry Pears, for example, live for 2-300 years), and most live for 50-100 years at least. The case for planting more Southerly species now is strong, even though they may not be entirely happy for a couple of decades. This is doubly so for slow-to-crop species and those on vigorous rootstocks which may take a decade to start cropping. Such species will of course need shelter when planted now so they don't suffer too much before the climate has warmed. As to what to plant, I would recommend a mix of species suited to the climate in 2020 and in 2050, if they are likely to survive , in addition to those suited to the present climate . Look on it as an insurance policy for an uncertain future! The climate shifts indicated in the 3 accompanying maps are summed up below (E-W changes across the country remain similar): Location climate Area at present to which climate at location will be similar in 2020 Area at present to which at location will be similar in
2050
Central-Southern Scotland Northern Scotland England Central Scotland Northern England Southern Scotland N .Midlands-N.England Northern England Midlands N. Wales & Northern Midlands France (Normandy-Paris) S.Wales & S.Midlands Cornwall -N.France (Le Havre-ReiI (Brittany-Orleans) Southern England N.France (Brittany-Orleans) S. Jreland-N. Midla nds Northern Ireland Southern England Southern Ireland Southern Scotland-North. N.Wales & N.Midlands S.WaJes & S.Midlands Southern England Southern England Northern S) Northern France
Central France (Nantes-Tours) S.I reland-C. Midlands N. France (Le Havre-Reims)
Many crops of borderline viability in Britain will become quite viable (sometimes commercially) from the Midlands Southwards. including Kiwis (Actinidia spp.), Pawpaws (Asimina trifoba), Hickories (Carya spp.), Chestnuts (Castanea spp.). Hardy Citrus & hybrids. Che (Cudrania Iricuspidata) . Kaki persimmons (Diospyros kaki), Figs (Ficus carica), Honey locust (G/edilsia triacanthos) . Walnuts (Juglans spp.), Apricots (Prunus armeniaca) , Almonds (Prunus dulcis) , Peaches (Prunus persica), Oriental plums (Prunus sa/icina) , many Pears (Pyrus communis) , Grapes (Vilis spp.), Pepper trees (Zanthoxylum spp.) , Jujube (Ziziphus jujube).
Summer 2050
Expected changes compared with present include: Temperatures increased by
'.2 to 1.8"C:
Scotland & Ireland 1.2 C , equivalent to a 310 Km (190 miles, 6 grid squares) shift Southwards. N .England & N.wales 1.4C, equivalent to a 360 Km (225 miles, 7 grid squares) shift Southwards. Midlands & SW England 1.S"C, equivalent to a 415 Km (250 miles, 8 grid squares) shift Southwards. SE England 1.8C, equ ivalent to a 470 Km (290 miles, 9Yz grid squares) shift Southwards.
G
Frequency of a 1995-type summer increases to 1 year in 3, and a 197B-type summer (hottest on reco rd) to 1 yr in 5. Frequency of a 1988/9-type very m ild winter increases to 1 year in 4, & the cha nce of a very cold winter is almost zero.
The number of frosts red uces by about 50%. Rainfall changes:

In Scotland, winter rain fall increases by 5% and summer rainfall by 9%. In N.England & N.lreland , summer rainfall increases by 5% and winter rainfall by 9%. In Central England, Wales & S .lreland, summer rainfall is unchanged . winter rainfall increases by 9-10%. In the Southern England , summer rainfall decreases by 78% , winter rainfall increases by 10% (total unchanged).
More intense rainfall.
sto rm s
&
Hi gher windspeeds more Qa les
- 30%
AGROFORES TR Y NEWS Vol 5 No 1
Page 29
Forest Gardening: Climbers

Introduction
Climbers - that is plants wh ich climb by clinging or spiralling around other plants or structures (as opposed to scramblers like many roses which grow through other plants) are mostfy woodland edge plants, which can be incorporated into a forest garden in several ways:
8y 1.
planting
near
the
canopy
edge
of
established trees and tra ining into the canopy By planting and training against a wall By planting and training along a trellis of some
kind
By planting by a temporary structure (eg. a pyramid of canes)
By training over a pergola or canopy trellis
Training into established trees

It is important to remember that some of the most useful climber species, like grapes and kiwi fruits, are usually very vigorous plants. When these are trained into established trees , they will, if allowed, quickly climb to heights of 10-15 m (30-50 ft), and when they fruit, most of the fruit will be borne high up at the extremities of the tree canopy, where it is not easily accessible. If the established tree is smaller - say 6 m (20 ft) high - then a vigorous climber will quickly bush out at the top of the tree canopy and seriously reduce the amount of light reaching the tree leaves, and hence seriously reduce a fruit crop if it is a fruit tree. Schisandra chinen sis There is the option of pruning a climber which is climbing through a tree, but this is likely to be very difficult, as is trying to train a climber to follow the framework branches of a tree , to make its own framework: most climbers will stubbornly resist growing towards the inside of a tree. Because of these drawbacks, this method of introducing climbers into the garden is only recommended in the following circumstances: Where the climber is not vigorous (or is annual/perennial) and the established tree is small, and may be a fruiting species. Where the climber is vigorous and the established tree is not a fruiting species, and can be a small or large tree. Suitable trees may be native or forest trees along an edge of the garden. I have seen kiwi fruits (Actinidia de/iciosa) c limbing high into ash (Fraxinus spp) and Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) trees in Eng lan d, laden with fruit.
Page 14
Actinidia polygama In either case , the climber must be located where it will get some sun as a young plant to enable it to grow into the canopy . This can be achieved either by planting on the sunny South edge of an established tree, or by planting when the tree is still young , temporarily supporting the young growth with canes/poles (and possibly pruning it back hard each year) until the tree is large enough to cope with the climber.
Planting on walls
A tried and tested method of growing climbers. Species may cling (eg. Virginia creeper) or may need wires for support (eg. Kiwi fruits) . Vigorous species will need regular pruning throughout the summer to keep them under control. Problems to watch out for include shoots growing between slates/tiles at the top of the wall - in no time the shoots will crack and damage the slates . .Most fruiting climbers will require a wall with some Southerly aspect to ripen their fruit well , though a few , like hops, will grow on a North wall. An added benefit of the wall is that extra protection (nets or fleece) is easy to add against severe weather , frosts or pests . Watering may also be more important for wall -trained plants , especially if there is a roof overhang above them .
Planting on trellises
Trellises will need to be located in a sunny lo catio n, probably a clearing, within the garden; immediately to the North of a vegetable patch is a good location. Otherwise , culture is not too dissimilar from growing on walls. Pruning will need to be regular over the summer. Horizontal trellises (ie Tshaped) are favoured in Japan for growing Kiwi fruits, whereas vertical trellises are the standard method of culture for vines in many parts of the world. Posts used for tre lli ses should be as durabl e as possible: oak posts are used in Britain for grape '.(ine trellises and can be expected to la st 30 or more years.
'.
'If II
flffll/IIIII
Vertical trellis
Horizontal (T) trellis
Using temporary structures

These are really only suitable for annual and perenn ial climb ers. Longerlived climbers can be very difficult to disentangle from poles when they need replacing after a couple of years, and then they will need very secure tying to a new structure. Canes and poles can easily be constru cted into pyramids , tied at the top, as is very co mmon for growing climbing peas and beans.
Using pergolas or canopy trellises

These can be considered an extension of horizontal trellises to make a complete structure to train the framework of the climber over in two dimensions. Popular in Japan for fruit culture, it isn 't often used elsewhere except for grape vines to provide shade in summer. In a forest garden, probably on ly suitable if a pergola is located next to a house.
Partn~ocilssus quinquefolia
Page 16
Climber species
These are divided into annual/perennial and longer-lived species. For each there is a description , plus columns indicating vigour and shade tolerance (good = best tolerance {tolerates substantial shade), fair (tolerates part shade), poor = worst tolerance (needs sun)).
Annuals & Perennials

Amphicarpaea bracteata - Hog peanut. Short perennial climber from North America, growing 1.5 m (5 tt) high. Likes a moist soil and full '" or part shade; hardy to -15C. Bears edible underground seeds, sweet and delicious raw with a bean flavour. A legume, fixing Nitrogen. The related species AEdgeworlhii and Apitcheri can be used similarly. Apios americana - Ground nut. Another perennial from N.America, growing 1-3 m (3-10 tt) high. Likes sun or part shade and a moist soil; very hardy. A nitrogen-fixing legume which forms edible tubers with a delicious sweet potato flavour. The related species Afortunei and Apriceana can be used similarly. Galium aparine - Cleavers, Goosegrass. Likely to be growing wild in most gardens, the familiar climbing annual plant (reaching 1.5-2 m, 5-7 tt high) can be used in several ways: the seeds are roasted to make a coffee, and the young leaves and stems can be cooked as a vegetable. Humulus lupulus - Hop. A vigorous perennial climber, reaching 6m (20 tt) high each year. Likes a moist soil and sun or part shade. The flowers are used in brewing beer; the young shoots and leaves makes a good cooked vegetable; many other uses. Ipomoea tricolor - Morning glory. This common ornamental annual is very good at attracting beneficial insects. Can reach 4 m (13 tt) high, but needs a sunny site . Lathyrus spp - Sweet pea family. These annuals and perennials are all Nitrogen-fixing legumes, but they should not be considered from a food paint of view as most seeds contain a toxic amino acid. The more vigorous perennial species of use as green manure plants include L/atifofius (2-3m/6-10 tt), L.odoratus (the sweet pea; 23m/6-10 ft) and L.sy/ves/ris (2m/6 ttl . Passiflora incarnata - Maypop . A perennial climber from N.America, of the Passion flower family. It likes a well drained, acid soil and sun or part shade; can grow to 5m (16 tt) each year. It bears nice edible fruits and edible leaves said to be delicious raw or cooked. Phaseolus coccineus - Runner bean . The familiar garden vegetable, a Nitrogen fixer bearing edible seed pods. More shade-tolerant and ...vigorous than the French bean, climb ing to 4m (13 tt) into trees.
Vigour Medium Shade tol Good
Medium
Fair
Vigorous
Fair
Vigorous
Fair
Medium
Poor
Medium
Low; L.sylvestris - fair
Medium
Fair
Vigorous
Fair
Species
Vigour Medium
Shade tol Low
Phaseo/us vulgaris - Climbing French bean . Also very familiar, this Nitrogen-fixer with edible seeds and pods needs a sunnier site than the above and only grows about 2.5m (8 tt) high. Tropaeo/um spp - Nasturtiums. Cli mb ing annuals, all with edib le leaves (peppery), flowers, and so m eti m es seeds (T.majus & T.minus - very~ hot!) and tubers (T.tuberosum). They are also very good at attracting hoverflies (aphid predators) and bees. May grow 3m (10 tt) high into trees. Vicia spp - Vetches. Some of these legumes are perennia l cl imbers like V.gigantea (1-5 m/3-16 tt) and V.sylvatica (2m/6 tt). They are useful for the ir nitrogen input and accumu late other minerals too.
Vigorous
Fair
Medium
Fair
Shrub climbers
Actinidia spp - Kiwi frui ts. A large fam ily of strong climbing (twining) shrubs, all from Ch ina and Japan. They grow from 4m/13 tt (A.kolomikta) to 15m/50 ft (A.chinensisldeliciosa) , right up into trees, cropping we ll but near the top of them. They lea f out early, thus need a sheltered position in Britain, and do quite we ll in a forest garden with protection from nearby tree canopies. They like a moist but well drained soil, and most like sun or part shade. All species bear nice ed ible fruits, but only if ma le and female plants are both present. T he sap is used to make a glue. Akebia spp - Chocolate vines. A.quinata and A.trifo/iata are semievergreen climbers from Japan, needing a warm site , and producing seed pods containing an edib le, sweet pulp. Their leaves are used for teas and the branches for basketry. They climb well into trees, A.quinata reaching 10m (32 tt) and A.trifo/iata 9m (30 ft) high. Hardy to -20C or more; two seedlings are needed for fruit - not self-fertile. Good in most soils. Celastrus spp - Bittersweets. Several of these vigorous hardy climbers bea r edib le young leaves & shoots ; including C.flagel/aris (Sm/27 It), C.orbicula/us (12m/40 It) and C.scandens (7m/23 It) . They are all easy to grow in most soils. Clematis spp. Several of these vigoro u s climbers have supposedly edible young leaves and shoots (though there is some doubt about their safety), including C.apiifo/ia (5m/16 ft, leaves used for tea) , C.flammula (5m/16 tt) and C.terniflora (5m/16 ft) and the native C.vitalba (Trave ll er's joy; 10m +/32 ft+; stems used for basketry). Easy to grow in most soi ls. Hedera spp - Ivies. The ivies are very vigorous climbers , all with flexible stems which can be used for baske try. Our native ivy, H.he/ix, is like ly to turn up in any forest garden; it can grow to 30m ( 100 tt) high, is a valuable wildlife plant, and its leaves and fruits can be used as a soap source. Hydrangea spp. Two species are climbing forms and bear leaves which are edibl e raw or cooked with a cucumber flavour; they also have sweet edible sap. H.anomala can grow to 12m (40 tt) and H.petio/aris to 20 m (70 tt) high into trees . Easy to grow in any moist soil.
Vigorous Fair; A.kolomikt a - good
Vigorous
Fair
Vigorous
Fair-good
Vigorous
Fair; C.vitalba good
V.vigorous Good
Vigorous
Fair
Page 18
Species Lonicera spp ~ Honeysuckles. The stems of many species are useful in basketry, like the native L.periclymenum, growing 4m (13 ft) high. Easy to cultivate. ,Qarthenocissus spp. A group of very vigorous climbers from N.America and Asia. They are good bee plants, the branches are used for basketry, the sap is edible and they make excellent facade covers and insulation. They include P.quinquefolia (Virginia creeper; (0 30m/100 ft; also has edible fruits) and P.tricuspidata (Boston ivy; to 20m/70 ft) which will grow high into trees but may become invasive. Very easy to grow. Passiflora caerulea ~ Blue passion flower . The hardiest sh rubby member of the passion flower family , this becomes perennial where winter temperatures fall below about ~12C, but is evergreen in mild areas. A common ornamental from S.America, growing to 3m (10 ft) high, and needing a sheltered sunny site, it readily produces masses of fruits, each containing a small amount of edible pulp and seeds (and lots of air). Bees love the flowers too. Pueraria lobata ~ Kudzu vine. A vigorous Asiatic climber. which may be perennial where summers aren't hot enough to ripen its wood. Regarded as a weed in the Southern U.S. , it is highly valued in Asia for its numerous uses: edible starchy cooked roots, edible young cooked leaves. edible seeds (sprouted or roasted for coffee), a va luable fibre from the stems, an im al fodder etc; highly valued in Chinese medicine. Also a Nitrogen~fixer. Can grow 15m+ (50 ft+) into trees and become invasive in warm climates; likes a moist, acid soi l and full sun. Schisandra chinensis ~ Magnolia vine. An Asiatic climber growing to 7m (23 ft) or more in height, liking a partl y shaded position. The fruits (formed when male & female plants are both present) are edib le (sma ll but with a good sweet~acid flavour), and the young leaves are cooked as a vegetable. This plant is highly valued in Chinese medicine with the fruit, leaves and bark all used. Easily grown in most soils. Vilis spp ~ Vines. A large family of vigorous climbers which will grow high into trees. Most species bear edible fruits, the quality of which varies greatly, and make a good facade cover. The grape vine, V.vinifera, is the species most likely to be planted in the forest garden ; this can grow 35m ( 100 ft+) high into trees but will bear most of its fruit near the top! As well as the fine edible fruits, the leaves are edible cooked, the sap is edible, and the oil from seeds is edible (when refined) and used indu strially for paints and soaps. No garden sho uld be without one, but it is important to choose a good outdoor va ri ety; the hardy wine~making varieties do better outside than dessert va rieties . ..Wisteria spp. A small group of climbers from Asia and America, fast growing and long-li ved, the fragrant flowers have led to their widespread ornamental use. They are nitrogen-fixing species, growing 8-1 2 m (26-40 ft) high; they like a well -drained , moist soil and full sun or light shade, preferring a sunny S/SW wall. The seeds and pods of all are probab ly toxic. However, the flowers are eaten raw or cooked from W.floribunda, W.frutescens and W.sinensis, and most species can furnish a fibre and cloth from the bark.
Vigour Vigorous
Shade tor Good
V.vigorous Good
Vigorous
Poor
Vigorous
Fair
Moderate
Fair~good
V.vigorous Fair
Vigorous
Poor
Hardy Citrus and Citrange

By 'hardy', this article is limited in scope to those species and varieties which are hardy in zone 8 (ie hardy down to average winter minimum temperatures of betw een -7 and -12C). Most of the well known Citrus species , like the oranges , grapefruit, lemons etc are only hardy to zon,e 9 (-1 to _6C) and have little hope of surviving outdoors in temperate climates where frosts tare common; however, occasionally , hardier varieties of these tender species do exist. As hardy as the hardiest Citrus are the Kumquats (Fortunella spp); these will be treated in a later article. Hardiness is a complicated subject, and the cold hardiness of a variety or species is determined by Duration of cold - shorter periods are less damaging. Position of fruit - fruit is more prone to frost damage than foliage (it is damaged by temperatures of -2 to _3C) and fruit well-covered by foliage is more protected from cold. Proximity of buildings/walls considerably improves survival prospects. Good air drainage is vital so that cold air will drain away from the Citrus plants. The rootstock used. The best rootstock to promote cold-hardiness is the trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata). If buying grafted plants, check which rootstock is used. Young succulent growth and blossoms are the most tender, making late spring frosts most damaging.
Cultivation
Even the hardiest species and varieties need an average winter minimum temperature of 5C, which limits their outdoor cultivation in Britain to Southern Eng land (S. of a LondonBristol line) and favoured Western coastal regions. Their cultivation range can be extended by growing inside (or growing in large tubs and bringing inside in winter) a cold greenhouse, conservatory, or twin-walled poly tunnel. Outdoor cultivation requires a favoured position, preferably near a warm wall , and even then in severe winter weather plants will benefit from extra protection such as a fleece covering . protection from cold winter/spring winds is essential. Growth of Citrus plants ceases b,elow 12C (54 F). Spring planting is preferable, into fairly fertile 'and well -drained soil. Citrus roots are relatively shallow and trees will benefit from a permanent mulch beneath, but make sure this is kept away from the tree bark. Container grown plants should be given a lime-free compost, but plants should be potted up only into a slightly larger pot several times, rather than being put straight into a large pot ; even large trees need no more than a 30 cm (12 ") pot. Plants indoors will still require good ventilation, even on sunny winter days,; they also need careful watering, regularly during the growing season but rarely in winter. Pests including aphids , whitefly , brown scale , and small caterpillars, may build up on plants inside but are rarely a problem outside. Citrus are quite heavy feeders; container-grown plants should be treated much like tomatoes during the summer months , and given plenty of high-potash feed (eg. seaweed extract, comfrey fertiliser etc). Outside plants will also benefit from comfrey mulches or feeding as well as compost or manure. Pruning of outdoor plants is normally unnecessary in temperate climates , where growth will not be excessive. In cases of frost damage, wait at least six months to be sure of the extent of damaged areas (dieback may continue during this period); then cut out damaged and dead wood . Watch out for the vicious thorns which most Citrus bear! With indoor plants , pinch out growing tips of shoots growing where they are unwanted
Page 20
rather than cutting out shoots , as Citrus store their food mostly in their leaves and stems (rather then roots) over the win ter period. Fragrant flowers form on new growth in late win ter and spring (though lemons, including ' Meyer', flower continuous ly). A small percentage actually set fruit and there is a drop of immature fru it much like the 'June drop' experienced with deciduous fruit trees . Pollination occurs via insects and occasionally the wind; some varieties are self-fertile. The developing fruits may go dormant over the winter and then continue to develop to maturity the following year; with most varieties/species, the fruits hang well on the tree when ripe and can be cut off when required . Ripeness is indicated more by a slight loss of skin sh ine than a colour change. Some varieties, like ' Meyer', may ripen their fruit from early winter onwards in the same year. Fruiting usually begins by 3-5 years of age.
sinensis x Poncirus trifoliata) - Citrange The citranges are hybrids of the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) and the hardy or trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifofiata). They are evergreen or semi-evergreen , strong growing shrubs up to 6-7m high , sp reading and with th orny branches and leaves with 1-3 large leaflets. Large white fragrant flowers , up to 6 cm across, are followed by round fruits , 5-6 cm across (more for some cultivars), ora nge or yellow in colour. The fruit rind is thin but tightly adherent. The fru it pulp is usually sour and sometimes bitter, but is suitable for using as a lemon substitute and for making into jams/marmalade etc. Sometimes used as a dwarfing rootstock for Citrus species . Breeds true from seed. 'Carrizo' - Vigorous, upright, productive and hardy. Fruits light orange ; flesh light yellow, juicy, very acid, somewhat bitter, numerous seeds. Early maturing. resistant to Citrus nematodes. 'C-32' - vigo rous, less dense than Troyer but quite resistant to Citrus nematodes. Used as a rootstock. 'C-35' - moderately vigorous , less dense than Troyer but quite resistant to Citrus nematodes. Used as a rootstock . 'Morton' - produces very good quality fruits, close to Navel oranges in size , colour and flavour; up to 10 cm (3 across , quite sweet, can be eaten fresh or used like other citrange fruits for preserves , jam etc. 'Rusk' - a vigorous , tall, hardy, dense -growing , productive selection. Fruits are deep orange with a reddish flush ; the flesh is ora ng e-yellow, very juicy, sprightly acid , not bitter with few seeds; early ripening. 'Savage' - Fruits are yell ow, 6-7 cm across, fragrant, acid. The tree is often sem i-deciduous, indicating possible extra cold -hardiness . 'Spaneet' - Fruits are deep orange, nearly seedless , very juicy. 'Troyer'- Moderately vigorous, upright, productive and hardy. Fruits light orange , small ; fles h light ye llow , juicy, very acid , somewhat bitter, numerous seeds. Early maturing. Used as a rootstock (primarily with oranges), it induces good quality fruits. Other hybrid species between Citrus and Poncirus which have good poss ibilities, though little work has been done on them to date, are Cit ran derins (P.trifoliata x C.reticulata) , Citremons (P.trifoliata x C. lim on) and Citradias (P.trifo liata x C.aurantiada) Citrus ichangensis - Ichang lemon, (chang Papeda. One of the hardiest Citrus species, this looks quite healthy through the winter without any protection other than a sheltered site. It is a sma ll tree , growing up to 10 m (33 tt) high in its native habi tat (Mountains of SW China), but probably less than half that height in cultivation in temperate climes. It has long thin thorns, narrow leaves and white flowers followed by lemonshaped fruits, 7-10 cm (3_4") long. The fruit pulp is so ur but flavourful and conta ins large seeds. Sometimes used as a Citru s rootstock or interstock (the latter with satsumas induces early bearing and heavy cropping) . Citrus ichangensis var. microcarpus - Small fruited (chang papeda. This natural variety of the above is even hardier, fruiting we ll high in the mountains of Yunnan in Chi na . It crows to 3-5 m hieh and bears smaller oblone ve ll ow fruits . 3-4 cm across.
ft )
x Citronc;rus webber; (Citrus
Species and cultivars
Page 21
Citrus junos . Ichandarin , Yuzu ('Xiangcheng ' in China). A spiny shrub , growing 25 m (6-16 ft) high , very hardy and unscathed by winter weather in SW England , this relatively unknown species has very good potential. It bears rounded fruits , 57 cm in diameter with a rough bumpy peel, greenish when ripe . The pulp is very acid , somewhat bitter with a lemonlime flavour and contains plump seeds ; it has a pleasant , fresh aroma. The oil from the peel contains some 2% aldehydes and is used much lime lemon peel. It is cultivated in Central China and Japan , the fruits being used as substitutes for lemons and limes, and as a raw material for vinegar. It is also excellent for making preserves. Notable for being able to be propagated by softwood cuttings under mist in mid-late summer. Sometimes used as a Phytophthoratolerant Citrus rootstock ; it is the principal rootstock used in Japan for oranges and satsumas. 'Hanayu ' . medium sized fruits (6-8 cm) with pleasant lime flavour. 'Shangjuan' - very large fruits, bright yellow, very juicy; a very good lemon substitute. 'Sudachi' - Light orange, seedy flesh with good acid mandarin-time flavour. Fast growing, not as cold hardy as some varieties. 'Yuko' - Easily peeled fruits with a mild mandarin flavour. Not as cold hardy as some. Citrus x latipes This is a hybrid from Asia, bearing edible acid fruits. Not much known about this one , it seems of borderline hardiness (zone 8/9) and will need indoor protection over winter in Britain. Citrus limon 'Snow' - lemon. Most lemons are only hardy in zone 9; this variety is likely to be hardy into zone 8, as it is commonly grown at high elevations in Japan where it may be covered in snow during the winter. Makes a medium shrub up to 3 m (10 ft) high; yellow fruits can be very large and are very juicy and flavourful. Citrus meyeri 'Meyer' (Meyer's lemon) flowers and fruits
Citrus meye,; 'Meyer' - Meyer lemon. Previously included with the lemons (Citrus limon) but now considered a separate species. The Meyer lemon is just about hardy into zone 8, and is a dense medium to farge shrub with short-stalked, large dark green leaves and few thorns. Clusters of fragrant white flowers are followed by freel y-prod uced medium sized yellowish-orange fruits, rounder than most lemons , th in-skinned , flesh tangy, juicy, not too acid , very lemon-like in flavour and usage. The fruits are usually well covered by follage. The fragrant leaves makes a nice tea.
Citrus pseudolimon - Galgal. Hill lemon, Kumaon lemon This relatively unknown species may be the hardiest of all Citrus, growing as it does high up in the submountainous region of NW India where snow is not un common . It grows under very demanding conditio ns, often planted in rocky and poor land , becoming a vigorous upright tree up to 6m (20 ft) high. Large flowers in Spring are followed by large yellow fruits with a medium thick adherent rind. The flesh is pale ye ll ow, coarse, moderately juicy and very sour, with large seeds. It is a popu lar home-garden plant in NW India, used as a lemon substitute and commercially for making pickles and lemon squash.
Citrus reticu/ata (C.nobi/is de/iciosa) - Mandarin. Most mandari ns are onl y hardy to zone 9; the varieties below are hardier. Mandarins make shrubs or small trees; fruits are easi ly peeled, flattish-round, orange, with a sweet and aromatic fruit pulp and small seeds. Even these selections will only succeed in the mildest regions. 'Ch inotto' - reputed to be hardy to _8 c C. A dense dwarf tree, thornless , self-fertile, bearing tight clusters of medium size, juicy, tangy fruit. Sometimes included in the sour oranges (C.aurantium), it orig in ated in Italy where it is prized for making preserves . 'Cleopatra' is often used as a cold-hardy rootstock (it produces large trees with small fruit) and is adapted to a wide range of soils; hardy to -10C. 'Gua ngjiu ' is a Chinese selection, hardy to - 10C. ' Satsuma' is of borderline hardiness between zones 8 & 9. It forms an open, tough tree and bears excellent seedless fruits with a mild sweet flavour. 'Silver Hill' is another hardy variety; slow growing with a weeping habit, it bears medium-large fruit, orange-red in colour. Citrus sp - Khasi papeda A hardy species from the hills of NE India, reputedly as hardy as the Ichang lemon . It bears large, 7-10 cm (3_4H) fruits resembling grapefruit in appearance; the flesh is white, juicy, seedy, with a spicy flavour and a peppery tang; eaten like grapefruits in India . This may be the same as C.pseudolimon. Citrus hybrid 'US 119' This selection is a hybrid of grapefruit, trifoliate orange and orange , and has survived temperatures of _12 C in North America with little injury. Fruits are low acid, sweet, very firm.
D
Suppliers
A.R.T. We supply Citrus junas, Citrus x talipes, Citrus meyeri 'Meyer' as well as Citrange
cuftivars.
The Citrus Centre, Marehill Nursery, West Mare Lane, Marehill, Pulborough , W Sussex, RH20 2EA. Tel: 01798-872786. Supply a huge range of species and varieties. Four Counties Nursery, Todenham , Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucs, GL56 9PN. Tel: 01608-
650522.
Page 23
Book Reviews
Review of the Potential Effects of Climate Change in the United Kingdom
UK Glimate Change Impacts Review Group (DOE)
HMSO, 1996: 247 pp (PB): 28.00 ISBN 0-11-7532908 This important review looks at the likely effects in many areas of li fe of the clim ate changes which are expected to occur in Britain over the next 5060 years. The report opens with the conclusions and summa ry: this discusses the changing climate of the UK, looking in particular at the 20205 and the 20505 ; the likely effects of the changing climate are then listed , and recommendations for policies and research are given. Specific conclusions in each of the 16 main areas of life (see below) which the report covers are then listed. The chapter on Changing Climate and Sea Level looks at the likely climate changes in more detail, briefly explaining the climate models which have been used (a nd referring to others which provide different results), and includes many maps showing temperature , rainfall, so lar radiation, windspeed and other changes in the UK and Ireland expected in the 2020s and 2050s compared with the 1961-1990 averages. The main chapters of the report look in detail at the likely effects of climate change on 15 main areas of life: Soils; Flora, Fauna and Landscape ; Agriculture , Horticulture & Aquaculture; Forestry; Water Resources; Energy; Minerals extraction; Manufacturing, Retailing and Service industries; Construction ; Transport ; Insurance; Health ; Recreation and tourism ; Coastal regions . The chapters related to land use witl be of most interest to Agroforestry News readers ; many changes are likely to occur which favour perennial and tree cro ps although this is not explicitly noted in the report. Climate change is treated all too often in the media as a 'here today - gone tomorrow' news item with sensationalist headlines. This report makes it clear that all aspects of our lives will be affected, some positively and others neg. a tively, from climate changes now regarded as inevitable . I who leheartedly recommend this report as essential reading for everyone concerned with the uncertain future we are creating for ou rse lves.
Tree-Crop Interactions: A Physiological Approach

Chin KOng & P A Huxley (Eds)
CAB Inlernalional, 1996: 416pp (PB): 25.00 . ISBN 0-85198-987-X. This book tackles the tricky area of how the principles of crop physiology can be applied to the understanding of tree-crop interactions in agroforestry systems, an area in which the lack of good solid evidence has inhibited the implementation of agroforestry techniques by many farmers. This book consists of a series of papers looking at different aspects of tree-crop interactions , most of which propose models of physiological behaviour of trees and crops when grown together. There is now ample evidence to show that the overall (biomass) productivity of an agroforestry system is generally greater than that of an annual system , due to a mixture of improved capture of growth resources (light, water) and improved soil fertility . Competition has a negative effect in this context , but there is evidence of increased total (combined) productivity when more than one species is used.
Other evidence clearly shows that agroforestry systems lead to improved soil fertility , soil conservation and nutrient cycling , and microclimate improvements. Whereas trees planted at wide spaci ngs may take many years to slowly impro ve soil fertility, the use o f Nitrogen-fixing trees in alley cropping can lead to subs tantial fertility increases within 2-3 years. Although agroforestry systems are not a universal panacea (alley cropp ing systems, for examp le, have failed in some arid areas because of excess water stress on the intercrops) , it is clear from this book that the advantages over annual crops in terms of soil fertility, productivity and sustainability are already well demonstrated.
Cultivated Climbers.
Don Ellison
Plants
of
the
World:
Trees,
Shrubs,
Flora Pub li cations. 1995 (Dist by B T Batsford); 598 pp (HB); 65.00. ISBN 187606000X This is basically a pictorial dictionary of an extremely wide selection of trees , shrubs and climbe rs from all over the world . It is organised in Latin name order, with a short description of each genus, then for each species covered in the genus there is a colour photograph of an identifying feature (usually the flower, sometimes leaves or fruits) and a brief (one sentence) description. The majority of the species selected are ornamental from temperate and tropical areas, though many fruiting species are included too. In all , some 7,000 species are included whi ch must make this one of the most comprehensive pictoria l plant dictionaries ever produced.
Pruning and Training Fruit Trees

Warren Somerville
Inkata Press, 1996 (Dist by Butterworth Heinemann) ; 144 pp (PB); 16 .50. ISBN 075068931-5. Availab le from: Customer Services Department , Heinemann Publishers Oxford , P Box 382, Halley Court, Jordan Hill , Oxford , OX2 8RU. Tel: 01865-314301, Fax: 01865-314029.
This fine book is based on the philosophy that the orchardist should understand how a tree grows and how it reacts to pruning in order to be a good pruner. It begins by discussing fruit tree basics - stocks, scions, chill requirement and flower bud development. Pruning equipme nt is then covered , followed by a splendid chapter on apical dominance: this describes the growth behaviour of trees , the effects of pruning , and how apical dominance ca n be used to manage the tree. The reasons for pruning are discussed (tree training , fruiling control , crop management and fruit quality, pest and disease control), and the general practice of prun ing is covered well with 15 general 'rules' to follow. The substantial chapter on Training systems begins with a discussion of tree density and yiel ds; then there are descriptions of all the common training systems used both commerciall y and on a garden scale. These include the vase (or bush), central leader syste ms , palmette systems (fans and espaliers), cordons, the Bouche-Thomas hedge , trellis systems and canopy trellis systems. Each system is clearly described and illustrated with photographs and line drawings illustrating the underlying principles. A final brief chapter lists rootstock types with brief descriptions for the main tree fruit species. This is the only place in the book where its Australian orig ins are obvious , with some of the common European stocks not mentioned since they are unknown or unsuitable there; it is a minor drawback. For an overall explana ti on and description of pruning and training fruit trees, this book is highly recommended.
Page 25
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How To Identify Edible Mushrooms

Patrick Harding, Tony Lyon & Gill Tomblin
HarperCollins, 1996; 192 pp ( PB); 9 ,99, ISBN 0-00-219984-X This is possibly the best edible mushroom identification book to date , covering all of the edible ?:pecies (over 50) likely to be encountered in Britain. Brief introductory sections cover the expected subjects of edibility, poisoning, cooking and preserving of fungi , identification notes and a key . The main section of the book is divided into six , by habitat (grassland , broad-leaved woodland , coniferous woodland) and by type (edible or poisonous) , so the search for identification can immediately be narrowed down . For each species there is a good description (including key features , habitat description , frequency , season , cap and stem features) , accompanied by very good quality drawings of the fungus at different ages and a sectional view showing the likely dimensions. Also included are cooking and eating notes , a calendar showing the months and frequencies it is likely to be found (very good). But most useful is the list of 'Iookalikes ' - a list of 2-5 species with which it may be confused : these are accompanied by drawings and descriptions (and references to entries in the book if they appear elsewhere). Thus similar looking mushrooms can all be compared and the differences easily noted . For this reason alone , this book sh ould become a bible for edible fungus hunters and is highly recommended even just for fungus identification .
No-Tillage Seeding: Science and Practice

C J Baker, K E Saxton & W R Ritchie
CAB International, 1996; 272 pp (HB) ; 49,95 , ISBN 0-85199-103-3 The principle of no-tillage seeding has been around for three decades or more and it is generally agreed that such practice has a host of soil benefits, primarily vastly reducing soil erosion and sustaining soil fertility_ The problem has been that the technology to achieve successful no-tillage seeding leading to successful crops just hasn't been available for farmers to take up - indeed most of the attempts have ended in failure . A major aim of this book is to show how the risks with no-tillage seeding can be reduced by focusing on the needs of the plants which determine the requirements for a no-tillage seed-drill. They have deSigned their own No-tillage drills, for example the inverted T-slot drill which makes a slot for the seed to be sown in. They assume that growing crops by No-tillage methods must require the use of molluscicides , pesticides , herbicides etc.
The initial chapter looks at the 'Why' and 'What' of No-tillage, and includes lists of the advantages and disadvantages of the technique . Next, the risks are discussed, including pests (eg. slugs , which can remain buried in the slots made by drills). diseases , and physical stresses. The actual shape of the slot made for seeding and its effects on the soil are then covered . The authors conclude that V-slots (usually created with discs) , which have been the most common design in N-tillage drill to date , are unsuited to the technique and do not create a favourable environment for seeds . Instead , they recommend an inverted T-shaped slot , made by a vertical shank with sub-surface wings which are horizontal in the sideways plane but inclined downwards towards the front tip; or better, their own-designed ~ Cross Slot driW, which consists of a vertical disc to cut into the soil and winged side blades which cut horizontally at seeding depth by partially lifting the soil and allowing seed to be directed on either side.
and correctly designed slot drills can achieve this. An inverted T-drill is also very suited to drilling into dry soils (the slot traps moisture) and wet soils (the slot improves the oxygen environmen t and encourages earthwo rm activity). The role of No-tittage drilling in pasture renewal and renovation is thoroughly discussed., along with drill design and management of No-tillage systems. Despite the authors being very much in the "chemical farming~ camp, the principles and drill designs presented in this book will be of great use to all those involved in sustainable cropping of annual crops.
Forest Gardening
Robert A de J Hart
Green Earth Books, 1996; 212 pp (PB); 10.95. ISBN 190032 2021 This is a revised and updated edition Robert Hart' s classic book which should be on the shelf of all interested in agroforestry and forest gardening . Robert , more than anyone , stimulated interest in forest gardening and small -scale temperate agroforestry at a time when it was assumed it was only applicable to tropical climates. More than a manual of forest gardening, Robert describes the journey leading him to learn of agroforestry techniques and start his forest garden on Wenlock Edge , and describes that project in detail with information about the design , unusual species used and maintenance. Other chapters cover general agroforestry techniques and wide issues: water use (irrigation and conservation methods), energy from biomass, the value of rural crafts integrated with land use, how agroforestry can playa major part in tackling the problems of poverty and hunger in the third wor1d , and a philosophy and ethic of living 'green'. Revised species lists for temperate and tropical forest gardens are now more detailed, and extended are the lists of further reading , recommended suppliers and places to visi t.
The Permaculture Plot

Simon Pratt (Compiler)
Permanent Publications, 1996; 144 pp ( PB); 4 .95. ISBN 1856230104. Ava ilable for 5.50 (UK)! 6.50 (Europe)/ 7.00 (World) including air mail postage from : Permanent Publications, Hyden House Ltd , Little Hyden lane , Clanfield , Hants , P08 ORU. The latest edition of The Perm acu lture Plot contains details of 86 Permaculture-influenced projects in Britain - that's a 50% increase since the last edition ( 1994), proof if needed that Permaculture ideas really are having an impact. Projects are ordered within geographical reg ions and contain a description , often accompanied with drawings or photographs, and details of contacts and visiting arrangeme nts ; most can be visited by arrangement. Most of the projects described are gardens, but included are sma llholdings , large-scale farms , and even advanced reed-bed sewage systems. This is an essential guide for anyone wanting to visit rural or urban sites where Permaculture is being implemented and people are working towards sustainable lifestyles and ecological living.
Page 27
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Perry Pears
Introduction and history
Perry pears have been bred from Pyrus communis and P.niva[is, two pear species indigenous to cehtra[ Europe. These wild pears have long been cultivated for perry production - for at least 16 centuries. Perry pears were certainly being cultivated in Britain 900 years ago , on the estates of the Norman Barons after their invasion of the country.
In England, the cultivation of perry pears has , until very recently, been restricted to Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire, where perry has always been a popular drink. The reasons for this concentration of growing are many: a suitable climate (sufficient rainfall to maintain trees in a grass sward , sufficient sun to ripen the fruit), a long orcharding tradition, soils which support long-lived pear trees but often not apples , the close availability of millstones from the Forest of Dean for the milling of fruit , and the smallholding tradition which led to the planting of perry pears rather than apples because perry needs no blending of juice from different varieties as cider usually does. In addition, most perry varieties, if the pomace (milled fruit & juice) is macerated (allowed to stand between milling and pressing), can be made into a mild bitter-sharp perry similar in character to the cider popular in this region.
Perry farms in the 18th & 19th centuries used trees spaced widely at 18-20 m (6066 ft) apart lie about 10-12 trees per acre or 25-30 trees per Hectare), with arable crops (usually cereals) grown as an intercrop for many years , reducing gradually to alleys between the rows, and eventually the whole field was grassed down, but sometimes not until 50 years after planting. Other intercrops often used on smaller farms were apple and plum trees. Thus perry pear cultivation formed part of a long-lived and sustainable agroforestry system.
Description
Perry pears are exceptionally long-lived for fruit trees , often reaching an age of 2-300 years. They also grow into often massive trees ; 20 m (70 ft) high and in spread. Perry pear fruits differ from eating and culinary pears in mainly being astringent (ie bitter) to varying degrees. This makes the fruits suitable only for perry production - though there are exceptions and several varieties have been used as multi-purpose.
Perry pears need a sunny and warm summer to ripen well, and until now have only achieved this in Britain in a warmer than average summer; however, with global warming they should ripen considerably better. This reliance on good summers has been reflected in wide variation in vintage quality from year to year. This variation in quality has led to varying opinions of perry over the ages, but the variation is due to other factors as well: the use of inferior seedling trees, the use of dessert pear varieties (usually giving weak or flavourless perry), and generally casual methods of producing the drink. It is now appreciated that to make good perries, special vintage varieties are necessary and the operation demands considerable knowledge, skill and attention. Another use to which some perry varieties are put is ornamental. Some bear large flowers with a strong aroma and are very striking at blossom time : Barland is an example. Perry trees are thus sometimes found as park specimens or avenues . Logs from mature perry pear trees may have a considerable value as timber, which has a fine grain and uniform texture , turns well, and is good for carving and veneers; it has long been used for furniture making.
Paqe 12
Orchard layout & management

pollination
Few jf any of the perry pear varieties are self-fertile, and cross-pollination is essential for good crops . The flowering group is noted in the table below; cross-pollination takes place with in the same group or the adjacent group.
Tree size and spacing

Perry pears are nearly always grown on seedling perry rootstocks (p.communis). These are usually allowed to form large standard trees which are rarely pruned. Quince rootstocks are genera lly incompatible with perry varieties; a Beurre Hardy interstem needs to be used and this leads to slightly quicker bearing, but trees will need staking and they will be much shorter-lived. To complicate matters , perry pear varieties differ widely in the dimensions of canopy spread at maturity, from 6 m (20 ft) spread [ego 'Thorn'} to 18 m (60 tt) spread [ego 'Moorcroft'). The average spread is noted in the table below. To allow for maximum density at maturity, planting shou ld be at a spacing sli ghtly more (10-20% more) than the likely spread of the trees (ie 5.59 m for small spread, 9-13 m for medium spread, 13-20 m for large spread). For widespreading varieties, this gives plenty of opportunities for intercropping of cereals, vegetables, soft fruit and even other tree fruit (see above). Bush perry trees can also be used to interplant between standard trees. These are usually also on seedling rootstocks, but are trained with a 1 m (3 tt) trunk. This can be an important practice when early financial viability is needed in commercial situations. Only some varieties crop early (sometimes after 3-4 years) in this system, while others may take 10 years or more. Variety precocity in bush cultivation is noted in the table below.
Diseases & pests

A remarkable fact about perry pears is that many of the varieties still recommended for use today were highly popular 300 years ago. This seems to be due mainly to the high degree of resistance of the perry pear to the diseases pear scab and canker and the way in which this resista nce is maintained as the variety ages. More recently, fireblight has become a serious problem, though, especially with the later-flowering varieties. Th e large size of perry pear trees means than very littl e can be done to combat fireblight attacks; susceptible varieties should not be planted, and to reduce susceptibility, trees should not be pruned, fertilised or irrigated and no hawthorn hedges nearby should be allowed to flower. Perry pears are als o resistant to insect pests, on ly pear midge having a significant detrimental effect (contro ll ed in the past by runn ing pigs and poultry beneath the trees). The only other sign ificant pest is the bullfinch. [See 'Pears' in Agroforestry News, Vol 4 No 4 for details of pest controll
Harvesting and yields

Mature trees, planted at wide-enough spacing to enable all-around light penetration, frequently yield crops of one ton (1000 Kg, 2200 Ib), whi le records of two tons per tree in success ive years are not unknown. Average yields of 10-20 tons per acre {25-50 tons/Hal are ce rtainly possible. It must be remembered that most trees on seedling stocks are slow to start fruiting - often 10 years from planting. Those which are precocious as bush trees are noted in the table below; these may also start fruiting at an earlier age as full grown standards. Some trees require shaking to loosen all their fruits at once for mechanical harvest - their
7357
Perry production
Some fruits store well for a month or more after falling from the tree, and late varieties in this category may enable milling to continue into January of the following year in a good harvest season. This longer period of time before fruit breakdown commences is of great importance to present-day commercial growers. to allow for the harvest and transport of fruits to the factory. Hence most of the recommended varieties for commercia l growers show this trait (the exceQtion being Moorcroft , for the exceptional quality of its fruit). The fruits of other va rieties rot soon after they have fallen from the tree, hence much of the fruit needs to be milled immediately after harvesting . This means that the fruit is often milled. pressed and the juice fermented as single varieties. Even after fermentation , little blending has historically been practised, for the perries of some varieties will not mix successfully (2 clear perries when blended may produce an opaque unpalatable product). Fortunately, most perries do not need blending to give a palatable drink, and the individual varieties show a fine range of flavours to suit different palates. The composition of the juice obtained from perry pear fruit is influenced by the various effects of environment, climate, cultural conditions and age of tree. The descriptions below are an average , based on samples from mature trees; juice samples from young trees often differ considerably and these are described where known. The tannins in the juice of some varieties are rapidly precipitated, particularly in the presence of solid particles of pear tissue. The tannin content of the juice therefore depends on the conditions of milling and pressing, and on the length of time the juice has stood; the state of maturity of the fruit can also have a marked effect on tannin content of the juice . The fermentation process itself is very quick. It is worth noting that over 50% of the varieties described here give perries of medium acidity and low-medium tannin (contrasting with the present emphasis in cider apple varieties of bittersweet varieties with low acidity and mediumhigh tannin).
Recommended perry pear varieties

These are mostly varieties which yield well , are fairly disease free , and whose fruit stores for a reasonable time for the milling to be carried out. Primary varieties are listed in bold. Supplementary varieties, not so suited to larg scale cultivation, a~e also lis~e.d ; the~e are often susceptible to scab and dieback Harvest season vanety milling period Harvest season September variety milling period 1 week 1 week Late October Brandy Brown Bess Green Horse Chaceley Green Flakey Bark 1 month 1 month 3 weeks 3 weeks 3 weeks
Hellens Early Judge Amphlett Moorcroft Thorn Taynton Squash
2 days 1 week 2 days

November month month
Butt
over over
Early October Blakeney Red 1 week Hendre Huffcap 2 weeks Newbridge 1 week Winnal's long don 1 week Arlingham Squash Parsonage 1 Gregg's Pit 2 Red Longdon 3 Yellow Huffcap 1
Gin
5 days
week weeks weeks week
Turner's Barn Oldfield month
1 month over
Cultivars
Many of the perry varieties were selected as seedlings by growers and used only in that locality; thi s localisation in a striking feature of varietal distribution. Other varieties have a more widespread distribution, and are of high vintage quality; these include the Squash pears, Arlingham and Taynton, the Barland pear, and the Horse pears, Green, Red and Huffcap. Other varieties of widespread distribution are general purpose types. Many of the pears grown in the 1600's , though astrin gent, were used for eating and cook ing, and the surplus was sent to the mill (eg. Thorn Pear, Hastings, Brown Bess). Other general purpose varieties like Cannock and Blakeney Red were much planted in the 19th Century . Blakeney Red, now the most popular producing variety, gives a perry of reasonable quality, and the fruit has been long esteemed as one of the best pears for pickling, stewing and canning; large quantities were also used by the dye industry for the production of khaki. A total of about 100-120 perry pear varieties worthy of note exist in the main growing region , cove red by about 200 names: synonyms are numerous and there is some confusion over names. Some names are descriptive, based on place names, while others are humorous (eg. Merrylegs, Oevildrink); others are dialect versions of the original name. Nearly all the cultivars described here are still available from commercial nurseries; many others are still grown. Arlingham Squash (Syn. Squash Pear , Old Squash, Old Taynton Squash) Tree Medium sized with slender upright limbs and a thin open branch system. A good pollen producer. Fruit Turbinate, small, light green sometimes with a red flush; flesh tinged yellow. Rots quickly from the centre after harvest. Vintage Medium acid, low to medium tannin perry; pleasant. full bodied. Barland (Syn. Bosbury Pear, Bareland , 8earland) Tree Large, tall, with a few upright limbs; branches small. Growth moderately vigorous, sturdy. Flowers very large, pollen poor. Fruit Turbinate, small, green or yellow with russet. Falls over a long period. Vintage High acid, medium to high tannin perry; astringent, fruity, average to good quality. Young trees may give perries of low acidity and low tannin. Barnet (Syn. Barn , Brown Thorn, Hedgehog) Tree Medium to large, compact tree with long branches with conspicuous spurs; spreads with cropping. Growth moderately vigorous, stu rd y. Tends to biennia l cropping. Fruit Turbinate, small, green/yellowish-green with orange-red flush and russet. Easily shaken fr tree. Vintage Low acid, low tannin perry; pleasant, light, average quality. Blakeney Red (Syn. Painted Lady, Painted Pear, Circus Pear, Red Pear) Tree Medium-large tree; young trees have numerous upright limbs which later fuse and spread outwards . Growth vigorous and sturdy. Re li able cropper. Fruit Pyriform-turbinate, small to medium , yellow with heavy flush and some russet. Vintage Medium acid , medium tannin perry; pleasant , average quality depending on the fruit cond ition on milling. Brandy Tree Small to medium with spreading limbs. Branches quite stout. Growth vigorous and sturdy. Biennial cropping . Fruit Turbinate, small, pale green or greenish-yellow with a bright red flush and russet. Vi ntage Medium acid , low tannin perry; bland, aromatic, dark colour, average quality. Brown Bess (Syn. Brown Bessie) Tree Medium to large, with several upright limbs . Growth moderately vigorous , fairly sturdy. Poor pollen. Fruit Turbinate, small to medium sized, green or yellowish-green. Can be easily shaken from the tree before it is fully ripe. Originally used as a culinary pear . Vintage Medium acid, low tannin perry; average to good quality.
Page 31
Butt (Syn. Norton Butt) Tree Medium to large tree with spreading , drooping limbs. Growth moderately vigorous floppy. Often biennial. Fruit Turbinate, small. yellow or greenish-yellow, with some russet; flesh tinged yellow. Lie on the ground for a long time without rotting . Vintage Medium to high acid, medium to high tannin perry; astringent, fruity, average to good qual~ty. The juice is ve ry slow fermenting and tannin is frequently precipitated during storage. Chaceley Green (Syn. Hartpury Green, Chaseley Green) Tree Medium sized tree with a few very large spreading limbs; small branches with a thic growth of twigs. Fruit Round , very small, pale green or greenish-yellow with some russet. Vintage Low acid, low tann in perry ; rather poor quality.
Flakey Bark Tree Medium to large with straggling limbs (patchy off-white in colour). Slightly biennia cropping. Fruit Turbinate or pyriform. small to medium sized, pale green or yellowish-green with russet. Vintage Medium acid , high tannin perry ; very astringent, average quality.
Gin Tree Medium sized with slightly spreading limbs. Branches with heavy conspicuous spu systems. Growth moderately vigorous. sturdy. Cropping often biennial. Fruit Turbinate , small, green with an orange flush and a little russet. Vintage Medium acid, medium tannin perry; average to good quality.
Green Horse (Syn. White Horse , Horse Pear) Tree Large , of characteristic stiff appearance. Numerous large , heavy. upright limbs terminate in small s tiff branches. Growth vigorous, sturdy. Regular cropping. Fruit Oblate, green or yellowish-green with russet. Vintage High acid, low tannin perry; good quality.
Gregg's Pit Tree Large, very vigorous . Usually has a small number of large, long upright limbs carrying small lateral branches. Fruit Turbinate , small to medium sized', pale green with russet and sometimes a slight flush Cracks in some years. Vintage Medium acid, low to medium tannin perry ; astringent, fruity , good quality.
Hellen's early (Syn. Sweet Huffcap) Tree Very vigorous, large. Usually has a few very tall limbs with numerous long . often pendulous branches. Growth vigorous, sturdy. Poor polien. Fruit Tu rb inate, small, greenish-yellow with a flush and russet. Vintage Medium acid, low to medium tannin perry; average quality.
Hendre Huffcap (Syn. Lumberskuli , Yellow Huffcap) Tree Large with a few long upright limbs; smaller branches drooping. well-spurred, susceptible to breakage from heavy crops. Growth vigorous, slightly floppy. Regular cropping . Fruit Elliptical, small, greenish-yellow with a slight orange flush and some russet. Readily shaken from the tree. Vintage Low to medium acid , low tannin perry; pleasant, light, good quality.
Judge AmphleU Tree Medium sized , limbs with numerous branches of dense twiggy growth. Growth moderately vigoro us , sturdy. Regular cropping. Fruit Pyriform . small. yellow or greenish-yellow with russet. Vinta ge Medium acid. low tannin perry ; pleasant, light. average quality.
IOri9
Moorcroft (Syn. Malvern Pear, Malvern Hills , Stinking Bishop) Tree Large with a few long rather upright limbs which break easily. Growth moderately VlQOrous, slightly floppy and brittle. Fruit Turbinate, sma ll to medium sized, yellow or yellowish green with russet. Ripen over a period and are difficult to shake off. Vintage Medium acid, medium tannin perry; astringent, quality good to excellent.
Newbridge (Syn. White Moorcroft) Tree Very large, with several very upright limbs. Smaller branches are sparse and brittle. GrOwth vig orous , floppy. Flowers ornamental; poor pollen . Fruit Turbinate, small , greenish yellow or yellow with russet. Vintage Low acid, low tannin perry; average quality. Oldfield (Syn. Oilville , OleviJJe, Offield, Awrel, Hawfield) Tree Sma ll to medium sized. Growth moderately vigorous, slightly floppy . FrUit Round, very small, green or yellow with russet. Vintage Medium to high acid , medium tannin perry ; average to good quality. Parsonage Tree Large , spreading, with numerous large limbs and pendulous branches. Die-back from canker is often severe, but extension growth is very strong . Growth vigorous , floppy. Buds burst exceptionally early, often in early March . Large flowers, poor pollen. An irregular cropper. Fruit Turbinate or pyriform , small. pale green with russet. Vintage Medium acid, low tannin perry. Red Longdon (Syn. Red Long ley, Red Longn ey , Brockle, Brockhill, Cider Pear) Tree Medium sized, upright, with long limbs and branches tapering into twiggy growth. Often much die-back from canker resulting in a thin head . Growth moderately vigorous, fairly sturdy. Regular cropping. Fruit Turbinate or pyriform, small to medium sized, green or greenish-yellow with a strong reddish flush and russet. Vintage Medium acid, low tannin perry; pleasant, light. fruity, good quality. Red Pear (Syn. Sack, Black Horse, Red Horse, Aylton red, Blunt Red) Tree Medium sized. Thi ck spur systems. Growth weak, floppy. Biennial cropping. Fruit Turbinate, small, yellow or greenish yellow with a heavy red flush and russet. Vintage Low acid , low tannin perry; ave ra ge quality. Taynton Squash Tree Medium to large , with limbs spread from cropping. Branches of thin twiggy wood, often pendulous. Growth moderately vigorous, fairly sturdy. Usually biennial cropp ing . Fruit Oblate or turbinate , very small to small, greenish yellow with rus set and sometimes a slight flush. Vintage Medium acid, medium tannin perry; average quality. Thorn Tree Sma ll , of stiff upright compact habit with stout lim bs and branches bearing conspicuous spu r systems. Growth moderately vigorous, stu rd y. Fruit Pyriform, small, yellow with russet and occasionally an orange flush . Vintage Medium acid , low tannin perry; average to good quality. Turner's Barn (Syn. Longstalk, Barn) Tree Small to medium sized, with numerous upright limbs. Branches are stout , twiggy, wide sprea ding giving a dense rounded head. Leaves usually fall before the fruit. Fruit Oblate, very small, green or greenish-yellow with an orange-red flu sh. Vinta ge Medium acid, low tannin perry; pleasant, average quality.
Page 33
Winnal's Longdon (Syn. Longdon. Longlands) Tree Medium to large with a sturdy upright limb system, abundantly furnished with sma branches . Growth vigorous, sturdy. Fruit Pyriform, small to medium sized, greenish yellow or yellow with a heavy red flush an russet. Vintage Medium to high acid, low tannin perry; good quality.
?G
=z
Yell 9w Huffcap (Syn. Chandos Huffcap, Black Huffcap, Brown Huffcap, Green Huffcap, King Arms, Yellow Longdon, Yellow LongJands ) Tree large , with large spreading limbs and numerous small twiggy branches carrying sma spurs. Growth moderately vigorous, floppy. Often biennial cropping. Fruit Elliptical, small, green , yellow or yellowish black , with russet. Must be shaken off befor it is ripe or it may rot on the tree. Vintage Medium to high acid, low tannin perry; fruity, full flavoured , good to excellent quality.
Key to cultivar table
Flowering: The flowering period has been divided into four, Early (E), Mid (M), Late (L) an Very late (VL). A 'i ' denotes which group the cultivar belongs within. Cross pollination w occur with varieties in the same or an adjacent group (provided neither variety is a triploid see below). Triploid ('trip'): Varieties marked 'tr' in this column have infertile pollen and are probab triploids. Such varieties should be discounted as pollinators.
Branch crotch angle ('crotch'): Most va rieties have either wide crotch angles ('W') or narro crotch angles ('N'). This may influence variety choice, especially where there is any degree o exposure: wide crotch angles are less liable to breakage in strong winds. Tree spread ('spread'): Indicates the approximate spread of a mature tree: Small - 4.5-7.5 m (15-25 It) Medium; 7.5-11 m (25-35 tt) (35-55 tt)
Large; 11-17 m
Bush precocity ('bush prec'): Indicates the precocity (ie quickness of bearing) of trees o seedling rootstocks trained as bushes. 'good' 3-5 years, 'fair' 6-8 years, 'poor' 1 years+.
Harvest time: Indicates average harvest time of fruit between September and November. Eac month is divided into 4 quarters, with . ~ ' denoting harvest in that quarter.
Milling time (milling): Indicates the time (i n days or weeks) within which fruit must be milled otherwise it will start to rot. This time varies widely, from immediate milling required (' Imm ') t 10 weeks or more.
Cropping: Indicates the average heaviness of cropping. Some varieties are biennial - se variety descriptions for details.
Scab: Indicates resistance or susceptibility to pear scab. Most varieties are generally resistan unless shown otherwise. VR = very resistant , R = resistant , SS = slightly susceptible, S susceptible, VS = very susceptible.
Canker: Indicates resistance or susceptibility to pear canker. Most varieties are generall resistant un le ss shown otherwise. VR = very resistant , R = resistant, SS = slightl susceptible, S = susceptible, VS = very susceptible.
Fireblight ('fbt'): Indicates resistance or susceptibility to fire blight. There is very little information on perry pear susceptibility, but in general the later the flowering , the morE susceptible the variety is likely to be (infection is usually via flowers in hot weather).
iiJ
Perry pear table
" "
~ ~
Ir N large N large N small W large
!!
II
"
small
! !
large
Ir W large W small Ir W large N ediu large poor ..

~~
"
!
W small N N small N small N N large large .. . . ... . 1 wk 3 wks heavy R
Thorn Turner's Barn Winnal's Longdon Yellow Huffcap
"
v.hea vy R
poor . .. . !a . - .
poor 2~
1 wk 1 wk
heavy i R
v.heavy R
Suppliers
Deacon's Nursery, Moor View, Godshill, Isle of Wight. P038 3HW. Tel: 01983-840750. Mount Pleasant Trees, Rockhampton. Berkeley, Gloucs, GL13 9DU. Tel: 01454-260348 . Scotts Nurseries (Merriott) ltd, Merriott, Somerset, TA16 5PL. Tel: 01469-72306. Thornhayes Nursery, St Andrews Wood, Dulford, Cullompton, Devon, EX15 20F. Tel: 01884-
246746 .
References
Luckwill, L C & Pollard. A: Perry Pears. University of Bristol, 1963. MAFF Leaflet 571: Fireblight of Apple and Pear. 1984.
Page 35
Asian pears
Introd uction
Asian pears, also known as Nashi (the Japanese for pear) , Oriental pears , Chinese pears and Japanese pears, are derived from the Asiatic species Pyrus pyrifo/ia and P.ussuriensis. Japa;,ese cultivars are selections of P.pyrifolia , while Chinese cultivars are hybrids between these two species. They make quite decorative trees, with attractive white blossom, glossy green foliage and striking red autumn co louring; they can be very long lived (2300 years). P.pyrifolia is indigenous to Central and Western China.
P. ussuriensis is native to Northeastern China and Eastern Siberia. and is particularly hardy, but bears small and unpa latable fruits . This species is resistant to fireb light, and many of the hybrid Chinese cultivars show moderate resistance.
Until the last couple of decades, Asian pears were generally restricted to Japan and China, where they have been cultivated and grown commercially since ancient times ; over 3000 cultivars are grown in China at present. They were introduced into the American west during the gold rush by Chinese miners who brought seeds with them . More recently, production is spreading world-wide, notably in Australasia, Western North America, Central America and Southern Europe. Fruits of Asian pears are rather different to European pears. They are smooth and the shape is normally round (typical apple shape). The flavour is more delicate , and the texture crisper and juicier, but less melting than European pears. Some of the older cultivars have rather gritty flesh , though newer cultivars are grit-free. The fruits are widely used in salads in China and Japan. Another distinctive feature of Asian pears is that the fruits mature on the tree and do not require ripening after harvest like European pears.
Tree requirements
Asia n pears require less winter chilling . than European pears , hence the current interest in their cultivation in warm temperate and subtropical regions in the world. They require a warm, but not a long, summer to properly ripen their fruit. In Britain, achieving good fruit ripening can be difficult; in poor summers the fruits may remain small (5-6 cm, 2~) and bland in taste. However, the climate in New Zealand is proving excellent, and with climate wa rmin g Britain shou ld prove good within a short time.
Cultivation
Cultivation is generally similar to that of European pears . Seedling rootstocks are usually used, including Asian pear seedlings, P.betuUfolia, P.cafferyana and (favoured in Japan) P.pyrifofia (See ' Pear Rootstocks ' in Agroforestry News , Vol 4 No 3 for characteristics of these rootstocks). Growth on these rootstocks ca n be vigorous, but trees tend to com mence fruiting at quite an early age. Asian pears are generally incompatible with Quince rootstocks , unless an interstock (usua lly of Beurre Hardy) is used. Other dwarfing stocks often used in N.America are OHxF 97 and OHxF 333. Where these is used, trees are much smaller, typically 50-60% of the height and spread with seedling stocks, and very productive ; there is good potential for high density plantings using this combination. Horizontal trellis systems (ie overhead pergola systems) are widely used in Japan (designed to support the crop during summer typhoon winds) and give excellent results , but require much more labour in their upkeep and more capital to plant up. Planting in these systems is at 7.5-9 m (24-30 ft).
Page 36
A 'Shinko' fruit
Orchard spacing, using the vigorous rootstocks above, should probably be at 58 m (16-26 tt) apart. Trees grown as central leaders (ie vertical axis trees) commonly reach a height and spread of 4 m (13 tt) in 5 years and can then be maintained at this size with regular pruning. This is the recommended method of cultivation, as it utilises the natural form of the tree to a large extent.[see 'Pears' in Agroforestry News, Vol 4 No 4 for details of pruning]. Asian pears require similar nutrients to European pears. [see 'Pears' in Agroforestry News, Vol 4 No 4 for details]. See the same article for details of pests and diseases, which are the same as for European pears. Flowering occurs at the same time as with European pears (which are suitable as pollinators). Asian pears are only partially self-fertile. and a mixture of cultivars is advisable to achieve adequate production . Without good pollination, few seeds develop and fruits are small and misshapen. As with other pears, wet and cold weather at flowering time can adversely affect pollination. Relative flowering dates, where known, are shown in the table below. The five main cultivars are mostly all cross compatible, apart from the exceptions listed in the cult ivar descriptions. It is best to allow the standard of one polleniser to nine of the main cultivar, for example by planting a polleniser every third position in every third row. In trellis systems and hedgerows, pollinisers should be planted in each row, as bees tend to fly up and down the rows rather than across them. Fruit is borne mostly on two-year and older wood, with some on one-year laterals. A heavy fruit set may require thinning to encourage fruit size, reducing fruits to one per cluster in May, about a month after flowering, with a further thinning if necessary a month later. The ripening fruits turn mostly from brown-russet to golden-russet, but some Chinese cultivars turn from green to a paler greenish-yellow. Ripening of the earliest cultivars commences in late midsummer, continuing through to early autumn for the latest. Fruits ripen on the tree and can be eaten immediately on picking. If possible, fruits should not be picked immediately after heavy rain (when soluble solids and sweetness decrease) but 2-5 days later. Immature fruit , once harvested, will not ripen properly and tend to have poor flavour and texture . Fruit yields of the heavy cropping varieties reach 40-50 tons/Ha, similar to or slightly greater than yields from Eurooean cultivars: laroe trees can each vield and averaae of 180 Ka (400 Ib) oer vear.
Page 37
Fruits are very delicate and mark easily, showing fri ction marks and bruising damage. The will keep for about 2 weeks at normal room temperature, but latermaturing cultivars can b stored for up to 5 months at -1 to DoC (30 32 F).
Cultivars
There are numerous cultivars in Japan and China, a number of which (mainly Japanese) hav made their way into cultivation in other parts of the world. The most widely plante cOr(1mercial varieties are now Hosui, Kosui, Nijisseiki, Shinseiki and ShinsuL Most of th Chinese cultivars have 'U' at the end of the name (eg. Tsu U , Ya U).
Chojura Tree: vigoro us, spreading, with a somewhat drooping habit; a precocious, reliab le cropper. Fruit: moderately large, flattish , russetbrown , thick skin; flesh very sweet, juicy, gritty aromatic flavour sometimes strong. Skin is slightly astringent.
Hosui Tree: very vigorous , weeping, densely branched, lateral fruiting. Fruit: large, round (often uneven), sweet, russetted . less susceptible to skin damage than many cultivars, golden brown at maturity; flesh tender, very juicy, sweet, refreshing Susceptible to watery core if overmature.
Kikusui Tree: vigorous, spreading and slightly drooping; early bearing. Fruit: medium to large, greenishyellow, smooth and tender skinned ; flesh sweet, juicy, crisp acid, good quality. Skin slightly bitter.
Kosui Tree: vigorous, pyramidal shape. The second highest rated Japanese commercial cultivar. No pollen compatible with Shinsui. Fruit: medium sized, flattish, ye ll owish-green with goldenbrown russet, very tender skinned flesh tender, very juicy and sweet. Needs several pickings. Kumoi Tree: pOllen-steri le. Fruit: medium sized, russetbrown , thick
~k inned ;
fair flavour, poor quality.
Niitaka Tree: very upright. Probably a triploid - poor pollen. Fru it: large, greenish with brown russet; flesh mild, sweet. crisp, juicy, average flavour.
Nijisseiki (Syn. 'Twentieth Century', '20th Century') Tree: very vigorous; fruit borne on spurs. The mos t popular commercial cultivar grown in Japan. Fruit: round, regular , small to medium sized, turning yellow at maturity; flesh crisp, coarse free of grit. very juicy, very mild flavour. Shinko Tree: precocious and regular bearer. Susceptible to codling moth. Fruit: medium sized, golden russet-brown . thick skinned; flesh crisp, sweet, rich - good flavou and texture .
Shinseiki ('New Century') Tree: moderately vigoro us and spreading, ve ry precocious. Fruit: medium sized, greenish-yellow, smooth. very tender skinned; flesh coarse, juicy, mile flavoured average quality. Hangs well on the tree.
Page 38
Shinsui Tree: Vigorous, upright, open and sparsely branched. Should not be pruned heavily as there ir"8few fruit-bearing shoots. Not pollen compatible with Kosui. Fruit: small to medium sized, russet-brown, flattish-round ; flesh crisp , slightly gritty, very juic y, very good sweet-acid flavour. Borne on lateral shoots. Tsu li Tree: large, vigorous. FriJit medium to large, pyriform, light greenish-yellow, thick glossy skin ; flesh tinged yellow , sweet-acid , crisp , mild flavour. Va Li Tree : large, upright, very vigorous, dense. Good autumn leaf colouring. Fruit: pyriform, large, smooth, light greenish-yellow: flesh crisp, moderately sweet, aromatic.
Suppliers
Only 5 cuftivars are currently available in the UK and Ireland - Chojura , Kumoi , Nijisseiki , Shinseiki and Shinsui. These are available from the nurseries below. North America is rather better served, with many nurseries supp lying about 50 cultivars in total (see Whealy for suppliers). Chris Bowers & Sons, Whispering Trees Nurseries, Wimbotsham , Norfolk, PE34 80B . Tel :
01366-388752.
Deacon's Nursery, Moor View, Godshill, Isle of Wight, P038 3HW. Tel : 01983 -840750 . Keepers Nursery, 446 Wateringbury Rd, East Mailing, Kent. ME19 6JJ. Tel: 01622-813008. Orchardstown Nurseries, 4 miles out. Cork ro ad, Waterford , IRELAND.
Key to Asian pear information table

Diseases: the first 5 columns list known disease resistance or susceptibility. Codes used in these columns are: R = resistant fblt = fireblight rust = pear rust SR = slightly resistant S = susceptible MS = moderately susceptible
The diseases and pests represented in these co lumn s are (see above for more detail s ): scab
= pear scab
bios
= blossom
blight
mild
= mildew
Ripening : the average times of ripening in Britain are noted . Each month from July to October has been divided into 3 (early, mid, late). and ripening in any of these is marked with ', '. Cropping: the 'crops ' column indicates the average cropping record for the cultivar. Storage: the 'store' co lumn indicates how well the fruits store in co ld storage. Thinning requirement: the 'req thin' column notes whether fruit thinning is necessary ('yes') , preferable ('pref') or unnecessary ('no') to achieve reasonable sized fruits . Flowering: the last set of columns (A-G) indicate the spread of flowering from first flowering to last flowering; these correspond exactly with the dates listed for European pear cultivars in Agro forestry News Vol 4 No 4. The spread of flowering is marked with 'I '. When choosing cultivars with compatible flowering times (whether Asian or European pears) , try to choose them with a good overlap of flowering . Each of these columns represents about 5 days, and they co rrespond with the relative date of flowering (as above) as follows (with the average date in S.England represented in brackets):
Page 39
A
B
=day 1-6 (April 8-13) =day 7-12 (April 14-19)
0
E
=day 18-22 (April 25-29) =day 23-27 (April 30 -May 4)
G = day 33-37 (May 10-14)
C = day 13-17 (Apri l 20-24) F = day 28-32 (May 5-9)

.. --------. diseases ---.---.flowering .--. . ripening --.--
fblt
Chojura Hosui Kikusui Kosui Kumoi Niitaka Nijisseiki Shinko Shinseiki Shinsui
Iseal'bios mlldl rusl July Aug 5e~~

5 R 5 5 5 5 5
M5 5
I. .. _.1 . ~ .. ~ ,v , ,heavy I mod I' .. . . . heavy good

~~L '
. ,
o r
req crops store

thin
~
M5 5
S
5
~
5
S ),
1
... .
lI'fllI
. .
I H~ '
~ .
Icb! IFb
v.heavy
== -
good
I. , : _
5 5 5
good ... !, UH. heav y

~iOI"
J: Im
..
I mod
poor pref
. . II .
...
Iv.90od
~I
R S
M5 :
I" .. . . ~:na ~ .
S
5R M MR
S
S5 5
S
S !
Tsu Li Ya Li
1":[ .~!~~~ heaVy
~ ~: ~=
heavy heavy
I
I
good
good mod mod
yes
. ~!i5 . t:3;.
.. u
. ;~
l . gliogohd
...
good
I good
n ..
if'" ...
References
Moore, J N & Ballington, J R: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops, V2. ISHS. 1990. Reich, L: Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley, 1991. RHS: RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit . Berry and Nut In vento ry. Seed Saver Publications, 1993. White, Arran G: Nashi: Asian Pear in New Zealand. DSIR Publishing, 1990.
Page 40
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture/ horticulture td produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food, materials, timber and other products. lt can range from planting trees ir pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garde~ systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and grounq layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust foUl times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are: 18 per year in Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged) 22 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per year for institutions.
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Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets,; Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
Volume 5 Number 2
January 1997
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 5 Number 2
January 1997
Contents
2 7 15 23 31 40 Ash: Fraxinus excelsior Black walnut (3): Cultivation for nuts Forest gardening: root & bulb crops The kaki persimmon: Diospyros kaki Cherries (1): Description of species Classified adverts
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust . Contributions are welcomed , and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops ; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops . Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Ed itorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust , 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. U.K.
Page 1
Ash: Fraxinus excelsior

Introduction
The ash (Common ash, European ash) is one of our best-known native trees , but its native range i ~ extensive, covering most of Europe and Northe rn Asia and growing up to 450 m altitudet in Britain. It was regarded w ith superstitious reverence by most of the early European races and features highly in Scandinavian and Celtic myths .
Description
The ash is a large deciduous tree growing up to 30-40 m (100-1 35 ft) high and 20 m (70 ft) in spread with a rounded crown in later years.
Winter shoots are very distinctive , with hard black buds in opposite pairs on smooth greyish-green twigs, and three buds at the tips . The bark is smooth and grey-green for 30 years, then darkening and developing into a network of sha ll ow fissures. Leaves open in late Mayor even early June, and fall in October. The leaves are compound, 20-35 cm (a_14M) long, with 7-13 (usually about 9) oval leaflets each 5-12 cm (2-5") long and 25 mm (1") wide, dark green above and lighter beneath , with toothed edges and pointed tips. The canopy is relative ly thin and this, together with the short season in leaf allows many understorey plants to thrive. The fallen leaves are high in phosphorus. The flo wers, borne on one year-old wood, open in April and May, before the leaves, appearing like green tassels, and are wind po llinated. Individual trees can be male, female, or carry both sexes of flowers ; in addition, trees can change sex from year to year. Individual trees are not normally self-fertile, though. Trees may take 15-20 years from seed until they flower, and double that until heavy seed crops are borne. Seed production declines after about 80 years. The seeds are borne within dense c lu ster's of winged keys (botanically called samaras; 'keys ' comes from their resemblance to keys used in medieval locks) and ripen from Septembe r onwards, dropping slowly over the winter. Keys are 25-50 mm (1_2M) long and 6-8 mm (X,H) wide, ripening from green to dull brown and each key holds one ova l seed at its base. There are often several years (3 - 5) between heavy seed crops. The ash is very hardy - to zo ne 3 (-30C). Trees can live for 200-300 years. Numerous ornamental cultivars have been selected, for an unusual form (eg . 'Spectabilis' - pyramidal, 'Nana ' - shrubby) or unusual foliage.
Uses
There are severa l edible uses for parts of the ash tree: The young keys (im mature seeds plus wings, still green) are pickled and used as a condiment. An old English and Siberian tradition. They are quite peppery, somewhat aromatic, but also bitter. The bitterness may be 'Fraxin' (see below) and implies that usage should be moderate. While there are no records of ripe seeds (removed from wings) being eaten, these are similarly peppery and bitter, and might be usable as a pepper substitute (I have had no ill-effects from testing them!)
Page 2
' .
.... -........
The young leaves have been used as a tea adulterant. An edible manna (gum from bark exudati ons) might occa sionally be produced in warm climate s - ne ver in Britain. This report may have confused the common ash with the Manna ash (Fraxinu s omus). According to Chiej, an edible oil similar to sunflower oil is obtained from the seed. Medicinal uses include: Young leaves, gathered in June and dried, are cathartic , diaphoretic, diuretic, laxati ve and purgative. Used as an infusion. Sometimes used for arthritis, cystitis , rheumatism and constipation . Mild and reliable purgati ve with no side-effects. The bark, peeled off in spring and dried, is antiperiodic, astringent and a bitter tonic. Used as a decoction , internally for fevers and sometimes externally in compresses applied to cuts and sores . Bark from both the trunk and roots can be used, and contains the bitter glucoside 'Fraxin'. The young keys (seeds and wings) are carminative . The leaves and bark are used in s ome proprietary medicines for intra ctable constipation and in the treatment of rheumatic conditions. A green dye is obtained by using the leaves. The bark is a source of tannins . The content is only about 4%, but it has been used for tanning nets.
The tree is very wind-tolerant and can be used in shelterbelts , although it is in leaf for quite a short season. Although wind-pollinated , ash is still a bee plant, used as a source of pollen in April-May. Wildlife value - numerous insect species are associated with the tree . Bullfinches feed heavily on the ripe seeds , in preference to bud s of fruit trees. In Britain , ash is one of the most promising species to use in silvopastoral agroforestry systems (ie pasture plus widely-spaced trees). The relatively light canopy, allowing a large proportion of light through , and the short season when the tree is in leaf, means that grasses can continue to grow well beneath he trees for many years . The wood was formerly valued as a fuel for drying fish , particularly herring s . The sap is reported to be insecticidal against weevils (Phyllobius ob/ongus). The leaves have been recommended in many parts of Europe as an excellent cattle fodder , sometimes used in times of grass shortage; there are contradictory reports of it being poisonous to ruminants (Cooper), and it affecting the flavour of the milk from lactating cows. Ash is a valuable timber tree , grown commercially in much of Europe and the former USSR. The he artwood is cream to pale tan , the sapwood lighter but equally useful. In some logs, a dark brown-black heartwood is found which is strong and sound and sold as 'olive ash'. The wood is tough , highly pliable , not brittle, extremely supple and hard , very strong , long-fibred and straight-grained . The large vessels at the start of each annual ring appear as large pores on cross-cut surfaces and long streaks on surfaces cut lengthwise. The timber dries quite quickly with care, to a density of 510-830 Kg/m J (710 kg/m J at 15% moisture). The tough, heavy , dense timber is fairly resistant to splitting and has good steam bending properties , and with medium resistance to crushing and shock loads; it is not durable. It works well with a moderate blunting effect on tools , stains easily, and can be brought to an excellent smooth finish.
Page 3
E
It coppices well and makes a good fuelwood tree on this basis ; it burns , green or dry, with little smoke and leaves ashes which are very high in potash (it is still more efficient to burn it after drying). It was widely grown as a 5-6 year coppice crop in Staffordshire for the manufacture of crates for packing earthenware.
Young shoots are frequently used for basketry, especially for the handles of carrying baskets. The wood is used for fuel, heavy-duty handles (axes , hammers , spades) , construction, furniture (notably chairs) and cabinetmaking, aircraft, shipbuilding, veneers, plywood, agricultural implements, ladders, hop poles, oars and tillers , horse-drawn carriages, caravan frames, walking sticks and sports goods including hockey sticks , bats , racquets, gymnasium equipment, cricket stumps, snooker cues ; and formerly for wheels , cart shafts , wagons , skis , crates, lances , spears , javelins and bows.
Silviculture
Siting & planting
Ash is tolerant of most moist soils including acid and alkaline soils apart from shallow soils over chalk. It prefers a deep loamy soil which is not too drought-prone. It is very tolerant of seasonal waterlogging. Full light is essential for all but very young trees, as ash becomes very intolerant of shade after about 7 years and will often die without enough light. Ash is quite tolerant of air pollution , and very tolerant of exposure , including maritime exposure. It is very resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria spp .) The young foliage is very susceptible to frost damage, although leafing out is so late that damage is usually avoided; however, very frost susceptible sites should be avoided. Current recommendations for planting ash are to plant at a spacing of 2 m (6 ttl. ie 2500 trees/Ha to ensure quality timber trees. Ash is one of the few species which shows very good growth increases when treeshelters are used . Ash trees grown at densities like this rarely need formative pruning.
Growth & thinning

Growth is fast. about 50 cm -1 m (1Y1 - 3 tt) per year for the first 10 years ; fast growth continues for a further 40 years or so. After about 100 years , upward growth ceases but spreading growth continues. Ash is renown as a heavy feeder with a dense root system . On shallow soils in particular this can greatly affect the growth of other nearby and understorey plants; on deep soils this isn't so marked. The ash is more often grown in mixtures than in pure plantations; it grows well with cherry (Prunus avium), sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), oak (Quercus spp) and beech (Fagus sy/vatica). In Denmark, ash are grown in beech stands and are felled after 70 years , leaving the beech to grow on for a further 30-40 years . Mean yield classes in Britain range from 4 to 7 m J/Ha/year with a maximum of about 10-12 m J/Ha/year on rich soil where growth is vigorous. Rotations of about 65-75 years are presently most valuable. AU thinnings should be heavy, with the aim of keeping the crowns entirely free; the trees should be at their final spacing by the age of 30-35, when there should remain 120-150 stems/Ha at an average spacing of 8.2-
9.2 m). Thinnings should be frequent with the aim of to perpetuate a live crown diameter at least onethird the height of the tree. High quality veneer/sports grade ash is normally 30-45 em in diameter.
There are few pests or diseases of savastanol) may badly damage trees jf immune from grey squirrel damage, but decay fungi associated with older trees is
significance. A bacterial canker (Pseudomonas they are grown on unsuitable sites . Ash is almost is readily browsed by rabbits and deer. One of the the beef steak fungus (Fistulina hepatica).
Ash coppices very well and can be treated thus on rotations of 5-25 years for several hundred years. Coppice shoots may grow 1.5-2 m (5-6 ft) in their first and second years (but note that after coppicing, sprouting on some ash stools is delayed until the second spring).
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 5 No 2 .
Page 5
Propagation
Ash is nearly always propagated by seed, There are between 8600 and 16000 seeds/Kg, with the average count 12900/Kg (3900-7300 seeds/lb , average 5900Ilb). The average germination rate is about 60%, hence the average number of seeds which will germinate is laDO/Kg (3550/Ib). The ripe seeds require periods of warm and cold stratification before they will germinate; 2-3 months of warm followed by 2-3 months of cold is necessary. Outdoor stratification started too late in the autumn may miss the warm period, and then most seeds wil l wait a further year before germinating. If possible seeds should be colJected when just ripe but still green (eg. in early September) and sown or stratified immediately. 2 Recommendations to achieve the standard 190 seedlings/m in a seed bed (ie at 7.5 cm, 3~ 2 spacing) are to sow at the rate of 77g/m2 (ie 1 Kg of seed per 13 m ). This assumes the average yield of seedlings to be 2500 per Kg of seed. Seedlings put up two pale green oval seed leaves, then two simple undivided pointed oval leaves, then two compound leaves with 3 leaflets; and only then the typical compound leaves. One year seedlings grow to 10-25 cm (4-10~) high. Ornamental cultivars are usually propagated by chip budding in summer.
Agroforestry uses
Forest gardens: ash is probably not valuable enough to intentionally plant in a forest garden, but if present in the garden or on the boundary , then management can be adapted to take account of it. The leaves rot quickly after falling and are high in phosphorus, so will substantially aid nutrient cycling in the system. The relatively light canopy will allow substantial underplanting. One drawback will be that ash self-seeds freely , and this could become a problem in heavy seed crop years; a regular spring/summer routine of rogueing out ash seedlings will need to be adopted. Silvopastoral systems: several experiments are taking place in the UK using ash at various spacings within pasture which is grazed by sheep. Controls of no trees in pasture, and trees at forestry spacing (2 x 2 m) are being grown along with trials of trees at 5 x 5 m (400/Ha) and 10 x 10 m (100/Ha) in pasture. All pasture trials were given similar nitrogen applications. The trials were planted in 1987-8 , and ongoing results in 1995 showed that the growth of sheep (ie Kg produced) had not decreased in the pasture with trees compared with the plain pasture, no had the carrying capacity changed Points of note were that trees had to be well protected, as they and their posts were often used as rubbing posts; sheep often used to lie at the bases of the trees , hence compaction was increased there and grass production reduced ; and that the widely-spaced trees need much more formative ' pruning to achieve a single straight bole than closely planted trees.
Selected references
Aldhous, J & Mason , W: Forest Nursery Practice. Forestry Commission Bulletin 111, HMSO, 1994. Chiej, R: The Macdonald Encylopedia of Medicinal Plants . Macdonald, 1984 Cooper, M & Johnson , A: Poisonous Plants in Britain and their Effects on Animals and Man. HMSQ,1984. Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties. John Wiley, 1988. Grieve, M: A Modern Herbal. Penguin, 1980. Johnson, C P: The Useful Plants of Great Britain. William Kent, 1862. Kerr, G & Evans, J: Growing Broadleaves for Timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9, HMSQ, 1993. Launert, E: The Hamlyn Guide to Edible & Medicinal Plants. Hamlyn , 1981. Lincoln , W: World Woods in Colour. Stobart, 1986 .
Black walnut (3) Cultivation for nuts

I ntrod uction
Growing black walnuts for nuts requires different conditions than growing for timber: the aim is to create a spreading tree wit h a round ed crown, maximising the crown (and thus the frui ting) area , whereas growing bla ck walnut timber requires closespaced trees to force them into straight growth. A compromise is feasible to achieve both , and severa l black walnut agrofo restry syste ms are based on wider spacing with pruning to achieve strai ghte r stems (see Agroforestry News, Vol 5 No 1 for more details). Seedling trees require a growing seaso n of about 150 days and an average summer temperature of 16.5"C (62" F). Over its natural range , annual rainfall varies from 30-130 em (ave rage 90 em), and annual temperatures range from 7_ 19C (average 11 C). These conditions are all easily achievable in the UK, apart from the average summer temperature required: this latter is just about achieved in an average summer i n the South East, but in warm summers is achieved in more Western and Northern areas. If, in addition , cultivars are chose n which are more suited to our cooler summers, nut production shou ld be feasible in much of England and Wales.
Siting & planting

Sit ing req uirem ents for nut production are si mil ar to those fo r timber production: a shelte red su nny site which is not susceptible to late spring frosts. An ideal wou ld be mid-slope on a sh eltered South or south-west aspect. Soil requirements are fairly exacting: moderately fertile , deep , well drained , of medium texture and near neutral pH (6 to 7). Very sandy and clayey soils are unsuitable, though growth is good on chalk and limestone where there is at least 60 em (2 ft) depth of soil. Because they are deep rooting , trees are very drought resi stant once establis hed . Planting should be at a spacing of 8-15 m (26 -50 ft) apart. Although trees can grow into huge wide-spreading spec imens with crowns 15 m (50 ft) across , trees planted at closer spacings will not be at risk from crowing for many years (e g. 40 years at 8 m spacing) and pruning can always be carried out if necessary; wider spacings leave a lot of ground between trees , which ca n be used for other cro ps not susceptible to ju glone poisoning (not apples or white pin es) . Weed control is esse nti al for 2-4 yea rs, competition from grasses being the most co mmon ca use of young walnut deaths. Mulching is best with org anic materials or plastic. Weed co ntrol to a radius of 2.5 m (8 tt) is desi ra ble in the long term and can result in double the yield of nuts compa red with trees given no weed co ntrol.
Flowering & pollination

Black wa lnuts bea r male and female flowers on the same tree, but they usually mature at different times , with the female flo wers most often preceed ing the males by bout 5 day s. Because of this, self-pollination is unlikely and trees/cultivars shou ld be assumed not to be se lf-fertil e. Male fl owe rs deve lop from leaf axi ls towards the ends of the previous year's branches ; female flowe rs orig in ate from terminal buds on the cu rrent year's shoot and appear before the leaves are fully expanded in spring . Depending on the climate and selection , the flowers appear between mid -April and mid-June in North America, up to 2 weeks later in the UK. Although black wa lnuts wi ll cross-pollinate with Persian/ English wa lnut s, they tend to flower some 2-3 weeks later hence pollination is unlikely except with very early flowering black walnuts and late flo we ring Persian waln uts.
Flowering occurs over a period of about 10 days. The late flowering cultivars shou ld flower mid to late June in the UK. It is wise to choose two or more cultivars which will cross pollinate (see flowering in table for more information).
Ongoing maintenance
Pruning is generall y unnecessary, although a little formation pruning may be desirable to form a tree of particular shape. Like most fruiting trees, the main nutrient requirements are for nitrogen and potassium. Too much feeding, though, can make the tree susceptible to fungal diseases. If possible, mulch with manures or compost, and use nitrogen-fixing plants and potassium accumulators like comfrey nearby to top up levels of nutrients.
Harvesting
Black wa ln uts are often irregular bearers, fruiting bie nnially or in between annual and biennial cropping. Nuts from black walnuts have very hard, dark brown or black shells with irregular grooves and ridges; the kernels are stronger flavou red than Persian (English) walnuts. Young grafted trees usually start to bear with in 2-3 years of planting . Typical yields are about 8 Kg (18 Ib) of nuts (around 350 nuts) per year for 15 year old trees, rising to a maximum at 50-60 years, when yields can reach 100 Kg (220 Ib) or more; 20 year-old plantations can yie ld 2 tonnes/acre. Trees are long-lived and can continue to crop for 90 years or more. Before harvest, it is prudent to cut/graze the grass or ground cover beneath the trees, and to gather and burn prematurely fa llen nuts , as these are quite likely to be insect-infested . The nuts usually reach fu ll size in late August and ripen in late September or October; they drop, usually within the green fleshy husks, short ly before the leaves fall, usua lly in October. At this stage, they are also quite easi ly shaken from the tree. Ripeness is indicated by the softness of the husk. After harvest, the husks must be removed within a few days and the nuts washed, as the husks darken rapidly and can affect the kerne l colour and flavour. Handling the green husks can leave stains on hands and clothes which are very difficult to remove - wear gloves! The husks can be loosened by 'stomping' with fe;et, by using a cement mixer with a brick or two in, or by driving over nuts in a vehicle. During washing, the bad nuts can be separated out as they will float - all good nuts wi ll sink. If nuts are to be stored, they must then be dried - in dry climates this can be achieved by storing in a well-ventilated building in thin layers and turning regularly; in damper clim es like the UK, artificial heat in the form of blown warm air will be necessary: air heated to between 30-40C (86- 104F) is blown through thin layers of nuts until weight reduction within a small sample has stabilised. Storage of dried nuts is best with whole nuts, rather than kernels only. Low temperatures near zero are preferable , with low humidity; keep nuts separate from other foods as the kernels can take up odours from other strong-smelling foodstuffs. Dry nuts can be stored for up to a year, but eventually they wil l turn rancid . Before shelling or cracking nuts, they should be soaked in water overnight to moisten them and strengthen the kernels, otherwise the shells shatter badly and kernels may break in the cracking process. There are several specially-designed hand and mechanica l crackers in North America to cope with black walnuts, though a carefully controlled hammer can do the job! The ordinary type of nut cracker will not cope, though, and will probably itself break rather than the nut crack, so beware.
Diseases and pests

These are in the most part common with those found on Persian/ English walnuts (Jug/ans regia). Black wa lnuts are resistant to deep bark canker and rarely troubled by butternut canker or walnut blight. The most serious disease is walnut leaf blotch. Walnut leaf blotch/Anthracnose (Gnomonia /eplcstyla) : black walnuts are slightly more susceptible than most Persian walnuts to this disease, which is considered a serious threat to commercial growers in some seasons in North America. It is widespread in North America and Europe. T he fungus causes brown blotches on leaves; it can cause defoliation and infection of the developing fruit which then drops ; less severe infections can reduce kernel weights or darken the kernels. The disease appears in late May-early June, favoured by wet weather. The spo res of this disease overwinter on dead leaves. One control , if attacks are always bad, is to collect fallen leaves and compost at high temperatures or burn. In wet seasons when infection is bad, copper-based sprays such as Bordeaux mixtu re give effective control. Most cultivars are resista nt when young and several continue to be resistant when older; it may be wise to choose a resistant cu ltivar. There is some evidence that lack of nitrogen increases susceptib ili ty. The insect pests of significance in North America are wal nut husk flies (Rhagoletis spp), which feed on the green husk of nuts , producing a sta ining and off-flavouring of the kernel; Curc ulios (Conotrachelus retentus) which feed on young leaves and husks - control by co ll ecting and destroying prematurely fallen nuts; and fall webworms (Hyphantria cunea, moth larvae which feed on foliage). Cod ling moth damage of any significance has not been reported, but is presumab ly possib le as they can attack developing nuts of Persian walnuts. As to wildl ife pests, the fleshy and strong-smelling husks deter squirrels and other pests from eating the nuts; but once the nuts are de -husked (whether naturally or manually) , squirrels are extremely fond of the nuts and will take them to bury for the winter if allowed.
Cultivars
Over 100 named cu ltiva rs have bee n selected and are sti ll grown in North America. The best known are 'Thomas' (New York state); 'Cornell' & 'Snyder' (Northern areas); 'Wiard' (Michigan); 'C ochrane' & 'Huber' (Minnesota); 'Elmer Myers' , 'Sparrow & 'Stambaugh ' (Southern USA): 'O hio' in Centra l USA. Many have been selected fo r their cracking quality, including the so-called peanut types which are single-lobed sports which have only harf a nut which ca n be extracted who le (eg. 'Slaettner', 'Thorp ', 'Worthi ngton ' ). Cu ltivars differ in hardiness, response to climatic conditions, resistance to diseases and suscep tibility to insect damage. There is considerable variatio n in nut quality, flowering and leafing dates, precocity (age of bea ri ng) and growth rate . Most bear their fruits at the tips of branches, although some selections which fruit on lateral buds have been reported. 'Myers' and 'Victoria' are repo rted to be partly self-fertile . Because of the large shell , the actua l percentage of the nut which forms the kerne l is relatively low - 30% is good (36% is the most recorded, 27% the average). Although using grafted cultivars is the most reliable method of prod ucing nuts , seedlings from good cultiva rs tend to reproduce the qualities of the parent tree both in tree and nut characteristics. Hence seed ling trees are still of value and may be desirable on cost terms, for example. Shell thickness and structure are the most important factors affecting the kernel percentage and nut crackability; the highest quality nuts have a thin outer shell with no internal convolutions intruding into
the
Page 33
kernel. Also the inner shell partition between the two nut halves should be very thin to allow easy remo val of the kernel pieces. The cultivars rated most highly on a range of attributes by American nut growers include 'Emma K', 'Hay' , 'Myers ', 'Ohio', 'Rowher', 'Sparrow' and the ' Sparks' selections. Selections recommended for the UK, which ripen their nuts with the least accumulated heat units (ie hours over 10C) are 'Beck', ' Bowser', 'Davidson' , ' Emma K ', 'Hare ' , 'Krause' , 'Myers ', 'Ohio' , 'Pfister' and 'Sparks 127'. Cultivar synonyms Boser = ... Bowser Boellner = Stark Kwik-Krop Elmer Myers = Myers
Emma Kay = Emma K Kwik-Krop = Stark Kwik-Krop
Key to cultivar tables

Origin: Indicates whether the origin is from the North (N) , Central (C) or Southern (S) part of the range in North America; also given is the state of origin. Most cultivars are seed ling selections from these areas. Leafing: Indicates whether leafing out in spring is early , late etc. Not much information available, but late leafing usually means late flowering and this may be wise in the UK whe re late spring frosts can be a problem. Flwg: Indicates relative time of flowering. The total range varies by about a month from early May to early June, with flowering occuring over a 7-10 day period. If known , the flowering time for male (M) and female (F) flowers are given , ego ml ,fe = Male late, female early (thus self-pollination very unlikely); mm,fm = male and female both mid-flowering . Good pollination is likely between cultivars when the distinct M/F flowering periods are the same. Ripening: Indicates the season of ripening - early , mid , late etc. There isn 't a large span between early and late - about 5 weeks. Precocity: Indicates how quickly the cultivar starts to bear. Very good means 2-3 years, Good 3-5 years after planting. Tree characteristics: Lists any other relevant characteristics . Vig = vigorous , Mod = moderate, reg = regular cropper, hvy = heavy cropper , upr = upright, spr = spreading, lat brg = lateral bearing. Pests/Dis: Lists known resistances/susceptibilities. S (ant) = susceptible to anthracnose , r (ant) = resistant to anthracnose , vr (ant) = very resistant to anthracnose, s (hm) = susceptible to husk maggots. Nut size: Very large = 40-50 nuts/Kg, Large = 50-60 nuts/Kg, Medium = 60-70 nuts/kg , Small ; 70-80 nits/Kg. Shell: Indicates relative thickness and any other characteristics. Cracking: Indicates cracking quality or 'crackability'. Very good is best , meaning that on cracking, most of the kernels come out in halves or quarters . See above for further discussion. Kernel %: Indicates percentage kernel fill of nut. Very high = 32-38 %1, High = 27-32%, Moderate = 22-27% , Poor/Low = 18-22%. Kernel colour: Indicates relative
shad in~
of kerne l
(1i~ht .
dark etc).
--~~-
--
-~
--
---
---
---
---
----
---
Cultivar PestslDis Baker's Ohio 8aum #25 Beck Bicentennial Bowser Burns Burton Clermont Cornell Cranz Davidson Drake Edras EI-Tom Emma K Evans Farrington Fonthill Football II Grundy Hain Hare Harney Hay Homeland Krause Lamb Majestic Mintle Monterey Myers Ogden Ohio Patterson Peanut Pfister Pinecrest Putney Ridgeway Rowher Sauber Schreiber Snyder Sol Sparks t27 Sparks 129 Sparks 147 Sparrow Sta bler Stambaugh Stark KWik- Kr Ten Eyck
Origin
Leafing
Flwg Ripening Precocity
Tree characteristics
: S (Miss) S (Kentuck) N (Mich) early N (New Yk) . N (Ohio) rid-late N (Ontario) . . S (Kentuck I N (Ohio) v.late N (New Yk) . N (Penn) id-Iate N (Iowa) early
J
mm ,fm
mUm mid early good good good
Vlg,
annual bearer
biennial, mod bearer s (ant) vi'g ,str,reg,hvy crp ,lat brg r (ant) vigorous, hardy vigorous, hvy bearer r (hm) upright heavy regular bearer vigorous,upright lateral bearing,reg br lateral bearing, reg brg heavy bearer spreading, hvy beare vigorous, straight regular heavy bearer vig,upr,hvy brg,str lateral bearing some nuts sing le-Iobectl easily propagated
mm,fl me,fm
late early late early
good
r (ant) r (ant)
good N (Iowa)
I
r (ant)
I . S (Kentuck
C (MO)
N (Iowa)
N (Illinois) late ml.fm me,f[ mid ml ,fm ml,fm
good
I early
good
early N (Michign) N (Illinois) mid S (Kentuck) mid C (Virginia) early N (Iowa) N (Michign N (Iowa) N (Penn) N (Iowa) late S (Kentuck1ely-mid N (Ohio) ely-mid N (Iowa) I N (Ohio) mid (Nebrask mid N (Penn) N (New Yk) N (Illinois) mid N (Ohio) N (Indiana) N (New Yk) N (Indiana) late
r (ant)
me ,tm
early late
good ml ,fI mm,fm ml,fm mm,fe me,fl
late
I .
good good good
early ea rly early
v.vig, good pollinator r (ant) vigorous,upright rel iable bearer uts store well, hvy brr . easi ly propagated . r (ant) vig, str, mod bearer moderate bearer . mod biennial bearer [<ant),S(hm) vig, str, hardy . some nuts single lobeH r (ant) lateral beaing ,vig.str easily propagated vigorous, straight heavy bearer r (ant)
mUm heavy bearer vigorous, productive Vlg , hvy rehable bearer lateral beanng very good cropper good good good
~dy,
early ml,fm
I early
I
. early
r (ant) r (ant)
N (1IhnOls) C (Maryld ) N (1Ihno ls) P . N (New J)
mid-late mm,fm me,tl mid mm.fm me ,fe
I ,;te
hvy ann brg,lat brg vr (ant) i ome nuts single lobed vs(hm) s (ant) moderate bearer vlg,hardY,hvy cropper very good productive
Page 31
Origin Leafing flwg Ripening Precocity Tree characteristics Cultivar PestslDis Thomas I N (Penn) v. late ml ,fI I mid very good vig , str, mod bearer s(a nt),r(hm) Thomas Myers S (M iss) . early good regular heavy bearer r (ant) Thorp . mid mm,fI late most nuts single lobed hard husk r (hm) Todd N (Ohio) rid-late mm,fm Vande rsloot N (Penn). good h1 e avy annual bearer,upr r (ant) good r igorous, good beare~ vr (ant) Victoria ~ (Kentuck . late mid-late vig,hdY,nuts store well Weschke N (Wlscon) early Wiard N (Mlchlgn) poor t)usk thick;light croppe~r
I
I
Nuts of black walnut cultivars

(a) Shell prints (full size)
~toh
Ohi~
~
/'~-
I
L
.J
,
........
"
Pinecrest (b) Nuts (60% full size) EmmaK Ohio
Stambaugh Sparrow
Snyder Vandersloot
.,
~
Thomas
Hare seedling
Myers
Stabler
Thomas x-sec
&
Cultivar
Saker's Ohio
Nut size
medium medium
medium Bicentennia l medium-large very thin J medium Bowser , small thin Burns thick Burton I medium
Clermont Cornell
Baum #25 Beck
Shell thin thin quite thin
Cracking very good good excellent
Kernel % Kernel colour flavour very high low good very high very good
high high
very high very high high li ghtm edium light
good
very good
good
fair,hard good good
Cranz
Davidson
medium-Iarg medium mall-mediu medium large
very thin
excellent
high
very good good
Drake Edras EI -Tom

Emma K Evans Farrington Fonthill FootballlJ Grundy
good
very high
medium
very large
thin thin
quite thick
high
very good good very high very high
light
excellent
large
medium very large
high
very high
light
mild, good good
large
large thin smooth thin
good
high high high high high
Hain
Hare
Harney
good
good
Hay
Homeland Krause Lamb Majestic very large quite large small large medium large medium large good very good fair very thin thick very good very good moderate moderate very good good excellent excellent good good
high
moderate
Mintle
Monterey
high
very high moderate moderate
Myers Ogden
Ohio
Patterson Peanut
Pfister
Pinecrest
Putney
large very large

very large
good
high high
very high
Ridgeway
Rowher
good
very good
Sauber Schreiber
medium large
I"edlum-Iarg~
high
Snyder
~~~rkS 127
Sparks 129
e~I~X~I~rg1
lIery large
quite thin
good good
good
very high moderate moderate
medium
light
good good good
high
ve ry high
Sparks 147 rough Sparrow medium very thin Stabler medium very thin Stambaugh fTledlum.,arg l Sta rk KWlkKrdp large Ten Eyck small quite thin Thomas redlum.,argj quite thin
high
very good very good very good good moderate
li ght
excellent good
high high
good
kight
mild good
quite good poormoderate
light
Page 13
Cultivar Nut size Cracking Kernel % Kernel colour Flavour Shell Thomas Myers very large medium thick' good good Thorp high ,irregulan good Todd large smooth Vandersloot very large quite thick moderate good good Victoria very large quite thin moderate poor good Weschcke light quite good thin good Wiard small-medium quite thin good good
I I
, Propagation of cultivars
Like other walnuts, black walnuts are difficult to propagate vegetatively . Budding or grafting is used, but temperatures of around 2rC (80F) are necessary for callusing to occur and the graft to succeed. Some options are to use a hot grafting pipe (See Agroforestry News, Vol 3 No 1); greenwood tip grafting (See Agroforestry News, Vol 3 No 4); and budding in late June/early July. Established trees can be top-worked outside, but again the problem (in the UK) may be low temperatures. Early summer budding or greenwood grafting have the best chance of success. See the previous black walnut article for details of seed propagation.
Suppliers
In the UK, the only suppliers at present are Nutwood (grafted cultivars) and the A.R.T. (named seedlings) . In addition, there are numerous American suppliers , a few of which are listed here. A.R.T., 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, T096JT. Nutwood Nurseries, School Farm, Onneley, Crewe, Cheshire, CW3 90J. Grimo Nut Nursery, RR3 Lakeshore Road, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Los 1JO, CANADA. Louis Gerardi Nursery, Garden Center & Gift Shop, 1700 E.Highway 50, O'Fallon, IL 62269, USA. Nebraska Nut Growers Association, Bill Gustafson, 122 Mussehl Hall-U of NE, Lincoln, NE 68583-0716, USA. Nolin River Nut Tree Nursery, 797 Port Wooden Rd, Upton, KY 42784, USA. 5t Lawrence Nurseries , RR 5, Box 324. Potsdam , NY 13676 , USA.
References
Cecich, R: Flowering - What we do and mostly don't know. Proceedings of the Fourth Black Walnut Symposium, 1989. Chenoweth, Bob: Black Walnut. Sagamore Publishing , 1995. Duke, J: CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press, 1989. Facciola, S: Cornucopia . 1990. Jaynes, Richard A (Ed): Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA. 1979. Moore, J & Balington Jr, J: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops. ISHS, 1990. Northern Nut Growers Association: 44th-85th Annual Reports. NNGA. 1953-1994. Reed, C & Davidson, J: The Improved Nut Trees of North America. Devin-Adair, 1954. Riotte , L: The Complete Guide to Growing Nuts. Taylor Pub Co, 1993. Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publications, 1993.
Forest gardening: root & bulb crops

Introduction
Forest gardens are usually designed to minimise soil disturbance, by having ground cover plants and/or mulches over most of the soil area . Root or tuber crops wh ich need substantial digging are best placed either in the sunny vegetable garden , or perhaps a designated digging garden within a clearing in the forest garden. Scattering such crops around the forest garden is likely to lead to considerable work in weed control , as well as causing root damage to woody species nearby. Some forest gardeners favour specially-constructed mounds (rather like extra-deep beds) within the forest garden for growing root crops , which certa inly makes their culti vation and harvesting easier, although the plants don 't get well integrated with the rest of the garden species . Some roots can quite easily be lifted by inserting a fork nearby and gently rocking it while pulling on the stalk or root. Removing conical roots like this causes little disturbance to other plants , and species in this category , if they can tolerate some shade , are much more suited to the forest garden. Bulbs similarly fall into two categories , easily and hard to remove without disturbing the soil. Bulbs which are formed deep down may be 30 cm (1 ft) deep and impossible to remove without serious excavation . Others may be formed very near the surface or even half above the surface ; these , if shade tolerant, are best suited as forest garden crops . Seed production from most perennial roots and bulbs is likely to decrease as the shade conditions increase , hence don 't expect plants to continue to reproduce in very shady sites . It may be necessary to restock the garden with young bulbs or seedlings from time to time to maintain plant numbers. This is even more true with annual or biennial plants. Most plants with long conical roots are excellent dynamic accumulators , the roots 'mining ' minerals deep in the soil and subsalt , and storing these in the lea ves and roots.
Species with edible uses

The species described here all have roots or rhizomes with edible uses , and are relatively well known and pleasant items to eat; there are numerous other species with edible ro ots , used onl y at time s of famine, which aren 't very desirable. Many other specie s, not included here , can also be grown for their medicinal uses (where this co incides with edible uses , they are mentioned below), or other uses such as dyes etc. Trees and shrubs are not included; some , like Berberis spp ., have useful roots for medicinal uses, dyeing etc. but it would be difficult to harvest without severe damage to the plant in question and others nearby. Most of the common garden root crops have originated and been selected and bred in light, sunny conditions , and will not succeed in shady situations ; they are not listed here, but of course still have a valuable place in a sunny vegetable garden either separate from the forest garden or within a sunny clearing.
(1) Edible roots/bulbs for deep shade

These species are mostly woodland plants , and hence ideall y suited to the shadie r areas of a forest garden . Allium species. A .triquetum (threecornered leek) and A.ursinum (ram sons , wild garlic) are two European members of the onion family which tolerate deep shade. They both bear small edible bulbs , however these are often quite deep and not easily harvested with minimum di sturbance . Also edible are the leaves (mild leek fla vour for A.triquetum , garlic flavour for A.ursinum) and flowers . A .ursinum has similar medicinal used to garlic. Both species are about 30 cm (1 ft) high and make good ground covers under trees. A.triquetum is only hardy in the milder parts of the UK. Angelica sylvestris. Wi/d/Wood/and angelica. Perennial to 2 m (6 ttl high which likes a deep moist soil. The roots are edible when cooked , much like ordinary angelica. Also edible are the leaves, stems, and young shoots, with an aromatic, bitter taste; the stems can be candied . The seeds are used as a
fl::lvnllrinn Th", rnnt!':
Page 2S
roots and seeds are also used medicinally, being antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic. emmenagogue. expectorant. stimulant. stomachic . and tonic. Also a bee plant. Aralia species. Spikenards. A number of Asian and American perennials which like a sheltered, shady location . A.continentalis (Manchurian spikenard), A.cordata (Udo, Japane se asparagus; to 3 m (10 ft) high) , Anudicaufis (Wild sarsaparilla; to 40 cm ( 16")high) , A.racemosa (American spikenard; to 3 m (10 tt) high) and A.schmidtii (Sakhalin spikenard) have edible roots , cooked like scorzonera; they also have edible shoots with a lemony or liquoricE! flavour ; the roots of Acordata are used in China as a ginseng substitu te , being ca rminative , febrifuge, stimulant, stomachic and tonic; those of A .nudicaulis and A.racemosa were used as a substitute for sarsaparilla , being alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, pectoral and stimulant. Asarum species. Wild gingers. Evergreen, low-growing perennials which like a moist acid soils and part or full shade. Several species have had their roots used as a spice (a ginger substitute), including A .canadense (American wild ginger), Acaudatum (Long-tailed wild ginger), A.dilatatum and A .refle xu m. The roots are used medicinally, being carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, irritant, stimulant and tonic. However, use with caution , since several species in the genus, including A.europeum , are known to contain strong toxic irritants. All species make good, if slow spreading, ground cover, even in very shady positions. Cardamine species. Toothwort, Bittercress. Sma ll perennials , about 30 cm (1 ft) high which like a moist soil. Several have edible peppery roots , much like horseradish , including C.bulbosa (Bittercress) and C.flexuosa (Wavy bittercress), which also have edible lea ves & shoots; and C.laciniata (Cut-leaved toothwort), C.maxima and C.yesoensis. Cryptotaenia japonica. Mitsuba, Japanese parsley. Japanese perennial which likes a moist shady position under trees . Commonly cultivated as a vegetable in Japan and (increasingly) Europe. The roots are edible, raw or cooked, but the plant is more often grown for its edible leaves and stems, raw or cooked. The seeds are also used as a condiment. Dentaria diphylla . (Ca rdamine d.) Crinkleroot, Pepper root. Perennial from North America, growing 30 cm (1 ft) high, which likes a moist shady position. It has edible roots, raw or cooked, with a crisp texture and pungent peppery taste . The roots were also used in traditional North American Indian medicine. Houttuynia cordata. Tsi. A low creeping evergreen perennial , often used ornamentally for ground cover, which likes a moist or wet boggy soil and to lerate s deep shade . The cooked roots are edible, as are the leaves raw or cooked, with an aromatic, orangy flavour. The whole plant is medicinal, being antibacterial, antiphlogistic, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, laxative and ophthalmic. Also makes a reasonable ground cover plant. Medeola virginica. Indian cucumber root. North American perennial, liking a moist acid so il and a shady site; grows to 60 cm (2 ft) high. It has an edible root, raw or cooked, which is crisp and tender with a cucumber aroma cordata and flavour. The root is also used medicinally, being diuretic and hydragogue.
Houttuynia
Panax ginseng . Ginseng. A widely cultivated Asian perennial to 80 cm (2% tt) high, which likes a rich moist acid soil in shade. A tea and a candy are made from the roots , which are better known as oriental ginseng , having a long history of medicinal usage. Root is adaptogen , alterative, carminative , demulcent, emetic, expectorant, stimulant and tonic. Used in sim ilar ways are P.japonicus (Japanese ginseng), P.pseudo-gingseng, P .quinquefolius (American !:IinsenQ) and P.trifotius.
leaves are edible, raw or cooked; and the whole plant is medicinal, being astringent and cytostatic. Used as a ground cover plant; also attracts bees. Sparganium erectum. Branched bur reed. A wetland Eurasian perennial , growing to 1.5 m (5 ft) high in muddy ground or water up to 30 cm (1 ft) deep. The roots and stem bases are edible, cooked , with a sweetish taste . A good species for erosion control and water purification; the seeds are attractive to water fowl and are edible, though small. S.americanum, S.antipodium and S.eurycarpum can be used in the same ways. Streptopus amplexifolius. Wild cucumber. North American perennial to 1 m (3 ft) high , which likes a moist light soil and shade. The roots are edible, raw or cooked , as are the young shoots; both have a cucum ber flavour. Symphytum species. Comfreys. Vigorous. deep-rooted, Eurasian perennials , growing 30-100 cm (1-3 tt) high . S.x uplandicum is a hybrid which does not spread by seed; the others (S.caucasicum, S.grandiflorum , S.officinale , S.orientale , S.tuberosum) do and can be invasive. All excellent perennial accumulators which tolerate considerable shade. The roots can be roasted to make a coffee. The plants can be very deep rooted, but it is si mple to cut off the top section of the root to harvest, whence the lower section will re-grow . The young leaves are also edible ; the whole plant is a valuable medicinal herb (being anodyne, mildly as tringent, demulcent, emollient. expectorant, haem astatic, refrigerant, vulnerary), bees love the flowers. they make great ground cover plants , fodder plants, and compost materials.
(2) Edible roots/bulbs for partial shade

These plants either prefer partial shade, or prefer sun but tolerate some shade. They are suited to the areas in the garden between trees , where some sun still reaches the ground. Adenophora species . Ladybel/s. A .lilifolia, A.periskiifolia and A.verticillata are Asian perennia ls wh ich like a neutral or alkaline soil and sun or light shade. Grow to 50-100 cm (1Y23 ft) high. All are fleshy-rooted , the roots being sweet and edible raw or cooked with a good flavour. A.lilifolia is much hardier than the other two species. Allium species. The following perennial onion family species tolerate part shade and have edible bulbs (though often small and not easy to harvest). as well as edib le leaves: A.angulosum (Mouse garlic), A.atropurpureum, A.canadense (Wi ld garlic), A.carinatum (Keeled garlic - very small bulbs), A.cernuum (Nodding leek), A.moly (Golden garlic), A.monanthum, A.neapolitanum (Daffodil garlic), A.pendulinum , A.schoenoprasum (Chives; bulbs small, used as spring onions. var. larger bulbs), A.senescens (Ballhead onion), rotundum has A.sphaerocephalum (Round-headed garlic), A.suaveolens, A.tricoccum (Wild leek; biennia l; a mild sweet leek flavour). Amphicarpaea species. Hog peanuts. North American and Asian perennial scramblers/climbers, growing about 1.5 m (5 ft) high, liking a moist soil and some shade. A.bracteata, A.edgeworthii and A.pitcheri can all be used in the same ways. Two types of flowers are produced, one from the leafaxils (which mostly abo rt) , and another from threadlike stems near the roots: these latter bury themselves into the soil in a similar manner to peanuts. These underground seeds are edible, raw Amphicarpaea or cooked, with a delicious pea-peanut flavour. The few above-ground bracteata seeds are also edible (cooked). The fleshy roots of A.bracteata are also apparently edible and nutritious. All species are nitrogen-fixing legumes. Angelica species. Mostly perennials, which like a moist site and form large flowering plants , 2-4 m (6- 12 ft) high . The following species tolerate partial shade and have edible cooked or pickled roots as well as edible stems and leaves: A.archangelica (Angelica ; Biennial, with numerous medicinal uses , being antispa smodic, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic, tonic), A.atropurpurea (P urple/Giant angelica), A.g lauca, and A.keiskei. Angelica species are also good bee plants . Anthriscus cerefolium. Chervil. The familiar biennial European herb, growing 70 cm (2Y2 ft)
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i
high in any any soil and likes some shade. As well as edible leaves and stems , it has edible roots. The upper parts are used medicinally, being digestive , diu retic, expecto rant , and stimulant. Apios americana (A.tuberosa). American groundnut, Bog potato. A climbing/scrambling North American perennial leguminous plant, which tolerates light shade and acid soils. It grows as a low vine to about 1 m high . It produces tubers on long thin roots , harvested in the autumn , which are usually cooked and taste very good, like sweet potatoes. They take 2-3 years to become a sizeable crop, when up to 12 tubers per plant are produced. The seeds are also edible, eaten like peas. A useful nitrogenfixer, which is attractive to bees and forms a good soil-binding root layer. A.fortunei (Asian) and A.priceana (produces one large tuber) have similar uses. Apium graveolens rapaceum. Celeriac. Biennial , a variety of celery with large roundish roots. Tolerates part shade. These are eaten raw or cooked like most garden root vegetables . The leaves and seeds are edible , while all parts are medicinal just like ordinary celery (being aperient, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, galactagogue, nervine, stimulant and tonic. Arctium species. A.lap pa (Great burdock) and A.min us (burdock) are large European biennials, growing to 2 m (6 ft) high, liking a moist shady site. They have large thick fleshy roots , which are edible , raw (young) or more commonly cooked or roasted as a coffee substitute. The young leaves and stalks are also edible , raw or cooked , and the plant is used medicinally (being antibacterial, antifungal and carminative). They are also bees plants and good mineral accumulators. Armoracia rusticana. Horseradish. A persistent European perennial plant, growing up to 1 m (3 tt) high, which grows in most soils . The roots are edible , usually grated to make horseradish sauce , with a pungent mustard-like flavour. The young leaves are edible and have a milder peppery flavour. Also used medicinally, being antiseptic, aperient, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient and stimulant. Can be used as a ground cover plant - very difficult to remove once you 've got it. Arctium minus Asphodeline lutea. Asphodel, King's spear. Southern European perennial to 1 m (3 tt) high , may be grown as an annual in co ld areas .. Has edible roots - roasted like potatoes, with a good nutty flavour. The flowers and cooked young shoots are also edible. Asphodelus aestivus. Asphodel. A Mediterranean perennial , growing to 1 m (3 tt) high; only hardy in mild areas. It has edible starchy tubers - cooked (acrid raw) . Also edible are the c ooked flowering stalks and seeds . The roots were formerly used medicinally. Beta vulgaris crassa. Beetroot. The familiar garden root vegetable is , despite originating as a shore plant, tolerant of light shade. A Eurasian biennial , it likes a well-drained moist soil. The roots, round or cylindrical , are easily harvested from the soil surface . Also edib le are the leaves , cooked as a vegetable. Brassica juncea megarrhiza. Root mustard. Annual Asian brassica , liking a neutral rich soil and sun or light Shade . It has edible peppery roots , usually sliced and made into pickles. Like the species, it has edible peppery leaves, flowers and seeds. A good bee plant. Brassica napus napobrassicae (S.napo-brassica). Swede , Rutabaga . Biennial brassica , common in the vegetable garden, liking a neutral rich soi l and sun or light shade. The large roots are eaten , usually cooked , in the winter. The leaves ca n also be eaten cooked. A good bee plant. The roots are sometimes used for animal fodder . Brassica rapa . Turnip . Biennial brassica , common in the vegetable garden , liking a neutral rich soil and sun or light shade. The large roots are eaten in winter , usually cooked. The leaves, flowers and seeds can also be eaten raw or cooked . The roots are sometimes used for animal fodder . B .rapa rapifera , the stubble turnip , can be used similarly though the taste is rather coarser ; it is a good green manure crop.
neutral to alkaline soil , growing 60 cm (2 tt) high. The roots are edible , raw or cooked, with a sweet chestnut flavour. The seeds are used as a cumin substitute. Calochortus pulchellus. A perennial bulb from North America, growing 30 cm ( 1 tt) high , liking a we ll drained soil. The bulbs are small (walnut sized), but easily harvested; they are edible, raw or cooked. Severa l other American and Asian species can be used sim ilarl y, including C.barbatus, C.clavatus, C.elegans, C.gunnisonii, C.luteus, C.macrocarpus, C.nuttallii, C.tolmiei , and C.uniflorus. Camassia species. C.leichtlinii (Wild hyacinth), C.quamash (Quamash) and C.scilloides are North American perennial bulbs, growing to 80 cm (2Y2 tt) high, liking a moist site in sun or part shade. Their bulbs are edible, raw or cooked, and are excellent baked with a delicious sweet chestnut flavour. They are also bee plants. Campanula species. Several biennial and perennial campanulas have edible roots (raw or cooked), though all are likely to be quite small. They also have edible leaves, raw or cooked, and are loved by bees. These include C.edulis (Perennial), C.medium (Canterbury Bells ; Biennial), C.persicifolia (Peach bells; Perennial; also a ground cover plant), C.rapuneuloides (Creeping bell fl ower; Perennial; also a ground cover plant) and C.rapunculus (Rampion; Biennial ; wet acid soils). Capsella bursa-pastoris. Shepherd's purse. Eurasian annual weed, Camassia quamash growing to 60em (2 tt) high in most soils. The fresh or dried root is used as a ginger substitute. Also edible are the peppery leaves, raw or cooked. The whole plant is used medicinally, being antiscorbutic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue , haemostatic, hypotensive, oxytoxic, stimulant and vulnerary. A good mineral accumulating plant. Chaerophyllum bulbosum. Turnip-rooted chervil. European biennial relative of chervil , liking an acid moist soil, growing to 1 m (3 ft) high . It has an edible root , cooked, with an aromatic, floury , sweet taste. The leaves and young tops are also edible , raw or cooked. C.tuberosum can be used similarly. Cichorium intybus. Chicory. A deep-rooted , tough European perennial , liking a neutral to alkaline soil and sun or light shade, growing to 1 m (3 tt) high . The roots can be eaten raw in salads or roasted to make a coffee substitute (a component of 'Barleycup' , 'Caro' etc.) The plants can be very deep rooted. but it is simple to cut off the top section of the root to harvest, whence the lower section will re-grow . The young leaves, shoots and flowers can also be eaten cooked. The roots and leaves are used medicinally (being cho lag og ue, depurative, digestive, diuretic, hypoglaecemic, laxative and tonic) , the tops furnish dyes and the flowers are much loved by bees; a good mineral accumulator. Cirsium species. This/es. Perennials, often weeds in pasture or hedges. Seve ral have edible roots of varying quality. Two of the more palatable thistles include C.brevistylum and C.oleraceum (Cabbage thistle) . These have edible roots , once peeled and cooked (the latter has been used as a table vegetab le). Claytonia virginica. Spring beauty. A low growing North American perennial, liking a moi st site in sun or shade. The starchy roots are edible , raw or cooked, with a pleasant nutty flavour. Also edib le are the leaves and flowering stems, raw or cooked. Bees like the flowers. Codonopsis ussuriensis. Asian perennial liking a well-drained soil. The roots are edible, raw or cooked, with a fair flavour. Conopodium majus. Pignut, French earth chestnut. European perennial otten found in hedges and wood margins , growing to 30 cm (1 tt) high. Bears edible tubers, raw or cooked, with a nice nutty fla vour. The tubers are quite sma ll and deep, so hard to harvest. Crambe maritima. Seaka/e. European perennial , liking a well drained soil and sun or part shade, growing to 80 cm (2% tt) high . Known by gardeners for its edib le you ng leaves and shoots , and blanched shoots ; Also edible are the thick , fleshy, starchy, sweet roots, when cooked. Can be used as a ground cover plant. The roots
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of C.cordifolia (Colewort), C.orientalis and C.tatarica (Tatarian sea kale) can be used similarly. Fritillaria camschatcensis. Kamchatka lily, Chocolate lily. American-Asian perennial bulb , liking a well drained soil and sun or light shade. The bulbs are starchy and edible , raw, c ooked or dried ; tastes like chestnuts when cooked . The bu lbs of F.affinis, F.atropurpurea , F.pudica (Yellow fritillary) , F.thunbergii , and F.verticillata can be used similarly. Glycyrrhiza species. Liquorice. Deep-rooted perennial legumes , which like a moist soil and sun or partiakl shade. G.echinata (Wild liquorice) and G.glabra (Liquorice) are we ll known as sources ~ of liquorice. This confection , flavouring and sweetener is obtained from the roots , which are also used medicinally (being alterative, antispasmodic, demulcent, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, laxati ve, pectoral and tonic) , and as sources of chemicals for fire extinguishers. Very good mineral accumulators , and good ground cover plants which also fix nitrogen. G.lepidota, G.malensi s and G.uralensis can be used similarly. Hemerocallis species. Oaylilies. Several of these ornamental Eurasian perennials, which like a moist soil in sun or part shade, have edible roots , raw or cooked with a mild radish flavour. Also edible are the young leaves and shoots (cooked) and the flowers (raw or cooked) . They also make good ground c over plants. Species usable th is way include H.altissima , H.aurantiaca , He.citrina , H.coreana , H.dumortieri, H.forrestii , H.fulva (Tawny daylily) , H.lilioasphodelus (Yellow daylily) , H .minor (G ra ssleaf daylily), H.multiflora and H .plicata. Humulus lupulus. Hop. A European climbing perennial , reaching up to 6 m (20 tt) as it scrambles through shrubs and trees . The fleshy rhizomes are edible , as are the cooked young shoots and leaves (used as a vegetable) ; the female flowers are used to brew beer. The stems gi ve a hemp-like fibre , used to make paper etc. Laserpitium species. Laserworts. European perennials. L.latifolium and L.siler have edible roots , used as a condiment as were the seeds by the romans . Hemerocallis fulva Lathyrus species. Two European perennials of the sweet pea family have good edible roots , L.linifoliu s montanu s (bitter vetch) and L.tuberosus (earthnut pea, earth chestnut) . The roots are boiled or roasted and have a delicious sweet potato flavour. The seeds should be regarded as not edible . The plants are scrambling perennials, liking a well drained soil in sun or part shade; they box are nitrogen-fixing legumes, and bee plants. Lepidium latifolium. Dittander. European perennial , liking a moist so il and sun or light shade; has an edible root - pungently hot, used as a horserad is h substitute . The young leaves are also edible , raw or cooked , in small quantities - very hot. The seeds can also be used as a co ndiment. The plant is used medicinally, being antiscorbutic, depurative and stomachic. levisticum officlnale. Lovage . A we ll-kn own large perennial European herb , growing to 2 m (7 ft) high . As well as its edible leaves, stem s and seeds , the roots are also edible , used as a vegetable or flavouring (grated). The plant al so ha s several medi cinal uses (being antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative , diaph oretic , digestive, diuretic, mildly expectorant and stimulant), and is good for attracting benefi cial in sects. lilium species. Lilies. Perennial bulbs. Many Lilium species have edib le s tarch-rich bulbs , cooked and used as a vegetab le , often being sweet and mucilaginous or mealy with a mild flavour. T hese include L.amabile (Friendly lily) , L.auratum (Golden-rayed lily) , L.brownii (Hong Kong lily), L.bulbiferum (Orange lily) , L.callosum , L.canad ense (Meadow lily), L.candidum (Madonna lily), L.columbianum (Oregon Illy) , L.da vidii , L.distichum , L.formosanum, L.hansonii , L.henryi , L.japonicum (Bamboo lily) , L.kelleyanum , L.lancifolium (Tiger lily) , L.leichtlinii , L.longiflorum (White trumpet lil y), L.maculatum , L.martagon (Turk 's cap lily) , L.medeoloides, L.monanthum , L.nanum , L.nepalense (Nepal lily) , L.nobilissimum , L.pardalinum (Panther lily), L.phi ladelphicum (Wood lily), L.rubelium , L.sarQentiae (SarQent
lily) L.speciosum (Japanese lily), L.superbum (Swamp lily), L.tsingtauense, and L.wallichianum. Liriope graminifolia (L.spicata). Creeping liriope. Asian evergreen perennial, growing 30 cm (1 ft) high, liking a well drained soil and sun or part shade . It has edible roots - candied , used medicinally (being aphrodisiac, pectoral , stimulant). A good evergreen, drought-tolerant ground cover plant. L.muscari (Big blue linope) has similar uses; L.minor and L.spicata may also. lunaria annua . Money plant, Honesty. European biennial, growing up to 1 m (3 ft) high, liking a moist so il and part or full shade . The roots are ed ible, before fl owering , with a pungent coffee peppery fla vou r. The seeds are also edible and have been roasted to substitute . lycopus uniflorus (L.virginicus). Slender bugleweed. North American perennial , growing 80 cm (2Y:t tt) high, liking a moist or wet site. It has an edible root - raw or cooked; the crisp white tubers are boiled for a short time, when they are sa id to be similar to Chinese artichokes (Stachys affini s). Also used medicinally, being antitussive and seda tive. Muscari comosum. Tassel hyacinth, Tassel grape hyacinth. A perennial Eu ropean bulb growing 40 cm (16 ") tall, liking a welldrained site in sun or part shade. The bulbs are edi ble when cooked, with a slightly bitter taste; often cooked and preserved in oi l as a reli sh in Mediterranean countries. Myrrhis odorata. Sweet cicely. Familiar perennial Europ ean herb, growing about 60 cm (2 tt) high, growing in most soils. It has an iseed-flavoured leaves and seeds; the roots are also edible, with a similar flavour, and young roots can be cooked as a vegetab le. All parts have medicinal uses (being aromatic, carminative, expectorant, stomachic), and it is a bee plant. lycopus uniflorus Osmorhiza specie s. North American perennials, growing about 1 m (3 ft) hi gh, liking a moist site in shade. Several have edible roots, raw or cooked, with an aniseed flavour. Many also have edible cooked leaves/stems with a simifar flavour. Species with edible roots include O.aristata (a lso edible leaves), O. chilensis, O. claytonii (Woolly sweet cicily ; also edible leaf stalks), O .l ongistylis (Anise root; also edible leaves, shoots, seeds). Osmorhiza obtusa. North American perennial, growing about 1 m (3 ft) high , liking a moist site in shade. Has ed ible roots, raw or cooked, with a parsnip/an ise fl avour. It also has edible seeds, used for fl avou ring . O. occ identalis (Western sweet cicely) can be used simi larly, the roots having a sweet liquorice/anise flavour. Oxa lis triangularis. Perennial with ed ible roots, raw or cooked , up to 5 cm long and 15 mm wide, crisp, juicy, sweet mild flavour. Also edib le (in moderation) are the leaves and flowers. Past inaca sativa. Parsnip. The well -k nown Eurasian biennial root vegetable , which is more shade-tolerant than many of the common root vegetab les found in gardens. Apart from the exce llent edible roots, the lea ves and young shoots are edible cooked, and the seeds can be used as a cond iment, similar to dill. Also a bee plant at flo wering. Petroselinum crispum tuberosum. Hamburg parsley. European biennial large-rooted variety of parsley, often grown in vegetable garden s. Likes a moist soi l and sun or light shade. It has edible fleshy roots , raw or cooked , with a nutty celery/pars ley flavour. Also has the same uses as ord inary parsley: ed ible leaves, medicinal uses (being antidandruff, antispasmodic, aperient, carminative , digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactofuge, stomach ic and tonic), a good mineral accumulato r and beneficial insect attractant. Phragmites australis. Common reed. A vigorous perennial found in shallow water and wet soils; grows to 3 m ( 10 ft) high or more. Reeds have edible roots , usually cooked - sweet , starchy. Also edible are the young
E
shoots and seeds. Reeds are excellent water purifiers and erosion controllers , the stems are used for thatching. Raphanus sativus. Radish. Familiar Eurasian annual or biennial garden root crop, which is somewhat shade-tolerant, liking a moist soil and low-growing until it flowers , when it can reach 2 m (6 tt) high. The roots, rounded or conical , are edible with a peppery flavour. Also edible are the young leaves , young flower clusters , seeds and young seedpods. Used as a green manure and cover crop; bees like the flowers. Saussurea castus. Costus . A perennial from Kashmir, liking a well drained soil and sun or li ght shatle. The aromatic root is somet ime s used as a spice , with a characteristic penetrating odour. Long used in Chinese medicine, being one of the ir 50 fundamental herbs; the roots are anodyne, antibacterial, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vermifuge. Schoenoplectus species. Bulrushes. Large growing marsh or water perennial plants wh ich tolerate light shad e. S.lacustris (Scirpus acutus ; Great bu lru sh ; to 4 m (13 ft) high} and S.vatldus (Scirpus validus; Great American bulrush; to 2.5 m (10 tt) high) species have edible , starchy , roots , usually cooked; they can be ground into a flour and mixed with other cerea ls. They also have edible stem bases and young shoots, raw or cooked. They are exce llent wa ter purifiers and eros ion controllers, the leaves are used for basketry, matting and thatching , dyes are obtained from the stalks, and the seeds are relished by water fowl. Scirpus species. Marsh and water plants from America, Asia and Europe. Tolerate light shade only. Several species have edible, starchy, roots , usually cooked; they can be ground into a flour and mixed with other cereals. These include S .affinis , S.americanus, S.fiuviatilis , S.lacustris, S.microcarpus, S.nevadensis (Nevada rush), S.paludosus (Marsh rush) , and S.subterminali s . Scorzonera hispanica. Scorzonera. The familiar European garden root vegetable, which is a perennial, growing to 1 m (3 tt) high in flower. Likes Schoenoplectus a well -drained soil. The root usually eaten (cooked) with in the first two years of acutus growth . The roots can also be roasted to make a coffee substitute . Also edib le are the young leaves & shoots and flower buds. Stachys affinis. Chinese artichoke . Chinese perennial growing 50 cm (20 high , with small edible tubers - raw or cooked, with a mild nutty flavour; tubers are 5-8 cm by 2 cm. Can be used as a ground cove r; sometimes cultivated as an annual crop . Of similar use are S.hyssopifolia and S.palustris (Marsh woundwort). Sympholoma graveolens. Perennial from Western Asia , growing to 15 cm (6 ") high . Has edib le roots, raw or cooked, with a sweet carrot-like flavour. Taraxacum officinale. Dandelion. The familiar garden 'weed' , likely to be there whether you want it or not. A perennial growing to 50 cm (20 high in any soil. Grows well in shady situations, but does not flower so well there , hence unlikely to be a big weed problem in a forest garden . Another good accumulator, bee plant and beneficial insect attractant. The leaves and flowers are of course edib le (if somewhat bitter), and the roots are edible cooked, though are best roasted as a coffee substitute . The plants often grow with forked roots , but it is simple to cut off the top section of the root to harvest, whence the lower section will regrow. Taraxacum japonicum also has roots used to make a coffee substitute , and edible leaves . Tragapogon porrifolius. Salsify. The familiar European biennial root crop , growing up to 1 m (3 ftl high in flower , and tolerating part shade . As well as edible roots , the young shoots and flowers are edible. Wasabia japonica. Wasabi, Japanese horseradish . Japanese perennial, growing to 40 cm (16 -) high. Has edible roots , used as a horseradish substitute (but subtler), a popular condiment in Japan. Also has edible leaves , stalks and flowers, cooked and made into a pickle. May not be reliably hard y in cold areas.
M ) ft )
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5 e The kaki persimmon: Diospyros kaki
Introduction
The kaki persimmon , also known as the Japanese, Chinese or Oriental persimmon , is a major fruit crop in as diverse localities as Japan , China , Korea, Western North America , Italy and Israel (where it is called the Sharon fruit). Though the tree is almost unknown in Britain, and then usually only for its spectacu lar autumn co lour, fruits are borne in most summers in the South of England and with careful choice there is good potential for success in growing suitab le cultivars for fruit (and even more as the climate warms up). Persimmons have long been cultivated in China and Japan and there are many examples there of long-lived grafted trees up to 600 years old forming huge gnarled specimens. China currently produces some 730,000 tonnes, Japan 300,000 tonnes, Korea 65,000 tonnes , and Italy 70,000 tonnes of persimmon fruits per annum. In recent decades, comme rcial plantations have been made in New Zealand, South America and Australia .
Description
Kaki persimmons are deciduous large shrubs or small trees, originally native to China but cultivated for man y centuries in Japan. Trees in Britain normally grow erect to a height of about 6m (20 ft) (but may reach twice this in warmer climes). with a rounded crown and a network of slender branches. The alternate, oval-elliptic leave s taper at both ends and are strongly veined, glossy dark green above, downy beneath and 6-20 cm (2Y2-S" ) long by 4-9 cm (1Y2-3Yt") wide. Female flowers occur singly, borne from buds near the tips of mature shoots; they have a large, dark green, four-lobed calyx . Male flowers are usually borne from leafaxil s on small weak shoots, occurring in clusters of 2-3. Kaki persimmons are usually dioecious , so male and female flowers are borne on separate plants. Flowering occurs well after the last frosts, usually in June or July, and lasts about 2 weeks. Pollination is carried out by insects. Fruits are round, flat. conical or lobed (often tomato-shaped); yellow, orange or reddish; 5-S cm (2 -3") across. They are borne on short stalks and bear a large (5 cm , 2 ~ ), persistent, 4lobed calyx. The y require a reasonable summer to ripen properly , then ripening in October, November or December. Unripe fruits of the astringent group are exceedingly astringent (like sloes) and pucker the mouth The leaves turn to bright orange-red colours in the autumn, and the plant often used ornamentall y. Most kaki cultivars are cold-ha rd y down to about -1S oC (O F) (Zone 6 or 7).
Uses
Persimmon fruits are edible and delicious when fully ripe and free of astringency; nonastringent cultivars can be eaten when still firm and crunchy, astringent cultivars when soft and juicy. Fruits can also be dried, frozen, cooked in fruit recipes (pies, cakes, bread , desserts etc) and made into preserves. They have also been fermented to make a brandy and vinegar. They are particularly high in Vitamin A - the highest of all common fruits: the average nutritional composition (per 1009) is 0.79 protein, O.4g fat , 19.7g carbohydrate , 2710 IU Vitamin A, 11 mg Vitamin C. The peel from ripe fruit has been dried, powdered and used as a sweetener. The seeds from fertilised fruits can be roasted and made into a coffee . The leaves are traditionally pickled with radishes in Japan to improve the flavour of the latter.
The astringent substance in some unripe persimmons (Ieucodelphinidin), called kaki-tannin , is the basis of an industry itself in Japan. It was once widely used (and still is used) to paint clothes and paper, making the materials very durable. It is also used medicinally to reduce high blood pressure , and as a deproteinising agent in the brewing of sake (Japanese rice wi ne). The pulp of unripe fruit is used in the cosmetic industry as the basis for face-packs because of its firf(ling qualities. The fruits (unri pe , ripe and dried) and calyces (collected at flowering) are used in traditional Chinese medicine, both being astringent (fro m the tannin s), expectorant and blood pres su re lowering. The stem bark is also used , being astringent and styptic. Fruits have been found to contain anti tumour compounds. Bees find the flowers attractive, with both honey and bumble bees freely visiting the flowers for nectar and pollen. The bark and unripe fruits , both high in tannins, can be used for tanning. Extracts from the young shoots have been observed to have antifungal effects on several species of Fusarium root and stem rots. Kaki wood is dark brown and very hard, and is an excellent substitute for ebony; it is used for sculpture and craft work, golf club heads and furniture.
Rootstocks
Cultivars are normally grown on seedling Diospyros kaki rootstocks. The related D./o/us and D. virginian a have been used, but both can cause incompatibility problems. D./o/us is often used in cooler regions, since astringent cultivars usually form good graft unions and D./o/us is more cold hardy than D.kaki, though it is more susceptible to crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens). Some kaki cultivars are noted for producing uniform vigorous seedlings (eg. 'Fuyu ') and these are preferred for rootstock propagation . Kaki seedlings produce long slender taproots which are easily broken and pot-grown stock is essential.
Siting
Kaki persimmons are quite adaptable to a range of climatic conditions, and will grow whe re average annual temperatures are between ' 10-22'"C (50-72F) and grow best between 13D 19C (55-66 F); astringent culti vars are winter hardy down to temperatures of about -18 C (hardiness is enhanced if growth is not too lush). [As a reference point in Britain , Oxford averages at 10C, rising up to a degree further south]. C (_20 D F) ; Individual cultivars are sometimes considerably hardier, ego 'Eureka ', hardy to _29 D other cold-hardy cultivars in clude 'Giboshi' , 'Giombo', 'Great Wall ', 'Kyungsun Ban-Sr, 'Niu Nai', ' Peipeng' , 'Saijo' and 'S heng '. The young growth in spring is frost tender , so frosty areas prone to late sp ring and early autumn frosts shou ld be avoided. C (72-78" F) for de velo ping and 13-20C (55-69"F) for maturing. These The fruit needs 23-26 D limits and the above show that southern Britain is near the limit of persimmon culture. Good shelter is very important as persimmons are very sensitive to wind ; young foliage is easily damaged and fruits are prone to wind rub. In Britain, a sheletered, South-facing situation is essential for fruiting ; a warm wall is also suitable . Good crops have been obtained here on South facing walls. A wide range of soil types is tolerated, although the ideal is a deep, fertile , well-drained soil with a slightly acid pH (6.0-6.5). Good drainage is essential in damper climates like Britain . Key to persimmon cultivar pictures on page 28: top row - 'Fuyu', 'Tamopan', 'Gailey'; bottom row'Triumoh'. 'Tanenashi' .. Hivakume'.
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Planting
Planting distances vary considerably depending on the vigour of the cultivar , the soil fertility , and the training system being used. It takes trees many years to reach a large size , which may waste a lot of space in an orchard-type planting . Mature trees of moderate vigour on moderately fertile soils may need 25 m 2 each , but such trees are more normally planted at 5.0 2 2 x 2 .5 m or 3.5 x 3.5 m (=12 .5 m ) spacing and either kept from overcrowding by pruning or thinned out to 50% of the original density at some stage. More vigorous trees on more fertile soils may need 16 m 2 and are planted at 5.5 x 3.0 m or 4.0 x 4.0 m. Plants should be at least 1 m (3 ft) high when planted , with a good root system , to establish quickly. Staking is needed for the first 2-3 years.
Pruning
Persimmon trees left to grow freely assume a round-headed shape. Although fruiting will continue in unpruned trees, some formation pruning at least is advisable to create a strong tree capable of bearing crops. Trees are usually trained to a modified central leader system or a vase system, though other systems are sometimes used, including trellis and espalier sys tems. Persimmon wood easily splits and it is important to train main limbs with a wide crotch angle. Modified central leader: The aim is to achieve a pyramid-shaped tree with well -spaced lateral branches at an angle of 30-40 to the horizontal. After planting, trees are cut back to 70 cm, promoting strong growth from which 3-4 limbs are selected as main branches. For the next 2-4 years, vigorous shoots are pinched out and the central leader is cut back to en courage a good framework . When the central leader has reached 3-4 m high it is cut back to an outward growing branch. Laterals may need to be tied down to attain wide crotch angles. Vase (bush; open-centre): Produces spreading trees. Young trees are cut back to 70 cm after planting and from the shoots that arise , 3 are selected (at an angle of about 50 to horizontal) to form the main branches and the remainder pruned off. Pruning is then similar to that for bush apple trees. Pruning of both young and mature trees need only be quite light. Because fruiting takes place at the tips of the previous season 's growth, these shoots should not be cut back. Ught pruning to promote an annual renewal of fruiling branches is desirable ; this also minimises the biennial habit which many persimmons can develop. Note that heavy fruiting often results in the death of fruiting twigs which self-prune the following season. Pruning should allow good light penetration into the canopy
Irrigation & feeding

Mature persimmon trees usually have one main , short growth flush in spring when soil water is not usually in short supply , hence irrigation is rarely needed . Young trees may benefit from watering, especially the year after they are planted , if the summer is very dry. Persimmons are rather lighter feeders than many tree crops, requiring about half the nutrient inputs of apples, for example. Recommendations in New Zealand are to supply 50g N, 25g P and 40g K per tree in the first year , rising gradually to 300g N , 175g P and 300g K at 10 years. These could be supplied by , for example , manure starting at 8 Kg rising to 50 Kg per tree . Early spring is the best time for application, ready to fuel the spurt of growth which takes place after bud burst. In practice , on a ferlile soil few additions may be necessary and it is better to under-feed than over-feed .
Flowering
Flowers are only borne from the terminal and 2-3 buds on well-matured shoots (hence these shoots must not be cut back heavily in winter). Two to four flowers are normally formed on each reproductive shoot, which open about 6 weeks after the leaves. Kaki persimmons, like other persimmons, are usually dioecious - ie . form male and female flowers on separate plants, although occasionally monoecious plants (bearing both male and female flowers)
I'u "'f"'ttr f.1I1'tc:.t I'tf thD m::>in f"'"lti\l::>rc:. hg::>r I'tnhl f""m::>l.<> fII'tIM<>rc:
The female flowers (especially of astringent cultivars) can set fruit without pollination (ie parthenocarpically, without seeds) useful if seedless fruit are desired . With non-astringent cultivars in particular , though, pollination can be desirable to reduce natural fruit drop and impro ve fruit quality (size , shape , colour). Where pollination is required , cultivars which produce abundant male flowers should be planted (although many other cultivars produce some male flowers , the numbers will vary and may be very small). Re commended pollinators are Akagaki, Gailey, Omiya Wase and Zenjimaru; there should be One pollinator for each 68 plants of. the main culti var. Pollinati6 n is carried out by insects ; honey and bumble bees visit the flowers freely for nectar and pollen.
Thinning & growth

There are usually 3 periods of fruit dropping , though fruit drop is much reduced when fruits are pollinated . Manual fruit thinning may also be needed to achieve a good fruit size and co lour. Commercial growers often thin to one or two fruits per bearing shoot ; the fruit furthest from the shoot tip tends to develop into th e largest fruit. Young trees normall y grow 3 5 m (10-16 ft) in the first 10 years.
Harvesting & yields

Persimmons yield about a third that of apples, ie 918 Kg (2040 Ib) per tree when young , rising to 1560 Kg (33130 Ib) per tree at maturity. Fruiting starts about 35 years after planting, and full cropping is rea ched after 815 years . Biennial cropping is very common , especially with latematuring cultivars. In Britain , fruits will take until mid or late autumn to ripen (usua ll y Oclober or November) ; the fruits can be harvested after leaf fall if necessary. Frosts will in fact aid the ripening process and remo ve the astringency from fruits (s ee below), but after frosting the fruits must be eaten very quickly. Harvest should take place when fruits are welldeve loped and of the characteristic colour (orange or red) for the cultivar (may take some trial and error for new growers! ); fruit of astringent cultivars is inedible at harvest unless frosted. The best way to harvest is to clip the fruit stems with secateurs , leaving the calyx attached. Most cuJtivars ripen their fruit over a period and two or three picks are usua lly required. Fruits can be stored for 26 months if placed in sealed plastic bags in a fridge near to OC. At room temperatures , nonastringent fruits have a shelflife of 1030 days; packing fruits in pine needles extends shelf life longer than other materials. Astringent fruits have a shorter shelf life once the astringenc y is removed - 7-14 days . Astringency caused by tannins in the fruit can be removed in several ways: Allow to overripen: astringency disappears when fruits are allowed to over-ripen, becoming very soft. Pollen-Constant (PC) cultivars are preferred for this eventuality. Ethylene softens the fruit very quickly, hence on a small scale placing apples with persimmons in a plastic bag rapidly softens the fruits are removes astringency. Drying : a traditional use in Japan , and especially suited to astringent cultivars. A combination of artificial dryers (at 35 C) and sun drying is used there, but only the former is su itable in damper climes. Whole fruits are peeled and skewered on bamboo spears to dry, the drying fruits occasionally being kneaded for 40-120 seconds to accelerate drying and prevent them becoming hard and woody; they make an attractive white product when sugars crystallise on the surface of the fruiL Freezing: another traditional method, ve ry easy in these days of freezers. The fruits become ve ry soft after freezing and are most suitable for using as pulp rather than eating from the hand.
Page 2fJ
Alcohol treatment: Alcohol vapour accelerates ripening one traditional method in Japan was to sto re fruits in empty sake casks. Fruits can be sprayed/sp rinkle d with any stro ng spirit and sealed in plastic bags for 12 weeks to ripen. Cooking: astringency is accentuated by cooking, but can be removed by the addition of half a teaspoon of baking soda per cup of pulp.
Pests & diseases

Although a wide range of pests and diseases are noted in Japan , very few of these exist in Western Europe. Two minor diseases which may occur here are grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) caus ing discoloured patches on leaves, and bacterial blast (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae). A probable pest is birds attacking fruits, particularly with late maturing cultivars which may be virtually leafless at maturity, exposing the highly colou red fruit.
Propagation
Rootstocks are raised from seed (Kaki seed is not dormant but requires heat to germinate) and grown for 1-2 seasons. Cleft or whip grafting with twobud scions is ofte n used , carried out in MarchMay when the stocks are well in leaf: warm conditions and enclosing grafts in plastic bags encourage rapid callusing. Chip budding in MarchApril, as the stocks are coming into leaf. is also successful , as is green grafting in August-September. Top working onto established trees using cleft, side or whip grafts in MayJune gives good results. Recent results show that root cutting from young trees regenerate quickly and may be a suitab le method for producing ungrafted cultivar selections.
Cultivars
Kaki cultivars are divided into four groups, depending on whether fruits are astringent or nonastringent, and on their response to pollination:
Astringent Non-astringent Better adapted to cooler regions. Better adapted to warmer regions. With these, tannins which cause With these, the tannins either disappear after astringency in the flesh decrease as pollination (PV) or are completely absent (PC) the ~omes edible. but only if t e climate is warm enough.
Poll. Constant (PC) Fruits are not affected by pollination.
Potl.Variant (PV) Poll.Constant (PC) Poll. variant (PV) Flesh around seeds Mature fruits are edible Tannins disappear if is darker when when still firm. Fruits over 4-5 seeds form pollination occurs. are not affected by (and fruits are then pollination ed ible when firm) , otherwise partly astringent.
Cultivar information
Over 1000 cultivars have been selected in Japan and 800 in China ; most of the cultivars used elsewhe re in the world have been imported from Japan.
Favoured cultivars for recent commercial plantings outside Japan are: 'Fuyu ', 'Hachiya' and ' Hana Fuyu' in the U .S .A .; 'Aizu Mishirazu' , 'Amankaki' , 'Fuyu' , 'Hana Fuyu ' , 'Izu ', 'Hiratanenashi ' , 'Kaki Tipo' and ' Suruga ' in Italy; and 'Triumph ' in Israel. Older cultivars used in S.Europe include 'Costata ' , 'Lycoperiscum' and 'Mazelii' in Italy and 'Sahutii' & 'Wiesneri' in France. In Britain , the cultivars with the best potential are the astringent group which are also early ripening. Considering that unnamed varieties frequently produce fruit in the South of England , these cultivars should do rather better and produce fruit in most summers in the South of the country: Giboshi Kyungsun Ban-Si Sugita Wase Tone Was8 Great Wall Saijo Tanennashi Hiratanenashi San Pedro Tecumseh Only astringent cultivars are recommended for drying (non-astringent fruits become tough) , in particular 'Hachiya', 'Sa ijo ' and 'S heng '. Fruit of kaki persimmon eultivars
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Poll: PC ::; Pollen constant, PV ::; Pollen variable (see above for explanation). Size: average fruit size: v.lge ::; very large (240g) ; vi-I::; very large to large (230g); IIlge ::; large (200-220g); m -I medium to large (200g); mimed medium (180g); s-m small to medium (180g) ; s/sm = small (120-1 60g). Shape: fruit shape: cleo ::; conica l; f::; flat; irr ::; irregular, olob ::; obl ong , q ::; quadrangular; r ::; round. Flesh : Diff to RA ::; difficult to remove astringency. Quality: fruit quality indication: exc ::; excellent, v.good ::; very good, good , fair, poor.
Paoe 28
Tree: vig = vigorous, mod = moderate vigour, weak = weak vigour; u = upright, s = spreading; Iy = low yielding, hc = heavy cropping; rp = requires po llination to fruit (nb most cultivars do not); bi = tendency to crop biennially. Ripening : the range from very early to very late spans about 40 days; in Britain only the very early and early ripening cultivars are likely to have a chance of ripening. In the cultivar tables be low, those cultivars which produce plentifu l male flowers and can thus be relied upon as pollinators are underlined. (a) Astringent cultivars (most suited to cooler conditions, ego Britain) Cultivar Poll Size Shape Skin colour Flesh Quality Tree Ripening
PC m-I IOb- d orange (diff to RA) fair vig,hc I v.late Atago PC?lm ed c -q sa lmon-yellow ligh t yellow v.good l i9,u,hC Costata I hc dark Oai Oai Maru PC?med rnd glossy, bloomy orange-red deep red PC m-I rnd Eureka exc l Vi9,hC I late thin good hC,bi yellow PC Ige c Giombo PC s f-q orange-red yell ow v.good u,hc v.early Great Wall orange-red yellow-orange exc ig,u,ly mid-late PC Ige obglossy Hachiya Hiratanenashi PC m-I f-r tough,glossy orange-red ye ll ow-orange exc v.vig,u earlymid orange-red Homestead PC? s-m c v.good he 1 orange-red orange-red exe mod,u ,he midPC? s r-ob thin Honan Red late orange orange good vig,u,rd early Kyungsun BaniSi PC m-I Lycopersicum PC . m-I f-r orange-red orange Mazelii PC? Ige yell ow fair Niu Nai PC Ige Okame PC? Ige r-ob good orange yellow-orange fair Iweak,s Peiping PC s-m rnd PC? m-I c godeln-orange Sahutii orange V.gOOd vig, he early Sa ijo PC s-m obdeep orange San Pedro PC? ob exc weak early yellow-orange PC m-I f-q Sheng exc Iweak,sl mId Sugita Wase PC m-I f-r tough,glossy orange-red ye ll ow-orange exe v vlg,u v early orange-red light orange good Tamopan PC .Ig q thick he Imld-Iate orange-red yellow Tanenashi PC Ige r-c tough good mOd'S'hr early yellow Tecumseh PC Is-m q good u,he early PC m-I f-r tough,glossy orange-red yellow-o range exc v vlg,u v early Tone Wase late Triumph PC I late Tsurugaki PC? c v late irr Tsuru Margha~iPC? orange-red exe weak,he Wieseneri PC?I m c Pc?( -m ob-q Yemon
I
I I I
v I
Aizu Mishiraz Gail ey Giboshi Lantern Yamagaki
PV m-I PV s PV s-m pv?1 PV s
rnd r-co co co
yellow-orange fair Ilw eak.s orange v.da rk, seedy poor mod dark brown exc r eak,hc early poo r dark fair
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9
Skin co lou r Flesh Qua lity Tree Ripening
(b) Non-astringent cultivars (most suited to warmer/Mediterranean conditions) Cultivar Choco late Fuyu Gosho Hana p'uyu Hana Gosho Hiyakume Ichikikei Jiro Izu Jiro mid Kawabata Maekawa Jiro Matsumoto Poll Size Shape
' PC s-m ob
PC PC PC PC PC? Ige sm Ige Ige Ige
bright red dark brown exe vig,he late vig, bi mid-late f-r tough,glossy orange-red [yellOW-Orange exc r-co orange-red exc I Iy r-ob ye ll ow-orangedk yellw-orangegood mod early-mid rnd yellow-orange l good late rnd yellow-orange(jark crnnamon goodmod,u ,hc mid
PC I-vi flat glossy,bloom y orange-yellowl v.goodL weak I v early I PC m-I flat orange-red pale orange med k,ly,q~ v early I PC I-vi fl at bloomy , ellow-cnm so exc weak, u earlyPC? Ige yellow PC J-vl fl at glossy , bloomy orange-yellow 1 ge flat tough,glossy med rnd Ige f-r m obIge orange-red orange-yellow brt orange- red yellow-orange exc v goodweak q:=! v early . ,
I.
Wase Fuyu PC O'gosho PC Okugosho PC Suruga PC Twentieth Century IPC Youhou PC
light yellow
exe fai r good exe
vig early-mid mid mod v.early v.late mod he mod vig s, rq vig,s mid
yellow-orangeora nge, spotte, fair -gd red -orange deep orange good poor fair orange-red seedy fair poor
Akagaki Kaki Tipo
PV PV
v.ea rly v.early v.ea rl y late early
Nishimura wasePr-1 f-r Omiya Wase PV s Shoga tsu PV ed Zen jim aru PV s
References
Agroforestry Research Trust: Useful Plants database, 1996. Brown, D: The RHS Encyclopedia of Herbs & their Uses . Dorling Kinders ley, 1995. Collins, Ret al: Th e World Trade in Persimmons. WANATCA Yea rbook 1994. Duke, J A & Ayensu, E: Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications, 1985 . Facciola, S: Cornucopia. 1991. Rivista di Frutticoltura, No 2, 1987: Le kaki. Grain ge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties . Wiley , 1988. Kitagawa , H & Glucina , P G: Persimmon Culture in New Zealand. New Zealand DSIR, 1984. Krussmann , G: Manual of Cultivated Broad- Leaved Trees & Shru bs. Batsford , 1984. Re ich , L: Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley, 1991. Ryugo, K: Fruit Culture. John Wi ley, 1988. Wang . Z: Persimmon Production in China. NNGA An nual Report 85: 154-155, 1994. Westwood, M N: T emperate-Zone Pomofogy. Timber Press, 1993. Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit. Berry and Nut In ventory. Seed Saver Publi cations, 1993.
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Cherries (1 ) Description of species

Introduction
There are a large number of useful cherry species which form the majo ri ty of species within the Prunus genus. Of the usefu l species, many have edible fruits, though few are as sweet as the fruits from cultivars of Prunus av;um, the sweet cherry. The species list below contains informa tion on all known useful cherry species; note that the 'sa nd cherries', P.besseyi and p.pumila, are closer to the plum family and have been included in the article on minor plum species in Agroforestry News. Vol 4 No 2. Most cherri es like a well-drained light soil and sun or part shade. Flowering can be very early to quite late, hence some care may need to be taken not to expose flowering trees to late frosts if fruit are wanted. Flowering and fruiting is always better in a sunny position. Cherry species vary from la rge trees of 18 m (60 tt) to small prostrate shrubs, only 50 cm (18") high, and a species can be chosen for almost any position. A small number of cultivars bred for fru it quality of the minor cherry species are still available in North America, although most of the hardy selections from breeding programmes 80-100 years ago have been fast. Where available, these cultivars are mentioned in the text below. Cu ltivars of the sweet cherry (P.avium), duke cherry (P. x gondounil) and sour cherry (P.ce rasus) are not included below, as they will be treated with greater detail in a later article. Apart from these three, the species with the best potential for fruiting and quality fruits in Britain are P.canescens. P.dawyckensis, PJruticosa, P.humilis, P.serotina, P.tomentosa and P.virginiana. All fruits contain a sing le seed. The seeds (kernels) of many species can be edible; however, most, if not all members of the Prunus genus produce hydrogen cyanide, a poison that gives almonds their characteristic flavour; it is found mainly in the leaves and seed and is readily detected by its bitter taste. It is usually present in too small a quantity to do any harm but any very bitter seed or fruit should not be eaten , and similarly references to edible leaves should be treated with great caution. All plum species are insect-pollinated, and although only those known definitely to attract bees have been listed as bee plants , in all likelihood all will attract bees. The leaves and fruits of all species can be used for dyeing . The leaves give shades of green; the fruits generally give green to dark grey.
General propagation methods

Seed: The easiest method of propagation is by seed. Seeds require 2 - 4 months co ld stratification ; if in doubt, give 4 months, or if possible sow in the autumn. To cold stratify, mix with moist sand or peat and keep in a fridge, or leave outside (protected from rodents). Seeds can sometimes wait a further year before germinating. Cuttings:Cuttings of ha lf-ripe wood with a heel in July-August under glass. Softwood cuttings can be taken from strong ly growing plan ts in spring to early summer under glass. Root cuttings in winter can be taken from suckering species. Layering in spring. Division: For suckering species, division of suckers can be undertaken in the winter.
Prunus alabamensis USA A tree where native, to 10m (32 ft) high . White flowers in May-June are followed by 1 cm thick , round fruits . eventually nearly black . Hardy to zone 7 (_15 C . ) Edible fruits - raw or cooked; the flesh is thin and sour. Edible seed. Prunus apetala Japan A bushy shrub or small tree to 5 m (16 ft)high. White flowers in May are followed by nearly round black fruits , 8 mm across. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C.) Edible fruits - raw or cooked. Prunus avium Europe, W.Asia Bird cherry, Sweet cherry, Wild cherry, Gean, Mazzard Vigorous trees growing to 18 m (60 tt) high , occasionally more, with a pyramidal upright form. White flower in April-May are followed by blackish-red or yellow fruits, ripening in July-August. Fruit buds are mainly on spurs . Wild sweet cherries can bear fruit w ith varying colours , shapes, tastes and sizes and are sometimes small and bitter. Hardy to zone 3 (-31 " C.) Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Many cultivars have been selected and bred. Edib le gum exudation from trun k. The fruit stalks and fruit are used medicinally. The stalks are diuretic and anti-uricaemic. Bee plant: source of nectar and pollen for honey and bumble bees in April. The bark contains varying amounts of tannins, of use for tanning . Various selections have been made for use as cherry rootstocks (eg 'mazzard '). An important forestry tree with valuable timber, used for furniture , musical instruments , veneer, inlays, fuel. Prunus bifrons Himalayas A small shrub , only 1-1.5 m (3-5 tt) high , sometimes prostrate, closely related to P.jacquemontii. Pink flowers, appearing with the foliage, are followed by roundish amber-red fruits, 8 mm thick. Hardy to zone 5 (-23 C.) Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Prunus buergeriana Japan, Korea A small tree to 9-10 m (30-32 tt) high. White flowers are followed by nearly round , black fruits. Hardy to zone 5 (-23 C.) Edible fruits - small, poor quality; so metimes preserved (s alted) and used as a condiment. Twigs and leaves have an insecticidal effect against fruit flies (Drosophila hydei). Prunus campanulata
Taiwan cherry S.Japan,Taiwan
A tree in its habitat to 7-10 m (2332 ft) high , often a large shrub in cultivation . The flowers in April-May are an unusual deep wine-red , appearing before or with the foliage; fruits are red, conical, 11 mm across by 15 mm long. Hardy to zone 8 (-12 " C) - only for mild areas . Edible fruit - raw or cooked. May need astring ency removing
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Prunus canescens Greyleaf cherry C & W.China Forms a dense bushy shrub, 1.4-2 m (5-6 ft) high with steeply ascending branches ; light pink flowers in April-May followed by light red , round fruits , 10-12 m. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C.) Fruits are edible with a plea sa nt cherry flavour. Several hybrid selections are being de velo ped as cherry rootstocks, including GM 79. Prunus cerasoides Himalayas A small tree to 10 m (32 tt) high , flowering in April and closely related to P.campanulata. Carm ine flowers are borne well before the leaves in February-March, followed by yellow or red, thin-fleshed fruits. Only hardy to zone 9 (-re.) The variety rubea is a large tree from Bhutan/Burma/Chinallndia with ellip soid red fruits , 15 mm long; majestica is hardy to -1 DOC: in its native habitat, this flowers in November, fruits ripening in Apri l-May. For mild areas only. Edible fruits - acid and astringent, usually cooked or used for brewing. Edible gum exudation from trunk. Twigs, leaves and kernels are used medicinally in Ayurvedic medicine. Bark is used for tanning. The wood is moderately hard , strong , durable . aromatic; used for walking sticks, furniture, tool handles. Prunus cerasus Sour cherry, Pie cherry Europe, W .Asia Trees varying from small and round to large and spreading; most often small . 5-8 m (16-27 tt) high, and suckering. White flo we rs in late April-early May are followed by blackish-red round fruits . Fruits are acid . the flesh varying from almost co lourless through shades of red to nearly black. Hardy to zone 3 (-31C) and tolerant of bacterial canker. Edible fruits - usually cooked. An important commercial species with numerous cultivars. The dark-fleshed types with red jui ce (var. austera) are classified as morello or griotte, the ligh t fleshed forms (var. caproniana) with colourless juice as amarelle or kentish , and the types with very small, dark, bitter fruit (var. marasca) as Marasca (used to make a distilled liqueur and a speciality jam ). Fruits are edible . usually cooked, or made into preserves. Edible gum exudation from the trunk; also used in fabric printing as an adhesive. Edible oil from the kernel (needs refining before use); also used in perfumery. Edible leaves - used in teas and pickles. Fruit stalks and juice are used medicinally. Various selections have been made for use as sour and sweet cherry rootstocks. Bee plant in April-May. Timber is used for turnery. inlay, musical instruments, furniture . Can be used in hedges - fairly wind-tolerant. Prunus cerasus var. frutescens Bush sour cherry A population of a dwarf natural variety , with a shrubby habit to 1 m high in dry mountainous areas, higher in cultivation. Fruits with light colourless juice, always sour. A suckering shrub. Same uses as above. Prunus cerasus x P.pensylvanica
Edible fruit. A number of cultivars were bred and released in the early 1900's in the USA. C.China An ornamenta l shrub or small tree , only 2-4 m (6-13 tt) high. Abundant white flowers appear before the leaves, followed by purple-black fruits. Selections are being tested as very dwarfing che rry rootstocks. Prunus corn uta Himalayan bird cherry Himalayas A small tree to 5 m (16 tt) high in cultivation (much taller in its native habitat) . White flowers in late May, after the lea ves emerge, are followed by round , pea-sized (8 mm), purple-brown fruit. Hardy to zone 5 (-23C.) Edible fruits - raw or cooked; acid.
Prunus concinna
Prunus dawyckensis Oawyck cherry China A small tree to 5 m (16 ft) or so high, sometimes more , Light pink flowers in April , before the lea ves. are followed by ellipsoid , yellowish-red fruits , 15 mm long , juicy and quite sweet. hardy to zone 6 (-21 " C). Edible fruit - sweet. Several hybrid selections are being evaluated as cherry rootstocks, including the clone GM 61/1. Prunu.s dielsiana N.China A shrub or small tree up to 6 m (20 ft)high. White to reddish flowers appear before the leaves in April, and are followed by oval red fruits , 8 mm thick. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C). Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Prunus x eminens
Hybrids between the sour and ground cherries (P.cerasus x P.fruticosa) , often included in lists of 'sour' cherries. Upright shrubs , 1-3 m (3-10 ft) high. Hardy to zone 4 (-25C). Edible fruit - raw or cooked. In some doubt. Several selections are being tested as cherry rootstocks from the Giessen series.
Prunus
fontanesiana
Hybrids of sweet and St Lucie cherries (Prunus avium x P.maha/eb). Large, fast-growing trees, similar to P.avium, with white flowers in April-May and small numbers of small, deep red-black, somewhat bitter fruits . Hardy to zone 5 (-23C). Edible fruit - raw or cooked: somewhat bitter. Several hybrid selections are being evaluated as cherry rootstocks , including the M x M and OCR clones. Prunus fruticosa Ground cherry, Steppe cherry C & E.Europe, Siberia Generally a spreading, suckering bush 1-1. 3 m (3-4 ft) high with pendulous branches and tough glossy leaves. Whi te flowers in April-May are followed by dark red fruits with doublypointed stones. The fruit can be round, oval, or pear-shaped and 1-3 g in weight; and varies from acidic to sweetly acidic, always having a mild astringency. In cultivation, the shrubs lives for 10-12 years. Extremely hardy, to zone 2/3 (-3 aOC). Used ornamentally as a street tree when grafted high on a standard rootstock. Edible fruit - usually cooked (harsh , acid raw), with a cherry-like flavour. Of some economic importance in the former USSR, where much selection has taken place to improve fruit size and sweetness; large-fruited selections are sometimes called 'sour cherries' . Various selections have been made for use as sweet cherry rootstocks , inducing good precocity. Prunus glandulosa Dwarf flowering almond China, Japan A small shrub to 1.5 m (5 ft) high. White to light pink flowers in late April are followed by roundish, dark purple-red fruit s. 1 cm thick , often freely borne , ripening in late September. Notable for being resi stant to plum pox (sharka) virus. Likes a warm sunny position. Edible seed - small. Edible fruits - usually in preserves or pickles. Prunus X gondouinii Duke cherry, Royal cherry Hybrids between the sour and sweet cherry (P.cerasus x P.avium) . A small or medium sized tree, intermediate between its parents, growing 10-20 m (32 -65 tt) high, flowering in Apri lMay. Hardy to zone 4 (_29C). Fruits are large, like a heart cherry. generally sour. Edible fruit - usua ll y cooked as they are sour. A number of cultivars (about 65) have been bred, often included in lists of 'sour' cherries. Cultivars bear fruits varying in quality from sour to sweet. Yields from Duke cherries are low yielding, and only cultivars with early ripening fruit and a high sugar content are usually grown , which receive a premium price at market. Timber - used for turnerv.
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Prunus grayana Japanese bird cherry Japan A small tree, 5-7 m (16-23 tt) high in Japan but often smaller in cultivation. White flowers in June are followed by roundish, pointed fruits, becoming black, 8 mm thick, with smooth stones. Hardy to zone 6 (-2 1C) . Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Eaten young, salted in Japan with salted flower buds. Edible flower buds - though not recommended seeing as leaves are insecticidal! Leaves have an in secticidal effect against fruit flies (Drosophila sp.). The timber is hard and used for printing blocks , engraving , turnery , handles, furniture , utensils. Prunus humilis Bunge cherry N.China An upright shrub to 1.5 m (5 tt) high, found on dry sunny mountain slopes. Whitish-pink flowers appear with the foliage on the previous year's wood in April -May, and are followed by nearly round, bright red fruits, 12-15 mm thick . Notable for being moderately resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria spp). Hardy to zone 5 (-23 C). Edible fruits - somewhat acid and sour, usually cooked. Cultivated in N .Chi na for its fruits. Prunus incana Willow cherry SE .Europe, W.Asia A sma ll open shrub, 1.5-2 m (5-6 tt) high , loose and upright growing . Bright pink flowers , appearing with the foliage in late April, are occasionally followed by round , red , pea-sized (8 mm) fruits. Hardy to zone 6 (-21 C). Edible fruit - raw or cooked . Prunus incisa Fuji cherry Japan A round-crowned shrub or sometimes a small tree, to 3-5 m ( 10-16 ft) high or more. White flowers in late March-April are occasionally followed by oval, purple-black fruits, 6-8 mm long. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C), mod. resistant to bacterial canker. Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Can be used for hedging. Selections are used as a dwarfing cherry rootstock. Prunus japonica Flowering almond, Chinese bush cherry C.China, E.Asia A small, finely-branched sh rub , 1-1.5 m (3-5 tt) high. Whitish-pink flowers appear wit h the leaves in April-May, and are occasionally followed by roundish , wine-red fruits , 8-13 mm thick , with doubly-pointed stones Hardy to zo ne 4 (-29C) but subject to die-back in the UK. Notable for tolerating seasonal flooding . The natural variety nakai is a smaller shrub , only 50 cm high , with large, plum-like fruits up to 5 cm in diameter. Edib le fruit - usually cooked, variable quality. Those from the nakai variety are sweet with a cherry flavour. Several cultivars were bred & released in the early 1900's in the USA. Leaves have an insecticidal effect against fruit flies (Drosophila hydei) . The leaves, seed kernels and roots are all used in Chinese medicine. Prunus japonica X P.besseyi Edible fruit. A number of cultivars were bred and released in the early 1900's in the USA. Prunus maackii Amur cherry, Manchurian cherry Korea, Manchuria A broadly conical tree to 10m (32 ft) high with highly ornamental brownish ye ll ow peeling bark. White flowers, on older wood, in April are followed by small, black , round fruits, 5 mm thick. Extremely hardy, to zone 2 (-40C). Bark & flowers insecticidal against mosquitoes (Aedes punctor) & bed bugs (Cimex fectufarus). Prunus mahaleb St Lucie cherry Europe, W.Asia Upright to spreading, fast growing small trees to 10-12 m (32-40 tt) high , often bushy, found growing wild on gravely, well-drained, infertile soils throughout central Europe and Asia. Grow 5-7 m high in cultivation. White fragrant flowers in May are followed by 6-7 mm black or yellow fruits with red-black astringent flesh, ripening in July. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C), moderately resistant to bacterial canker.
Edible fruit usually cooked. Edible leaves used for flavouring. Edible seed kernels cooked; use with care. The seeds ha ve been used medicinally as a tonic. Various selections have been made for use as sour and sweet cherry rootstocks on calcareous droughty soi ls. The hard, aromatic, brownveined wood is used for turnery , cabinet making, pipe stems. Used in forestry in Germany and E.Europe , in reforestation projects and windbreaks. Prunus maximowiczii Miyana cherry N.China, Japan, Korea A sma" , denseheaded tree to about 7 m (23 ft ) high, sometimes more. Creamywhite flowers appear in May, after the foliage , and are followed by smal" roundish reddi sh-black fruits , 5 mm across , which ripen in August. Hardy to zone 5 (-23 C). Edible fruit raw or cooked, but very small. Edible flowers - used in preserves . The timber is hard, close grained, very heavy; used for furniture , utensils, sculptures. Prunus microcarpa Asia minor A variable species, shrubby to 1-2.5 m (3-8 tt) high , densely branched. Whitish-pink flowers In Apri l are fol lowed by dark red or yellow fruits, 10-12 mm long. Hardy to zone 5 (_23 C), likes a hot dry location. Edibl e fruit raw or cooked. Some doubt about this one. Prunus mugus Tibetan cherry W.China A low compact shrub. 90-180 cm (3-6 tt) high. Pink flowers are followed by dark red fruits. Selections are being tested as very dwarfing cherry rootstocks . Prunus nipponica Japanese alpine cherry Japan A tall open shrub to 5 m (16 tt) high. White flowers in April-May are followed by round , purple black fruits, 8 mm th ick. Hardy to zone 6 (-21 D C). Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Prunus padus Bird cherry Europe, Asia A medium sized tree to 15 m (50 ft) high with a dense crown and somewhat nodd ing branches. White fragrant flowers appear in April-May , after the foliage , and are followed by round , pea-sized, black fruits , bitter and acid. Hardy to zone 4 (_29C). Very tolerant of shade. Edible fruit - cooked: variable quality, usually bitter. Young leaves have been eaten cooked, and the bark used in tea (not recommended .) Edible flowers. The whole plant is insecticidal against flies , lice and midges ; the bark, shoots and leaves are insectidical against fruit flies (Drosophila sp.). mosquitoes , ticks , and hou e flies (Musca domestica). ~" Bark & shoots have been used medicinally. The bark is diuretic, ~ 'I ~ sedative , a mild pain-killer and \ alleviates fever; it is cut when the tree \ is in flower and dried in the shade. Caution - poisonous. Bark can be used for dyeing: gives yellowish-brown with alum mordant. Bee plant: Source of nectar and pollen for honey and bumble bees in May. Used in forestry for screen plantings and reforestation projects. Timber is used for fumiture , shipbuilding, joinery. The young stems are tough and have been used P.pensyfvanica in the past for cooperage rings.
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Prunus pensylvanica Wild red cherry, Pin cherry Canada, USA A fast-growing large s hrub or small tree varying from 4-12 m ( 13-40 tt) tall. White flowers appear with the foliage in May, and are followed by round , red , 6 mm fruits , ripening Jul ySeptember. Extremely hardy, to zone 2 (-39 '" C.) Edible fruit - cooked: usually sour with thin flesh. Edible gum exudation from trunk . Inner bark used medicinally. Bee plant in May. Wood is used for turnery. Used in reforestation as a soil stabiliser. especially on burnt land. Prunus prostrata Rock cherry. Mountain cherry Mediterranean , W.Asia A variable , prostrate or small , spreading, gnarled shrub only growing 50-100 em (18-40 ~ ) high , found in the mountains of the Mediterranean region. It bears pink flowers in May which are followed by roundish, black-red fruits, 8-12 mm thick. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C.) Likes a hot dry position. Edible fruits - poor quality. Prunus pseudocerasus Chinese sour cherry. Bastard cherry N.China A variable small tree or shrub 2.5-8 m (8-20 tt) high resembling the sour cherry , P.cerasus . Pinkish-white flowers appear before or with the fol iage in March, and are followed by oval, yellowish-red fruits, 15 mm long and somewhat sweet. ripening early - in June. Hardy to zone 6 (_21 C). Propagates well from cuttings. Edible fruits - quite sweet. The fruits are of some economic importance in N.China . In Victorian times, plants were ' forced' in pots in glasshouses for early fruit production in Britain. Edible flowers - salted and used in tea. Prunus rufa Himalayan cherry Himalayas A small wide tree to 6-7 m (20-23 tt) high with ornamental bark. White to pale p ' flowers in May are followed by ellipsoid, dark red fleshy fruits. Hardy to zone 8 (-12 C.) Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Prunus sargentii
Sargent cherry Japan A tall, broad upright tree , 15-18 m (50-60 ft) high, with ornamental reddish bark. The pink flowers appear in April before the leaves, and are followed by oval-oblong, glossy dark red fruits, 1 cm long. Very colourful leaves in autumn. Hardy to zone 5 (23 C.) Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Bee plant: Source of nectar and pollen for honey and bumble bees in March-April. Used in forestry for erosion control. Timber is used for turnery and furniture.
Prunus X schmittii A hybrid of P.avium x P.canescens, intermediate between its parents but nearer P.canescens. A small to. medium tree with a narrow upright habit and ornamental bark.
Prunus serotina Rum cherry, Black cherry, Wild black cherry Canada, USA A large forest tree, growing to 35 m (115 tt) high in its native habitat, rather less in cultivation - small to medium in Britain. White flowers in late May-June are followed by egg-shaped fruits, 8-10 mm thick, dark purple, bitter, ripening in August-September. Hardy to zone 4 (-29C.) Flowers and fruits well in Britain. Edible fruit - usually cooked: variable, can be sweet or bitter, sometimes with a vinous flavour. Good cooker and made into cider . A number of cultivars were bred and released in the early 1900's in the USA. The"tshoots are used to make a tea. A bark extract is used commercially to flavour soft drinks, sweets etc. The root bark and shoots have been used medicinally. A reddish-purple dye is obtained from the roots with an alum mordant. Bee plant in May-June. An important forestry species in Central Europe and North America. The timber is valuable, used for cabinet making, musical and scientific instruments, and joinery. Prunus serrula Birch bark cherry, Tibetan cherry China A vigorous small tree or multistemmed shrub, growing 7-12 m (23-40 ft) high, with highly ornamental glossy older bark. White flowers appear with the foliage in April-May, and are followed by red oval fruits, 6-12 mm long. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C.) Edible fruit. Occasionally used as a rootstock. Prunus serrulata Japan, China, Korea Chinese mountain cherry, Japanese mountain cherry, Japanese flowering cherry A shrub or very small tree, reaching 2-3 m (6-10 ft) high , with pure white flo wers opening with the foliage in April-May, follo wed by round, dark reddish-black fruits, 7 mm thick. Hardy to zone 6 (-21C), moderately resistant to bacterial canker. Many of the ornamental Japanese flowering cherries belong here. Edible fruits (6-8 mm across). Not borne on many ornamental cultivars. Edible flowers - pickled in salt in Japan. Bee plant. Used for erosion control in forestry. Selections can be used as cherry rootstocks. Prunus speciosa Oshima cherry Japan An open-crowned small tree, to 10-12 m (32-40 ft) high . White flowers appear with the foliage in April. Many of the ornamental Japanese flowering cherries belong here. Much used in Japan as a rootstock. Timber is used for furniture and turnery. Prunus ssiori NE.Asia, Japan A small tree to 10 m (32 ft) high (larger in Japan) with a broad crown. White flowers appear before the foliage, and are followed by flattish-round fruits, 1 cm thick, eventually black. Hardy to zone 5 (_23C.) Edible fruit - raw or cooked. The wood is heavy, hard , strong, close grained , durable; used for shafts , utensils, engraving. Prunus subhirtella Higan cherry, Rosebud cherry, Spring cherry Japan A large shrub or small forking tree (much larger in Japan). Pinki sh-white flowers appear in April before the leaves , and are followed by oval-rounded fruits, purplish-black , 9 mm long. Hardy to zone 6 (-21 C.) Va lued as an ornamental in Japan. Edible fruit - raw or cooked: poor quality. Edible flowers - salted and used in tea.
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Prunus tomentosa
China, Japan, Himalayas Nanking cherry. Manchu bush cherry, Downy cherry, Korean cherry A dense spreadi ng shrub usually 1-1.5 m (3-5 ft) high (sometimes double) with numerous branches and many suckers. White flowers appear with the foliage in March-April, and are followed by roundish fruits , yellowish pink to dark red, 1 em thick, slightly hairy, varying in weight from 1 to 4.6 g, ripening in July. Well adapted to cold areas - hardy to zone 3 (-31C.) Susceptible to honey fungus (Armillaria spp), Crown gall, bacterial canker and plum pox. Edible fruit: sweet or sub-acid, juicy. The unripe fruits can be pickled. A number of cultivars were bred and released in the early 1900's in the USA, including 'Baton Rouge, 'Orilea ', 'Eileen ', 'Monroe', 'O rient' and P.tomentosa 'S late '; there have been many breeding programmes in Russia, and recent Russian releases include good flavoured and large-fruited (15 mm) 'Alisa', 'Cheres hnevaya ', 'Oetskaya', ' Natali' , 'Okeanskaya', 'Smuglyanka' and 'Vostochnaya'. Most seedlings produce tasty fruit. Used as a windbreak in the severe climates of C.USA. Occasionally used as a dwarfing peach rootstock, although it induces small fruit size.
Prunus tomentosa x P.besseyi

Extremely hardy hybrids, hardy to zone 3 (-3rC.) Edible fruit. A number of cultivars were bred and released in the early 1900's in the USA. Occasionally used as a dwarfing peach rootstock .
Prunus virens
USA
A semi-evergreen shrub or small tree. Fruits are purplish-black. Edible fruits - raw or cooked: bittersweet. Prunus virginiana Chokecherry, Virginian bird cherry A suckering shrub or small tree. White flowers appear before the foliage in late May-June, and are followed by round, reddish-purple fruits, 1 cm thick, ripening July-October. Very hardy, to zone 2 (40C), moderately resistant to bacterial canker. The natural variety demissa is more shrubby, to 1-3 m (3-10 tt) high; melanocarpa bears nearly black, bitter fruits. Fruits moderately well in Britain. Edible fruit - bittersweet: usually cooked. Can be eaten raw if dried. The cultivar 'Johnson ' has larger and sweeter fruits. Twigs & bark used to make a tea. Edible kernels - care should be taken. Bark has been used medicinally. Dyes are obtained from the fruit. shoots. and leaves : shoots & leaves
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orange with tin , olive green with iron, tan with no mordant; fruits give fading dyes, pinkishtan with alum, olive green with chrome, tan with copper, li ght olive with tin , grey-green with iron, pink-beige with no mordant. The inner bark gives a green dye in spring. Bee plant in May-June. Used in forestry in the USA for erosion control. The wood is close-grained, strong, hard, heavy; used for skewers etc. Prunus X yedoensis Tokyo cherry, Yoshino cherry Japan Hybrids of unknown origin , making small to medium rounded trees , 12-15 m (40-50 ft) high . Pinkish-white ffowers in late March-April are followed by round, black , 1 cm fruits. Hardy to zone 6 (-21 C . ) Edible fruit - raw or cooked. Good bee plant: Source of nectar and pollen for honey and bumble bees in Aprif. A selection is under trial as a cherry rootstock . Numerous hybrids have been bred, and are continuing to be bred, selected and tested throughout the world. These include selections of the following crosses: Prunus avium x P.ps eudocerasus The 'Colt' cherry rootstock is of this parentage, resistant to bacterial canker. Prunus canescens x P.avium Includes a Giessen clone. Prunus canescens x P .cerasus Several Giessen clones Prunus cerasus x P.canescens Several Giessen clones. Prunus fruticosa x P.avium Includes some Giessen clones. Prunus fruticosa x P .cerasus Includes 'Oppenheim' and some Giessen c lones. Prunus incisa x P.serrula Includes the 'GM9' rootstock.
References
Agroforestry Research Trust. A.R.T. Useful plants database, 1996. Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, Vol 3. John Murray, 1981. Grainge, M & Ahmed , S : Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties. Wiley , 1988 . Krussman, G: Manual of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1984. Moore , J & Ballington Jr, J: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops. ISHS , 1990. Parmar, C: An Autumn-blooming wild cherry from the Himalayas . Pomona , Vol xxiv No 3 (Summer 1991). Payne , J et al: Neglected Native Fruit Trees and Shrubs. NNGA 81st Annual Report (1990). Reich , L: Uncommon Fru its Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley , 1991 . Rom , R & Carlson , R: Rootstocks for Fruit Crops . Wiley , 1987. Webster, A & Looney. N: Cherries: Crop Physiology, Production and Uses.
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Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture! horticulture to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing toad, materials, timber and other products. It can range from planting trees in pastures p,oviding shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a selfsustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust tour times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are: 18 per year in Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged) 22 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per year for institutions. A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on request for 3 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per copy including postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to 'Agroforestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 40 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publicatior,s, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
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Agroforestry News
Volume 5 Number 3 April 1997
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
I'
Volume 5 Number 3
April 1997
Contents
2 News 4 Cherry silviculture 7 Forest Farming of Ginseng 10 Book Reviews: The Pruning Handbook I Mushrooms of
North America in Color I Burcombes, Queenies and Colloggetts I Fruit Breeding
12 21 24 36 39
Cherries (2): Rootstocks Refrigeration and freezing of chestnuts Gooseberries Pigs in the forest A.R.T. Nut trials
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed , and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops ; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be admin istered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust , 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, Tag 6JT. U.K.
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News
No name change
Suggestions for new names for this journal included ' Forest Gardening ' and 'Tree Crops ', but the general consensus about a name change for Agroforestry News from readers seems to be: leave it as it is . Hence for the foreseeable future , it will remain as it is. Thanks to all who wrote in with their comments.
No-dig anti-rabbit netting

Clive Simms, who runs a nursery in Lincolnshire , has written with details of measures he has had to take recently: anti-rabbit "After fourteen years of never seeing a rabbit I was horrified last winter to note clear signs that rabbits were beginning to have nocturnal frolics in the nursery and providing a free pruning service to any plant which took their fancy . The solution was to net the entire area which I proceeded to do without delay. The only problem was an established Leylandii hedge: to do the thing properly I should dig a trench to allow netting to be sunk into the ground and bent outwards to prevent the rabbit burrowing . However, the soil is very heavy clay and full of Leylandii roots so I utilised old cement roof tiles (readily available from roofers during re-tiling work and often free) by fixing the bottom edge of the mesh onto the tile by means of the two nail holes which are moulded into the tile . This allows the rabbit netting to be 'fixed ' to ground level and the tile is then placed so that any rabbit which tries to burrow underneath is sitting on the tile and so can 't burrow. So far it seems to have worked although I suspect I'm only defending myself against the advance guard , whether it would still protect me from the main body of the army should they move this way I don't know! ft Clive's method Devon method
i
Wire tie Roofing tile (flat type ) Another no-dig method (illustrated on the right above) , sometimes used around here in Devon where the ground is stony (shillet is common - a layered slate -like stone) is to bend the netting outwards, but instead of burying it, just lay stone along the outward laid edge. This is soon overgrown with grasses etc and appears to remain fairly rabbit-proof.
1997 tours of ART projects

These will be a repeat of the successful days we had last year, with a tour around the Trust nursery, Forest garden project , and main trials site with Martin Crawford. This year they will be on Sunday 8th June and Sunday 28th September. Please see enclosed flyer for more details.
Forest gardening root crops revisited

In response to the article in the last issue of Agroforestry News , on root an bulb crops for forest gardens , Andrew Clarke of Gwynedd has written with a couple of suggestions to add to
the list of specie s: Alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum) This vigorous biennial is worthy of a place in any forest garden, and has self-seeded over a large area on site, producing excellent ground cover at a time when little else is showing. It is virtually evergreen, though did suffer in the recent heavy snow and hard frosts - it wilted badly, but soon recovered fully when the temperature rose. Grows well under the canopy of the fruit trees, both in summer and winter. Has formed a major part of my winter salad greens, the leaves having a celery -like flavour. I have not tried the roots yet. but they are reputed to be quite acceptable, and the seeds ca n be added to salads or ground to produce a condiment with a pungent flavour. [ Alexanders is a member of the Umbellifer family, native to Europe and Asia and brought to Britain by the Romans who used it extensively; it naturalised very quickly, and is now often found along hedges near the sea. It grows 75-120 cm (2Yz -4 ft) high in most soils and is quite ha rdy in Britain. As well as having edible young shoots, leaves, flower buds, stems and roots (all with a celery-like flavour) , it has edible seeds, which are peppery and can be used as a condiment. It is also a good bee plant and has been used for dyeing. 1 Oca (Oxalis tuberosa) A little known perennial from South America which is second only to the potato in economic importance in that region. The foliage is excellent edible, with a sharp lemony taste - good sa lad ings. The tubers are even better, with a sweet/acid flavour and can be used raw or cooked (boiled or baked). Sadly, these do not rea ch a great size in the U.K. due to problems with daylength requirements in these latitudes. I have been selecting the tubers over the last few years, which are typically 35-70 mm long by 10-20 mm wide, and by saving the better specimens hope to produce a strain with a better size one day. It is one of the few useful species which has survived serious encroachment by weeds such as bracken , couch grass, dock and nettie in areas of the site which have been neglected for several years, and does well in both a sun ny or shady location, though prefers the former. [ The lemony flavour of oca leaves comes from oxalic acid - as in sorrel - and is fine in small amounts, but shouldn't be overindulged. Oca is hardier than potatoes, and in sheltered sites the tubers may overwinter successfully, although normally they are harvested in autumn after the foliage is cut down by frosts, and stored indoors overwinter before replanting in spring. It grows to 45 cm (1~ tt) high and likes a light or medium soil - good drainage is important. The tubers only start to form after 21st September, hence the best yields are likely in areas where the first autumn frosts are late. ]
New edition of 'Bamboos '

A comp letely updated and revised edition of Bamboos is now available , which includes sections on cultivation and management, using bamboos for ground cover, hedging , cane production and edible shoot production, and an extensive bamboo directory section which gives details of all species and varieties available in Britain, along with synonyms and common names. Bamboos. 2nd Revised Edition, 1997. AS, 48 pp . Price: 8 .00 plus 1.20 P & P from A.R.T.
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Cherry silviculture
Of the two native UK species, only wild cherry (mazzard, gean), Prunus avium, grows to timber size; the bird cherry, P.padus, remains a small tree only really suited for using for firewood . The American or black cherry, P.serotina, is vigorous and attains a reasonable size but is not often used because it is an alternate host to an aph id carrier of a sugar beet virus [though since sugar beet is only cultivated in certain areas, this restriction need not be blank"t.] Wild cherry is a surprising ly under-used tree: it is easy to estab li sh, very productive, has short rotations, it has attractive flowers and a much sought after timber. It also has very good potential in agroforestry.
Silviculture
Wild cherry occurs naturally over most of Europe , from the Mediterranean countries north to southern Scandinavia . It is found throughout Britain and is mainly found as a woodland tree in S & E.England, and in hedgerows and copses in E. Scotland. It is essentially a lowland species, se ldom found above 300 m (1000 ft). Under favourable conditions, wild cherry will reach 20 m (70 ft) in height and 60 cm (2 ft) breast height diameter in 50-60 years. Most that is currently harvested has arisen naturally as a minor component of existing broad-leaved woodland, where they are a va luable addition to the stand. Wild cherries are relatively short lived and best results are achieved when it is grown to merchantable size as fast as possible. Cherry has strong apical dominance fie usually retains a central leading shoot], and relatively weak phototropic tendencies lie does not grow strongly away from shade], usually resulting in the tree developing and retaining a single straight leading shoot. Cherry only coppices well when young and the stump is fairly small; it suckers well after cutting , though.
Siting
For timber production, cherry trees should be used which have been grown from seed obtained from healthy forest trees of good vigour and form. Within a decade or so, superior cultivars raised for their timber form , growth rate and pest/disease resistance should become available as a result of the wo rk being carried out at HRI , East Mailin g, which started in 1988 . These vegetatively propagated forms (some hybrids of wild cherry with P.sargentii for cherry blackfly resistance) are likely to be expensive planting stock but may be worth considering; in time, seed orchards containing such improved varieties may also be established. Similar breeding programmes are being carried out in France, Belgium and Italy. There are of course dangers from planting with too limited a range of genetic material. Cherries should only be planted on fertile, deep, well drained but moist soils, ideally with an acid pH of 5.0-6.5 (although pH 4 to 8 is tolerated) . Deep loams over chalk are also suitable, cherry being reasonably lime-tolerant. Sites which are exposed or prone to waterlogging should be avoided; trees become deformed in exposed situations. Cherries are very droughttolerant, more so than most forest trees; they are also strongly light-demanding (except when very young) which helps to ensure good straight stems. They grow well as part of a mixed stand of broadleaves (combining particularly well with ash, beech , chestnut, oak), but can also be grown in clumps where shelter and fertility are ideal, or even in stands on its own (though these are more susceptible to canker and honey fungus). Because of the earlymaturing nature of cherry compared with other broadleaves, they may have a useful place as an early-maturing component of mixtures. It is often regarded as an ideal species for woodland edges. Because of its straight-growing tendency , stocking levels can be lower than for other broadleaves, because less selection is needed of final crop trees; planting at 3 x 3 m ( 10 x 10 ft) is recommended - ie 1100 trees/ha (436 trees/acre).
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Cherry is more toleran t of grass competition after a fe w years than most species ; however, young trees are sensitive to weed competition , and will benefit from weed contro l after planting - indeed , good weed contro l can nearly double ea rly height growth. Use of treeshelters increases initial growth (which can be 80-130 em [32-52 ") per year in shelters ) but trees grow out of the shelte r quickly, hence th is benefit is soon lost. Use of such shelters can also make pruning of low side branches very difficult until the shelter disinteg rates or is removed .
Growth and care

Early growth is rapid , 60 em (2 tt) per yea r on reasonable sites, with heights of 6 m (20 tt) achieved in 10 years. G rowt h continues at a hig h rate and diameter increases of 1 cm per year are achievable. Cherry needs heavy, regular thi nnings to be kept well th inned and given plentiful side light to enha nce both diameter growth and flowering ; crowns should be unimpeded. A fi nal crop of 140-1 60 trees/ha (56-64 trees/acre) (ie at an a verage of 7.9-8.5 m [26-28 ttl apart) is the no rm al aim. Vigo rous , straight trees with fi ne branch ing should be favoured in tending and thinn in g. High prune to 4.5 or even 6 m (15-20 ft) to achieve top quality ste m s in July (to m inim ise infection risk from bacteria l can k er and silver leaf disease), preferably every year, as side shoots shou ld be cut when still small. Cherry is prone to 'sudden death' , often accompanied by rapid butt decay, and only healthy vigorous trees sho uld be retained. Trees sho uld be harvested in 50-80 yea rs, when they are a minimum of 30 cm breast height diameter; past the age of 80 they are genera lly cons idered overmature and are likely to show signs of defects (eg . w indthrow), disease (eg. heart rot) and very slow growth. Such rotations are only a few years longer tha n for most con ifers. Av erage yield c lasses of 6-10 m 3 /Ha/year are achieved on most sites , which is high for a broadleaved species. The aph id Myzus cerasi (che rry black fly) is quite a serious pest, leading to stunted shoots and crown dieback most obvious in May and June; a severe infection in the ea rly years after planting can result in the death of the termina l bud and subsequent fork ing . Another aph id is hosted which ca rries the ba rley yellow dwa rf virus. Che rries are qu ite susceptib le to honey fungus (Armiflaria spp .), and sometimes suffe r from bacteria l canker (Pseudomonas morsprunorum) , particularly in wetter climates. They are rarely damaged by grey squirrels , but de er can be serious pests .
The timber
Cherry has a pa le sapwood and distinct rich reddish-brown heartwood , rarely suffe ring from shake [longitudinal fissuring]. It is an even-textured, straight and fine grained , hard , diffuseporo us wood , not unlike some tropica l ha rdwoods in appearance , and has good strengt h properties (superior to oak) . It is moderate ly durable, of medium density (610-630 Kg/m 3 ) and works we ll. It sometimes has gree n lines or veins which ca n reduce the value somewhat. It dries fairly rapidly with a tendency to warp. The wood nails, glues and stains well and can be brought to an excellent finish.
It is used for tu rn ery (domestic ware, shuttle pins , toys, musical instrument parts) , furn iture and cabinetmaking , venee rs and decorative pa nelling . It is res ista nt to penetration by wood preservatives and thus shou ld not be used in situat ions in contact with the ground. T here is a ready market fo r good quality timber, with demand greatly exceed ing supp ly, which may enlarge as there is less use of tropical ha rdwoods. The wood also makes very good fuel. Veneer grade and prime grade plank ing grade logs free of knots and irregula rities can fetch prices of 700 and 212 per m 3 respectively [1993 prices].
AGROFORESTR Y NEWS Vol 5 No 3
Page 5
Agroforestry uses
Because of its strongly light-demanding nature , wild cherry has better potential for producin g high quality timber (given the right conditions) in agroforestry systems than many species. It needs less pruning , especially of the formative kind, than say walnuts which are often mooted as potential intercrop trees in silvoarable systems (ie. lines of trees between strips of arable land). Given a position not exposed , and the right soil , then, wild cherry should be suitable for both si lvoarable and silvopastoral (ie. widely spaced trees in pasture) systems. In addition to the valuable timber, trees in such positions will flower and fruit well , though of course the fruits will be increasingly high up and taken mainly by birds . It is probably not worth trying to grow good timber trees from planting named fruiting va ri eties of cherry, as these will put too much energy into flower and fruit production, and rarely produce good timber form. SlIvopastoral experiments using cherry have been made in France, in humid mid-mountainous areas in Auvergne with cattle as the grazing animals . Trees are planted at lOx 10m (33 x 33 ft) spacing (100 stems/ha , 40 stems/acre); cattle grazing demands tall and strengthened shelters - 2.5 m (8 ft) tubes and 2 stakes of 2.3 m (2 m tubes are recommended for sheep grazing). After planting, grazing is at a moderate rate , averaging 1.0 cattle/ha (2.5 cattl e/acre). The results show good growth potential , although problems have been encou ntered with pruning, as branch development out of the tube makes it soon impossible to remove . It may well be better to use netting guards instead of tubes as protection in such situations, for ease of both visibility and to prune off side branches .
Flowering and propagation

Trees start to flower by the age of about 10 years (sometimes as young as 3 years), with good seed cro ps everyone to three years. Flowers are produced from early April to mid May. The fruits ripen in June and July, with natural dispersal (drop) in July and August; they are common ly collected for seed in September. The seed yield is in the range 100-530 seeds per Kg of fruit (45-240 per Ib). Seeds ca n be stored at 1C, if dried to 11% moisture content, for up to 4!4 years. There are about 5,100 seeds/Kg (range 3,200-6,600) [2320 seeds/lb, range 1450-3000], of which about 75-80% normally germinate . Seeds can be sown immediatel y after collection, or stratified for 20 weeks (2 weeks warm, plus 18 weeks cold) and sown in March or early April. Mice are a particular threat to seed and mfi!asures should be taken to exclude them or con trol them. The recommended sowing density for sowing in seed beds is 167 g of seed per m 2 (equivalent to 870 seeds/m 2 ) [. This wi ll give on average 170 seedlings ; first year growth of seedlings is 10-40 cm (4-6~). If necessary, these can then be lined out for a further year or two before planting in their final positions. Although cuttings can be taken from cherry, they reatly only succeed from yo ung trees . The breeding programmes use both this method and micropropagation.
References
Aaron, J & Richard s, E: British Woodland Produ ce. Stobart Davies, 1990. Aldhous, J & Mason, W: Forest Nursery Practice. Forestry Comm. Bulletin 111 ; HMSO, 1994. Evans, J: Silviculture of Broadleaved Woodland . Forestry Comm. Bu ll etin 62; HMSO, 1984. Gordon , A & Rowe , D: Seed manual for Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Forestry Commission Bulletin 59; HMSO, 1982. Kerr, G & Evans , J: Growing Broadleaves for Timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9; HMSO, 1993 . Lincoln , W: World Woods in Colour. Stobart Davies, 1986. Rapey , H et al: Multilocal si lvopa stora l experiment of Auvergne. Agroforestry Forum, V 4 N 3. Russel, K: Progress in wild cherry improvement at HRI , East Mailing . Woodland Heritage News , 2.
Page 6
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Va/ 5 No 3
Forest farming of ginseng

Introduction
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is highly valued as a substttute for Oriental ginseng (Panax ginseng) by the Chinese, and the former is harvested both wild and cultivated in the USA and Canada. For several generations of people in the Appalachian mountain region, ~ digging sang" has been an enjoyable and profitable activity. Nearly a[1 of the ginseng harvested in North America is exported to oriental countries for sale: about 1800 tannes (4,000,000 Ib) of cultivated and wild ginseng was exported in 1994. It is also cultivated in France. The price obtained for wild dried roots is much greater than that for cultivated roots. The two are easily distinguishable; wild roots are dark tan in colour, gnarled in appearance, and show many concentric growth rings; cultivated roots are cream coloured, smooth and fat, are often large and heavy, and exhibit few concentric growth rings. The Chinese value wild roots more highly, believing that the slow-growing wild roots, which are harvested at an older age, absorb more curative power from the forest floor. The oriental wholesale buyers have quite an elaborate grading system for the dried roots. In 1995 , wild dried ginseng roots sold in the USA for as much as $470 (285) per pound (a price which has tripled in the last 10 years), whereas cultivated dried roots sold for as little as $20 ( 12) per pound (a price which has halved in the last 10 years). },
The plant
The Panax species are perennial herbs of the Araliaceae family which flower and bear berries three years after sowing. First year plants bear one palmately compound leaf with five leaflets (each up to 16 cm, 6~ long), two-year old plants bear two and so on, with one compound leaf added each year. Panax quinquefolium, American ginseng, is indigenous to the woods of Quebec and Manitoba in Canada and extends southwards to the Gulf coast. It grows about 30-50 cm (12-20~) high , bears clusters of greenish-yellow flowers from May to August, followed by kidney-shaped red berries each containing 1-3 wrinkled seeds. The mature root is usually forked, ranging from 5-10 cm (2-4") in length and up to 25 mm (1n) in diameter. The pharmacological components and properties of American ginseng are very similar to those of Chinese ginseng (P.ginseng), and are believed to be mainly due to its saponins, though other substances may also be responsible. In Chinese medicine, ginseng is prescribed as a tonic , stimulant and aphrodisiac, used in cases of neurasthenia, dyspepsia, palpitations and asthma, and is incorporated into tonics for amnesia, headaches , convulsions, dysentery and cancer. It enhances the natural resistance and recuperative powers of the body, and has the ability to maintain the body's stamina at a regular level (ie is adaptogen) , increasing the ability to tolerate stress. It is also used in lotions, creams and perfumes by the cosmetics industry. Seeds take 18 months to germinate, needing a winter-summer-winter sequence; it is sensible to sow part- or fully-stratified seed in the autumn, given a year's (6 months cold + 6 months warm) or 18 months stratification, or in the spring after 18 months stratification. Seeds should ideally not be allowed to dry out from harvest to sowing.
Intensive cultivation
About 3,800 acres of ginseng are grown in intense cultivation under artificial shade in Wisconsin. Under intense cultivation, the roots grow very quickly to a harvestable size, and are often harvested after 4 years; yields as high as 2,500 Ib (1140 Kg) of dried root per acre have been reported , though average yields are 1500-2200 Ib per acre (680-1000 Kg per acre). Establishment costs for ginseng beds are extremely high as they need wood lath shade or polypropylene shade cloth; it may cost $20,000$30,000 (12,000-18,000) per
Page 7
acre. The greatest problem associated with intense ginseng cultivation is disease, including alternaria blight, damping off and phytophthora root rot. Any disease outbreaks severe ly threaten ginseng under intense monoculture cultivation because the plants are so close together and any disease quickly spreads [the same can be said for most monocultures}. This intense pressure forces artificial shade growers to use a frequent fungicide spray schedule to prevent losses.
Forest farming
A forest farming method can be used to grow ginseng without sprays and expensive establishment costs. The prices paid for forest-farmed ginseng are normally the same as those for wild ginseng roots . Although ginseng growing is tricky and risky, with no guaranteed yields, forestfarming ginseng has the potential to provide useful supp lemental income for folk who have patience and perseverance. The first step is site selection. The most favourable temperature and soil moisture conditions are generally associated (in N.America) with North or East facing slopes with at least a 75% shade canopy. The best shade is provided by deep rooted, deciduous trees such as poplars and oaks. Ginseng grows best in a humus-rich , moist acid s oil (of pH 5 to 6) with very good drainage, and successful growth mo st often occurs in sites where herbaceous woodland plants such as Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) , bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) , Solomon' s seal (Polygonatum biflorum) and ferns are growing. If no herbaceous plants are growing on the forest floor , ginseng will probably not grow there. Ideal growing conditions for ginseng are more difficult to find in low-lying regions (of N.America) than they are in the mountains, as the forest floor in most woodland areas is too hot and dry in summer for ginseng to survive. It seems likely that the cooler, moister conditions in the UK may be very much to ginseng 's liking. Stratified ginseng seed (already given 6 months cold plus 6 months warm stratification) is planted in the autumn when the trees lose their leaves. In some locations , clearing of undergrowth will be necessary; if the site is sufficiently shaded , there should not be a great deal of competitive weed growth . If dense patches of other herbaceous plants exist on the site, simply avoid them and disturb the site as liUle as possible.
slope for better air drainage around the plants. Rake the leaves on the forest floor away from the bed right down to the topsoil. Using the hoe, make three narrow fu rrows 13 ~ (33 em) apart along the length of the bed. Plant the ginseng seeds by hand, 3" (7 .5 em) apart in each furrow. About 1 OZ (28 g) or 500 seeds will be needed to plant three furrows at this spacing in a bed of 5 x 50 feet. Cover the seeds with .75" (2 em) of soil and then carefully step down each row to firm the soil around the seeds. Finally, rake r (2.5 em) of leaves back over the soil as a mulch. After a few weeks the site will look comp letely natural again. The stratified seed will germinate the next spring, the young plants appearing with small strawberry-l ike leaflets on a stem about 1" (2.5 cm) tall. Some of the seeds won't germinate, and others will be eaten by rodents. Over the next seven years, the plant population in each bed will be reduced by various natural forces, and the final stand will be a thin, healthy pop ulation of wild ginseng plants . W ith this method, no more work is required after planting until the ginseng roots are dug 6- 10 years later. The ginseng plants are left to the vagaries of nature: weeds will compete with them, insects and rodents may attack certain plants, fungus diseases may infect plants occasionally, and severe weather may have an effect. All of these stressful conditions result in a wild appearance of the roots that are eventually harvested. Harvesting takes place in the autumn. Digging the roots will be somewhat tricky because they often become entwined with the roots of other woodland plants. The harvested roots should be air-dried in the shade, which takes about 6 weeks; alternatively, they can be dried in a special 'cool oven' at 32-35C for 3 weeks. Care must be taken not to mark the roots and to keep them intact. and the dried roots should be stored in a dry, airy, rodent-proof place until so ld.
Investment and marketing

The planting costs of forest farming a half acre of ginseng are about $800 (500) for 10 Ib (4.5 Kg ) of stratified seeds, plus 20 days of labour. This area will produce anything from 0 to 200 Ib (90 Kg) of dried roots in 6-10 years. The natural fertility of the planting site will de termine the quantity and quality of the ginseng grown there. The greatest threat to the crop (in N.America) is theft - ginseng hunters sometimes comb the mountains every autumn looking for wild ginseng to dig . It is highly recommended in North America that anyone attempting to grow ginseng this way should keep quiet about the enterprise! There is no problem marketing the dried roots in North America, though prices will obviously vary from year to year - there are many medicinal herb buyers in the Appalachian region and at least one buyer in every town in SW Virginia. The herbs most commonly traded are ginseng, black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), golden seal (Hydrastis canadensis), lady's slipper (Cardamine pratensis), mayapple (Podophyllum pe/tatum) and slippery elm (Ulmus rubra). These small buyers sell on to regional brokers who eithe r export the materials to the Orient or sell them directly to pharmaceutical com panies . In the UK, there are a few companies specialising in medicinal and Chinese herbs, who may be the best people to approach as buyers. Given the decreasing wild stocks of some woodland medicinal plants due to over-harvesting, the forest-farming methods described here hold great potential for both sustainable production and a useful income supplement. Many small landowners in the Appalachians are already growing and harvesting plants thi s way.
References
Hankins, Andy: "W ild-Simulated ~ Forest Farming for Ginseng Production . The Temperate Agroforester, Vol 5 No 1. Hornok, L: Cultivation and Processing of Medicinal Plants. Wiley, 1992. Hostettmann. K & Marston, A: Saponjns. Cambrid!=le Unjversitv Press , 1995.
Page 9
~ Book Reviews ~
The Pruning Handbook
Steve Bradley
The Crowood Press, 1996; 160 pp; 12.99. ISBN ~ -85223-981-6.
This is a clear and easy-ta-read book covering all aspects of pruning both ornamental and productive fruiting plants. Initial chapters cover selection of equipment and basic techniques; subsequent chapters then cover roses , climbing and wall plants, shrubs. hedges , vines, soft fruit. top fruit, trees, and indoor plants.
Each chapter describes both formative and routine pruning of plants, and tables show exactly what pruning is required by a range of popular ornamental plants. Step by step panel s show clearly which branches need to be pruned at which stage. Fruits covered by the book include vines (a who le chapter); brambles, currants, gooseberries and blueberries; app les, pears , plums and figs. With each there is a short description of the fruiting and growing habit, followed by sections on formation pruning after planting new bushes/trees, and routine pruning needed. Forms such as cordons, fans and espa liers are included. The good clear drawings are as informati ve as the description which they accompany and make this a very useful handbook.
Mushrooms of North America in Color

Alan E Bessett +
Syracuse University Press, 1995 [Dist by The Eurospan Group); 172 pp; 14.50 (Pbk) I 35.50 (Hbk) ISBN 0-8156-0323-1 (Pbk) I 0-8156-2666-5 (Hbk) Subtitled 'A Field Guide Compan ion to S~ldom-lliustrated Fungi ', the aim of this guide is to provide an accurate description, a colour photograph , and information on distinctive characteristics of over 70 species of mushrooms not commonly found in current field guides. The book is aimed at amateur and professional mycologists, botanists and ecologists. Each species is illustrated with a very good photograph , and the descriptions are clear and detailed. A brief note on edibility is also given; about a quarter of the species are edible. This will serve as an excellent companion to other field guides, especially in North America, although several species described are also found in Europe and elsewhere.
Burcombes, Queenies and Colloggetts

Virginia Spiers (Illustrations by Mary Martin)
West Brendon, 1996; 84 pp. ISBN 0-9527641-05. This excellent little book tells the story of a few fruit enthusiasts who have spent nearly two decades researching into the distinct apple and cherry varieties of the Tamar valley in Cornwall, and saving as many of the old varieties as they can before they are all lost.
Mary Martin and her sister Virginia Spiers were brought up in the Tamar va lley and the author describes the orchard industry of the valley as she remembers them. Mary then describes how she and her partner James Evans decided to try and save something of the old orchards; they visited dozens of orchards and talked for hours with growers and owners. It became their mission to get the varieties back into healthy propagation. Over the following years they discovered. catalogued and identified nearly 200 apple and 20 cherry varieties. most well adapted to the mild, wet Cornish climate, and including Burcombes, Queenies and Colloggetts. Many of the apples are scab and canker resistant, while the cherries are often resistant to splitting in wet weather. A few varieties of cherry had previously been trialled in Kent, with poor results in that drier climate. Many of their discovered and rediscovered apple varieties are now propagated by local nurseries and are gaining wider favour again, just when they could have been made extinct; to have saved such a valuable gene pool is worthy indeed. Accompanying this fascinating sto ry are Mary Martin's wonderful impressionistic paintings of fru its, fruit trees and orchards in the Tamar valley. At the end of the book, an appendix describes the best varieties in their collection.
Fruit Breeding Volume I: Tree and Tropical Fruits Volume II: Vine and Small Fruits Volume III: Nuts.
Jules Janick & James N Moore
John Wiley & Sons, 1996; 616 pp (Vol I), 477 pp (Vol II), 278 pp (Vol III); 175.00 Vols. I-III. ISBN 0-471-31014-X (Vol I), 0-471-12670-5 (Vol II ), 0-471-12669-1 (Vol III) These three volumes cover every aspect of fruit breeding for the major temperate fruits, including apples, apricots, cherries, citrus, peaches, pears and plums (Vol I); blueberries, cra nberries, lingonberries , brambles, currants, gooseberries, grapes, kiwifruits and strawberri es (Vol II); almonds, chestnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, hickories and walnuts (Vol Ill). Each species alo ng with its the cultivated brief overview is covered very extensively. To begin with, a description of the fruit is given, main uses and world production figures. The origins and early development of species from wild species are traced via early cultivation and breeding; and a of recent breeding progress is given. problems to be overcome. Then pollination is discussed, and the covered, followed by seedling of sports and recent advances in and specific characteristics are
Modern breeding objectives are then discussed, along with the nitty-gritty of fruit breeding is tackled: floral biology and main breeding technique , making controlled crosses, is selection, fruit eva lu ation, and other techniques such as use biotechnology. The genetics of the species are explored, related to their controlling genes .
Breeding for specific characteristics is then covered, which includes breeding strategies and examples of modern breeding programmes aiming to achieve certain characteristics such as vigo ur, co ld-h ard in ess, particular flowering or ripening period, fruit characteristics, disease and pest resistance etc. Rootstock breeding is also mentioned. Finally, an overview of recent breeding achievements and the future prospects are discussed. Though clea rl y aimed at professional fru it breeders (for whom these will become compu lsory reading), these authoritative volumes will also be of immense interest to amateur breeders and fruit enthusiasts throughout the world.
Page 11
Cherries (2): Rootstocks

Introduction
The primary cherry rootstocks of use in the world are seedlings or clonal seleclions of Prunus avium ('mazzard', 'wil d cherry' or 'gean ') and of Prunus mahafeb (the '8t Lucie ' or 'perfumed ' cherry). Wild mazzard selections were first used for rootstocks by the Greeks and Romans around ~ 330-400 BC . French horticulturalists were the first to use Mahaleb rootstocks in 1768, which proved the best rootstock for most sweet cherries on calcareous droughty soils in France; tried in Britain in the early 1800's, though, it was found that although it dwarfed cherries, it did not adapt well to British soils. In North America both mazzard and mahaleb stocks have been used, with the former generally more popular; also used there, though rarely now, was the sour cherry (Prunus cerasus) cultivar 'S tockton Morello'. Present day commercial growers in the UK have used the mazzard clone ' F 12/1' for the last 50 years, but 'Co lt' is now gaining commercial acceptance . In France , Italy and Spain , mahaleb seedlings or the clonal selection 'S L 64' are used for gravely, calcareous, droughty soils and mazzard seedlings for heavy soils. German growers use mazzard seedlings and 'F 12/ 1'. In North America, mahaleb stocks are still used for sweet cherries in arid states (Utah, Montana, Colorado , California) with well-drained soils , and for most sour cherries; otherwise, mazzard stocks are mostly used, with a small usage of 'Colt'. Many rootsto ck breeding programmes are under way across the world , and the one common objective is tree size reduction: a large percentage of sweet cherry fruits are hand picked and sold fresh, and costs for picking from trees of 8-10 m (25-33 tt) high are high . Rootstocks which dwarf by 30-50% are the aim. With sour cherries , dwarfing stocks are less essential , as trees rarely grow over 4-5 m (13-16 tt) high ; in many areas, cultivars are grown on their own roots although poo r form and anchorage can be a problem.
Rootstock adaption
Climate: In terms of cold-hardiness, sour cherry is hardier than mahaleb, which in turn is hardier than mazzard. Mahaleb roots die at -15 C, while mazzard roots die at -10 to -11 C (NB of course, air temperatures would have to be considerably lower than this). There is evidence that 'Colt' is even less hardy than .this. Soil: An important factor to successful cherry production. P.maha/eb has a poorly-branched, deep, vertical-rooting habit. and adapts best in light. welldrained soils, and is least tolerant of waterlogging. More tolerant of drought and calcareous soits than mazzard or 'Stockton Morello'. Has long been recommended for deep, well-drained, sandy-porous soils. P.avium has a deep root system which is well branched and has a dense mat of highly fibrous roots near the surface. and adapts best to loamy soils, not very tolerant of waterlogging. P.cerasus adapts best to heavy clay soils , being most tolerant to waterlogging. 'Stockton Morello' has been recommended for wet clay soils, but in light soils trees are very dwarfed and poorly anchored. Most sweet cherries on sour cherry stocks are in fact poorly anchored an d wi ll require permanent staking. Training: In most cases, scions on mazzard and mahaleb stocks are not trained or pruned differently: a modified central leader, or a vase shape (open centre) are equally feasible. 'Co lt' is reported to induce scions with wider crotch angles (a benefit as it helps to avoid branch breakage and subsequent canker infection), which is well suited to a modified central le ader system.
Page 12
Pests and diseases: Rootstock usage in many areas is dependent upon tolerance or resistance to pests and diseases. An example is with bacterial canker: in humid areas of Western Europe and North Western North America, this serious disease is controlled by budding sweet cherry scions high on the resistant 'F 12/1'. Tolerance or susceptibility to the following pests and diseases is shown in the table below: Bacterial canker = Pseudomonas syringae pv. morsprunorum and pv. syringae - a serious disease of cherries in humid climates, causing cankers and gum bleed from branches (hence its other name, gummosis). Phytophthora root rot (Phyla spp.) - mahaleb stocks are particularly susceptible, and many losses have occurred in California on soils with poor drainage. Honey fungus = Armilfaria spp (oak root rot) Verticiffium spp. - fungi causing wilt diseases. Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) - worse in light, droughty soils. Root knot (R.k.l nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) can cause root damage. Les ion Nematodes (Pralylenchus spp.) - serious cherry pests in North America , causing root damage. Cherry leaf spot (Coccomyces hiema/is) - fungus sometimes causing severe damage in Europe and America . Prunus stem pitting (PSP) virus Spur cherry virus Rootstock Bact Phyla. Honey Vertic. Crown R.k. lesion cherry PSP spur ch canker spp. fungus spp. gall nemal. nemat. leaf sp virus virus Mazzard stocks T S T S S S T T S Mazzard seedling S T S T S S S Charger T T T T VS T S S T S Mazzard F 12/1 T T T Pontavium, Pontaris sdlg. Mahaleb stocks MS MS MS T S MS Mahafeb seedling T S S S Sour cherry stocks MS T S MS S T S S Sour cherry seedling T T Vladimir MS T MS T S S S Weihroot clones T S Other Prunus species P. canescens S T P.fruticosa T Adara Hybrid stocks T VS Camil (GM 79) MS VS T S Colt MS S T T VS Damil (GM 61/1) T Giessen 154/4 T Giessen 154/5 T Giessen 154/7 VS Giessen 196/13 VS Giessen 196/4 Gisela 1 (G iessen 172/9 ). T T Gisela 10 (Giessen 173/9). T S Gisela 5 (Giessen 148/2). VS S Inmil (GM 9) T T S M x M 2, 14, 39, 97 T MS T T T M x M 60 T Oppenheim VS = very susceptible, S = susceptible, MS = moderately susceptible, T = tolerant or resistant
,i
I
Page 13
Cherries are affected by considerably more virus diseases than any other stone fruit , which can affect trees in a va ri ety of ways including leaf and fruit discolouration; foliage, fruit and stem deformation; redu ced crop yie lds; reduced vigour (may be advantageous!) ; graft union fa ilure and subsequent death of scion. Some of these viruses can be transmitted by pollen and seed, though clones such as 'Colt' and 'F 12/1' are commercially produced from virus~ free mother plants . It is important to realise that orchard/tree longevity and production can only be gained by purchasing vi rus-free trees (scion and rootstock). The cas.e of 'Stockton Morello ', used as a rootstock in California, is instructive: its dwarfing and pnkocity, seen as an economic benefit, appear to have been virus-induced; the accumulation of these viruses (it was found to be carrying numerous) soon rendered it useless, but now re cently freed of virus, it is very vigo rous and holds little advantage over mazzard. Mahaleb stocks are notedly more susceptible to damage by moles (gophers) than mazzard stocks.
.I.
Tree size and vigour

Rootstock effect on scion vigour is affected by the rootstock seedling source, age , soil and cl im ate effects, virus content, and the scion cultiva r. Hence there are always conflicting results, but in general , 'F 12/1' is more vigorous than mazzard seedling, which is more vigo rous than mahaleb seed ling. In very well drained , droughty soils, though , mahaleb rootstocks are often more vigorous than mazzard stocks. The following table indicates average relative tree height and spread (with mazzard F 12/1 100%) with different rootstocks; and compatibility with sweet and sour cherries:
------ ----~ - ----
Relative height % soil -------------- compatibility with light medium heavy sweet cherries very good very good ve ry good very good
compatibility with sour cherries very good ve ry good very good very good
Mazzard stocks Mazzard seedling n/s 85% 100% Pontavium, Pontaris sdlg 75-85% Charger (F4/13) nls 60-75% Cristimar IA I nls 100% Mazzard F 12/1 Mahaleb stocks 75% n/u Mahaleb seedling 90% SL 405 seedling 85% 60-70% 75-85% n/u SL 64 Sour cherry stocks Sour cherry seedling nlu Ahrensberg 173/1,209/1,473/10 70-80% CAB clones 70-80% Edabriz 15-60% GM 101 85% Montmorency 75-85% Stockton Morello nlu 70-80% Weihroot W 10 90-100% Weihroot W 13 Wei hroot W 14 100% 70% Weihroot W 53 60-70% Weihroot W 72 Weihroot W 158 110% Other Prunus specie s
variable (see below) variable very good very good very good variable variabl e good good very good good good good good good good good very good very good good very very very very very very ve ry very good good good good good good good good
P. canescens P.concinna P. fruticosa
60% 65-75%
variable
Page 14
Relative height % soil compatibility with sweet cherries light medium heavy Other Prunus sQecies (cant) P.incisa 25-30% P.mugus 30% P.serrufata poor Adara 80-90% very good H:t:brid stocks Camil (GM 79) 65-75% n/s very good 50- 70% 40-65 % n/s Colt very good n/s Damil (GM 61/1) 50-75% very good n/s Giessen 148f1 90% 70% n/s Giessen 148/8 75% n/s Giessen 148/9 Giessen 154/4 55% Giessen 154/5 25% 45-50% Giessen 154f7 Giessen 172/3 80% Giessen 172/ 7 40% Giessen 173/5 55% 100% n/s Giessen 195/1 Giessen 195/2 100% n/s Giessen 196/13 110% Giessen 196/4 110% n/s variab le Gisela 1 (Giessen 172/9) nls 15-25% Gisela 10 (Giessen 173/9) 70-90% 60-80% n/s Gisela 5 (Giessen 148/2) GM 15 80% 35-60% variable GM 8 Inmil (GM 9) 25-50% n/s very good 40-60% n/s variable M x M 14 MxM2 85% M x M 39 70% variab le M x M 46 70% 80% good M x M 60 variable 70-80% M x M 97 OCR-2 85% OCR-3 105% 65-75% quite good Oppenheim
compatibility with sour cherries
very good
variab le good
good
II
good
n/s - not well suited to these soils; n/u - not used (totally unsuited) in these soils. Budding height may have a dwarfing effect on scion vigour, particularly with mahaleb stocks: budding at 30-80 em high may reduce vigour to a relative height of 30-50%.
Compatibility
Compatibility of scion and rootstock is very good with like species, ie for sweet cherries on mazzard (P.avium) stocks and for sour cherries on sour cherry (P.cerasus) stocks. Incompatibility can occur, though, when sweet cherries are propagated on mahaleb, sour cherry, other Prunus species or hybrid stocks. These symptoms may occur rapidly (indicated by poor bud take) or be delayed for 6-10 years when they may be indicated by precocious flowering, small leaves and fruit , yellowed leaves , st unted growth , early leaf fall , scion or rootstock overgrowth, excessive suckering, excessive early fruiting, and subsequent death at failure of the araft union.
Page 15
-
With seedling mahaleb stocks , compatibility is usually good for cherry culti vars Bing , Centennial , Elton, Gold , Hedelfingen. Knight , Lambert , Long Stem Bing , Montmorency , Napoleon and Seneca ; fair for Black Tartarian , Giant and Republican ; and poor for Burbank . Chapman, Eagle Seedling , Early Bu rlat. Early Rivers , Merton Heart, Larian, Van and Williams Favourite. Because of this variability, an intersection of sou r cherry cultivar Montmorency is often used when grafting onto mahaleb stocks, which allows all sweet cherry varieties to be utilised. Scion overgrowth (characterised by bulbous burrs at the union) is quite common and is not always dangerous sign: the union may remain strong and healthy.
Flowering, fruiting, yields, hardiness

In general, sweet and sour cherries are more precocious (ie flower sooner) and produce larger crops on mahaleb stocks than on mazzard stocks. There is wide variability , though, with different seed ling sources and different clonal rootstocks. In the tab le below, the yields are describ ed in relative terms, comparing yield per unit volume of tree crown. Scion hardiness also varies with different rootstocks . Injury from co ld in winter seems to be related to delayed maturation of the new scion growth - hence 'Colt', for example , induces scions to stay in leaf rather longer and hence delays wood ripening . precociousness yields Mazzard stocks Mazzard seed ling Pontavium, Pontaris sdlg Cha rger (F 4/13) Mazzard F 12/1 Mahaleb stocks Mahaleb seedling Mahaleb SL 64 Mahaleb/ Montmorency Sour cherry stocks Sour cherry seedling frequent Ahrensberg 173/1 Ahrensberg 209/1,473/10 CAB clones Edabriz GM 101 Montmorency Stockton Morello (1) frequent Siockion Morello (2) Vladimir Weihrool W 10,13 Weihroot W 14 Weihroot W 53,72.158 Other Prunus stocks poo r poor good poor fair-good good good quite high high poor moderate scion cold-hardiness Less hardy suckers frequent
few few few few
high Most hardy quite high Hardy high - very high
high very high poor good high high very high high - very high high very high high moderate high few frequent severa l
good fair very very very very
good good good good
frequent frequent very hardy very hardy very hardy less hardy hardy
P.concinna P.fruticosa P.incisa P.mugus P.subhirtella Adara Hybrid stocks Camil (GM 79) Call
very good poor poor
frequent
poor less hardy poor very high high moderate very hardy less hardy few several
good very good
Page 16
AGROFORESTRY NEWS ValS Na 3
precociousness stocks (cont) fair Damil (GM 61/1) Giessen 148/ 1 very good Giessen 148/8 Giessen 148/9 Giessen 154/4 Giessen 154/5 Giessen 154/7 Giessen 172/3 good Giessen 172/7 good Giessen 173/5 good Giessen 195/1 very good Giessen 195/2 Giessen 196/13 Giessen 196/4 very good Gisela 1 (Giessen 172/9) good Gisela 10 (Giessen 173/9) Gisela 5 (Giessen 148/ 2) GM 15 good GM 8 poor Inmil (GM 9) M x M 14 good M x M 97 good M x M clones good OCR-2 good OCR-3 Oppenheim
H~brid
yields high very high very high high high very high very high high high low high moderate moderate high quite high very high very high moderate very high high high poor high very high high high
scion cold-hardiness hardy
suckers few none none few several few several several several several few few few few few several few few few several several
less hardy less hardy
Most hardy
severa l
(1) - old stock, virus infected; (2) - virus-free The rootstock does not affect the fruit size and ripening date of cherries to any large extent, although flowering and ripening may be a few days earlier on mahaJeb stocks than on mazzard stocks. Rootstocks which induce very large crops tend to induce smaller fruits and delayed maturity.
Rootstock descriptions
1. Mahaleb (Prunus mahaJeb) stocks
Seedling mahaleb: most of the seedlings used in North America originate from seeds obtained from five specific trees, known collectively as 'Mahaleb 900'. Tests for virus-freedom are made regularly. French mahaleb seedlings were in the past usually raised from seed co lle cted randomly ; but a new selection 'SL 405 ' (Sainte Lucie 405) is now being used: this is slightly more tolerant of waterlogging and induces improved fruit size. In Germany, 'A lpruma ' and ' HOtlners Heimann 10' are seedling stocks used in the East and West respectively. SL 64 (Sainte Lucie 64): originating from France in 1954 . Adapts to a wide range of ca lcareous , droughty, or ferti le soils with good drainage; ve ry susceptible to si lverlea f , but resistant to cherry replant disease. Ava ilable virus-free ; propagated from softwood and sem ihardwood cuttings. Scions on SL 64 are compact. precocious and productive. Other mahaleb: a clone 'Dwarf mahaleb ' was selected in California for its extremely compact and bush-like form ; clones from Turkey known as ~ Turkish 6 mahalebs are extremely vigorous and upright.
2. Mazzard (Prunus avium) stocks

Seedling mazzard: used extensively in North America, grown primarily from a certified seed production orchard known as 'New York ' or '570 ' mazzard, which exhibits superior coldhardiness; 'Sayler' is another , and 'OCR l' seedlings from Oregon are still used there . Tests for virus-freedom are made regularly. 'Pontavium' ('Fercahun') and 'Pontaris' ('Fercadeu ' ) were selected by INRA in France and form the basis of the French virus-free seed orchards; both give 60-70% germination after stratific3tion. Fruiting, yield and vigour of seedlings which are crosses of these are similar to F 12/1. 'Merisier Commun' is an older seedling selection now little used because of poor germination and irregular performance. In Germany, seedling selections originating from the Harz mountains are renowned for their hardiness, and are used in many areas. It is worth noting that it is possible to select genetically dwarf seedlings from fruits of the cultivar ' Merton Favourite' , which may be useful dwarfing stocks, though difficult to propagate.
1 ,
Charger (F4/13): A recently released stock from England, selected for its resistance to bacterial canker. Easy to propagate by layering or from cuttings. Virusfree available. Cristimar IAI: A dwarfing Romanian selection, possibly a hybrid of mazzard and P.cerasus. F 12/1: originated in England in 1933. Adapts to a wide range of loam to clay-loam soils, and available virusfree (EM LA). Propagated by trench layering, root cuttings, or softwood cuttings under mist. Often used for its resistance to bacterial canker; also moderately resistant to silverleaf. Also much used in Europe to transform morello cherries to more easily manageable tree forms.
3. Sour cherry (P.cerasus) stocks

Seedling sour cherry: not often used, as seedlings are highly variable. One Romanian seedling selection , VG.1 , is used, being less vigorous than mazzard and very productive; also used in Eastern Europe are seedlings of the sour cherry cultivars IIva , Meteor, Mocanesti and Trevnenska. Ahrensberg clones: a serious of promising clones from another German programme. The three most promising stocks induce high to very high yields, but do not dwarf much. CAB clones: Italian selections; CAB 11 E and CAB 6P form strong unions and are propagated by softwood cuttings or meristem culture. Now used in New Zealand. Edabriz (Tabel): A recent French release, r'a ised from sources collected in Iran. Unlike many sour cherry stocks, it shows good compatibility with sweet cherry scions. It is dwarfing, but the scale of dwarfing varies widely with soil and environmental conditions from 1560% .. Has good anchorage. Best propagated from semihardwood cuttings. GM clones: GM 101 and GM 103 are Belgian clones from the Gambloux programme .. Kentish: Also known as 'Kentish Red', 'Kentish Morello' and 'Early Richmond'; an amarelle type sour cherry. Propagated by layering. Little used today. Montmorency: A sour cherry cultivar, used both as a rootstock and interstock. Shows good anchorage but little dwarfing. Stockton Morello: Also known as 'American Morello', was much used for heavy soils in California. Propagated commercially by root suckers from orchard trees or softwood cuttings. Virus-infected and virus-free clones behave differently - see above. Only a minor stock today. Vladimir: of Russian origin, selected in the USA. it is a semi-dwarfing rootstock which produces poorly anchored sweet cherry trees. Its tolerance to cold wet soils is one of its few merits. Weihroot clones: W 10, W 11 and W 13 are selections made in West Germany. They are propagated clonally by softwood or semihardwood cuttings and show tolerance to Phytophthora rots. W 10 induces an open canopy. Incompatible with Sam and some other sweet cherries.
Page 23
4. Other Prunus species used for rootstocks

Prunus canescens seedling: tends to reduce fruit size; very sensitive to waterlogging and susceptible to pathogens , ego Phytophthora, associated with them. Prunu5 concinna seedling: under test in Germany. Prunus fruticosa seedling (steppe cherry): though this dwarfing stock is easily raised from seed, compatibility with sweet cherries is very variable and produces many suckers. Prunus incisa seedling: dwarfing stocks, usually with poor anchorage; also poor fruit size. Prunus mugus seedling: very dwarfing, but extremely difficult to propagate vegetatively. Prunus serrulata seedling: generally shows poor compatibility; under test in Belgium. Prunu5 5ubhirtelfa seedling : dwarfs scions, but fruit size often reduced . Under trial in Britain. Adara : a recently released stock , developed in Spain and originating from an open pollinated population of myrobolan (Prunus cerasifera); also used for peaches, nectarines and plums. Tolerant of alkal in e and heavy soils, waterlogging and poor drainage. Very good co mpatibility with sweet and sour cherries (not compatib le with Gil Peck , Larian , Montmorency, Napoleon, Nero 11, Spa lding, Taleguera Brillante)Easily propagated by hardwood cuttings.
5. Hybrid stocks
Camil (GM 79): Shows good compatibility (not compatib le with summit) and is readily propagated by softwood cuttings or meristem culture (available virus-free). Somewhat intolerant of alkaline soils. Recommended planting distance is 4.7-5.8 m (15-19 ft) on this stock. Very well anchored; doesn't need staking. Colt: Hybrid of P.avium and P.pseudocerasus. Resistant to che rry leaf roll virus and Phytophthora root rots. There is come evidence of incompatibility with cuUivars Van and Sam. Appears to tolerate some impeded so il drainage , but does not thrive on droughty soils. Resistant to 'rep lant' disease , where new cherry trees replace older ones in the same location. Very easy to propagate by hardwood cuttings from hard-pruned hedges (shoots form root initials). Scions develop with abundant wide-angles branches. Fruit size is good. Damil (GM 6111): Shows good compatibility and is readily propagated by softwood cuttings under mist or meristem culture (available virus-free) . Somewhat intolerant of alkaline soils. Recommended planting distance is 4.2-5 .2 m (14-17 ft) on this stock. May need staking for the first few years. Giessen clones: a number of hybrids of different species , selected in Germany, many with excellent commercial potential; some now named as Gisela clones. Gisela 1 is extremely dwarfing, requiring fertile soils and perhaps irrigation ; several , including Gisela 1 and Gisela 10 are resistant to waterlogging , and most clones are readily propagated by softwood cuttings (available virus-free) . Giessen 148/1 has performed particularly well in British and American trials. Gisela clones - see Giessen clone s. GM clones (Gambloux clones; Grand Manil): hybrids , bred in Belgium . Several show good dwarfing characteristics, including GM 8 (P.pandora x P.subhirtella) and GM 9 (P.incis a x P.serrula), GM 61/1 (P.dawyckensis) and GM 79 (P.canescans). The latter three have recently been named and released as Inmil , Damil and Camil - for more details see under these names . GM 8 is intolerant of alkaline soils, and is readily propagated by softwood cuttings; it is often poorly anchored . Inmil (GM 9) : Induces a sparse branching habit and erect growth; needs staking and regular pruning . Shows good compatibility (not compatible with Early Rivers) and is readily propagated by softwood cuttings or meristem cultu re (available virus-free) . Somewhat intolerant of alkaline soils. Recommended planting distance is 3.7 m (12 tt) on this stock. Did not perform well in SE England .
M x M clones (Maxma): hybrids of mazzard and mahaleb (P.avium x P.mahafeb) ; six clones have been se lected in Oregon. More tolerant of bad soil drainage than mahaleb, but most show good drought tolerance . Propagated by softwood cuttings. M x M 14 (Brokforest, Maxma Delbard 14) is popular in France, though it may reduce fruit size. M x M 97 (Brokgrove , Maxma Delbard 97) is sometimes high worked, when it shows more dwarfing influence. OCR clones: OCR 2 and 3 are hybrids from Oregon, giving good productivity. Oppenheim: A West German selection, which appears to be a P.fruticosa x P.cerasus hybrid. Shows gpod anchorage, productivity and compatibility, but not compatible with Sam and Van . Propagation is by softwood or root cuttings, or by micropropagation.
Interstocks
An interstem or interstock is sometimes used , where a short section of a third cherry selection is placed between the rootstock and scion. This may be done to overcome an incompatibility between stock and scion (if the int erstock is compatible with both), or to reduce vigour or improve yields or precocity . With cherries, the use of interstocks is not widespread , as results are often disappointing on using dwarfing interstocks. Mazzards, even genetic dwarfs, have little effect. The sour cherry Montmorency is sometimes used between mazzard or mahaleb rootstocks and sweet cherry scions, and may result in reduced tree vigour and size by 0-30%, but also in reduced fruit size. There is evidence that use of a use of a sour cherry interstem of low vigour, ego North Star (Ita ly, USA), Oblacinska (Yugoslavia) , Reine Hortense! Schattenmorelle! Vladimir! Karoser Weichsel (Germany), improves yields and reduces vigour Using the steppe cherry (Prunus fruticosa) as an interstock has been shown in Poland to reduce sweet cherry vigour and increase yields; indeed, this use of the species is probably more beneficial than using it as a rootstock.
Cherry rootstocks in the UK

The choice of easily-availab le cherry rootstocks is limited in the UK. The main two still used are the mazzard F 12/1, and Co lt. Although both of these show some resistance to bacterial canker, the most threatening disease to cherry growing here, neither is a dwarfing stock and trees will eventually get too large to net or protect from birds. More recently, some commercial fruit nurseries are starting to experiment with interstocks to achieve smaller trees, and have also started to use the dwarfing rootstock Edabriz, which has proved satisfactory in trials at East Mailing . Gisela 1 would also be worth trying; Inmil has been trialled and found highly unsatisfactory at Wisley and East Mailing. Many more of the rootstocks recently bred in various prog rammes are available in continental Europe and in North America; their importation is easy from Europe, but very difficult from North America .
References
Cummins , J: Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties. HortScience, Vol 26(8), August 1991. Moore , J & Ballington Jr, J: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops. ISHS , 1990. Moreno, M etc: Adara, .. HortScience 30 (6): 1316-1317. 1995. Perry, R L: Cherry Rootstocks. In Rootstocks for Fruit Crops , R Rom & R Carlson (Eds) , Wiley, 1987. R: Erste Zwischenergebnisse eines Unterlagenversuchs zu Susskirschen. Stehr, Erwerbsobstbau 38, 122-125 (1996). Webster, A & Looney , N: Cherries. CAB International, 1996.
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Page 20
Refrigeration and freezing of chestnuts

Fresh chestnuts dry out rapidly under room conditions , and should be kept refrigerated or frozen. Fresh nuts will keep for some time at a norma l refrigerator setting of 2-4C, but wi ll keep even better at ac. Use a paper bag for 1-2 days to absorb any condensation and then transfer to a freezer storage bag . If you punch holes in the bag_the nuts will dry out more rapidly - especially if you have a frost-free refrigerator . Without any holes in the plastic bags , the nuts should keep in good condi tion for 3-6 weeks and without any moulding . If you begin to see numerous dark spots or white mould on the broad end of the nuts , wash and scrub them; then air dry on paper until the shells feel fairly dry. Check one or two nuts , by peeling , to be sure there are no dark spots on the kernel and that the kernel is of uniform colour. Also, when opening a plastic bag , check for any shells that may appear wet or for any slightly sour smell. Chestnuts develop sweetness as they lose moisture , and if the nuts are very fresh , you may want to air dry them for 1-2 days before putting in the refrigerator. Be careful not to dry so much that the nuts are no longer plump and lose much or all of their original colour. Fresh chestnuts that are immediately refrigerated will also develop some sweetness as they age but not as rapidly as if also subjected to some previous loss of moisture. If nuts have lost quite a bit of moisture, the shells can be pushed in quite a bit with a thumb , and they may require some special attention for cooking purposes . These can often be reconstituted by soaking for 1-2 days and then cooking as desired. Fresh nuts and those that have been adequate ly re-co nstituted will sink in the water. It is not true that all nuts that float are bad inside : a fresh chestnut that has a bad kernel will float; a fresh chestnut with a good kernel will also float when it has lost a sufficient amount of water. If enough of the water is then replaced, the nut will again sink. Generally speaking , any fresh or nearly fresh chestnut that sinks in water is in good condition for cooking. It is the writer's opinion that the best and eas iest way to keep chestnuts for any length of time is to freeze them. If they are in good condition when frozen , they should easily keep for up to a year . The writer has actually kept fresh chestnuts in a cooler at approximately 0 degrees C for 5 months and then kept them frozen for an additional 12 months. The nuts do not require any treatment before freezing and may be frozen whole. Freezing has the advantage of allowing one to keep nuts for holidays or special occasions and to enjoy them throughout the entire year. The writer uses quart freezer bags and removes all or part of the nuts from a bag as desired. It is very simple and easy to cook frozen chestnuts . A technique used by the writer is as follows: Remove a few of the nu ts from a bag and pl ace in a heavy-duty microwave dish with a heavy or sturdy cover. Cook on high for 15 to 25 seconds, which is enough to soften the nut for puncturing or cutting for further cooking. Remove the nuts from the dish , cut in half, and return to the microwave dish with the cut side down . Add about 3 mm of water . Replace cover and cook on high for 2-3 minutes. As soon as cool enough, insert tip of small knife or very small spoon between inner skin and kernel and pry out the kernel. Th e kernels should now be ready for eating and for incorporation in other prepared dishes or added to dishes that require further cooking. (Note: chestnuts may also be cut in half whi le frozen and then cooked in the microwave, or allowed to defrost at room temperature , then cut in half and cooked for 3-5 mins before removing halve s). Over the years the writer has tried a number of different techniques for keeping chestnuts in a desirable condition for specific lengths of time . One technique was to refrigerate immediately. Another was to air dry a bit (to develop more sweetness) and then refrigerate . For long-term availability, the nuts were frozen immediately after harvest (whole or cut in half); air-dried a bit and then frozen; or frozen after various lengths of refrigeration. Norm C. Higgins, from MNGA News (Michigan Nut Growers Association), Spring 1996.
Page 21
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Gooseberries
Introduction
Gooseberries (Ribas uva-crispa, formerly R.grossularia) are native to Eastern and Central Europe and Western Asia, but probably not to the UK, the earliest record of gooseberry cultivation dating from the 1276 . They are long naturalised here , though. Until comparatively recentl y it was an important soft fruit - in 1929 over 19,000 acres were grown in the UK, but their popularity has steadily de clined, with only 2.500 acres in cultivation by 1975 (producing over 6 ,000 tonnes) , and even less now. It is also a popular fruit in Germany and several parts of the former USSR; the major commercial producing countries (mainly for processing) are Germany and Poland , followed by Belgium. England , France , Holland and Hungary. The American gooseberry, Ribes hirtellum, is also cu ltivated and many cultivars are hybrids of this and the European species. Many are also derived from the natural variety R.uva-crispa rec/inatum , native to Europe, N.Africa and the Caucasus. Gooseberry cultivation in America has been profoundly affected by white pine bli ste r rust. This disease requires both host plants - white pine and a susceptible Ribes species - to survive , and in the early 20th Century, restrictions were placed on growing Ribes as a protective measure. In fact gooseberries are generally relatively resistant to the disease and not very effective agents in its spread. Hence now, regulation vary widely from state to state , with some not restricting Ribes at all and others still banning all Ribes. Commercial production in the U.S. is mostly in Oregon.
Description
The gooseberry is a bush, 60-120 cm (2-4 ft) high (also can be grown as a taller cordon with support), with an upright or spreading/drooping habit. Stems are generally spiny. The leaves are usually 3-lobed (sometimes 5-lobed), midgreen in colour. Inconspicuous reddish-green flowers are .borne in late March or April in S.England, laterally on 1-year-old wood and on short spurs of older wood. Flowers are wind and/or insect pollinated. Floral initiation for the next year starts in late summer. These are followed by smooth or hairy fruits which can be white, yellow, green or reddish; ripening in June, July and August. Fruits of wild plants are sometimes only 1 cm across; however, this rises to 3 cm with many cultivars. Gooseberries are extremely hardy, to -30 C (zone 3).
Uses
The fruits are delicious raw when fully ripe , and is excellent cooked in pies , tarts etc. Can also be used unripe, cooked and sweetened or bottled. The fruits are still used commercially, for canning, freezing, and fresh fruit for culinary purposes ; the jam industry uses a small quantity and a small area is still devoted to the commercial production of dessert berries. The gooseberry is the first hardy major fruit to yield in the year, and in favoured localities it is possible to pick unripe green fruits by early May ; from then until July, unripe fruit are sent to market, with only a small
quantity of ripe fruits marketed afterwards. Despite the tradition in Brita in of using unripe fruit , it must be said that ripe gooseberries are sweet , delicious, and an infinitely preferable fruit to eat. The average composition of gooseberry fruits is (per 100g) : 0.8g protein , 0.2g fat , 9.7g carbohydrate , 290 IU Vitamin A, 33 mg Vitamin C, 18 mg Calcium , 15 mg Phosphorus, 0.5 mg Iron,1 mg Sodium, 155 mg Potassium . In the past, in addition to its value as a soft fruit , the gooseberry was used as a major source of pectin by the confectionery and jam industries (particularly for strawberry jam); other sources of pectin are now used commercially. A slightly acid but very pleasant light wine can be made with the juice from the fruits. The young tender leaves are supposedly edible raw in salads; however, they contain hydrogen cyanide and may be slightly toxic. The tannin-rich leaves are sometimes used medicinally in astringent decoctions to treat dysentery and to app ly as wound dressings. The fruits act as a laxative . The fruit pulp is used cosmetically in face-masks for its cleansing effect on greasy skin . The bushes are used in forestry windbreaks in Eastern Europe as a low shrubby layer.
Cultivation
Gooseberries are happy in the cool summer climate found in the UK, and will live for quite a long time, fruiting well after 20-30 years or more. They are usually grown as open-centred bushes on a short stem, but can also be grown as cordons, fans or even standards. These latter forms all make harvesting the fruit considerably easier. Upright varieties can be planted closer and are most suited to a small garden.
Siting and planting

Shelter is essential, because gooseberries flower very early in the spring , and because the young shoots are quite brittle and susceptible to wind damage. Fruiting is best in a sunny location, but gooseberries are quite shade-tolerant, and can be grown on North-facing walls or fences where there is no direct sunlight at all (note that in these situations , yields will be lower and fruits will be later ripening). A well drained, slightly acid , loamy soil is ideal , but a wide range of soil types is tolerated as long as they are not waterlogged. Very light sandy soils may need their moisture-holding capacity increased with manure or compost. Sites should be chosen which are not susceptible to late spring frosts; gooseberries are slightly more frost-hardy than blackcurrants , but flower earlier. Gooseberries have a high potash requirement, hence interplanting them with comfrey (or having a good supply nearby) , which is cut regularly and used a mulch around them , may be a good idea. Placing bushes in a hot dry position increases the likelihood of mildew. Planting is best done in the autumn. Plant bushes at 1.5-1,8 m (5 -6 ft) apart on fertile soils , or 1.2- 1.5 (4-5 ft) on light soils. Single cordons should be 30 cm 91 ft) apart, with 1.5 m (5 ft) between the rows; double cordons are planted 60 cm (2 ft) apart, allowing one stem per 30 cm (1 tt) run. Give bushes a little more space if interplanting them beneath fruit trees or in a forest garden. After planting, mulch with organic materials if available. Commercial plantations are planted at a wider row spacing to allow tractor access , usually 2.4-2.7 m (8-9 tt) , and 0.9-1.2 m (3-4 ft) apart in rows. Gooseberries are traditionally grown a short stem or leg of 10-15 cm (4_s n), to allow for hand weeding around the spiny bushes. They can also be grown , though , as a stooled bush like a blackcurrant, which may live longer but will be more difficult to pick and weed. Standards are forms grafted onto a long stem (1- 1.2 m, 3-4 tt) of the related R.aureum or R.divaricalum (Worcesterberry). They need very good staking , but then are treated like bushes on a longer stem. Weeds should be kept under control by mulching - gooseberries are shallow rooting and digging or hoeing may damage the roots. Perennial weeds , in particular, will be difficult to eradicate after the bushes are planted.
Pagen
Other possible plants to interplant with gooseberries include poached egg plant (Limnanthes doug/asii), a very good attractor of hoverflies (aphid predators).
Pruning bushes
The aim is to achieve an open-centred , goblet or cup-shaped bush with 6-8 main branches. When cutting back new leading shoots of gooseberries , cut to an appropriate bud according to whether the cultivar is of spreading or upright habit: if spreading , cut to an upward-facing bud ; if upright, cut to an outward-facing bud. On plaQting (in autumn or winter), cut back the leaders by a half, remove any shoots from the main stem below 10 cm (4 "), and cut back any shoots growing inwards and crossing the centre of the bush to 1 bud. Formative pruning in winter should continue for a few years , cutting the new leading shoots back by a half, cutting back laterals to about 8 cm (3") to a bud , and removing weak and inward-growing shoots. Established bushes should be pruned in winter to keep the centre open to allow for good air penetration (especially if the bush is mildew susceptib le) . Weak and inward growing shoots are removed; leading shoots are cut back by a half to three-quarters ; old unproductive branches can be removed , allowing suitably placed vigorous young shoots to replace them ; and laterals not required as replacement branches are cut back to 8 cm (3"). Summer pruning isn't essential, but can be undertaken if mildew or aphids are a particular problem: i n la te June, all latera ls of the current season's growth are shortened to 5 leaves, removing mildew or aphids on the tips of shoots. This may also reduce the risk of young laterals breaking.
Pruning cordons
A horizontal cane is placed for each cordon , fixed to horizontal wires at 60 and 120 cm (2 & 4 ft) above the ground. At planting, the leader is cut back by a half to an outward -fa cing bud , and the laterals to 3 buds. Any side shoots below 10 cm (4 ") on the main stem are cut off cleanly. The cordon is then tied to the cane. Formative winter pruning continues for a few years, until the cordon has reached the required height, usually 1.5-1.8 m (5-6 tt) . The leader is cut back by a quarter to stimulate side shoot production; laterals , previously summer pruned, are cut back to 8 cm (3 ~ ) ; and suckers and low shoots are removed. When the cordon has reached the required height, cut it back to 3 buds. Summer pruning shou ld also be undertaken as below. Estab lished cordons may need laterals cutting back into older wood; otherwise, in winter, remove suckers and low shots, and cut the leader back to 3 buds . Summer pruning continues. Summer pruning , from late June to mid July, consists of pruning all of the current season 's laterals to 5 leaves . The leader is tied to the cane as it grows throughout the summer.
Feeding and watering

Potash is the most critica l mineral needed by gooseberries, which are very susceptible to a deficiency (which appears as a marginal scorching on the lea ves). Conventional recommendations are to apply about 50g of potassium (=60g of potash) per year to an established bush. This quantity would be obtained, for example , from 5-10 Kg of manure or compost, or 2 Kg of seaweed meal. It would also be obtained from 3Ya litres of urine. If comfrey is grown as a potash -accumulating plant, and cut 4-5 times per year to use as a mulch, one plant will provide enough potash for 1 or 2 gooseberry bushes. Nitrogen is also required for continued growth of new shoots, conventional recommendations being to supply 15-20 g per year per established bush. This would be supplied by, for example,S Kg of compost or manure , or 2 litres of urine , or 1 Kg of seaweed meal. The cut leaves from one comfrey plant (as above) would also supply this much nitrogen , as would 2 m 2 of nitrogen-fixing tree (near or above the gooseberry) via leaf fall and root turnover. An excess of nitrogen causes excessive soft growth susceptible to wind damage, and increases susceptibility to mildew.
If plants are mulched , they are not likely to require watering. However, if not, then in dry weathe r irrigation may be necessary for good fruit size and strong growth. Plants grown in forest gardens are not likely to need watering.
Flowering
Gooseberries are se lf-fertile, and are mainly pollinated by insects including bees , usually wild bumble bees because they flower so early ; some wind pollination can also occur. Flowering of an individual bush lasts on average for 17-18 days, with full flowering halfway through this period. The date of full flo wer varies with the cult ivar, over a range of about 3 weeks from early to late April in the UK. The vast majority of cu lti vars in fact fall into the mid-flowering seas on, with the ir peak flowering in the third week of April.

Fruit thinning is sometimes recommended to improve fruit size , but it is doubtful whether it is really worth the effort to my mind. The thinned fruit in late Mayor early June are those rockhard aci d bullet-like objects which bear no resemblance to wonderfully ripe fruit. Any variety of gooseberry can be picked hard and under-ripe for culinary or processing use , or it can be left to ripen. When in the ripe or partially-ripe stage , the fruits of all varieties are very prone to skin splitting , especia ll y following sudden spells of wet or warm weather. If bushes are very heavily lad en , then picking some unripe fruit will help improve fru it size of the remainder. The true colour of the fruit does not develop until it has ripened - for dessert fruit, wait until the co lour changes and the taste is sweet. Changes from green to red are easiest to see , those to lighter green or yellow are more difficult; when ripe , fruits will easily part from the bush and be significantly softer. Bushes yield a little fruit within a year or two of planting, but maximum yields are not usually obtained until about the 5th or 6th year. Well grown mature bushes should yield at least 3Y24 Y2 Kg (8-10 Ib) fruit each year , and a single cordon about Y2-1 Kg (12 lb) per year . Commercial plantations can regularly yield 5-6 tannes/acre (12 - 15 tonnes/ Ha). Ripe fruit will not keep for very long, soon going sour. Unripe fruits store well for a week or two.
Pests and diseases

Birds , especially bullfinches , may attack the buds throughout the winter. If attacks are bad , netting will be the only sure method of protection . 'Leveller' is particularly susceptible. Birds may also attack and eat the ripe fruit (esp. th e red varieties); netting may again be needed. Gooseberry sawfly or currantworm (Nematus ribesii , formerly Pteronidea ribesiJ) caterpillars feed on the le aves , reducing them to a skeletal state within a few days , and can have three generations over the summer. The caterpillars are pale green with dark heads and black spots on their bodies , which are up to 4 cm (1.6 -) long . Adults appear in April and May depositing eggs on the underside of lea ves, especia ll y low down in the centre of bushes . Each adult lays 20-30 white eggs per leaf in rows close to the midrib. Look out for the first signs of them from May onwards; with ju st a few bushes, hand-pick and destroy eggs and caterpillars , which otherwise eventually pupate in the soil. The second generation lays its eggs in June , and the third in September. With larger infestations, Derris or Pyrethrum can be applied by spraying in the evening (watch out for their cunning habit of dropping off the bush - put something down under the bush to collect them) . In past times, the poisonous powdered roots of Veratrum species (false hellebores) were used to kill sawfly caterpillars. Interplanting bushes with broad beans is reported to help deter attacks of sawfly. The caterpillars are attacked by various predators, ego birds, beetles, spiders and socia l wasps. Mildew (American gooseberry mildew) (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae) is often a problem. This American disease appeared in Europe around 1900. It is a fungal disease affecting leaves, shoots and fruits, producing a white powdery coating . First signs are white powdery patches on the young leaves soon after they unfold in spring , & under favou rable conditions (soft sappy gro'Nth from high Nitrogen levels + high humidity) the disease soon spreads to fruits & shoots. Diseased shoots distort at the tips , & can be
,.."t .... ".
Page 25
If fruits are affected, the who le crop may be ruined. Excess nitrogen increases susceptibility , as does a hot dry lo cation . One control is the use of the safer organic fungicides (though these usually contain sulphur, which can adversely affect some varieties); and a dilute washing soda/soft soap mix is reputed to help. Cordon-grown fruit are less susceptible because of better aeration. Better still, grow cultivars which are resistant , of which there are an increasing number from several breeding programmes around the world. Note, though, that there are 14 known races of the disease, with others constantly developing, and that cultivar resistance may reduce over time with sqme varieties. Other minor problems may include magpie moth caterpillars (si milar symptoms to sawfly; pick off or spray with the biological control BT); capsid buds, leaf spot (Pseudopeziza ribis), European gooseberry mildew (Microsphaera grossulariae) and die back caused by grey mould (Botryfis cinerea). Aphids can spread vi ruses , especially the Vein-banding virus causing a pale yellow banding along the main leaf veins; this is thought to reduce vigour and fruit size.
Propagation
Propagation is usually by cuttings. Gooseberries do not take as easily from cuttings as currants; they are taken earlier, in mid to late September, and dipped in hormone rooting powder. The cuttings should be 30 em (12") long after preparation, with all their buds left intact, taken from strong healthy shoots of the summer's growth. The unripe shoot tip is cut off just above a bud , and the base trimmed just below a bud; leaves above-ground leaves intact. In outdoor beds, placing them through holes in a black plastic mulch considerably increases the take. Place the cuttings vertical, and with 15 cm (6") out of the ground to allow for a good stem or leg at the base. The rooted cuttings can be transplanted after a year or preferably two. Cuttings can also be taken of half-ripe wood, in July and August. They should be 10-15 cm (46") long, preferably with a heel, and will need warm sheltered conditions to strike. Gooseberries can be stem layered , though this isn't good for producing plants on a single stem. Mound layering (stooping) is used for commercial propagation (notably in Germany and N.America), as it gives more reliab[e results than cuttings. Seed propagation was the common method used by the Northern gooseberry club members, and is still a useful breeding method. Seeds require 3-4 months of cold stratification before sowing.
Agroforestry use
Gooseberries are very shade tolerant and are very suitable for growing as part of the understorey in a forest garden; growing stooled bushes may also be more appropriate in such a garden, where the bushes can be allowed to 'wander'. Intercropping by growing under fruit trees is a traditional technique (one of the few agroforestry techniques used for a long time in the UK), using apple or plum trees above the gooseberries; as the trees mature, the gooseberry yield naturally falis, but the bushes will continue to yield even in the shade of established plums or apples provided the soil is reasonably good and that weed competition is not severe. 'Whinham's Industry' has often been used under trees; one of the few cultivars known to dislike such a position is 'Careless'.
Cultivars
Other species apart from Ribes uva-crispa have been used to breed gooseberry cultivars, including the native American gooseberry R.hirtellum, and worcesterberry, R.divaricatum, wh ich are sources of mildew resistance; and the species R.leptanthum, R.missouriense, R.oxycanthoides, R.sanguineum and R.watsonianum. The European species is genera[ly considered superior in both fruit size and flavour; American hybrids can tolerate more of a continental climate (cold winters, hot summers) than the European. The yellow-fruited varieties are valued the most highly for eating as dessert fruits.
Page 26
In the last century there were hundreds of varieties of gooseberries listed, and a great interest in them particularly in the Mid lands and North of the UK where gardeners competed in gooseberry clubs to produce new varieties which bo re prize-win ning large individual fruits. As a consequence, over 110 cultivars are still commercially available in the UK - a huge selection for a bush fruit species; and the National Fruit Collection at Brogda le hold s over 150 cultivars. Virus infection is relatively unimportant in gooseberries, hence there is little advantage in purchasing 'ce rtified' plants, and home-propagated plants from cuttings are a good source of new planting material. The main cultivars available in the UK are described below; an extensive table follows . Black Velvet: A worcesterberry-gooseberry cross, very vigorous, upright, very resistant to mildew. Fruits are small-medium size, dark reddish-black, oval, and of very good flavour. Heavy cropping. Captivator: Late season, late flowering. Moderately vigorous, spreading habit; almost thornless; cropping moderate. Fruits medium to large, pear-shaped, sweet, dark red. Resistant to mildew and leaf spot. Tolerant of hot summers. Careless: Early-mid season, mid flowering. Moderately vigorous, upright then spreading, crops well. Fruit smoo th , large, oval, green (lightening on ripening), flavour fair to good. This is the variety usually used for pick-your-own enterprises. Sulphu r-shy. Not good under trees. Susc. to mildew. Early Sulphur: Early season; ea rly flowering. Vigorous, upright then spreading bush, cropping well. Fruits medium sized, golden yellow, roundish-oblong, hairy; flavour quite good; ripen over a long period. Sulphur-shy. Golden Drop: Early to mid season, mid flowering. Compact, upright bush. Fruits greenishyellow, small to medium, round, very good flavour; thin skinned. Susceptible to mildew. Greenfinch: Mid season. Vigorous, upright, crops well; a recent release, resistant to mildew and leaf spot. Fruits green, fair flavour. Howard's Lancer: Late season, late flowering. Vigorous, upright then spreading; heavy cropping. Fruits medium sized, smooth, roundish-oval, pale greenish-yellow, thin skinned, transparent, very good flavour . Susceptibl e to mildew. Invicta: Mid season. Vigorous, spreading, thorny; crops heavily, fruit green, medium sized, good flavour. One of the recent mildew-resistant releases. Jubilee: A virus-tested selection of 'Ca reless ', cropping more heavily. Keepsake: Mid season , mid flowering, often picked early for cooking. Vigorous, spreading bush, very heavy cropping. Susceptible to frost damage and mildew. Fruit medium to large, oval, green (lightening when ripeni ng), slightly hairy, very good flavour. Lancashire Lad: Mid to late season, mid flowering. Moderately vigorous, upright then spreading, good cropper, some mildew resistance, needs good soil. Fruit large, oval, deep red, hairy, fair flavour. Langley Gage: Mid season, early flowering. Vigorous, upright; cropping good. fruits large, roundish-oval, few hairs, silvery white, transparent , excellent flavour. Shows some resistance to mildew. Sulphur-shy. Leveller: Mid season, mid flowering. Moderately vigorous and spreading, wea k on poor soils; needs good drainage. Cropping very good . Fruits very large, yellowish-green, oval, smooth, good flavour. Sulphur-shy. Very susceptible to mildew. Lord Derby: Late season, late flowering. Small, pendulous habit, cropping moderate. Fruits very large, dark red almost black, round, smooth, fair to good flavour. May Duke: Early season, early flowering. Mod. vig., upright, good cropper. Fruits medium to large, deep red, smooth, sli ghtly downy, roundish-oblong, fair to good flavour; picked green for cooking. Pax: Early season . Bearing few thorns, this is a very recent mi ldew-resistant release . Fruits are round, dark red, of excellent flavour. Whinham's Industry: Mid season, mid flowering. Very vigorous, upright, heavy cropper; tolerant of poor soils but very mildew-susceptible. Fruits med iu m to large, ova l, dark red, hairy. very good flavour.
Page 27
I!iiliiiii
--
Cultivar descriptor lists and synonyms

Cultivars susceptible to winter bullfinch damage: Crown Bob Cultivars susceptible to leaf spot: Clark , Crown Bob, Fredonia Cultivars resistant to leaf spot: Captivator, Greenfinch , Lepaa Red , Oregon Champion , Remark:'l, Spinefree, Whitesmith.
Sulphul~shy cultivars (leaves may be damaged by sulphur fungicide sprays): Bedford

Yellow, Careless , Early Sulphur, Langley Gage , Leveller. Extremely hardy cultivars: Downing , Houghton, Poorman , Sylvia; Scandinavian cultivars like Annelii, Hamamekii, Hankkijan Herkku, Hankkijas Delikatess, Hinnonmaki GoldlRed , Lepaa Red, Matkakoski, Pe ll ervo, Sunderbyn 11; and Russian cultivars eg Malahit, Manzherok, Oroktoi, Pjatiletka , Plodorodnyj, Rekord, Russkij, Smena. Keepsake is noted as being frostsusceptible. Cultivars tolerant of hot summers: Captivator, Glendale, Josselyn , Oregon Champion , Pixwell, Poorman , Welcome . Cultivars whose fruits hang well/ ripen over a long period: Early Sulphur, Honings Fruheste, Jumbo, Pitmaston Green Gage. Synonyms of common cultivars: Aston Red = Warrington Berry's Early Kent = Keepsake Golden Ball = Early Sulphur Hino Red = Hinnomakii Red Hino Yellow = Hinomakii Gold Hoening's Earliest = Honings Fruheste Lancer = Howard 's Lancer
Red Warrington = Warrington Silvia = Sylvia Sir George Browse = Cousen's Seedling Yellow Lion = Early Sulphur Yellow Rough = Early Sulphur
Key to cultivar table

Flowering: divided into three , E (early), M (mid) , L (late). These correspond to the following average dates of full flowering in the southern half of the UK: E = 2nd Week of April, M = 3rd week of April, L = 4th Week of April. Ripening : divided into five , corresponding in the southern half of the UK to the following approximate dates: E (early) mid June-early July ML (mid-late) late July EM (early-mid) late June-mid July L (late) late July to mid August M (mid) = mid July - late July
Vigour: vigorous , moderate. weak etc. Most cultivars are vigorous. Habit: spreading , upright. compact etc. Thorns: comment on the number of thorns - none , few, many. Mildew: indicates resistance or susceptibility to American gooseberry mildew, the most important gooseberry disease. VS = very susceptible , S = susceptible, SS = slightly susceptible , SR = slightly resistant, R = resistant , VR = very re sistant. Suppl: indicates current commercial suppliers of plants in the UK. The well-known dozen or so common varieties are available from most of the good fruit nurseries. The following specialise in large numbers of unusual varietie s; the number refers to that used in the cultivar tables.
Page 28
;;
1. R V Roger Ltd, The Nurseries , Whitby Road , Pickering . North Yorks , Y018 7HG . Tel : 0175 172226. Supply some 40 varieties. 2. J Tweedie Fruit Trees , Maryfield Road Nursery, Maryfield, Near Terregles , Dumfries , OG2 9TH. Supply over 80 varieties. 3. Oeacons Nursery, Godshill, Isle of Wight. P038 3HW. Tel: 01983-840750. Not a huge range, but includes some hard-la-find Scandinavian varieties. 4. RHN Ltd, Rougham Hall Nurseries, Ipswich Road , Rougham, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, IP30 9LZ. Tel: 01359-270577. RHN Hold the National Collection of gooseberries. In North America , one nursery specialises in gooseberries and is listed below; for other so urces consult Whealy & Demuth. A I Eppler Ltd, POBox 16513 , Seattle, WA 98116-0513 , USA. Tel: 206-932-2211. Cropping: indicates average size of annual fruit crop (heavy, moderate, poor etc). Reg regu lar cropper. Flavour: exce llent, good, fair , poor etc. of fruit. Size : large, medium , small etc. of fruit. Colour: indicates fruit colour when ripe , which usually differs from the unripe colour (which is usually green). Shape/other: indicates fruit shape. Also comments on other attributes , such as ski n thin or thick . Hairs: indicates extent of hairs on the fruit. Yes = fruits are hairy; some = moderately hairy; few few hairs; no no hairs (smooth).
References
Baker, H : The Fruit Garden Displayed. Cassell , 1991 . Bush Fruits. MAFF Bulletin 4, HMSQ, 1977. Catalogue of Cultivars in the United Kingdom National Fruit Collection. Brogdale Horticultural Trust , 1994. Chiej, R: The Macdonald En cylopedia of Medicinal Plants. Macdonald , 1984 . Cui pan, G: Pests, Diseases and Common Problems . Hamlyn, 1995. Elphinstone, M & Langley, J: The Holistic Gardener. Thorsons, 1987. Faccio la, S: Cornucopia. 1990. Flowerdew, B: Bob Flowerdew's Complete Book of Companion Gardening. Kyle Cathie, 1993. Flowering Periods of Tree and Bush fruits. MAFF Technical Bulletin 26, HMSQ, 1973. Hills, L: The Good Fruit Guide. HDRA, 1984 . Janick, J & Moore, J N: Fruit Breeding. Wiley, 1996. Krussmann, G: Manual of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford , 1984. Reich, L: Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley, 1991. Simmons, A: Simmons Manual of Fruit. Da vid & Charles, 1978. Westwood , M N: Temperate-Zone Pomology. Timber Press, 1993 . Whea ly. K & Demuth, S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publications, 1993.
Classified advert
Cool Temperate nursery has stocks of containerised fruit trees (inc. Morus kagayamae), soft fruits , cobnuts, nitrogen-fixers (inc. nodulated Caragana) and herbs for summer planting. Collection only from our Peak District nursery. Send SAE for list to: Dept AN , Cool Temperate, Newhouse Farm, Kniveton , Ashbourne, Derbyshire, DE61JL. Phone/Fax 01335347067. We're also taking advance orders for bare-root plants for winter delivery.
Page 29
Cultivar Abundance Achilles Admiral Beatty Ajax Anne lii Antagonist Australia Beauty Bedford Red Bedford Yellow Beech Tree Nestling Be ll ona Black Seedling Black Velvet Blucher Bobby British Oak Broom Girl Brown's Red Canada 0 -273 Captivator Careless Carrie Catherina Champagne Red Champagne Yellow Champion Chatatuqua Clark Clayton Coiners Colossal Como Conquering Hero Cook's Eagle Cousen's Seedling Criterion Crown Bob Dan's Mistake Downing Dr Wooley Drill Early Green Hairy Early Sulphur Edith Cavell Emerald Fascination Firbob
Flowering E M L E
Ripening
EM M ML L
I II
;1
Vigour
Habit spreading
III
I iii
Thorns few
Mildew Suppl
IR
I 2:4
1,2 4 3 4 1,4 4 1,2 2,4 2,4 1,4 4 1,4 4 4 1,2,4 4
IR
~11l
I
II
II II
I Ii II
I I II
I
I
weak
upright sulphur shy 1 spreading
II Ii
w.vigorous moderate 'IV.vigorous
I
I I
upright upright spreading
VR
I
I iii
I I
iii
II
iii
moderate moderate moderate
spreading spreading
few few few
R R 2 ,3,4 5 1,2,3 55
3,4 2 4
Ii
Ii I I
Ii I Ii I
compact moderate
I
vigorous
upright dense spreading
5R 5R R R
1,4 4 4
II
II
I Ii Ii I I Ii I
vigorous vigorous vigorous vigorous vigorous
spreading spreading upright spreading spreading
I Ii I iii II
4 . 2,4 2 1many I . 1,2,4 . 5R 1,2,4 1,2,4
Ii
I
!II II I
II
vigorous vigorous
spreading
I 2:4
4 1,2,3 2,4 4 4 1,2,4
prt-sp;eadingl
lilll
II
11
Page 30

cultivar Cropping Flavour heavy
Size
Colour purple-red deep red green
Shape/other Hairs tough skins elliptic
Abundance
Ach ill es Admiral Beatty Ajax Anne lii Antagonist Australia Beauty Bedford Red Bedford Yellow Beech Tree Nestling Bellona Black Seedling Black Velvet Blucher
I
heavy
good
I small
very large very large large
few
I good, reg
average poor
heavy very good good
dark ~;~mson
creamy white gold-yellow light crimson
I
no
some
good
good ckd
Bobby
British Oak Broom Girl Canada 0-273 Captivator Care less Carrie Catherina Cham pagne Red Champagne Yellow Champion Chatatuqua Clark Cla yton Coiners Colossal Como Conquering Hero Cook's Eagle Cousen 's Seedling Criterion Crown Bob Dan's Mistake Downing Dr Wooley Drill Early Green Hairy Early Sulph ur Edith Cavell Emerald Fascination Firbob
green dark red very good dark red-black oval dark crimson I good ~uite good dark crimson oval good gOld-yellow large heavy very good very large yellow-green oval lighl good small-med coppery red pear shape moderate good med-Iarge dark red pear shape good fair milky green large oval good small deep maroon good very good large yellow-orange oval
poor heavy
large very large large medium medium small med-Iarge large small-med very large very large
red
gold-yellow
round-oval
yes
red
no
some
no no
red good reg

heavy heavy good ckd (:Juite good very good heavy good fair-good excellent very good good good good fair fair
good
good good
very large large very large medium medium very large large medium very large large large medium very large small
yellow deep yellow silvery green
red
dark crimson no green-yellow pale green oval green pale green long ova l few reenish-whit pale yellow oval some yellow-green oval no bright crimsonoblong ,thin skin yes pale red round-oval yes green
red
reg
good very good Quite good medium golden yellow round-oblong ery large golden-yellow good sma ll olive green large ellowish-Whltj good large deep yellow
:~,: f::"~;:::l
"". ""
no yes yes
no
Cultivar Flixtonia Forester Forever Amber Fredonia Freedom Gabrori Green Gautrey's Earliest Gelbe Triumphb eere Gem Gipsy Queen Glendale Glenton Green Globe Yellow Gold Ball Golda Golden Drop Goudbal Greenfinch Green Gem Green Hansa Green Ocean Green Overall Green Walnut Gretna Green GrOne Flaschenbeere GrOne Kugel Guido Gunner Guy's Seedling Hamamekii Heart of Oak Hebburn Prolific Hedgehog Hero of the Nile Highlander High Sheriff Hinnonmaki Gold Hinnonmaki Red Honings Fruheste Houghton Howard's Lancer Hue and Cry Ingall's Prolific Red Invicta Ironmonger Jolly Angler Josselyn Jubilee
Flowering E E M l
Ripening
EM M ML L
Vigour
Habit
Thorns Mildew S uppl 2,4 4
fl
I I
II
II I l'i
I II Ii II
vigorous
open
many
R 1,2,4 4
moderate vigorous
4 2,4 upright R 2,4 4 3 2,4 2 1,2,4 1,2,4 4 4 2,4 4 4 1,2,4 1,2,4 4 R 1,2,4 2 2,4 1,2,4 4 2,4 3 3 4 1,2,3 4 4 3 2 4
Iii Ii
Ii
I
compact upright upright upright easy propagd spreading
R S R S R
i1
I I I
I Ii Ii Ii I II II
i1
I II I I
Ii II I
vigorous vigorous vigorous vigorous vigo rous compact
vigorous
spreading
II I
Ii Ii
iii
Ii Ii Ii Ii I
II

I I
I I
upright spreading moderate I sp reading weak compact ,sprd vigo rou s vigorous vigorous upr, then spr spreading vigorous
SR R R S
vigorous
spreading
Many VR
II
!Ii
Ii
vigorous moderate
spread ing sp reading
Page 32
E
cultivar Flixtonia Forester Forever Amber Fredonia Freedom Gabron Green Gautrey's Earliest Gerbe Triumphbeere Gem Gipsy Queen Glendale Glenton Green Globe Yellow Gold Ball
Cropping Flavour
Size
"'"
Colour
Shape/other Hairs
poor
good medium large good good very large good ckd large
red crimson
yellow
dark red
greenish-whit~
round-oval
no
green
Go lda
Golden Drop Goudbal Greenfinch Green Gem Green Hansa Green Ocean Green Overall Green Walnut Gretna Green Grune Flaschenbeere Grune Kugel Guido Gunner Guy's Seedling Hamamekii Heart of Oak Hebburn Prolific Hedgehog Hero of the Nile Highlander High Sheriff Hinnonmaki Gold Hinnonmaki Red Honings Fruheste Houghton Howard's Lancer Hue and Cry Ingall's Prolific Red lnvicta lronmonger Jolly Angler Josselyn Jubilee
dark crimson yellow sweet small pale yellow good good medium pale yellow-grn round -oblong few good round f" rk red-purple very good medium pale green yes good large green-yellow heavy yellow good medium excellent large ye llow v.good small-med green-yellow r Und. th.n skin excellent large yellow good fair green . good good medium yelloWIsh-green round very good large green good very good medium greenish-whit round no medium dark green round -oval good good few fair-good good large dark green oval, thin skin no dark green good ckd large very large light green large white-green very large dark crimson yes very good very good v.la rge olive green round-oval yes good small dark golden red heavy large sea green green heavy whitis h-green very good small good ckd large yellow-wh ite ve ry good medium crimson good good medium golden yellow oblong yes very goodmedium-Ig yellow-green round-oval few good very good medium dark red good very good medium golden yeliOWr und.hangS wellyes small dark red round . very good good heavy very good medium yellow-green round-oval no good ckd large green-yellow very large dark crimson heavy good medium green red reg medium yellow-green good very good medium pale red round-oval heavy fair-good large green-yellow
heavy
I medium
Cultivar Jumbo Keen's Seedling Keepsake King of Trumps Lady Haughton Lancashire Lad Langley Gage Langley Green Lauffener Gelbe Laxton's Amber Leader Lepaa Red Leveller Lily of the Valley London Lord Audley Lord Derby Macheraugh's Seedling Major Hibbert Manzherok Marigold Marmorierte Goldkugel May Duke Mertensis Mitre Mountain Nailer Napoleon Ie Grand Oregon Champion Oroktoi Orus 8
Flowering E M" L E 1 1
EM M
Ripening ML L Vigour
II II liI I
1'1
II
Habit upright spreading
Thorns Mildew suppl
Ii li!
I., ,
!ii
vigorous Imoderate
I I 2:4
I I I
III
Ii I III I I Ii
I I
Ii I
moderate upr, then sprd vigorous upright
Il moderate
v.vlgorous
Ii
I
iii I
IlmOd~rate
weak
moderate
compact spreading spreading spreading spreading
II [II
I I
III I Ii II
VS 1 1,2,4 . 11 ,2,4 . 4 SR 1,2,4 SR ' 1,2,4 4 4 2,4 4 VR V S 1,2,3 4 1,2,4 4 1,2,4 1 4 R 4 1,3,4 4 2,4 R 4
II III .1
1
Imoderate
moderate
spreading upright spreading, ope upright low, compact dense
II
vigorous
I : I I
I III
II Ii
I: moderate
1
weak
SR R
Pax
Perry Peru Pilot Pitmaston Green Gage Pixwell Plunder Poorman Primrose Queen of Hearts Queen of Trumps Quercitorum Rearguard Red Champagne Red Orleans Remarka Resistenta
few few
2 2 1,2,4 4 1,4
Ii!
I
I
11111
vigorous
!ii
I
I
III vigorous II weak II . I

vigorous
spreading spreading upright spreading spreading
few few
R R
r vig~rOuS
I I
Ii II I
1,4 1,2 ,4 4 upright R R R
I I I
Ii
I
I !II
Page 34
,
cultivar Cropping Flavour Size Colour Shape/other Hairs Jumbo Keen's Seedling Keepsake King of Trumps Lady Haughton Lancashire Lad Langley Gage Langley Green Lauffener Gelbe Laxton's Amber Leader Lepaa Red Leveller Lily of the Valley London Lord Audley Lord Derby Macheraugh's Seedling Manzherok Marigold Marmorierte Goldkugel May Duke Mertensis Mitre Mountain Nailer Napoleon Ie Grand Oregon Champion Oroktoi Orus 8 Pax Perry Peru Pilot Pitmaston Green Gage Pixwell Plunder Poorman Primrose Queen of Hearts Queen of Trumps Quercito rum Rearguard Red Champagne Red Orleans Remarka Resistenta v.heavy heavy good good heavy
~uite
good good very good good very good moderate
very good large I green-yellow sweet medium cnmson oval very good Imed-Iarge whitish-green oval . large greeniSh-whitj good large pale yellow fair large dark red oval excellent med-Iarge pale yell ow round-oval medium pale green large bright yellow small dark golden good very good med-Iarge olive green I round-oval medium dark red good large yellow-green oval good large yellow-white good very large dark red oval large dark crimson fair-good very large dark red round
I yes
some no
few
some few no no no
I I
yell ow
very good large greenish-whit good large green-yellow good fair-good med-Iarge dark red round -oblong some medium sea green heavu large ~ale green-white ~uite good excellent oval few medium brownish-purple poor good oblong few good ckd medium yellow-white fair good med-Iarge scarlet round yes ed-large green-yellow round-oval good good
heavy
very good excellent poor
excellent good good excellent very good good good good excellent reg good ckd very good good good
dark red round purple-red tough skins yellow large bright yellow ova l pointed small yellow-green oval ,hangs wei deep red tough skins I v ery small large green-white med-Iarge wine red round-oval white medium white large greenish-whit small very large greenish-whit small dark red red large red medium green
yes no
no
round
some
Page 35
e
Cultivar
Reverta Riese von Kothen Rifleman Risulfa Roaring Lion Robustenta Rokula Rosebery Rushwick Seedling Scotch Red Rough
Scottish Chieftain Shiner Silvia
d
Flowering E M L E
Ripening
EM M ML L
Vigour
Habit
upright
Thorns
Mildew Suppl
lli
In
I
I
iii lli
l' .
I !!l Ii
I R
4 2,4
I mOd~rate
I
upright
R R R
4 4 2 2,4 4 4 2,4 4 2,4 1,4 2,4 4 1 1,2,4 1 4 2,4 4 1 2,4 1,4 1,2 1,2,4
Ivigorous
spreading
upright
Ii I I 11
!II
Ii II I !Ii
weak
spreading spreading
Snowdrop
Speedwell
Ii
III
Spinefree
Stockwell Sultan Juror Su rprise

Suter Johnny Sylvia
III I
II II I II
I
vigorous vigorou s spreading spreading
none
I II
spreading
spreading
few
Talfourd Telegraph
Thatcher
The Leader Tom Joiner Trumpeter

Victoria
I
Ii
iii
moderate
I
!Ii
I II .vigorous
vigoro us
Warrington Weisse Ne ck artal Welcome Whinham's Indu stry White Eagle White Lion Whitesmith Woodpecker Yellow Champagne
spreading
spreadi ng upright
=1
Ii
few VS
1,2,3 1,4 1,2,4 1,2,3 1,2 1,2,4
il
I
II I
:v.vlgorous vigorous vigorous vigorous
spreading spreading pr.then sprdg spreading
SR
. Pigs In the forest

Kate de Selincourt
An experiment in a Forest Enterprise plantation in North Yorkshire demonstrated how pigs can benefit from the shelter and forage of a woodland environment - and they may even enhance the commercial va lue of the timber as well. though final results have not been worked out.
Page 36
Cultivar Reverta Riese von Kothen Rifleman Risulfa Roaring Lion Robustenta Rokula Rosebery Rushwick Seedling Scotch Red Rough Sco ttish Chieftain Shiner Silvia Snowdrop Speedwell Spinefree Stockwe ll Sultan Juror Surprise Suter Johnny Sylvia Talfourd Telegraph Thatcher The Leader Tom Joiner Trumpeter Victo ria Warrington Weisse Neckartal Welcome Whin ham's Industry White Eagle White Lion Whitesmith Woodpecker Yellow Champagne (Pigs in the Forest cont.)
Cropping Flavour poor heavy good heavy excellent fair
Size
Colour
Shape/other Hairs
good good ckd Iexcellent very good fair-good good excellent good ckd fair
good heavy
very good
very good good
heavy good ckd heavy good heavy good heavy hea vy fair-good 90'Od very good good good Ivery 9 00d very good
large very large white-green med-Iarge light crimson val; diff to large very large dark crimson oblong whitish-green small large small dark green large whitish-green small dark crimson medium ,golden-yellow large round-oval pale green medium silvery-green large whitish-green large light crimson oval small red thick skins large pale green long green large light green oval-oblong green medium silvery-green round large light red very large white-green very large olive green large yellow medium green large green-yellow very large pale red angular small-med light red round-oval yellow red jmed:large large dark red oval med-Iarge whitish-green oval very large whitish-green oblong med-Iarge cream round-oval dull green very large small yellow
p J
yes no
I I
no
yes
no no no
no no no few
yes no some few
The experiment came about when pig breeder Ian Moles was looking for land on which to run some sows, and found that conventional arable land in the area was scarce and the rent was high. There is a lot of commercial forestry in North Yorkshire and, since pigs are forest animals, Moles decided to approach the owners, Forest Enterprise, to see if he could rent some woodland: 'To put the two things together seemed like a good idea, as the woodland was underused and it seemed like a nice natural habitat for the pigs," Moles commented. Because forest land does not usually house any secondary commercial activities it does not normally attract any rent at all, so the Commission was able to rent out the land at about one quarter the rate for conventional farmland.
Page 37
?
450 sows were housed in a coniferous plantation, mainly Corsican and Scots pines, with some Japanese larch. The sows had plenty of space, equivalent to 4-5 animals per acre (conventional open field pigs are kept at around twice this density). The forest was on a light, sandy soil: essential, says Moles, to avoid the waterlogged mudbath pigs can so quickly create in clay. The low stocking density meant the sows were kept busy tackling brambles and other groundlevel scrub , and did not damage the trees - apart that is from the Japane se larch which seemed to have a flavour irresistible to the sows, and these particular trees were ring-barked . Moles estimated that they pigs derived around 10% of their fodder from the woodland range , compared to around 5% when on pasture, where there is really on ly grass and the odd beetle. According to Moles' colJeague at Forest Enterprise, Colin Olsson, the sows did very well in the forest conditions , with extra roughage in the diet and shelter from extreme weather conditions contributing to healthy litters of fast-fattening piglets. Pigs not only dislike cold winds, like most stock , they are also prone to sunburn , so the shade was helpful. However Moles did warn that on very hot, close days the still cond itions in the forest meant it was sometimes hotter there than in the open - and they did still need a mud wallow for cooling the blood. Running pigs in forest plantation is not a straightforwa rd transition for conventional pig operations, because access to the arks under the trees (for delivering food and bedding, and for checking on the yo ung animals) is more awkward than in an open field. "We had not anticipated how difficult it would be to manage the pigs in the woodland," Moles admits . Sadly, it proved so difficult to confine lively young weaners in the forest that they were fattened on conventional range , so there was no "forest-reared" pork and bacon to samp le. In the end Moles concluded that woodland range was suitable for dry and pregnant sows, which need less day-to-day attention, but for sows and their litters , accessibility problems made the wood land range less practicable. Because forests are home to ot her large mammals, there were problems with electric fencing going down, pre sumably knocked over by deer, which may then have let in faxes: there were higher losses from litt ers than usually seen in open fields - though this was made up for by the higher survival rate of those not taken. It is also necessary to provide more fencing per animal as the stocking density was lower. The increased difficulties of access meant. that this form of pig rearing used around 50% more labour than usual, which more or less balanced out the savings on rent. Although there was therefore no special commercial advantage on this particular operation , there are clearly possible advantages from a rural development and rural emp loyment perspective. The main unanswered question is the effect on the timber. A final evaluation will be made this year, five years after the start of the experiment. In theory the grazing by the sows could well prove advantageous to the forestry enterprise as well , as the pigs were removing competing vegetatio n and improving access for forestry staff. However, pigs can also make land impossibly muddy: hopefully the soil in this experiment was sandy enough not to suffer compaction.
News (continued)
Currants and Gooseberries : Production and Culture
This new publication covers all aspects of growing bla ckcurrants, red and whitecurrants , and gooseberries. It is based on the articles which have appeared in Agroforestry News, but w ith updates and more extensive cultivar lists and descriptions. Includes details of siting , culture , propagation and Ag roforestry usage . Currants and Gooseberries. 1st Edition, 1997 . A5, 48 pp. Price: 8 .00 plus 1.20 P & P from the A.R.T.
Page 38
-~
~~~~-
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~~
--=----~::__~-~
----~
A.R.T. nut trials

Introd uction
There are various nut trials in progress on our main trial site in Dartington which was acquired in autumn 1995. There are two main variety trials, of chestnuts and wa lnuts , plus various seed ling selection trials, and other miscelJaneous nut species. All are obviously at a very young stage at present.
Chestnut variety trial

These cultiva rs comprise a selection of mostfy French chest nut varieties, both ind igenous C.sativa varieties and hybrids of the Japanese chestnut, C.crenata, with the sweet chestnut. These have been chosen (from those commercially available) as the varieties most likely to grow and crop well in our maritime climate; they are mostly from the W & SW of France. To date the varieties planted are: Indigenous Vari ety Origin/Where cultivated Hybrid Variety Bouche de Betizac Bournette Maraval Maridonne Marigoule Marlhac Marsol Precoce Migoule Vignols Where cultivated W .France W.France C/W.France W.France W/SE.France W.France C/W.France W/SE.France W/C.France
Belle Epine Dordogne,SW France Doree de Lyon Dordogne Laguepie limousin,Tarn-et-G. Marron Comballe Ardeche,Lozere Marron de Goujounac Dordogne,Lot,Lot et G Numbo USA Atlantic Pyrenees Rousse de Nay Cantar ,Dordogne, Lot Verdale
Good pollinators include Belle Epine, Marron de Goujounac, Rousse de Nay and Verdale. The first of these is well known as an excellent pollinator for most varieties , and for this reason , 8 trees of this variety are scattered throughout the trial ; two trees are planted of each of the other varieties. Trees are planted at a spacing of 8 m (26 ft). They will be pruned to a pyramid shape. After a few years, half of the trial will be interplanted with nitrogen -fixing Elaeagnus shrub species. The long term aims are to measure tree health and production, comparing between varieties and also between the interplanted/non interplanted areas. There is space for a further 6 varieties to be added to the trial.
Walnut variety trial

These cultivars comprise Juglans regia selections from France, Germany and North America . Late leafing out is one of the important (perhap s critical) factors in choosing cultivars for the UK, and where known , varieties are chosen which are late leafing . Two trees are planted of each variety, at a spacing of 8 m (26 ft). As with the chestnut trial, after a few years, half of the trial will be interplanted with nitrogen-fixing Elaeagnus shrub species. The long term aims are to measure tree health and production , comparing between varieties and also between the interplanted/non interplanled areas . There is space for a further 8 varieties 10 be added to the trial. Variety Origin Germany Germany Germany Where cultivated at present Germany Germany Germany
26
120 139
Variety Broadview Buccaneer Chandler Cobles #2 Corne du Perigord Fernette Fernor Franquette Hartley Marbot Mayette Meylanaise Parisienne Plovdivski Proslavski
Origin
Where cultivated at present
Poland via Canada (BC) UK, Europe, N.America Europe UK, Europe USA (Ca lifornia) USA N.America N.America France France France - recent INRA introduction France France - recent INRA introduction France France UK, France , N.America France, N.America USA France France France France , N.America France France, N.America France France Europe E.Europe Europe E.Europe
Seedling selection trials

These consist of a number of trees planted which have been grown from seed of known parentage, for growing on and evaluation and possible select ion of superior trees for further propagation. There are 5 such trials: Seedlings of 'Layeroka' chestnut, a hybrid of the Chinese and European chestnuts bred in Canada (BC) and grown commercially there ; resistant to chestnut blight , good timber quality and nut production. Seedlings of 'Petoka' hazelnut, a hybrid bred in Canada (BC) with an extremely large nut. Seedlings of 'Brock' heartnut (Juglans ai/antifolia cordiformis) , a selection grown in Canada with medium-sized, easily c racked nuts. Seedlings of named Carpathian walnuts (eg . of 'Broadview'), a race known to perform well in the UK. Seedlings of sweet-fruited holm oaks (Quercus i/ex) from South Devon.
Miscellaneous species
Gingko : selections of Gingko biloba . Monkey puzzle: Araucaria araucana trees. Nut pines : currently only the stone pine, Pinus pinea , but more will be added . Oaks for sweet acorns: including ballota oaks (Quercus ilex baffa/a), emory oak ( Q.emoryi) , burgambel oak (Q.macrocarpa x gambelii), Schuettes oak (Q.x schuette/) , ooti oak (Q.macrocarpa x muhlenbergi x robur).
Page 40
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturei he>rticultul'e to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food, materials, timber and other products. It can range from planting trees in paslure5 providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground lay~rs in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroflll'estry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are: 18 per year ill Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged)
22 per J'~ar overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per ye<lr for institutions.
A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, avail2.bie on request tor 3 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per copy including lJostage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to 'Agrolorestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Darlington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
n. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Volume 5 Number 4
July 1997
------------------
--
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 5 Number 4
July 1997
Contents
2 3 14 19 32 39 40 News Edible acorns from oaks Sour cherries Sweet and Duke cherries Forest gardening: Fungi Book reviews:
Essential Oil Crops I Fungi and Environmental Change
Classified adverts
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed , and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops , if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. U.K.
Page 1
News
EFRC Research
The Elm Farm Research Centre is an international research , advisory and educational organisation, based in Berkshire (UK). aiming to bring about a greater uptake of organic farming. They carry out farm-scale practical research both at their farm in Berkshire and at othe~sites both private and government owned. One of their research projects, partly government-funded through MAFF, is investigating stockless farming - ie. rotations of arable crops , grass andlo r green manure crops, without the use of animal manures. They are finding increasing evidence that such stockless systems are both feasible and economically profitable: gross profit margins can be as good as either a mixed (ie animals + arable) organic or a conventional all-arable system. Wheat yields from their stockless systems in 1996 varied from 5-10 tonnes/ hectare (2-4 tonnes!acre) and on the government-funded site , the organic unit has consistently outperformed the conventional system run alongside it for comparison. Their recommended initial approach is to use a red clover! grass! green manure mixture to build up nitrogen supply and improve soil structure; the main rotation is then 4-7 years long, with legumes forming between 25-50% of the rotation. These results may have implications for temperate agroforestry systems which utilises nitrogen-fixing trees or shrubs to intercrop with an arable crop. Since it is becoming clearer that such trees and shrubs fix and make available to other plants similar amounts of nitrogen as annual or perennial N-fixers, it follows that , if the design of the system is such that the nitrogen fixed is available to the whole area of the arable crop, then such cropping may be sustainable on a long term basis with 25-50% of the total area devoted to N-fixing trees and shrubs. The same would apply to other tree crops - which broadly agrees with our recommendations of using 33% of the area for N-fixers , and 66% for the main tree crop (apples, nuts etc). Source: EFRC Bulletin No 30, July 1997.
Cropping pine needles

Gathering pine needles (often called 'pine straw') began decades ago in North Carolina (USA), for use in mulching and landscaping - originally for mulch to control erosion on hillsides, but more recently for landscaping around trees and shrubs as they are long lasting and fine looking. An indirect benefit has been that forest fires are far less damaging where the needles had been gathered (trees don't burn as fast or as hot). Several NC producers now design a whole system around growing pines for harvesting pine needles, using the pitch or longleaf pine (Pinus pa/ustris) . Trees are planted at specific distances apart, undergrowth is controlled, and needles are raked into rows prior to baling using a hay-baler. Production is well under way within 8 years (when the trees are 5-6 m ! 1720 ft high), and 70-120 bales of needles per acre are produced , worth about $250-480, with needle production expected to be sustained many decades. There are arguments about the environmental drawbacks and benefits of this system; keeping the undergrowth controlled may disadvantage some wildlife species: some landowners have planted the pines as windbreaks or for erosion control, and squirrel numbers are significantly lower where this system is practised.
-4=
== '
Edible acorns from oaks

Introd uction
First, to dispel a myth: all oaks bear acorns which are edible . Most speci es of oak (of which there are many) produce acorns which are high in tannins , making them bitter and astringent when raw , hence they need processing to remove these potent ially harmful substances. Removal of tannins is , however, extremely easy , taking no more time and effort than it takes to sprout seeds , and the resultant acorn meal resembles that from other nuts in oiliness and fla vour. There is a long history of human cultures using acorns as a food source , often as a staple crop. Early Greek writers referred to the acorn as a wholesome food . The most recent peoples to use acorns as a major food source were the native North American Indians, who used them widely well into this century . They are still a regular item of commerce in a few countries , notably Korea.
Harvesting
The first acorns to fall in early autumn are usually bad - either empty or ea ten by weevils - so it is important to allow these to fall before starting harvesting. The easiest method is to just spread sheets or small-weave nets on the ground beneath the trees, wh ich are emptied every few days. Where there is little undergrowth or in urban areas where there is concrete beneath the trees, the acorns can just be picked off the ground if it clean. In heavy mast years (normally every 2-3 years) , when a very large crop of ac orns is produced by most species , there may be so many acorns produced that it is relatively safe to allow them to lie for weeks or months below the trees , harvesting a few at a time . If some are still there in the spring , they can still be harvested, even if they are sprouting (as long as the seed kernel hasn 't turned green and the sprout is under 5 cm , 2" long). It is a good idea to store harvested acorns for two weeks before using , to allow them to ripen fully and thus minimise the tannin content. Acorns can be stored in reasonably good condition for a period of up to 6 months, by providing a cool, moist, rodent and squirrel-proof sto re, where the acorns can be piled in layers up to 15 cm (6 thick . The layers should be turned regularly to prevent mould growth.
ft )
Yields vary widely from species to species and year to year, many spe cie s be ing alternate bearing . They can reach 3 tonnes/acre (7% tonnes! Ha) , with individual trees yielding up to 90 Kg (200 Ib - a.garryana) , 300 Kg (660 Ib - a.ilex) or 900 Kg (2000 Ib - a .lobata) .
Shelling
After harvesting, the acorns need to be shelled and the kernels ground. The best way of shelling is to cut the acorns in half (lengthwise) with a sharp knife and use the point of the knife to prise out each half of the kernel. This method does not take long to prepare enough kernels to use in a meal. If the acorns are sprouting , the shell will have split and can be pulled apart, and the sprout itself should be discarded . Another method which ma y work with some species is to soak the acorn s in water overnight , causing the shell to split open , when the shall c an be removed by hand . Any mouldy kernels should be discarded at this point.
Removing the tannins

Most species of oaks produce acorns with moderate to high leve ls of tannins which must be leached out before they can be eaten ; a few species , and occas iona l isolated trees of others, can produce sweet acorns with low enough tannin levels that they can be used whole directly in cooking etc. The tannins wh ich cause the bitterness in most acorns are tannic acid , gallic acid and pyrogallol. The concentration of these is 1Yz to 3 times higher in green (immature) acorns than in mature, ripe acorns . The procedure to measure tannins is complex and expensive, which is probably the main reason why more work has not been done on ta nnin conteQt of acorns for different species. The tannin content varies within a species too: some ranges found are: Q.a/ba (0.41-2.54%); Q.rubra (3.72-4.47%); and Q.ve/utina (3.29-6.13%). Traditionally, acorns were ground with a pestle and mortar. An easier and quicker method is to use a food blender: put the acorns into the blender with 3 times their volume of water (ie 3 cu ps of wate r per 1 cup of acorns) and blend them until they are finely ground. Tradition al methods of leaching the ground acorn meal indude placing them in a sack in constant running water (may take 2-3 hours), or by pouring hot water over the meal in a st rainer. A simpler (though longer) method , is to allow the ground meal to soak in cold water for about a week, changing the water daily. For small amounts of meal, use large jars (e g. coffee jars) : the ground meal will settle to the bottom and the water above it will darken to brown as the tann ins leach into it. To change the water, just pour off the old water (take care not to pour out the meal!) and refill with clean water. The water will get visibly dearer each day, and after a week the meal can be used . The whole process should take place in a cool or cold room, or in a refrigerator if this is easier. Larger quantities of aco rn s can be leached in bowls or buckets, again in a cool or cold place.
Utilisation
The leached acorn meal needs cooking either on its own or in a recipe. In the latter case , just strain the meal from the la st soak water, and add it to the recipe (see below for some su ggestions) . In the former case, simmer the leached meal in water for about 15 minutes, stirring constantly to prevent burning ; allow to cool, then freeze to separate the water from the cooked meal; thaw when ready to use, and squeeze remaining water from the cooked meal in a strainer. The cooked acorn meal made thus is excellent to use as a nut butter in sandwiches or used to make a dip with sour cream or yoghurt. Instead of cooking imm ed iatel y, the leached acorn meal can be dri ed and stored for later use as above. Spread the meal thinly in trays and dry in a warm room , stirring regularl y to prevent the grains from sticking together and forming 'acorn rocks'. Sweet acorns, with low tannin levels, can be used who le or in halves straight into reci pes , eg adding to bread etc.
Table 1. Nutritional composition of acorns

Water % Q.lobata Q.robur Q.velutina Protein Fat Fibre
%
5.7 7.9
Carbo hy- Tannins Kcall drate % % 100 9
18.6
4.6 3.4
13.9
3.6
13.6
65 67.8 8.6
41.8
353 4.51
Page 38
Acorns provide a complete vegetable protein and are high in carbohydrates. They conta in 16 amino acids , appreciable amounts of Vitamins A and C , and significant quantities of ca lcium, magnesium , phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. They are particularly good used in biscuits, breads and pies. Acorn beverages have been made, notably coffee substitutes by roasting and grinding: the quality depends on the acorn and the technique Q.muehlenbergii was valued for this purpose in the U.S. and Q.robur has been used in Europe . In Turkey , 'racahout ', a spiced acorn drink like hot chocolate. was traditionalJy made from acorns of Q.ilex well into this century. Acorn oil can be extracted by boiling or pressing and is comparab le in quality to olive oil: it has been used in North Africa (especially from Q.ilex bal/ota) and North America (especialJy from Q.virginiana) as a cooki ng oil. Some species contain up to 30% oil , comparable to the best olive va rieties.
Table 2. CompOSition/characteristics of acorn oil

a.alba a.glauca Q.ilex Q.incana Q.palustris Q.rubra Olive oil
Specific gravity (25 C) (15 C)

Refractive ind ex (25 C) Sapo nification value Oleic acids 48 Palmatic acids 10 40 Linoleic acids
0.9062 1.4660 185.13 55.25 10.65 32.50 1.4701 189.05 57.05 12.40 30.50
0.9086 1.4576 192.20 82.00 17.10
0.9081 1.4647 193.20
0.918 1.4679 (40 C) 189.7 84.4 6.9 2.3
195.30 48 10 40
Brief recipe suggestions: Bread: Use 2 parts flour to 1 part leached acorn meal and make as normal. Species with 'sweet' acorns (ie not very tannic) can have kernel wholes or halves added to bread before baking. Biscuits: Substitute leached, cooked acorn meal for butter on a 11 basis. Soups: add some leached meal at the same time as chopped roots etc to make a hearty soup.
Oak cultivation
Most species take at least 15 years before they start to fruit, sometimes up to 25 years, thoug h there are exceptions: Q.robur usually starts well before this, and some individuals flower at 35 years old. Flowering occurs in the spring and the acorns mature after either 6 or 18 months depending on the species. Pollination is via the wind, and hybridisation is common. All oaks like warm summers; warm dry summers tend to favour heavy crops of acorns: these occur at irregular intervalS of 15 years depending on the species. In general, oaks prefer a medium or heavy soil , often a deep fertile loam , and tolerate a range of pH from moderately acid to moderately alkaline. Most species prefer a moist so il, and tolerate moderate side shade and exposure. Many species develop deep tap roots and are droughHesistant when established, but good acorn production requires reasonably fertile soil and sufficient water. Among the oak family are species which tolerate extreme aridity, salinity , alkalinity, flooding , and severe heat and cold . Oaks form numerous mycorrhizal association with fungi which ca n significantly aid their nutrition and health. Oaks have long been intercropped with cereals and grassland in Europe and North America , although they usually form widespreadi ng rounded trees which are not compatible with long term alley-cropping.
Oaks are generally hard to propagate by any ot her means than seed. Fresh seed in autumn should be sown immediately in a cold frame. co ld greenhouse etc. making sure that rodents cannot get at the seed. Dormancy varies between species , some seeds are not dormant, others need up to 4 months of cold, but sowing in autumn is good practice for all species. Trees should be planted out in their final locations before they are too large. Side grafting of sucker shoots onto seedlings of closely related species is sometimes carried out to propagate selections. A very few selections have been made of trees with improved quality.;fruits , though these are only marginally better; one is Q.macrocarpa ' Ashworth'.
Oak and tanoak species

Included in this article are the tanoaks or tanbark oaks - Lithocarpus species, which were formerly included in Quercus, and which are very closely related to the oaks. American oaks can be divided into two groups: white oaks and black (or red) oaks. White oaks mature their acorns in their first year and have leaves with rounded lobes, without pointed tips ; in black oaks , acorns take 2 years to develop, and leaves have bristles or painted tips. Acorns of the white oak group and often sweeter and less tannic (range: 0.7-2 .1% tannins) than those of the black oak group (rang e: 6.7-8.8%,), but species of both groups have been highly regarded as food sources , and there is considerable variation between individual trees of each species . Acorns of the black oak group are generally higher in fats than those of the white oak group.
Recommended species for use in Britain

Oaks from the continental eastern USA, China and Japan do not grow or fruit so we ll in Britain and can suffer autumn frost damage from unripened shoots; of these the best is Q.rubra and some of the other red oaks. Q.alba only does well in the dry SE . of England. The Mediterranean oaks , however, thrive in Britain 's climate, growing faster here than in their native areas . With increasingly warm summers , all species of oak will fruit belter and the lists below may expand within a few decades. Low-tannin species: Q.agrifolia, Q.i1ex, Q.ilex ballota, Q.itheburensis macro/epis, Q.kelloggii; and possibly Q. douglasii, Q.dumosa, Q.gramuntia (a confused species - may be part of Q.i1ex), Q.lobata and Q. vacciniifolia. Medium to high-tannin species: Lithocarpus densiflorus, Q.cerris. O.coccifera , Q.frainetto, Q.fruticosa, Q.x hispanica, Q . x kewensis, Q.libani, Q.pa/ustris, O.petraea, Q.phillyreioides, O.robur, O.rubra , O.suber, Q.wislizenii; and possibly O.alnifolia, O.engelmannii, O.garryana, O.haas, Q.pubescens, Q.pyrenaica, O.trojana.
Recommended species for specific situations

For poor soil : Q.i1icifolia, Q./aevis, O.x libanerris. Q.marylandica , Q.prinoides For very alkaline soil: Q.ellipsoidalis, Q.cerris, O.frainetto, Q.ilex, Q.macrocarpa x robur, Q.muehlenbergi. For very acid soil: Q.marylandica, O.petraea. Drought tolerant: Q.douglasii, Q.alba, Q.aucheri, Q.castaneifolia , Q.chrysoJepis, Q.gambelii, O.gambelii, O.itheburensis, Q.leucotrichophora, Q.macrocarpa x turbinella, O.macrocarpa, Q.marylandica , Q.prinoides, Q.pubescens, Q.pungens, Q.robur x /obata , Q.rubra, Q.suber, Q.velutina, Q.virginiana.
Page 36
Q.agrifo lia Q.c hrysolcpis
Q.dumosa
Q.frainetti
Q.garryana
Q.robur
Q. rubra O.s uber

O.wislizeni Lithocarous
Page 7
For wet soils: Q.bicolor, Q.ellipsoidalis, Q.lyrata, Q.michauxii, Q.nuttalli, Q.petraea, O.philfyreoides, O.robur. Tolerant of saline soils: O. virginiana. Tolerant of maritime exposure: O.aucheri, O.ilex. Precocious species (fruiting soo n in life): O.acutissima Gobbler strain (5~8 years), Q.cerris (5~8 years). O,variabilis.
Key to the Oak species tables

Table 3:
Ev: E = evergreen, SE = semi -evergreen. Blank = deciduous. G: 1 = acorns mature the same year as flowering. 2 = acorns mature in two years. Hd: Indicates hardiness zone.
Table 4:
UK: Indicates likely cropping va lu e in the UK. A = crops well, B = crops well in hot summers, C = crops only occasionally. 0 = rarely crops. Crop : Indicates heaviness of cropping . Gd = good , VG = very good, Mod moderate. Mast: Indicates number of years between heavy mast (cropping) yea rs. Len : Indicates normal length of acorns in mm . Width: Indicates normal width of acorns in mm. Tannin : Indicates average tannin content of acorns. VL = very low, L = low, M = moderate, H = high. Flav: Indicates any comments about the flavour (after leaching). QS = quite sweet , S = sweet. Oil : H indicates species with acorns rich in oii.
A. Species with low-tannin acorns: Table 3

Species Quercus agrifolia
a .alba
Q.arizonica Q.aucheri Q.x bebbiana Q.bicolo r Q.chysolepis Q.douglasii Q.dumosa Q.emoryi Q.gambelii Q.gramuntia Q.ilex Q.ilex ballota Q.itheburensis
Common names Ev G California li ve oak, .Coast live oak [1 White oak, Stave oak, Quebec oak 1 1 Arizona white oak SE 1 Boz pirnal oak E 2 Bebbs oak Swamp white oak, White oak 1
IE
Canyon li ve oak, Canyon! Maul 01kEi 2 Blue oak, Iron oak 1 California scrub oak, Scrub oak SE 1 Em ory oak, Western black oak 1 Gambel oak, Shin oak 1 Holly leaved gramont oak E Holm oak. Holly oak E Ballota oak E 1 SE 2 Israeli oak SE 2 Q.itheburensis macroler: is Vallonea oak, Camata Q.kelloggii California black oak, Kellogg oak 21 187 Shrub or tree, 5-25 m Valley oak , California white oak Q.lobata Shrub or tree 1
Hd Habit (in cultivation) 8 Large shrub 4 Large tree 7 Shrub or small tree 8 Large shrub to 5 m 4 Large tree 4 Large tree 7 Large shrub-medium tree 7+ Shrub or tree 8 Shrub to 4 m 7 Small tree 4 Shrub or small tree to 8 m 8 Small tree 7 Large tree 7 7 Small tree 7 Small tree
Page 8
Synonyms used in the table below: Q.ilheburensis macrolepis (syn. Q.aegilops); Lithocarpus corneus (syn. Q.comea); Lithocarpus glaber (Syn. Q.glabra). Hybrids are: Q. x bebbiana = Q.alba x macrocarpa, Q.x schuettes = Q.macrocarpa x bicolor.
References
Agroforestry Research Trust: Useful Plants database, 1997. Asmus, K: Oaks with Edible Acorns. NNGA 80th Annual Report (1989): 114-115. Asmus, K: Sweet Acorn Oaks. Pomona Vol. xxix NO.4 ( 1996): 61-63. Bainbridge, 0: The Oaks. NNGA 82nd Annual Report (1991): 185-191. Basden, K & Dalvi, R Determination of Total Phenolics in Acorns from Different Species of Oak. Veti narary & Human Toxicology, 29 (4): 305-6. Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, Vol. 3. John Murray, 1976. Howes, F: Nuts. Faber & Faber. Jaynes, R: Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA, 1979. Krussmann, G: Manual of Cultivated Broad-Leaved Trees & Shrubs. Batsford, 1984. Ocean, S: Aco rn s and Eat 'em. Ocean-Hose, 1995. Oikos Tree Crops: Tree catalogues , 1991-1996. Paterson, R: Use of Trees by Livestock: Quercus. NRI, 1993. Reighart, G: Min or Nuts of the Past , Present , and Future . NNGA 80th Annual Report (1989) : 20-22. Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. Sa unders , C: Edible and Useful Wild Plants of the United States and Canada. Dover. Sholto Dougla s, J & Hart R: Forest Farming. IT Pubs, 1985. USDA Agriculture Handbook 450: Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. USDA, 1974 .
A. Species with low-tannin acorns: Table 4

Acorn Species Origin UK Crop Mast Len B 20-35 auercus agrifolia J California a.alba Eastern USA 0 Irr 4-9 10-30 SW. USA, NW . Mexico 0 20-25 Q.arizonica a.aucheri SW Turkey , Greek islands to 20 a.x bebbiana 0 Gd Ea stern USA 3-5 20-30 a.bicolor Northeastern N .America 0 Q.chysolepis I SW USA, NW Mexico 25-35 a.douglasii California 2-3 20-35 a.dumosa ) California 20-30 I Southwestern USA, Mexic 0 15-20 a.emoryi Q.gambeli; 15-20 Southwestern USA 0 a.gramuntia S.France a.Hex I Mediterranean B Gd 15-30 a.ilex baliota N . Africa, S. Spain B Fair 20-50 Syria, Israel /Pale stine 25-50 Q.itheburensis a.itheburensis macrolepis SE.ltaly, Balkans, Greer , T rkC a.kelloggii IWestern USA B 2-3 25-30 a.lobata California 2-3 30-55 Width TanninFlav Oil 10-15 L H L to 15 VL 15-25 L 15-30 L 10-1 5 8-10 L-M 12-15 L 10-15 L L 20-30 L 25-50 20-30 L 12-20 L
I
Is IH Is Is S I
as I H IH S I L
I~
Page 9
Species
Common names
Ev G Hd
Habit (in cultivation)
Q.lyrata x virginiana 1 Comptons oak 1I Q.macrocarpa Burr oak, Mossy cup oak, Blue 1 3 Large tree Q.macrocarpa x gambelii Bur Gambel oa
oar
Small tree x muehl x robur Ooti oak Mongolian oak Q.mongolica Chinkapin oak, Yellow chestnut oak Q.muehlenbergii Dwarf chinkapin oak, Chinkapin o~k Q.prinoides
Q.ma~roc.
Medium tree
3 Large tree Large tree 4 Suckering shrub or 5

1 4 1 5 2 6
tree to 4m O.prinus a.X schuettes O.stellata Q.vacciniifolia Q.virginiana
Chestnut oak , Basket oak. Rock Schuettes oak Post oak, Iron oak Huckleberry oak live oak, Virginia live oak
olk
E
5 Large tree Large tree Small to medium tree Shrub, D.5-1.8m 7 Shrub or tree
B. Species with medium or high-tannin acorns: Table 3

Species Uthocarpus densifloru ~ L.edulis L.glaber Q.acuta Q.acutissima Q.afares Q.aliena Q.alnifolia m Q.brantii m Q.castanaefolia Q.cerris Q.coccifera Q.coccinea Q.dentata Q.ehrenbergii Q.ellipsoidalis Q.engelmannii Q.faginea Q.falcata Q.frainetto Q.fruticosa carpets Q.garryana medium tree Q.qlandulifera Common names Tanbark oak, Tanoak Ev G Hd Habit (in cultivation)
E 2 7 Small to medium tree

8 Small tree or shrub to 7 m 7 Small tree or shrub to 7 m 7 Large shrub Large tree 2 5 5 Medium tree 5 Large tree 8 Shrub to 2 m , or tree to 8
E E Japanese evergreen oak E Sawtooth oak, Sawthorn oak, Korean o. Afares oak 1 Oriental white oak E 2 Golden oak
2 7 Shrub or small tree to 10

Chestnut leaf oak Turkey oak Kermes oak. Grain oak E Scarlet oak, Black oak, Spanish oak Japanese emperor oak, Oaimio oJk
2 6 Large tree 2 6 Large tree

2 6 Bushy shrub, O.3-1.Sm 2 4 Large tree 1 S Large tree 7 Shrub or small tree
~ 4
Northern pin oak, Jack oak, Hill's o~J Portuguese oak Southern red oak, Swamp red oak Hungarian oak, Italian oak
Large tree
1 7 Shrub or small tree
121 6-+i Large tree
sa
Oregon white oak. Garry oak, Post oL Konara oak, Glandbearinq oak
6 Large tree 1 8 Shrub. 0.32

5+
5 Medium tree
m, Small
often to
1 11
_--,--_ _ _ Acorn, _ _-::-:--:Species

Q.lyrata x virginiana Eastern USA Q.macrocarpa Q.macrocarpa x gambelii
Origin
r:~roI 2~:~:::: ! ~~~:: T~cn,F~:v

Southwest~rn USA I D
Oil
I VG
11
I VL
VL
a.macrae. x muehl x robur Hybrid Q.mongolica a.muhlenbergii Q.prinoides Q.prinus a.x schuettes
!Japan,
I
20 I D Mod 13-20 Gd 10-15 D 2-3 25-40
I
large
2-3 10-25 6-10
12-15 25-30 5-13
Sakhalin
I Eastern USA NE & Central USA

1 Eastern
USA
I Eastern USA
Eastern USA
12 I 112-14 I L-M 8-10 VL 15-25 1
IS
I~S :~
H
D VG
D
D Gd
I VL
L-M
a.stella ta Q.vacciniifolia Q.virginiana
Western USA Southeastern USA
I
I
B. Species with medium or high-tannin acorns: Table 4

Acorn Species Origin Lithocarpus densifloru s! Western USA l.edulis J Japan L.glaber Japan, China
UK Crop Mast Len Width TanninFlav Oil B VG 2 25-50 1
C.acula
Q.acutissima
I Japan, N.Korea, China

Japan , Korea. China
D D D D D
Q.afares
a.aliena
Q.alnifolia Q .brantii Q.castanaefolia Q.cerris Q.coccifera Q.coccinea Q.dentata Q.ehrenbergii Q.eUipsoidalis Q.engelmannij Q-faginea Q.fa lcata Q.frainetto Q.fruticosa Q.garryana Q.glandulifera Q.glauca Q.haas Q.hartwissiana Q.x heterophytla
I Japan,
IAlgeria
Korea Cyprus Kurdistan, Iran Central & Southern Europe
ICaucasus, Iran
I Mediterranean
I Japan,
Eastern USA, S.Canada Korea , China Syria, Lebanon
A C
D D
! Northeastern USA
California Northwestern Africa Southeastern USA Balkans, S.ltaly, Turkey
D
B
I S.Spain
& Portugal, MoroccoB
j Western N.America
1Japan, Korea, China
I Asia
Japan , China minor
D D
I Asia minor, Caucasus Eastern USA
25 15-20 15-20 8-12 20-25 VG 35-45 20-25 25-35 20-30 15-20 20-30 10-15 Gd 30-35 Gd 15-30 8 -20 3-5 15-25 15-25 12-24 12-20 30-40 20-30 12-20 10-15 to 25 25 1-2 12-14 10-15 20-35 10-12 10-15 8-10 2-3 20-25 15-20 10-15 10- 15 1 7 - 8 18-50 18-20 Gd 18-30 10-15 20-30
~5-18 1
I
H
I
I
I
I
Page Jl
Species Common names Ev G Lucombe oak, Spanish oak '2 a.x hispanica 2 a.imbricaria Shingle oak, Laurel oak Q.infectoria Aleppo oak S 1 E 2 Q.x kewensis Q.laevis American turkey oak , Scrub oak 2 Q.lameJlosa E Q.leucotrichophora E 2 a.x libanerris Ubanerris oak 2 a.libani Lebanon oak a.lyrata Overcup oak, Swamp post oak Q.macroocarpa x robur Bur English oak Q.macrocarpa x turbinella Burli ve oak a.marylandica Blackjack oak, Jack oak 2 Q.michauxii Swamp chestnut oak , Cow oak Q.myrsinaefolia E Q.nigra Water oak, Possum oak, Spotted r.a Q.nuttallii Nuttall oak, Smoothbarked red o~k a.oblongifolia Mexican blue oak, Western live oak E Pin oak, Spanish oak, Swamp oa Q.palustris 2 Q.pedunculiftora Q.petraea Durmast oak, Sessile oak Willow oak, Peach oak , Pin oak Q.phellos 2 a.phillyreoides Ubame oak E 2 Q.pubescens Downy oak, Pubescent oak Q.pungens Sandpaper oak a.pyrenaica Pyrenean oak, Spanish oak tree Q.robur English oak, Pedunculate oak Q.robur x alba Englishwhite oak Q.robur x lobata Robata oak a.robur x turbinella Englishlive oak Q.rubra Red oak, Northern red oak, Gray ak Q.semicarpifolia E 2 a.shumardii Schumard oak, Schneck oak 2 Q.suber Cork oak E Q.trojana Macedonian oak 2 Q.undulata Wavyleaf oak, Rocky mountain sc ubi 0 3m, rarel y tree to 9m Q. variab ili s Chinese cork oak, Oriental oak 2 Q.velutina Black oak, Smoothbark oak 2 Q.wislizeni Interior live oak, Highland live oa E 2
s [
Hd Habit (in cultivation) 6..l Shrub to large tree 5 Medium to large tree 6 Sma ll tree to 4 m 6 Small tree 6 Shrub or tree, 6 12 m 8 Shrub or tree 8 Shrub or tree 6 Large tree 6 Shrub or tree to 78 m 5-+l Large tree Large tree 3 Large shrub or small tree 5 Small tree, 6-10 m 6 Large tree 7 Shrub to medium tree Large tree 2 6 2 6 Large tree Shrub or tree to 8 m 7 Large tree 6 Large tree 4 Large tree 6 Large tree 7 Shrub or tree, 3-9 m 5 Medium to large tree 7 Shrub or tree 7 Shrub! small to medium 6 3 3 3 2 8 5 8 6 Large tree Large tree Large tree Shrub or small tree 3 Large tree Shrub Large tree Small to large tree Small tree 1 5 Shrub,
SI
I~
C C
1-
4 Large tree 4 Large tree 8 Shrub
Sources
Birchfleet Nursery, Nyeford, Nyewood, Petersfield , Hants, GU31 5JQ. Tel: 01730821636. Dulford Nurseries. Cullompton, Devon, EX15 2DG. Tel: 01884-266361.
Acorn )ecies Origin UK ,x hispanica Southern Europe [ B .imbricaria Eastern & Central USA I Asia minor, Middle East .infectoria .x kewensis Hybrid A .Iaevis Southeastern USA D .Iamellosa Himalayas Himalayas !.I eucotrichophora Hybrid I.X libanerris Middle East, Turkey A 1.libani I Central & Southern USA Uyrata l.macroocarpa x robur/ Hybrid l.macrocarpa x turbin~lIa Hybrid :!.marylandica Central & Southeastern USA ::l.michauxii Southeastern USA D ).myrsinaefolia Japan , China, Laos J.nigra D Southeastern USA Q.nuttallii Southern USA Q.oblongifolia SW USA, NW Mexico D Q.palustris NE. USA, SE. Canada C Q.pedunculiflora Asia minor, Balkans Q.petraea A Europe Q.phe llos Southeastern USA D Q.phillyreoides B China , Japan Q.pubescens Southern Europe O.pungens Southwestern USA Q.pyrenaica SW. Europe, Morocco Q.robur Europe A O.robur x alba Hybrid Q.robur x lobata Hybrid Q.robur x turbinella Hybrid B Eastern N .America O.rubra O.semicarpifolia Himalayas Q.shumardii Southeastern USA D Mediterranean Q.suber C Q.trojana SE. Europe, Turkey I O.undulata Southwestern USA, Mexico D China, Japan, Korea Q.variabilis D Eastern N.America O.velutina D Q.wislizeni California C
1
Crop Mast Len Width TanninFlav Oil
30-40 120 2-4 , 10-15 12-16 25-40 12-18 20-25 10-15 1 20 I 30-40 120-30 20-25 13-15 to 35 25 25 3-4 15-25 15-25 M VG ' 3-5 large Gd 10-20 3-5 30 120-25 17-25 7-10 1-2 10-15 110-1 5 13 -4 20-30 15-20 S [ 1-2 12-17 20-30 15-20 3-8 20-30 15-25 10 15-20 8-10 15-20 8-12 10 15-30 Gd 1 2 - 6 15-30 10- 15 1 M-H 1 Gd Gd Gd 2-3 120-30 15-25 H to 30 25 2-3 18-30 2-4 20-45 14-18 12745 20 [ 15-20 8-15 2 15-20 2-3 15-25 15-20 5-7 20-35 10-15 ;
I~
Mallet Court Nursery, Curry Maliet, Taunton, Somerset , TA3 6SY. Tel : 01823-480748 . Supply a huge range of oak species, but most not by mail order. Oikos Tree Crops , P.O .Box 19425, Kalamazoo, MI 49019 , USA. Tel : 616-624-6233. supplies a wide range of species and hybrids, some experimental.
Page 29
Sour cherries
Introd uction
Sour (acid) cherries (Prunus cerasus) are rather easier to cultivate than sweet cherries , as they form small trees . most are selffertile. and they will tolerate considerable shade . They are also less susceptible to the ravages of bacterial canker than Sweet cherries . The fruits are too acid for most people to eat raw, but are excellent cooked or made into jam.
Tree forms
The usual forms are bush , half standard and fan. Bushes reach 3-3 .6 m (10-12 ft) high , whilst fans can be trained 2.1 -2.4 m (7-8 ft) high and 3.6-4.5 m (12-15 tt) in spread . Sour cherries can also be grown as pyramids; commercial mechanically-harvested orchards are now trained using the modified central leader system . A dwarfing rootstock is preferable, eg o 'Colt' . Sour cherries fruit largely on the young shoots which were made the previou s summer, hence un pruned trees tend to crop only on the outer edge of the crown , the centre tending to be unfruitful. The advantages of unpruned trees are that the work is reduced and that the chances of infection by bacterial canker are much reduced. To stimulate a constant supply of new replacement wood, a proportion of the older wood should be cut out each year, with any large pruning cuts painted with protective paint.
Bush trees
Plant as a whip , well-feathered maiden or two-year old tree, at a spacing of 3.6-4.5 m (12-15 ft) apart; stake each tree. Plant in autumn if possible because cherries start growth early in spring. Formative pruning: this is done in early spring , just as the buds break into growth ; always prune to a vegetative bud (not a flower bud) which is easily distinguished at this stage. If the maiden tree has strong laterals at 60-90 cm high, some can be used as the primary branches (of which 4-5 is the aim to start with). Cut back the central stem to the top lateral at about 1 m; prune each lateral by two-thirds to a bud facing upwards , and remove lower laterals not needed. (A whip should be cut back to a bud at 1 m, with 3-4 good buds immediately below; these can grow in the first year to form the first bran ches. In the following 2 springs. prune the previous summer's growth of each branch by a half to two-thirds to a bud facing in the required direction, usually outwards.) Ongoing pruning : In September, after the crop has been picked, cut back one-quarter of the old fruiting wood back to vigorous 1-year old shoots . In older trees it maybe necessary to cut out a few pieces of 3-4 year old wood, back to strong replacement shoots.
Fan trees
Fans can be trained against a wall or a wire frame ; any aspect, even North-facing , is suitable. Allow a width of 3.6-4.5 m (12-15 ft) , and a minimum height of 2.1 m (7 ft) : against a wall , plant the tree 20 cm (8") away. Wire supports , needed in any case, should be spaced at 15 cm (6") apart starting at 40 cm (16") from the ground. Formative pruning: In early spring, as growth is starting , if the tree is a feathered maiden and there are 2 suitable laterals, these can be used to form the first ribs , with the centre of the tree cut out [Prune now as for 'year 2' below]. With a poorly-feathered tree. cut back to 60 cm (24") to a lateral shoot or good growth bud , and select 2 buds below this , one to the left and the other to the right, about 22-30 em (9-12") above the ground . As growth occurs from these , pinch out all other growth to one leaf, and tie the stems to a cane as below. The next spring , cut back the 2 side branches to a growth bud 30-40 cm (12-16") from the main stem to form the first ribs.
Page 14
Year 2: Tie the first 2 ribs to canes fixed to the wi re s at 40-45 0 . Over the summer , train 4 shoots each side: allow 2 side shoots on the upper side of each branch to grow (starting about 10 cm , 4" apart) , one shoot on the lower side , and a shoot at the end of the rib. Pinch out all other growth to one leaf, and train the selected shoots along canes or tie them to wires. Year 3: Cut back each shoot to leave 60-75 cm (2-2Yz tt) of ripened one-year-o ld wood forming ribs . Over the summer, allow the end bud of each rib to grow on, and train in more shoots above and below the ribs until all the space is filled. Leave filling in the centre to last. The young shoots produced along the framework branches should be thinned to about 10-15 cm (4 -6") apart on the upper and lower sides of the ribs (these will carry fruit the next year). and allowed to grow to 45 cm (18') before being pinched out. All other growths should be pinched back to one leaf. Ongoing pruning : Fans are best pruned on a replacement system , aiming to ensure that there is an adequate supply of vigorous 1-year old shoots for fruit production . In the spring & early summer, thin out new shoots along the ribs to 5-8 cm (2-3") apart, tying in the flexible rema ining shoots to the wires and allowing them to continue growing. Where possible, leave one shoot at the base of each fruiting lateral as a replacement. As soon as the fruit has been picked , cut the fruiting laterals back to these replacement shoots . As the tree ages , a proportion (up to a quarter) of the 3-4 year-old wood may need to be cut out, back to young laterals to stimulate new growth, in Sep tember or March.
Cultivation
A wide range of soils are tolerated, and sour cherri es can tolerate occasional waterlogging . Standard recommendations for feeding sour cherries are sometimes wildly high . Trees need very liUle feeding when young - a mulch of compost or manure will be quite sufficient. Cropping trees will need some input, though. C herri es hardly respond at all to additions of phosphorus, hence do not aim to add this specia ll y; their requirements for potash are moderate and for nitrogen m ode rate to high. There is some evidence that low nitrogen level s can make trees more susceptible to bacterial canker. Mature trees should have annual applications of 5 g potash (K20) + 10 g nitrog en (N) per squa re metre of rooting area. This can be achieved organically very easily with small amounts of compost or manure applied (2 kg m 2), or by the addition of cut organic material. eg from cut 2 comfrey plants - one plant sho uld produce enough material for 1.5 m of rooting area at the above rates in a year. Increase the nitrogen input if trees aren't making sufficient new growth. Trees should be mulche d to a minimum diameter of 1.2 m (4 ft). They won't suffer in dry weathe r if not watered, but the danger is that a sudden and heavy downpour of wate r onto a dry soil can cause fruit splitting when they are near to ripening . Mulching will help retain soil moi sture , and irrigation can be used in a steady , moderate method to minimise splitting in a dry summer. Most sou r cherries are self-fertile and late flowering ; they wil l, however, cross-po llinat e with late-flowering sweet cherries. Netting is highly desirable to protect the ripening fruits from bird predation (especially starlings); this is much easier with wa ll-trained fans than bush trees.
Harvesting & yields

The cherries on most cultivars sho uld be picked by cutting the stalks with scissors , as pulling them off with stalks intact is Hable to spoil the fruits or tear the bark , increasing the risk of fungal infection. Cultivars with fruits which separate easily from the stalks include Montmorency and North Star. Average yield s of 13-18 Kg (30-40 lb) per bush can be expected ; fans (eg . on a North wall) may yield 5-9 Kg ( 12-20 Ib). Sour cherries don't store for long , but preserve well by freezing, cooking, jamming etc.
Pests & Diseases

Bullfinches: May feed on the buds during the winter . Tre es can be netted if attacks are bad .
Page 15
--==="
Birds: Eat the ripening fruits, especially starlings. Netting is the only practical solution.
Aphids: These, especially the cherry blackfly (Myzus cerasi), infest young shoots causing severe leaf curling and checking growth. It's alternative hosts, which it flies to after feeding on cherries, are bedstraw (Galium spp) and speedwells. Small trees/fa ns can be sprayed if necessary with soft soap; otherwise, try to encourage aphid predators. Cherry slugworm: these are black, slimy, stug~like larvae which graze away the upper leaf surface. Damage occurs in two flushes, in May-June and July-August, but is rarely serious on established trees. Derris can be sprayed in severe cases. Bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae): the most serious cherry disease in Britain, causing elliptical canker on trunks and branches, sometimes spreading to girdle a branch of the whole tree. Sour cherries are less susceptible than sweet cherries. The disease is favoured by a moist climate, a lack of nitrogen, and by pruning in winter. Bordeaux mixture can give some control, applied monthly throughout the autumn. Cultivar resistance/susceptibility varies widely, and where possible, resistant cultivars should be planted .
Silver leaf (Chondrostereum purpureum): a fungus which enters the tree at a fresh wound on the trunk or branches. The invaded wood becomes brown, the leaves become silvery, and whole branches or the tree can be killed. To treat , cut out dead branches to 15 cm (6") beyond the point where the wood is stained. Susceptibility is highest in winter and spring. Control may be achieved by using the biological control Trichoderma viride, an aggressive fungus which when painted on a wound quickly covers it and seals it against infection. Pellets of this fungus can also be inserted into the trunk and significantly reduce the severity of the disease. Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena): causes fruits to rot on the tree. Dark brown circular spots rapidly spread over the fruit, which should be removed and burnt. The fungus can also affect green twigs and flowers . It usually overwinters in rotten mummified fruit on the tree or ground (these should be collected & destroyed). but also on dead flowers or twigs killed the previous year. Severe infections may respond to Bordeaux mixture.
Propagation
Sour cherries are usually propagated by budding (usually chip budding) in July-August or grafting (usually whip & tongue grafting) in March-April , onto the relevant rootstock. Several sour cherry cultivars (including Montmorency) are easily propagated on their own roots from softwood or semi-hardwood cuttings under mist.
Cultivars
For reasons of space, the cultivars described here have been limited to those which are commercially available from British or American nurseries, or are held by Brogdale.
Sour cherry cultivars suited to mechanical harvesting

These cultivars have fruits which abscise easily from the fruit stems (stalks) and are well suited to mechanical harvesting by using tree shakers etc: Galaxy North Star Montmorency Osteimer
Key to Cultivar tables

Flowering: Period of flowering. E = early, EM early-mid, M = mid, ML = mid-late, L = late, VL = very late. Cross pollination will normally occur if the flowering periods are the same or one period before or after, ie an EM flowering tree will cross pollinate with E , EM and M flowering trees . Poll: SF = seU-fertile, PSF = part self-fertile, SS = self-sterile . These cherries will also cross pollinate with sweet cherries flowering at the same time.
5
very late . In Southern England, these correspond approximately with the dates below ; more Northerly locations will be later: mid-late June, EM late June-early July, M early-mid July, ML mid-late July , L E July-early August , VL = mid -lat e August and sometimes into September.
= late
Fruit col : Fruit colour at maturity. B black, R red, W white, Y yellow, P purple. Susceptibility/resistance to the following diseases/disorders are denoted as follows: VR = very resistant , R = resistant , SR = slightly resistant. SS = slightly susceptible, S susceptible. Split: Indicate s resistance or susceptibility of fruit to splitti ng in wet weather. Cank: Indicates re sistance or susceptibility of tree to bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae). leaf spt: Indicates resi stance or susceptibility to cherry leaf spot (Btumeiella jaapii). brn rot: Indicates resistance or susceptibility to brown rot (Monilinia taxa). NB very few cultivars are resistant to the closely related M.fruticola. Suppliers: A number code indicates UK supp liers where known. These are: 1. Brogdale Horticultural Trust , Brogdale Farm, Brogdale Road, Faversham Kent , ME13 8XZ. Can propagate one of their cherry collection to order ; budwood may be available in the near future. 2. Deacons Nursery, Moor View, Godshill, Isle of Wight. P038 3HW. Tel : 0 1983-
840750/522243.
3. Keepers Nursery, Gallants Court Gallants Lane , East Farleigh. Maidstone, Kent, ME15 OLE. Tel : 01622-726465. 4. Scotts Nurseries (Merriott) Ltd Merriott, Somerset, TA16 5PL. Tel: 01460-72306. 5. Thornhayes Nursery, St Andrews Wood, Dulford, Cullompton , Devon , EXI5 20F. Tel: 01883-266746. 6 . J Tweedie Fruit Trees, Maryfield Road Nursery. Maryfield Nr Terregles, Dumfries, DG2 9TH. Tel: 01387-720880. 7. Warley Rose Garden Ltd, Warley Street , great Warley , Brentwood. Essex, CM13 3JH. Tel : 01277-221966. A. Indicates is available commercia lly from a North American fruit nursery. See Whealy & Demuth for more information. Sour cherry Cultivar Diemitzer Amarelle Dutch Morello Dyehouse Earlimont Early Richmond Favorit Ferracida Flemish Red Galaxy Griotte du Nord Flowering Ripening Fruit leaf brn E EM M ML L VL poll E EM M Ml l Vl Col split cank spt rot Supp
II
I
II
II ,I I
R R
W
1
1 1 A A 1 1 1
I SF I
III
SF I SF
R R R R
R
Jan
Joy Kentish Morello Kentish Red (A) Knight's Early Bla ck Mesabi Meteor Montmore
A A A
I
I
A 1
1
1 A
II
A A
Page 17
Sour cherry
Cultivar
Flowering
Ripening SF SF
Fruit
leaf brn
Montmorency Montmorency a Court Queue Morello (B.C.D) Nabella North Star
I I
E EM M ML l Vl poll E EM M Ml L Vl Col split cank spt rot Supp
I I I
i!I
I
I
II
IR
R R
B
IR I
R
1 1.2.3 .~
2.3.4.56
1,7
Osthei~er Weichsef
Successa
Suda Hardy Surefire Wye Morello
I
I
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Sour cherry cultlvar descriptions
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Synonyms are listed in italics with a reference to the correct name. Dubbelte Morelkers = Griotte du Nord Earlimont: Fruit red . acid. A reliable, heavy cropper. Origin: USA. Early Richmond: Fruit medium size, red, thin skin; flesh juicy_ Tree vigorous; heavy cropper. Origin: USA. English Morello = Griotte du Nord Flemish Red: Fruit roundish , small to medium size , bright cherry red; flesh yellow tinged pink, soft , very juicy (uncoloured), acid with a slight bitterness ; stone small, adheres to stem. Very good for bottling and jamming. Tree moderately vigorous, tall and twiggy becoming drooping ; very hardy and a reliable cropper. Galaxy: Fruit similar to Montmorency; tree open. Griotte du Nord: Fruit roundish, quite large , dark purplish red, glossy; flesh red , soft , very juicy (dee p coloured), sub-acid, good quality; stone free . Tree of weak growth, becoming drooping. Cropping good . Origin: very old, probably Germany. Jan & Joy: Trees vigorous, hardy. Kentish Red: (Several varieties are known by this name . This is the one held by BrogdaJe.) Fruit round, medium size, bright red, glossy; flesh yellow tinged pink, firm , juicy (uncoloured), acid, slightly bitter; stem short and stout , stone small. Good for bottling and cooking. Tree moderately vigorous and sized; a good cropper. Lutowka = Griotte du Nord Mesabi : Fruit red, sweet-acid. Tree of low vigour, small. Meteor: Fruit medium size, red skin; juic~ light red. Tree of medium vigour, spreading, a genetic dwarf growing to 4 m (13 ft) tall. Has thick dense foliage. Montmore : Fruit dark red, large; acid flavour. Tree of moderate vigour;' reliable , heavy cropper. Montmorency: Fruit roundish, medium to large , bright red , glossy, flesh red, firm, acid , juicy (red), good quality; stem long. Tree of medium vigour and dwarf habit; heavy cropping. Origin: France. Commercially important in the USA. Morel = Griotte du Nord Morello: Name used for a group of varieties with similar trees but differing flowering & ripening properties. Common Morello is described here: Fruit roundish-oblong. large, dark red-black , glossy; flesh very dark red, slightly fibrous , acid, slightly bitter, juicy (red), very good quality, excellent for jams and cooking ; stone medium to large . Tree vigorous when young, weak later, making a small, round-headed, pendulous tree. North Star: Fruit round, medium. bright mahogany red , glossy; flesh red, firm , acid, juicy (red) , good flavour, excellent for jams and cooking. Stone free. Tree of low vigour - very small (only 2-4 m high ), with dense foliage ; heavy cropping. Suda Hardy: Fruit red, dark juice, good flavour. Tree a genetic dwarf Surefire: Fruit heart shaped, medium size, bright red ; flesh firm, acid; small stone. Tree of moderate vigour, semi-upright with relatively few branches . Wye Morello: Fruit small. fair quality. Tree vigorous. Similar to other Morellos , though this was traditionally grown from suckers on its own roots . The cherries were also used to make cherry brandy . Origin: UK (Kent).
Page 18
Sweet and Duke Cherries

Introduction
Sweet cherries are derived from Prunus avium, whereas Duke cherries are hybrids between Prunus Avium and P.cerasus (the sour cherry) . Both are vigorous trees , and even on the current semi-dwarfing rootstocks (eg Colt) . are too big for small gardens
Siting
A wide range of soils are tolerated , as long as they are well drained . The ideal is a slightly acid medium loam ; shallow soils and badly drained soils are unsuitable.
Tree forms
In Britain, the only easily-obtainable rootstocks are F 12/1 (vigorous) and Colt (semi dwarfing) . In all but large gardens, Colt is likely to be preferable. Most maiden trees are well feathered. Pruning is carried out in spring , just as the buds are about to break into growth , to reduce chances of funga l disease infection.
Bush and half standard

Space trees (on Colt) at 6-7.5 m (20-25 ft) apart. A half standard has a clean stem of 1.35 m (4/s ft), while a bush has a stem of 75-90 cm (2Y2-3 ft) ; otherwise the pruning is similar. In the spring after planting, cut back the central stem to the desired height and prune each existing lateral which is to become a main branch by two-thirds to an outwards -facing bud . Cut back any lower laterals not wanted as part of the head to 8-10 cm (3-4~) and keep these pinched back to 4-5 leaves over the summer; cut out completely in the second year. Year 2: In early spring , choose 3-5 well-spaced shoots (including the desired laterals from year 1) as the main branches and prune these by a half to two-thirds to an outward facing bud. Cut out any other strong growing shoots, especially those forming acute (narrow) Vangles with the main stem. Ongoing pruning : little is needed . Leading shoots of spreading cultivars may need to be pruned to an upward pointing bud. Older trees may need some thinning - carry out in spring or early summer.
Standard
Space trees (on F12 / 1) at 12-15 m (40-50 ft) apa rt; because of these large spacings required for mature trees , there are possibi lities for intercropping etc. Alternati vely , planting can be more dense, with alternate trees removed by thinning after some years . Tradit ional orchard management in England was to graze sheep beneath standard cherry orchards, but this is rare nowadays and not commercia l practice anywhere because of the labour costs incurred by standard trees . Intercropping with plums, apples, small fruits and market garden crops has also been common in the past. To train standards , treat as for ha lf standard, except with a clear trunk of 1.8-2.1 m (6-7 ft) : it will be necessary to grow the maiden on for at least a year , pinching out all laterals , to get to this height. In the second year, pinch out and start to choose main branches during the second summer.
Fans
Form in the same way as for sour cherries. Sweet cherries are more vigorous than sour cherries, and it should be possible to fill the avai lable space in shorter time - most maidens have 2 lower laterals suitable for training as the primary ribs from the start , and thus it is possible to have 8 ribs (4 each side) by the end of the first growing season.
Page 19
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should be pinched out in summer at 5-6 leaves ; in early autumn , shorten these to 3 buds , remove any dead wood, and retie any ties which are causing constriction . Older fans may become overcrowded or too tall. In this case, fruiting spurs can be shortened quite severely , removing a half to two-thirds , pruning back to a bud or lateral. When the growth at the top of the tree grows too high . either cut it back to a weaker lateral farther down or bend the shoot over and tie it down.
Cultivation
Trees need very little feeding when young - a mulch of compost or manure will be quite sufficient. Cropping trees will need some input, though. Cherries hardly respond at all to additions of phosphorus, hence do not aim to add this specially ; theif requirements for potash and nitrogen are low to moderate . There is some evidence that low nitrogen levels can make trees more susceptible to bacterial canker ; on the other hand , high nitrogen levels encourages sappy growth and aphid attacks. Mature trees should have annual application s of 5 g potash (K 2 0 ) + 5 g nitrogen (N) per square metre of rooting area . This can be achieved organically very easily with small amounts of compost or manure applied (1 kg/ m 2 ), or by the addition of cut organic material , eg from cut 2 comfrey plants - one plant should produce enough material for 3 m of rooting area at the above rates in a year. Increase the nitrogen input if trees aren't making sufficient new growth. Trees should be mulched to a minimum diameter of 1.2 m (4 ft). Make sure that trees against walls do not become too dry at the roots - mulching helps. In dry weather over the summer, watering is recommended (especially for walHrained fans) to keep the soil moist, as a sudden application of water can cause ripening fruits to split. Netting is highly desirable to protect the ripening fruits from bird predation (especially starlings); this is much easier with wall-trained fans than bush trees.
Flowering & Pollination

Most of the flowers on sweet cherries are borne on long-lived (10-12 year) spurs on 2-year and older wood while very few are borne near the bases of one year-old shoots. Pollination is via bees and other insects; bee hives are usually moved into the orchard at flowering time, at the density of 3-5 hives per Hectare (1-2 per acre ). Nearly all sweet cherries are self-sterile and thus need to be planted with a pollinator. As well as flowering at a similar time , the pollinator must not be in the same pollination group. There are 13 such pollination groups and in the table below, the group is listed (if know) in the 'Inc grp' column. Some cultivars are universal pollinators (marked U in the table) - these will cross pollinate with any other cultivar flowering at a similar time . A few cultivars are self fertile. If two cultivars are not incompatible by being in the same group, then, they will cross pollinate if they flower in the same period or the period before/ after each other, ie an EM flowering tree will cross pollinate with E EM and M flowering trees . Cross pollination can occur with sour cherries as well. A minimum of one pollinator to eight main-crop trees in required for good pollination (eg. a pollinating tree every third tree in every third row).

Cherries can be left on the tree until they are fully ripe , unless they start cracking because of wet weather. Pick them with the stalk intact unless they detach easily and are to be used quickly. Fresh cherries soon lose their quality, but do freeze well. Bushes , half standards and standards can give average yields of 14-54 Kg (30-120 Ib) of fruit annually, fans 5-14 Kg (12-30 Ib).
Page 20
Cherry processing
Duke cherries are used for both dessert and cook ing , sin ce they have a better sweet acid balance than sweet cherries. The canning industry processes fruits of both red and whitefleshed sweet cherry cultivars .
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Drying fruits to make cherry 'raisins' have become a speciality product in North America . Initial dehydration temperatures of 63-7S o C, redu cing to 52-65 C are used . Dried cherries average about 20% moisture: levels over 22% can result in mould growth . Bing and Rainier are two of the cultivars used for drying. Firm fruits made into maraschino cherries are initially preserved in brine, then bleached with sulphur dioxide. and then steeped in marasca, a liqueur distilled from the fermented juice of a bitter wi ld cherry . Glace cherries follow the same initial process but are dyed after bleaching. Jamming of cherry fruits is an important commercial process , often for using in fruit yoghurts . Other commercial uses include processing for producing cherry juices , nectars , wines and liqueurs.
Pests & Diseases

See Sour cherries. The diseases are basically the same , except that sweet cherries are genera lly more susceptible to bacterial canker; in damper climates it is vital to choose cultivars with some resistance . In areas where canker is rife , high grafting on a resistant rootstock is sometimes useful.
Propagation
Sweet cherries are propagated by budding (usually chip budding) in July-August or grafting (usually whip & tongue grafting) in March-April , onto the relevant rootstock.
Cultivars
This article, for reasons of space , is limited to detailing cuUivars which are available from commercial nurseries in Britain and North America. For a much more detailed cultivar list, see 'Cherries: Production and Culture ', published by the ART this month.
Cold-hardy cultivars
The following are notably more tolerant of winter cold : Black Eagle Emperor Francis Lambert Black Heart Frogmore Early Windsor Black Tartarian Kristin Yellow Glass
Cultivars with frost-resistant flowers

Frogmore Early Geante de Hedelfingen Governor Wood Kentish Bigarreau Ulster Lapins Turkish Black
Cultivars for warm humid climates

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In these areas , problems from fruit splitting (in wet weather) and bacterial disease can be serious with many cultivars. The following are all resistant to canker and fruit splitting . and well suited to such areas: Bolium Burcombe Corum Dun (Mazzard) Early Birchenhayes Fice Kassins Fruhe Hertz Kristin Merton Heart Preserving (Mazzard) Sam Small Black (Mazzard) Strawberry Heart Upright Viscount Vittoria White Heart
Page 21
Self-fertile sweet cherries

Celeste Garden Bing Glacier Isabella
Lapins (Cherokee) New Star Starkrimson Stella Sunburst Sweetheart
Sweet cherry cultivars suited to mechanical harvesting

These cultivars have firm fruits which abscise easily from the fruit stems (stalks) and are well suited to mechanical harvesting by using tree shakers etc: Bigarreau Napoleon Merton Heart Van Bing Schmidt Venus Geante d'Hedelfingen Starking Hardy Giant Vittoria Golden Sweet Stella Windsor Kordia Ulster
Duke Cherry cultivars for warm humid climates

Duke cherry susceptibility to fruit splitting and canker is similar to that for sweet cherries, however. the following cultivar is resistant to both fruit splitting and canker: Olivet

Flowering: Period of flowering. E = early, EM = early-mid, M = mid, ML :: mid-late, L = late, VL = very late . Cross pollination will normally occur if the flowering periods are the same or one period before or after, ie an EM flowering tree will cross pollinate with E, EM and M flowering trees. Inc grp: For sweet cherries, Indicates incompatibility group number (see above 'pollination'; cultivars with the same number are incompatible). Also, SF = self-fertile , U = universal pollinator (not self-fertile, but will pollinate any other cultivar flowering at the same time) . These cherries will also cross pollinate with sour cherries flowering at the same time. Ripening: Season of fruit ripening. E = early , EM = early-mid , M = mid , ML = mid-late , L = late, VL = very late. In Southern England, these correspond approximately with the dates below: more Northerly locations will be later: E = mid-late June, EM = late June-early July, M = early-mid July. ML = mid-late July, L = late July-early August, VL = mid-late August and sometimes into September. Fruit col: Fruit colour at maturity. B
= black , R' = red. W = white. P = purple, Y = yellow.
Susceptibility/resistance to the following diseases/disorders are denoted as follows: VR = very resistant , R = resistant, SR = slightly resistant , SS = slightly susceptibly , S susceptible , VS = very susceptible. Split: Indicates resistance or susceptibility of fruit to splitting in wet weather. Cank: Indicates resistance or susceptibility of tree to bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae). leaf spt: Indicates resistance or susceptibility to cherry leaf spot (Blumeiella jaapii). brn rot: Indicates resistance or susceptibility to brown rot (Monilinia taxa). NB very few cultivars are resistant to the closely related M.frutico/a. Suppliers: A number code indicates UK suppliers where known. These are: 1. Brogdale Horticultural Trust, Brogdale Farm. Brogdale Road, Faversham , Kent, ME 13 8XZ. Hold the UK National Collection. Can propagate one of their cherry collection to order; budwood may be available in the near future . 2. Deacons Nursery, Moor View, Godshill, Isle of Wight . P038 3HW. Tel: 01983-
840750/522243.
Page 22
3. Keepers Nursery, Gallants Court, Gallants Lane, East Farleigh , Maidstone, Kent, ME15 OLE. Tel: 01622- 726465. 4. Scotts Nurseries (Merriott) Ltd , Merriott, Somerset, TA16 5PL . Tel : 0146072306. 5. Thornhayes Nursery, St Andrews Wood, Dulford, Cullompton, Devon , EX15 2DF . Tel: 01883-266746. 6 . J Tweedie Fruit Trees, Maryfield Road Nursery, Maryfield , Nr Terregles, Dumfries, DG2 9TH. Tel: 01387-720880 . 7. John Beach (Nursery) Ltd , 9 Grange Road, Wellesbourne , Warks , CV 35 9RL. Tel: 01789840529. A . Indicates is ava ilable commercially from a North American fruit nursery. See Whealy & Demuth for more information.
Sweet cherry cultivars

Sweet cherry Cultivar Alba Heart Amber Heart Angela August Heart Bada Bigarreau Gaucher Bigarreau Moreau Bigarreau Napoleon Bing Black Eagle Black Etton Black Glory Black Heart (Kent) Black Republican Black Tartarian Bolium Bradbourne Black Brooks Buch Burcombe Caroon (A ) Cavalier Chinook Circassian Colney Corum Craig's Crimson Downer's Late Red Dun (Mazzard) Early Birchenhayes Early Burlat Early Purple Gean Early Rivers Early Ruby Elton Heart Emoeror Francis Flowering Ripening Fruit leaf brn E EM M Ml l Vl poll E EM M ML l Vl Col split ca nk spt rot Supp
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Sweet cherry Cultivar Fiee Florence Frogmore Early Garden Bing Garnet Geant~ d'Hedelfingen Giant Gil Peck Glacier Gold Golden Boy Golden Sweet Goodman Gold Governor Wood Greenstem Black Hardy Giant Hudson Inga Ironsides Jubilee Kansas Sweet Kassin's Fruhe Herz Kentish Bigarreau Kentish Red Kirtland's Mary Kordia Kristin Lambert Lambert Compact Lamida Lapins (Cherokee) Larian Merchant Mermat Merpet Merton Bigarreau Merton Bounty Merton Crane Merton Favourite Merton Glory Merton Heart Merton Late Merton Marvel Merton Premier Merton Reward Nabella New Star Noble Nair de Guben Nutberry Black
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Page 24
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Ripening Fruit leaf brn Flowering Sweet cherry E EM M Ml L VL poll E EM M ML L Vl Col split cank spt rot Supp Cultivar Old Black Heart Olympic I '. R Parkhill Preserving (Mazzard) 9 Y-R R ; Rainier I B 5 5 1,3 1 Ronald's Heart 8 Royalton R Sam I : I ; RR Sasha I Saylo r I 8 iii BRA Schm idt I B WR , VR 5 Small Black (Mazzard) I R-B R WR 1,3 U Smoky Dun R A Spate Braun I B A Star Stella 5 1,3 Starking Hardy Giant Ii 1,6,A Starkrimson I 1,2,3,A 5 Stella Ii 5 1,2 ,3,A Stella Compact I 1,3 Strawberry Heart II A Sue A Sugar Sweet I 1 ,A Summit 1 ,2,3,4A SF Sunburst Ii A Sweet Ann A Sweetheart I A Sylvia I A Teickners Schwarze Her 1,3 Turkish Black iii A Ulster iii 5 Upright A Utah Giant I A R U Valera iii 1,3, 4,A 2 Van 1,6,A 12 Veg a 1,A 4 Velvet 1,A 3 Vernon A 2 Venus A U Vic A 4 Victor R 1,A 9 Viscou nt 1,A U Vista A Vittoria 4 pR A Viva W5 A 4 Vog ue 1,3,5 2 Waterloo I 1,3,5 U White Heart 1 2 Windsor B 9 Yellow Glass 1,A 4 Yellow Spanish
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Page 25
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Duke cherry cuJtivars
Duke cherry Cultivar Archduke Belle de Choisy 8elle de Franconville Empress ~ugen;e May Duke Morello A Morello E Olivet
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Sweet cherry cultivar descriptions

Alba Heart: Fruit small to medium, roundish-oval, glossy black; flesh dark red, fairly soft, a littre fibrous, juicy (red), fair to good quality; stone medium , free. Tree vigorous, becoming tall and spreading. Origin: UK. Angela : Fruit black, large , glossy; flesh firm, dark red, good flavour. Tree vigorous, sometimes overcrops. August Heart: Fruit large, roundish-heart shaped, glossy black; flesh dark red , firm , little fibre, juicy (red), sweet, good quality. Tree vigorous. Origin: UK. Bear Creek Early: Fruit dark red; flesh firm, sweet; keeps well. Tree vigorous, semi-dwarf. Bigarreau Gaucher: Fruit roundish, large to very large, quite glossy black; flesh very dark red, quite firm, juicy (red), sweet, good flavour; stout stems, small stone not free from flesh. Fruits transport well. Tree very vigorous, upright with many long straight upward branches ; a good cropper. Bigarreau Moreau: Fruit large, roundis h, reddish -black, moderately glossy; flesh quite firm, red , sweet, juicy. Tree of moderate vigour, fairly erect; mod . productive. Origin: France. Bigarreau Napoleon : Fruit long heart-s haped , large , red with yellow mottling , quite glossy; flesh pale yellow, very firm, moderate ju ice (uncoloured), sweet, aromatic rich flavour; stem quite short, stone large. Transports well and still widely grown co mmercially. Tree vigorous, erect becoming straggling; starts bearing early and bears regularly and well. Origin: an old German variety, much grown commercially for processing. Bing : Fruit large or ve ry large, roundish , reddish-black; flesh dark red, very firm and crisp, sweet, good flavour, aromatic, juicy (red) . Tr~e vigorous, erect becoming upright-spreading and rather open. An im portant commercial cultivar in North America, especially in the NW of the USA (origin). Black Eagle : Fr uit roundish heart shaped , large, purplish black, fairly glossy; flesh dark red , firm, not fibrous , juicy (red), sweet, rich flavoured, good quality; stem long, slender, stone fairly small. Tree erect becoming spreading and drooping; hardy, good cropper. Origin: UK. Black Elton: Fruit longi sh heart-shaped, large, black, fairly glossy; flesh dark red , soft when ripe, slightly fibrous, juicy (red), good to v.gd quality. Tree vigorous, upright. Black Heart: Several varieties are known by this name, this the one grown in Kent (UK): Fruit heartshaped, medium size. purplish black , glossy; flesh very dark red, soft, juicy (red) , sweet, fair to good quality ; stem slender. Tree fairly vigorous, very spreading and drooping; hardy; good cropper. Black Tartarian : Fruit long ovoid, very large , deep purplish black , glossy; flesh dark red, firm , not very fibrous , juicy (red), sweet rich flavour , good to very good quality; stem long, stone small. Tree mod. vigorous, becoming wide spreading; hardy; good cropper. An important early commercial cultivar in N .America. Bolium: Fruit small to medium , oval, dark reddish-black; flesh dark red , soft , a little fibrous, juicy (red), fair quality, slightly tangy-sweet; stone medium, stem long. Tree vigorous, upright, slender branches. Young leaves and blossoms reddish. Origin: UK (Cornwall).
good rich flavour, good quality; stem medium length , stone medium size . Tree vigorous, becoming tall with many long drooping bran c hes; a hea vy crop per. Has been grown com mercially. Origin : UK. Brooks: Fruit large, burgundy red ; flesh red, firm , fibrous , sweet, excellent balanced flavour; stone nearly free . Tree small , productive and reliable . A recent introduction from the USA (CA) . Buch: Fruit red. Tree a genetic dwarf 2.5 m high . Bullion = Bolium Burcombe: Fru it black , medium sized; flesh dark red, soft, fibrous , juicy (red), sweet , gd for bottling. Blossoms luxuriant , before leaves . Vig , spreading tree , wide crotch angles. Origin : UK (Cornwa ll). Caroon: Fruit long heart-shaped , very dark red , fairly glossy; flesh red , soft , a little fibrous, juicy (red) , good quality; stem long , stone large. Tree vigo rou s, making a tall round-headed tree with many drooping branches. Has been grown commercially. Origin: UK. Cavalier: Fruit medium to large, glossy; flesh firm , dry. Tree of moderate vigour, slow to bear; fruit easily picked. Cherokee = Lapins Chinook: Fruit large , roundish-heart shaped , mahogany, glossy; flesh firm , red, sweet , fairly acid . Tree vigorous, upright and spreading, precocious; heavy cropping. Origin: USA (WA), grown commercia ll y in the NW of the USA. Circassian (Knight's Early Black): Fruit oblong , very dark red , glossy; flesh dark red , firm , fibrous, sweet , juicy (red), very good flavour; stem short , stout, stone small. Tree of moderate vigo ur and medium size; cropping good. Origin: UK. Colney: Fruit large, black-purple; flesh firm , average to good fla vour. Tree of moderate vigour, semi -erect becoming spreading; croppi ng average. Origin: UK. Compact Stella = Stella Compact Corone = Caroon Corum: Fruit firm, sweet. Craig's Crimson: Fruit medium to large, dark red ; flesh firm , good flavour. Tre e a genetic semi-dwarf. Downer's Late Red : Fruit small, red; flesh sweet, pale yellow, gd flavour. Origin: USA (Mass). Dun (Mazzard): Fruit small , roundiSh-oval , glossy black ; flesh dark red , soft, fibrous , moderately juicy (red) , sweet. fair quality. Tree v.vig. tall and dense; heavy cropping . Origin: UK (North Devon). See also Mazzards. Early Birchenhayes: Fruit sma ll to medium, roundish-oblong , shiny black ; flesh dark red, soft, somewhat fibrous, fairly juicy (red), sweet, good quality; small stone, green stems ; sweet. Trees very vigorous an d erect when young, forming no large branches ; very twiggy , dense-headed and spreading when mature . Origin: UK (Cornwall) - poor in dry climates. Early Burlat: Fruit larg e reddish-purple ; flesh moderately firm , excellent flavour. An important comme rcial cu ltivar in North America Early Purple Gean: Fruit medium sized, heart-shaped , glossy purplish-black ; flesh soft, juicy (red). Early Rivers: Fruit heart-shaped, medium to large, dark purplish red , glossy ; flesh deep red , soft, melting , very juicy (red) , sweet , good flavour and quality when fully ripe. Stem long, stone small. Tree very vigorous. tall and weeping on good soils (lateral branches often sweep the ground). Origin: UK. Early Ruby: Fruit large, dark red; flesh sweet. purple. Origin: USA. Elton Heart: Fruits very pointed heart-shaped, large, pale golden-yellow with a faint red flush, glossy; flesh pale yellow. very soft. juicy (unco loured), sweet , very good flavour ; stem long and thin , stone large. Tree of weak vigour. becoming medium sized , upright. Cropping quite good but irregular. Ha s been grown commercially. Origin: UK. Emperor Francis: Fruit round heart-shaped , large, dark red over yellow, fai rl y glossy; flesh very pale yellow , firm , j uicy (uncoloured), sweet , rich flavour, good quality; stem medium lenQth, stone small. Tree small. comoact. roundheaded. hardy: croooinQ very Qood .
Page 27
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54
Frogmore Early: Fruit heart-shaped, medium to large , pale yellow with extensive red flush , gl ossy ; flesh yellow , translucent, very soft and juicy (uncoloured) , sweet , good flavour and quality; stem short and stout. stone small , almost free . Easily bruised . Tree vigorous, upright to spreading , rounded , hardy; cropping hea vy and reliable . Garden Bing : Fruit dark red, larg e; flesh sweet , good flavour. Tree a genetic dwarf. to 2 m high with lush foliage; self-fertile, moderately producti ve. Origin : USA (CA). Garnet: Fruit large, reddish-purple , roundish ; flesh pink , sweet , good flavour. Tree of moderate " vigour , semi-erect, sparsely branched , precocious; a good cropper. Origin : USA (CA), grown commercially there & France. Geante de Hedelfingen: Fruit roundish oval , medium to large, deep mahogany red with lighter dots, fairly glossy; flesh dark red , firm , not very fibrous, very juicy (red), good quality, slight almond fla vour; stone oval , large, clinging . Tree vigorous, large, tall , den se-headed. Cropping very good. Flowers quite frost res istant. Origin : Germany. Grown commercially in Europe and Canada . Giant: Fruit large, roundish-oblong, dark red; flesh blood-red, very sweet and juicy (red) , rich fla vour. Tree vigorous . Origin: USA. Glacier: Fruit large , mahogany, heart shaped. A recent self-fertile intro from the USA (Wash). Gold: Fruit small , golden : juice clear. Grown in the USA for brining and processing . Very winter-hardy. Golden Boy: Fruit golden yellow ; flesh soft, juicy, sweet. Tree a genetic dwarf. Golden Sweet: Fruit small , golden yellow; flesh firm. Used extensively for maraschino processing. Tree a heavy cropper. Goodman Gold: Fruit yellow. Flesh with a tangy flavour. Governor Wood: Fruit roundish heart-shaped , bright to dark red over pale yellow , glossy, thin skinned ; flesh pale yellow , soft , sweet , juicy (uncoloured), fairly good flavour ; stem medium length , slender, stone medium sized . Tree vigorous at first, later weak , with horizontal branches . Cropping heavy, reliable. Origin: USA. Greenstem Black (Mazzard) : Fruit small , round, glossy black ; flesh dark red , soft , fibrous , moderately juicy (red) , sweet. Origin: UK (North Devon). See also Mazzards . Hardy Giant: Fruit medium-large, reddish-black; flesh firm , excellent flavour. A heavy bearer, grown commercially in the USA. Hudson: Fruit medium to large , black; flesh firm , sweet, good flavour. Fruits hang well. Tree very large, open; moderately productive. Origin : USA (NY) , where grown commercially . Ironsides: Fruit medium to large, roundish-heart shaped , red over yellow, glossy; flesh pale yellow, very ha rd , a little fibrous, moderately juicy (clear) , sweet, fair quality; stone large. Tree vigorous, erect becoming spreading. Origin: UK (West Midlands). Isabella: Fruit large, heart-shaped , glossy red ; flesh firm , pale red , sweet. Tree of moderate vigour, erect, open, precocious, heavy bearing. A recent self-fertile introduction from Italy. Kansas Sweet: Fruit large, mahogany-red ; flesh sweet, firm , juicy. Kassin's Fruhe Herz: Fruit large, round-heart shaped , glossy black ; flesh dark red , firm , a little fibrous , juicy (red ), good quality. Tree vigorous , tall , open and drooping. Origin : Germany. Kentish Bigarreau: Fruit heart-shaped , medium to large, whitish yellow with a red flush, fairly glossy; flesh pale , firm , sweet , juicy (uncoloured) , rich flavour ; stem medium length, stone small to medium. Tree vigorous , upright becoming spreading. Cropping heavy, regular. Kirtland's Mary: Fruit flesh is crisp, pink , with a rich flavour. Origin: USA. Kordia: Fruit heart shaped , reddish-violet ; flesh red , firm , with an excellent slightly spicy flavour with good balance of sweetness and acidity . Tree very vigorous, tater moderating . to form a rounded tree . Very productive. Origin : Czech republic, where it is grown commercially. Kristin : Fruit large , dark reddish black: flesh red , firm , juicy, sweet , aromatic, very good quality; small stone . Tree large, vigorous and very winter hardy. Origin USA (NY). Grown commercially . Lambert: Fruit medium to large heart shaped , purplish red moderately glossy; flesh firm , dark red , slightly fibrous , juicy, good flavour. Tree vigorous , erect, heavy bearing . Origin : USA (OR).
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Lapins (Chero kee): Fruit large to very large, roundish-heart shaped , dark red ; flesh quite firm , sweet, juicy, slightly acid , good flavour. Tree vigorous , very erect , precocious , heavy bearing . A recent self-fertile introduction from Canada (BC) , becoming popular commercially. Merchant: Fruit medium size, black; good flavour. Tree of moderate vigour , spreading , precocious; a heavy cropper. Origin: UK (London). Mermat: Fruit black, large, good quality. Origin: UK (London) . Merton Bigarreau: Fruit heart-shaped, medium size, purplish-black ; flesh red , firm, juicy (red), very good flavour, good quality; stem medium length , stone smal l. Tree vigorous , upright and very spreading . Cropping heavy and regular, tends to overcrop. Origin: UK (London). Merton Bounty: Fruit large, oval, dark crimson; flesh red , fairly firm , sweet , juicy (red), fair quality. Tree vigorous, round-headed , a good cropper. Origin: UK (London). Merton Crane: Fruit heart-shaped, medium to large , very dark reddish-black , glossy ; flesh dark purple, sweet, rich flavour when fully ripe, juicy (red), good quality; stem long. Tree vigorous , branches upright; a good cropper. Origin: UK (London). Merton Favourite: Fruit short heart-shaped, large, dark reddish-black ; flesh dark crimson , sweet, good flavour, juicy (red) , good quality; stone small. Tree vigorous , compact, a good cropper. Orig in: UK (London). Merton Glory: Fruit roundish -conical, very large , creamy white wills a red flush flesh pa le creamy white, soft, sweet, good flavour, juicy (coloured), good quality; small stone. Tree moderately vigorous, spreading with many wide-angled branches, becoming slightly pendulous, precocious . Cropping regular and good. Merton Heart: Fruit long heart-shaped. very large, dark mahogany-black, fairly glossy; flesh dark red, fairly firm, sweet , excellent flavour, juicy (red) good quality; stem medium length , slender; stone large. Tree very vigorous, upright becoming spreading. Hea vy but irregular cropping - cherries are hidden under the leaves. Merton Late: Fruit orange-yellow overspread with deep crimson ; flesh orange -yellow, very firm juicy, good flavour; ripens v.late, in early September. Tree large , spreading , producing lots of lateral wood. Merton Marvel: Fruit heart shaped, very dark red ; flesh deep crimson , firm , juicy. Tree co mpact, medium to large, producing much thin lateral wood. Origin: UK (London). Merton Premier: Fruit heart shaped, medium to large, dark mahogany-black: flesh red , soft, sweet, good flavour, juicy (red), exc quality. Tree vigorous, spreading, a gd cropper. Origin: UK (London). Merton Reward: Fruit heart shaped, black; flesh crimson , firm , juicy, good flavour; stone small. Tree vigorous, upright. Origin: UK (London). Moreau = Bigarreau Moreau Napoleon = Bigarreau Napoleon Napoleon Bigarreau = Bigarreau Napoleon New Star: Fruit large, round, glossy reddish-black; flesh quite firm , dark red , sweet , aromatic; stone semi-free. Tree of medium vigour, wide-spreading and rather compact. A recent selffertile introduction from Canada (BC) & Italy. Noble: Fruit oval-heart shaped, very large, dark red-black , fairly glossy; flesh dark red , fairly jui cy (red) , fair to good quality; stem medium thick , stone large, almost free. Tree fairly vigorous when young, less when older, becoming fairly pendulous; demands a deep ferti le soil. Cropping v.good. Noir de Guben: Fruit round-oblong, large, dark reddish brown to black , glossy; flesh very dark red , very firm, very good flavour , juicy (red) , good to very good quality; stem stout, stone medium size, not free. Tree vigorous , erect becoming spreading and pendulous; cropping fa irly good. Origin: Germany. Nutberry Black: Fruit roundish-heart shaped, medium to large, dark red-black , glossy; flesh dark red , firm, sweet, juicy (red) , fair to good quality; stem stout , short , very green: stone medium size. Tree fairly vigorous , upright becoming pendulous with age: a good cropper. Old Black Heart: Fruit medium sized, heart-shaped , glossy black ; flesh dark red , soft , juicy (red ), fair to average quality; stem short. Tree fairly vigorous , spreading.
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Rainier: Fruit large, yellow and pink; flesh firm, white-yellowish, juicy (clear) , good flavour; stone small to medium , fairly free. Tree vigorous, spreading, precocious ; heavy bearing (sometimes over bearing). Origin: USA. Grown co mmercially. Ronald's Heart: Fruit large, heart-shaped , glossy black ; flesh dark red , soft , little fibrous , juicy (red), good quality. Tree vigorous. Origin: UK. Rounder (Roundel Heart): Fruit heart shaped , very large, dark red-black , very glossy; flesh dark red , fairly soft, sweet, very good flavour , very juicy (red), excellent quality; stem medium thick , long; stone. plump, medium size. Tree of moderate vigo ur; cropping very hea vy and regular. "as been grown commercially. Royal Ann = Napoleon Royalton: Fruit very large, roundish-oblong , greyish-purple ; flesh purple , firm , excellent flavour and quality. Tree very upright and vigorous , with few lateral branches ; slow to crop. A recent introduction from the USA. Sam : Fruit medium sized, black ; flesh firm , average flavour. Tree vigorous , upright becoming spreading. Slow to start cropping , then a gd cropper. Origin : Canada (BC) ; freq used as a pollinator. Saylor; Fruit yellow; flesh crisp, juicy, very sweet with a distinctive aftertaste. Scarlet King = Coe's Late Carnation Schmidt: Fruit large, purplish-black , borne in clusters ; flesh firm , sweet , rich flavour, good quality. Tree vigorous , slow to bear , moderately productive. Grown commercially in the NE of USA. Small Black (Mazzard); Fruit small , round , glossy black; flesh dark red , soft , fibrous , moderately juicy (red) , fair quality. Tree very vigorous, tall and dense. Origin: UK (Oevon) . See also Mazzards. Smith's Smutts = Smutts Smoky Dun : Fruit long heart-shaped , dark reddi sh-black , fairly glossy; flesh dark red , soft, moderately juicy (red) , fair to good quality; stem medium length, stone ve ry large . Tree vigoro us, upright, large; cropping good . Origin: UK (West Midlands). Spate Braun : Fruit large to very large , glossy dark red ; flesh firm , crisp , red , good flavou r. Origin: Germany. Star Stella : Fruit very large, reddis h-black; flesh firm , juicy. Tree precocious. Starking Hardy Giant: Fruit large, roundish-heart shaped , firm , juicy, very good flavour. Tree moderately vigorous, spreading , wide branch angles ; very susc to virus diseases. Origin: USA (WI). Starkrimson : Fruit dark red , large; flesh firm , juicy, good quality. Small compact tree of low vigo ur. A self-fertile cultivar from the USA (CA) , primarily used by home gardeners. Stark's Gold = Gold Stella : Fruit heart-shaped , large to very large, dark red , glossy; flesh dark purplish red , fairly firm , good flavour, juicy (red), good quality; stalk fairly long, stone small, semi-free . Tree vigorous, upright, precocious, cropp in g very good. A self-fertile introdu ction from Canada (BC). Stella Compact: A sport of Stella, with a compact habit, only growing 2-3 m high. Strawberry Heart: Fruit small to large , heart-shaped , glossy bright red ; flesh dark yellow, slightly firm , fibrous , juicy (clear) fair quality; large stone . Tree very vigorous erect. Origin : UK (Herls). Sue: Frt Ige, waxy yellow, pink flu sh; flesh firm , sweet, ri ch flav. Hvy bearing . Org: Canada (BC). Sugar Sweet: Fruit medium size, ruby red ; flesh sweet. Tree precocious , heavy cropping. Summit: Fruit very large, heart-shaped , glossy dark red; flesh moderately firm , pale pink, very sweet and aromatic, good flavour ; stone small. Tree vigorous , erect with few branChes ; quite slow to bear, then a moderate cropper. Origin: Canada (BC). Sunburst: Fruit large , round , glossy reddish-black; flesh firm, pale red , juicy, aromatic, very good flavour . Tree vigorous , wide spreading , preco cious. A recent self-fertile intro from Canada (BC L
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Upright: Fruit black , small~medium , very resistant to splitting; sweet pleasant flavour. Tree upright. vigorous; heavy cropping. Origin: UK (Cornwall). Utah Giant: Fruit of very good flavour, borne sing ly. Valera: Fruit medium size , black ; flesh of good flavour. Tree vigorous, precocious , regular cropper. Origin: Canada (Ont). Van: Fruit heart~shaped, large, bright red . very glossy; flesh dark crimson , very firm , sweet. pleasant flavour, moderately juicy (red); stone small, stem very short. Fruits can be small in some areas . Tree very vigorous, upright when young, precocious ; cropping regular , good . Trees may require regular pruning to retain cropping ability. Origin: Canada (BC. Vega: Fruit large, white; flesh firm, sweet; small stone. Venus: Fruit large, glossy pu rple-red; flesh red. moderately firm. Tree vigorous , productive. Vic : Fruit medium to large, dark red; flesh firm, sweet. Tree large, a regular heavy cropper. Viscount: Fruit large, kidney~shaped, glossy dark red; flesh red, firm, juicy (red), very good quality. Tree vigorous, spreading; heavy cropping. A recent introduction from Canada (Ont). Vista: Fruit large; flesh firm. Tree vigorous, productive. Viva: Fruit medium size , dark red; flesh semi-firm. Tree vigorous. Origin: Canada (Out). Vogue: Fruit large , glossy black; flesh firm, sweet; small stone. Tree heavy bearing. Waterloo: Fruit roundish or heart~shaped, medium size, dark red~black , very glossy; flesh dark red, fairly soft, a little fibrous , moderately juicy (red) , good flavour, very good quality; stem stout, stone small. Fruits are rather hidden and scattered. Tree of moderate vigour. compact and round~headed. White Heart: Fruit medium sized, heart~shaped. red over yellow , glossy; flesh pale ye ll ow, very soft , fibrous, fairly juicy (clear) , sweet, fair quality; long stem , large stone . Tree very vigorous , tall, dense and wide-spreading. Windsor: Fruit large or very large, roundish, heart-shaped. glossy dark red; flesh red , moderately firm to soft. juicy (red), good quality. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, rounded ; heavy cropping. Origin: Canada (Ont). Yellow Glass: Fruit large, yellow; flesh firm , juicy, sweet , high quality. A heavy bearer. Yellow Spanish: Fruit crimson and yellow; flesh sweet, rich flavour. Tree very vigorous.
Duke cherry cultivar descriptions

Archduke : Fruits roundish. small to medium size , very dark red, fairly glossy; flesh dark red . soft. often fibrous , moderately juicy (red), sub-acid to sweet, good quality; stem stout, stone small, not free. Tree small, moderately vigorous, erect, open. A very old variety. Belle de Choisy: Duke Cherry for dessert or cooking. Fruit roundiSh , flattened , medium to large, bright browniSh-red with pale yellow streaks, not glossy; flesh very pale yellow , very soft , juicy (uncoloured). sweet with an acid touch, good quality; stem medium length , stone small, not completely free. Tree upright. moderately vigorous , hardy. Empress Eugenie: Fruit medium to large, round , dark crimson. glossy; flesh dark red , soft , juic y, subacid , fair to good quality. Tree moderately vigorous, erect. with few side branches . May Duke: Fruit roundish, medium to large, dark red to black, glossy; flesh dark red, very soft. juicy (red) , sweet, rich flavour, very good quality, good for bottling ; stem medium length, stout , stone small. Tree fairly vigorous, upright, compact , branches slender and straight with short shoots . A good cropper with adequate pollination. Morello A: Fruit medium to large, roundish-oblong, glossy black ; flesh dark red , soft, a little fibrous , juicy (red). acid , good quality. Tree vigorous , becoming less so , making a small , round , drooping head. Susceptible to silverleaf. Morello E: Fruit medium sized, round, black; flesh dark red , very soft , somewhat fibrous , juicy (red) , not very acid , good quality; stone small, stem short. Tree very vigorous , with a dense round head . Olivet: Fruit medium to large, roundish-oblong, glossy red; flesh light red , soft, very juicy (s light colour), subacid, good quality; stone small. Tree fairly vigorous , spreading , dense.
References
These cover both this article and the 'Sour cherries' article in this newsl etter.
Baker, H: The Fruit Garden Displayed. Cassell , 1989. Brogdale Horticultural Trust! Wye College : Catalogue of Cultivars in the United Kingdom National Fruit Collection. MAFF. 1994. Cumm if\s, J : Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties. HortScience, Vo l 26(8), August 1991. Cummins, J: Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties. HortScience , Vol 29(9), 1994. Grubb, N : Cherries. Crosby Lockwood, 1949. Hills , L: The Good Fruit Guide. HDRA, 1984 Moore, J & Ballington Jr, J : Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops. ISHS ,
1990. 1991 .
Ryugo , K: Fruit Culture: Its SCience and Art. Wiley, 1988. Simmons , A : Simmons Manual of Fruit. David & Charles. 1978. Spiers, V: Burcombes, Queenies and Collogetts. West Brendan , 1996. Webster, A & Looney, N: Cherries. CAB International, 1996. Westwood , M: Temperate-Zone Pomol ogy. Timber Press, 1993. Whealy, K & Demuth , S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Inven tory . Seed Saver Publications , 1993. Wolfram , B: 'Namare' und 'Nabigos ' . Erwerbsobstbau 36; 124-126 (1994).
Ogawa , J & English, H: Diseases of Temperate Zone Tree Fru it and Nut Crops. Univ. of Calif,
Forest gardening: Fungi

Introduction
Fungi will appear naturally in time in the forest garden , part icularly mycorrhizal species forming associations with trees and shrubs , and decay fungi attacking live and dead wood. Parasitic fungi, such as the damaging honey fungus (Armillaria spp) may also appear, though unwel come. The fungal species mix, though , can be manipulated through interventions to give crops of good edible species . This can be a particularly good way of usi ng very shady moist areas , eg o under trees with a dense canopy , where other plant crops are hard to grow or yield very little in terms of useful crop. Natural cultu re of mushrooms outdoors basically consists of constructing the substrate (ie what the fungi grow on) , inoculating it with spores or spawn (material impregnated with mycelium - a fungal network of thread-like cells) , and leaving it to the whims of nature, except for occasional watering if necessary. In general , native mushroom species do better than exotic ones. Thi s article considers three classes of fungi of use in the forest garden: Woodland mycorrhizal fungi , wh ich form symbiotic association with tree and shrub roots . Primary decomposers. wood-decomposing fung i, mostly grown on stumps , logs or wood chips. Wood-decompos ing fungi which are grown on wood chips and sawd ust. This article concentrates on fungi that produce good edible mushrooms, and those of medicinal use (seve ral are known to have anti-cancer properties).
Mycorrhizal species
Mycorrhizal fungi are not so easy to cultivate - the best method to encourage these species is to plant young trees whose roots have been inoculated with spores of appropriate species. Deliberately choosing good edible species to inoculate with may lead to crops of mushrooms in later years , though this technique is by no means certain ; it has worked with the Oregon white truffle , Tube r gibbosum, on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings in North America . Several methods of inoculation are feasible (though none guarantees success):
Plant young tree seedlings near the root zones of proven mushroom-producing trees, then transplant them a few years later. Natural infection with mycorrhizal species is likely. Dip the exposed roots of seedlings into water enriched with the spore mass of a mycorrhizal species. Mushrooms are gathered from the wild and soaked in water : thousands of spores are washed off the gills, resulting in an inoculum 'broth '. Several mature mushrooms are used to as bucketful of water, enough to inoculate 100-200 seedlings. Spores are broadcast onto the root zones of likely candidates . Success rates may be low, but little effort is required . Mature mushrooms are gathered and broken up by crushing or blending etc; the mixture then added to sand and well mixed before broadcasting. A handful of soil from the root zones of proven mushroom-producing trees (fro m depths of 5-15 cm! 2_6 is placed around the seedling either in the nursery or soon after planting . Such soil is likely to contain fungal mycelium - indeed it may be visible as fine white threads.
ft )
It is simple to see with the naked eye whether roots have become inoculated with mycorrhiza l fungi - the fine tree roots will be interwoven with slender white mycelium of the fungal species.
The following table lists the most desirable edible mycorrhizal species and their likely cand idate trees. Note that most mycorrhizal species are not host-specific, ie they will form associations with many different species (but usually either coniferous or deciduous trees, not both). Those that are host-specific (Gomphidius, Leccinium) are usually so to a whole genus, not a single species. For more information on mycorrh iza s, see the article in Agroforestry News, Vol 4 No 4.
Wood land mycorrhizal species with good edible mushrooms

latin name Candidates (Habitats) Origin Agaricus abruptibulbus Spruce Europe The Prince Agaricus augutsus Coniferous & deciduous trees Europe Agaricus langei Coniferous & deciduous trees Europe Agaricus lanipes Deciduous trees Europe (@) Agaricus nivescens (@) Red staining mushroom Agaricus silvaticus Coniferous trees Europe, N.America Agaricus silvico/a Can & deciduous trees Europe , N.America The blusher Amanita rubescens Coniferous & dec trees Europe, N.America ("*) Amanita solitaria Dec trees, chalk soil Europe, N.America (*) Amanita umbrinolutea Fir trees Europe (*) Amanita vaginata Dec trees Europe, N.America (*) Grisette Boletus aereus Deciduous trees (esp beech, oak) Europe (@) Boletus aestivalis De ciduous trees (esp beech , oak) Europe (@) Boletus appendiculatus Deciduous trees (esp oak) Europe (@) Bay boletus Boletus badius Mixed trees Europe, N.America Boletus mirabilis N.America (@) Boletus pallescens Europe (@) Boletus pinicola Coniferous trees Europe (@) Boletus pinophilus Pines Europe Boletus pulverulentus Deciduous trees (esp oak) Europe Boletus regius Dec trees (esp oak, lime, birch) Europe (@) Boletus spadiceus Coniferous trees Europe , N.America Cha nterelie Cantharellus cibarius Dec/con tr(esp oak,doug.fir)Europe,N.Amer (@) Cantherellus cinereus Deciduous trees (esp beech) Europe Cantharellus infundibu/iformis Con & deciduous trees Europe, N .America Birch, oak Europe Cortinarius praestans Cortinarius varius Coniferous trees N.America Gomphidius glutinosus Coniferous trees Europe, N.America Hvaroohorus camaroohvllus Pine trees Eurooe Common name
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Latin name Candidates (Habitats) Origin Hygrophorus limacinus Dec trees (esp beech, hornbeam) Europe Hygrophorus poetarum Beech Europe Saffron milk-cap Laclarius deliciosus Pine. spruce Europe, N.America Laclarius deterr;mus Pine. spruce Europe Laclarius sanguifluus Coniferous trees Europe Laclarius vofemus Con & deciduous trees Europe, N.America Leccinium duriusculum Poplars Europe, N.America Leccinium quercinum Oak Europe (@) Orange birch belete Leccinium versipelle Birch Europe, N .Arneri ca Russula alutacea Deciduous trees Europe , N.America Russula aurora Europe Russula brunnroviolacea Deciduous trees (esp oak) Europe Yellow swamp russula Russula claroflava Birch (wet ground) Europe (@) The Charcoal burnerRussula cyanoxantha Deciduous trees Europe, N.America (@) Russula grisea Beech Europe Russula heterophyfla Deciduous trees Europe, N.America Russula ionochlora Beech Europe Russula /utea Deciduous trees Europe, N.America (@) Russula mellio/ens Deciduous trees Europe Russula obscura Coniferous trees N.Europe Russula olivaeea Beech Europe, N.America Russula paludosa Coniferous trees Europe Russula polychroma Coniferous trees Europe, N.America Bare-toothed russula Russula vesea Deciduous trees Europe, N.America Russula virescens De.c trees (esp beech) Europe, N.America (@) Russula xeramnpelina Deciduous trees (esp beech, oak) Europe Tricholoma columbetta Dec & coniferous trees Europe , N.America Trich%ma flavovirens Coniferous trees Europe, N.America Matsutake Tricholoma magnivelare (T.matsutake) Pine Japan (@) Tricholoma populinum Poplar Europe (@) Trich%ma portentosum Coniferous trees Europe, N.America Summer truffle Tuber aestivum Beech on chalk Europe Oregon white truffle Tuber gibbosum Douglas fir W.N.America (@) White truffle Tuber magnatum Deciduous trees Europe (@) Perigord truffle Tuber melanosporum Beech Europe (@)
Common name
'"
take great care in identification - similar species in family are poisonous . poisonous raw. @ mushrooms of these species are valued especially highly.
Primary decomposers
These are the first fungi to capture a stump or log , and are typically fast-growing , sending out strands of mycelium that quickly attach to and decompose plant tissue . Some species of fungi are known to occur on both deciduous and coniferous stumps/logs: note that these are usually two separate strains, and the deciduous strain probably won't inoculate conifer wood and viceve rsa. The species suitable for this type of culture can mostly be cultivated on either logs or stumps; a few prefer one or the other.
Stumps
Stumps in the forest garden are a potential source of trouble , particularly from an invasive parasitic fungus like honey fungus (Armillaria spp.) which may establish there and then spread to healthy trees and shrubs. Removal of stumps, often recommended in gardens and forestry , is difficult and involves a lot of work, and may be physically awkward in a forest garden without damaging other nearby plants. A better, eaSier, and
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a better, easier and more productive method of dealing with stumps is to inoculate them with vigorouS fungi which will colonise the stump before other more harmful species can do so. If the fungi species chosen produce good ed ible mushrooms, a useful crop may emerge from the stump after some months or years. Stumps with their roots intact are particularly good for mushroom cultivation, because water is continuously drawn via capillary action through the dead wood cells from the soil. Stumps in full or part shade (as most will be in a forest garden) are better than those in sun. The open face of a stump is highly susceptibl e to colonisation by wild mushrooms, hence it is important to inoculate a stump within a few months and before the first season of wild mushrooms - old stumps are not worth inoculating, they will already have been colon ised. Large stumps in nature can harbour several species of mushrooms , so that fungal polycultures are also possible for experimentally-inclined cultivators. Small diameter stumps rot faste r and produce a crop of mu shrooms soo ner than bigger stumps, but they have a shorter mushroom-producing life. Th e speed of production depends partly on the speed of colonisation, which is itself dependent on a host of factors including stump density (ie species), moisture content, weather etc; Chicken-of-the-woods has been known to produce mushrooms 8 weeks after oak stump inoculation . Mushroom production in 12-36 months is more com mon . Stumps of species with wood not very durable, ego poplar , willow, will be colonised more quickly, but will crop for a lesser period than durable woods like oak etc. A study of the cultivation of oyster mushrooms on poplar stumps, with inoculation in the spring , led to mushroom production the following autumn and continued in following years; an average of 450 g (1 Ib) mushrooms per stump per year were harvested. Stump inoculation is best undertaken in spring onto new stumps of trees cut in late winter or early spring. Oeciduous tree stumps are generally easier to successfully inoculate than coniferous stumps. The I r ~ .:, J } ; ........ spawn is us uall y purchased from a commercial supplier . j: ~---" Inoculation is by one of several possible methods: , Plug spawn can be inserted into the open face of the ! stump, either in holes specially drilled or in cracks in the face if they exist. (Plug spawn consists of plugs or dowels of birch wood with spiral grooves, lNhich mycelium have fully colonised.) Holes (a total of 30-60) should be drilled I~ ! I : in a circle around the edge of the stump surface (a few cm from the bark), with a few scattered inside this circle across the face . The plugs are inserted by hand, pounded in with a rubber mallet, and (optionally - not strictly necessary) the hole is then covered with cheese-wax ,/'1 I (painted on) to protect the mycelium from insect or ,<c....'-~_~ weather damage. By wedge or disc inoculation: using a bow or chain Wedge & disc inoculation of a stump saw, a wedge is cut or a shallow disc is sliced from the open face of the stump; the newly cut faces are packed with sawdust spawn (ie mycelium grown in a sawdust substrate) and the cut wedge/disc replaced and secured with a few nails. All ow about 30-50 g of sawdust spawn per log.
il.): ,..
I}, ' /
Log culture
Log culture was developed over 1000 years ago in China and Japan, and is still an important technique there now, as well as being increasingly popular in other regions.
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- #
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M
Logs are usually cut from healthy trees in the winter or early spring before leafing , when the sapwood is rich in sugars , to a length of 50-120 em (20-48") and diameter of 10-25 em (4 Commercial growers use 10 cml 4 diameter logs, and these are much easier to 10 physically move and manage than larger logs. Most hardwoods from deciduous trees can be used ; logs with softer woods (eg alder, birch , poplar) start producing mushrooms very quickly but may last only three years; logs with harder but non-durable wood (eg. beech , cherry) take a little longer to start cropping, and last about 5 years ; logs from trees with dense , durable hard wood like oaks, may take 2 years to crop but will outlast the others - these logs, with thick outer barks (necessary for good mushroom flushes), are preferred by commercia growers to the softer woods with thin bark which are easily damaged by weather fluctuations The logs are ideally kept off the ground , and cool and moist, before inoculation , to prevent contamination. Inoculation takes place within 2 months of felling , and is by one of several methods : By inserting sawdust or plug spawn (bought from a commercial supplier) into drilled holes along the log. Logs receive 30-50 plugs, inserted into evenly-spaced holes 10- 15 cm (4-6") apart in a diamond pattern. The plugs are inserted by hand , pounded in with a rubber mallet, and the hole is then covered with cheese-wax (painted on) to protect the mycelium from insect or weather damage. By placing newly cut logs near to logs already producing mushrooms so that the spores are broadcast onto them . Though not totally reliable, this method has long been used by Japanese cultivators with good rates of success; logs showing no fungal growth after a year are removed from the production area. Similar to stump inoculation , wedges can be cut from the log, packed with sawdust spawn , with the wedge nailed back in position. A variation is to cut the log into 40-60 cm (16_24") sections , sandwich spawn between , and nail together. A further variation is to pack the ends of the log with sawdust spawn and cap them with aluminium foil to hold the mycelium in place. Allow about 30-50 9 of sawdust spawn per log. After inoculation , logs are stacked in ricks (see picture above) and covered with a tarpaulin! plastic/ carpets etc (to keep them moist) for 6-12 months. It may take up to 20 months for the fungus to completely colonise the log. when white mycelium appears at both ends of the logs. Then, mushroom formation is initiated by soaking or heavily watering the logs , after which they are lined up vertically in fence-like rows ; they should be situated in permanent shade (about 60%) where there is some air movement. In climates with severe dry spells , or where watering is not feasible , or where the fungus species prefers moister conditions, the logs can have their lower 25-30 cm (10-12 ") buried into the ground. The logs are best in shade so they don't dry out too much.
M ).
Fungi with good edible mushrooms suited to log and stump culture
Two of the easiest of these are the Brown swordbelt , Agrocybe cyfindracea, and the Indian oyster, Pleurotus pulmonarius. None of the species listed below will seriously affect the health of living trees in proximity to the fruiting logs , even if the trees are old or diseased and become infected themselves. Common name Latin name Candidates (Habitats) Origin Brown swordbelt Agrocybe cyfindracea Dec logs/stumps (esp poplar/willow/Acer)Temp rgns Enoki, Velvet shankFlammulina velutipes Dec & can logs/stumps Temperate rgns (= ) Hen-of-the-woods Grifola frondosa Dec (& con) logs/ stumps N.temp. regions Fungus icicles Hericium coral/oides Deciduous & coniferous logs/stumps Europe Lion's Mane Hericium erinaceus Dec logs/stumps (logs pt buried) Temp rgns Hericium ramosum Dec logs/stumps (esp beech) Europe Smoky gilled Hypholoma Hypho/oma capnoides Dec & coniferous stumps Europe, N.America Brick caps Hypho/oma sublateritium Dec logs & stumps N.America ,Europe,Asia Beech mushroom Hypsizygus tessularius Deciduous logs & stumps Temperate regions Elm oyster mushroom Hypsizygus ulmatus Dec & can logs/stumps Temperate regions Chicken of the woods Laetiporus sulphureus Dec & can logs/stumps Europe,N .America Shiitake Lentinula edodes (Trichofomopsis e.) Dec (esp oak) Japan , China , Korea Nameko mushroom Pholiota nameko Deciduous logs, part buried Japan ,
Common name Latin name Candidates (Habitats) Origin Abalone mushroomPleurotus cystidiosus Deciduous stumps Temperate region s Pleurotus eryngii Deciduous & can logs/stumps Mediterranean King oyster Tarragon oyster mushroom Pleurotus euosmus Deciduous logs/s tumps (esp. elm) Britain only Oyster mushrooms Pleurotus ostreatus Dec & can logs/s tumps Temperate regions Grey oyster mushrm Pleurotus pulmonarius Dec & can logs/s tumps Europe,N.America Phoenix oyster m. Pleurotus sajor-caju Deciduous & can logs/s tump s Subtrop.Himalaya Pluteus petasatus Deciduou s logs/stumps Europe Ca uliflower mushrm Sparassis crispa Coniferous logs/stumps Europe, N.America Volvariella bombycina Dec logs/stumps (esp elm) Europe, N .Am erica
=
Be careful not to confuse this with the poisonous Galerina autumnalis.
Medicinal fungi suited to log and stump culture

Common name Lat i n name Candidates (Habitats) Origin Jew's ear, Wood ear Auricularia auricula-judas Deciduous logs Europe, N.America (+) Wood ears Auricularia po/ytricha Dec & can logs Temperate regions (++) Reishi Ganoderma lucidum Dec (& coniferous) logs/stumps Temp. rgns (+) Porcelain fungus Oudemansiella mucida Dec logs (esp beech) Europe, N.America (+) + Also edible, though poor quality. ++ Also edible, though not flavourful , but high ly prized in Asia.
.\./ ~-:~)
..
ungi for outside wood chip I sawdust culture
In a forest garden, piles of sawdust or wood chips may be freely available (or may be from a local sawmill) and can be used as a substrate in which to grow fungi . It is important the sawdust! wood chips are fresh . The best substrate of this I Ji 1 kind is a mixture of 50:50 sawdust and chips (by volume). I 1 Spring is the best time for inoculation. Before inoculation , the ~ substrate is moistened to near saturation . The spawn is then thoroughly mixed in . Competition from wild species is l particularly strong using this type of substrate, and a relatively high rate of inoculation is necessary: 3:1 substrate: spawn to minimise competition from other fungi, down to 10:1 or 20: 1 if some competition is allowed (ratios by volume). , 'I , Sawdust spawn is best , though using collected mushrooms as for mycorrhizal species can also be tried, as can using collected mycelium from 5-15 cm (2-6~) deep beneath established fruiting patches. The bed is again watered after inoculation and covered with cloth , cardboard, carpet etc to protect the mycelium from dehydration and sun exposure. Colonisation can take from a few weeks to several months . After the new mycelial mat has established , the patch can be triggered into fruiting by frequent watering ; the covers are left off but the bed should be in shade. After the second year, more substrate can be added and mixed in . Such a wood chipl sawdust bed should last 3-4 years with hardwood chips. The king stropharia (Stropharia rugosa-annulata) can be easily transplanted: the trimmings from the base of the stem of a mushroom , resplendent with thick white rhizomorphs , quickly regrow when placed in contact with woody debris.
J. , ,
.
I,':
"
., !.
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!. 1 ,
Fungi with good edible mushrooms suited to wood chip culture

Common name Brown swo rdbeJt Shaggy mane Latin name Agrocybe cylindracea Coprinus comatus Recommended substrate Origin Wood chips Temp/s ubtrop rgn s Hardwood sawdust Temperate regions
Page 3
Recommended substrate Origin Common name Latin name Enoki , Velvet shank Flammulina velutipes Dec/coniferous sawdust Temperate rgns(= ) Beech mushroom Hypsizygus tessularius Wood chips Temperate regions Hardwood sawdust (esp oak) Japan, Shiitake Lentinula edodes China , Korea Japan, Nameko mushroom Pholiota nameko Hardwood sawdust China ~ Taiwan Golden oyster mushroom Pleuratus cornucopiae Hardwood sawdust Temp.lsubtropic rgns Abalone mushroom Pleuratus cystidiosus Hardwood sawdust Temperate regions King oyster Pleuratus eryngii Dec/coniferous sawdust Mediterran., Asia Tarragon oyster mushroom Pleurotus euosmus Hardwood sawdust Britain only Oyster mushrooms Pleuratus ostreatus Dec/coniferous sawdust Temperate regions Grey oyster mushrm Pleuratus pulmonarius Dec/coniferous sawdust Europe,N.America Phoenix oyster m. Pleuratus sajor-caju Dec/coniferous sawdust Subtrop.Himalaya Pluteus petasatus Deciduous wood chips/sawdust Europe King stropharia Strapharia rugosa-annufata Wood chips & sawdust Temperate regions
Pests
Slugs: can devastate young mushrooms. With log culture, the logs can be temporarily moved to a drier site while they fruit , or perhaps they could be placed on a mulch of sand/ hair/ shell I other slug-deterrent substance. With stumps , wood chip beds and ground fungi , there aren't many options - pick mushrooms early and carry out general slug-deterring practices. Fungus fly larvae: these are the tiny 'worms ' which are often found in wild fungi which have 'gone over' . Harvest mushrooms young , before the flies get to them. Mushrooms fruiting in cool weather are less prone to damage.
Recommended mushroom identification guides
Harding, P, Lyon , T & Tobmlin , G: How to Identify Edible Mushrooms. HarperCollins, 1996. Jordan , Michael: Edible Mushrooms & Other Fungi. Cassell, 1995. Jordan, Michael: The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. David & Charles, 1995. Lincoff, Gary: The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms. A A Knopf , 1991. Pegler, David: Field Guide to the Mushroom.s of Britain and Europe. Kingfisher Books, 1990. Phillips, Roger: Mushrooms and other Fungi of Great Britain and Europe. Pan, 1981. Smith , A & Smith Weber, N : The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide. Univ. of Michigan Press , 1980.
Mushroom spawn suppliers

The UK has few mushroom spawn suppliers apart from those supplying button mushroom kits. North America is much better served, and several of these will send spawn throughout- the world. Several other American suppliers exist (see 5tamets for details). Future Foods , POBox 1564, Wedmore , Somerset, B528 4DP. UK. Currently under reorganisation - previously supplied spawn. Fungi Perfecli, POBox 7634, Olympia, WA 98507, USA. Tel: (206) 426-9292, Fax: (206) 426-9377. MushroomPeople, POBox 220, Summerlown, TN 38483-0220 , USA. Tel: (615) 964-2200. MycobJank, Oude Gaverse Steenweg 70, 9820 Merelbeke, BELGIUM . Tel: 0032 (0) 92302449, Fax: 0032 (0) 92318695. Rainlree Nursery, 391 Bults Road, Morton, WA 98356, USA. Tel: (206) 496-6400.
References
Crawford , Martin: Useful Plants for Temperate Climates , Volume 5: Algae , Fungi & Lichens. ART , 1993.
Book Reviews
Essential Oil Crops
E A Weiss
CAB tnternationat, 1996; 608 pp; 75.00 (US $135.00). tSBN 0-85199-137-8 (Hardback) Plants producing an aromatic oil, fruit or seed have been used in religious ceremonies, for personal use and adornment, and for flavouring throughout history. Today there is still considerable pressure by consumers worldwide to use natural compounds in edible and personal products. This book is intended for essential oil producers, to enable them to respond to this demand efficiently. economically and reliably. An initial chapter gives an overview of the world trade in essential oils: the figures given underline the increasing commercial importance of these substances - for example, through the 1980's the UK annually imported 275 tonnes of Eucalyptus oil and 620 tonnes of mint oils amoung others; in 1994 the USA imported 205 tonnes of Citrus oil , 465 tonnes of Eucalyptus oil, 339 tonnes lavender oil, 305 tonnes peppermint oil, 5 tonnes of rose oil etc. The main 13 chapters each cover a different plant family . A brief history of the recent uses and development of the crop is given and the cultivation and care of the crop is discussed ; current research findings and recommendations for improved cultivation practices are also included. Ways of adding value to the crop, such as extracting the oil, are also discussed. Although the majority of species included in these chapters are of tropical origin, a number are of temperate origin and suitable for growing in temperate climates. These in clude Geranium macrorrhium for Geranium oil (a semi -evergreen perennial, a useful ground cover plant and very shade tolerant ; good scope for intercropping this beneath a tree crop); Sassafras albidum for Sassafras oil (a North American tree); Laurus nobilis for Laurel leaf oil (the familiar large sh rub or sma ll tree producing bay leaves); Eucalyptus species for Eucalyptus oil; Myrtus communis for Myrtle oil (a Mediterranean shrub) ; Jasminum spp for Rosa spp (including R.centifolia, R.damascena, Jasm ine oil (shrubs, some hardy): R.moschata, R.multiflora and R.rugosa) for Rose oi l. A final chapter covers the distillation and extraction of essential oils. This begins with a brief history: distillation dates back at least to 3000 B.C. (a terracotta still has been found from the Ind us valley civilisations), and methods have gradually evolved since. Earlier this ce ntury, most stills were small-scale and of ingenious low-cost design, but much of the oil produced was of poor quality. More efficient plants can be built inexpensively, although modern computer-controlled plants which accurately control oil composition are expensive. Various methods of obtaining essential oils are then described and illustrated with drawings and flowcharts. The book is a key reference for researchers and agrono mi sts concerned with essentia l oil crops.
Fungi and environmental change

Frankland, J C, Magan, N & Gadd, G M (Eds)
Cambridge Uni ve rsity Press , 1996; 351 pp; 60.00. ISBN 0-521-49586-5 (Hardback).
**
Despite the upsurge in interest on environmental issues, fungi , vita l to the functioning of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems , are rarely mentioned. This volume helps redress this imbala nce by examining the effects on fungi of environmental changes such as global warming, increases in UV radiation and pollution. The effects of global climate changes on the relations between fungal pathogens and their woody hosts are discussed: the pathogenic activity of such fungi can be certain ly be affected by increasing temperatures, and the example of Phytophthora cinnamomi (ink disease) in Europe shows that it is likely to become as seri ous a disease in Britain after a 3e temperature rise as it is at present in southern Europe. Warmer winters may allow many of the fungi which cause stem cankers and shoot dieback to become more active. More droughts may damage mycorrhizal fungi and thus indirectly affect plant growth and health. Increasi ng UV rad iation, due to ozone depletion , may have complex effects on both fungi and plants. It is poss ible that the normal patterns of succession of decay-causing organisms might be disturbed both before leaf fall and as long as leaf litter is exposed to sunlight. Loss of specific habitats and pollution are thought to be the causes of a decline over several decades of both numbers and range of woodland & grassland fungi, particularly mycorrhizal species - including boletes (Boletus spp), Cantharellus spp , Cortinarius spp, Hygrocybe spp , Hygrophorus spp and Tricholoma spp. The causes of these declines are complex, but include loss of habitat and various pollution sources: acid and nitrogen deposition, aluminium, heavy metals , and radioactive particles have all been implicated . There is also evidence of severa l species of fungi which appear to be colon ising in Britain , moving northwards and westwards , probably due to global warming. Other chapters include the effects of environmental stress on mycorrhizas , the uptake of radioactive Caesium by fungi following Ch.ernobyl , the implications of rising sea levels for dune fungi , the effects of pollutants on lichens, and the use of fungi which take up heavy metals and radioactive substances for the biological restoration of polluted effluents . ThiS timely review, which reminds us just how important fungi are in our world , will be of interest to mycologists, ecologists and others concerned with environmental change.
Page 40
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturei horticulture to produce a diverse, producti ve and resilient system for producing food, materials, timber and other products. It can range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are: 18 per year in Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged) 22 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per year for institutions. A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on request for 3 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per copy including postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to ' Agroforestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
Volume 6 Number 1
October 1997
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 6 Number 1
October 1997
Contents
2 5 13 17 20 30 36 News Forest Gardening: Ground cover polycultures The bayberries: Myrica species Basketry willows The hickories Pest & Disease series: Fireblight Book reviews:
Temperate Agroforestry Systems Iintercropping and the Scientific Basis of Traditional Agriculture I Plants for a Future I Biological Indicators of Soil Health
40
Classified adverts
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed. and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common fannat. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader. should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species . The editor. authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions : Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington. Totnes , Devon , T09 6JT. U.K. Email: AgroResTr@aol.com.
Page 1
News
Hydraulic lift and drop
Hydraulic lift is the name given to the well -kn own process which occurs when water is transported from de,ep moist soil by tree roots and relea sed into drier soil near the surface. This process is thought to be passive, with roots acting as conduits for water between soil layers, and during dry periods, hydraulic lift can assist plants in obtaining resources; this has potentially important implications for species interactions in agroforestry and mixed cropping systems, because water released into the soil by tree roots can be utilised by neighbouring plants. New evidence has now emerged that the reverse process can also occur, ie that under some conditions, foots of trees may siphon water downwards to deeper soil layers, where it can be stored for later use, beyond the reach of crop roots . This can occu r when the surface layer is wetter than the drier sub-surface layer , for example after a long drought period follo wed by light rains. Whe reas hydraulic lift may reduce the competitiveness of trees by making water available to other plants, this 'hydraulic drop' may enhance their competitiveness, by transferring resources away from the zones that are accessible to crops. In any case, the evidence that trees can thus 'regu late ' the soil moisture content by moving water up and down the soil layers furthers the argument for integrating more trees into agricultural systems.
Source: M Smith , N Jackson. J Roberts: A new direction in hydraulic lift. Agroforestry Forum VolS No 1.
Bats and birds in orchards

French research has found that an adult coal tit can annually consume 12.000 to 18 ,000 codling moth caterpillars which are hibernating in bark crevices on orchard trees; this is more than consumed by spiders and other insects put together - an amazing amount for one bird. Bats are similar gluttons: pipistrelles consume at least 15 Kg of insects per summer. As for owls , they are especially useful for tackling rode nts, eliminating 200-300 per year.
Source: Arboriculture Fruitiere. March 1997.
Alley cropping in China

Intercroppi ng using the fast-growing Paulowni.a (PauJownia eJonga/a) is well established in China. In their Paulownia intercropping system, the trees rapidly grow to usable sizes: Age average dbh average height average volume use 5 years 19.9 cm 7.8 m 0.12 m 3 purlin s 3 8 yea rs 29.5 cm 10.35 m 0.37 m boards 11 years 38.4 em 12.46 m 0.54 3 plywood Trees are planted at 5 m spacing in rows which are 20 m apart. with tillage crops grown in the alleys between trees. Ught penetration through Paulownia crowns is relatively high , despite a large crown - higher than willows, for example. The intercropped species are chosen to be partially shade tolerant. Most of the tree roots are distributed under the tillage layer (0-40 cm deep), hence wheat, millet and corn (maize) are all well suited to intercropping. In terms of microclimate, the intercropping system leads to soi l and air temperatures tending to be coole r in the day and warmer at night compared with monocropped controls . Wa ter stress is reduced as a result of cooler temperatures and reduced winds. This intercropp ing system has been extended to some 3 million hectares (7% million acres) in Northern China. where it is playing a major role in ensuring high and stable crop production , resulting in significant economic gains.
Source: The Temperate Agroforester. Volume 5 Number 3 .
Page 2
Protecting tree crops from birds

The following advice comes from an article by Lisa Stapleton in Fruit Gardener, the journal of Californ ia Rare Fruit Growers Inc. It follows her own experiences in trying to prote ct her mulberry trees from bird predation over a 4 month cropping period- a tough proposition , as mulberries are much loved by several bird species. On the other hand , anything that can keep bird s off mulberries is likely to work just as well or better with any other fruit crop, including such bird-loved crops as cherries. She had already decided against using nets. Noise . Tried wind chimes , and a joke ~ traffic relaxer~ which makes noises such as a bomb blast. an air-raid siren, and a Star Trek phaser blast (you are supposed to aim it at traffic and press the different buttons as a stress reliever when stuck in traffic). Results: ineffective, perhaps saving 5-10% of the crop. A side effect was some well-fed birds who could do reasonable imitations of bomb blasts, sirens, phasers etc. Using fake plastic owls , which scare off other birds. Tried two kinds: the kind which inflate like beach bails , and the hard plastic kind which hang from a string. Results : quite good, saving some 50% of the crop. The hard plastic variety was much more practical. the inflalables easily blowing from trees. Even the solid type need regular moving . Using inflatable plastic snakes, again as a scare. These stay in place better than the owls and appear to move as the wind moves the branches . Results: good, saving some 75 % of the crop. The snakes too need moving on a regular basis for best effect. Planting fruit varieties with white or cream coloured fruits (with mulberries , this is nol necessarily the white mulberry which can ha ve coloured fruits!) In theory, the birds don't get the yellow --+ red --+ purple visual cue that the fruit is ripe , so they leave it alone . Results: amazingly good, the birds didn't touch the crop at all. Using 'flash-tape' as a scare. This is a mylar tape that is silver on one side, red on the other , and highly reflective , producing random bright flashes in any breeze . Results : very good and highly effective, saving 85-95% of the crop. [ Not available in the UK as far as I am aware -
MC]
Stapleton now uses a mixture of the above - solid plastic owls, inflatable snakes, flash tape, and some white-fruited varieties - and as a result enjoys virtually the whole crop of mulberries . In add ition to the above, the following methods are also worth trying to deter birds: Tape from audio cassettes or video tapes works on the same principle as flash tape and is virtually free if used from exp ired or disliked tapes . Thoug h not so bright it certain ly works reasonably well and is often used by gardeners to help keep birds off cabbages and soft fruit. Bird scaring tape/humming line. This is a commercially available tape which vibrates and hums in the slightest breeze . Better for ground-level crops than tree crops, because it needs stretching reasonably tightly horizontally between two fixed points , though it could be stretched between tree trunks. Aluminium foil strips . These are available comme rcia lly and combine the flashing effect of flash tape and a rattling noise in wind. Likely to be very effective against birds . Claimed to be effective against rabbits and deer as well. Only last a season though - less if very windy . Electric fencing wires . These have been tried with some success in Australia , with bird species which perch on wires . Two close parallel wires are needed, one live and the other earthed, so that birds landing on the wires receive a shock . Obvious drawbacks are the risk of the wires touching and shorting (they will need frequent stakes) , and the time involved in setting up the wires . A variation on this , recently suggested in 'Quandong' (the magazine of the West Australian Nut & Tree Crop Association), to deter birds in trees themselves , is to tape pairs of wi re s onto lengths of black irrigation pipe and to suspe nd these in the attacked trees with loops of insulating tape .
Page 3
Mycorrhizae and soil flora revisited

A leader in mycorrhizal fungi research , Dr Robert Linderman of Oregon State University, has shown that the right strain of fungi can actually double the number of roots in potted nursery stock, making the plants more resistant to drought and aiding establ ishment after planting. Another interesting result shows that mycorrhizae can improve soil structure: when ce rtain types penetrate plant root cells, they cause the foots to exude substances, one of the effects of which is to cause soil particles to aggregate and open up the soil structure to allow better movement of water and oxygen. Fungi may also produce compounds which allow them to Qut-compete other microorganisr(1s for available organic nitrogen and phosphorus. Another interesting revelation is that fungal threads (hyphae) from one species can spread through the soil and connect with threads of different fungal species on other plants. In effect this means that as the network of hyphae becomes well established over an area, all of the plants in the area are tied together into one giant community, presumably able to exchange substances and nutrition with each other. ( this could be one more reason why polycultures function better than monocultures, different species exchanging and balancing nutrition and moisture within the commun ity.] With established forests with extensive fungal mats, seedling trees in the middle of such established stands can obtain as much as 30% of the photosynthates (compounds produced by plants through photosynthesis) from other mature trees, ie as much as a third of their nutrition can come from older establi shed trees.
Bacteria
While fungi are undoubtedly important, other microflora such as bacteria may have an even greater role. While the fungi provide the connections, it now appears that bacteria travel on and eve n in the fungal threads, often moving into and out of the plants, both producing and acquiring substances and carrying them into plants as they go. Some bacteria are so closely associated with fungi that when the fungi form spores, bacteria spores can be found with them , ready to germinate at the same time. But bacteria almost certainly have a more important function, in their role as great metabolisers of all sorts of complicated molecu les. Some well-known examples are the Rhizobium and Frankia bacteria which colonise the roots of nitrogen-fixing plants; but in addition to fixing nitrogen, it is very likely that they help make other elemental plant nutrients (phosp horus, potassium etc.) more readily available to plants. It is but a short step to hypothesise that they can playa similar role with more complex substances. If a plant had the means available to take in large molecules via bacteria it could save metabolic energy by not having to build them from scratch - a great advantage. , The unproven but likely hypothesis is that bacteria can pick up large molecules (eg. humic acids) and transport them into plants, by penetrating directly into plant cells. in exchange for substances they need from the plant. Humic acids are common in compost. leaf mold and other decayed organic material. and this may explain why, for example, compost is such a valuable plant food and why less compost is needed than simple mineral fertilisers of the same content to achieve the same growth. It may also explain why organica ll y grown food tastes better - plants grown with compost would have a greater supply or pre-built molecules to convert to flavour compounds than plants grown with chemical fertilisers. In Germany, Or Toni Gradl is developing a series of biostimulators ('E lorisan '), using the following approach: since the bacteria involved in plant growth are more or less universal, substances can be found which inhibit the metabolic processes in some (less desirable) bacteria and enhance it in others. Very small amounts of these substances are needed - literally ounces per acre - and their effects are to make cell membranes less or more permeable, in the process retarding or boosting the cell metabolism . As the beneficial bacteria increase , they make nutrients available to plants at a higher rate , as well as speeding up production of hormone-like substances that increase the plant's growth rate. Treated plants produce more foliage and higher yields of fruit. One drawback of this approach is that a unique mix of inhibitors/stimulants is needed for each crop species, hence a lot of work is needed to find the optimum mix , and these biostimulators are only available at present for a number of large-scale commercial crops - grass, potatoes, grains. Elorisan products: Bugico, S.A., 308 Route de Saint Cergue, 1260 Nyon, Switzerland. Bio-Organics, 3200 Corte Maplaso, #107, Camarillo, CA 93012, USA.
Page 4
Forest gardening:
ground cover polycultures
Introduction
In the same way as any collection of different species growing together tend to utilise available resources more efficiently, ground covers consisting of a mixture of plant s tend to do the same
compared with a single species used to cover an area.

It is well documented thai a number of species growing together: Utilise the soil space more efficiently by having rool systems of different character, thus utilising available soil nutrients more efficiently ; Utilise the available sunlight more efficiently by having shoot and leaf systems of different character, usually interweaving and intercepting a higher total of light - and thus making a better ground cover by redu cing the amount of light reaching the soi l surface; Are less susceptible to major damage from pests and diseases , since usually only one species is affected at a time . As with all polycultures, there may be disadvantages as well, particularly with ease of harvesting : gathering fruits, leaves etc will take longer and thus be more labour-intensive than monocultures . There are ways of getting around this, however, particularly by planting ground covers of different heights - see below for more information. Occasionally . one plant may be detrimental to another and restrict the others growth (eg. by chemical exudates from the roots) but this seems to rare and the exception. One species case of beneficial interaction is when one species is a nitrogen-fixing plant. Though there are not many ground cover species which are N-fixers. these are well-worth considering as they will help feed the whole ground cover layer and reduce the decline in density which can occur when some ground cover plants are unfed for years on end .
Ground cover plants

These plants fall into several natural categories . For the purpose of this article . I have avoided annu als , biennials. and plants over about 1.2 m (4 tt ) high - a very few annuals & biennials can hold their own in a perennial garden, and plants over 1.2 m high are usually considered as part of the shrub layer. The categories left, then, are: Clumping perennials . These may be deciduous (ie die down to the ground each winter) or evergreen . They grow in a fairly well-behaved clump , perha ps spreading slowly via rhizomes or seed . Running perennials . Again, these may be deciduous or evergreen . Their habit is to spread rapidly , usually via rhizomes, stolo ns (runners) or ro oting shoots. They tend to weave amongst other plants and quickly fill gaps between plants where there is more bare soil andlor light. Prostrate or small shrubs . These may be deciduous (losing their leaves in winter but retaining woody shoots) or evergreen . They tend to be clump-forming and slow-spreading, though there are exceptions. Running shrubs. Similar to running perennials but with woody stems .
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Mixing ground cover plants

Any of the above types of plants can be mixed together in a ground cover layer. In terms of efficiency of ground cover, evergreen plants tend to do a better job; and mixing at teast one running perennial species amongst clumping/shrub species makes a big difference. In mixing different types of plant together, the different habits necessitate some consideration of their relative heights, light requirements , spread and planting time/distance/pattern; these are discussed in the list of different combinations below. This list considers just two different types at a time, but there is no reason why more species should not be added, though the increase in benefits (in terms of efficiency of cover & resource use) slows as more species are added. Note : ' Planting distance' here means the standard recommended planting distance for a single species to form a ground cover within 1-2 years. When mixing plant species together. planting patterns become relevant. For plants with a clumping habit, this is easy when they have a similar spread and planting distance - this planting distance is retained and the plants merely mixed in the even pattern (Fig. 1). For clumping plants with different spreads, though, the only efficient ways to cover the ground are either to have similar numbers of each species with the smaller taking much less area (Fig. 2), or to have many more of one species than the other per unit area (Fig. 3). Increasing the number of the smaller spp may mean having to plant in patches of single spp, which somewhat negates the point of mixing species in the first place.
Fig. 1 Two clumping species, A and B, similar spreads and with recommended standard planting distances. These are easy to interplant while maximising species interaction - merely alternate plants , using the same planting distance, as shown here. Alternatively, the species can be planted randomly or in lines.
Fig.2 Here. the spread of species A is twice that of species B. To plant using the same number of each species means that species B covers much less area than A (abou t a quarter of the area). Another consequence is that species interaction (the amount of different species edges touching) is quite small.
Fig.3 Again, the spread of species A is twice that of species B. To achieve roughly equal areas of each species, whi le maximising species interaction, requires four or five limes as many plants of species B than species A . Species A is planted here at twice its standard planting distance - any distance smaller than this (apart from touching as in Fig. 2) is impractical for efficienlly fitting numbers of species B in the gaps.
Mixing clumping plants with running plants is much easier, though - the planting distances are not so critical because the running plants will quickly spread to fill all the bare areas. (Fig. 4). Fig.4 A clumping species, A, is interplanted with a running species X. Species A is planted in alternate positions in a staggered planting at its standard planting distance, with species X interplanted at the same spacing. If X was more vigorous, A could be planted more widely; if less vigorous, less widely.
Clumping perennial + Clumping perennial

Planting: Best planted at the same time, otherwise one may we ll overpower the other. If of similar height and spread, p lant at the standard planting distance, mixing the plants in rows or randomly. Habits: Best if either both deciduous or both evergreen. Heights: Easiest if roughly the same height and spread. Light: If the same height, they should have the same light requirements. If one is smaller than the other, it should have lower light requirements (ie will tolerate more shade). Examole: Crambe maritima (Seakale) + Bergenia cordifolia. Both of these perennials are planted at 60 cm spacing, so can easily be mixed. The sea kale, quite light demanding, grows sl ightly taller than the Bergenia, but the latter is evergreen and can tolerate considerable shade.
,
Clumping perennial + Shrub
Planting: If the shrub is Quite vigorous, they can be planted at the same time . Many shrubs are less vigorous than perennials . though , in wh ich case the shrubs can be planted a year before the perennials. If the spreads are similar, plant at the sta ndard planting distan ce, mixing in rows or randomly; if the spreads are dissimilar, it is best to have a lot more of one species than the other to fill the space efficiently. Habits: The shrub can be evergreen or deciduous, as ca n the perennial. Heights: Best if the shrub is larger than the perennial , otherwise it may get swamped. This is especially important if the shrub is deciduous and the perennial evergreen. Ught: Should have similar requirements, or the perennial can hav e slightly lower requirements (depending on the height difference.) Example : Chaenomeles japonica (Japanese Quince) + Cafamintha grandiflora (Calamint). The Quince , a small deciduous shrub, grows to about 90 em high ; the calamint is a perennial growing to 4560 cm high. As long as the Quince plants are large enough at planting, all can be planted together . The ca lamint rapidly forms a blanket beneath the growing Quince plants, which cast only light shade.
Clumping perennial + Running perennial/shrub

Planting: Best planted at the same time, of the clumper can be planted a year before. Plant the clumper at slightly more than its usual planting distance (1.2 to 2 times, depending on the vigour of the runner) and interplant with a similar number of the runner spread throughout. Habits: Either can be deciduous or evergreen. The one combination which may cause problems is evergreen clumper + deciduous runner , when the runner may get swamped. Heights: The runner needs to be smaller than the clumper. Ught: The runner should ha ve simi lar or slightly lower light requirements than the clumper. Example : Melissa officinalis (Lemon balm) + Gfechoma hederacea (Ground ivy) . Lemon balm is a vigorous clumping perennial , dying down each winter; planted at its standard spacing it makes a good cover on its own. Ground ivy is an evergreen perennial runner , spreading fast via rooting stems. This will grow between the balm plants, which can be planted at wider than normal spacing , and as it tolerates deep shade, it will survive the summer months when the balm towers over it; in the winter months it will come into its own , continuing to protect the soil with plant cover.
Shrub + Running perennial/shrub

Planting : Can be planted at the same time if the clumping shrub is vigorous , otherwise it is better to plant the shrub a year before and underplant the runner. Plant the shrub at slightly more than its usual pla nting distance (1 .2 to 2 times , depending on the vigour of the runner) and interplant with a similar number of the runner spread throughout. Habits: Either can be deciduous or evergreen. The one combination which may cause problems is evergreen shrub + deciduous runner, when the runner may get swamped . Heights: The clumping shrub shou ld Quickly grow taller than the runner . Ught: The runner shou ld have sim ilar or sl ightl y lower light requirements than the clumping shrub. Example: Juniperus communis nan a (Dwarf juniper) + Comus canadensis (Dwa rf cornel , Bunchberry) . The eve rgreen juniper is moderately fast growing and usually planted at 60 em costly in plants as they cannot be raised from seed . If planted more widely , they can be interplanted with the dwarf cornel , which is a semievergreen or deciduous perennial which spreads quick ly via underground shoots ; this is very shade tolerant and will enjoy the conditions beneath the juniper.
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Shrub + Shrub
" -
Similar in most respects to clumping perennial + clumping perennial above .

Example : Cytisus x beanii + Mitchel/a repens (Partridge berry) . The Cytisus , a dwarf broom , grows to around 50 em high, but on ly makes a reasonable ground cover on its own in sun. It can be underplanted with the partridge berry , a ground hugging evergreen shrub which
tolerates considerable shade . Both these species are normally planted at 30 em , hence mixing
them is easy .
Running perennial/shrub + Running perennial/shrub

Plantin g: Shou ld be planted at the same time. Plant at the standa rd planting distances for
both species, in patches or randomly. Habit s: Best if both deciduous or both evergreen. If there is one of each, and the evergreen
species forms a dense cover, then it will probably swamp out the deciduous species. Heights: Ca n differ or be simifar. Light: Simil ar requirements if similar heights. otherwise the lower shou ld have lower light requirements. Example: Duchesnea indica (False strawberry) + Lysimachia nummularia (Creeping jenny). Both of these runners tolerate quite deep shade ; the Duchesnea sends out long stra wberrylike runners and it taller but less dense; the Lysimachia sends out rooting stems , is smaller , ground-hugging and denser. Together they make a good combined cover.
Minimising harvesting complications

Having a mixture of species in a ground cover layer obvious ly complicates any harvesting of plant parts for food , medicinal use etc. Remember , though, that in many cases , harvesting will be light anyway in this layer (eg . of leaves - too many picked will thin the ground cover too much). The most useful method of reducing the complications of harvesting is to mix species which grow at distinct different heights . This could even allow for a commercia l herb crop , for example by growing a larger peren nia l herb like lemon balm (Melissa officinafis) with a low growing running cover like ground ivy (G/echoma hederacea) , where the herb can be cut at say 25 cm (10 ~ ) above ground by hand or mechanically . A variation on the height difference scheme is to have the taller species deciduous in habit, with a summer 'crop ' to harvest , alon g with an evergreen lower species with an autumn or winter 'crop': both species will be easily accessible and visible when th ey are requi red .
Running perennial/shrub species list

It is clear that the introduction of running perennials , which ca n move rapidly to infill any open areas between other plants , can make a huge difference to the efficiency of a ground cover la yer , and we recommend that at least one of these type of plant is included in any ground cover layer. By thei r nature, these plants are often invasive , hence there may sometimes be occasions where they are not desirable - if, for example. the ground cove r layer is alongside an annua ls bed (e9. annual vegetables) . Their advantages are such, though , that it is preferable to design areas which are to be protected from running plants wit h a ' border' of some kind (eg . a mown path) to stop their ing ress . Note that in this li st I have not included climbers wh ich are sometime s used as ground cover plants (eg. Ivy, Hedera helix). These plants te nd not to mix very well with ot hers and wi ll u sua lly swamp any other sma ll plants grown with them.
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Aegopodium podagraria - Ground elder. Perennial with in vasive rhizome s and deep green leaves. Likes part or deep shade; dense and very vigorous. Height 20 cm (flowers 50 cm) . Often regarded as a virulent garden weed! 'Va riegalum ' is less rampant. Uses: The young leaves are edible, raw in salads or cooked. Roots and leaves are used medicinally. Bee plant. Arctostaphylos - Bearberry, Manzanita. Evergreen prostrate or small shrubs. Grow in moist, welldrained, moderately fertile, acid soil in full sun or partial shade; the less hardy species need shelter. All make dense cover, with moderately vigorous growth and heights of 10-20 cm. Includes A.hooke11, A .x media, A.nevadensls , A.pumila , and A.uva-ursi. Uses: The fruits of these species are edible and the flowers attractive to bees. Cornus canadensis - Creeping dogwood. A vigorous perennial coloniser, semi-evergreen in mild climes, with bright green leaves often changing colour in autumn , and white flowers in summer followed by red fruits. Moderately dense, spreading by underground shoots, and likes an acid moist soi l and partial or full shade, growing 15 cm high . Uses: Edible fruits. Dryas octopetala - Mountain avens. An evergreen carpeting subshrub with small oak-like leaves and white flowers in early summer, followed by fluffy seed heads. Needs a well-drained soil and full sun or part shade. Slow growing and moderate density, only growi ng 5 cm high. Uses: Leaves used to make a tea . Duchesnea indica - False strawberry. A carpeting perennial. spreading rapidly by long runners . Has dark green strawberry-like foliage , yellow flowers and red fruits. Good in any soil and position , but only moderately dense. Grows to about 15 cm high. Uses: Fruits are edible . but tasleless. Epigaea . Prostrate , evergreen, woodland subshrubs. They bear small urn-shaped flowers in spring. Grow in humus-rich, moist acid soil in part or deep shade. Slow growing, to about 10 cm high. E.asiatlca is a creeping, stem-rooting shrub with leathery dark green leaves. Uses: Edible fruil; bee plant. E.repens - Mayflower, Trailing arbutus, is a creeping subshrub with glossy dark green leaves. Uses: Edible fruits and flowers ; leaves used medicinally; bee plant. Fragaria - Strawberries. Perennials, spreading via long stolons. from open wood land, hedgerows and grassy places. White or pink flowers are followed by edible. delicious fruits. Mostly deciduous, but some species & cultivars remain in leaf in all but the severest winters. Grow in fertile, moist but well-drained soil in sun or part shade - fruiting is better in sun. Most species can become invasive and are vigorous. moderately dense. and grow 10-15 cm high. Includes F. x ananassa (Cultivated strawberry), F.chiloensis , F.daitoniana, F.moschata, F.vesca (Woodland/wild strawbe rry) and F.viridis . Gaultheria. Small or prostrate . dense evergreen shrubs with leathery leaves, bell-shaped ftowers and fleshy round edible fruits; the flowers are attractive 10 bees. They like and acid to neutral moist soi l in partial shade. Most are quite slow to spread via rhizomes, and the only two fast enough to be included here are: G.procumbens - Winterg re en. Grows to 15 cm high. Uses: Edible fruit (though strongly flavoured) ; medicina l leaves. G.shallon ~ Salal. Bushy spreading shrub, to 1.2 m high. Uses: Edible fruit - very nice. Geranium macrorrhizum. A vigorous perennial which grows in most soils (except very acid) in sun or full shade and makes dense cover, growing 30-40 cm high. Uses: The aromatic leaves are a source of Geranium oil.
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Glechoma hederacea - Ground ivy . Evergreen carpeting perennial with rounded green leaves and lavender-blue flowers in spring. Rampant , with rooting stems, and shade tolerant , growing only 15 em high . ' Variegata ' is less vigorous ,Uses: The aromatic leaves can be used as a flavouring and to
make a tea , as well as medicinally. The leaves can be used to clear beers . Flowers are loved by bees.
Hout~uyn i a cordata. A perennial which likes damp shady sites and has widely spreading rhizomes ; invasive on moist soils . Good in any moist soil in sun or part shade , or in shallow water. Grows to 30-40 em high but low density on its own . Uses: The leaves are edible, with an orange scent and flavour. The plant is used medicinally in Chinese medicine.
Lamium galeobdolon - Yellow archangel. A perennial carpeter of great vigour and good density, growing to 75 cm high , in any soil and sun or deep shade. Spreads via rhizomes and stolons. The cultivar 'Variegatum ' is usually planted, with marbled green and white foliage and yellow flowers in early summer. Excellent under trees and shrubs . Uses: The leaves and young shoots are edible , cooked. Bees like the flowers . Lysimachia nummularia - Creeping Jenny. Evergreen carpeting perennial with bright green rounded leaves and yellow flowers in summer. Rampant and dense, with rooting prostrate stems , growi ng 5 cm high . Good in sun or shade with a moist soil. 'Aurea' has golden leaves and may scorch in sun. Uses: The leaves and flowers can be used to make a tea. and the leaves and stems are used medicinally . Bees like the flowers. Men t ha - Mints. Perennials, spreading via rhizomes and stolons, with aromatic leaves much used for flavourings and making teas. Good in part shade or sun and any moist soil. Vigour depends on species ; only the more vigorous are included here and these can be invasive. Bees are very fond of the flowers . Some of these mints are so vigorous that great care must be taken when including them in mixtures - best to include them with larger shrubs which won 't get swamped . Includes M .aquatica (Water mint ; for wetter sites, grows 45 cm high), MJongifolia (Horse mint ; to 90-120 cm high, M.x piperita (Peppermint ; to 45 cm high) , M .x smithiana (Red raripila; to 60 cm high), M.spicata (Spearmint; to 45 cm high) , M .suaveolens (Apple mint; to 90 cm high) . and M.x villosa (Bowles ' mint ; to 60-90 cm high). Pachysandra terminalis - Japanese spurge . Evergreen perennial, spreading freely in moist , humus-rich soil. It grows anywhere in part or full shade, reaching 20 cm high or more ; moderately dense. Uses: Edible fruit ; medicinal leaves . Pleioblastus humilis. Vigorous running bamboo , forming dense thickets to 1.5 m high (P.h.pumilus is lower). Likes a moist soil and part shade. Note that most ground cover bamboos do not spread fast enough to be included in this listing . Uses: Edible young shoots - will be small. Potentilla. Of interest here are the perennial species which spread quickly via stolons. They tolerate most well-drained soils, slightly acid to alkaline, and sun or part shade. P.anserina - Silverweed . Grows to 30 cm high , very invasive . Uses: Roots are small but edible with a parsnip flavour ; leaves are used to make a tea . Plant - - used medicinally and is a good accumulator of minerals. P.glandulosa . Grows to 60 em high . Uses: Leaves used to make a tea. P.reptans - Creeping cinquefoil. Grows to 30 cm high or more; very invasive. Uses: Edible young leaves , in salads . All parts used medicinally and for dyeing. P.rupestris - Rock cinquefoil. Grows to 45 cm high. Uses: Leaves used to make a lea .
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C 5J
Rubus - Bramble family . Included here are perennials and shrubs with a prostrate habit and without the vicious thorns found on some other members of the family. They grow in almost any soil. as long as it is well drained , in sun or deep shade. All bear edible fruit s, rather like small ra spberries , but put most of their energy into growth so don 't expect large crops. They spread via long rooting stems. R. calycinoides x tricolor 'Betty Ashburner' - prostrate evergreen shrub with arching shoots, covered in red bristles. Vigorous, making good cover quickly. Grows to 30 em high. R.calycinoides (Syn. R.pentalobus) - prostrate evergreen shrub, creeping along the ground and only 5-10 cm high . Very good at interweaving through and around othe r plants . R.ill~cebrosus - Strawberry-raspberry. A dwarf sub shrub (almost a perennial) growing 60 cm high, with a creeping rootstock. Fruits large but insipid . R.nepalensis - Nepal ra spberry. A perennial. with long trailing stems, growing 25 cm high. Makes a good component of mixes as in all but mild climes it loses foliage in winter. Bears more fruit than most Rubus ground cove rs. R.tricolor - extreme ly vigorous evergreen shrub, with creeping and arching shoots to 60 cm high. Not easy to mix other species with - best with larger shrubs as it will swamp anything smaller. Sasaella ramosa (Syn. Sasa ramosa). Very vigorous running bamboo, forming dense thickets to 60-100 em high. Likes a moist soil and part or full shade. Uses: Edible young shoots - will be small. The seeds and leaves have been used medicinally in Japan . Trifolium repens - White clover. One of the most useful clovers for British co nditions , the white clover is a fast -spreading perennial which tolerates considerable shade . Though not very dense , it makes a good addition to ground cover mixtures and the seed is cheap so it can even be broadcast over establishing or established areas . It is se mi-evergreen in mild conditions and grows 30-45 cm high. It likes a moist , well-drained soil. Uses: A very valuable nitrogen-fixer. The leaves and stems are edible in salads or cooked and the dried flowers are used to make a tea and medicinally . Bees of course love th e plant. Vaccinium - deciduous and evergreen shrubs with leathery leaves, bell-shaped flowers and edible round fruits. They like an acid, peaty or sandy, moist but well-drained soil and su n or part shade; some tolerate full shade . Bees love the flowers . Only the faster spreading species are included here : V .caespitosum - Dwarf bilberry . Dec. shrub , rapidly sp reading , to 15 cm high. Frts to 6 mm. V .crassifolim - Creeping blueberry . Vigorous, m at-forming , evergreen shrub to 45 em high. V .macrocarpon - Cranberry. Mat-forming evergreen prostrate shrub growing 15 em high . Prefers a sun ny site - not very dense 'on its own. Fruits to 12 mm , varieties available. V.myrtillus - Bilberry . Deciduous creeping shrub, vigorous especially in fertile soils. Grows to 30 cm high . Fruits to 12 mm . The leave s are used to make a tea and medic inally. V.vltis-idaea - Cowberry. Creeping evergreen shrub , spreading via rhi zomes. Moderately slow growing , to 25 cm high . Fruits to 10 mm . The leaves are u sed to make a tea and medicinally. Ve ronica - Speedwells . Species included here are spreading perennials which like a moderately fertile, m oist, well-drained soil and sun or part shade. They grow 30-60 cm hig h and are va luable as bee plants . Includes V.bellioides , V.repens , and V.spicata . Vinca - Periwinkles . Carpeting, trailing, evergreen shrubs, suitable for any situation and soil except waterlogged; less dense on dry sites. They are usually so dense and vigorous that sma ll plants cannot compete - best to plant with larger shrub covers which won 't get swa mped. Both species are used medicinally, and the long flexible stems are good for basketry. V.major (Greater periwinkle) has arching shoots and grows to 45 em high; the subspecies hirsuta is very vigorous , forming a rampant dense cover. V .minor (Lesser periwinkle ) is more prostrate and mat-forming , with long trailing shoots growing only 10-20 cm high . Thi s art icle is taken from the forthcoming second re v ised edition of Ground Cover Plants, published by the A.R.T. in Nove mber 97, cost 10+postage (11.50 including postage) .
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The bayberries: Myrica species

Introduction
The bayberries (or wax myrtles ) are deciduous and evergreen shrubs , and belong to the group of actinorhiza l plants , that is temperate region plants which form associations with Frankia species of fungi in root nodules , which fix atmospheric nitrogen for the plant. Leaves are alte rn ate and often with resin glands ; flowers are inconspicuous , without sepals and petals , in sma ll dense catk ins. A ll species are dioecious to a large extent , ie male and female flowers form on different plants. The fruit is a small round drupe , often with a waxy coaling. Althoug h different species have some sim ilar and some different uses , it should be borne in mind that these species are fairly simila r and co nta in many of the same substances, hence all are likely (for exa mple) to have medicin al uses etc,
Cultivation
Most species prefer an open position in sun or partial shade (all grow well in the underslorey of forests inclu ding conifer forests), and an acid or neutral we ll-drained soil. M.cerifera and M. californica prefer moist soils , and M.gale is well adapted to boggy sites. The evergreen species tolerate co nsid erable shade. All tolerate strong winds . Plants of some species are fairly easy to grow from seed. The seeds have a coating of wax which must be removed before sowing - either gently rub the seeds between sheets of sandpaper , or soak them in hot water to melt the wax . Layering can also be used to propagate all species. Root cutting s are the best way to propagate M.ga/e . Seed germination is unreliable, but can be encoura ged by floating seeds on water at 5C for severa l weeks, th en sowi ng them in the light . Young plants in the nursery may naturall y become inocu lated with Frankia species , and if they d o then nodules will be seen on the roots. Plan ts can also be inoculated on planting by mixing a little soi l from an estab lished stand of the species or a relative in the planting hole . See Nitrogen-Fixing Plants for Temperate Clima/es for more information on inocu lation.
Common uses:
The wax which coats the small fruits of all species ha s been used mainly to make candles which are quite brittle, aromatic and don 't smoke when put out. Other uses for the wax in clude soa ps , ointments , leather-polishes , etching, and medicina l mixtures . One litre of M.cerifera fruit yields 50 g of wax; the wax melts at 47-49C (116-120F), so is easily melted off fruits in hot water, and skimmed off the surface. It is harder and more brittle than beeswax . Bee plant. The flowers of all spec ies a re attractive to bees . Hedging . A ll species tolerate wind and maritime exposure, and can be used for an informal hedge. All are green manure plants, increas ing the amou nts of Nitrogen in the soi l and making avai lable significa nt amounts to other nearby plants. M.cerifera has been reco rded as accum ulating 120 Kg/ Ha of nitrogen per yea r , making it one of the best temperate nitroge nfixing shrubs . Dense stands of M.gale are estimated to fix at le ast 30 KgfH a/year . M.pensylvanica has been recorded as accumulating 16-32 Kg /Halyea r jus t from leaf litter; root turn over probably doubles this . Warning note: There is a report that some of the constituents of the wax may be carcinogenic, hence using the whole fruits in cooking (as a condiment) may not be advisable, although in small quantities there is probably little risk;
the wax might also melt and mostly run off the cooked food, ego roasted meat. Also, there are report of M.gafe having an abortifacient action; pregnant women should avoid taking any plant parts of any of these species internally.
Species
Note: Not included here and the non-hardy species MJaya (Canary Islands), M.hartwegii (California) and M.rubra (S.China, Japan). The latter is cultivated for its large fruits in China, which are canned for export as 'Chinese A rbutus' . All these are zone 10 plants, ie not tolerant of any frost, and not suited to temperate climates.
M.californica - Californian bayberry, Californian wax myrtle. California to Washington . Upright evergreen shrub, usually growing 2.5 m (6 ft) high, occasionally to 4-10 m (13-33 tt) high. Leaves are 5-10 em (2-4~) long, dark green and glossy above, smooth or pubescent beneath; not as strongly scented as the other species. Catki ns about 25 mm (1 ") long in May-June; usually monoecious (both sexes on the same plant). Fruits are 4-6 mm (0.2~) across, deep purple with a white waxy coat. Hardy to zone 7-9 (-5 to 12C) and only suitable for mild parts of Britain. Tolerates very acid and wet soils. Fruits are edible, used as a condiment (see note above). Grey-brown and marron-purple dyes are obtained from the fruits , fresh or dried. The wood is heavy, very hard, strong, brittle, close grained. M.cerifera - Bayberry, Wax myrtle. SE North America, possibly naturalised in S.England. Evergreen slender upright shrub or small tree, growing to 9-12 m (30-40 tt) high. Leaves are 3-7.5 cm ( 103") long, deep green above, lighter below, both sides with tiny golden-yellow resin glands. Flowers in MarchApril; fruits are 2-3 mm across, greyish-white, waxy, in clusters of 2-6, and can hang on the plant for several years. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C). 'Myda' is a large-fruited female form of low growth. Leaves and fruits are added to foods, eg soups, as a condiment Myrica californica (an agreeable bay substitute) (see note above). Leaves are also steeped to make a tea. Leaves show some antimalarial activity. They also repel fleas and moths. The bark, leaves and roots have all been used medicinally (the root bark was the 'official' drug, containing the triterpenes taraxerol, taraxerone and myricadiol). Being bitter and astringent. it stimulates the circulation, increases perspiration, and is antibacterial. It is still used for colds, flu, co ughs and sore throats, irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, vaginal discharges, ulcers and sores. The root bark is used as a commercial fl avour ingredient in some soft drinks in the UK. A blue dye is obtained from the fruits. M.gale - Sweet gale, Bog myrtle. Northern temperate regions. A common medium sized deciduous upright shrub, growing to 2.5 m (6 tt) high, but sometimes (from grazing pressure or poor sites) only to 50 cm (20") or less. It spreads by rhizomes to produce thickets. Leaves 3-5 cm (1_2H) long, deep green and smooth above, somewhat pubescent beneath. Although moslly dioecious, sometimes male and female flowers are formed on the same plant or even the same branch; flowers are brownish, cone-like catkins, 1.5 cm (0.6 ") long in April-June. the females thicker than the males. Fruits are to 3 mm across, yellowish-brown. Extremely hard y, to zone 1 (-45C). Usually found on wet acid soils, also on neutral soils. The most striking feature of the plant is the pleasant smell of the volatile oil which is secreted from num erous glands on its leaves and catkins. The scent resembles that of sage, but is more camphoraceous. It is readily grazed by hares and goals, also by sheep, cattle and deer.
Sweet gale is a dom inant species in several plant associations on open peatland . apparentl y growing best on ground strongly irrigated with mineral ~ rich water. It may thrive and achieve dominance on less fertile soils primarily because of its symbiotic association with nitrogen~fixing Frankia species in root nodules attached to the plant. Dense stands of M. gale are capable of fixing substantial amounts of nitrogen 30 Kg/Halyear has been estimated . It will also accept infection by many different Frankia strains from different species , including alders (Alnus), Elaeagnus, and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides ). Though it grows in areas where water is close to the surface in summer and frequently flooded in winter, there is evidence that plant Myrica ceritera growth is in fact greatest in wet but well aerated soil plant growlh is less on very wet soils and the dominance of sweet gale on such soils reflects superior tolerance rather than preference. Haemoglobin occurs in high concentrations in the root nodules of this species , which may be an adaption to growth in wei soils . Catkins open in April or May and nodule activity begins in lale May I early June when soil temperatures reach BOC and leaves are beginning to unfold . New shoots grow from buds on the previous year's woody stems and later in the season, from new aerial shoots arising from rhizomes. Leaf ageing and loss begins as shoots reach their final length and contin ues slowly through the summer while the same shoots are developing new leaves. During September or October, leaf production stops and leaf loss accelerates, leaving branches bare by November. At this stage, fruits are mature , nodule activity has ceased and the soi l has been enriched by substa ntial amounts of leaf litter (which cou ld benefit nearby trees , for example .) The shrub has been harvested from the wild and utilised in various ways for centu rie s: The most widespread use in the past ha s been for flavouring beer. Evidence stretches from Roman and Viking sites for its use in brewing as a flavouring and preserving agent. 'Gale beer' in Yorkshire was considered very efficacious for slaking thirst. It is also used to flavour mead . The beerpreserving activity of M.gale is at least partly explained by the discovery of antibacterial flavonoids which are particularly active against grampositive bacteria ; these act in a similar way to the bitter compounds humutone and lupulone obtained from hops . The use of sweet gale in commercial beer making fell into disrepute 250 years ago because excessive consum pti on was believed to cause poisoning ; but the present widespread consumption of M.ga/e flavoured drinks in Scandinavia (see below) is evidence against any severe toxic effects at the doses normally consumed . In Scandinavia. leave s are still gathered to flavour atcoholi c drinks : in Denmark, Aalborg Pars Snaps is flavoured with an extract made by soak ing fresh leaves in 35% aqueous alcohol; in Norway, dried and powdered leaves are sold for flavouring spi rits & home made beer.
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Other food uses in Newfoundland include a tea made from leaves; the fruits are used as a condiment to season roast meat (see note above) . The roots have been used to produce a yellow dye for wool used in the Scottish Highlands within the last 80 years . The stem tips also yield a ye llow dye. The cultivar ' Nanas' is spreading and makes a good ground cover; it is very shade tolerant. Leaves yield a flavonoid and a volatile oil with antifungal activ~ ty against several spp . inc. Fusarium spp and Penicillium eitrinum. There is plentiful historical evidence of the use of sweet gale as an insect (moth) and flea repellent in Scandinavian and British folklore , though the volatile oil was never produced for this purpose . A strong decoction of the leaves can be used as a parasiticide to kill external body parasites (lice) . The foliage has been used to repel midges in Scotland . Large sca le production of MgaJe is being considered after recent research on the Isle of Skye in Scotland demonstrated that the steam distilled volatile oil is an effective insect repellent (a 0.5% gel preparation of the oil repe lled biting midges {Culieoides impunelalus] for up to 3 hours). The oil has also been shown to repel ants. The volatile oil is produced on catkins and fruits, as well as leaves, but the former are unlikely to provide significant yield as they never exceed 0.73% of total dry weight. Following these experiments , a range of Myrica-based products is under development in the UK for which the source of oil is leaves harvested by hand in the Scottish highlands. Wild collection, although sustainable and allowing regrowth, is labour-intensive and unlikely to supply enough material if products are successful. Sustainable production depends on adequate regrowth after cutting - both wild and plantation sites are likely to suffer if too many leavesltwigs are harvested too rapidly. Sweet gale has the potentia l to become a valuable crop on land of low agri,cultural value.
Myrica gale showing male & female
flowers Recent pharmacological studies have focused on myrigalone B (MyB) , a flavonoid extracted from the fruits. My8 is a potent antioxidant which may help to protect liver tissue from toxin induced injury, and act as a preventative to atherosclerosis . A fresh extract of plant material in water has also demonstrated antiviral activity, which supports the Scandinavian fo lkloric use of Mga/e extract to treat Herpes zoster. M.heterophylla - Bayberry. Eastern N.America . Very similar to Meerifera; an evergreen shrub normally growing 3 m (10 ft) high , but occasionally a small tree to 12 m (40 ft) high. Leaves 4-7 cm (1Y2-3 ~) long , rounded at the apex. Fruits greyishwhite, 3 mm across , with a heavy waxy coat. Hardy to zone 6 (_20D C) . Same uses as M.eerifera . M.pensylvanica - Northern bayberry. Eastern N.America , poss. naturalised in S.England. Deciduous or semi-evergreen dense shrub to 2-3 m (6-10 tt) high. Tolerates very acid , saline and light sandy soils. Leaves 4-10 em (lil-4") long , pubescent on both sides, with glands beneath. Fruits are to 4 mm across , greyish-white, waxy , and persist long into winter. Very hardy, to zone 2 (_40D C). Closely related to M.eerifera , it may be a hardier northern form of it. Leaves and fruits used in cooking as a condiment (see note above). Leaves and root bark have been used medicinally. A green dye is obtained from the leaves. W idely used for erosion control in N.America.
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==
References
Baker, 0: Actinorhizal Plants. NFT Research Report Vol.8 (1990) . Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association . Bean , W : Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, Volume II. John Murray , 1974. Brown , 0: The RHS Encyclopedia of Herbs & their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, 1995. Chevallier, A: The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Darling Kindersley, 1996 . Crawfo rd , M: Nitrogen-Fixing Plants for Temperate Climates. ART, 1995. Duke. J: CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. CRC Press , 1 985. Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties . Wiley , 1988. Howards , M: Bog Myrtle. Reforesting Scotland 8 (1993) , p23. Krussmann, G: Manual of Broad-leaved Trees & Shrubs, Vol 2. Batsford, 1984 . Simpson , M el al: Past , Present and Future Utilisation of Myrica gale (Myricaceae). Economic Botany 50(1) pp. 122-129. 1996.
Basketry willows
Introduction
Baskels have been used for millennia and remain one of the few everyday items which are still hand made, even if the cheap types usually found for sa le are mass produced using moulds for uniformity. In temperate regions, th e most common materials used for basketry are stems from willows (Salix spp.) and this article concentrates on the cultivation of willows for to produce basketry materials . Willows are some of the easiest plants to grow and only a small patch is needed to supply the needs of a family and garden . In almost eve ry case where toda y one uses cardboard, plastic or plywood as packing materials. 200 years ago this need wou ld have been met by basketwork. Fruits and vegetables were gathered from fields in baskets ; and fish, poultry and dairy produce were all packed into baskets for the journey to town markets. Bulky items like manure or rubble were transported in baskets, and many other items were made from willow such as beer strainers, travelling trunks , etc. Today, most baskets are imported into the richer countries , made where labour is cheap. Homeproduced baskets are often of much better quality than these imported types , but inevitably cost more . Basketry skills are easy to learn, though, and anyone with a medium sized garden or larger should serious ly cons ider growing thei r own willow and making baskets themse lves, even ju st sturdy rustic types for harvesting and other garden jobs .
Willow cultivation
In Britain until the 19th century, withy beds were collections o f mixed varieties in wh ich the growing plants were cut off a year after planting at a height of 30-120 cm (1-4 ft) , allowing a head of shoots to spring from a single stem or stool. The advantage of this system was that the stools, after cutting, rem ained above weeds and perhaps animals, so that the new shoots were not so prone . In more recent years, the favoured system is to cut the stoo ls back as near to the ground as possible (within 5 cm / 2T Thi s encourages long straight rods (canes) which are clean of branches, and also maximises the lifetime of the stool. It is a misconception that willows grow best in wet or boggy conditions. Although they may well tolerate such conditions, they grow best in any soil of reasonably fertility and good drainage (apart from very light sandy soils). Having said that , they are ideally suited to a damp patch in the garden/field which may be less suited for other crops.
Planting
Willows grow very easily from cuttings . and new beds are always established by planting cuttings straight into their final positions . The cuttings are 20-30 em (B-12") lengths of willow cut from the thick ends of good-sized rods - a diameter of 8-15 mm (0.3-0.6") is preferable . They are planted by hand (or mechanically on a large scale) at a spacing of 30-45 em (12-18") each way in lines (especially for mechanised harvesting) or in other arrangements , e9 staggered . A third of the cutting is left above soil level. More vigorous species/varieties (eg. S. viminalis) are best planted at the wideJ spacing (45 em) , moderately vigorous species (S .purpurea, S. vit eJlina ) at 35-40 em , and least vigorous species (S .purpurea) at 30 cm . If planting into bare (unmulched) ground , it is very important that the ground is clear of weeds : lush weed growth is probably the most common cause of new plantings failing . It is highly recommended that the cuttings are planted through a mulch, either of black plastic (good for small areas ; also the ground need not be cleared with this method ~ put the plastic down over grass etc) or a thick organic mulch like bark. This will save considerable work in the first few years .
Harvesting & maintenenace

If the bed is unmulched , it is essential to control weeds for the first two years at least. In the first year, usually only a single rod will grow from each cutting , hence the foliage is not very dense and weeds are not well suppressed. After two years , the foliage will suppress weed growth once the annual growth has reached a height of 1 m (3 tt) , but before this (ie in spring & early summer) , weeds must still be controlled : lush grasses can easily overtake the young shoots and swamp them. The first harvest takes place the winter after harvest , after leaf fall, in November~December. Cut the rods as close to the ground as possible ~ don't worry if you can ' t see buds beneath the cut. Secateurs are the best tool on a small scale; a hook is used by larger growers. The first years canes are often branched and of poor quality. The following year (year 2). a dense mass of rods will arise from each stool. These are harvested at the end of the season again , and the cycle continues . After harvesting , there is little visible except a knotty mass underfoot. Take advantage of the open conditions to remove weeds, particularly grasses and perennials like nettles. A willow bed does not need feeding allow the leaves to decay around the plants . It should last 30~ 50 years or more before growth reduces substantially. The higher the density of planting . the shorter the life of the bed . An area of 10m 2 (100 ft 2) should be sufficient for 3~4 baskets per year.
Using the willow rods

When willow is bought for basketmaking, it has usually been stripped, making it smooth and easier to make into fine baskets. This process is very hard work on a small scale , and totally unnecessary: unstripped willow can be used to make baskets, which , although inevitably rougher. are just as strong and useful as finer willow baskets . Hand stripping willow rods is easiest if the rods are cut in spring (April) and stripped immediately. To use unstripped willow, it is best dried for a few months after cutting lean it against a sheltered wall or fence . After a couple of months it can be used without soaking for basketry . Note that rod colours will fade .
Willow species and varieties

All species of shrub or tree willows can be used for basketry , however some are better than others and the main species used number only a few. But even from these, several hundred named varieties have been selected in Europe, North American and Asia over the centuries. Salix alba vitellina (Syn . S. viteflina) Golden willow. Not known in the wild. Vigorous species with yelloworange rods. Rods are tough & flexible ~ suitable for rougher work and still used in American basketry . Very hardy to zone 2 (40 C) . Salix daphnoides ~ Violet willow. Europe. Moderately vigorous , with brownishpurple rods . Clones include 'Meikle'. Hardy to zone 5 (~23 D C). Salix eriocephala (Syns . S.cordata, S.rigida) . North America. Moderately vigorous shrub. Produces very tough , flexible rods. Several clones grown for basketry in N .
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N.America ; 'Green USA ' is very vigorous with dk brown rods, tols poor dry soils. Hdy to z6 (20C ). Salix eriocephala X petiolarls 'Americana'. Hybrid. A shrub to 3 m (10 ft) high with reddishbrown rods . A widely used clone in American basketry , very hardy and tolerates poor soi ls. Hardy to zone 5 (23C). Salix gilgiana . Japan, Korea. A vigorous shrub, sometimes grown in Japan for basketry rod s. Hardy to zone 6 (20C). Salix kinuiyanagi Japan. Very vigorous sh rub , widely cultivated in Japan for basketry; closel y related to S. viminalis, and used for coarser baskets like osier. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C). Salix koriyanagi. Korea . Moderately vigorous sh rub with yellowish-grey rods. Grown extens ively in Japan for basketry . Rods are fine, flexible and durable - used for fine quality baskets. Hardy to zone 6 (20C). Salix miyabeana. Japan. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C). Vig orous shrub close to S.purpurea , with light grey rods . Grown in Japan for ba sketry rods. Salix X mollissima (S .triandra X S. viminalis) . Hybrids . A group of clonal hybrids resulting from cross breeding in osier beds . Several used for basketry, including 'Black Spaniard' - very v ig orous, stout. brittle . Hardy to zone 6 (-20C ). Salix pentandra - Bay willow. N & C Europe . Vigorous shrub with glossy reddish or brown shoots ; produces slout, osier-type rods. Two clones grown in N.America for basketry are 'Lumley' (moderate vigour) & 'Patent Lumley' . Hdy to z5 (-
23 C).
Salix purpurea - Purple willow, Purple osier. Europe, Russia. Naturalised in N.America . Low or moderately vigorous shrub, producing very flexible , tough, thin rods, usually 1-1 .5 m (3-5 tt) long - suitable for small baskets . Rods are often tinged with red or purple . Numerous basketry clones exist, including: 'Brittany Dicks ' , 'Dark Dicks', 'Dicky Meadows' ( rods reddish, widespreading from stool , very good quality, popular in N.America), 'Franz Geel ', 'French', 'Goldstones' (vigorous, golden-orange rods). 'Green Dicks' (vigoro us, rods reddish) ,'Lancashire' , 'Leicestershire ', 'Purple' (moderate vigour, was widely grown in N.America) , 'Red Buds ' (rods widespreading from stool, very good quality, popular in N.America), 'Welsh '. Hardy to zone 5 (_23C) . Salix triandra (Syn. S.amygdalina) - Almond-leaved willow. Europe, Asia. A species of moderate vigour - this and its varieties are much in demand by basketmakers . The rods are of good quality, olive brown to black , often growing 1.5-3 m (5-10 fl) high (average 2 m . 6 ft) annually . with diameters at ground level up to 10 mm (0 .4 ~ ). Basketry clones include: 'American Green ' (mod. vigour, was widely grown in N .America). 'Black German ', 'Black Hollander' (rods dark reddish-brown) , 'Black Maul ' (the most popular variety ; rods dark brown . almost black). 'Black Top'. 'Da rk French', 'G riseUe Noir', 'Light Newkind ', 'S tone Rod', and 'Whissander' (rods slightly stiffer, midbrown). Hardy 10 zone 5 (-23 C) . Salix viminalis - Osier. Europe , Asia. Naturalised in N .America . Hardy to zone 4 (-25C). This species and its varieties tend to produce a very vigorous growth, suitable for heavy coarse agricultural baskets . The rods . yellowish to olive green , often grow 3-4 m (10-13 ft) high annually, with diameters at ground level up to 15 mm (0 .6T It thrives beside water. Basketry clones include: 'Aqualica Gigantea ', 'Black Osier', 'Black Rod ', Black Osier', 'Black Satin', 'Brown Merrin ' (very vigorous, rods mid-brown), 'Eng lish Rod ' , 'Gigantea Korso', 'Irish Rod', 'Mealy Top', 'Readers Red' (moderate vigour. red rods) , 'S tricta ', 'Superba' , 'Ulelescens' and 'Yellow Osier' (very vigorous, rods yellowish-green).
D
References, Suppliers, Sources

Heseltine, A: Baskets and Basketmaking. Shire Publications , 1982. Newsholme, C: Willows , the genus Salix . Batsford , 1992 . A.R.T., 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington , Totnes, Devon , Tag 6JT . Cuttings of 10 willow varieties. The Willow Bank , Y Fran . lIawryglyn , Caersws . Powys , SY17 5RJ . Supplies a wide range of cuttings. The Baskermakers' Association, 37 Mendip Road , Cheltenham, Glos , GL52 5EB .
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The hickories
Introduction
The hickories, Carya species , are clos ely related to wa lnuts (both are members of the family Juglandaceae) , and like them are usually large deciduous trees which can live to a great age , 4 500 yeats , which tend to form uprig ht cylindrical crowns when grown in the open . They have alternate pinnate leaves each with 3-17 leaflets . Male flowers are borne in catkins and female flowers in spikes , to be fo llowed by la rge fruits consisting of a single nut surrounded by a leathery skin (or ou ter shell ) which sp lits open at maturity. The fol iage is aromatic. All species have pronounced taproots which securely anchor the trees if soil condition s allow . Hickories can easily be confused (especially by leaf) with walnuts: differences are that young shoots have nonchambered pith , and the nuts are smooth-shell ed. Some 14 spec ies of Carya are found in Eastern North Ameri ca (p lus at least 12 interspecific hybrids) , and a further 6 in Ch ina . Th e nuts , wh ich are of comparab le sizes to walnuts , are ri ch in oils and edible from most, though not all, of the species . The better ones have a rich wa lnu t-li ke flavour. Most nuts are hard shelled , like black wal nuts . Breeding work has been done on some species , especia ll y the pecan ( Carya iJlinoinensis) , with good fruiting varieties available , often with thinner shelled nuts.
Cultivation
The limitations to economically feasible orchard es ta blis hm ent of hickori es are the long period of juvenility (over 10 years untif trees start to crop) , low yields (often 22-45 Kg per tree, once every 23 yea rs), and large tree size . They are better suited t o low input, sustainable agricultural systems, where the long-lived multifunctional trees are a valuable resource for food , fue l and high quality timber. Most species are quite hardy, but yo ung plant s are sometimes damaged by late spring frosts. A ll hickories prefer a cl im ate with hot summers, and they need a positio n in sun but with shelter from strong wi nd s in Britain . The most promising species for nut production in Britai n are (in order of merit) c. ovata, C.tomentosa , C. ovalis, C.glabra , C.cordiformis (not edible!) Hickories prefer a good fertile soil, preferably a deep moisture-retentive loam, though they tolerate both light and hea vy soil s , and acid an d alkaline cond itions. Transplanting shou ld be undertaken with care because of the long fle shy tap root For their first few years, young trees form a taproot with onl y a few lateral feeder roots, and this taproot is usually longer and thicker than the aboveground stem. If buying or raising plants, either grow them in open-bottom ed con taine rs that airprune the tap root , or undercut the taproot (at 20-25 cm , 8- 10" below ground level) at least a year before transplanting. They are very slow growing for the first 5 years or so , but then make good growth ; planting in tree shelters may be advantageous . Hickories become large trees in time , requiring 6-1 2 m ( 20-40 tt) of space , so plan t at wide spacing and use the ground between to intercrop for several years . The flowers are wi nd pollinated , produced in April-May . Altho ugh all species are monoecious (bearing both male and female flowers) and self-fertile, li ke wal nuts very often the m ale and femal e flowers are borne at different times and the overlap is not always sufficient for good pollination (a tree may be protandrous - shed ding pollen befo re the female flowers mature; or protogynous fema le fl owers maturing before the pollen is shed) . Better crops are thus produced when cross pollination takes place between different tree selections . like wa lnuts , large trees will pollinate 2-3 trees away . Different species may also cross pollinate . Ma le flowers are produced on slender, drooping catkins which arise from lateral buds ; fema le flowers are borne in a spike at the end of the current season 's shoot. In the wild , large crops are norma ll y borne every 2 3 years , and biennia l cropping is common in cultivated trees - this is regarded as a major problem in the pecan industry. In Brita in, most species
Page 20
bear fruit only after a hot summer. The fruit ripens and falls in the autumn ; the outer husk (outer shell) splits along sutures and either releases the hardshelled nut or falls still encasing the nut. Most hickory seedlings from named va ri eties sta rt to fruit about 10-12 years from seed; precocious culliva rs slart fru iting in 5-7 years. Seedl ings from wild trees can take 20-40 years to crop. Hickories are late to leaf out - usually late Mayor June in Britain - and relatively early to drop the ir leaves in autumn - Octobe r in Britain. There is thus good potential for growing an undercrop, particularly one which is cropped in late spring. When in leaf they cast a relatively heavy shade.
All hickories are resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria mellea). Outs ide of North America, there are few pests and diseases. Squirrels are a serious hickory & pecan pest and have to be controlled where these are grown. Hickories, like wa lnuts, contain juglone in the leaves (and probably the roots too); this substance can have detrimental effects on some other plants, such as apples and the white pines. Grafting of hickories, li ke walnuts, is difficult, but remains the only way of propagating named selections at present. Rootstocks used are normally seed li ngs of the same species (or one of the parents), which make strong graft unions. Grafting onto other species has variable results, but grafting pecan onto a hardier species rootstock (eg. C.cordiformis has been used) may improve its performance in cool areas. Seeds of most species require 3 months of co ld stratification before germination will take place. Seeds from named cultiva rs have a high chance of being good productive, precocious trees themselves, but such seeds are difficult to acquire outside of North America.
Uses
Edible nuts (ie from most species) have a sweet ke rnel contained within a shell varying in thickness from species to species and within the species also. Thick-shelled species are di ffi cult to crack and may contain kernels weighing only 20% of the total nut. The kernels can be eaten raw, like other nuts, and can also be made into an oily 'hickory milk' used like butler, and ground into a flour and used in breads etc. Kernels are rich in oi ls and resemble walnuts in richness of flavour. Pecan kernels typically conta in 3.4% water, 71.2% fat (687 caloriesf100g), 9.2% protein, 14.6% carbohydrate , 2.3% fibre , and are high in phosphorus, potassium , Vitami n s A, B-comp lex, C and E; the oil is 93% unsaturated. Hickory nuts (probably C.ovata) are listed in Howes with the following composition : 3.7% water, 67.4% fat, 15.4% protein, 11.4% carbohydrate. Both of these breakdowns are very similar to that for walnut (Juglans regia). An edible oil ca n be extracted from the species with edible nut s, of good quality and suitable for any culinary uses. The oil is also used in making paints in Chin a and has been used for oi l lamps and medicinally for rheumatism . Several (probably all) species can be lapped for the sap, wh ich is concentrated to make a syrup like maple syrup, or made into a wine etc. Seed 'Ed ible Tree Saps' in Agroforestry News , Vol 2 No 3, for more detai ls. The she ll s are used for making activated charcoal in China. The wood of hickories is well known for its strength and resilience and is excellent for tool handles (hammers, picks, axes etc). The heartwood in brown or reddish-brown and sold as 'red hickory', and the sapwood is sold separately as 'white hiCkory'. The wood is straight grained, coarse textured, heavy (820 Kg/m3l, with high bending and crushing strength, stiff and highly shock resistant, with excellent steam bend in g prope rtie s. High quality timber is used for the manufacture of skis, gymnastic bars , and other athletic equipment (golf club shafts , lacrosse sticks, tennis racquets, basketball bats, longbows) and as a flooring material for gymnasiums, roller skate rinks and ballrooms. Some wood is used in mak ing furniture, in piano construction , for butcher's blocks, wall pane lling and interior trim , dowels, ladder rungs and pallets, heavy sea fishing rods, drum sticks, wheel spokes and veh icle bodies. It makes excellent firewood and charcoal, and is used in the smoking of
Page 21
E
meats and cheeses . Note that the wood of G.aquatica, C.cordiformis and C.myristiciformis considered inferior to other hickories.
The bark of the shagbark , C.ovata , has an antifeedant action on the Elm bark beetre , Scolytu multistriatus , which spreads Dutch elm disease.
Several species have been used in traditional medicine: a bark tea of C.cordiformis was used b the Fox Indians for bowel and urinary problems; the Comanche used pecan leaves for ringworm the fSiowa used a bark decoction for tuberculosis; and the Cherokee used several species f cold ~. polio and female complaints and used the bark for cuts; the Oelaware for debility and fema ailments; and the Iroquois for arthritis and worms. Several of the Asialfc species have also bee used medicinally .
A yellow dye is obtained by using the bark of several species with an alum mordant , includin C.carolinae-septentrionalis, C.cathayensis, C.eordiformis, C.glabra, C./aeiniosa, C.myristiciformi C.ovalis, C.ovata, C.pallida, C.texana and C.lomentosa. Other dyes are obtained from the leave (eg. of C.lomentosa) , and the fruit husks (eg. of C.illinoinensis) .
Species and cultivars
Cultivars which are underlined are currently commercially available from North American nurseries many of the older cuUivars have probably been lost.
C.aquatica - Water hickory. SE USA (esp. Mississippi valley). Medium or large sized tree up to 20 m (70m tt) high . Has light brown bark, peeling in tong thi plates. Leaves with 7-13 leaflets. each 8-12 cm (3-5- ) long. Fruits ovate , 3-4 cm (1.2-1.6~) long an wide, in groups of 3-4; nut flattened , 4-sided, reddish-brown , thin shelled , somewhat wrinkled kernel bitter and astringent - not very edible (though it has been eaten). Hardy to zone 6 (-20C Starts bearing in about 20 years . This hickory can tolerate wetter sites and more poorly draine clay soils than any other .
C. X brownii (C.cordiformis X C.illinoinensis) - American hybrid. Very similar to C.illinoinensis . but with 9-11 leaflets; fruit more ovate , nut flattened and 3-4 cm (1.2-1.6 ) long; kernels may be astringent or sweet. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C) . Several name cultivars of this cross exist, including:
Galloway (sweet), Jay Underwood (a cross with G. /a einiosa) . Mall . Nelson . Pleas (astringen medium size nut , 54% kernel, protogynous, good in N). Pooshee , Westbrook .
C .carolinae-septentrionalis (Syn. C.ovala var. c.-s.) - Southern shagbark hickory. Very similar to C.ovala , growing to 20 m (70 tt). More tolerant of alkaline soils than C.ovata. Hard to zone 6 (-20C) . Named cuUivars include:
Grainger (reasonable producer, nuts crack easily - small nuts poorly filled in Canada) , Guilford Nugget.
C.cathayensis - Chinese hickory. Mountain hickory. Eastern & Southern China. Medium or large tree to 20 m (70 ft) high. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets, each 10-14 cm (4-6") long fruits 4-winged , nuts round-ovoid , thin shelled (1 mm), somewhat 4-sided , 25 mm (1") long , kerne sweet and edible , with a good flavour . Hardy to zone 6 ( -20C) . Cultivated as a nut tree in China the nuts produce a fragrant oil used in foods and in making paint , while the shells are used t make activated charcoal. The timber is used for building. Trees are grown at densitie s of 225/H (90/acre) and mature trees typically yield 450-750 Kg/Ha (180-300 Kg/acre::: 400-660 Ib/acre). Th variety dabishanensis (which may be a separate species) is probably hardier and has larger fruits. C. X collina (C.texana X C.lomenlosa) - hybrid.
Paae 22
C.cordiformis (Syns. C.amara, C.minima) ~ Bitternut hickory. Eastern N.America (esp. river valleys) . Large , fast-growing tree to 30 m (100 ft ) high with thin scaly bark . Lea ves with 59 (usually 9) leaflets, each 8~15 cm (3-6-) long ; fruit round , 2~4 cm (0.8- 1.6") across , 4~ s ided ; nut ovate to heart~ shaped, to 3 cm (1.2 ") long, flattened, ve ry thin ~s helled , grey , smooth , pointed ; kernel bitter and astring ent not edible. Hardy to zone 5 (-23 C).
D
Grows very well in Britain , probably the best hickory here but unfortunately the nuts are not edible! It also has inferior timber. Two named cultivars, have been se lected for their very thin shelled nuts : Halesite (69% kernel), Hatch (65% kernel) . This species shows some promise as a cold~hardy pecan rootstock. C.cordiformis X C.tomentosa ~ hybrid. Represented by the culti var: Siers . C. X demareei (C.cordiformis X C.ovalis) - hybrid. C. X dunbarii (C./aciniosa X C.ovata) - hybrid . Cultivars include: Abundance (nuts medium-large (7 g) , cracks well, kernel 36%. Precocious , regular bearer; good potential in Northern locations}, Beam (50% kernel) , Fluhr , Roddy , Stauffer (good potential for Northern locations - grown in Canada) , Weiker , Yoder NO . 1 (often listed under c.ovata, but more likely to belong here. A well-known old cultivar; nuts are medium sized, thin shelled, cracks well and yields 40% kernel ; excellent flavour. Good precocious bearer. Good potential in Northern locations), Zimmerman . C.floridana - Scrub hickory. USA (Florida). Very variable, from a multi-trunked shrub bearing fruit on stems 1 m (3 tt) high, to a large tree to 20 m (70 tt) high, very similar to C.iexana. Nuts to 3 cm (1.2 ") long , with thick shells; kernels sweet and edible. May only be hardy to zone 9 (-5C). C.glabra (Syn . C.porcina) - Pignut hickory. Eastern USA (esp . dry fertile slopes) . Medium or large tree, to 20-30 m (70-100 tt) high with fin ely grooved , dark grey bark. Leaves with 3-7 leaflets, each 8-15 cm (3-6~) long, the lowest pair sma ller. Fruit round or pear-shape, with slight wings near tip; nuts 25 mm (1") long , brownish , thin-shelled , kernel of variable quality sometimes bitter, sometimes sweet and edible . Hardy to zone 5 (-23 C).
D
Grows well in Britain. ofte n bearing fruit here. Has been cultivated for seed in N.America and named varieties have been selected . May take 25-30 years to fruit , with peak production from 80200 years . C.glabra megacarpa (Syns. C.ashei, G. austrin a, G.megacarpa) - Coast pignut. Differs from the species by its larger fruit , 3-5 cm (1.2-2 ~) long and to 3 cm (1.2") wide; nuts large with thick shells, kernels sweet and edible. C.hunanensis - Hunan hickory. China (esp . in river valleys .) Leaves with 5-9 leaflets . Distingu ished from C.cathayensis by its larg er nuts, 3 cm (1.2n) long by 2.5 cm (1") diameter; shell thickness is variable . The kernel is sweet and edible but the seed coat is astringent. Cultivated in China, the nuts there are eaten fresh and pressed for ed ible oil; they are also used as an ingredient of a folk medicine. Most of the production is from wild trees , cropping from 10-200 years of age and yielding up to 300 Kg/ tree . Hardiness unknown .
'1
C.illinoinensis (Syn. G.pecan) - Pecan. SE USA (esp. Mississippi valley). Large tree, growing 30 m (100 ft) high or more, with deep furrowed, irregular brownish-grey bark . Leaves with 11 - 17 leaflets, each 5-17 cm (2-r) long; fruits in spikes of 3-10, oblong, 3-8 cm (1.23 ~ ) long with a slightly 4-winged outer shell ; nuts smooth , light brown , th in-shelled , sweet and edible. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C) but needs hor summers to ripen wood . In the wild there are several disjunct populations .
Page 23
Cultivated for centuries in warm areas (needs a continental climate) and numerous cultivars exist over 1000 are documented. Some 220 ,000 hectares (550,000 acres) are grown in the USA. Seedlings start bearing in about 20 years, but named selections start within 4 10 years, with maximum production from 75225 years; yields of 225 Kg per tree are common. This article does not intend to go into pecan cultivation in great detail, particularly because it is unlikely to do very well in British conditions (although a tree at Wisley in Surrey does fruit). Pecans are higher in oil (about 73%) than walnuts (64%), and much more energy is required to assimilate oil compared with other kernel components , hence pecans need significantly warmer weather in September and October Ihan walnuts.
Carya illinoinensis , Pecan Unlike most crops , pecan is generally cu lti vated nea r its geographica l area of evolution , and is therefore plagued in N.America by numerous disease organisms, including scab , vein spot , downy spot and shuck disease. In sect problems are also common, including the pecan nut casebearer, hickory shuckworm , pecan weevil and aphids. Of the numerous cultivars , the foll owing ea rl y-ripening se lection are known to do well in the NE USA or even in Ca nada ; they hold the best hope for cool tempera Ie areas: Best's Early, Campbell 4 ( originated in Canada), Ca rl son 3 (nuts sma ll to medium size , thick she ll ed , average quality. An alternate bearer, very early ripening. Grown in Canada), Coffee, Cornfield (nuts medium size , regular bearer, average shell thickness , reasonable kernel quality . Grown in Canada) , Deerstand (grown in Canada), Devore (small nuts (120/Ib), excellent flavour), Gibson (precocious, nuts medium sized, good flavour, precocious), Grandview, Green Island (nuts of good size and flavour) , Lucas (nuts sma ll to medium size and shell thickness, good kernel quality. Regular bearer. Grown in Canada, early to mid ripening), Mullahy (precocious , very productive , nuts medium size, excellent flavour. Has ripened nuts in Ontario) , NC-4 (good producer of large nuts, thin shells, well -filled kernels of good quality. Grown in Canada. early to mid ripening ), Snag, Snaps Early (very early ripening . Nut small , thin shell , good kernel quality. Moderate bearer. Grown in Canada), Theresa Foster (very early ripening . Grown in Canada). Voiles 2 (has ripened nuts in Ontario .) C.illinoinensis X C.myristiciformis - hybrid . C.illinoinensis X C.ovata - hybrid hicans. Leaves with 7-9 leaflets; fruit intermediate in characteristics between the parents (pecan & shagbark) , often with a reddish tinge. Although nuts are often large they are also often poorly filled . Cultivars include : Burton (nuts medium size, reasonably filled , crack well , good flavour. Precocious . Seedlings sometimes also exceptionally good. Grown in Canada), Des Moines (light bearing . Seedlings slow to bear, not very fertile), Dooley seedling (a Burton seedling, which crops well and has well-filled nuts. Grown in Canada) , Hartmann (nuts medium size , thin shelled) , Henke (nuts sma ll to medium but well filled , crack well , good flavour. Precocious, shy bearer. Grown in Canada), Hershey (nuts medium size, well filled) , Jackson (nuts medium size , good cropper) , Pixley , Wapello. C.kweichowensis - Guizhou hickory. China (esp . on high forested slopes) . Details and description unknown. May be hardy to zone 7 (-15C).
C.laciniosa (Syn. C.sulcata) - SheUbark hickory, Big shellbark. Eastern USA. Large tree to 30 m (100 tt) or more high, with bark peeling in long strips and thick young twigs. Leaves with 7-9 leaflets, each 10-20 cm (4-8") long ; fruits round-elliptical, to 7 cm (3") long; nuts to 5 cm (2") long, yellowish-red , flattened, somewhat 4-sided, thick-shelled (4 mm) , pointed at both ends; kernel sweet and edible. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C) . Bears nuts with in 15 years . About 40 cullivars have been named, originating in Iowa or Pennsylvania. Those with best potential for Northern and cool summer regions in clud e: CES-1 seedlings - yield nuts of medium size and good flavour. Trees healthy, with sturdy crotches. Grown in Canada. CES-24 - nuts large, excellent flavour, 40% kernel. Precocious biennial bearer, grown in Canada. Fayette - good nut size and cracking quality; kerne l of average to good quality. 38 nulsllb, 34% kernel. Regular producer. Grown in Canada. Henry - good nut size, crack ing and kernel quality; regular bearer. Grown in Canada. Hoffeditz - regular bearer, nuts of medium size, good ffavour and cracking quality. Keystone - large nuts, very good cracking quality. Regu lar bearer. Totten - 16 nutsllb, 25% kernel. Its seedlings yield large nuts; healthy fast-growing trees. Grown in Canada. Other cultivars include: Berger , Big Cypress, Bowman , Bradley (nut large , cracks well. large kernel, precocious regular bearer), Brouse, Caldwell, Ca li co, Chetopa, Croston , Daulton, Dewey Moore (n uts thin-shelled, 33% kernel ; poor producer), Dreppard , Ellison No.1 , Engeman (Missouri Giant; large nut, cracks well) , Etter, Eureka (n ut medium size, cracks well, good flavour; precocious) , Eversman, Favorite, Florin Smith, Harold, Hoagland, Hill, Kaskaskia (nut medium-large. cracks well, very good flavour; precocious) , Lamomi, Landis (Redclay), LeFevre , Lindauer (nuts large, crack well, productive), Longnecker, Mackinaw, Matt ( 15 nutsllb), Nieman (nuts large , thickshe lled) , Nowrood, Osborn (very thick she ll), Piasan, Pleasant Creek 1, Porter (33g nuts, 17% kernel), Ross (large nut, exc cracking quality. good flavour; precocious) , Sayer, Scholl (large nut. cracks well, precocious), Stanley (30% kernel), Stephens (very large nuts, late ripening). Super X, Tama Queen , Wagoner, Wampler, Wooley. C. X laneyi (C.cordiformis X C.ovata) - American hybrid . Similar to C.ovata but with dark grey bark , not grooved ; leaves with 5 leaflets ; ovate fruit; nuts flattened, thin shelled , kernel large , sweet and edible. Hardy to zone 5 (- 23C). Early bearing ; several named varieties have been se lected, including: Beaver (prota ndrous, 50% kernel), Brackett (wrongly attributed to C.glabra; thin shelled. kernel large and full, good flavour), Bridgewater (=Brookfield; nut very large (8 g), 47% kernel). Creager (149 nutsllb, 49% kernel ), De Acer (nut medium . cracks we ll , good flavour; precocious; protogynous , susceptible to weevils). Fairbanks (48% kernel) , Laney (the type) , Peck (poorly filled) . Roof, Stocking , Stratford (nuts thin-shelled , cracks well), Terpenny (53% kernel) , Weschcke (was attributed to C.ovata; pollen sterile ; nuts medium size, thin shell , 53 % kernel, cracks well. very good flavour, precocious) . C. X lecontei (G.aquatica X C.illinoinensis) - Bitter pecan . Texas. Large tree to 20 m (70 tt) high or more with scaly think bark . Leaves with 7-13 leaflets, each 7-12 em (3-5-) long ; fruits oblong , 4-winged; nuts Oblong-ovoid , 4-sided and angular , reddish-brown , very thin shelled , kernel very biUer - not edib le . Not very hardy, perhaps zone 7-9 (-5 to -15C). C. X ludoviciana (C.aquatica X C.texana) - hybrid. C.myri sticiformis - Nutmeg hickory. SE USA, Mexico. Large tree to 25 m (85 ft) or more high with dark brown fragmented bark. Leaves with 5-11 leaflets. each 8-12 cm (3-5 ") long ; fruits ovate, 10 4 cm (1!4:") long ; nut to 3 cm (1.2") across, ovate , reddish-brown with silver stripes (resembling nutmeg), furrowed. thick shelled, kernel sweet and edible. May be hardy to zone 7 (-15C) - grows at Kew. In the wild there are several disjunct populations. The nuts have such thick shells that , despite the sweet kernel , most nuts lie where they fall under the tree, of little use to wildlife.
Page 25
C. X nussbaumeri (C.iflinoinensis X C./aciniosa) - hybrid hicans. Nuts are large but are often poorly filled. Cultivars include:
Baress, Bergman, Bixby (25 nuts/lb, protogynous), Brewster, Burlington, Chanute (41 nutsllb. 32% kernel). Clarkesville, Dintelman, Gerardi (large nut, cracks well, very good flavour: very precocious; used as a pecan rootstock in Tennessee). Greenbay, James (nut very large, cracks easily. precocious), Klein (21 nuts/lb), Marguardt, McCallister (large nuts, poorly filled) , Norton Nussbaumer (the type. may be same as Bixby) , Oregon , Radcliff. Rockville (poor bearer), Underwood (nut large , thin shelled), Weese (47 nutsllb. 44% kernel). Wright.
C.ovalis (Syn. C.microcarpa) - Red hickory, Sweet pignut. Eastern USA. Tall tree to 30 m (100 ftl high. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets. each 7 cm (3") long ; fruits variable. round or pear-shaped. 25 mm (1-) long; nuts thin-shelled, sweet and edible. Hardy to zone 6 (-20"C) . A regular croppe r; sometimes included with C,gfabra. Two cultivars from Michigan have been named Green, Huff. C.ovata (Syn. C.alba) - Shagbark hickory. Eastem North America. Medium or large tree to 20-30 m (70-100 ft) or more high , with bark peeling in strips. Leaves with 5 leaflets, each 10-15 cm (4-6~) long ; fruits round, 4-angled, 3-6 cm ( 1.2-2.5-) long with a thick outer shell; nut to 4 em (1.6") long, ellipsoid, pale, 4sided, thick-shelled (thinner in some cultivars), kernel sweet and edible. Hardy to zone 5 (-23C). In the wild there are several disjunct populations. Var. pubescens has densely hairy lower leaves and twigs.
Grows well in Britain - trees with origins from the north of the range (Quebec) are likely to do best. Fruits in 10-15 years. Over 130 named cultivars have been selected. though many are not propagated. The following have good potential in Northern and cool summer region s: Ceda r Rapids - regular bearing, large nuts of good quality. Medium ripening. Grown in Canada. CES -B seedlings - grown in Canada. CES-26 - very early ripening , though an irregular bearer. Cracks well, good quality kernel. Grown in Canada. Fox - nuts of medium size and quality, crack well. Grown in Canada. Glover - Nuts sma ll, crack well. Grown in Canada. Neil so n - regular bearer, nuts medium to large; average quality. Precocious. Grown in Canada. Porter - Irregular bearing , can be very good; nuts large , 47% kernel, cracks well. Grown in Canada. Wilcox - precocious, nuts medium size (5 g), cracks well , very good flav ou r, 41 % kernel, keeps well. Other cultivars (many of which have probably been lost) include: Abscoda , Adelhursl (good cracking quality), Ancasler, Anthony (74 nulsllb, 42% kernel), Barnaby, Barnes. Beeman, Benham. Benthien, Billeau, Blatchley, Bontrager, Book, Bower, Brill , Brooks, Buehring, Camp No.2, Clark, Cline, Coleman, Comins,
Page 14
Cook , Conover, Cotton, Cra nz , Curtis, Davis (nuts medium size, crack well, good quality), Dennis , Oeveaux, Doolittle, Dover, Drew, Eller, Elliott, Emerick, Enfield, Fat Boy, Felger (late ripen ing . poor yields , 30% kernel), Folts , Freel. Froman, Gobble, Goheen, G riffin , Hadley, Hagen, Hales, Hand, Harman , Harold (protand rous) , Hasbrouck, Haskell , Haviland, Hefty, Heibner, Heisey , Helmuth , Henever No.4 , Hilton , Hines, Holden (ornamenta l, drooping branches) , Huber, Huen , Huss, Ideal, Independence , Iowa , Isham, Jackson, Joliffe, Kentucky ( from var. pubescens), Kirtland , Lake , Last . Lawyer, Leach. Learning , Leavenworth , Leonard, Lingenfelter, Livingstone No.2 , Loomis , Mambert (thin she ll ), Manahan, Mann (75 nutsflb, 47% kernel), McLaughlin, Meriden, Milford, Mi ller (100 nutsllb, 49 % kernel), Minnie, Murdock, Netking, Peschke, Petty, Platman, Proper, Renggenberg, Retzer (crackS well. medium size , good flavour ; precocious, productive), Reynolds, Rhinemi ller, Rice , Ridiker, Romig, Sa lisbury, Sande , Sauber (nuts crack well) , Schau l, Schinnerling (med ium size , good cracking quality & flavour ; precocious & very productive}, Seaver, Shinar , Si lvis 303 (large thin shelled nut , 45% kernel , self fertile) , Sobolewski, Sprunger, Stadel bacher, Strever , Swaim (84 nutsflb , 50% kernel), Taylor, Triplett, Van Orman , Vest (58% kernel) , Ward , Warren , Watson , Westpha l , Whitney, Wi lmoth (thin-sh elled nuts, large kernel , good flavour), Wilson , Woodbourne, Wurth (nut large, thin shelled, cracks well ; good producer), Zuercher . C.paUida - Sand hickory. Eastern USA (dry upland sites). Large tree , leaves with 7-9 lea flets , each 8-12 cm (3-S") long ; fruits round , 2-4 cm (0 . 6 -1 .6 ~ ) long . with a thin outer shell ; nuts 10 3 cm (1 .2") long , pale , flat , thin-shelled , sweet and edible . Hardy to zone 6 (_20D C). C.palmeri - Mexican hickory. Mexico. Trees with smooth whitish bark. Nuts are thin she lled (1 mm) with bitter wrinkled kernels. Hardiness unknown. C.poilanei - Poilane's hickory. Vietnam, Laos . A little-known species which may not be hardy in temperate climates , though it is found at elevation on hillsides. C. X schneckii (C.iffinoinensis X Clomentosa) - hybrid. C ultivars include: Bates, Schneck (the type). C.sinensis . Ch in a, Vietnam (esp. along river valleys .) Leaves with 7-9 leaflets. The Chin ese name refers to the 'beak-like' apex of the nut. Nuts are very large (68 x 48 mm). This species is cu ltivated in Taiwan and Vietnam for it s nuts . Hardiness unknown - possibly zone 7 (-15C) ; not in cultivation outside Asia . C.texana (Syns . C.arkansana, C.villosa) - Black hickory. SE USA. Small to medium sized tree, 10-15 m (30-50 tt) high, with furrowed dark bark . Leaves with 7 leaflets, each 10-15 cm (4-6") long; fruits rounded, 35 mm (1 .4 ") ran g; nuts round, pointed, 4-sided at the top , reddiSh-brown, very thick-shelled; kernel sweet and edible . Hardy to zone 6 (-20C C). A cultivar exists : Aber. C.tomentosa (Syn . C.alba) - Mockernut hickory. Eastern USA. Large tree to 25-30 m (65-100 tt) high with furrowed , ridged bark . Leaves with 7-9 leaflets , each 818 cm (3-7") long ; fruits round to pear-shaped, 3-5 cm (1.2-2 ~ ) lo ng , with a very thick outer shell ; nuts somewhat flattened and angular, 3 cm (1.2 ") long, light brown , thick shelled (5 mm); kernel sweet and de li ciou s. Hardy to zone 5 (-23 c C). Grows quite well in Britai n . Starts bearing after about 20 years, with maximum production at 40 -150 years. One cuttivar has been named: Oroska (from Missouri, 1929) C.tonkine nsis - Vietnam hickory , Vietnam , SW China , NE India. Lea ves with 5-7 leaflets , Nuts of this species are rounded with a flat apex , 2 x 2.5 cm (0.8 xl ") and th in -s helled (2 mm). Cultivated for nuts where native; an edible oil is extracted from the nuts. May not be hardy in temperate clim ates.
"""
Carya tomentosa, Mockernut hickory
Sources
In the UK, the ART , Mallet Court and Nutwood supply seedling hickories and Nutwood have a few grafted types. Most cultivars are available only from North American nurseries. A.RT., 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon , T09 6JT. Mallet Court Nursery, C urry Ma ll et. Taunton , Somerset. TA3 6SY. Tel : 01823-480748. Nutwood Nurseries, School farm, Onneley, Nr Crewe, Cheshire, CW3 9QJ . Tel: 01782 -750913. Louis Gerardi Nursery, Garden Center, 1700 E Highway 50 , O'Fallon , IL 62269, USA. John Gordon Nurse ry, 1385 Campbell Blvd ., Amherst , NY 14228-1404 , USA. Grima Nut Nursery, 979 Lakeshore Rd , RR3 , Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario , CANADA LOS 1JO . Nolin River Nut Tree Nursery, 797 Port Wooden Rd ., Upton, KY 42784 , USA. Tel : 502-369-8551 . Oikos Tree Crops , P.O .Box 19425, Kalamazoo , Michig an 49019 , USA. Tel : 616-624-6233.
Cultivar-Species index
There is continuing confusion over the misidentification of the species Of hybrids to which some cu ltivars belong . This index includes cultivars which have been listed under one species but are noW considered to belong to a different one .
Cultivar
Aber Abundance Barnes Berger Bergman Bixby Brackett Bridgewater Burlington Burlon Coun try Club De Acer Des Moines Dintelman Dooley Etter Eureka Gerardi Grainger Hartmann
Species I hybrid C.texana C. X dunbarii C.ova la C.laciniosa C. X nussbaumeri C. X nussbaumeri C. X laney; C. X laney; C. X nussbaumeri C.ilfinoinensis x C.ovata C.illinoinensis x C.ovata C. X laneyi C.iIIinoinensis x C.ovala C. X nussbaumeri C.il/inoinensis x C.ovata C.lac;niosa C./aciniosa C. X nussbaumer; C. carolinae-septenlrionalis C.ilfinoinensis x C.ovata
Cultivar Haviland Henke Hershey Iowa
Jackson James Joliffe

Kentucky LeFevre Marquart McCa ll ister Nieman Please Roof Sande Scholl Siers Stratford Underwood Weschcke Yoder NO. 1
Species I hybrid C.ovata C.iJIinoinensis x C.ovala G.illinoinensis x C.ovala C.ovala G.ilfinoinensis x C.ovala C. X nussbaumeri C.ovala C.ovala pubescens G.laciniosa C. X nussbaumeri C. X nussbaumeri C./aciniosa C. X brownii C. X laneyi C.ovala C. /a ciniosa C.cordiformis X C.tomentosa C. X/aneyi C. X nussbaumer; C. X laneyi C. X dunbarii
References
Campbell , D: The Best Pecans for Onta rio. NNGA 1995 Annua l Report 86:78-79 . Campbell , R: Hickory Nut Performance in Ontario. NNGA 1990 Annua l Report 81: 127-128. Campbell, R: Maturing Pecans in Onta rio. NNGA 1989 An nual Report 80: 35-36. Campbell , R: Moving Ahead with Northern Pecans in Onta rio . An nua l Report NNGA 82: 9495, 1991. Campbell, R: Productivity of Hickories in the North. NNGA 1987 Annual Report 78: 35-36. Duke, J: Handbook of Edible Weeds . CRG Press, 1992. Facciola, S; Cornucopia. 1990. Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties . Wiley, 1988. Grauke, L: A Cuttivar List for Hickory. NNGA 1988 Annual Report 79: 131 - 143. Grauke, L & Thompson, T: Pecans and Hickories. In Janick, J & Moore, J: Fruit Breeding. Wiley. 1996. Grauke, L, Wood, B & Payne , J: Genetic Resources of Carya in Vietnam and China. Annual Report NNGA 82:80-87.1991 . Jaynes, R: Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA, 1979. Krussmann , G ; Manual of Broad-leaved Trees & Shrubs , Vol 1. Batsford , 1984 . Lincoln. W: World Woods in Colour. Stobart, 1986. Moore, J N & Ballington Jr, J R: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops. ISHS , 1990. Reed, C & Davidson , J : The Improved Nut Trees of North America . Devin-Adair, 1954. Whea ly, K & Demuth , S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publications , 1993.
Page 29
Pest & Disease series:
Fireblight
Introduction
Fi n ebtight is a bacterial disease of plants in the sub-family Pornoideae of the family Rosaceae (i plants with apple-like fruits), caused by Erwinia amy/ovora. Known about in North America for 20 years , it as since spread via infected material to many other parts of the world , including Centra America. the near east and New Zealand; it continues to spread. It was discovered in Kent in 195 and in now widespread in Europe. Quarantine regulations continue be imposed and have, fo example , kept the disease out of Australia to date.
rn North America, the disease appeared restricted to the eastern USA until the late 1880's, when appeared in California . By about 1900, fireblight was so severe in the eastern USA that commercia pear cultivation was discontinued, and even today there is little pear production there , though ther are exten sive apple plantings.
Symptoms
The symptoms in vigorous growing , highly susceptible pear trees start in spring with affecte blossoms and sometimes shoots wilting and turning brown or black . During the summer, th disease spreads rapid ly through the tissues of the fruiting spurs or shoots. and into branches which are Quickly killed; movement along scaffold branches can reach 25-50 mm (1-2~) ~ i English conditions . Once the bacterium reaches the trunk . it invades other branches and the tre usually dies Quickly - sometimes within one season .
The first obvious symptoms in the orchard are dead blossoms or dark brown leaves hanging from a spur or branch - these will be seen in May-June if spring blossom is infected , or from Jul onwards if infection is from summer blossom . On young affected branches, the bark becomes dark green or dark brown. appearing water-soaked. Shoots start rapidly dying back. During warm humid weather, a glistening whitish bacterial slime may ooze from affected shoots branches and fruits; this may dry and appear as a silvery film on affected surfaces. Leaves on affected branches turn dark brown and, like affected fruits . usually remain attached to the tree after leaf-fall in autumn. Fruits become dark brown to black and wrinkled; occasionally, injur occurs to fruit s without external signs. Sometimes dark green or brown cankers develop on affected branches, where the bacterium overwinters.
The presence of the disease in shoots is indicated by a reddish-brown stain in the cambium (inner bark) .
If unsure whether the symptoms you see are fireblight or another disease (see below), Janson describes an easy test to find out: ~Take a sliver of wood tissue from around the margin of the canker and place it in a green apple. Incubate for a few days at room temperature . If the fruit turns brown but remains firm , it is coilar rot. If it turns soft and juicy , another type of rot is present. But i the apple turns brown and a sticky ooze comes out of the skin surface, it is fireblight. "
Hawthorn & Cotoneaster: Symptoms are similar to pears . Apples: Symptoms appear similar Ie pears . but spread more slowly along branches. Spring blossom infection (particularly on late flowering cider apples in England) is more common. Sometimes the disease remains restricted Ie blossom tissues . The main branches and trunk are rarely affected . Whitebeam : Affected leave~ are lighter brown than in pears. The disease can spread very rapidly and trees are often killed in 1 2 seasons .
Diseases with similar symptoms

The symptoms of fireblighl may sometimes be confused with :
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AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 6 No .
Blossom blight (Pseudomonas syringae) - attacks pear blossoms especially in col wet weather; blossoms wither and spu rs can die back . Blossom wi(t (Monifinia /axa) - infected blossoms and leaves fail to develop, and remain after leaf fall. Greyish spore masses appear in wet weather. Canker (Neetria galfigena) - if this causes a canker to girdle a branch , leaves may blacken and remain attached .
Conditions for infection and spread

The highest risk of infection is in rainy weather when temperalures are over 16.5C (62 F) . Blossom infection can be like ly on sunny, warm days (21-30 C , 70-86F) when insect activity is high . Storm damage to trees increases the risk of infection. The bacterium is usua lly spread from a diseased tree or shrub growing close by. The bacteria overwinters in infected bark tissues . During humid, warm weather, diseased pariS of branches exude bacteria, often as a slime, which can be carried to blossoms by insects or rain splash . If conditions are su itable , the bacteria multiply rapidly in the blossom and are then transmitted to other blossoms by pollinating insects, rain splas h , wind borne particles of dried slime , or by windborne contaminated pollen . The bacteria usually move through the tissues of the blossom stalk into the fruiting spurs and from there invade the branches . If conditions are less favourable, or in less susceptible hosts, the bacteria may often not penetrate beyond the spur. Dried bacteria l ooze can remain infectious for more than a year. Branches can also be infected directly through wounds, via bacteria carried from cankers by insects , birds (migratory starlings or other birds have been implicated in the spread), rain or pruning equipment. The bacteria can survive for 48 hours on th e bodies of bees, so if hives are moved from orchard to orchard, a 'quara ntin e period' of this length is vita l; the bacteria will not overwinter in a hive. It can survive 72 hours in the body of a green aphid . Ants , beetles and flies are known to feed on the bacterial exudate and may well cause the initial infection to flare up in spring . Contaminated pruning instruments have caused a devastating spread in a few orchards. In hawthorn hedges, very common in many parts of Britain, the spread between trees can be very rapid , but in annually pruned hedges this is largely prevented because flowering is largely prevented by such pruning.
Hosts
All the hosts to fire blight are in the Rosaceae family and within the pome fruit sub-family; plants in other sub-families such as cherries and plums are unaffected. In some years the disease may be more severe on some hosts tha n others. In England the most common hosts have been pear, apple, hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), Cotoneaster species (particularly the larger ones) , Whitebeam (Sorbus aria) and Pyracantha species . Less affected pome fruits include rowan (Serbus aucuparia), ornamental apples and pears and quince. Swedis h whitebeam appears immune. The following list details known susceptibility of different species and cultivars to fireblight. Definitions here are : Very susceptible - infected plants often die. Susceptib le - infected plants can be severely damaged, but usually survive. Resistant - damage is negligible or does not occur. Amelanchier (juneberries): Susceptible: A canadensis. Resistant: Most species. Chaenomeles (ornamental quinces): Susceptible: most species including C. x superba. Cotoneaster: Very susceptible : C.bulfatus, C.floccosus, C.pannosa, C.'Autumn Fire', C.sa/icifo/ius.
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Susceptible: C.buxifofius, C.dammeri, C.'Coral Beauty' , C.'Cornubia', C.divaricatus, C.'Exburiensis', CJrigidus , C.'Hybridus Pendulus ', C.simonsii, C.x waterii. Resistant: C.adpressus, C. apiculatus, C.die/sianus, CJoveolatus, CJranchetii, C.horizontalis, G.integerrimus, C.microphyl1us, C.nitens, C.zabelii. Crataegus (hawthorns): Susceotible: Some species, including C.monogyna - often a source of infection even if not killed . Resistant: Many species, including C.coccinea. C.prunifoJia. Cydonia oblonga (Quince): Susceptible: Most or all cultivars. Eriobotrya japonica (Loquat): Very Susceptible: Most or all cultivars . Heteromeles arbutifolia (Toyon): Very susceptible. Malus (apples): Very susceptible: Crabs: Golden Hornet, Royalty . Susceptible: Crabs : MJJoribunda, Mhupehensis, Msargentii, M.tschonoskii, M.x zumi, Red Jade, Rosea , Van Eseltine , Wintergold. Also most fruiting cultivars. Resistant: C rabs : Mx robusta, MJusca, Alexis, Beauty, Dolgo , Donald Wyman, Fairy , Henry Kohankie, Hillieri, Joan, Uset, Prairie Fire , Professor Sprenger, Profusion, Red Senti nel , Wickson, Yellow Siberian. Resistant cider cultivars: Bulmer' s Norman . The following fruiting (dessert and cooking) cultivars are cla ssed resistant or very resistant in Directory of Apple Cultivars or on our database : Akane Atwood Spur Ben Davis Black Umbertwig Blackmack Borsdorfer Captain Kidd Courtagold Delbard Dermen Mcintosh Double Red Mcintosh Dugamel Egremont Russet Enterprise Florina Geneva Early Golden Glory Goldrush Hardispur Hi-Early Hunter Spartan Judeline King David Lalla Lysgold Maigold Marstar Minjon Alexis Bauline Bisbee Red Delicious Black Mcintosh Blaxtayman Bovey Caravel Crower #30 Deleon Dermen Winesap , Double Red Stayman Earlibrite Elliot Spur Ervin Red Frazier's Spur Gold Spur Golden Morspur Grimes Golden Harrold Red Hi-Red Idaho Delicious July Tart Kinnard's Choice Liberty Macfree Mcintosh Mandan Mcintosh Morspur Anoka Beacon Black Ben Black Mickey Blenheim Orange Breakey Chelan Red Dark Red Staymared Delicious Detroit Red Doud Golden Delicious Earlistripe Empire Evarts Red Freedom Golden Au vilspur Goldensheen Haralred Hazen Hoople's Antique Go ld Johnson Mcintosh Keepsake Lady Sudeley Lowland Raspberry Macaun Mantel Merrigold Morspur Mcintosh Arkansas Belgolden No 17 Black David Black Oxford Bonnie Best Britegold Classic Red Delicious Dayton Derman Delicious Dianaspur Duchess of Oldenburg Ed Gould Golden Empress Spur Fameuse Gardner Golden Delicious Goldenspur Haralson Heubner Houser Red Jonadel Kimball Mcintosh Laking Lutz Macspur McIntosh Marshall Mcintosh Miller Sturdyspur Murray
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Nova Easygrow Ozark Gold Prima Red Delicious Red King Red Stayman Richelieu Ruby Shotwell Skyline Supreme Spartan Compact Starkspur Golden Del. Stayman's Winesap Summerred Sweet Delicious Trent Wellington (USA) Williams' Pride
Novamac Okanoma Pagsup Spur Type Penco Priscilla Quinta Red Duchess of Oldenburg Red Fameuse Red Prince Red Queen Redfree Redmax Mcintosh Rockingham Red Rogers Mcintosh Ryan Red Sali Spur Simon's Russet Sinta Smokehouse Smoothee Spencer Starking Starkspur Mcintosh Starkspur Red Sterling Summer Mac Sunda le Super Starking Testerspur Golden Del. Thome Empire Turner Vance Wellspur Delicious Wijcik Mcintosh Winesap Yellows pur
Oregon Spur Perleberg Red Baron Red Haralson Red Spur Richared Delicious Royal Red Scarlet Staymared Sky Spur Spartan Starkrimson Delicious Siaybrile Summerland Mcintosh Swaar Topred Virginia Beauty Williams Favourite
Photinia: Susceptible: P.davidiana . pyracantha: Very susceptib le : P. ala/antioides . Susceptib le: P.angustifolia, P.coccinea, P.crenulata, P.gibbsii yunnanensis, P.rogersiana. ReSistant: P.koidzumii. pyrus (pears): Very susceptible: most fruiting cultivars. Susceptible: most flowering pears . Resistant: P.calleryana, P.ussuriensis . The following fruiting cultivars are resistant in Directory of Pear Cultivars: Beurre Alexandre Lucas Atlantic Queen Ayers Carrick Beurre Lucas Bronzee Bierschmidt David Doug las Elliot Garber Gorham Harrow Delight Hood Harvest Queen Herman Last June Sugar Luscious Magness Moonglow Nova Olia Savannah Pineapple Potomac Turnbull Starking Delicious Summer Crisp Tyson Warren Also Asian pears: Shinko Tsu Li
classed resistant or very Beurre Giffard Clark Fanslill Harrow Sweet John Monterey Orient Stark Honeysweet Turner Shade
Ya Li
Sorbus: Very susceptible: S.aria (whitebeam), S .' Joseph Rock '. Susceptib le: S.aucuparia (rowan). Resistant: S.decora, S.inlermedia, S.latifolia.
Varietal susceptibility
Considerable differences occur between varieties. Even varieties with high tissue susceptibility often escape infection, because in many years , the time at which infection can most easily occur (during flowering and soft extension growth) fails to coincide with the period when weather conditions and disease inoculum levels are favourable for infection.
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=
Control
&#
Pears: Regularly inspect trees al times of ri sk. If fireblight is found, cut out the infected parts as soon as possible - but not on wet days . To confirm that firebJight is present, a slanting cut should be made in the bark at least 50 em (20") below signs of the disease. Continue making further cuts towards the canker/diseased part to determine whether the reddish-brown to brown staining of the cambium is present which indicates fi reblighL Disinfect tools afte r each cut.
Whe n cutting out shoots or branches , if they are less than 25 mm (1M) diameter, cut out at least 30 em ~ 1 tt) below the stained bark ; jf the branch is larger , then at least 50 em (20 below. Again. disi~fect tools after each cut. If a branch larger than 25 mm (1~) diameter is infected nearer than 50 cm (20~) to the trunk of the tree, there is little hope of sav ing the tree .
M )
In commercia l orchards, sprays are used in conjunct ion with cutting out infected wood . In North America and in some perry and cider orchards in England , fungicidal copper sprays are used regu larly (and sometimes used prophylactically to reduce susceptibility). Although Bordeaux mixture is still allowed by organic standards in emergenc ies, its regular use befo re problems emerge is not allowed ; there may be se rious dangers in the bui ld up of copper in the soil and on fruits . Other copper compou nds used include copper lime dust, copper hydroxide and copper oxych loride sulphate . They are usually applied to trees at 5 day intervals throughout the flowering pe ri od. The favoured sub st ance for some time in N.America has been the antibi otic bacteria Strepto mycin , used as a bio logical control, althoug h resistanl fireblight strains soon emerge . Many growers there have returned to using copper sprays. Alte rnative prophylactic plant-based products may themse lves have a sig nifi cant fungicidal action. In t ri als, a mixture of extracts from black wa lnut (Juglans nigra), ba rberry (Berberis vulgaris) , sumach (Rhus typhina ) and garlic (Allium sativum) gave good control in over half of the fi reb light cases. And in further trials, resistance to fire bl ight was induced by spraying with extracts of each of the fallowing: Lady's mantle (A/chemifJa vulgaris); Ivy (Hedera helix); Sacha lin knotweed (Fal/apia sachaJinensis); Mistletoe (Viscum a/bum) . Co nt rol has also been reported by using extracts from Dove tree (Davidia involucrata) , Fontanesiana editorum , Bull bay (Magnolia grandifJora) , White pond lily (Nymphaea odorata) , Japanese spurge (Pachysandra terminalis) , Pomeg ranate (Punica granatum), Konara oak (Quercus glandulifera), Rue (Ruta graveo/ens) and Tetradium danie/Jii. Tria ls are underway with a biological control : the related bacteria Erwinia herbico/a has an antibiotic action and inhibit s Eamy/ovora . Apples: Cuttin g out the infection is usua lly successful and trees rarely die. Perry pears & Cider apples: These are usually grown as stan dard s, so are large and difficult to inspect and prune. Established trees are best left unpruned to try and cope the best they can. Some perry pears are very susceptib le. In add ition:Infected hawthorns nearby sho uld be grubbed up and burnt. Pruning knives & saws shou ld be d isi nfected after every cut. Use a commercial disinfectant or (a) a so lution of 7 parts methylated spirit to 3 parts water; or (b) 70% ethanol solution ; or (c) dilute househo ld bleach , 1 part bleach to 9 pa rts water (thi s mixture is corrosive to metals wash & oil tools frequently) Where possible , cut out summe r blossoms , prefe rably before they open.
Reducing susceptibility
Any practice which enco urages soft , sappy growth should be avoided: fireblight becomes a problem when trees are oruned fertilised , and stimulaled to grow rapidly. This means: Do not use nitrogen fertili sers in the spring (use in autumn if needed);
Page 84
Minimise pruning - tip bearers, for example, need almost none. If you do prune, try to do so annually, with small amounts cut each year; Don 't irrigate in early summer (mid May - Mid June) because it quickly increases shoot growth. Irrigation from mid July to mid August is acceptable and aids fruit swelling; Reduce growth rates by allowing a grass sward or other plants (ground covers andlor intercrops) to be established beneath trees; Avo id hawthorn hedges if possible; if present , trim annually to prevent flowering; Burn all infected material as soon as possible; the bacteria can survive for weeks in detached infected branches. Another factor which can improve resistance in the use of resistant rootstocks, which can be used 10 form the framework of the tree, with scion cultivar(s) grafted high onto branches. Pyrus betulaefolia, P.calleryana, and the Old Home (OH) selections are recommended in North America. Where trees are rarely fertilised or pruned, and where the appearance & size of the fruit is not importa nt , then even susceptible varieties are rarely seriously damaged.
The UK
Attempts to control the disease , once it was discovered in 1957, by destroying affected plants, failed, and it has since spread North and West to most areas South and East of a line from the Humbe r to the Mersey. It is sti ll a legally notifiable disease in the declared clear area (Scotland, cumbia , Northumberland, Durham, Tyne & Wear, Cleveland, N.Yorks) - the boundary of which lies mainly through upland areas where hawthorn is scarce and thus allows a barrier to the natural spread of the disease. The main economic losses have occurred in years with warm spells of weather from mid-May to early June, when blossom infection of susceptible perry pears and cider apples in the West & South West has been severe; susceptible perry pears have had to be grubbed up. Genera lly, pears that regularly produce summer blossom (from mid-June to September) are most often affected (hence the ban on commercial plantings of the pear 'Laxton's Superb ') and have been the major victims; in addition, later-flowering pears are more often affected than earlyflowering ones, simply because of the li kelihood of wa rmer weather and more disease inoculum later in the spring. The spread in pear orchards during the spring has rarely been important (spring weather is usually too cold); where this has been seen in dessert or perry pears, it has usually been worse near infected hawthorns. Flowering in app les is later than in pears, so apples (espeCially late flowering) are at greater risk of infection through spring blossom than most pears; cider apples can flower through to mid-June, thus accounting for the extensive blossom infection they can suffer. Summer blossoms are less commonly produced on apples and are thus rarely a source of infection.
References
Crawford, M: Directory of Apple Cultivars. Agroforestry Research Trust , 1994. Crawford, M: Directory of Pear Cultivars. Agroforestry Research Trust , 1996. Firebl ight of Apple and Pear. MAFF Leaflet 571, HMSO, 1984. Firebl ight of Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Arboriculture Research Note 118, AAIS, 1994. Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties. John W iley, 1988. Janson, H F: We Shall Overcome: Fire Blight. Pomona, Vol. XXX, No.2, 16-23. Kuma r , J et al: Plant Diseases of International Im portance, Vol 3: Diseases of Fruit Crops. Prentice Hall, 1992 . Moore, J N & Ballington Jr, J R: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops. ISHS, 1990. Ogawa, J M: Diseases of Temperate Zone Tree Fruit and Nut Crops. University of California, 1991. PhHlips, 0 H & Burdekin , 0 A: Diseases of Forest and Ornamental Trees. MacMillan, 1992. Westwood, M N: Temperate-Zone Pomology. Timber Press, 1993

C~B
Book Reviews
Temperate Agroforestry Systems

Andrew M Gordon & Steven M Newman (Eds)
International , 1997; 288 pp ; 27.50 (Paperback). ISBN 0-85199-147-5.
Recent agroforestry resea rch has co ncentra ted on tropics in the context of developing nations, there is increasing awareness in temperate zones of faults in traditional agricultural systems. a in creasing practical activity in the development of sustainable farming systems includ agroforestry. This book explores the development of temperate agroforestry and agrofores systems, concentrating on those temperate areas where the greatest advances, adoptions a modifications have taken place .
I
I
The six main chapters deal with the current state of agroforestry in temperate regions of the wor and include historical background, examples, research priorities and policies . Although small-sc forest farming systems are included , home gardens (or forest gardens) are not, being considered tropical type not important to temperate systems. The historical background alone makes fascinating reading. In North America, before Europe settlement, native Americans utilised agroforestry systems much like subsistence farmers world over: slash and burn systems were common, and fire was used extensively to enhan wildlife forage , encourage fruiting shrubs and medicinal plants, to improve hunting etc. In ma areas the native peoples relied heavily on tree crops including sugar from maples and nuts fro chestnuts, oaks and pines; and leguminous mesquites (Prosopis spp .) were used for food and green manure shrubs. The planting of tree seeds (oaks , pines, walnuts), cuttings and transplan was common in the SW, ye t little known now to ecologists and historians; lands considered wild European settlers were often highly manipulated ecosystems. European settlement brought n agroforestry practices including forms of silvopasture , intercropping with fruit trees and vario annual crops, and home gardens. In Europe, the past 300 years have seen the systema elimination of agroforests. Before that , oaks and beeches for nuts, lopped ashes for fodder, a fruit trees were left scattered in fields and didn 't hinder manual cultivation. Hedgerows we planted along field borders , roads and rivers. Forest grazing by herded flocks of sheep, cattle pigs was the rule. Remnants of these practices can still be seen across Europe, most obviously Mediterranean zones - for example , areas of intercropped olives and vines, and forest grazi systems . In China, several agroforestry systems have been in existence for many centuri including intercropping with Chinese date ;' hemp and paper mulberry intercropping; chestnuts w soya beans ; and mulberry with soya beans, melon and sesame. Current agroforestry practices around the world are extensively reviewed , region by region. The include: North America: Windbreak and shelterbelt systems . Wind protection has been shown to increase yields grains, vegetable crops and orchard trees. They can also improve honey production , buf waterways , filter airborne sediment and act as snow fences. They can also improve livesto health and growth rates . Farmers expect a 10-40% reduction in home energy expenses with farmstead windbreak . Silvopastoral systems. Traditional practices in the SE include forest grazing and pasturing pine and pecan ; the pine-cattle system is now a common practice. In the NW, forest grazing a tradition , mainly with cattle; sheep and cattle are increasingly used to reduce the scrub lay before tree planting , and sheep are used to control weeds in new plantations . Intercropping I alley-cropping systems. Alley cropping of fruit trees with vegetables improv overall financial viability, diversifies production , and improves the growth and productivity fruit trees.
Page 36
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 6 N(
Inlercropping is also being used to establish forest plantations and to fe-establish natural fore sts. Alley cropping with black walnut has been well researched and is practised with alleys of arable crops (eg.maize). grass or other crops (eg.ginseng) . Forest farming systems - utilising existing forested or woodland areas to produce other economically valued products . These include honey, aromatics , craft materials , fence posts , fruits , nuts , fuelwood , medicinal plants. mushrooms , pine straw, sap and syrup . Biomass production systems for fuel. fibre , fodder, waste management. In clud es poplar and
willow biomass systems.

New Zealand & Australia: Silvopasloral systems predominate here, especially with sheep (also cattle) and plantations of radiata pine. Other tree species being used include poplars and paulownia . Forest grazing is also common. Shelterbelt systems have been a lowland feature for the last century , protecting pastures and thereby improving pasture and livestock growth . Silvopastoral systems include scattered trees in pastures , using Radiata pine and Eucalypt species of good form. China : Silvoarable systems. These are common, for example paulownia intercropping with wheat, oil crops, vegetables , melons ; and farmland sheUerbelts. Other combinations used are aSh . willow, poplar, black locust. chestnut, birch etc. with grains , medicinals, oil crops , melons etc. Fruit/nut intercropping with fruit trees is also popular. including apple, peach . pear. persimmon, walnut and Chinese date (Zizyphus jujube). Intercropping with Gi ng ko is being developed. Envi ronmental systems. Th e are the primary forms of agroforestry practised nationwide and include home gardens, buffers along canals and roads, and around houses and villages. Silvopastoral systems are also common. , with sea buckthorn & Russian olive . Tree - crop - fish systems. These involve paulownia, willow , poplar and fruit trees with fish ponds and wheat I oil crops I vegeta bles I herbs. Mulberry - crop - silkworm . These combine mulberry with silkworm cultivation and crops of wheat, peanuts, beans or vegetables. Europe: Intercropping. Vast areas of olive are still intercropped with grape vines in Mediterranean regions. Olive wheat row cropping is another example. Fruit orchards with trees in rows are still intercropped in parts of Europe , with tree species including walnut, almond, peach. apricot. Intercrops include winter cereals (wheat. barley). soya bean , sunflowers. tobacco, sorghum ; fodder crops such as alfalfa ; aromatic crops like lavender; small fruits like currants and gooseberries; and other fruit trees . Forest grazing. Still used in many parts of Europe with sheep and cattle. Larch and Scots pine forests in France are amoung the highest in fodder productivity. Mediterranean forest grazing is important where they are no longer producing marketable wood . Si lvoarable systems. The dehesa system in SW Spain and Portugal covers some 2 million ha (5 million acres) and involves random scattered oaks intercropped with cereals and fodder crops; the trees have been selected for their sweet acorns to feed pigs, sheep , cattle & people . Silvopastora l systems. Most common ly these include grassed orchards of apple and pear. Several new experimental schemes are being researched. The final chapter, 'Temperate Agroforestry: Synthesis and Future Directions' by the editors, compa res and contrasts the features of agroforestry research and practice outlined in the previous cha pters. This includes a discussion of economic . agronomic and environmental measures of effectiveness of agroforestry systems, optimisation of systems by choosing the right dens ity and spatia l arrangement of species, limits to wider adoption and key research needs. They co nclud e that temperate agroforestry systems are widespread and thus ecologi ca lly and cultura ll y important ; they are central to production in China. They end by saying: "The two major challenges for mankind as we reach the new millennium are the production of more food and the conservation of biodiversity. Agroforestry is a land-u se system that has the capacity to provide solutions to both. ~
e
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of
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Page 37
&
In the last 20 years it has been confirmed that agroforestry can be more biologically productive , more profitable, and be more sustainable than forestry or agricultural monocultures . This book is the first to bring together so many examples of temperate agroforestry and will be immensely valuable to all those working in this area including practitioners and researchers , and students and teachers in this and related fields .
Intercropping and the Scientific Basis of Traditional Agriculture Donald Q Innis

In termed iate Technology Publications, 1997; 179 pp; 19 .95. ISBN 1-85339-328-2. In the light of modern agricultural problems of soil erosion and depletion of non-renewable resources (amongst others) , this book aims to examine the effectiveness of traditional farming methods. Farmers have often used intercropping to keep soil fertility at usable levels for centuries or millennia, and have produced a balanced diet while using resources in a non-destructive way. The examples cited here are mostly from tropical agriculture but have a universal application . The initial chapter discusses the advantages of intercropping and the effects it has , with scientific evidence presented from field trials. The ecological benefits of intercropping are outlined , with a parallel drawn between intercroppingfmonoculture and selective culling/clear cutting of forests : the latter in both cases often lead to a period of rapid soil loss through decay, erosion and leaching. This parallel is also rightly applied to economics: "There is a real difference between farming for maximum profits and farming for maximum yield. In modern economics, maximum profits are usually defined as short-term profits. There seems to be no satisfactory way in which the free market can allow for the fact that maximum profits in the present often involve destroying resources and making future profits much smaller.~ Numerous experiments have shown that greater growth and yields of organic matter or food can be produced by intercropping rather than monocropping . When discussing yields, the author introduces the concept of the land equivalent ratio (LER) which can be used to make meaningful stalistical comparisons between crops. Another factor discussed is nitrogen - intercropping using N-fixers is well-known and can make lead to large increases in LER's, especially if N-fertilisers are not used. With water usage, the author notes that different species of plants do compete for water when it is scarce , but two crops , with a variety of kinds of root, can recover more of the available water than one , and they also reduce water loss and associated leaching . The organic matter content in the soil is critical in aiding water holding capacity, and intercropping produces more organic matter than monocropping. As would be expected, solar energy (light) is used more efficiently when intercropping - different height plants , leaf shapes and alignments all 'contribute . Similarly , increased efficiency in the use of light , water and nutrients occurs when long- and short-term plants are grown together: competition between the species is reduced because they make maximum demands for sun , rain and nutrients at different times. Relay planting is a common method used, when extra species are introduced at intervals during croppi ng cycles of other crops. Soil nutrient losses are nearly always less with intercropping, despite the likely increased total of nutrients in the combined crops : this is due to the much reduced leaching losses because of a more extensive root network. Insect pests can be reduced by intercropping , though care obviously needs to be taken to combine crops which do not have a common pest. Reduced insect pests also helps control disease since insects often carry disease from one plant to the next. Intercropping also reduces the impetus to spray chemical controls for these often damage one of the crops themsetves . Weeds are also reduced by intercropping , because of faster soil cover and weed suppression In tabour and profit terms, intercropping often requires more labour, but how much more depends on the intensity of cropping - many different crops at unpatterned plantings needing more , two crops in alternate lines less; when hand labour is used , little extra labour is needed to intercrop. If family labour is available then
Page 38
iintercropping is almost always more profitable than monocropping; to the big farmer only a few plant combinations are profitable. The difference between commercial and traditional farming is the same as the difference between farming for maximum profit and maximum yield. The central three chapters describe detailed field observations of intercropping practices in Jamaica, Nepal and India. Some of these are impressive forest garden structures which have bee n in continuous production for many decades. The final two chapters, ' The earth's soil and its future' and 'Social and economic implications of agricultural practices', are pleas for a sustainable intercropping-based agriculture which can maintain soil fertility indefinitely, for more research on intercropping, and for a reappraisal of the role of traditional farmers: " .. peasant farmers grow much more from given resources of land, water and sunlight .. than do large-scale farmers. They are observant and innovative when it comes to developing or accepting new plant malerial or other things which are really helpful. "
~It is widely accepted Ihat small farmers intercrop as a form of insurance against lotal loss of their crop. It is nol [yet] widely accepted, however, that small traditional farmers intercrop because it is a better method of farming which gives higher total yields and is better adapted to a potential range of many actual climate conditions than monocropping. Research intended to aid big farmers tends towards manipulation of the environment to make it similar to the controlled conditions of an experimental plot. The traditional farmer with intercropping uses a system better designed for the uncertainties of the real world.~
"lntercropping will probably be an essentia l part of future agriculture because it uses environmenta l and other resources more efficiently than does monocropping . Only those types of agriculture which maintain soil fertility can survive in the long run. Monocropping, which often allows erosion to proceed more quickly than soil can be formed , and which allows many other kinds of environmenta l damage, has clearly a limited future ."
Plants For a Future Ken Fern
Edible and Useful Plants For a Healthier World
Permanent Publications, 1997; 302 pp; 16.95. Available from the A.R.T. for 19.00 inc. postage. ISBN 1-85623-011-2. This excellent book is a great introduction to many unusual tree, shrub and perennial plants with uses, mostly edible, which can be grown in temperate climates, particularly Britain. The introduction and initial chapter explain the rationale and reasoning for choosing to grow a more diverse and perennial-based selection of plants to provide a healthy diet. As Ken says, "This book is for people who would like to experiment with alternative food plants." It isn't primarily about growing methods, though a few general principles are explained, such as companion planting, feeding the soil, green manures , and cultivation. The rest of the book is split into chapters which each describe a variety of unusual plants of different types or for different situations. A paragraph or two is spent on a description of each plant and its uses , and Ken's knowledge and enthusiasm comes through strongly. ' Trees and shrubs' covers pioneer species (eg alders), tall and short trees, and tall and short shrubs - many nuts and fruits are covered. 'Woodland plants' covers climbers, bamboos (not extensively), bulbs and herbaceous perennials which can tolerate shade. 'The flower garden' covers more ornamental plants with edible leaves, flowers and roots. 'Perennial vegetables and herbs' covers more such plants considered less ornamental. 'The pond & bog garden' gives brief notes on pond and bog construction, and gives details of water and bog plants of use . 'The edible lawn' covers plants which can be integrated into grass lawns . Wall plants, tender plants and more climbers are covered in 'Walls and fences'. 'Hedges, screens & shelterbelts' briefly describes hedge and sheJterbelt design and hedge plants. 'Gro und cover plants' describes a small selection of useful plants to cover the soil.
Page 39
There is some overlap between these main chapters , but the book is well indexed , and where plants are mentioned more than once, a page reference is made to make cross-referencing easy. 48 colour photographs and several in black and white illustrate many of the plants Ken writes about wilh such enthusiasm . A number of appendices cover further reading (though not journals), plant and seed sources (only the ones Ken has used , with some notable omissions) , lists of plants for specific habitats, plant toxins, lists of native plants and a listlindex of plant uses.
Ther~ are plenty of books around which make devastating criticisms of existing unsustainable agricultural practices ; this is one of the rare few that actually enthusiastically offer alternatives to explore and experiment with . Though perennial food crops, forest gardening and the like are still in their early stages of life in most temperate regions, this book makes a valuable contribution in their development. As well as being essential reading for all interested in Organic agriculture, Permaculture and alternative crops, it should also make these less well known crops better known by all interested in gardening and agriculture.
Biological Indicators of Soil Health

C Pankhurst, B Daube & V Gupta (Eds)
CAB International, 1997; 464 pp; 60.00 ($110 .00) (Hardback) .
ISBN 0-85199-158-0.
Maintaining soil health is fundamental to sustaining crop production and ecosystems. The authors of this book review and evaluate how soil organisms can be used to measure and monitor the state of soil health . Initial chapters review definitions of soil health and sustainable productivity. The soil is rightly described as W a dynamic, living resource whose condition is vital both to the production of food and fibre and to global balance and ecosystem function. " Soils take 100-400 years to build up by a centimetre and must not be used up at a rate quicker than that for true sustainability. Soil health is defined as "the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system" . The remaining chapters assess how different organisms and their consequences can be used to measure soil health . These include microbial biomass , activity and nutrient cycling ; soil enzyme activities; soil microflora (bacteria, fungi and algae); plant root pathogens ; soil microfauna (protozoa , nematodes, mites); soil arthropods (beetles , centipedes , millipedes etc); soil macrofauna (animals over 2 mm, including ants, worms, slugs etc); biodiversity of organisms ; and the use of plants . Essential reading for soil scientists, this book will also be of interest to agronomists, ecologists and environmentalists.
Support Sustainable Systems! Cool Temperate nursery uses its profits for researching new sustainable growing systems , including the coppice orchard" based on own-root fruil trees . We supply fruit trees and bushes , nuts, nitrogen-fixers , hedging , forestry and perennials . S.A.E. for price-list to Cool Temperate (AN), Newhouse Farm, Kniveton , Ashbourne , Derbyshire DE6 1 JL.
01335347067 .
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Agrpforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture! horticulture to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food , materials, timber and other products. [t can range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are: 18 per year in Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged) 22 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per year for institutions. A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on request for 3 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per copy including postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to 'AgroforestlY Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
Volume 6 Number 2
January 1998
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 6 Number 2
January 1998
Contents
2 6 9 16 21 27 31 34 38 News The elder (1) The elder (2) Quince: Cydonia oblonga Cornel ian cherry Tilia platyphyllos: Large-leaved lime Pest & Disease series: Canker of apple & pear Sorbus domestica: the Service tree Book Reviews:
Dirr's Hardy Trees and Shrubs! Perennial Ground Covers! Permaculture in a Nutshell! Agroforestry for Soil Management
40
Classified adverts
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed . and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforeslry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader. should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops . Editor: Martin Crawford (author of all articles unless stated otherwise). Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions : Agroforestry Research Trust. 46 Hunters Moon , Dartington, Totnes , Devon, TOg 6JT. U.K. Email : AgroResTr@ aoLcom .
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News
Climate change more likely
The failure of the Kyoto summit to agree to any meaningful emissions reductions bodes badly for the plapet's climate over the next century. The climate changes predicted in Agroforestry News Vol 5 , No 1 become much more likely to occur and it behoves all sensible land users to start experimenting and trialling more uncommon tree crops which may adapt better to changing conditions. These should include warmer-region species as well as species from continental areas with cold winters and hot summers (there is a fisk that the gulf stream may start to fail and lead OUf climate towards a continental type.) In the coming decades, diversity of planting is going to become very important to cope with the coming changes, many of which are unpredictable.
Chestnut storage & growing pines

John Comben wrote to comment on the chestnut refrigeration and storage article in Vol 5 No 3. He has kept them for eating and growing very successfully by just throwing the nuts into slightly moist peat for the entire winter. They are kept cool, and are still edible the following May, even if they have begun to grow. John also wrote with interesting comments on growing pines from seed: uPines have been very successfully grown in pine debris compost with littie nutrient & much fungus growth. The new seedlings very quickly send their tap root into an old pine cone or other debris. In fact I have had up to 5 seedlings all rooting into the same cone! This I leaves for at least one year before separating (the pine cone begins to break up usually) & pot up with plenty more debris. The distinction between root and fungus is not clear. Potting up into 2-3 litre pots has been most
successful. ~
Wind-hardy trees
Research undertaken by County Council Arboricultural Officers, National Trust Officers and the Forestry Commission has identified the ten most wind-firm tree species capable of growing in Britain. Anybody contemplating planting shelterbelts in exposed areas should consider these species. They are:'
Sequioadendron giganteum Magnolia spp. Quercus ifex Larix decidua Acer pseudoplatanus Crataegus monogyna Pinus mugo Pinus sylvestris Pinus nigra ssp. nigra X Cupressocyparis ley/and;;
Wellingtonia, Sierra redwood Magnolias Holm oak European Larch Sycamore Hawthorn Mountain pine Scots pine Austrian pine Leyland cypress
Trees and sheep

There is great dearth of information about the relative benefits and drawbacks of grazing different sheep breeds amoung young trees. In general , it is likely that smaller and more docile breeds are less likely to damage trees than larger or more adventurous breeds. In the latest newsletter of the Kentish Cobnuts Association , the owners of a Kent hazel plat report that Southdown sheep cause little
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damage whereas larger Romney Marsh sheep browsed the lower hazel branches . In the past. ancient ewes otherwise destined for mutton have also been used with good results .
New publications from A.R. T.

Two new books have been published in the last month by the Agrofore stry Research Trust :-
Ground Cover Plants
ISBN 1874275343. A4, 95 pp.
This completely revised , enlarged and updated version replaces the 1992 edition . New features include: Planting and maintenance Short and medium term ground cover plants Ground cover plants for paths, including grasses Ground cover polycultures Tables of all species which lists soil and light requirements , density, speed of growth and main uses. These enable particular types of plant to be easily picked out, eg o shade-lovers or acid-lovers. Descriptions of all plants recommended - over 850 species now included in the book . For all invo lved in any type of gardening or land use, include forest gardening and Permaculture, this book is essential reading. Price : 10.00 plus postage; 11 .50 including postage to UK, 12 .50 to Europe , 14 elsewhere.
Fruit Varieties resistant to Pests and Diseases
ISBN 1874275351.
A5, 56 pp . 'Fruit Varieties' lists resistant varieties of all the common garden fruits (Apples , Pears , Plums , Cherries , Currants , Berries etc) to all the common pests and diseases from which they may suffer. Choice of variety can make the difference between good healthy crops and poor diseased plants which crop rarely, and this book aims to help growers make that choice . A must for all gardeners and growers, especially organic growers who do not use chemicals for pest and disease control.
Price: 8.00 plus postage; 9.20 including postage to UK, 10.00 to Europe, 11.20 elsewhere.
Forest garden report - 1997 season

The Schumacher forest garden project at Dartington had a good growing season . This project. on 0.84 hectares (2 .1 acres), was started in 1994, with first plantings in the winter of 94/95 . Last winter (96/97) saw most of the remaining trees and shrubs which will form the ' canopy' layer of the garden planted out. These have been planted at a spacing which allows for the full spread of the mature tree/shrub , plus a little extra room , so that there will still be space between trees for shrubs which require at least some sun. Amongst others to be planted were Cephalotaxus harringtonia drupacea (plum yews); Cercis occidentalis and C.sifiquastrum ; Crataegus ellwangeriana, C.moflis, C.schraderiana and c.tanacetifolia: Diospyros virginian a (American persimmon); and Myrica californica and M.cerifera (bayberries). Also planted last winter were several large areas (600 m 2 in total) with shrubs and ground covers. Particularly effective were areas of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) with 'islands ' of comfrey (Symphytum uplandicum) surrounding trees ; soapwort (Saponaria officinalis); horsemint { Mentha
fongifoUa} and apple mint (Mentha suaveolens); and trailing Rubus species (Rnepalensis, R.trico/or & R.'Betty Ashburner'). Not so effective was one patch of comfrey (in a patch of heavy clay, difficult to hoe) where the root cuttings were very slow to grow, allowing a healthy crop of weeds to compete; the comfrey did become more competitive later in the season, but to help it the area has had a temporary black plastic cover placed over it for the winter. Also not so effective was a patch of evergreen campanu las (C.poscharskyana & c.portenschlagiana) - planted in too rich a soil where they couldn't compete with weeds; they have been transplanted this winter to a much drier and stony site. Beneat6 one of the new hedges, some spare seed was sown (broadcast ) last winter at the same time as underplanting with Rubus species. Particularly effective, and surprisingly shade-tolerant, was mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna), the best sorrel-type leaf crop that I have come across. It selfseeds very readily. A large hawthorn was cut down last winter (hawthorn is a good wildlife tree, but this one had selfseeded years ago in the middle of the site, and there is no shortage of hawthorn hedges around here) and cleft grafted in April with medlar scions. These took very well and should fruit within a year or two. Hawthorns are one of the few British trees which can easily be converted to a different fruit by grafting like th is. The wet summer of 1997 ensured a good growing season - good for weeds as well. The areas of ground covers always need some hoeing before they effectively cover the ground, but this summer the weather made this tricky and some hand weeding was also needed. By August, though, little weeding was needed. Tree crops already fruiting this year included mulberry and medlar.
Trial grounds report - 1997

These consist of 3.2 hectares (8 acres) at Dartington . Trials and experimental plots of the following were planted last winter (96/97): Che (Cudrania tricuspidata) seedling plot. Date plum (Diospyros lotus) seedling plot. American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) seedling (from cultivars) trial. Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) cultivar trial of Centra l and Eastern European cultivars. Holm oak (Quercus ifex) seedl ing plot from sweet-fruited parents, plus ballota and emory oaks (Q.ilex ballota & Q.emoryi). Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) cultivar trial of large-fruited cultivars from England, Eastern and Northern Europe - 10 cultivars. Jujube (Zizyphus jujube) seed ling plot. The chestnut and walnut cu ltiva r trials started in 95/96 were extended. The willow windbreak on the Eastern edge of the site was extended by 85 metres to complete the eastern windbreak. Salix 'Bowles Hybrid' has been used for this windbreak. As at the forest garden site, everyth ing had a good growing season due to the plentiful rain throughout the summer. Several of the wa lnu ts in the walnut trial flowered , but none set fruit ; a few cultivars suffered from leaf spot because of the wet summer (notably '26'). Most of the chestnut cu lti va rs flowered and a few set fruit - we harvested a handful of good-sized chestnuts from 'Marigoule' and 'Rousse de Nay'.
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Maintaining your orchard in winter

The following recommendations are given in an article in Fruits Oublies , Autumn 1997, by Roger Gavine lli: To prevent insect and disease " damage during the next spring, there are several things which can be done in the orchard as soon as leaves begin to fall in autumn. A tree in good health will be more resistant to atta cks from parasites. From the autumn, maintain or improve the soil fertility by applications of fertilisers and organic matter. Maintain cleanliness under the trees by: Pruning out all dead, diseased and cankered wood, and burn it. Also shoots suffering from brown rot (Monilinia spp.) Clea n any injuries with a sharp knife and paint larger cuts (over 3 cm, 1.2") with a wound paint. Remove all damaged and mummified fruit and burn or feed to cattle. Remove torn bark strips that would serve as shelter to parasites. If leaves are diseased , remove and burn . Insect pests will overwinter in the form of eggs , larvae, or adults that hibernate under cover by burying themselves, hiding in old walls, under the bark etc. For adults that hide, birds are useful assistants : chickens pecking under trees will eat those which are trying to bury underground. Hanging up seeds or fat over the winter will aUract and maintain many small birds (eg. tits) which J' will unearth many pests hiding in the bark. Traps of corrugated cardboard, wrapped around the trunk and covered with plastic (open downwards) can capture caterpillars (eg. of codling moth) during their migrations at the beginning or end of winter . Leaf fall itself leaves a scar, where the leaf was attached to the branch. which is susceptible for some hours to fungal spores . Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate) is a relatively safe fungicide which can be sprayed at this time .
Nut oils
Also in Fruits Oublies, Autumn 1997, are the following notes on the merits of nut oils: Nut oils are rich in minerals (potassi um . ca lcium, phosphorus . magnesium . zinc) and many other micronutrients (lipids) of value including vitamins, antiradicals and linoleic acid (which has the property to lower the blood cholesterol level, and which is exceptionally high in walnut oiL) Walnut oil: Strong,.flavou red , excellent with raw foods which are bitter . ego dandelion , endive; and equally good with starchy foods such as potatoes . beans , lentils etc. Hazelnut oil: Delicious flavour, slightly scented - good with all salads. Can be used instead of butter on vegetables, fish, pastry, pastries etc. Sweet almond oil: Sweet and scented, particularly good for ma rinades, also for pastry etc. Pine nut oil : Pale yellow, its softness and flavour enhances the flavour of other foods. Used to good effect by adding the oil at the last moment to shellfish, sauces, soups (e9. minestrone).
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The elder (part 1)

Lesley Fox
Intro{iuction
The common elder, Sambucus nigra, is one of the most useful of all our native trees . It has been recently disparaged as "little more than a jumped-up weed, a ragamuffin haunter of dung-heaps and drains ~ (Mabey, 1996) - and yet it was widely planted in hedgerows for centuries, and frequently occurs close to human habitation. The mythology and folklore surrounding it go back to ancient times. It was regarded as a sacred tree by the early Germanic peoples, to whom it was the home of a tree spirit or "Elder-Mother" whose name "Hyld " may be connected with Hulda, the Norse goddess of love. Certainly the Anglo-Saxon word "e llen ", from which "e lder" is derived, is cognate with the Old High German holder~ and Danish "hyld". Sambucus nigra, whose eventual height can reach thirty feet . send out long , straight shoots which become hollow woody tubes and bear fruit in their second year. The mature branches eventually form gnarled , fantastic shapes which look like something out of an other-world landscape: no wonder, then , that the elder has long been associated with fairies . witches and death. It bears creamy white flowers round about midsummer, highly scented of muscatel (or cats' pee, depending on your point of view), This midsummer flowering led to a number of folk beliefs: anyone wandering under an elder bush at Midsummer Eve would see the king of fairyland pass by; elder branches gathered at Midsummer could detect witchcraft in cattle, and so on. The deep-green pinnate leaves are slightly poisonous, so the association with death is not hard to fathom. According to Thiselton-Dyer (1889). elder was frequently planted close to houses because "any baptised person whose eyes were anointed with the green juice of its inner bark could see witches ", and therefore it kept them away. A more prosaic exp lanation is the fact that elder keeps flies away - drovers used to make their cattle switches from elder wood for this reason . However, this does not explain why sambucus nigra is so prevalent a featu re of our hedgerows . Recent studies undertaken in Ireland (Condon and Jarvis, 1989), Kent (Helliwel1 et ai, 1996) and Ge rmany (Eichstadt and Mahn, 1993) demonstrate the presence of elder in a variety of landscapes including "spontaneous hedges and disturbed ancient woodland. The Irish study found that sambucus nigra comprised 9 .7% of the hedgerows examined . Elder is often dismissed as useless for hedging , since it has no thorns and does not form a stock-proof barrier. Nevertheless, it was widely planted once , and the reason must lie in the mass of country recipes and remedies which make such good use of this remarkable tree.
Wine-making and other culinary uses

The purple-black berries which hang from the elder during September need no magical virtues to commend them to popular appeal. They are used to make one of the most delicious and potent of all home-made wines. Justifiably known as the "Englishman's grape", they produce a full-bodies red with a deep glowing colour and a taste comparable with good claret or port. Since the elder is more at home in the British climate than the grapevine , it is about time more work was done to assess its potential as a commercial crop. There has already been some research on the Continent regarding the breeding and selectio n of elder species for berry production . In a trial at Wilhelminadorp in the Netherlands, the cultivar 'Allesoe' was found to yield an average of 23 lonnes of elderberries per hectare per year (Wertheim and Dijkstra , 1985).
Elderflowers are already becoming a commercial success , with a variety of products on the market. These include wines , cordials and various non-alcoholic sparkling drinks , the total value of which is around 9.5 million a year (Prendergast and Dennis , 1997) . Elderflower wine can easily be made at home, and has a taste not unlike champagne. The non-alcoholic elderflower fizz and cordial are less rewarding to make because they do not keep. Elderberry syrup, sometimes known as ~Elderberry Rob" (which really does soothe sore throats), can be made either by the bottling method or, more simply, from a jelly recipe . The berries can also be made into jam , though Ihey are better mixed with blackberries. Elderberry pickle is another traditiona l recipe; and in the nineteenth century there was a famous sauce made from elderberries , claret, onions and spices , known as Pontack Sauce ~. If you are of the opinion that elderflowers smell like muscatel, it is worth trying elderflower tea. or elderflower fritters (dip the whole head in batter and fry). The flowers are also a traditional accompaniment to gooseberries in jams, jellies and desserts.
Medicinal uses
Knowledge of the medicinal qualities of elder goes back at least 3,500 years . In the Ebers Papyrus of Ancient Egypt elderberries are used in a remedy for freeing the Ustuck~ circulation of the blood. Both the flowers and the leaves were prescribed in Anglo-Saxon teechbooks . Frazer (1922) records various folk beliefs regarding the etder in South Siavonia , for example, the dwarf elder (S.e bulus ) is used to cure fever, though the method is more like a spell than a remedy . Flowers were gathered in Western Bohemia to make a tea or wi ne with medicinal virtues. The thirt eenth century "Herbal Remedies of the Physicians of Myddfai" gives no less that eighteen different prescriptions whi ch include elde r - using not just leaves, berries and flowers, but the juice, bark and roots as welt. The afflictions which could be treated by this miraculous plant ranged from wounds, burns or a sore mouth, to scophula, snake bite , and "any pain of a cold nature". Other trees in the sambucus genus have been used medicinally all over the world , wherever they occur. S .mexicana is used for respirilory diseases in Mexico and for gastro-intestinal problems in Guatemala , while in Turkey s.ebulus is a traditional remedy for ulcers. Although some old medicinal practices have been relegated to the status of mere superstition, modern research has co nfirmed several of the virtues of elder. Elderflower tea has always been a country remedy for co lds . It is now known that the flowers are anti-inflammatory and anti-catarrha l , and they are sti ll prescribed by herbalists today. The leaves have antiseptic and healing properties, but also contain toxic cyanogenic glycosides (Bown, 1995) so they are on ly prescribed externally now; for minor burns for example . There are lectins (substances which act like antibodies) in both the fruit and bark of our native elder. The related s.racemosa has also been shown to have antiviral activity (McCutcheon el ai , 1995).
Timber and other household uses

Although elder is a very minor timber tree, rarely used, the heartwood has a fine , close grain, and is as h ard as ebony, almost as hard as box. It is said that an elder stake will last in the ground longer than an iron bar. The timber has been used to make small turned items , spoons, skewers, combs and toys. The superstitious reverence which associates elder with death and the devil means that the tree is rarely cut or burnt. Hence, it is never used for firewood or charcoal; and, according to folklore, must never be employed to make a cradle , or the baby will die . Fishermen in Northumberland have traditionally used elder to make pins for their oars , known as ~thowelds M . Apparently. the wood was once used to make musical instruments - evidence for this being the derivation of sambucus~ from the Greek ~ sambuke ft. a pipe . The hollow stems have, in any case, provided children with whistles and pea-shooters for centuries .
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The flowers of the elder have a long history of use in home-made cosmetics. They possess refreshing , cleansing and soothing qualities, and were recommended for both the skin and the eyes . Creams, lotions and tonics were all made from elderflowers , and old recipes regard them as particularly helpful for greasy skin . -The Natural Beauty Book " li sts nine different recipes containing elderflowers , including Elderflower Water - the famous "Aqua Sambuci" - which -has a refining effect on the skin , and in the last century was used 10 keep skin blemish-free and delicate looking" (Maxwell-Hudson , 1976) . The recent resurgence of interest in natural cosmetics has led to the use ,of elderflowers in a variety of commercial products - The Body Shop 's eye-gel and eyelash cream, for example . The berries and leaves are also valuable in the home - for dyeing . The berries give colours such as purple , blue and violet depending on the mordant used (vinegar, alum. salt and oxalic acid are all worth a try). The berries of s.ebulus shou ld also give colours in the purple-blue range, us ing vinegar, oxalic acid or sta nnous chloride. T he leaves yield a number of different gree ns, using either copper su lphate and ferrous sulphate or alum. The bark , apparently, can be used to produce black . Elder leaves are noted for their fungicidal and insecticidal properties . A decoction of the leaves and stems is supposed to be effective against leaf rot and powdery mildew. A study undertaken in Nepal (Duwadi, Gautam and Thapa , 1993) showed that the leaves , twigs and flowers heated in water for twenty minutes was effective against downy mildew and erysip he on squash plants. The re is some experimental evidence of the insecticidal value of elder (Sekulic et a!, 1995) and the leaves are known to be toxic. They a re recommended for use against aphids , carrot root fly , cucumber beetles , peach tree borers and root maggots . Elder trees are also purported to speed the decomposition of compost heaps when planted nearby. From a wildlife point of view, the elder is not one of our most important hedgerow trees , since it supports only 19 insect species. The berries do provide food for birds, however, (mainly starlings) , and on the Continent they are important to migrating warblers .
References
Bown , D. The RHS Encyc loped ia of Her bs (Darli ng Ki ndersley, 1995). Condon, F.A. and Ja rvis, P. J . Trees and Shrubs in the hedgerows of Knock, Co.Mayo, Weste rn Ireland (Irish Natura lists' Jo urn al, 198923:1). Duwadi, V.R., Gautum, S.R. and Thapa, M.P. Test of the efficacy of some local meas ures against pests and diseases etc. (Pakhribas Agricu ltural Centre , 1993 No.78). Eichstadt, U . and Mahn, E .G. Comparative vegetation studies on windbreak hedges etc. (Phytocoeno logia , 199323). Frazer, J .G. The Golden Bough (1922; reprinted Penguin ). Helliwell , D .R. et al. Vegetation success ion on a relocated ancient woodland soil (Forestry Oxford , 199669:1). Mabey, R. Flora Britannica (Sinclair Stevenson , 1996). Maxwell-Hudson, C . The Natural Beauty Book (Macdonald and Jane 's , 1976). McCutcheon , A.R . et al. Antivira l screening of British Columbian medicinal plants (Journal of Elhnopharmacology, 1995 49:2). Prendergast . H.D.V . and Dennis , F. Superior Merits of a Troublesome Weed - Elder in the 1990's (British Wildlife , June 1997). Thiselton-Dyer, T.F. The folklore of Plants (1889. reprinted llanerch Enterprises). Wertheim , S.J . and Dijkstra, J. Unusual Fruit Crops - Elderberry (Research Station for fruit growing, Wilhelminadorp , 1985: 23-24).
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The elder (part 2)

Martin Crawford
Introduction to the genus
The elder genus, Sambucus, consists of some 25 species perennials, shrubs and small trees from most regions of the world. They bear numerous tiny white flowers in flat-topped panicles, which are followed by heads of small round berries which are attractive to birds. Many species spread rapidly by suckers, and bid s spread the seed. Elders tolerate a wide range of soils, including chalk; also atmospheric pollution, coastal exposure and shade. They prefer a rich moisl soil and sun or part shade (deep shade is tolerated but flowering and fruiting will be greatty restricted). All species are resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria spp .) The temperate species all tolerate winter temperatures of at least -20C. Numerous ornamental cultivars of S.canadensis , S.nigra and S.racemosa have been selected with different habits and leaf types ; these are generally not described in Ihis article unless they have useful attributes in terms of flowering or fruiting habit etc . Elder roots grow very near the surface of the soil and are easi ly damaged by tillage implements; such damage may also encourage suckering. All species can be used in hedging or windbreaks as they are very wind tolerant. All have flowers which are insect pollinated by flies , bees and others. The fruits of most are edible both raw and cooked , but care should be taken with most not to eat vast quantities raw as this may cause stomach upsets; remove as much stem as possible before using them. The flowers of most species are also edible, but try to remove as much stem from them as possible as this is not pleasant tasting. Many species have medicinal uses but care should be taken - the leaves, stems and bark are all poisonous. The fruits of all species are very attractive to birds, and one function of cultivated plants could be as a partially sacrificial crop to reduce bird damage to other fruits. Cultivars with green , yellow or white fruits are less likely to be targeted by birds. Because flowers and fruits are borne on the current season 's wood , it is easy to keep the larger species controlled as bushes - just cut back as much as necessary in winter : plants will soon put out numerous strong shoots in the spring . Pruning out dead and old wood will encourage annual production of new wood.
S.caerulea (Syn. S.glauca) - Blue elder, Blue elderberry, Blueberry elder, berried elder, Western Blue elderberry. Western N.America. Blue
A shrub or small tree, usually to 4 m (13 tt) high, occasionally to twice that in the wild . Branches are slender and young shoots are shiny. Leaves usually with 5-7 leaflets, each to 15 x 5 cm (6 x 2") large, bluish-green. Flowers (June-July) are yellowish-white , in flat , long-stalked umbels to 18 cm (6") in diameter. Fruits black , with a grey-blue bloom , to 6 mm in diameter, ripening in AugustSeptember. Hardy to zone 4 (-25C) .
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S.caerulea var.vefutina (Syn. S.Mexicana), the Mexican elder, is smaller - a shrub to 1 m (3 ft) high .
Fruits are raw , cooked & in preserves - used in jellies , pies. sauces and wines. They are sweet and juicy - the best flavoured of the American elders . Flowers are edible - raw or cooked, in fritters etc ; and used to make a tea. Medicinally, the flowers are stimu lant and sudorific ; the bark and roots have also been used medicinally. A decoction of the leaves repels caterpillars; the dried flower stems repel insects and rodents. Thf:! stems are used for dyeing baskets. The wood is light, soft and coarse-grained ; it was traditionally used for making bows and is now used locally for flutes, skewers and pegs.
S.callicarpa - Californian elder, Pacific red coast elder, Red coast elder, Red elderberry, Western, Red elderberry. Western USA.
A sh rub or sma ll tree to 3 m (10 ft) high. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets . each 10 x 2 em (4 x O.S "), in itially somewhat downy beneath . Flowers yellowish-white in June-July, in dense, long-branched panicles to 10 cm (4") in diameter. Fruits scarlet , 5 mm in diameter, ripening in August- September. Hardy to zone 6 (- 20C). Fruits are edible - raw, cooked or preserved. Flowers are edible - raw or cooked.
S.canadensis - American elder, Canadian elderberry, Sweet elder. Eastern N.America.

Shrub to 3.5 m (12 ft) high, often suckering. almost perennial at its northern limits. Has shiny young branches and leaves usually with 7 leaflets, each to 14 x 6.5 cm (5Xz x 2Xz"). Flowers (from July onwards, sometimes until December) ivory coloured, pleasantly-scented. in spreading convex umbels to 20-25 cm (S-10") in diameter. Plants are not self-fertile - two different selections are required for fruiting . Fruits to 5 mm in diameter, purpleblack, ripen ing from September. Hardy to zone 3 (35"C).
If a single selection is planted, flowering continues from July to November or December in Britain, which may be most desirable if the flowers are the required crop. When cross pollination does occur, then yields of up to 7 Kg (15 Ib) of fruit per tree can be achieved.

American elder is still grown commercially in North Ame rica on a small scale - 30 years ago (the most recent figures avai labl e), approx imately 4000 lonnes were processed annually in Pennsylvania and around Lak e Erie . Yields of 3-4 tonneslacre (7.5-10 lannes/hectare) can be expected from plantations with plants at 2 x 3 m (6 x 10 ft) spacing . Plants are in full production al 3-4 years of
age.
'Adams' - fruiti ng cultivar, bearing large clusters of large fruits . Quite late ripening . Vigorous and productive plants. 'Au rea' - ornamental cu lti va r with pale green shoots and golden-yellow leaves. Fruits are red and sweet-lasti ng . 'Ebony King' - fruiting cullivar with waxy black fruit. Very productive tree which can produce 11 Kg (25 Ib) of fruit annua lly; evergreen in mild climates , 'Hidden Springs' - fruiting cultivar with evenly ripening clu sters, ' Johns' - fruiting cultivar, bearing huge clusters of large , tasty fruits , Very vigorous plants. Mid seaso n ripening. 'Kent' - fruiting cultivar, bearing large fruits. Very early ripening . Of secondary value. 'Maxima' - ornamental cultivar which has huge flower heads , to 40 cm (16 ") across . 'Nova' - fruiting cultivar, with large fruit. Ripens evenly in cluster, mid to late-season , Heavy yie lding. ' Scotia' - fruiting cultiva r, with medium sized fruits ripening mid-late season and evenly in the cluster. Fruits are high in soluble so lid s. 'Victoria' - fruiting cu ltivar with large fruits, very early ripening. Moderately vigorous, Of secondary val ue. 'York' - fruiting cultivar bearing large clu sters of ve ry large , juicy fruit - the largest of all S.canadensis cultivars. Vigorous . Late ripening . Fruits are edible raw or cooked : somewhat biUersweet. They ca n also be dried . Usually used in bread, jellies, jams, pies, sauces and wines. They are rich in Vi tam in C. Flowers are edib le raw or cooked, They can be battered and made into fritters, like those of S.nigra . They can also be picked young (unopened) and pickled. They can be soaked in cold waler to make a drink and also used to make a tea . The flowers are used medicinally , being stimulant , diuretic, diaphoretic and carminative . The inner bark has also be used medicinally. The leaves repe l insects; they ha ve insecticidal and fungicidal properties . The roots are insec ti cidal , active against mosquitoes (Culex spp .) The bark and roots contain tannins and were used for tanning leather. The bark has been used to dye black. The leaves , flowers and fruits can also be used for dyeing. The wood has been used in watchmak ing. The stems can be hollowed and were used as tapping drains for sap tapping ; and used to make whistles and flutes .
S.chinensis - Chinese elder. Japan, China, N.Thailand.

Perenn ia l, growing to 2 m (7 ft) high with erect stout stems. Leaves with 3-11 leaflets . each to 18 x 6 cm (6 x 2'y,," ) large. Flowers white , in clusters to 30 cm (12 ft) in diameter. Fruits red , 4 mm across . Hardy to zone 8 (-1 2<>C) . Some confusion exists about this and the species S .javanica ; we assume here that they are not the same. Fruits are ed ibl e - preserved, used in confectionery and made into a tea. The leaves or dried flower sta lks are used as a skin wash (with a parasiticidal action) .
S.ebulus - Dwarf elder, Dane's elder, Danewort, Wal/wort. Europe , N.Africa , Asia minor.
R.::!nk-!':mAllino nArAnn i.::!1. IJ!':II.::!lIv tn 1 m (.1
hinh f!':n m p.timp.!,: t n 2 m (7 ftl hiah\ with.::! !':lnlJI
Page 11
-~
creeping rhizome - can be extremely invasive. sending up shoots more than a metre away. Leaves with 5-9 leaflets, each to 15 x 6 cm (6 x 2W') large , somewhat downy. Flowers white. sometimes tinged pink, in large flat umbels to 10 cm (4~) diameter in July-August. Fruits black, 6 mm diameter. ripening in August-September. Hardy to zone 5 (-23C). The leaves have been used medicinally (NB. Caution - poisonous), also the roots and fruits. The fruit can be used for dyeing (blue with an alum mordant) and to make an ink. Has been used to dye leather. The leaves repel rodents and moles. Ca~ be used as a ground cover plant, planted at 90 cm spacing: only moderately dense.
S.meianocarpa (Syn . S.racemosa var.meianocarpa) - Black elder. Western N.America.

Shrub to 4 m (13 tt) high. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets, each 7-16 cm (3-5%") long, deep green, downy beneath at first. Flowers (in June-J uly) are yellowish-white. in dense rounded clusters to 7 cm (3") diameter. Fru its black, 6 mm in diameter. in rounded clusters, ripening August-September. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C). Edible fruit - raw or cooked, mainly used in jellies, jams etc. Low in pectin. Edible flowers - raw or cooked. Fruits can be used for dyeing.
S.microbotrys - SW. USA.

Shrub to 2 m (7 ft) high with pale brown bark. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets , each to 10 cm (4") long, pale green. Flowers off-white. in small domed or pyramidal panicles to 5 cm (2") in diameter. Fruits vermillion to scarlet. 4 mm in diameter. Hardy to zone 6 (-20C). Fruits are edible - raw or cooked. Flowers are edible - raw or cooked.
S.nigra - Black elder, Bourtree, Common elder, Elder, Elderberry, European elder. Europe, N.Africa, SW . Asia.
Shrub or small tree to 10 m (33 ft) high , often half that, with a trunk up to 30 cm (12") thick . Bark becomes fissured, corky and grey. Leaves usually with 5 leaflets , each to 12 x 6 cm (5 x 2Y2") large, dark green above and lighter below. Flowers, in May-June, are cream coloured, muskyscented, in flat-topped umbels to 20 cm (8~) in diameter; they are formed on the current year's growth. Fruits shiny purple-black, 6-8 mm in diameter, ripening August-September (typical weight 0.3g). Best pollination occurs when two selections are planted. Hardy to zone 5 (-23C). Resistant to rabbit predation . Wild growing elders are now the basis of a thriving 12 million drinks industry in Britain: 15 million litres of cordial (read-to-drink equivalent) and sparkling elderflower drink was produced in 1995. and the figures are rising rapidly. This translates to at least 200 tonnes of elderflowers being picked from some 400.000 wild plants during the short (3 week) flowering period. (based on 0.5 Kg of flowers per tree, which pickers are paid about 1 for). The flowers must be delivered to the processors on the same day as picking, hence the trees picked must be relatively nearby. ' Alba' (Syn. ssp. alba) - fruits cha lky-white coloured, sweet, pleasant. 'Cae Rhos lIigwy' - fruits large , green, gooseberry-flavoured.
Page 12
'Oo nau' Austrian fruiting cultivar which is used in commercial fruit orchards . 'Fructoluteo' fru its creamygold , sometimes red tinted ; slow maturing. 'Godshill' . fruits la rger than norm al. Found growing wild on the Isle of Wight , UK. 'Ha schbe rg ' . Austrian fruiting cultivar which is used in commercia l fruit orchards . 'Plena' . fl owe rs are double. 'Sambo ' . Czech cultivar bred for its superi or fruiting qualities, released in 1983 . 'Sambu' . Danish fruiti ng cultivar with medium sized fruits (with good colour content) in medium sized clusters. Yie ld s good. 'Samda l ' Da nish fruiting cultivar with large fruits (with good colo ur content) in large clusters . Yields extremely high. 'Samidan' . Danish fruiting cultivar with la rg e fruits (with moderate co lour content) in very large clusters . Very high yielding . 'Sam nor' . vigorous fruiting cultivar with very good frost resista nce (recommended in Norway) . Heavy cropping. 'Sampo' Danish fruiting culti var with ve ry large frui ts (with good flavou r and co lour co ntent) in large clusters. Ve ry high yield ing . 'Samyl' . Danish fruiting cu ll ivar with large fruits (wit h very high colou r content) in large clusters . Very high yielding. 'Viridi s' . fruits pale green, turning wh ite or translucentstriped . The fruits are ed ib le raw or cooked . Slightly bitter less so if dried. Typically they contain 57% sugars , 1% pectin and 1050 mg/100 g Vitamin C. Most often used in jams , jellies (traditionally elderberry and apple jelly), pies, sauces, chutney , compotes, elderberry wine , liqueurs, rob etc. Also to fl avo ur and colo ur prese rve s. Pigments from the fruit (anthocyans) are used in food processing industries fruits contain 2.4 gf 100g. The fl owers are edible raw, cooked and dried. They make a plea sant snack raw and add a muscatel fl avour to jams and stewed fru its. Commonly used to make elderflower wine (sti ll or sparkling) and to make gooseberry and elderflower jelly; commercially to make cordials and other soft drinks. Also used to make a tea and soaked in cold water to make a sofl drink. They are very high in Vitamin C. Many parts a have a long history of medicinal use. The flowers are still used , being anti inflammatory, stimulant, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant , ga lactagogue and pectoral used to encourage perspiration (also used in sk in lotions and ointments); the inner bark is used in a homeopathic remedy for asthma . Fruit s, pith , roots , inner bark and leaves were also once used , Th e leaves and bark are insectrepellent, insecticidal and fungicidal. The activ e ingredient is the alkaloid sa mbucine. Extracts can be used against grey mol d (Botrytis cinerea), young caterpillars (i ncl uding cabbage white, Pieris brassicae , also P.napi & P.rapae), mosquitoes ( Cu/ex spp .), and weevi ls (Phyllobius ob/ongus). It is also reputed to be effective against aphids , young gooseberry sawfly larvae , blackspot on roses and various mildews. The fruit , bark, roots and leaves can all be used for dye ing . Bark or roots with iron mordant gives greyblack; leaves"'alum gives yellowishgreen ; leaves+chrome gives green ; fruit "'alum gives blueviolet. The blue colouring matter from fruits can be used a litmus test turns green in alkaline and red in acid. The pith from shoots is used in microscopy (for gripp ing specimens in microscope slides ) and in watchmaking f or dabbing oil. The wood is wh ite , finegrained and po lishe s wel l. It is used for toys. mathematical instruments, skewers , cogs , combs , pegs , carv ing etc . H is a good pioneer species for reestablishing woodland .
S.pubens (Syn. S.racemosa var.pubens) - American red elder, Red-berried elder, Scarlet elderberry, Stinking elder. North America.
Shrub to 4 m (13 tt) high , sometimes a small tree. Young shoots buff coloured and downy. Leaves with 57 leaflets , each to 10 cm (4") long, finely downy when young. Flowers (in June-July) are yellowish-white, turning topaz with age . Fruits scarlet, 5 mm in diameter. Hardy to zone 5 (-23 cC). ' Leucocarpa' - fruits white . ' Maxima ' - has large flower heads. 'Xanthocarpa' (Syn. f.xanthocarpa - golden elderberry) - fruits tawny-yellow. Fruits are edible raw or cooked - rather bitter. Can also be dried. Flow ers are edible raw or cooked . The hollowed stems have been used as whistles. The bark and leaves were once used medicinally.
S.racemosa - European red elder, Hart's elder, Red-berried elder,. Europe, Asia minor, Siberia, W.Asia .
Shrub to 3.5 m (12 tt) high with slender , grey-brown branches. Leaves with 5 leaflets, each to 10 x 5 cm (4 x 2") large. Flowers , in April-May, pale green to yellowish-white, crowded in terminal, pyramidal panicles to 7.5 cm (3 ~ ) across; sweet smelling. Fruits roundish -oval, scarlet, to 5 x 4 mm, ripening in June-July. Hardy to zone 4 (-20cC). This species self-sows in Northern Britain but does not fruit so well in the South . ssp. kamlschalica (Syn. S.kamtschatica) - shrub or tree to 8 m (27 ft) high, with larger fruits. From Japan, Korea, Kamchatka. Fruits are edible raw or cooked - the best flavoured of the elders (redcurrant-like) , although the fruit is quite seedy. Rich in vitamin C. Flowers are edible raw or cooked. The fruits , leaves and inner bark were once used medicinally . The leaves repel insects. The wood is used for domestic items, flutes etc .
S.sieboldiana (Syn. S.racemosa var.sieboldiana). Japan, China.

Shrub or small tree to 6 m (20 tt) high . Leaves with 7-11 leaflets, each 7-20 cm (3-8") long , light green . Flowers (in May) are yellowish-white , in panicles to 7 cm (3") across. Fruits round or ellipsoid , 4 mm in diameter, scarlet (rarely yellow or orange-yellow). Hardy to zone 6 (-20CC). The young leaves and buds are reportedly eaten cooked and used for tea in Japan , but are likely to be poisonous!
S.wightiana. N.lndia - Himalayas.

Perennial , growing to 1 m (3 ft) high. Unknown hardiness . The plant is used medicinally.
S.williamsii. Korea.
Shrub of unknown hardiness. Lea ves and stems are insecticidal , active against aphids.
Page 14
M
Flowers are medicinal (diaphoretic , diuretic) . Roots , stems and root bark are also used in
Chinese medicine.
Propagation
Hardwood cuttings are the easiest method of propagation , taken in winter from the current season 's growth . They do not need rooting powder or other special treatment. Seeds need a lengthy period of stratification before they will germinate . Th e y can be sown in late
summer into seed trays and allowed to overwinter in the cold ; otherwise give 13 weeks of warm
stratification followed by 26 weeks of cold (begin stratifying in July) . Germ ination is slow and patchy.
Suppliers
The ornamenta l varieties of elder are Quite easily available from standard nurseries. The good
fruiting varieties , though , are not so easy to find in Britain , and are limited to those listed below: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunlers Moon , Darlington , Tolnes , Devon , TQ9 6JT, UK. Will
have S.canadensis and S.nigra cu/tivars from autumn 1998, including Danish fruiting selections.
Clive Simms , Woodhurst, Essendine, Stamford , Lines, PEg 4LQ , UK.
Sometimes
has
S. canadensis cuftivars.
Cultiv ars of S.canadensis are eas ier to find in North America, with over a dozen nurseries listed in Whealy & Demuth . The following all offer three cultivars ; Bear Creek Nursery, PO Box 411 H, Northport, WA 99157 , USA. Mellingers, Inc, 2310 W .Soulh Range Road , North Lima , OH 44452 , USA. St Lawrence Nurseries, RR 5, Box 324 , Potsdam , NY 13676 , USA. Tel : 315-265-6739 .
References
Agroforestry Resea rch Trust: Useful Plants database. Burmislrov, L: UnderexpJoited Fruits and Nuts of Russia. WANATCA Yearbook 18 (1994) , pp 3-19 . Crawford , M : Dye Plants. A.R.T., 1993. Duke, J & Ayensu, E: Medicinal Plants of China. Referen ce Publications , 1985. Facciola , S : Cornucopia. Kampong Publications , 1990. Grainge , M & Ahmed , S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Prope rties . Wiley , 1988. Lanska , 0 ; The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992. Payne , J et al: Neglected Native Fruit Trees and Shrubs. NNGA 8 1st Annual Report (1990), pp 76-
92.
Smatana, L et al: Results of Breeding and Growing Minor Fruit Species in Czechoslovakia. Acta Horticulturae 244,1988: 83-87. Smith , M : Flower power buried deep in the hedgerows. The Times , 6th September 1997 . Way , R: Elderberry Growing in Northeastern United Slates . NNGA 57th Annual Report (1966) , pp
124-128.
Whealy, K & Demuth , S : Fruit , Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publicati ons , 1993.
Page 15
Quince: Cydonia ob/onga

Introduction
The quince is now the only member of the genus Cydonia. the three shrubby quinces previously
included are now classified in Chaenomeles. Quince has previously been classified as Pyrus cydonirt and Cydonia vulgaris .
The native region of the quince is not precisely known , but it is probably wild only in parts of Asia including Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia. Turkestan , Iran and Saudi Arabia . It has been cultivated in Mediterranean regions for millennia and has become naturalised in many parts; the fruit was highly regarded by the Greeks and Romans, and was the 'go lden apple' that Paris awarded to Aphrodite as a symbo l of love, marriage and fertility. It is still an important fruit crop in its native region and in South America (Argentina produces 20,000 Ion s annually) . It was introduced to Britain at an early date (first accounts of its cultivation are from 1275) and was common ly grown in the 16th-18th centuries , when it was usually used for making quince marmalade. Its cultivation reached a peak here in the 18th & 19th cent uries , then declined with the increase in popularity of soft fruits.
Description
The quince is a deciduous thornless shrub or small tree, 4-6 m ( 13-20 ttl high and 3-4.5 m (10-15 tt) spread , with crowded gnarled branches and a low crooked habit. Young branchlets are covered with a pale greyish wool. Leaves are oval or elliptical, 5-10 cm (2-4") long by 4-6 cm (1.62.2") wide, untoothed, dark green above, pale with a dense felt of grey wool beneath (especially when young). They turn a rich yellow in autumn. Flowers are 5 cm (2") across, pink or white, solitary at the end of short twig s, produced in Mayor early June , after the leaves. Trees are self-ferti le , with a good fruit set in both cool and hot climates ; pollination is via bees . Fruits are light golden-yellow, green or orange , usually pear shaped (but sometimes round and apple-shaped - sometimes classified as cv 'Maliformis' ) and very fragrant. The fruit pulp is firm, aromatic and always contains gritty ce lls . Individual fruits can weight up to 'At Kg (1 Ib) or more, and ripen late in the autumn. Fruits contain seeds which are poisonous. Qu in ces are generally hardy to zone 4-6 (-15 to -25C), but have a low chilling requirement (much less than most apples) - 100 to 450 hours below 7e in order to flower. Although this is less than pears , they flower later in the spring than pears , because some vegetative growth must occur before the flowers appear.
U ses
Quinces have long been grown for flavouring apple pies , ices and confections . In warm temperate and tropical regions , the fruits can become soft. juicy, and suitable for eating raw ; but in cooler temperate areas like Britain , they do not ripen so far . Here, raw quince fruits are hard , gritty, harsh and astringent, but after a few weeks of storage the fles h softe ns and astringency decreases to a point where some people find them edible.
Most people prefer to eat quinces after cooking , though . They are delicious stewed , baked, made into fruit butter etc - almost anything that can be done with app les can be done with quinces , and they need a si milar length of cooking as apples; only add sugar after they become soft and start to change colour. A single slice added to an app le pie is enough to add a subtle flavour. Qu ince flesh turns pink when cooked . Individual fruits can baked in halves, with the juice becoming a pink syrup in the dis h. Other recom mendations are to add a few sli ces to roasting meats of a little cooked quince to casseroles. Quinces contain high levels of pectin , which ensures that a n y jelly made with them in will set easily . Quince jelly is a popular recipe . Quince paste is still wide ly made in France ('cotignac') and Spai n ('membri lo '), while in Argentina and Chile a quince spread ('dulce de membrilo ') is made. The average nutritional composition of qu ince fruit is (per 100g edible portion): Wa ter Protein Fat Ca rbohydrate Calcium Phosphorus Potassium
83.8%
0.4 9 0.1 9 15.3 9 11 mg

17 mg 197 mg
Vitamin Vitam in Vitam in Vitamin Iron Sodium
A 81 (thiamin) 82 (Riboflavin) C
40 IU
0.02 mg 0.03 mg 15-20 mg 0 .7 mg 4 mg
Wi ne and cider ca n be made from the fruit. The wine was popular when quinces were very common in Britain in the 19th century , the wine reputed 10 benefit asthma suffe rers . In Medieval times , quince marmalade was popular in Britain . This required peeled and quartered fruits which were boiled in red wine , strained , boiled again in honey and spiced wine , then after coo ling and setting, sliced into pi eces and se rved as a dessert in the same way as 'Membrill o' (q uin ce jelly) is in Spain today. Quinces ha ve long been used as a herbal medicine , as an infusion to treat sore throat , diarrhoea and haemorrhage of the bowel. It is effective against inflammation of the mucous membranes , in testi nes and stomach . They are also used in the cosmetic industry and for medicinal cosmetics. Long used in Chinese medicine, th e stem bark is used as an as tring ent for ulcers, and the fruits used for thei r anti vinous , astringent , carminative and peptic qualities. The seeds, soaked or boiled in water , release the mucilage from the seed coat and make a jelly-like consistency, which has been used for sore throats and eye lolions. The fruits are so fragrant that a single fruit can fill a room with it s rich fruity scent; ind eed, quinces were once popular as room deodorisers. Mucilage obtained from the seed coat is used as a gum arabic substitute to add gloss to a material (the seeds contain 20% mucilage) . Quince leaves conta in 11 % tannin and ca n be used for tanning .
Page 17
Bees feed on nectar from the flowers in May and/or June. Quinces are very widely used as pear rootstocks, and have been so used at least since the 14th century in France. Numerous clonal selections have been made for modern use , including the wellknown Quince A, Band C.
Cultivation
Quinces grow and fruit readily in Southern England and succeeds as far north as Yorkshire with a sunny sheltered site. Almost any soil is suitable (a deep moist fertile loam is ideal). but shelter and sun are " important; very alkaline soils usually cause chlorosis. Trees do tolerate quite deep shade but are unlikely to crop there . Quinces can be trained to a single trunk to make a small tree, or can be grown as a bush with multiple stems; space trees 4.5-6 m (15-20 ft) apart. In less favoured districts it can be trained as a fan or espalier against a wall. Trees only need staking for a few years. Quince rootstocks can themselves be used for quince - Quince A or Quince C making a slightly dwarfed tree. Pear rootstocks make a larger tree. Rootstocks are not essential , though, although trees on their own roots may sucker. Trees are self-fertile , and generally very reliable croppers, but many commercial growers believe that yields benefit from cross-fertilisation. 'Meeches Prolific' and 'Vrajna' flower at the same time and cross pollinate well. Trees may need occasional moderate feeding, but in rich soils this may be very occasional or unnecessary. Fruits turn from green to yellow as they ripen . They should be left on the tree as long as possible to achieve the best flavour, but must be picked before frosts ; October or early November in Britain . The fruit stem lacks a well-defined abscission layer, so fruit should be cut from the tree to avoid tearing the stem out of the flesh. Handle the fruit carefully - although hard , they bruise easily . Good yields are 15 Kg (33 Ib) per tree at 7-8 years after planting, equivalent to 7.5 tonnes/ha (3 tons/acre) for trees planting at 4.5 m (15 ft) apart. Most cultivars start cropping at about 5 years of age. To store fruit, lay them in a single layer, preferably not touching, on slats or straw-lined trays, and keep in a cool dry shed; they should store fo'r 2-3 months. Don't store them near apples or other fruit as these will gain a quincey flavour. Initial framework training consists of winter pruning to cut back leaders by a third of the season's growth to an outward bud; fruit is carried on spurs and on tips of the previous summer's growth , and after initial framework training, almost no pruning is required; the minimum of winter pruning should be carried out to remove any dead wood and keep the centre of the tree open .. Quinces are generally free of pests and diseases. They can sometimes suffer from : Leaf blight (Entomosporium maculatum) - causes dark red spots on leaves , which turn yellow and fall early; can spread to fruits. In severe cases , rake up and compost or burn fallen leaves in autumn. Bordeaux mixture can be sprayed when leaves open in spring. Brown rot of fruit (Monilinia spp.) - remove mummified fruit in winter. fireblight - to reduce susceptibility, minimise pruning and fertiliser use. codling moth (in N.America) the oriental fruit moth.
Page 18
Propagation
Propagation is pos sible by several methods: Simple layering . Stool layering . Hardwood cuttings in winter - easy . Budding (usually chip budding) or grafting onto quince rootstocks . By seed where fruiting qua lity is not of great importance. Seeds require 4 months of cold stratification , preferably preceeded by 2-4 weeks of warm stratification . Sowing in autumn is
recommended .
Cultivars
Bereczcki : Synonym for Vrajna.
Champion : Bears heavy crops of large . roundish to pear-shaped , greenish-yellow fruits of delicate flavour . Flesh yellow, tender, only slightly astringent. Fruits at a young age ; mid season ripening . Tree vigorous, very productive , bears at an early age.
Cooke's Jumbo (Syn . Jumbo): Fruit very large , pearshaped , yellowish-green ; flesh white. Early ripening . Dwarf Orange: Low bushy tree growing 3-4.5 m (1015 tt) high. Fruit large, golden-yellow. Early ripening . Gamboa : Fruit pear-shaped , bright yellow; flesh yellowishwhite , turning purplered on cooking , flavour sweeter than most. Tree small, very dense, originated in Portugal. Le Bourgeaut: Bears small, round , apple-shaped fruits . Early ripening early October. Lescovacz: Bears large fruits , roundish-pear shaped. Ludovic: Sim ilar to ' Vrajna '. Maliformis : Bears fruit the size and shape of a small apple. Tree attractive , with small fresh looking leaves . Fruits ripen well in colder climates . Meeches Prolific: Selected 150 years ago by an American enthusiast. Fruits bright goldenye llow, pear shaped, of excellent flavour, less downy than most, early ripen ing - a week before Vraj na ; fruit borne at an early age (3 years). Good heavy cropper , vigorous, slow growing . The fruits keep well. Morava: A recent Yugoslavian cultivar with large fruits (335 g = 12 oz) of good quality and easily peeled. Precocious and high yie lding - 15 Kg (33 Ib) per tree. Orange (Syn . Apple quince): fruit large to very large (sometimes over 450 g , lib) , round , smooth skinned , bright yellow. Flesh very tender, yellow-orange turning red on cooking , excellent flavour . Good in cooler summer regions . Perfume: Fruits large to very large , oval-square , skin waxy, glossy bright ye ll ow, very fragrant ; good flavour. Tree has pink blossoms . Pineapple : Bred in California . Fruit large, smooth . round , light golden-yellow; very fragrant. white , tender flesh with only slight astring ency . Named for the pineapple-like flavour it imparts to jelly . Can be cooked without the addition of water. Portugal (Syn . Lusitanica) : Flowers are large , pale rose , ornamental. Fruits are bumpy and irregu lar (oblong-pear shaped). 10 cm (4 ") long and 9 cm (3Yz") wide at the thickest part , tapering to the stalk; skin deep yellowishorange , covered with grey down ; mild flavour, juicier than most. Fruit ripens
Page 19
earlier than most. Slow to start cropp in g and shy bearing. Has a variable growth habit. the trees looking somewhat gangly with large. untidy looking leaves. Very vigorous. becoming large and spreading; not quite so hardy as some. Siebosa: Makes a compact tree. Fruits squat pear-shaped. Smyrna: Of Turkish origin. Fruits large to very large, furrowed, oblonglpear-shaped, golden-yellow. very aromatic. Flesh mild, tender, light ye ll ow. excellent quality. Fruits keep very we ll. Moderately vigorous tree with unusually large leaves. Van D~man: Fruit larg e, oblong-pear shaped, bright yellow-orange; flesh pale ye ll ow with a gOOd. spicy flavour. Early ripening. Heavy bearing & hardier than most cultiva rs. Vrajna (Syn. Bereczcki): Originating from near Vrajne in Southern Serbia. Fruits very large, pearshaped, very fragrant. a clear shiny gold. with a softer flesh than many. excellent flavour . Fruits borne at an early age (4-6 years). Good cropper. Suited to fan training; very vigorous. erect growth.
Suppliers
Keepers Nursery, Gallants Court, Gallants Lane, East Farfeigh, Maidstone, Kent, ME15 OLE.
Tel,01622-726465.
Goscote Nurseries Ltd, Syston Road, Cossington, Leics, LE7 4UZ. Paul Jasper, The Lighthouse, Bridge Street, Leominster, Herefordshire, HR6 8DU. Email: pjasper253@aol.com.
J Tweedie Fruit Trees , Maryfield Road Nursery, Maryfield, Nr Terregles, Dumfries, Scotland,
DG2 9TH. Tel: 01387-720880. The following North Ame ri can nurseries supply most of the cultivars available there: Hidden Springs Nursery, 170 Hidden Springs Lane, Cookeville, TN 38501, USA. Tel: 615-268-9889. Louisinana Nursery, Rt.7, Box 43 , Opelousas, LA 70570, USA. Tel: 318-948-3696. L E Cooke Co, 26333 Road 140, Visalia, CA 93292. (Wholesale only). Northwoods Retail Nursery. 27635 S.Oglesqy Rd, Canby, OR 97013, USA. Tel: 503-266- 5432.
References
Bazeley, B: Growing Tree Fruits. Collins, 1990. Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles . John Murray, 1973. Duke, J A & Ayensu, E S: Medicina l Plants of China. Reference Publications, 1985. Facciola, S: Cornucopia. Kampong Publications , 1990. Hills, L: The Good Fruit Guide. HDRA, 1984. Krussmann, G: Manual of Cultivated Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1985. Lanska, 0: The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992. Roach, F: Cultivated Fruits of Britain. Blackwell, 1985. Rombough, L: Fruits for the Kitchen . Horticulture, November 1996, pp 50-53. Simmons, A: Simmons Manual of Fruit. David & Charles, 1978. Weiss, R: Aphrodite's Golden Apple. The Garden, November 1994, pp 546-547. Westwood, M N: Temperate-Zone Pomology. Timber Press, 1993. Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit , Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publications, 1993.
Carnelian cherry
Introd uction
)
Cornel ian cherry or Sorbet, Comus mas, is a member of the dogwood family , and is well known in ornamental gardens for its cheerful yellow flowers in late winter. II is nalive to central and southern
Europe, Asia minor, Armenia and the Caucasus in dry deciduous forests and brushlands .
It has been cultivated for centuries, and is still cultivated is some parts of Europe for its fruits (notably Turkey, Russia, Moldavia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus - Armenia, Azerbai jan , Georgia). It
was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and grown in monastery gardens in Europe through the
middle ages; it was introduced to Britain by the 16th century. By the 18th ce ntury , it was common in English gardens, where it was grown for its fruits, sometimes ca ll ed cornel plums. It is now naturalised in Britain . The cornel is grown inten sively in the Anatolia region of Turkey , where at least 20 se le ctions (some of them seedlings) are considered as having high economic value . 1988 figures report some 1.6 million cornel trees in Turkey, producing 18,000 tons of fruit per year. The name ' Carnelian' refers to the similarity in colour of the fruit to carnelian (or carnelian) quartz, which has a waxy luslre and a deep red, reddish-white or flesh red colou r .
Description
Comus mas is a deciduous sh rub or small tree growing to 5 m (16 tt) high and wide (exceptionally
to 7Y2 m , 25 ft), with a spreading , rounded, rather open habit. It usually branches near to the ground. It tends to be more spreading in shadier locations. Larger specimens can have trunks to 20 cm (8~) in diameter. Young branches are covered with minute flattened grey hairs. Leaves appear as typical dogwood-type. They are opposite on branches, oval -elliptic, pointed, 4-10 cm (1Y2=4") long by 2-4 cm (0.75-1Y2 ") wide, dark green , somewhat glossy above and with 3-5 pairs of veins. They usually turn purple-reddish in autumn in cool climates. The flowers are golden yellow, in small umbel s of 5-9, appearing before the leaves in February to March (occasionally April) at nodes on the previous yea r's wood and on spurs of older wood . Each flower is 3 mm (0.8") across. The
(0.16 ~ )
in diameter, with umbels about 2 cm
-:: =
--
- -~~~~ -- - --- - - - - --
--
~ -- --
flowers are pollinated by bees, mostly wild bumble bees unl ess th e weather at flowering is warm. The flowering period is long , and the flowers are frost tolerant , hence fruiting does not suffer too much from bad weather. Trees are generally partially self-fertile (some more than others), and cross pollination usually increases fruit yields. Fruits are usually bright glossy red, oblong, 14-20 mm (0 .6-0.S ") long (30 mm, 1.2" in large selections) and about 12 mm (Yz") wide, astringent until fully ripe (usually in September) and then sweet-a cid (depending on the selection) . They contain a single large elongated seed, 13-18 mm long 9Y 4-9 mm wide; larg er in larger fruits. Carnelian cherry is hardy to about _25C (USDA zone 4) , though the flower buds are less hardy, to about -20C; some se lections, from Russia for instance, are much hardier, to -37C. Trees may be ve ry long-lived (up to 200 years).
Uses
The fruits are edible raw, dried and used in preserves ; they can also be used to make wine and liqueur. They were popular enough to be found in European markets up to the end of the 19th ce ntury , and especially popular in France and Germany. The fruits are still commonly found in markets in Turkey. The fully ripe fruits are on the acid side of sweet-acid with a tang y plum-like taste and texture ; before full y ripe the y have an unpleasant astringency. The juice ha s a pleasant flavour. In Turkey the fruits are a favoured ingredient of sherbet (or serbet), a drink sold in stores and by street vendors (this is where the common name ' sorbet ' comes from); jams and marmalade are also made in commercial quantities. In Ukraine, the fruits are juiced and so ld commercially as soft drinks; they are also made into preserves (conserves - the fruits are low in pectin, hence extra pectin or othe r fruits need to be added), and also fermented into wine and distilled into a liqueur. Here and in the Caucasus the fruits are canned. In the Caucasus, dried fruits are ground to powder and sprinkled on grilled meats and into spice sa uces. In Russia, fruits are made into jam s , jellies, fruit candies . purees, soft drinks and are stewed. The dried fruits are used in sauces. When the fruit was popular in Britain. it was rarely eaten out of hand (perhaps because bettertasting clones were unknown there), but was esteemed for the delicious tarts they made ; shops also common ly sold rob de cornis, a thickened, sweet syrup made from Cornelian cherry fruits. The fruit juice was also added to cider and perry. Eau-de-vie was made with the fruit in France . Fruit characteristics and content varies between cultivars and is also effected by environment: Fruit size: can reach 30 mm (1.2") long is better selections. Fruit weight: can reach 6 9 per fruit in larger fruited selections (wi ld forms are typically 2 g). Fleshl seed ratio: can reach 6 or more in better selections. Juice colour: can vary from light to mid-red. An important characteristic for the jui ce industry. Stone: ca n be clinging or non-clinging (free).
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~-
--~--=-~
--
-~--
~-
---
-~-
Soluble solids content: 9-14%, average 12% . Sugar content (invert sugar): 4-12%; 5-11 9 per 100 ml. Citric acid content: 1-7%
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C): 36-300 mg / 100 9 populations). - very high (higher in more northerly
Vitamin C content after cook ing : 30-50 mg / 100 9 - as high as raw lemons! Pectin content : 0.6-1 .4% (of which 0 .35-0.63% is soluble) . Fruits also contain substantial amounts of ca lcium, magnesium. provitamin A and rutin .
The flowers are edible, used as a flavouring - used in Norway to flavour spirits.
An oil can be extracted from the seeds (on ly practical on a large scale) - oil conte nt of seeds is up to 34%. The oil is edible and can be used for lamp fuel (ie an ill umin ant ). The seeds can also be roasted and ground to make a coffee substitute. The bark and fruit are used medicinally, being astringent and febrifuge; they are used for bowel complaints. Flowers are also used medicinally, for diarrhoea . Numerous other uses in folk medicine have been noted. The sto nes and leaves, containing easily extracted tannins , are used in Russia for preparing medicinal drugs . Recent Russian research reports that the fruit contains substances that leach radioactivity from the body. The flowers are va lued by bees (hive and wild bumble bees but mostly the latter) and are a good early season source of nectar and pollen. In Russia it is regarded as an excellent honey plant. The leaves are high in tannin and can be used for tanning . A yellow dye is obtained from the bark, used for dyeing wool. The wood, tho ugh never available in large sizes, has considerable value because of irs very hard , tough, fl exible, durable nature; it is heavier than water. It is valued for turnery and used for making small articles for domestic u se (skewers, handles, uten sils), flutes, j avel in s, wheel spokes, gears and ladd ers. The Greeks and Romans used it for making wedges to sp lit wood, pin s and bolts and in spea rs. The tree is u sed in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in screens and windbreaks. It tolerates trimming and makes an impenetrable hedge.
Cultivation
Cornelian cherry is easy to grow in any soil of moderate to good fertility, includi n g heavy clay . Preferred conditions are a moist soil and sun. Light shade and exposure to wind are both tolerated; plants are very drought resistant. Plants transplant easily and grow at a moderate rate. It is resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria mellea & other species) and to Verticillium wilt. Trees should be spaced 6-7 m (20-23 ft) apart in orchard-like conditions . They can also be grown as a trimmed hedge - plant 3.7 m (12 ft) apart. Seedlings can take 3-5 years , sometimes more, before flowering, and 6-10 years before fruiting ; plants grown from cuttings fruit more quickly but are shorter-lived. Trees may live and continue fruiting for a long time - a botanical garden in Kiev has trees 150-200 years old that still fruit. It is
Page 23
tt
usual for no fruits to set for the first few years of flowering the flowers often start off being male only. but will change to perfect flowers (ie with male & female parts) after a while.
If the weather at flowering time is poor and bumble bees aren't flying, hand-pollinating the flowers may improve fruit set. Fruit yields are also usually increased by cross pollination . ie growing more than one cultivar. Mature trees can typically on average yield 11 Kg (24 Ib) of fruit , the better selections up to double this ; individual trees can yield much more than this.
FruitE\ from a single tree ripen over a long harvest period . The simplest way to harvest in quantity is to periodically give the branches a gentre shake once the fruit has coloured , and collect the fallen fruits from the ground. Ripe fruits hang well on the tree (if birds leave them alone) , becoming more concentrated in flavour and sweetness . If fruits are kept at room temperature for a day or two after harvest, they sweeten further . Fruits generally ripen in September, but varies by up to 4 weeks between cuUivars . Fruit shape can vary from oblong to cylindrical and pear shape ; fruit co lour can range from cream to yellow. orange and bright red to dark reddish-violet and almost black . Similarly , flavour and other characteristics can vary . There are few pests or diseases. In prolonged wet periods, a fungal leaf spot may affect leaves (possibly Septoria comicola which also affects Comus sanguinea) ; plants recover in dryer weather. Birds may compete for the fruits and squirrels are reported to be fond of the seeds in North America , sometimes taking even unripe fruits. Most cultivars availab le in Western Europe have been selected for their ornamental qualities , although several of these fruit quite well. Ukrainian breeding work over the last 20 years has led to the release of several good fruiting cultivars which are available in North America and which. hopefully , will be available here soon . Bulgarian , Czechoslovakian , Romanian and Turkish work has also led to superior cultivars ; superior Czech selections include 'Devin ' and ' Titus '; Turkish selections include ' Oegirmendere-I' , 'Memeli-I', 'Yuvarlak Bardak' , 'Bugur' , 'Kantartopu ', 'Asi ', and 'Malatya '.
Propagation
Seed: sow from fresh fruits (remove from the fruit) in autumn or stratify dry seed for 23 weeks (cold) or 16 weeks warm plus 4-16 weeks (cold). There are , on average , 5000 seeds/ Kg (2270/lb) , of which 68% are viable. Germination of dried seed can be very slow, often taking 12-15 months after stratification . Nicking the seed coat prior to stratification should speed germination. When they sprout , seedlings raise two large irregular oval seed leaves ; normal foliage follows, with lea ves in pairs. Cuttings : Difficult . Hardwood cuttings can be taken of the current year's growth , with a heel , taken in autumn. Use IBA rooting hormone. Also possible are softwood cuttings of side shoots in July-August. Each cutting should be 25 cm (10 ") long with all but the top two leaves removed ; give part shade and mist , and use IBA rooting hormone . 50% success should be considered very good for most cultivars . Layering : Layer branches in June -July. Layered plant can be removed the following spring . Suckers: Remove suckers in spring . If the tree was grafted these will be identical to the rootstock!
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&
Grafting: The easiest way to propagate superior clones . Any method is suitable , using seedling roolstocks and grafting low. Because plants branch close to the ground , make sure that all branches on a grafted plant arise from the scion and not the rootstock.
Cultivars
Alba : Fruits are nearly white. Aurea : Fruits are red , medium sized; a good cropper. Leaves are yellowish ; selected for ornamental use. Aureoelegantissima (Syns. 'Elegantissima' , ' Tricolor' , f.aureomarginata) : Leaves are partly broad yellow of pink margined. partly all yellow. A medium sized shrub, growing 2 m (6 ft) high and 3 m (10 ft) in spread; prefers part shade. Selected for ornamental use. Bulgarian: Fruit large, pear-shaped, deep scarlet-v iolet; ftesh sweet, excellent flavour. stone small. Very productive, origi nated in Bulgaria . Cream: Fruit cream coloured, excellent quality. Originating from Eastern Europe . Devin : Czech selection, a heavy and regular cropper; fruit large with small stones . Elegant: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine. Flava (Syn . f.xanthocarpa): Fruits are large , yellow, and slightly sweeter than most other cultivars . Propagates well by softwood cuttings. Golden Glory: Flowers are larger and more profuse; leaves and fruits (red) are also large. Tree upright and columna r; leaves very dark green. Selected for ornamental use. Helen: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine . Jolico: Productive , large-fruited cultivar from Austria . Yields some 2.5 Kg (5 Ib) of fruit per plant , fruit weight averages 4.5-5 .6 g (very large), very sweet (13-15% soluble sugars) . Macrocarpa: Fruits are larger than the species and pear-shaped . Cultivated on the Balkan Peninsula and in Ihe Caucasus . Nana: Growth is dwarf and rounded; leaves also dwarfed. Selected for ornamental use. Pioneer: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine. Pyramidalis: Growth is narrowly upright with branches only slightly outspread. Se lected for ornamental use. Red Star: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine. Redstone: A heavy cropper . Romanian : Fruit large, round. bright red ; flesh sweet , delicate flavour, excellent quality. Very productive. Originated in Romania. Russian Giant: Fruit large, barrel-shaped, dark reddish-scarlet ; flesh sweet, excellent flavour. slone small. High yielding tree. f.sphaerocarpa: natural variety with rounded fruits from Roma nia . Titus: Czech selection . a heavy and regular cropper; fruit large with small stones . Variegata (Syn. var.argenteomarginata): Leaves usually have a wide creamy white border. Dense growth. A good cropper of medium-sized fruits and self-fertile , although selected for ornamenlal use. Violaceae : Fruits are violet-blue .
Suppliers
Europe:
No nurseries advertise good fruiting cultivars in Western Europe at present.
Burncoose & South Down Nurseries , Gwennap. Redruth, Cornwall. TR16 6BJ, UK. Tel : 01209861112. Ornamental culfivars.
PMA Plant Specialities, Lower Mead, West Halch, Taunton, Somerset, TA3 5RN, UK. Tel: 01823480774. Ornamental cultivars.
Waterwheel Nursery, Bully Hole Bottom, Usk Road, Shirenewton, Chepstow, Gwen!, Wales, NP6 6SA. Tel: 01291-641577. Ornamental cultivars. Arboretum Waasland V.Z.W ., Kriekelaarstraat 29, 8-9100 Nieuwkerken-Waas, BELGIUM. Supplies a range of ornamental cu/fivars.
North America: The following all reportedly stock good fruiting selections.
A I Eppler Ltd . P a Box 16513, Seattle, WA 98116-0513, USA. Tel : 206-932-2211. Bulgarian. Cream, Romanian, Russian Giant, Yellow. Lovelace Seeds Inc, Browns Mill Rd, Rt.2, Box 86, Elsberry, MO 63343. Tel : 314-898-2103. Wholesale only. Redstone. Hidden Springs Nursery, 170 Hidden Springs Lane, Cookeville, TN 38501, USA. Tel: 615-268-9889 . One Green World . Tel: 503-651-3005. May supply untested seedlings of Russian cultivars.
References
Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. John Murray, 1973. Burmistrov, LA: Underexploited Fruits and Nuts of Russia. WANATCA Yearbook 1994, 3-19. Chiej, R: The Macdonald Encyclopedia of ,Medicinal Plants. Macdonald, 1984. Facciola, S: Corn ucop ia. Kampong Publications, 1990. English, J: Cornus mas. Pomona, Vol. xxix No.1 (Winter 1996), pp 37-38. Eris, Atilla etc: A research on the selection of cornel. In Schmidt, H & Kellerhals , M: Progress in Temperate Fruit Breeding, 207-210. Kluwer, 1994. Gordon. A G & Rowe, D C F: Seed Manual for Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Forestry Commissio n Bulletin 59, HMSO, 1982. Krussmann. G: Manual of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs . Batsford, 1985. L,1Inska, D: The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992. Reich, L: Carnelian Cherry From the Shores of Ancient Greece. Arnoldia-Boston , 1996, 56 : 1, 2-7. Reich, L: Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention . Addison-Wesley, 1991. Smatana , Let al: Results of Breeding and Growing Minor Fruit Species in Czechoslovakia. Acta Horticulturae 224,1988 : 83-87 . W healy, K & Demuth , S: Fruit , Berry and Nut In ventory . Seed Saver Publications , 1993.
Page 26
Tilia p/atyphyl/os:
Large-leaved lime
Introduction
The large-leaved lime (or summer linden, big-leaved lime, broad-leaved lime, big-leaved linden, big leaf linden) is a native of Central and Southern Europe. It has been cultivated in Europe for ages as a forest tree. In Continental Europe, almost all large famous limes are this species or the small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata), but this is not so in Britain, where most are the hybrid Tx europaea. T.p/atyphy/fos is distinguished from these other limes by its larger downy leaves , the downy shoolS, and the larger 5-ribbed fruil.
It is regarded as a late-arriving native to Britain, and is widely planted here in parks, gardens and streets, favoured by growers who know that it is a more shapely and cleaner tree, more rarely sprouting around the base and never on the trunk. Numerous place names are derived from 'linden ', ego Lyndhurst in Hampshire. It is the only lime species fully adapted to cool summers.
Description
Tilia platyphyllos is a large tree, growing up to 40 m (130 ft) high (rarely over 30 m, 100 ft, in Britain), with a conical to rounded crown. It has a short, straight, thick trunk and strong gnarled branches. The trunk of old trees can reach 160 cm (6 ft) in diameter in Britain; a tree in Germany, over 1100 years old, is 7.6 m (25) ft in diameter (d.b.h.) Mature trees can spread 20 m (70 ft) wide. Stems are rough and young shoots are reddish-brown and downy. he young bark is smooth, grey-green, with vertica l wavy streaks and dark brown fissures beneath. Older bark becomes coarse, ridged and dark brown, with a distinct pattern. Leaves are roundish-heart shaped to ovate, with a short painted tip, toothed, rough surfaced, 5-12 cm (25~) long and similar in width, bright green , lighter and sligh tly downy beneath with straight pale hairs especially on the veins and midrib. Leafing out is in mid to late spring. The fragrant flowers are yellowish-white, in pendulous clusters of 3-6 (mostly in 3's) from axils on long stalks, in late June in Britain (early June in warmer climes); flowering lasts about 3 weeks. The first half of the stalk is fused with a wing-like leathery bract, 5- 12 cm (2-5-) long by 10-30 mm (0.5-1.2") wide, which later serves as a flight aid for the fruits. Flowering takes place about a week before the common lime (T.x europaea) and 3-4 weeks before the small-leaved lime (T.cordata), with fewer and bigger flowers in each cluster and larger, paler (nearly white), more prominent bracts. Flowers are insect pollinated , mainly by bees. Hybridisation freely occurs with other lime species flowering nearby.
Page 27
Fruits are single-seeded , 8-12 mm (0 .3-0 .5- ) lo ng , hard , woody . slightly pear-shaped , with 5 ribs and a velvety covering of hair. They fall in autumn or winter and are much-loved by rodents . It retains many browned bracts and their fruits on the lower outer crown in autumn. Trees are both frost hardy and very winter hardy , to zone 4 or 5 (about -25" C) . They have a deep and wide-spreading root system. They have a remarkable tenacity for life and are more or less indestructible: as old stems collapse, new sprouts arise and essentially trees coppice themselves ; trees, which fall over often retain part of their root system and sprout not only from the base, but also from where the stems res t on the ground .
Uses
The young leaves are edible raw (stalks removed) , being mild , thick, cooling and mucilaginous. Pleasant eating in salads or as a sandwich filling . C oppicing on a 5-10 year rotation may be desirable for leaf harvesting , keeping the plants shrubby and more leaves within reach; young leaves are produced throughout the growing season on coppiced plants. The immature fruits, ground up with some flowers , produce an edible paste much like chocolate in flavour. Attempts to introduce its manufacture in the 18th century failed because the keeping qualities were poor; presumably , these could be o vercome nowadays . The flower are used in herb teas (see medicinal uses below) and in confectionery . The sap is edible, tapped and used in the same way Agroforestry News, Vol 2 No 3, for more details . s for maples. See ' Edible tree saps' in
The charcoal made from the wood is specia ll y used for smoking certain foodstuffs. The flowers (collected with the bracts) ha ve well-known medicinal properties , and when dried are pharmacologically called Tiliae flos . They contain 3% mucilage . sugar, wax , tannin , amino acids, flavonoids (quercetin & kaempferof) and traces of an essential oil . They have antispasmodic , diuretic , expectorant , haemostatiC , nervine and sedative properties and calm the nerves , lower blood pressure , increase perspiration , relax spasms and improve digestion. Lime-ftower tea has been used for many centuries as an antidote to fever in cold and 'flu sufferers. It is still much-used in herbal medicine for hypertension , hardening of the arteries, cardiovascular and digestive complaints associated with anxiety , urinary infections , fevers, catarrh , migraine and headaches. The flowers are also used commercially in cosmetiCS , mouth washes and bath lotions. The flowers should be picked and dried as soon a s they open - they reputedly develop narcotic properties with age. The charcoal is also used medicinally (eg. for gastric problems) , being an effective vasodilator. Bees are extremely fond of time flowers , feeding on both nectar and pollen , and sometimes also collect the honeydew left by aphids on the leaves . Lime honey made from the flowers is still a major commercial enterprise in many parts of Europe ; it has a very pleasant slighlly minty flavour and a greenish tinge to its colour . In Europe , the honey is used for ftavouring liqueurs and medicines. Stands of large leaved lime can yield 250-800 Kg honey I hectare (223-714 Ib J acre). Honeydew
honey is golden to almost black in colour, with honeydew honeys are highly prized in Europe.
a rich flavour reminiscent of dried figs; some
The young bark (or basi) was formerly much used for rope, basketry , clothing and shoes, mats and roof coveri ngs. The inner bark is peeled off in strips from trees of small diameter, preferably 15-35 cm (6-14"), which can be steeped in water beforehand to ease separation. A tree of 35 cm (14") diameter yields about 45 Kg (100 Ib) of inner bark (phloem) which is sufficie nt, for example to make 10-12 mats (known as 'Russian matting'). Rope made from lime bark was long used in Lincolnshire and oth er parts of England, and made in to fishing nets in Sweden. Shoes were made in Russia. The bast fibres can also be used to make a paper: trees are harvested in spring or summer, and steamed until the fibres ca n be stripped; the fibres are cooked for 2 hours with lye, then beaten in a ball mill. The resulting paper in beige in colour. Suckers are straight and flexible, and can be used for basketry (particularly for making handles). The foliage is much relished by cattle, both green and dried & made into hay; in Norway and Sweden this was an important agroforestry practice. It is said to impart an unpleasant flavour to the milk of lactating cows. The leaves are high in nitrogen and phosphorus, similar to those of nitrog en fixing trees like alders and black locust. They improve soil structure and fertility over time, acting like a green manure , and increase the earthworm population; they also reduce acidification, ra ising the pH. Another factor which enriches soils beneath trees is the honeydew secreted by the lime aphid (see below in Cu ltivation): deposits on the ground of 1 Kg of sugars I m 2 (1.8 Ib I yd 2 ) per year have been recorded , and these sugars may stimulate the growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria around the trees. The leaf litter decomposes rapidly. Large leaved lime is a valuable wildlife tree and is the food plant of several caterpillar species.
TWa pJatyphyl/os is wind-firm and suitable for including in shelterbelts ; it also makes a good compone nt of a hedge, tolerating frequent cutting. The species did suffer major damage in the 1987 British hurricane storm, though.
It is a major forest tree cultivated for timber in the Czech republic , Slovakia and Bulgaria. The timber has a fairly broad sapwood layer; both sapwood and heartwood are usually whitish-yellow (sometimes light brown or reddish). On drying, the timber contracts moderately to severely. The dried timber is light (560 Kg/m 3 at 15% moisture - one of the lightest broadleaved timbers in Europe) and easy to handle, soft, tough, moderately strong , stable, very fine and even-grained, pliable, not durable; it is susceptible to woodworm attack. It is used for making drawing and cutting boards, toys, turnery, piano keys, small boxes, barrels and chests, barrel bungs, also for carving, veneers , bee hive interiors (because of its freedom from taints) and good-quality charcoa l (used for artists' charcoal & formerly for gunpowder). In Russia it is used in furniture manufacture and for many purposes for which plastics are now used. It accepts preservatives easily and can then be used as a softwood substitute for fencing etc.
Cultivation
La rge-leaved lime prefers full sun but tolerates considerable shade (though won't fruit as well there); it casts a heavy shade. It prefers a moist, fertile , well-drained, neutral to alkaline soil, but is remarkably tolerant of acid soils too, and of clay. Trees are wind firm , tolerate air pollution, and are very frost hardy . They are resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria meJlea & other spp.)
Page 29
Growth starts at a moderately fast rate - 11 m (35 ft) in 20 years . Trees can five to a very old age often 300 years , somelimes 600-900 years; coppiced trees even longer.
Several ornamental Gulti vars are available , with reddish stems and different leaf forms.
Harvesting of flowers should proceed with care, not damaging the tree - cut them off from branches . or cut high branch tips off if necessary. They shou ld be dried in well-ventilated shade o an artificial dryer at 40 C. When properly dried they will reduce to 25% of their fresh weight.
Trees take 20-30 yea rs before they produce fru it, and then lend 10 bear large seed crops every 2-3 years . The fruits / seeds are co llected in October. when the bracts have turned brown, from low branches , or from the ground (trees can be shaken etc .) Large leaved lime is the only lime species to produce fertile seed regularly in British conditions .
lime aphids (Eucallipterus liIiae) love to feed on the leaves of this species , like many other Jimes covering lea ves with honeydew, which can blacken them and drip stickily onto anything beneath them . The blackening is due to sooty mold, a fungus. Honeydew deposits are greatest in hot , dry weather.
Other minor diseases include various leaf spot fungi and twig blight fungus (Discella desmazieril). Grey squ irre ls rarely cause damage , though young seedlings are preferentially browsed by deer.
limes are susceptible to root damage by Phytophthora spp . Affected trees often show dieback symptom s; the disease in encouraged by wet soils and organic mulches. limes are also amoung the trees most often colonised by the common mistletoe (Vis r;um a/bum) which is parasitic on its host.
Silviculture
Trees grown for timber are usually done so on a rotation of 50-70 years, reaching heights of 25-30 m (85- 100 ft) and diameters of 30-45 cm (12 -1 8 ~ ) . Trees over 200 years old are conside red o vermature. Because of its shade-tolerance , it can be grown in the understorey o f oak and other species: it maintains ve rti cal growth under a canopy of 10% light transmission . On good sites , growth is around 8 m 3! hectare! year.
Large leaved lime coppices strongl y and is a common component of both pure and mixed coppice in Europe. A coppice rotation to 20-25 years is the norm , giving yie ld s of about 2.5 tonnes of dry wood! hectare! year . Coppice lime stools show great longevity and appear almost indestructible. Coppicing on a shorter rotation may be desirable for leaf production (see above).
Propagation
Seed in the normal method . Fresh seed should be sown immediately in the autumn as the fruit colour changes from green to buff. Production of viable seed occurs most years in Brita in . Dried seed is deeply dormant and requires 4-26 weeks of warm stratifica tion followed by 20-26 weeks of cold stratification . Some or all seeds sometimes wait a f urth er year before ge rmin ating. There are on average 8,800 seedsl Kg (4000/ Ib), of wh ich 70% normally ge rmi nate . Forest nursery recommendations are to sow at 150 gl m 2 in seed beds (ie at 1000 viable seeds! m 2 ) , giving 82 one-year o ld seedlingsl m 2 with an average height of 10- 20 cm (4-8 ~) . Seeds can be stored in cold , dry condition s for 2- 3 years with little loss of viability. Natural regeneration has been noted at several sites in Britain , with seedli ngs often appearing in abu ndance.
Page 30
Seed from trees of good timber form are recommended for limber tree nurseries, bul are difficult to acquire in Britain at the present. Suckers, occasionally produced, can be transplanted in winter.
References
Aaron, J & Richards, E: British Woodland Produce . Stobart Davies, 1990. Aldhous , J: Nursery Practice. Forestry Commission Bulletin 43, HMSO, 1972. Ald hous , J & Mason, W: Forest Nursery Practice. Forestry Commission Bulletin 111, HMSO, 1994. Ayers, G: Designing a bee forage system (Part II). American Bee Journal 1996 , 136: 7, 503-509. Bean, W: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. John Murray, 1980. Bown, D: The RHS Encyclopedia of Herbs & their Uses. Darling Kindersley, 1995. Cheva llier , A: The Encycloped ia of Medicinal Plants. Darling Kindersley, 1996. Chiej, R: The Macdonald Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Macdonald, 1984. Evans, J: Silviculture of Broadleaved Woodland. Forestry Comm ission Bulletin 62, HMSO, 1984. Godet, J-D: Mosaik's Photographic Key to the Trees and Shrubs of Great Britain and Northern Europe. Mosaik Books, 1993. Gordon, A & Rowe, 0: Seed Manual for Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Forest ry Commission Bulletin 59, HMSO , 1982. Hooper, E & Taylor, M: The Beekeeper's Garden. Alphabooks, 1988. Hornok, L: Cultivation and Processing of Medicinal Plants. Witey, 1992. Johnson, C: The Useful Plants of Great Britain . William Kent, 1862. Krussman , G: Manual of Cultivated Broad-Leaved trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1985. Phillips, D & Burdekin, D: Diseases of Forest and Ornamental Trees. Macmillan, 1992 Pigott, C: The Ecology and Silviculture of Limes (Tilia spp .). OFI paper No 37 (1988), 27-32. Savill, P: The Silviculture of Trees used in British Forestry . CAB International, 1991.
Canker of apple & pear

Introduction
App le and pear canker is a fungal disease caused by Nec/ria gafligena, we ll known in Western Europe, Asia, South and North America and New Zealand. Though most serious on apples and pears, it is also found on a range of broad-leaved trees including maples (Acer spp.), birches (Betula spp.), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), beech (Fagus spp.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), poplars (Populus spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.) and willows (Salix spp . )
Symptoms
Sma ll dead areas develop on the wood, showing as dark reddish-brown or black water-soaked spo ts ; these develop to become tumour-like swellings, and the surface bark then cracks and is usually shed. The infection spreads, generally in concentric cracked rings, gradually encircling the shoot or branch; the branch then dies. The concentric form is due to the periodic growth: the fungus grows and kills the bark in autumn and winter, but is overgrown by host callus in spring and summer. When a branch is sliced open, the fungus leaves spots and streaks of brown staining. The fungus can also attack fruits at the 'eye' end, causing an eye rot during storage (us ually after 3 months or more) , eventually lea ving the fruit mummified.
Small red pustules form on the edges of old cankers and on affected fruits.
The main entry point of the disease is through wounds in the bark - a common entry point is the scars left as leaves fall in the autumn. Woolly aphid feeding sites are also frequently invaded by Neetria. Branch stubs are a common entry point on forest trees . Damage by other fungi, ego scab (Ven,luria inequalis) can also encourage infection by canker .
Nee/ria gaffigena is active at very low temperatures: small numbers of spores may be released and sometimes germinate at air temperatures of O"C , though the optimum temperature for re lease is 2 l-2B.SoC. The time of greatest discharge is much affected by local climate conditions, but is generally spring and autumn . The spores are borne by the wind and spread by splashing rain . The vege tati ve mycelium grows slowly on the host at 2" C. Different strains of the fungus vary in ha rm fuln ess, but all have a wide host range ; there is some evidence that the strain which attacks ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is not seriously damaging to apple and pear , but poplar, hawthorn, beech and mountain ash can host strai ns which also damage apples .
Infection of the wood can occur at any time of the year; in Britain, infection in apples occu rs most easi ly between Ma rch and October. Damp conditions increase the chances of infection, including damp weather cond itions and over-close planting . The fungus can overwinter on decayed apples and as mycelium in twig and branch cankers.
Hosts
Many apple cultivars are very resistant. Apple rootstocks M.l , M. 12 . P.2 and P .22 are also reSistant, as are pear stocks Oregon 1 and the OHxF series. Be warned though: cultivars resistant in one region are not always resista nt in another.
Very susceptib le app les include Aldenham Purple , Alkmene, Atwood Sp ur, Cap of Uberty, Captain Kidd, Cortland, Court Royal, Cowarne Red, Cox's Orange Pippin , Delicious , Dumelow's Seedl in g, Dymock Red , Gardner, Hereford Redstreak, Id aho Delicious, Idared, Jerseymac, Kidd's Orange Red, Lalla, Maigo ld, Okanoma, Orangenburg , Pagsup Spur Type , Priam, Prima , Priscilla, Red Delicious, Red Prince, Redcort, Shotwe ll , Spartan, Strawberry Norman, Striped Wellington, Turner, Va nce, Warner's King. Numerous more are susceptible - see Directory of Apple Cuftivars for more details. Susceptible pears include Beurre d 'Anjou , Bronze Beauty , Calebasse Bosc, Conference, and Fertility. Resistant apple cultlvars [marked r) if also resistant to scab and (") if resistant to woolly aphid]: Alfriston r} Belle de Boskoop (*) Bulmer'S Foxwhelp r) Co rnish Aromatic(*) Crimson King (* ") O'Arcy Spice Ellis Bitter Freedom (*) Golden Nugget r) Grenadier (*) Isle of Wight Pippin Lady's Finger (*) Annie Elizabeth (*) Arkansas (*) Brownlees' Russet (*) Bramley' s Seedli ng Cockle Pippin Captain Broad (*) Co urt of Wick Crawley Beauty r) Crimso n Newton Wonder (*) Crimson Superb Egremont Russet (*) Dayton Emneth Early ( .. ) Franklyn's Golden Pippin (*) Gladstone (.) Golden Noble (*) Go lden Russet (.) Graniwinkle (*) Hall's Pink ( .. ) Hocking's Green (.) John Standish (") Katy Laxton's Superb Lane's Prince Albert r)
r)
r}
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"
Lord Derby (0) Merton Russet (") Orleans Reinette (0) Powell's Russet (0) Red Superb Rosemary Russet (') Saini Edmund 's Pippin (*) Silver Cup Wilhelm Ley (0) Wool brook Pippin (0) Resistant pear cultivars: Clara Frijs Gin
Novamac (*) Perrine Yellow Transparent (0) Pine Apple Russet of Devon
Red Belle de Boskoop (") Redhill Sops in Wine Royal Wilding Sam Young (0) Sops in Wine Winston (0) Yarlington Mill (") Red Newton Wonder Reverend W.Wilks (0) Russet Superb Sanspareil (") Tregonna King r) Wolf River (0)
Marston Scarlet (0) Newton Wonder (")
Maxton
r)
r)
Douglas Hessle
Fondante d'Automne
Control
Smaller cankered shoots should be cut out completely and burnt. Cut out and burn larger cankers when seen, wire brush surrounding tissue and paint the exposed wound with a wound paint (NB. take care - specific canker wound paints contain mercury compounds and are highly poisonous) or the biological control Trichoderma viride.
Sprays of very poisonous chemicals are used commercially against canker. Less harmful sprays are partially effective - applications of copper fungicides, eg. Bordeaux mixture , can be made at the s tart of leaf fall and midway through leaf fall , then again at bud burst to protect leaf scars from infection . Decayed apples should be collected and burnt.
Canker is more severe on trees suffering from poor growth due to lack of nutrients or waterlogging. Feeding an adequate drainage can help in these cases. Heavy, cold soils, unfavourable subsoils and lack of sunshine are all also predisposing factors. Too heavy applications of nitrogen can also increase susceptibility by encouraging soft vigorous growth; in fertile soils, grassing down beneath trees can reduce vigour and susceptibility to canker . Seve ral cultivars are susceptible and these should be avoided, especially in wetter regions . Cultivars susceptible to woolly aphid should also be avoided . Cultivars susceptible to scab (Venturia inequalis) should also be avoided. Trees should be spaced with adequate space between to allow for air circulation. In densely planted systems like forest gardens it is vital to use resistant cultivars. Pruning in January (in Britain) minimises the risk of infection.
References
Crawford, M : Directory of Apple Cultivars. A.R.T. , 1994 . Crawford, M: Directory of Pear Cultivars. A.R.T ., 1996. Crawford, M: Fruit Varieties resistant to Pests and Diseases. A.R.T ., 1997 . Culpan, G: Pests, Diseases and Common Problems . Hamlyn , 1995 . Ogawa, J & English , H: Diseases of Temperate Zone Tree Fruit and Nut Crops. USDA, 1991. Phillips, D & Burdekin , D : Disease of Forest and Ornamental Trees . Macmillan , 1992.
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Sorbus domestica: the Service tree

Introduction
Serbus domestica is a native tree of much of Central and Southern Europe , North Africa and Asia MinQr; also in Britain according to recent evidence of genuinely wild plants found near Cardiff. It
has '
Native range of Sorbus domestica been cultivated for ages for its fruits. which are often pressed for juice ; the ancient Romans are
credited with introducing it to the wine-growing regions of Europe. The service tree can live to a
great age, often to 300 years, sometimes to 500 or 600 years . It is a relatively rare species, found
on the edge of forests , banks etc. , and in fact is so rare in some parts of Europe that it is considered endangered there. It often occurs as scattered, isolated trees , typically on calcareous soils .
Description
The service tree (sometimes called the checker tree) is a medium to large sized tree , often growing to 10-15 m (30-50 ft) in Britain, but 10 20 m (70 fl) high in Continental Europe , occasionally considerably more . It has open spreading branches and a fa irly spreading crown. It has rough scaly bark , like a pear tree and glossy, sticky winter buds . It is deep rooting . Leaves are compound , 12-22 cm (5-9") long, with 11-21 narrowly oblong leaflets , each 3-8 cm (1 -
2}Sn long by aboul 1 cm ("/2" ) wide , smooth above and woolly underneath. They turn orange-red or
yellow in the autumn .
Page 34
f
White flowers are borne in con ical clusters 6-10 em (2Y2-4~) wide, produced at the end of short branches and from the leaf -axils; individual flo wers are 1.5 em (0.6") wide. Flowering occurs in May-June, with poll ination via insects.
..
Two distinct botanical forms are recognised :
f. pomifera : Fruits are apple-shaped, 2-3 em (O.B-1.2W ) long . Leaves with 13-15 leaflets .
.i
Fruits are appl e or pear-shaped (sometimes both on the same tree) , to 3 em (1.2 ") long , yellowishgreen to brownish , reddish on the sunny side . They contain 2-4 (Iallish-round seeds .
1. pyriformis . Fruits are pear-shaped , 3-4 em (1.2-1.6") long . Leaves with 17-19 leaflets.
The~service tree is moderately fast growing and distinguished by its considerable vita li ty and ability to regenerate.
Uses
The fresh hard fruits are not very edible - they are quite astringent. They can ripen on the tree and be eaten straig h t from the tree in some seasons. The hard unripe fruits can be stored for up to 2-3 months to season and slowly soften. Most wi ll ripen after 2-3 weeks.
The fruits are edible when bletted (ripened to the point of incipient decay), then being sweet and delicious , with a tropical fruit taste, much like medlars. When ready to eat , the skin turns brown and the fruit will be very soft; the flesh will be white or light brown. Fruits which are frosled on the tree may ripen very quickly. They contain pectins , fruit acid s , sugars (more than grapes when ripe up to 28%), provitamin A and vitamin C .
The fruits are processed inlo quality marmalades , wines , liqueurs , pure spirit and are dried (after bletting). They can be soaked in alcohol to make a liqueur (much like sloes to make slow gin .) They were formerly used in Britain (Kent) and France (Brittany) to make a cider or perry-like drink; also in France for centuries , the fruit juice has been distilled to make an outstanding spirit , Cormier or Sorbier de Montagne. In central Europe (eg. the Frankfurt area) , the juice pressed from fruits is used by the cider industry; about 2 .50- 3.50 ($4-$5.70) is paid per litre of fresh juice - more than is paid for the best Champagne grape juice! Hard, unripe fruits are required, which still have some astringency desirable in ciders - if the fruils are soft then their acidity will be too low. Service fruit juice has been added to ciders to improve taste , colour and keeping properties (the latter due to phenolic compounds , which may tolal 45 g per litre of juice) since the late 1800's. The proportion of Service fruit juice added to the mixture before fEj!rmentation varies : with acid apples , 0 .3-1 %, with sweet apples , up to 2-3% . Fruits destined for use to make a spirit need to be ripe and sweet. The fruits are long known for their medicinal effects against diarrhoea . Modern pharmacy uses them for colic and digestive complaints . The bark is rich in tannins and was formerly used in the tanning in dustry. The limber is of fine quality, dark reddi shbrown , fi ne-grained, hard to split , very hard , tough and heavy (one of the heav iest in Europe) , and wears well , but is rare in commerce (only 100 m 3 per year ava il able in Europe). It is valued for veneers , snooker cues , furniture and woodworking planes; and was formerly used for spindles of presses and other tough jobs.
Cultivation
Serv ice tree thrives in warm regio ns, bu t is also very happy in Britain and Northern Europe. It prefers a dryish climate , and grows better in the East of Britain than the West , where it can suffer from
Page 36
canker. It is frost resistant and hardy to zone 5 or 6 (about -20C). Growth in moderately fertile soils should exceed 30 cm (1 ft) per year, with growth reaching 5 m (16 ft) in 10 years. Most soils are tolerated , including alkaline soils. Rainfall in the range 25-100 cm (10-40") per year is acceptable, so long as the trees are not waterlogged. Part shade is tolerated , but trees fruit better in sun. Some wind exposure is tolerated. Mature trees need a spacing of 10-15 m (33-50 ft), but they will take many years to reach this size. They can be planted at a much closer spacing, and thinned out in time , or be planted at a wider spacing and the ground between trees inlercropped with other crops. Trees can also be included in mixed woodland plantings, where they will thrive; for good cropping, they need good light conditions, so neighbouring trees may need to be periodically thinned. Trees have grown to large sizes in Britain - to 23 m (75 ft) in Oxford and 16 m in Gloucs, with diameters (d.b.h.) up to 66 cm (2 ft 2T In fact, Oxford and Kew have some of the best trees in Western Europe. Over its range, the larger service trees are found in northern areas, for in Mediterranean regions, the lack of water often restricts its growth. In Germany there are trees over 30 m (100 tt) high , with diameters (d.b.h.) of 140 cm (4 ft 8") . Fruiting begins by the age of about 10. The fruits are picked at the end of September or into Octobe r, either by shaking off or collecting after having fallen (they fall just before they are ripe). With large trees, fruits must be shaken or knocked down onto tarpaulins (in Germany it is estimated than one person can harvest 100-150 Kg (220-330 Ib) of fruits per day by this method. The fruits typically weigh 5-10 g, but larger-fruited forms and races do exist (in Germany), with fruits weighing up to 50 g each. Forest trees obviously crop less than free-standing trees - the latter can yield up to 20 litres of fruits per year. Minor diseases which may affect Sorbus domestica include scab (Venturia inequalis f.sp. aucupariae) [closely related to apple scab, with similar symptoms]; fireblight (Erwinia amyfovora); and canker (Neetria ditissima). All these are worse in warm damp conditions . Mice are fond of the fallen fruits and seeds.
Propagation
Propagation is usually by seed, as improved varieties are not yet available. Seeds require 17 weeks of cold stratification, and germination is spread out over a long period. Trees in Britain produce viable seeds, which should be removed from fruits and washed prior to stratification. First year seedli ngs are typically 20-40 cm (8-16") high. Natural regeneration is rarely successful in Europe (the exception being in 8ulgaria), as the fruits & seeds fall prey to mice or other animal predation or to fungal attack.
References
Ag roforestry Research Trust: ART species database. Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. John Murray. Fachhochschule Hildesheim/Holzminden: Oer Speierl ing , Sorbus domestica: Baum des Jahres
1993.
Fern , K: Plants for a Future. Permanent Publications, 1997. Griesmeier , J: Agroforstwirtschaft in Mitleleuropa. Garten Organish 5/91,26 -30. Griesmeier, J: Der Speierling - Baum des Jahres 1993. Wohnung + Gesundheit Nr.65, 12/1992. Krussmann, G: Manual of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1985. Kay , Q: A New Native Tree? Tree News, Summer 1994 , 10-11. Lanska , 0: The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992.
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-=--#
r l _ =
Book Reviews
Michael A Dirr
Timber Press, 1997; 493 pp ; 52 .50 I $69.95 (Hardback) ISBN 0-88192-404-0
Dirr's Hardy Trees and Shrubs: An Illustrated Encyclopedia
Mike Dirr has been one of the most influential figures in American horticulture over the past few decades and over the last 25 years has put his superb photography skills towards creating a huge library of trees and shrubs .
This lavishly illustrated encyclopedia describes more than SOD species and 700 cultivars & varieties of trees and shrubs recommended for cooler climates: although primarily intended for gardeners in USDA climate zones 36, most species grow in zone 78 as well. which covers most o Britain.
All species and many of the cultivars described are illustrated with excellent quality colour photographs, showing the usual mature plant's habit, and often with others showing flowers, fruit, bark and autumn leaf colour.
Each species is accompanied by a short description , usually a single paragraph long, including suggestions for culture and siting but rarely any uses of the plant. The descriptions are written in straightforward , easilyread language without any pretensions . At the end of the book . lists are given of plants recommended for particu lar sites and for their characteristics such as flowers, fragrance, fruits , autumn colour etc.
Of great use to garden designers in particular, this book will allow them to ga in vital insights into the habits , culture and visual impact of many of the trees and shrubs used in northern gardens.
Perennial Ground Covers

David S MacKenzie
Timber Press, 1997; 379 pp ; 45 .00 I $49.95 (Hardback) ISBN 0-88192-368-0
The first major ground covers book to be published for many years is a major effort by David Ma cKenzie and will introduce many new plants to most gardeners.
The benefits of ground cove rs are clearly described: saving time and effort by the gardener , improving the soil and aiding other plants , and other environmental benefits such as reducing snow drift and cooling the air in hot weather.
Initial chapters cover the selection, planting , maintenan ce and propagation of ground cover plants ; using native (to N.America) plants , ferns , ornamental grasses and variegated ground covers . MacKenzie runs a large American ground covers nursery and puts his experience to good use , writing in a knowledgeable , clear and accessible manner .
The major portion of the book consists of descriptions of ground cover plants . These include a brief overall description of the plant and its use for ground cover; hardiness (USDA zones); detailed description of leaves, flowers and fruit ; growth rate and recommended spacing; horticultural selections (mostly from North America): other closely related species also of use for ground cover; notes on culture and care; and recommended propagation methods. Included in the book are shrubs, perennials , ferns and climbers (which sprawl without support) - over 800 species and severa l thousand selections in all, although several are suited to tropical climates only. A collection of over 300 colour photographs is included in its own section. Finally, a ground cover selection chart lists species and codes for various attributes such as flowering season, light and soi l requirements, hardiness and height. Once the codes are learnt, the chart is easy to use, and is very useful to pick out plants for particular sites or with particular attributes .
Permaculture in a Nutshell
Patrick Whitefield
Permanent Publications, 1997 (2nd Ed); 96 pp; 4.95. ISBN 1-85623-003-1. Available from Permanent Publications , Hyden House Ltd, The Sustainability Centre, East Meon, Hampshire , GU32 1HR. Tel : 01730-823311. This compact book provides a good answer to that perennial question, Yes, but what is Permacu lture?" It summarises the theory and practice of Permaculture in Britain and will be particularly useful to those new to Permaculture as it covers the main features in clear, brief and accessible manner. Permaculture is an approach to sustainable living, but in Britain it is easier for most folk to address the gardening and agricultural questions than redesigning their housing , hence the book rightly gives most space to these aspects. Examples of the approach are given in gardening (no-dig techniques, perennial vegetables, forest gardening) and farming. Other topics include consumerfa rm links, LETS systems and ways communities can work together to create a su stainable future. The new edition includes updated contact lists, a Permaculture book list , useful organisations and suppliers of plants and seeds.
Agroforestry for Soil Management

Anthony Young
CAB International (in association with ICRAF), 1997; 328 pp; 25.00 I $45.00. ISBN 0-65199-169-0 The book considers twelve basic hypotheses for soils and agroforestry, and synthesises the large amount of recent agroforestry and soil research results in the past decade to come to several conclusions. The present state of knowledge is summarised and research needs indicated. The conclusions reached include the following:
Page 39
EM
Agroforestry systems can control runoff and soil erosion , thereby reducing losses of water , soil material , organic matter and nutrients.
Agroforestry can augment soil water availability 10 land-use systems. In dry regions, though, competition between trees and crops is a major problem .
Agroforestry systems ca n maintain so il organic matter and biological activity at levels satisfactory for soil fertility. This depends on an adequate proportion of trees in the system f)orma ll y at least 20% cover of trees to maintain organic matter over systems as a whole. A groforestry systems can maintain more favourable soil physical properties than agriculture , through orga ni c matter maintenance and the effects of tree roots. Nitrogen-fixing trees can substantially increase nitrogen inputs to agroforestry systems. Trees can probably increase nutrient inputs to agroforestry systems by retrieval from lower soil horizons and weathering rock. There is little direct evidence of this as yel. Agroforestry systems can lead to more closed nutrient cycling than agriculture and hence to more efficient use of nutrient s. This is true to an impressive degree for forest garden/farming systems . Agroforestry systems can check the development of soil toxicities, or reduce existing toxicities - both soil acidification and salinization can be checked , and trees can be employed in the reclamation of polluted soils. The decomposition of tree litter and prunings can substantially contribute to maintenance of soil fertility. The addition of high-quality tree prunings (ie high in Nitrogen but which decay rapidly) leads to large increases in crop yields . The release of nutrients from the decomposition of tree residues can be synchronised with the requirements for nutrient uptake of associated crops. While different trees and crops will all have different requirem ents, and there wi ll always be some imbalance, the addition of highquality prunings to the soil at the time of crop planting usually leads to a good degree of synchrony between nutrient release and demand. In the maintenenace of soil fertility under agroforestry , the role of roots is at least as important as that of above-ground biomass. Agrofo restry systems can be employed to reclaim eroded and degraded land. This useful book confirms that many of the previously unproven benefits of agroforestry are true , and that agroforestry can make a maj or contribution to sustainable land use. It is essentia l reading for all concerned with agroforestry as well as soil SCientists , agronomists and foresters.
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Page 40

Agroiorestry is the integration of trees and agriculture/ horticulture to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing tood, materials, timber and other products. [t can range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are:
18 per year in Britain and the E. U. (14 unwaged)
22 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per year for institutions. A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on request for 3 x I st class stamps. Back issues cost 3.50 per copy including postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to 'Agroforestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
.1
Agroforestry News
Volume 6 Number 3
April 1998
7 -
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 6 Number 3
April 1998
Contents
2 3 4 6 8 11 14 18 34 38 News Agroforestry overview Silvopasture Silvoarable Forest farming Forest gardening Propagation: Softwood cuttings Figs Pest & disease series: Codling moth Book reviews:
Plantation Silviculture in Europe I The Bamboos I Forest Products Biotechnology I Nature is Culture
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarity those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed. and should be typed dearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many artides in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody. somewhere . may be fatally alJergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforeslry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions : Agroforeshy Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington. Tolnes, Devon. TQ9 6JT. U.K. Email: AgroResTr@ aol.com Website : http://members.aol.com/AgroResTr/homepage.html
Page 1
News
A.R.T. web site
The Agroforestry Research Trust now has a web site on the internet. It includes our publications , seed an~ plant lists, details about agroforestry types and about the Trust , and links to other useful organisations . The address is: http://members.aoi.com/ Agro ResTr/homepage.hlml
Apple agroforestry
Trials in West Virginia, and in several Eastern European countries . have shown that growing buckwheat, dill, rape and so rghum between apple trees reduced the need for chemical sprays. Buckwheat provided food for beneficial insects, dill attracted parasites, rape reduced nematode damage, and sorghum attracted aphids, which feed beneficial insects. Source : American Fruit Grower, March 1997
Drought strategies for cereals and forage

With the likely prospect of drier summers with longer and more intense droughts , there are several useful strategies which can improve forage and arable crop performance . This is particularly important for organic farmers because they usually gain less rapid early growth in the spring (which conventional growers achieve by piling on soluble fertilisers) before a drought begins. Soil management plays an important role: avoiding cultivation during fallows , maintaining a soil crumb for the top 25 mm (1 ") to minimise evaporation , and high organic matter levels all contribute to water conservation .
Cereals
Taller cereal varieties tend to be deeper rooting , thus obtaining more moisture. Earlier ripening varieties may reach maturity before drought affects them. Varieties with high reserves of carbohydrate in the stems also have significant advantages . Winter crops have the opportunity to become well established before drought commences.
Forage
Red clover leys are much deeper rooted than wh ite clover and give better production in drought. Lucerne (alfalfa) leys are even more drought resistant. Sainfoin is of very high nutritional quality and drought resistance . Grazing rye of Westerwolths rye grass give good early production . Arable forage crops , such as cerea ls, vetches or cerea l+pea mixtures , yield reliably. 'Day length' triggered white clover varieties such as 'Aber Crest' start growth earlier in the spring . Fodder crops , eg o stubble turnips , kale , make very rapid growth and are good grazing in dry weather . Maize is also very drought resistant. Herb spe cies , eg o chicory , sown as sole crops or in ley mixtures , can be very useful in dry conditions . Source : Elm Farm Research Bulletin , Feb 199B
1998 tours of A.R.T projects

These days comprise a tour around the trust nursery, Forest garden project , and main trials site with Martin Crawford . They will be on Sunday 28th June and Sunday 13th September. Please see enclosed flyer for more details .
Page 2
if!
-2
Agroforestry overview
Agroforesls are planned, managed land-use systems , being the intentional integration of agricultural and forestry-based land-use systems to provide tree and other crop products and at the same time protect, conserve, diversify and sustain vital economic , environmental , human and natural resources. Agroforestry differs from traditional forestry and agriculture by its focus on the interactions amoung components rather than just on the individual components themselves . Research over the past 20 years has confirmed that agroforestry can be more biologically productive, more profitable, and be more sustainable than forestry or agricultural monocultures. Temperate agroforestry systems are already widespread in many parts of the world and are central to production in some regions. Success of agroforestry is largely determined by the extent to which individual forest and agricultural components can be integrated to help rather than hinder each other. The choice of tree and crop species combinations is critically important when setting up systems. The main agroforestry types are: 1. 2. Silvopasture - mixing trees and pasture/forage . Silvoarable (intercropping or alley cropping) - mixing trees and arable or horticultural crops.
3. Forest farming - cultivating high-value products within forested areas . 4. Forest gardening - intensive 3-dimensional systems mimicking forests, for producing several or many products .
Multi-purpose windbreaks , riparian buffer strips, contour plantings for erosion control, and fertility plantings of nitrogen-fixing trees are also agroforestry options both on their own and incorporated into the main agroforestry types. buffer strips are Riparian natural or re-established streamside forests made up of tree , shrub and grass plantings ; they buffer pollution of waterways from adjacent land , reduce bank erosion. protect aquatic environments and enhance wildlife value . Contour buffer strips are basically rows of trees (and sometimes shrubs) in rows along contours , with alleys between for forage or alley cropping. The aim is to reduce sheet and rill erosion on slopes .
Fertility plantings are plantings of trees and/or shrubs with the main aim of improving nutrient input
andfor cycling for a forage or alley crop. Nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs are usually used , for example Italian alder, Elaeagnus, Sea buckthorn, and Black locust. Nitrogen fixed by bacteria in association with their roots is made available to other crops via leaf fall . rain drip. root-root contact and beneficial fungi. The amounts made available are in the same order as from perennial
15H
15H
Field windbreaks protect a variety of wind-sensitive row, cereal. vegetable. orchard and vine crops, resulting in up to 25% increases in production; and also control wind erosion, and increase bee pollination. Livestock windbreaks help reduce animal stress and mortality. and reduce feed consumption; weight gains of up to 10% and milk production increases of 8-20% can result. Rural homes in windy areas protected by windbreaks can expect heating costs to be cut by as much as 30% . W indbreak spacing depends on windbreak height (H) , soi l erodibility, crop sensitivity & rotation , and climate .
Silvopasture
These systems comprise trees deliberately introduced inlo a forage production system (or, rarely, forage introduced into a tree production system). the whole designed to produce a high-value tree component, while continuing to produce the forage and livestock component indefinitely or for a significant time.
Forage system
Usually permanent pasture . grazed rotationally. Other options are pasture cut for hay or silage. White clover (especially wi ld types) is more shade-tolerant than other pasture legumes and should be included in mixtures. Browsing animals are more likely to damage trees than large grazing animals or poultry . Deciduous trees are more readily browsed than conifers.
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Tree component
May be timber or fuelwood trees. or a fruit or nut crop.
;,
See 'S electing timber tree species' for more information on tree species choice in Britain.
Fruit crops as the tree component are usually grown as standards to allow for grazing beneath.
Apples , cider apples and plums are some of the possibilities. Nut crops can include chestnuts and hazelnuts. Walnuts are slow growing and are on ly suitable if animals are excluded or if a cheap form of tree protection is a v ailable.
Design & establishment

Trees can be planted evenly at wide spacing (ego 10 x 10 m), in rows with forage alleys (of 10~30 m width) between, or in clusters . All methods necessitate some form of weed control - black plastic mulches produce the best tree growth. Even wide spacing: means that trees have to be individually protected from stock - expensive unless the forage is cut for hay/silage for the first few years until trees are large enough. Trees also have to have individual weed control measures . Research suggests that deciduous trees planted this way into pasture have no detrimental effect on pasture and livestock production for at least 10 years. Forage production falls off rapidly, though , once trees exceed about 35% canopy cover. Row planting: allows trees to be planted more closely , if desired, for later thinning. Also allows for block weed control measures , ego black polythene strip. Tree protection against stock can be significantly cheaper by using straight fences or electric wire/netting. Also allows for easier access for mowing etc. Both single and double rows of crop trees can be used; a further alternative is a triple row, with high-value crop trees sandwiched between rows of nurse trees (usually coniferous) which help train straight crop trees and are themselves thinned at a later stage . Rows are best aligned North-South . Cluster planting: has the same potential advantages as row planting . Also, shade effects on the forage crop are more localised. Good where exposure is a problem , as trees within the cluster will be more sheltered. Silvoarable systems (eg. with walnut or other trees not suited to silvopasture when young) can be converted to silvopasture when arable yields start to reduce from competition after 10 20 years. Livestock management is crucial to avoid tree damage by grazing, trampling and rubbing. This may involve seasonal exclusion when trees are most vulnerable, locating salt/mineral licks to encourage uniform livestock distribution, rotational grazing in sub-units etc. Grazing can control grass competition with trees for moisture and nutrients and reduce habitat for gnawing rodents . Benefits: Trees provide shade and wind protection , which reduce heat stress and windchill of livestock; performance is improved and mortality reduced. Economic returns from forage/livestock production continue while creating a sustainable syslem with environmental benefits. Can be designed for little or no long-term reduction of forage production whilst growing other crop(s) on the same site. The combined tree plus forage productivity of silvopastures can substantially exceed that of pastures or forests grown alone. Drawbacks: Main one is the cost of protecting trees from livestock , which in wide plantings can be more than the trees themselves. Many high-value deciduous timber trees grow with poor (crooked) form without the sideways light pressure of a forest. Correction pruning and/or the use of nurse trees can overcome some of this problem.
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Silvoarable - intercropping & alley cropping

Here. agricultural or horticultural crops are grown simultaneously with a longterm tree crop to provide annual income while the tree crop matures . Trees are grown in rows with wide alleys in between for cultivating crops .
Alley component
Any araQle or horticultural crop is possible. Overwintering crops (ie autumn-sown) are very efficient users of the almost full light available over the dormant season of deciduous trees , and may be the best choices for narrow alleys where trees are quite large. It is important that the alleys are physically cultivated - horticultural no-dig raised beds are likely to fill with fine tree roots .
Tree component
May be timber or fuelwood trees . or a fruit or nut crop. See 'Selecting timber tree species' for more information on tree species choice in Britain. Fruit crops can be used as the tree component. Apples , cider apples and plums are all possibilities. Nut crops can include walnuts, chestnuts and hazelnuts.
Design & establishment

Tree rows are spaced at a minimum of 10-14 m apart to allow enough room for cultivation operations. Usually a whole number of cultivation equipment widths is chosen for efficient operations. Rows are best aligned North-South. Both single and double rows of timber crop trees can be used; a further alternative is a triple row, with highvalue timber crop trees sandwiched between rows of nurse trees (usually coniferous) which help train straight crop trees and are themselves thinned at a later stage. Shrubs and other plants can also be planted to the side of main trees for better wind protection and other uses. Trees can be planted in the rows at final spacing or at a closer spacing to allow for thinning at a later date. The latter allows for more selection of good quality timber trees.
Weed control is essential. Black plastic mulches give best tree establishment and growth, and will soon be covered with leaf mold. Cultivations up to a few inches of the plastic edge are possible. 3 row tree strip with training trees Single row tree strip
L
Yields (per unit area) of alley crops are not reduced by shading unitl the tree height reaches the alley width (at which stage the system can be converted to silvopasture .) Competition between trees and alley crop for water does not appear to be a big problem in Britain ; it is possible some problems may occur in drier areas (ie the East) during droughty summers. Benefits Wood or tree products are produced in addition to agronomic crops , with no reduction in crop yields per unit area for many years. Crop quality and yields can be increa sed by enhancing microclimatic conditions, offsetting any reduction by the removal of tree strips from cultivation. Utilisation and recycling of soil nutrients is improved . Wi ldlife habitat and corridors are created. Aesthetic diversity - improvement to open monocropped areas. Drawbacks Many high-value deciduous timber trees grow with poor (crooked) form without the sideways light pressure of a forest. Correction pruning andlor the use of nurse trees can overcome some of this problem. Arable farmers in particular often ha ve an aversion to tree s in arable fields , citing sing le trees which "ge t in the way". Alleys, however, if properly designed, should present no problems with machinery and cultivations.
Selecting timber tree species

Any timber component destined for selling should ideally be marketable, high quality (favouring deciduous), fast (and straight) and upright growing, deep rooting, wind firm and suited to the site. These qualities are not always easy to obtain. especially from deciduous trees , most of which grow with a poor form without the pressure of forest competition to the sides. High pruning will be needed with most trees to ensure a straight and knot-free bole of 6 m (20 tt) ; this raises Ihe tree canopy and allows more light to reach the ground. The straightest growing deciduous trees without forest shade pressure are those which are most light-demanding. When planting these, stock should be used which has been grown from seed collected from high-quality trees or seed orchards. Suitable species for Britain include: Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) Cherry (Prunus avium) Sycamore (Acer pseudoplalanus) In addition, straight-growing clones (varieties) of several species have been bred and are becomi ng available for planting. These species include: Hybrid poplars (Populus spp.) eg o Boelare, Beaupre Cherry (Prunus avium) . now used in France and Italy Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) - widely used in E.Europe Cricket bat willow (Salix alba 'Cae rulea ' ) Several species of coniferous tree can also be used , some producing timber of good quality. When using evergreen species, alley widths should generally be wider to compensate for the extra shad ing. Suitable conifers for Britain include: Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Page 7
Larch (Larix decidua, L.eurofepis, L.kaempferi) Lawson's cypress (Chamaecyparis fawsoniana) Pines (Corsican, lodgepole, radiata, Scots) (Pinus nigra maritima, P.sylvestris ) Coast redwood (Sequioa sempervirens)
P.contorta,
P.radiata,
Trees destined for fuelwood or estate use need not have such good form or value, but should still be fast growing (especially for silvopasture, so trees rise above animals quickly) and may be chosen ~from a wider range of species including those below. Those species wh ich coppice or pollard well can be used to provide sustainable fuelwood production. Italian , black and red alder (Alnus cordata, A.g/utinosa & A.rubra nitrogenfixers) Birch (Betula spp.) Black walnut (Juglans nigra) Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia, a nitrogenfixer) Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) All the above species, and also less lightdemanding species (eg. oaks, Quercus spp.), can benefit from the use of rows of nurse trees as illustrated on page 4. With the cho ice of a nurse species which grows at the same rate as the crop species, a straight form can be greatly encouraged; once the crop tree has a straight bole of the required length {usually 36m, 1020 ttl, the nurse trees are thinned and removed (some may be economically usable, ego as cut Christmas trees). Some possible combinations are: Nurse species Sycamore, Black alder, Red alder, Sweet chestnut, European larch, Norway spruce, Corsican pine, Scots pine Italian alder, Lawson's cypress, Larches, Norway spruce, Lodgepole pine, Radiata pine, Scots pine, Cherry, Coast redwood, Western red cedar Italian alder, Larches, Hybrid poplars, Douglas fir, Lodgepole pine, Radiata pine, Coast redwood, Western red cedar Crop species Ash, Oak
Sycamore, BeeCh, Sweet chestnut, Black walnut Cherry, Black locust
Forest farming
In forest farming, highvalue speciality crops are cultivated under the protection of a forest canopy that has been modified and managed to provide the appropriate conditions. It is a way of utilising forests for shorHerm income while highquality trees are being grown for wood products. The amount of light in the stands is altered by thinning, pruning, or adding trees; 5-40% crown cover is usually desirable. Existing stands of trees can be intercropped with annual, perennial, or woody plants. Five main categories of speciality crops are: Foods : mushrooms, ego Shiitake, matsuki (grown on logs, in sawdusVchipped wood beds etc.) nuts, ego hazelnuts, small chestnut species; note that the canopy trees could also be nut producers, ego walnuts, chestnuts, pecans, pine nuts vegetables, ego radish, beetroot, Swiss chard honey from bee plants, ego plum, black locust
PageS
herbs, eg. mints fruits, eg. blueberries, elderberries, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, currants, gooseberries edible flowers, eg. elderflowers sap products - eg. maple syrup, birch sap wine etc. game harvesting
Botanical products - many medicinal plants are used in herbal medicine and are used to give clinically useful drugs, such as:
Adonis vernalis (Spring adonis) Agrimonia eupatoria (Agrimony) Ammi majus (Queen Anne's lace) Anabasis aphylfa Anisodus fanguticus Artemesia annua (Annual wormwood) Artemisia maritima (Sea worm wood) Atropa belladonna (Belladonna) Berberis vulgaris (Barberry) Brassica nigra (Black mustard) Colchicum autumnale (Autumn crocus) Convallaria majalis (Uly of the valley) Coptis japonica Corydalis ambigua Cynara scolymus (Globe artichoke) Cyfisus scoparius (Broom)
Daphne genkwa Digenia simplex (Makuri) Digitalis fanata & Digitalis purpurea (Foxgloves) Gauftheria procumbens (Wintergreen) Ginkgo bifoba Gfaucium ffavum (Horned poppy) Gfycyrrhiza glabra (Liquorice) Hemsleya amabilis Hydrangea macrophylla Hydrastis canadensis (Goldenseal) Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane) Larrea divaricata Lobelia inflata Lycoris squamigera Mentha spp. (Mints) Panax spp. (Ginseng) Podophyllum peltalum (Mayapple) Polentiffa fragariaides Rhododendron molle Salix alba (White willow) Sambucus spp. (Elders - flowers) Sanguinaria canadensis (Bloodroot) Sifybum marianum (Milk thistle) Sophora pachycarpa Stephania sinica Taxus brevifolia (Pacific yew) Thymus vulgaris (Thyme) Trichosanthes kiri/owii (Snake gourd) Urgenia maritima (Squill) Valeriana officinalis (Valerian) Veratrum album (White hellebore) Vinca minor (lesser periwinkle)
essential oil crops, ego Eucalyptus 'eaves, mints, lemon balm, thyme
Oecoratives: floral greenery (mosses, ferns, beargrass , salal , Eucalyptus etc) Christmas trees dye plants Handicrafts: basketry materials (willo'NS elc.) shorHerrn coppice, eg ohazel poles, energy coppice wood products charcoal from understorey trees fuelwood special woods, ego for carving, incense garden mulches from chipped wastes & coppice; pine needle mulches An existing British system 'vVhich falls into the latter two categories is hazel coppice with standards of oak.
Page 10
Typically, a system can be established by thinning an existing forest to leave the best trees for continued wood production and to create conditions for the understorey crop to be grown. The understorey crop is then planted and managed intensively to provide short-term income. Areas used for forest farming are usually small (5 acres or less) , and systems usually focus on a single crop plus timber, but can be designed to produce several products. Examples of such systems in North America include: ginseng (medicinal) + maple syrup + bee products + timber shiitake mushrooms (grown on cut logs) + timber ferns & beargrass (decorative) + mushrooms + timber ginseng + walnuts + black walnut veneer logs Christmas trees + timber Before investing time and money in growing speciality forest products, entrepreneurs should : obtain production and processing information. Proper harvest, storage and transport will maximise returns. locate sources of technical expertise locate or develop potential markets, often local stores or co-operatives. All these can be quite difficult, especially in Britain where there is little culture of utilising forests in this way. However, products such as medicinal plants are increasingly in demand and there is no reason why many (for example, elder flowers or annually coppiced yews or gingkos) cannot be grown in British forest farms. The internet is an increasingly good source of locating non-local buyers of such crops. In North America , Cooperative Extension Services and the USDA Forest Service can often provide expertise. Benefits: Economic benefits can be significant. Logs can produce shiitake mushrooms worth 5-10 times the value of the logs themselves, and forest-cultivated ginseng averages 122-245 per pound in North America. Other medicinal plants provide a lower but steady supplemental income. Markets for floral decoratives have been steadily increasing. Forest farming modifies the forest ecosystem but does not significantly interfere with its crucial contributions of water filtering, soil erosion control, microclimate moderation, and wildlife habitat. Forest farming provides opportunities to generate short-term income from existing woodlands, with minimum capital investment. Especially on small family farms , this can contribute Significantly to diversification and rural economic development.
Drawbacks: Requires more of an entrepreneurial attitude from farmers and landowners. Likely to need to conduct research to locate potential buyers of speciality products. Forest farming systems are often labour intensive - often acceptable if 'family labour' is available.
Forest Gardening
A forest garden is a designed agronomic system based on trees, shrubs and perennial plants. These are mixed in such a way as to mimic the structure of a natural forest - the most stable and sustainable type of ecosystem in many temperate climates . The primary aims for the system are : to be biologically sustainable, able to cope with disturbances such as climate change it should be productive, yield ing a number (often large) of different products it should require low maintenance.
Page 11
The crops which are produced will often include fruits , nuts , edible leaves , spices, medicinal plant products. poles , fibres for tying , basketry materials , honey, fuelwood . fodder, mulches , game , sap products . Small trees & large shrubs Canopy trees
Shrubs
Climbers & vines Herbaceous perennials
Ground covers & creepers Forest gardens (often called home gardens) have been used for millennia in tropical regions , where they still often form a major part of the food producing systems which people rely on , even if they work elsewhere for much of the time. They may also provide useful sources of extra income. Their use is intimately linked with prevailing socio-economic conditions. They are usually small in area, often 0.1-1 hectares (0.25-2.5 acres). In temperate regions , forest gardens are a more recent innovation, many inspired by Robert Hart's efforts in Shropshire (UK) over the last 30 years. A major limiting factor for temperate forest gardens in the amount of sunlight available to the lower layers of the garden: in tropical regions, the strong light conditions allow even understorey layers to receive substantial light, whereas in temperate regions this is not usually the case. To compensate for this, understorey layers in temperate forest gardens must be chosen very carefully - there are plenty of plant crops which tolerate shady conditions , but many are not well known. Many of the more common shrub or perennial crops need bright conditions, and it may be necessary to design in more open clearings or glades for such species. Temperate forest gardens are also usually small in area , from tiny back garden areas up to a hectare (2.5 acres) in size. While food production and land use remain the concern of a minority of landowners and businesses, their use is likely to be limited to 'altemative' and organic gardeners and land users. The key features which contribute to the stability and self-sustaining nature of a forest garden are: the very diverse number of species used - often several hundred in established tropical forest gardens. the careful inclusion of plants which increase fertility, such as nitrogen fixers (eg. Alders [Alnus spp], Broom [Cytisus scoparius], Elaeagnus spp, and shrub lupins [Lupinus arboreus]). the use of dynamic accumulators - deep rooting plants which can lap mineral sources deep in the subsoil and raise them into the topsoil layer where they become available 10 other plants, ego Coltsfoot
E
[Petasites SPP] , Comfreys [Symphytum sPP), Liquorice [Glycyrrhiza spp], Sorrel (Rumex spp] .
!!
the use of plants specially chosen for their ability to attract predators of common pests, e9 umbel1ifers like tansy. the use, where possible, of pest and disease resistant varieties of fruits, nuts etc. the increasing role of tree cover and leaf litter which improve nutrient cycling and drought resistance.
The garden is organised in seven 'layers' (see diagram above) . Within these, the positioning of species depends on many variables, including their requirements for shelter, light. moisture , goodlbad companions.
mineral requirements, pollination, pest-protection, etc. The layers consist of:
Canopy trees - the highest layer of trees. This may include large trees (eg . Chestnuts {Castanea spp] , Persimmons [Oiospyros virginiana] and honey locusts (Gleditsia triacanthos)), or may only contain small trees and large shrubs (eg. Strawberry trees {Arbutus sppj, Siberian pea trees (Caragana arborescens] , Carnelian cherries [Comus mas], Azeroles and other hawthorn family fruits [Crataegus sppj, Quinces [Cydonia oblonga], Apples (Malus sppJ. Medlars [Mespi/us german/ca], Mulberries {Morus spp], Plums (Prunus domesticaj, Pears [Pyrus communis], highbush cranberries [Viburnum trilobum]). Small trees and large shrubs, mostly planted between and below the canopy trees. Includes some of the above species on dwarfing rootstocks. and others such as various bamboos, Serviceberries [Ame/anchier sPP], Plum yews [Cephalotaxus sppj, Chinkapins (Castanea pumilaj, Elaeagnus spp, and Japanese peppers [Zanthoxylum sppj . Others may be trees which are coppiced to keep them shrubby, like medicinal Eucalyptus spp, and beech [Fagus sylvaticaj and limes [Titia spp] with edible leaves. Shrubs, mostly quite shade tolerant. Includes common species like currants [Ribes sPpJ and berries (Rubus spp], plus others like chokeberries [Aronia spp], barberries [Berberis sPPJ. Chinese dogwood [Comus kousa chinensisJ, Oregon grapes [Mahonia sppj, New Zealand flax [Phormium tenax] and Japanese bitter oranges [Poncirus trifoliata]. Herbaceous perennials, several of which may be herbs ; can also contribute to the ground cover layer by self-seeding or spreading . These include Bellflawers with edible leaves (Campanula spp] . Comfreys [Symphytum sPP), Balm (Melissa officinalisj. Mints [Mentha spp), Sage [Salvia officinalisj, and Tansy [Tanacetum vulgare]. Ground covers, mostly creeping carpeting plants which form a living mulch for the 'forest floor'. Some are herbaceous perennials (see above), others include wild gingers [Asarum spp) . cornels [Comus canadensis]. Gaultheria spp, and carpeting brambles (eg. Rubus calycinoides & R.tricolor). Climbers and vines. These are generally late additions to the garden, since they obviously need sturdy trees to climb up. They may include hardy kiwis [Actinidia sPP), and grapes [Vitis spp1 . The final 'layer' is the root zone, below ground. Any garden design should take account of different rooting habits and requirements of different species. In addition, there may be some species with roots/rhizomes of use such as liquorice [Glycyrrhiza spp) and the barberries {Berberis spp] whose rools furnish a good dye and medicinal products. Various beneficial fungi can also be inlroduced into this layer, including mycrorrhizal species and others intended for cropping. Benefits: A long-term biologically sustainable system for growing food & other products for a household Once established, little work is needed to maintain Drawbacks : Planting out and establishment usually requires large numbers of plants and substantial work References Gordon, A M & Newman, S M: Temperate Agroforestry Systems. CAB In ternational, 1997. USDA NRCS Agroforestry Technical Note No.1: Agroforestry for Farms and Ranches. USDA NRCS Agroforestry Note No.7 : Forest Farming : An Agroforestry Practice .
Page 13
Propagation series:
Softwood cuttings
Introd uction
The em e rging shoots of trees and shrubs can be classified as softwood. Such shoots have the following characteristics: The tissue is easily bruised with a nail. There is a gradation in leaf size with the end leaves small and undeveloped , older leaves more or less full size. Shoots can easily be snapped and , when removed , are very susceptible to wilting. For any quantity of softwood cuttings, misting equipment is essential. This need not be 100 expensive.
Timing
The softwood condition for most woody plants extends from 2-8 weeks, coinciding with May, June and early July. By mid July or August, the stem has usually assumed a semi-hardwood or hardwood condition. Some species maintain a softwood condition into late summer I early autumn, but even with these , softwood cuttings taken in May-June have a much better chance of survival than if taken later. The 'window' for successful rooting of softwood cuttings can be relatively small , and timing must be carefully monitored , and based on a physiological calend ar , not by date: spring may be 3 weeks early or 3 weeks late from the norm, a shift of 6 weeks.
The cuttings
Cuttings can be taken from established plants or from container and field nursery stock. The latter , and plants that are regularly pruned (perhaps for cuttings) are in a juvenile condition which improves the chances of rooting . Ideally, the stock plant should not be water or nutrient stressed. Early morning is the best time for taking softwood cuttings because the shoots are fully turgid and the air temperatures cooler. However, this is often unrealistic and it is perfectly acceptable to collect cuttings later in the day as long as plastic bags with suitable moisture (eg . ice) can be used 10 hold the cuttings immediately on collection. Cuttings should be taken from non-flowering shoots . Normal straight cuttings are fine for the majority of plants , though a few species root significantly better by using heel cuttings or mallet cuttings. Heel cuttings have some old wood attached , while mallet cuttings have a small piece of attached older wood reminiscent of a croquet mallet. Heel, mallet and normal cuttings
"tt'
For most species, it makes no difference where the cullings are taken from the slock plant. For a few (notably conifers like yew), cuttings from horizontal branches produce spreading plants and those from vertical shools produce upright plants .
Softwood cuttings should average 1012 em (2_5 long with several nodes . If the cutting wilts like a lettuce after collection , the stem tissue is too soft - wait a further week or two. The best cutting
K )
material has some degree of flexibility, but is mature enough to break if bent sharply. The lower cut
is made just beneath a leaf node. In any case, cuttings must be kepi Gool and moist until
processed.
The cuttings should be processed as soon as possible, although they may keep in a fridge for a day or two. It is often convenient to place them on a wire mesh bench rigged with misting nozzles to keep them moist while processing. The leaves are removed from the lower half of the cutting by carefully culling with a sharp knife ; all flower buds are removed . If the remaining leaves are large , it may be necessary to reduce these by a half but note that this makes cuttings more susceptible to fungal infections .
Cuttings before and after leaves are removed Very soft cuttings require extra care to prevent drying and are not as easy to root as firmer cuttings , often rotting before rooting. Softwood cuttings respond well to hormones and even easy to root species root more uniformly and profusely when treated. A standard hormone rooting is fine ; these often contain a fungicide which reduces cutting mortality. Alternatively, or in addition to bought in hormones , a willow rooting substance (WRS) can easily be home made and can significantly improve rooting of some plants . To make WRS, cut current year's willow stems into small pieces , pack into a container, cover with water for 24 hours , then drain off the water and store. Cuttings should be placed upright in the WRS for 24 hours and then potted . Refrigerated WRS is stable for several years.
Cuttings media & containers

Softwood cuttings can be rooted in any media providing good air/water relationships - 25-40% air space in ideal. Composted bark , cOir, peat, perlite, vermiculite and sand can be combined in many
Page 15
ways. Simpte mixes which work with most species include 2 parts perlite or vermiculite with 1 part peat or bark or coir. In general there is no benefit in incorporating or adding any type of fertiliser into the rooting medium until the cuttings have rooted. If the cuttings are to be transplanted as soon as they have rooted, then the new media they are transferred to can contain nutrients for growth. If the cuttings are to be allowed to continue to root into the initial media , though , then some nutrient source should be available. The ro6ting container should be at least 9-10 cm (3Y2_4H) deep to allow for reasonable drainage. 'Rootrainers' are ideal, but ordinary pots or deep trays work well.
Conditions for rooting

The vast majority of plants do not require bottom heat for softwood cuttings to root. Id eal temperatures for rooting are 18-24"C (65-75"F) and if a particularly cool spell occurs after taking the cuttings then some heat, ego via a heated bench, may be desi rable. Shading of up to 70-60% may be optimum in midsummer; less is needed earlier in spring.
Mist systems
Leaves of softwood cuttings wilt and die if not kept moist in some way, and intermittent mist has become the standard (though there are small-scale alternatives described below.) An electrically timed system provides a film of water over the leaves which lowers leaf temperature, increases humidity, reduces transpiration and respiration. The timing between mistings can gradually be lengthened to harden off the cuttings Alternatives to misting on a small scale include covering pots or trays with a tight plastic bag or cover, keeping the atmosphere moist inside. The rooting time for a softwood cutting may vary from 1 week to 3-5 weeks. A sim ple tug test (pull the cutting upward with a gentle pressure) indicates the cutting has rooted. At this time it is wise to reduce or turn off the mist. and ventilation improved.
Aftercare
Rooted softwood cuttings often need to be overwintered under protection in poly tunnels I greenhouses etc . If they are strong, they can be planted straight out in the autumn, but can be susceptible to winter damage and drought.
Species
There is considerable variability in rootability between seedlings and cultivars of the same species; ornamental cultivars are often selected because of their easy rooting ability (as well as for other characteristics). This species list concentrates on edible, medicinal and other usefu l plants. Note 1: Do not transplant the newly rooted cutting, but allow to grow on overwinter before transptanting next spring. Otherwise high mortality. Note 2: Only use terminal (tip) cuttings.
Page 16
a
Species Acer nigrum Actinidia arguta Actinidia chinensis Akebia spp . Amelanchier alnifolia sets Amelanchier laevis Aronia melanocarpa Berberis spp . (deciduous) Cephalotaxus spp . Chaenomeles japonica Chaenomeles x superba Cornus kousa Corylus avellana Drimys spp . Elaeagnus multiflora Feijoa setlowiana Fuchsia spp . Ginkgo biloba Hamamelis virginiana Hypericum spp. Lavendula spp. Lespedeza bica lor Lonicera spp . Malus spp . & cvs Morus alba Myrica pensylvanica Parlhenocissus spp . Pancirus trifotiata Populus spp . Prunus armeniaca cvs Prunus avium cvs Prunus cerasifera Prunus domestica cvs Prunus persica cvs Punica granatum Pyrus communis cvs Ribes spp. Rosa spp. Salix spp. Sambucus spp. Sorbus aucuparia Tilia spp. Ulmus spp. Vaccinium angustifolium Vaccinium australe Vaccinium corymbasum Vaccinium macrocarpon Viburnum spp. Vinca spp. Vitex agnus-castus Vilis cvs Xanthorhiza simplicissima
May E M
-~
=
July E M Comments
XI XI X
I ~ I~ I
X X XI X X XI X X X X
June E M
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X X X X X
X X X X
IX X
Ix
I
X
X
X X X
Easy Variable , rooting in 3-4 weeks Rooting in 2-3 weeks Timing critical. before end bud Easy Rooting in 4-8 weeks. Note 1 Not so easy Easy. bottom heat beneficial Easy Rooting in 5-8 weeks . Notes 1 & 2 Timing critical, Note 1 Note 2
X
X
X
X X X X X
X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
~I
~I
X
X X X
X X X
X
xl ~I
X X
X X X X
X X X X X X
X
X X X X X X X X X X X
J
X
X X X X
Nale 2 Slow to grow for first year
Easy Slow to grow for first year Not so easy
X X
X
Usually prop. via hardwood cutts Suitable for some cvs only Suitable for some cvs only
X
X X
X
Suitable for some cvs only Suitable for some cvs only
X
X X X
X
X X
X X X X
X
X X X X X
~I
X
X
X X
X X X X
XI
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X
Usually prop . via hardwood cults Usually prop . via hardwood cutts Usually prop . via hardwood cutts May take 12 weeks to root Give bottom heat Heel cuttings may be best Heel cuttings may be best Heel cuttings may be best Easy
X X
X X X X X
X X X X
X
~I
I
X
X
~I ~I
X
X
X X X X X X X
X
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Any wilting is fatal Easy ; reduce mist quickly Method often used commercially Root in 4 weeks
Page 17
Figs
The fig is native to the hot areas of Asia minor and was one of the first fruits to be cultivated there ; it ranks with grapes, dates and olives as an important crop in early Mediterranean civilisations . Us fruits have always been highly prized not only for their food value but also because of their suitability for drying and subsequent storing. The history of the fig in Britain is linked with t he Romans: the fig was prominent in their diet and dried samples were impo rted from Italy. By the 16th & 17th centuries. it was being cultivated by the wealth y, t h ough progress has sin ce been hindered by a lack of many suitab le cu lt ivars, unsuitable cul tivation techniques, and a clim ate marginal for success. It is occasionally found self-sown in Brita in , especially in the SW, but occasiona ll y as far north as Mull and Angus in Scotland. Figs were introduced int o California in the 18th century, in a Franciscan mission, and spread to other missions (hence the variety 'Missio n ' ). It was not until the 1890's, when the USDA imported 60 varieties from the RHS, that commercia l growing became popular. Commercial fig growing in Texas owes its origin to a man who sold trees labelled ' Magnolia' (actually ' Brunswick ' ), where the name is still used. World production of figs is currently 1.3 million tonnes per year. Most commercial cultivation now occurs in Turkey (350 ,000 tonnes , mainly dried) ; Mediterranean EU countries ( Portugal , Spain, Italy, Greec e ; 150.000 tonnes for fresh and dried use) ; and California . mainly for drying figs and fig paste . Figs are classified into four types: Common , San Pedro . Smyrna and Caprifig , This article is mainly concerned with varieties of Common and San Pedro which set fruit without pOllination . Common figs produce no pa llen but most varieties set seedless, parthenocarpic fruits without polli nation . Most but not all va ri eties set a first (breba) crop. San Pedro types set a good first (breba) crop without po ll in ation, but demand a wa rm summer climate. They may also set a second with or without pollination if the climate is sui table . Smyrna figs orig ina te from Turkey, and in common with many of the older fig selections once grown, it relies on the tiny fig wasp w hi ch breeds inside the wil d form of fig (caprifig). Without cross-pollination (caprification) , the S myrna fig is not fertilised and therefore does not mature ; hence old varieties of this type cannot be cultivated where the fig wasp does not exist (eg. Britain) ; the wasp was introduced in to California in 1899. Smyrna figs set virtually no breba crop . Caprifigs are derived from wild forms and usually have fruits of little value ; they are grown to host the rig wasp where pollinating varieties are cultivated .
Intropuction
Description
Figs are spreading deciduous trees , growing in the wild to 10m (33 ft) high , with thick branches . They tend to be more shrubby and half that height in Britain and other cooler areas. The trunks have smooth leathery- textured , mid-grey bark. Branches tend to bend down , then sweep up, and are often knobbly , ribbed , dark green with big leaf scars in winter. The terminal bud in conica l and sharply pointed .
Leaves are alternate, 35 lobed, instantly recognisable , 10-20 em (4-8~) long, roughly hairy above, softly below. They are exceptionally variable in shape, even on the same tree . They are borne on long stalks, and are dark green , thick and leathery. They open late, in May in Britain, usually escaping any spring frost damage. The leaves and branches exude a latex when cut. Fig flowers are tiny and inside a hollow receptacle which becomes the fruit. See above for descriptions of the different fig types depending on ftowering behaviour. The fruits are a type of multiple fruit, usually pear-shaped at maturity, 5-8 em (2-3") long. and greenish or brownish violet. In its natural habitat. with long . warm, dry summers , 2 or sometimes 3 crops of fruit are produced . This occurs by the young shoots developing fruitlets in their leafaxils as they grow; the first, small, early summer crop (called brebas) arises from minute fruillets formed the previous autumn ; in succe ssion develops a bigger main crop, and occasionally a smaller third crop.
Uses
Fig fruits are sweet, succulent and melting, and have a high food value , with nutritional composition as follows (a ll per 100g edible portion) : Water Protein 77 .5% Thiamin Riboflavin 82 Niacin Vitamin C Calcium 0.06-0.27 mg 0.05-0.28 mg 0.4-2.25 mg 2 mg 35-281 mg Phosphorus Iron Sod iu m Potassium
Fat
Carbohydrate Vitamin A
1.2g 0.3 9 20.3 9 50-801U
22-168 mg 0 .6-2.9 mg
2-9 mg
194-862 mg
The outstanding attribute is the high content of quickly digested, easily assimilated reducing sugar - over 50% of the weight of dried figs is natural fruit sugar; figs are also high in essential minerals , calcium, iron, phosphorus and potassium . The high potassium content clearly relates to the high potassium requirement of fig trees. The fruit s are eaten fre sh or are often dried (dried fruit are a major item of commerce), and as paste baked in pastry products. Products include fig bars and biscuits, fig jam or preserve , juice, candied figs, canned figs , fig syrup, and dried 's tring ' figs. In Albania, the fruits are used to produce a spirit, 'Raki'; there is a German fig brandy and a North African liqueur 'Boukha' or 'Ma hia '. There are reports that the latex obtained from cut leaves can be used to coagulate 'plant milks' . These shou ld probably be disregarded, as the latex is known to be toxic. Fig lea ves, both fresh and dried , have been used for cattle fodder . The wood is pliable and porous but of little value. Medicinally, fig fruits are well known laxatives (syrup of figs is still a co nstipation remedy) and are also emollient (helps relieve pain & inflammation) and mildly expectorant - used for sore throats , coug hs , and bronchialltracheal infections. The latex from freshly-cut leaves has an analgesic effect against insect stings and bites , and is used against corns and warts (Warning : the sap is a skin and eye irritant, especially in sun). The leaves are stomachic and are used in India and Pakistan as a diuretic, demulcent, emollient and anthelmintic. A decoction of young branches is sometime s used as a pectoral. Fig has numerous other medicinal uses in Chinese medicine , the leaves, stems and fruit s all being used ; the plant is considered anticancer, and seve ral compounds have recently been confirmed as such .
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The chopped shoots have an anti-nematode effect against sp iral, lance, ren iform, and stunt nematodes; The wood is repellent to lice; the leaves are an antifeedant against migratory locusts and act as an anti-feedant to cotton leafworms (Spodoptera litural.
Hardiness
Fig is a bo rderlin e temperate-zone species, and most varieties are regarded only as hardy as the hardiest, citrus trees: _6C can kill some to the ground, though others are hardy to -15C. Figs require "'Ve ry little winter ch il ling, and can be grown in zones 6-10, though the colder zones necessitate specia l measures. To enable figs to withstand cold winter temperatures, it is essential that trees should produce short, stubby growths which are we ll ripened before the onset of winter. Even in Cal iforn ia winter frost can seriously damage fig trees, particularly those producing lush growth. Brook describes how his fig trees , grown to these requirements, were barely touched by extreme winter minimums of 20C (_4F) in the exceptional British winter of 1946-7, whereas many other fig trees (in sheltered locations with sappy growth) were cut back severely. He concludes that the fig is winter-hardy here when grown in the correct way.
Cultivation
Figs like sun and need warmth to ripen the crop. They are susceptible to cold (particu larly where summer heat is not sufficient to fully ripen new growth) and may need protection in winter in cold areas (achieved with fan trees by wrapping branches with straw or bracken, or covering whole tree with fine netting or fleece.) They tolerate very hot summer conditions. A wide range of soils is tolerated as long as there is good drainage ; cha lky soils are tolerated (soil range pH 4.3-8.6). Very fertile soils often induce lush vegetative growth at the expense of fruiting. A sunny site is essential, and frost pockets should be avoided. Figs are quite wind-tolerant, the branches very rarely breaking even in storms. Various strategies are available for reducing vigour (see below). In Britain, they are often grown as fans against a wall, but can also be grown in the open as a bush or tree in milder areas. Here, figs bear 2 crops a year, but usually only one ripens: the successful crop starts as embryo fruits in late summer/early autumn at and near the young shoot tips - they develop and ripen the next summer in August & September, with a few in October; fruits produced in the spring on new growth only ripen in hot summers. The overwintering fruillets are no larger than a pea, and can be damaged by heavy frosts, hence in cold areas the branches must be protected, although this shou ld be unnecessary if trees are grown so that the wood is well ripened. In exceptionally hot summers, two crops can sometimes ripen in Britain. Figs do best in the South & West of Britain, less so further North although they can be grown successfully in Northern England. In warmer Climates, figs can mature 2 crops per year: the first matures in midsummer, and the second in late summer or autumn. Figs are very long-lived and start fruiting quite qu ickly, at 3-4 years old if the roots are restricted or growth is controlled. There is a long history of figs being used in European agroforestry. Spanish practice includes, for example, fig plantations at wide spacing (12 m, 40 ft apart), with cultivated crops below (rotations of wheat, clover and chick peas; the clover grazed by sheep).
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Reducing vigour
The growth of figs usually needs restricting to improve fruiting and co ld hardiness, Fruits are on ly formed in leaf axils, hence jf the tree is growing too strongly, the distance between the leaves will be long and the opportunities for fruits to form few; and this long sappy growth is very susceptible to winter frost damage. The distance between leaves can reach 75 em (30 in some situations, and with such rank growth the tree is unlikely to fruil at all. Brook reckoned the optimum distance between leaves (nodes) to be 8 em (3") for futl fruitfulness, and if larger than this then vigour reducing strategies should be applied. This equates to limiting annual growth to 30-38 em (12-15").
H )
The traditional method in Britain is to restrict the roots. This necessitates making a large hole ( at least 60 x 60 x 60 cm, 2 x 2 x 2 ft), lined around with concrete or bricks and packed with stone or broken brick to a depth of 30 cm (1 tt). The young tree is planted into this in a good loamy soil. Another method to control vigour is by root pruning. This consists of digging a trench at a radius of 60~120 cm (2~4 ft) from the trunk of the tree, and severing any thick anchorage roots and downward growing roots . The thin fibrous feeding roots should be left undamaged as much as possible. The effects of root pruning tend not to last very tong because of the speed of root growth. A thi rd method to induce fruiting in an over~ vigorous tree is by ring barking. This is easy and quick, but must be done correctly otherwise the tree can be killed! In April or May, a complete ring of bark down to the hardwood is removed from the trunk or a branch , th us disrupting part of the vascular system. As a result , carbohydrates and other carbon assimilates accumulate above the wound so inducing better fru it set; vegetative growth is reduced . The width of the ring should be 7~13 mm (0.25~O .5"), the smaller width for smaller trees. Make 2 parallel cuts around the trunk with a sharp knife, cutting through the bark and soft tissue below. Peel off the bark and soft tissue and cover the ring immediately with several turns of adhesive insulating tape (which must bridge the gap without touching the wound). The tape can be removed the following autumn, when callusing is co mplete . Brook recommends taping the removed bark back on, but upside down: it is unclear if this has different results . Lastly, trees can be grown in large pots (see below) which are sunk into the ground. The roots wi ll eventua lly escape and will need to be pruned.
Bush trees
Bushes are pruned to a goblet shape with 4~6 branches, with a spacing of 4.5~9 m (15~30 ft). They may have one or several trunks. The initial framework is trained by allowing stem(s) to grow 60~90 cm (2~3 ftl high before pinching out to force the framework branches 10 grow. Having lower branches this high enables easy access to the base of the tree. Annual pruning and thinning mOly need to be quite severe; pruning detail depends on which crop is the most important. In March or April , cut out any diseased or frost~damaged wood (back to clean wood without a brown stain). Crossing and inward~growing shoots are also removed. Removal of some or all terminal buds will increase the number of leaf nodes grown that year and thus increase potential cropping the following year. If the first crop (ie thai deve loping from the previous autumn's embryo fruits, as in Britain) is most important, there must be minimal removal of the crop~bearing shoots . The lips of growing shoals are pinched out after 45 leaves by late June (as for fans) and any later fruits to form are removed. If the second crop is more important (wa rmer climes), pruning consist of cutting back young shoots in winter by aboul half this removes the potential first crop to ensure maximum production of the second crop.
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Bush trees can also be pruned on a renewal system . allowing a multislemmed bush with, say, 3 main branches to grow, then removing one of these each year and allowing a new branch to grow from low down . This technique keeps trees small and under control.
Fan growing
Trees are planted 3.6 m (12 tt) apart against a wall, 22 em (9 ~) from the wall. Allow a minimum height of 2.1 m (7 ftl. Wire supports shou ld be spaced at 15 em (6") apart starting at 40 em (16") from the ground .
Prune initially in March after planting : if it is single-stemmed , cut ba ck to a bud at 40 em ( 15 ~ ) ; if it has side shoots , lightly tip each shoot to a bud, removing up to a quarter. to stimulate more laterals. In the summer the new growths are trained fanwise to the wall as they extend. Formative pruning : In spring, as growth is starting, if the tree is a feathered maiden and there are 2 suitable laterals , these can be used to form the first ribs , with the centre of the tree cut out [Prune now as for 'year 2' below]. With a poorlyfeathered tree , cut back to 40 cm (15") to a lateral shoot or good growth bud , and select 2 buds below this , one to the left and the other to the right , about 22 30 cm (912") above the ground. As growth occurs from these , pinch out all other growth to one leaf, and tie the stems to a cane as below. The next spring , cut back the 2 side branches to a growth bud 3040 cm ( 1216") from the main stem to form the first ribs. Year 2: Tie the first 2 ribs to canes fixed to the wires at 40-45 . Over the summer, train 4 shoots each side : allow 2 side shoots on the upper side of each branch to grow (starting about 10 cm , 4" apart) , one shoot on the lower side , and a shoot at the end of the rib. Pinch out all other growth to one leaf, and train the selected shoots along canes or tie them to wires. The aim should be for the main fan branches to be 25-30 cm (10-12~) apa rt. Pruning the cropping fan: The aim is to produce plenty of sturdy , short-jointed young shoots every year, on which embryo fru its are borne . To achieve this , the growing points of all shoots should be cut off after they ha ve made 4-5 leaves - by late June at the latest in Britain , as after this the new shoots which arise may not ripen properly . In July, tie the shoots in. In March or Apri l , cut out any diseased or frost-damaged wood (back to clean wood without a brown stain) and thin the new young shoots by cutting back alternate shoots to 1 bud, train ing the others parallel to the wall. Aim for a 22 -30 cm (9-12~) spacing between shoots , retaining the best growths with ripened tips carrying embryo figs . Removal of some or all terminal buds will increase the number of leaf nodes grown that year and thus increase potential cropping the fo llowing year.
Removing fruits
In Britain, unless the summer is exceptionally hot , fruits whi ch are produced in spring wi ll not ripen, and should be removed in late autumn to concentrate the tree ' s resources into the embryo figs produced in the summer. (See Fig . below) . If not removed , most will eventually yellow and drop.

Figs require no or little in the way of nitrogen - occasional mul ches of compost or manure Will suffice unless growth is lacking Contmued fruiling requires potassium (10 20 g K 2 0 per m 2 per year) which can be supplied via a comfrey leaf mUlch , seaweed meal , wood ash etc. Figs grown with restricted roots are very prone to water starvati on and must be kepi well watered whenever conditions are dry in spring and summer, but not as ripening approaches . The equivalent of
I,
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25 mm (1") of rain per week should be used (25 litres/m 2 ). Open grown bus hes may not need irrigation unless conditions are hot and dry.
Fig shoot in Britain - August
Next year's fruits
Fruits which will not mature before the frosts
Ripening fruits
Pot growing
Figs grow and crop we ll in pots with their roots restricted. In summer, the potted plant can be kept under glass or outside in a sunny position (in Britain , many varieties will not ripen if outside for too long). In winter , the plant can be kept in a cell ar or shed to give frost protection. Potted plants under glass will often provide two crops per year. The minimum size of the pol shou ld be 25 cm (10 "), though this may make watering critical as the rools are so restricted ; 30-37 cm (12-15") pots are better. Pot using a soil-based compost of
75
RAG
reasonable fertility . On planling , leave a 25 mm (1 ") gap at the rim for watering fill this with a permeable mulch . A small bushy tree should be developed with 4-5 main branches. The tree of around 1.2 m (4 tt) tall is controlled by pinching out the new shoots in the same way as for fan-trained trees (remove tips of shoots after 4-5 leaves have appeared) - this maintains a shrubby habit. Repotting is necessary every 2 years. Begin watering when the buds break , sparingly at first but every day in hot weather when the leaves are fully deve loped . A high potassium feed should be used regularly until harvest - seaweed feeds are fine, as are home-made liquid comfrey feeds. A good method of pot growing is to use a pot with drain holes at the sides of the pot at the bottom; after the last spring frosts , the whole pot is plunged into a hole already dug, 15 cm (6 -) deep into the ground outside. Mulch around the pot 10 keep Ihe sun off the exposed sides. The pot-bound rools will grow out through the drain holes into the ground , greatly reducing the need to water and fertilise - also the pot won't blow over. In late autumn , after the plant is dormant, thrust a spade along outside of the pot to sever the external roots, lift the pot, clean prune the cui rools back to the pot, and put inside for the winter. Natura lly shallow rooted, figs adapt readily to this culture .
Harvesting
Fruit thinning is not normally necessarily in Brita in, but where fi ne fruit is required in wa rm er climes, the removal of every other fruit once fruits are swelling is common. Figs approaching maturity are occasionally prone to splitting, caused by low night temperatures after heavy rain making the soil wet. French growers near Paris hasten maturity by applying a drop of olive oil to the eye of each fig as it begins to colour (a piece of wheat straw is the ideal tool) . Figs treated thus ripen 7-10 days faster and may have better flavour and texture. Figs are ready f or picki ng when they turn soft and flabby and hang downwards. Slight splits in the skin , or sometim es a drop of necta r exuded from the eye of the fruit, are indications tha t it is ripe. The most useful sign of ripeness is a change of colour - every variety will differ in this respect, and must be learnt by the grower. Harvesting dema nd s care and attention - fruits are delicate and need gentle handling. Fruits on a single tree ripen-over a period of several weeks, and picking should take place every day if possible. Make sure that press ure is exerted on the stalk and not the fruit when picking . Wear long sleeves to pick as the fig leaves may irritate the skin . Yields in Britain for mature (6 years old +) bush or fan-trained figs are 5-14 Kg ( 12-30 Ib) per year, with each tree yielding up to 100 fruits . Polted plants of 1.2 m (4 ft) high ca n annually bear several dozen fruits. Commercial orchards in France give breba yields of 3-7 lonnes/hectare (1.2-2.8 tons/acre , 19-45 Kg/tree, 42-100 Ib/tree) while second crop yield s can reach 10-15 tonnes/ha (4-6 tons/acre, 40-60 Kg/tree , 88-130 Ibltree) . Figs grown commercially for drying or paste production are often allowed to drop and are mechanically harvested from the ground. This necessitates a flat smooth orcha rd floor at harvest time . Green manure or cover crops are sometimes grown overwinter and shallow ploughed or disced in the spring . Figs for drying or paste are spread on large cloth or mesh trays and dried either in the sun or in heated-air stack dryers . A home made drie r is easi ly made using a venti lated, metal-lined box heated by incandescent bulbs; a temperature of 54"C ( 130" F) is ideal for d rying - less than this , and fruits can sou r, hotter they can cook. The dried figs can be stored in a freezer if desired.
Paqe 24

Fresh ripe figs do not k.eep well - you can be sure that figs for sale in the shops have been harvested when immature and will be much Jess well flavoured than home grown fruit. Figs keep best if stored between 28C ; the lower temperature results in much faster spoilage once the fruits are transferred to room temperature , hence commercial growers prefer top store at the higher end of this range. Even at these temperatures . storage for more than about 10 days is impossible . If aiming to make the figs last as long as possible , then they should be cooled as f ast as possible after harvest.
Pests and diseases

Figs are generally pest and disease free . They are resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria spp.) and the only problems usually encountered are birds and shoot dieback from fungal diseases. Mice are fond of the bark and can sometimes gnaw all around fig stems , killing the tree. Make sure that mulches are kept away from trunks. Slugs may feed on fruits if branches bow tow and there is dense growth of grass or weeds below. Keep any grass mown low. Wasps and Birds may attack ripening fruits - notably blackbirds in Britain . Netting or other protection may be necessary. See Agroforestry News Vol 6 No 1, page 3 for more bird conlrol measures. Insect pests, rarely problematical in Britain, include scale insect, mealybug and red spider mite. The fig mite can cause serious damage in California , by causing 'rusting ' of fruits and leaves. Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) can cause branch die-back and fruit rotting in damp spells. Cut out affected branches and paint wounds as below. Coral spot (Nectria cinnabarina) is a fungal disease to which figs are very susceptible. This shows as numerous coral red spots on old and dead wood , and can cause die-back of branches. Cut out and burn affected branches to a point well below the diseased tissues, and paint all the wounds with a protective paint. Branch canker (Phomopsis cinerescens) is a wound-infecting parasite whi ch c an be avoided by careful pruning. Mosaic virus , more serious in California than Britain, shows as yellow-green blotching or bands on the leaf surface or near large veins; leaves are not deformed and fruits are rarely affected.
Cultivars
Fruit shape varies according to cultivar, from long pear-shaped to more rounded ; size varies also. S kins colour varies from 'white' (in reality pale green ) through greenish-yellow , green, brown and purple to almost black. Descriptions are complicated by the fact that the fruit characteristics (including colour) differ in different climates and also between the first and seco nd crop. Popular commercial Caprifig cultivars include Brawley , Croisic , Roeding NO.3, Samson, and Stanford. Popular commercial Smyrna cultivars include Calimyrna (Syn. Sari Lop), Marabout , Snowden and Zizi. Over 650 distinct fig cuUivars exist world-wide , but only a small number of these are grown in any quantity. Nearly all established cultivars have been selected from wild seedlings , with only a handful recently deliberately bred. Some of the popular cuUivars have numerous synonyms which often confuses identification - for example , Brown Turkey has 19 known synonyms! Only the most common synonyms have been given , and a synonym to correct name index is given here:
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e
Adriatic = Verdone Aubicou = San Piero Aubique Noire = San Piero Barnisotte = Violette de Sollies Barnisotte Blanche = Brogiotto Bianco Black Mission = Mission Black Spanish = Brown Turkey Blanche::; White Marseilles Blue Ischi a = Black Ischia Bordeaux = Negronne Brockett Hall = W hite Ischia Brogiotto Negro = Violette de Sallies Brown Naples= Brown Turkey California Brown Turkey = San Piero Celestial = Celeste Clementine = Brunswick Cordelia = Pingo de Me l Croisic = Pingo de Mel Dalmatia = Magnolia Dalmatian = Magnolia Dauphine = Violette Dauphine Desert Beall = Beall Desert King = King DoHato = Dotatto Doree = Goutte d 'Or Drap d'Or = Royal Vineyard Early Forcing = Black Ischia Eastern Brown Turkey= Brown Turkey English Brown Turkey= Brown Turkey Everbearing= Brown Turkey Figue Blanche = White Marseilles Fleur de Rouge= Brown Turkey Florentine = Dattalo Franciscana = Mission Gillette = Pingo de Mel Gouraud Nair = Mission Green Ischau = Verte Green Ischia = Verte Grise de Saint Jean = St Jean Grosse de Juliett = Sultane Grosse longue verte = Dalmatie
?R
Grosse Violette = Violette Oauphine Hirta du Japan = Pastiliere Ischia Hall = White Ischia Ischia White = White Ischia Italian Everbearing= Brown Tu rkey Italian Honey Fig = White Marseilles Jelly = Mary Lane Kadota = Dottato Latterulfa = White Marseilles Lemon = White Marseilles Magnolia = Brunswick Malta = Cele ste Madeleine de deux Saisons = Angelique Marseilles = White Marseilles Negro Largo = San Piero Nero = Black Ischia Nevera/Jia = Archipel Noire de Juliett = Sultane Osborn Prolific = Archipel C) Pasquale = Vernino Reculver = Mission Rouge de Argenteuif = Violette Oauphine Rouge de Bordeaux = Pastilliere Rust = Osborn Prolific C) Rutara = Peter's Honey San Pedro Miro = San Pedro Singleton Hall = White Ischia Super Giant = Malcolm ' s Texas Everbearing= Brown Turkey Thompson Improved Brown Turkey = San Piero Tiger Fig = Panachee Verdal = Ventura Violelte de Bordeaux = Negronne White Adriatic = Verdone White Genoa = Genoa White Kadota = Dottato White Mission = Troiano White Naples = Wh ite Marseilles White San Pedro = San Pedro White Smyrna = Magnolia
.. There is particular co nfusion caused in North America , by two different cultivars sometimes being called 'Osborn Prolifi c'. One of the se is legitimate, the other refers to the cultivar 'Archipel' . 'Osborn ' s Prolific ' is not correct.
Cultivars for outdoors in Britain

These are all Common types . Season in Britain: Early : Early August ; September. Mid : August ; Late :
8eall (Syn . Desert Beall) : Similar to Brown Turkey. but with sweeter fruit. Brebas large (to 75 x 63 mm , 3 x 2~ M ), pyriform, dark brown to purpliSh-green; flesh purplish-red , rich , good flavour & quality. Second crop figs are med ium-large, turbinate , reddish-brown ; pulp amber, good quality. Good producer of brebas and second crop . Tree vigorous , open. Popular in Califo rni a.
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Black Ischia (Syns. Blue Ischia , Early Fo rcing, Nero) : Very early season. Brebas medium, roundish-turbinate, purplish-black; flesh red, sweet, rich , good flavour. Breba crop good. Second crop figs sma ll-medium, pyriform-turbinate, purplish-black; flesh red , good qua lity. Hardy tree with large lobed leaves. Good in pots ; may need wall culture in Britain . Brown Turkey (Syns. Slack Spanish, Brown Naples, Eastern Brown Turkey , English Brown Turkey, Everbearing , Fleur de Rouge, Italian Everbearing, Texas Everbearing): Ea rly-Mid season. A reliable cultivar in Brita in , also widely grown in E. USA. Ripens 2 weeks after Brunswick. Fruits are brownish-purple when ripe, pear shaped and medium in size, tough skinned; flesh usually pink, very sweet, rich, good quality. Breba croppi ng good; not suitable for drying or canning. Best flavour is immediately on picking. Second crop figs smaller, turbinate, fair quality. Tree of moderate vigour. Good in pots.
'. \
. ': .
'.
,. "
. .'
Brown Turkey (breb a, 75% full size) size)
Brunswick
(breba,
75%
full
Brunswick (Syns. Clementine, Magnolia): Early-M id season. W idely grown in Texas for canning. Regarded by some as the best outdoor fig fo r Britain . Brebas large (to 93 x 63 mm, 3.75 x 1.75"), long pyram id shape, greenish -ye llow winged brown; flesh ambe r-p ink, fair to good quality. Full flavour is ach ieved 2-3 days after picking. Breba crop moderate. Second crop figs smaller, turbinate, bronze; pulp amber tin ged red, good flavour & quality; excellent for preserving, poor for drying. Hardier than most. Leaves oak-li ke, very large. Trees vigorous, spreading, with fairly thick twigs. Not suitable for pot growing. Castle Kennedy: Very early season. Fruit ve ry large, greenish-yell ow; flesh tender, white sta ined red. May need wa ll culture in Britain . Mission (Syns. Black Mission, Franciscana, Gouraud Noir, Reculver) : Mid season. Brebas medium-large (to 75 x 50 mm, 3 x 2~), pyriform, purple-black; flesh amber-pink, firm, sweet, rich flavou r , excellent quality. Bears a good breba crop in most seasons. Second crop figs si mil ar. Leaves oak-l ike. Tree of moderate vig our . An old variety, brought by the Romans to Kent (UK), then taken 1 0 Norlh America by settlers; now widely grown in Ca lifornia for drying and process ing (split and
damaged fruit is converted into juice which is similar to prune juice with added fig flavour) . Needs a warm wall in Britain ; good in pOls . Pingo de Mel (Syns. Craisie, Cordelia, Gillette): Fruit medium-large , greenish-yellow; flesh sweet, amber, translucent. Good in pots ; may need wall culture in Britain .
San Pedro (Syns. San Pedro Mira, White San Pedro): Brebas medium to large, rq undish-turbinate , yellowish -green ; flesh amber-pink , moderately
rich ffavour, fair to good quality. Breba crop very good . Second crop similar but poorer quality. Tree compact. Good in pots ; may
need wall culture in Britain.
Mission (2nd crop, 50% full size)
San Pedro (Main crop and breba , 50% full size)
St Jean (Syn . Grise de Saint Jean): Fruit violet-grey; flesh red , sweet , soft , excellent flavour. Produces good second crop . Good in pots ; may need wall culture in Britain . St Johns: Early. Fruits medium-large, pear shaped , pale green ; flesh white , juicy , excellent flavour. Also well suited to pot culture as it is a natural dwarf. Needs a good location outdoors in Britain. White Marseilles (Syns. Blanche , Figue Blanche , Italian Honey Fig , Lemon , Latterulla, Marseilles, White Naples) : Mid season . Brebas medium, long pyramid shaped, slightly ribbed, yellowish-green in colour: flesh amber, juicy , sweet, good flavour and quality. Breba cropping fair. Second crop figs smaller , rich sweet flavour , good quality. Qual(ty of the dried fig poor. Also suited to pot cul ture. Light cropping outdoors in Britain - best against a wall. Leaves maple-like . Tree vigorous, dense. Widely cultivated in France (Provence) as a drying fig ; makes good jam .
Common-type cultivars for pots (Britain) & outdoors (warmer areas)

Some of these may well be suitable for growing outdoors in Britain - many have never been tried here. Adam: French variety . Figs are green to yellowish-brown with a tough of violet; flesh amber-red. Has very large leaves. Good in pots. Alma : Brebas medium size , light yellow-tan ; flesh amber-Ian , succulent, sweel, excellent quality. Good fresh or dried . Breba crop light is some locations, heavy in others; heavy second crop. Tree compact , rounded ; leaves glossy . Cold hardy . Introduced in 1974. Good in pots . Angelique (Syn . Madeleine de deux Saisons): Fruits medium sized, roundish , yellow with white specks ; flesh white , tinged pink, juicy. Archipel (Syns . Neverallia, Osborn Prolific) : Brebas medium-large size, turbinate, bronze-violet : flesh pinkish , mealy , , rich , sweet , fair quality. Good breba crop. Second crop fruits medium-large , pear shaped, brownish-purple; flesh amber. poor to good quality. Trees upright, open , moderately vigorous . Widespread in American home plantings ; better in cooler coasta l areas . Good in pots.
Paae 28
Armenian: Brebas flatlish, hollow. thick-fleshed, deep yellow; flesh amber. mild, good quality. Breba crop very large, second crop moderate. Spreading tree; does well in pols. Black Genoa: Early-Mid season. Fruit large, long-conical , purplish-black; flesh reddish, excellent flavour. Tree vigorous, reliable cropper. Black Madera: Fruit large . oval, purple-black; flesh deep red. sweet, excellent flavour. Bourjasotte Grise: Late season. 8rebas medium-large, round-turbinate, pale green and purple. bloomy; flesh dark red, rich , syrupy, very good flavour and quality. Breba production abundant. Second crop medium size, pyriform, greenish-violet; flesh red , fair-good quality. Good in pots. Cape White: Early-Mid season. Fruit small. squat, yellowish-green; flesh cream, solid centre. Conadria: Fruit medium sized (50g, 1.7 oz), pyriform, green-yellow to white. flushed purple; flesh reddish, very firm , exce llent flavour. Breba and second crops both good. Tree vigorous, precocious. Hybrid introduced in 1956, popular for fresh and dried fruit in California. Good in pots. Dalmatie (Syn. Grosse longue verte): Fruit large , green, attractive; flesh sweet, juicy. Moderate breba crop, heavy second crop. Deanna: Mid season. Fruit light yellow; flesh amber, sweet, good qualily. Productive. DiRedo: Fruit round, light yellowish-green; flesh amber. Dries well, susceptible to splitting. Dottato (Syn. DoHato, Florentine, Kadota. White Kadota): Late season. Brebas medium size, pear shaped. yellow-green with a violettinted pulp; rich, sweet flavour, excellent quality. Second crop figs are smaller & have amber pulp in hot areas, violet pulp and green skin in coo ler areas; skins thick and rubbery . Good crops of brebas in some areas; good crops of second crop also. Leaves grape-like; tree vigorous. Widely grown in Californialltaly for canning and drying. Good in pots. Datta to (breba, 50% f.s) Drop of Honey: Fruit medium-la rge, light coloured; flesh yellowish, very sweet, excellent quality. Excel: Early season. Fruits roundish-oval, light greenish-yellow, medium sized (42g, 1.4 oz), resistant to splitting; flesh amber, excellent flavour. An excellent Dottato-type for fresh use, canning and drying. Tree vigorous . A Dottato hybrid introduced in 1975. Fig d'Or: Fruit golden; flesh pink tinged, rich, sweet, good quality. Leaves very indented. Good in pots. Flanders: Fruit medium sized (50g, 1.7 oz). pyriform, tawny brown with violet stripes, resistant to splitting; flesh amber, excellent rich flavour, excellent fresh quality. Tree vigorous; highly productive. A Verdone hybrid introduced in 1965. Genoa (Syn. White Genoa): Brebas medium-large, pyriform , pale green ; Dottato (second crop, flesh amber-pink, sweet, fair quality. Breba crop light. Second crop fruits 50% full size) medium sized (60 g, 2 oz), roundish-conical, greenish-yellow to white; flesh yellowish-amber, flavour fair when fresh, poor dried. Trees mod . vigorous. spreading. Good in pots. Gillette: Fruit yellow, sweet. Grown commercially in W.N.America . Goutte d'Or: (Syn. Doree): Fruit yellowish-green, becoming golden yellow tinged rose; flesh sa lmon/rose, juicy, good quality. Very old cultivar. Good in pots. Granata: Fruits large, black.
\.
e&i -
Gulbun : Mid season. Fruit large, oblong , light greenish-yellow ; flesh light pink , delicate flavour, good quality. Tree productive, well suited to pots. Hardy Chicago : Hardy selection with small-medium black fruit flesh sweet, rich flavour. Jurupa : Fruit large (90g. 3 oz), pyriform, green ; flesh pink . very good flavour. Bears good breba and seco~d crops. Tree vigorous. A recent hybrid introduction . La Purple : Brebas medium size , purple, good quality. Breba production good. lesa : Fruit greenish-brown; flesh cream , tinged pink al centre ; tender skin. lisa: Fruit large, rounded , purplish-brown; flesh sweet, pale red . Good in pots . l.S.U. Everbearing: Fruit medium-large , yellow-green ; flesh amber, sweet , good quality. Bears over a long period . l.S .U. Purple: Fruit medium sized , turbinate, glossy reddish-purple ; fle sh amber-pink , , sweet . quite good flavour. Leaves large, dark green. Tree vigorous , upright. Magnolia (Syns . Dalmatia, Dalmatian , White Smyrna) : Fruit medium sized. greenishamber overspread with brown; flesh amber, tinged pink. Leaves oak-like. Malcolm's (Syn . Super Giant): Fruit very large, brownish-purple . Mary Lane (Syn . Jelly): Fruit medium sized , round, yellowish-white; flesh amber, good sweet flavour. Ripens over a long period. Good fresh and canned. Monstreuse: Brebas mediumlarge, green tinged violet ; flesh dark red , rich , sweet . very good quality. Second crop figs similar. Tree vigorous, productive . An old French variety . Mrs Williams: Fruit yellowish-green when ripe; flesh rich red. Selected in New Zealand . Nadine: Mid season . Fruit oblong. light yellow ; flesh amber, good quality. Yields well. Californian introduction. Negra: Fruit small , black . Negronne (Syns. Bordeaux, Violette de Bordeaux): Brebas small-medium size, pyriform , purplishblack; flesh red, rich, very good quality. Breba crop fair to gOOd. Second crop figs small-medium. roundish-pyriform. purplish-black ; flesh red , ri,::h. Tree moderately vigorous , prolific. Peter's Honey (Syn . Rutara) : Fruit greenish-yellow, tender; flesh dark amber, good flavour. A Sicilian variety, needs a warm site. . Petite Negri : Fruit large, black; flesh red , sweet, rich flavour. A hardy, dwarfish tree, well suited to pots , very heavy cropping even in pots. Preston Prolific: Late season. Fruit large, round-conical , short-stalked, purplish-brown ; flesh creamy white , distinctive very good sweet flavour. Tree vigorous , fruit hard to pick . Ronde de Bordeaux (Syn. Precoce Ronde de Bordeaux) : Brebas sweet. soft, excellent flavour. Tree very precocious . Popular French variety . San Piero (Syns . Aubicou. Aubique Noire, California Brown Turkey , Negro Largo , Thompson Improved Brown Turkey): 8rebas large and ribbed (up to 93 x 63 mm , 3 .75 x 2 .5 pyriform with a flattened end , coppery-dark purple; flesh pale red , very tender, rich flavour , good quality fresh (poor dried). Breba crop fair . Second crop figs similar but smaller. Trees vigorous, precocious, moderately productive. Widely grown in France , Spain , Portugal and California. Good in pots.
M ).
Sultane (Syn . Grosse de Julliet, Noire de Juillet): Fruit pear shaped , medium-large, brownishblack; flesh red. Much grown commercially in S.France. Good in pots.
P:::IOP.
10
Tena: Mid season. Fruit small-medium sized (Sag, 1.7 oz), light greenish-yellow, very resistant to splitting; flesh amber-red, excellent flavour . Tree small, productive, with compact spur-type growth. A recent Californian introduction. Good in pols. Tennessee Mountain: Fruit medium sized, sweet. Tree very hardy and productive, good in marginal areas . Violette Sepor: Fruit medium sized, purple-violet ; flesh deep red. Crops heavily in pots. White Everbearing : Fruit small-medium, greenish-white; flesh amber, excellent quality. Very vigorous tree with large leaves; highly productive. White Ischia (Syns. Brockel! Hall, Ischia, Ischia White, Singleton): Early season . Brebas small, turbinate, greenish-white tinged brown; flesh purplish, juicy , very sweet, rich. Good producer of brebas in Britain but poor in California. Second crop fruits small, yellowish-green shaded purple; flesh red, sweet and rich, fair quality. Tree compact, not very hardy; good in pots. Yvonne: Early season. Fruit oval, canary yellow; flesh pink. Fruits mature over a short period.
Common-type cultivars for second (main) crop production only

These common-types appear to set either no or very few brebas (first crop) figs, hence are not suitable for cool areas or pot culture in Britain. However, breba producti on (like many other fig characteristics) does vary from climate to climate! Brogiotto Bianco (Syn. Barnisotte Blanche): Bears few or no brebas. Second crop fruits are medium sized, turbinate, firm, yellowish-green; flesh red, excellent quality fresh and dried. Prolific second crops. Celeste (Syns. Celestial, Malta): Early-Mid season. Second crop fruit small-medium. pyriform, sweet, purple-green; flesh reddish, good flavour and quality. Widely grown in E. USA. Leaves grape-like. Sets very few brebas. Hardy tree. Good in pots. Early Violet: Second crop figs small, turbinate, chocolate brown; flesh red , quality fair to good. Sets no brebas; productive second crop. Hunt: Brebas small-medium, green; flesh red , poor quality. Breba crop small. Second crop figs sma ll-medium, pyriform, bronze; flesh amber-red, rich sweet flavour , fairgood quality. Osborn Prolific (Syn. Rust): Second crop figs medium-large (50 x 46 mm , 2 x 1.7S~), pyriform, bronze or violet brown, glossy; pulp amber-pink, rich sweet flavour, fair quality. Ripens over a long season. Tree slow growing, upright: brebas seldom produced. Can be confused with the variety Archipel , which is sometimes sold under the same name (but produces brebas, unlike this one.) Panachee (Syn. Tiger Fig): Late season. Second crop fruits medium size, pyriform, greenish -yellow with green stripes; flesh deep purple , sweet, fair quality. Sets no brebas. Tree vigorous, upright, with striped wood. Good in pots.
Panachee (60% full size) Pastiliere (Syns. Hirta du Japan, Rouge de Bordeaux): Sets few or no brebas. Second crop figs abundant, medium sized, turbinate, purplish-black with violet bloom; flesh pink, sweet, excellent rich
Page 31
flavour, very good quality. Tree dwarfish , compact , slow growing. Suited to pot culture. Troiano (Syn. White Mission): Bears no brebas. Second crop figs small-medium . roundishturbinate . ye llow tinged brown; flesh red , fair to good quality. Borne over a long period. Of Italian origin. Ventura (Syn . Verda l ): Late season . Brebas rare . Second-crop fruits medium-large , turbinate . green; flesh deep red. rich flavour, good quality. Trees small, compact, hardy. Verdone o(Syns. Adriatic , White Adriatic) : Late season. Brebas small-medium , pyriform , greenishyellow with a violet cast; flesh bright rosy red, rich, sweet, good quality. Breba crop is very small. Second crop is heavy; figs medium sized, turbinate , greenish-yellow; flesh pink , flavour rich , good; quality good, especially for drying. Tree vigorous. densely branched, with a broad spreading crown. Widely grown in California for drying; of ancient origin. Good in pots . Vernino (Syn. Pasquale) : Very late season . Second crop fruits small (28g, 1 oz), roundishpyriform , dark purplish-black , thick rubbery skin; flesh dark red, rich flavour, good quality. Sets no brebas . Tree vigorous , with spreading or slightly drooping branches; productive. Verte (Syns. Green Ischau, Green Ischia) : Late season. Breba production good in some areas , poor in others. Second crop figs small-medium (40 g , 1.3 ozl, turbinate or pyriform , greenishyellow; flesh rosy red , excellent flavour. Leaves maple-like. Tree slow growing , remaining sma ll. with spreading bran ches. Good in pots . Violette de Sol lies (Syns . Barnisotte, Brogiotto Negro): Late season. Brebas (rare) are mediumlarge, pyriform , purplish-black; fle sh red . Second crop figs similar, quality good to excellent. Of ancient origin . A popular commercial variety in France.
San Pedro type cultivars for warmer areas

Black Jack: Fruit large-very large , purplish-brown; flesh reddish-amber. sweet flavour. Dwarf spreading tree , suited to pots. King: (Syn. Desert King): 8rebas mediumlarge, pyriform, dark green , thin skinned; flesh red , rich flavour, excellent quality. Prolific breba crop. which matures in cool climates & may do in the UK. Second crop unpolJinated figs have amber or light strawberry pulp poor quality. Tree moderately vigorous . Originated in Cal iforn ia. Lampeira : Brebas large (88 x 63 mm , 3'h x 2'h- ), pyriform. greenish-yellow; pulp rosyamber . excellent quality. Tree moderately vigorous . Popular in Italy (Tuscany) and S. Portugal. King , breba & second crop (50% full size) Pied de Boeuf: Brebas large, pyriform, brown; flesh pink, coarse texture, good quality. Breba crop fair to good . Second crop unpollinated fruits of poor quality. Royal Vineyard (Syn . Drap d'Or): Brebas large , pyriform, coppery-bronze ; flesh pink , sweet. rich flavour , excellent quality. Breba crop small to good . Prized in France for crystallised and glace fruit. San Pedro : see description above (Cultivars for outdoors in Britain) . Violette Dauphine (Syn. Dauphine, Grosse Violette, Rouge de ArgenteuB) : 8rebas large (63 mm . 2%- long), greenish-violet to purple ; flesh pink, fairly rich . 8reba crop gOOd. Second crop fruit similar but smaller. Widely grown in S.France. Good in pots .
Propagation
Propagation of cultivars is usually by hardwood cuttings of one-year-old wood, 30 em ( 12 ~) long. inserted in well-drained ground in autumn, with frost protection in cold climates. An ancient practice, still sometimes followed, is to plant a large cutting in the ground at the permanent location of the tree: a cutting 1.2-1.5 m (4-5 ft) long and 4-5 em (1 :.-2-2") diameter at the base is set upright in a hole 90 em (3 ft) deep; sometimes 2 cuttings are used in the same hole to ensure
success.
If bottom heat is available, then cuttings of short-jointed shoots, 15-22 em (6-9") long , of the previous year's wood, will rool quickly after inserting in pots of sandy compost in early spring. Suckers separated from the parent tree in autumn, and layering, are also possible,
Suppliers
In Britain, many nurseries supply 'Brown Turkey' and one or two other common varieties. The holders of the national collection are Reads Nu rsery, who hold and propagate about 35 cultivars: Reads Nursery, H ales Hall , Loddon, Norfolk, NR14 6QW. Tel: 01508548395. Several nurseries in North America supply a small selection of figs, a few supply more: Burnt Ridge Nursery, 432 Burnt Ridge Rd, Ona laska, WA 98570, USA. Tel: 206-9852873. Edible Landscaping, P.O.Box 77, Afton, Virginia 22920, USA. Tel: 804-361 -9134. Exotica Rare Fruit Nursery, 2508B E.Vista Way, PO Box 160, Vista, CA 92083, USA. Tel : 619
724-9093.
Hastings, 1036 White St S.W., Atlanta, Georgia 30310, USA. Tel: 4047556580. Louisiana Nursery, Route 7, Box 43, Opelolusas, LA 70570, USA. Tel: 3189483696. Miller Nursery, 5060 West Lake Road, Canadaigua, NY 14424, USA. Tel : 7163962647 . Oregon Exotics, Rare Fruit Nursery, 1065 Messinger, Grants Pass, OR 97527, USA. Tel: 503846
7578.
References
Baker, H: The Fruit Garden Displayed. Cassell, 1986. Bown, D: The RHS Encyclopedia of Herbs & their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, 1995. Brooke, J: Figs out of Doors. Rupert HartDavis, 1954. Chevallier, A: The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Dorling Kindersley, 1996 . Chiej , R: The Macdonald Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants . Macdonald, 1984. Delrieu, D: Figues: Quelle varietE~! Fruits Qublies, No. 4/97. Duke, J & Ayensu, E: Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications, 1985. Facciola, S: Cornucopia. Kampong Publications, 1990 . Figues: De Grandes Esperances. L'Arboriculture Fruitiere No. 488 (November 1995). Figues: Ma intien de la Qualite apres la Recolte. L 'ArboricuUure Fru itiere No 489 (December 1995). Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with PestControl Properties. Wiley, 1988. Reynolds, A: Figs in the Home Garden. New Zealand Tree Crops Association. Russel Smith, J: Tree Crops: A Permanent Ag ricultu re. Dover, 1950. Simmons, A: Simmons Manual of Fruit. David & Charles, 1978. Spiller, M: Growing Fruit. Allen Lane , 1980. Storey, W et al: The Fig. Jurupa Mountains Cultural Center, 1977 . Westwood, M: TemperateZone Pomology. Timber Press, 1993. Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publications, 1993.
Page 33
Codling moth
IntroCiluction
The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Sy n. Laspeyresia pomonella) . is one of the most widespread pests of apple, occurring in almost every country in wh ich apples are grown. The damage is caused by the caterpillar (sometimes called the apple maggot - not to be confused with Rhago/etis pomonella from North America). which burrows into the fruit. Insecticidal sprays are used in most commercial orchards and these keep populations low; most of these chemicals are broad-spectrum , killing many beneficial insects as we ll (and sometimes causing significant problems with other pests like red spider mite), and some are organophosp horus substances which are very harmful to people and the environment. Codling moths are also becoming increasingly resistant to many of these chemicals . However, there are several methods of control suited to organic growers which can control the pest.
Caterpillars and their damage

The main feeding period of codling moth is July and August in the UK. There is no surface scar on the fruit and the small entry hole is covered with fragments of dry frass (excrement). The caterpillar is whitish with a black head until almost fully grown (when about 12 mm (~ ~) long or more) ; in the last stage it becomes pinkish and the head is brown. It ha s 5 pairs of abdominal legs. Two other caterpillar pests can damage apples in a similar way to cod ling moth. These are: Apple sawfly - main feeding period is June ; attacked fruits have a conspicuous hole leading straight to the core, with a mass of reddish- brown frass at the entrance. Young caterpillars leaves a rough, ribbon-like scar ending at the actual or attempted point of entry. The caterpillar is dirty-white and has 7 pairs of abdominal legs. Fruitlet mining tortrix - main feeding period is June & early July; fruit damage consists of several shallow small holes with occasional deeper ones that follow a meandering course. The caterpillar is dirty-white and smaller than codling or sawfly caterpillars; it ha s 5 pairs of abdominal legs.
Adult & life history

The codling moth is about 8 mm (0.3-) long with a wingspan of 15-22 mm (0 .6-0 .9") and has greyish-brown forewings criss-crossed with light grey lines and with a metallic copper-coloured patch near the tip ; the hindwings are brown. The moths are seldom seen because they are active mainly at dusk , resting amoung the foliage at other times . There is one complete generation of codling moth each year and in warm summers the earliest caterpillars (not more than S% of the total) ca n give rise to a seco nd generation of adults in August and September (NB dates here are all in the UK - may be different elsewhere). In an average seaso n the first moths emerge in late Mayor early June; the main emergence occurs between late June and mid July; numbers then decline until the first generation ends in early Aug ust. In warm summers, second generation moths can th en be found until early September. The moths fl y and mate on warm , still evenings when the temperature at dusk is at lea st 14C (S7F). Eggs are laid singl y on the foliage or fru it, generally in the eve ning , about 3 days after the moths have emerged ; each fema le lays an average of SO-60 eggs. The prevailing temperature affects the number laid, temperatures over 1S.So C (60F) being favourable . The eggs are translucent, flat and round, about 1 mm (0 .04-) in diameter, and look like small sca les . They are unlikely to be found unle ss infestations are heavy .
.
Page 34
After 10-14 days, depending on temperature, the young caterpillar hatches, and immediately searches for a suitable point of entry into a fruit and starts to burrow. In the early part of the season when the fruits are small, at least half the caterpi llars enter at the eye (ca lyx). For the first few days the caterpillar usually feeds in a small cavity just beneath the skin; it then burrows to the core, feeding on the flesh and pips. Sometimes a second fruit is attacked before the caterpillar reaches maturity. The caterpillar is fully fed after about 4 weeks. It then leaves the fruit and spins a cocoon under loose bark on the tree trunk and limbs, under Iree ties , or in cracks in supporting posts, or in cracks in soi l. Second generation moths arise only from cate rpillars that have spun up by late Jul y; adu lts may emerge from these cocoons in 12-21 days. Caterpillars leaving fruits that have been picked may spin their cocoons in apple trays or elsewhere - these can lead to new infestations or to the cocoons becoming Codling moth: wi ngs expanded/folded (3 x) contam inants & real size in other produce.
The winter is spent as a fully fed caterpillar in a silken cocoon. The pupal stage occurs in late spring. The pupa is 8-10 mm (0 .3-0.4- ) long, yellowish to dark brown.
Susceptible fruits
In addition to apple, codling moth sometimes attacks pears , the fruit of other Malus and Pyrus species, quince and walnut. In Britain it is mainly a pest of apple and occasionally of pears, and is more important in the southern half of England than elsewhere. Control is seldom necessary for pears . Most cu1tivars of apple are susceptible , though susceptibility varies; 'A rkansas Black' (& its sports) and ' Black Oxford' are reportedly resistant, and others probably are although little work has been done on this. Of pears, Wi lli ams (Bartlett) is reportedly more susceptible, while the following are moderately resistant: Beurn~ d'Anjou, Bronze Beauty , Calebasse Bosc , Conference (& sports), Doctor Ju les Guyot, Doyenne du Corn ice (& sports) , Pas se Crassane. Cod ling moth is a major pest of walnut in Europe and North America, where it can destroy up to 30% of the crop. Damage occurs in two ways: by early-season destruction of the kernel , or by late season shell and kernel staining as a result of feeding in the hu sk. More serious infestations occur in prolonged hot summers ; orchard areas near to apple stores are particularly prone to attack. Damaged fruits on trees tend to ripen and drop prematurely .
Control
The most im po rtant natural mortality is caused by birds, especially tits (b lu e and great), feeding on overwintering caterp ill ars. Tits can be attracted into trees by hanging fat etc for them in winter; nesting boxes nearby in summer will also help . French research has found than an adult tit can consume 12 ,000-18 ,000 hibernating codling moth caterpillars per year! Other birds which predate on the pupae include wrens, tree creepers and robins . Predation of the eggs by various insects . such as mirid (capsid) and anthrocorid bugs , can also be important. The eggs are also often eaten by earwigs . Use of any insecticides (including Derris and Pyrethrum) can kill these beneficial insects , making trees more dependent on further doses of chemica ls .
There are several species of parasite which attack eggs, caterpillars and pupae. All loose bark should be scraped off to remove overwintering sites for the caterpillars; stakes and
tree ties should have as few crevices as possible.

Bands of sacking or corrugated cardboard , about 10 em (4 ft) wide , can be tied around the trunk & branches by mid July to provide alternative overwintering sites. These bands should be removed after the crop has been picked and either burnt or immersed in a bucket of boiling water.
Insect tlarrier glue can be spread around the lower part of the trunk in late July. This will prevent caterpillars which emerge from fallen infested apples from climbing back up the tree. Any fallen infested fruits can also be collected and destroyed, as can any fruits left on the tree after harvest.
Dwarf apple trees have smoother bark and fewer cocooning sites on the trunk than standard trees, thus control should be easier to achieve . A diverse ground cover beneath the apple trees is an important component of the orchard ecosystem and increases ecosystem ability. Many flowering plants provide nectar for parasites of codling moth and of other pests, and the presence of wild flowers has been shown to significantly enhance codling moth control. There are reports that elder (Sambucus nigra) may have a deterrent effect on codling moth. Other plants which are reportedly effective (but whose use may also harm other insects) include :
Afeurites fordii (Tung tree) - antifeedant Pinus sp. (Pines) - oil is an attractant Anabasis aphyffa - insecticidal Ricinus communis (Castor bean) - Ivs insecticidal Azadirachta indica (Neem)- antifeedant & repellent Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Pyrethrum) - flowers a contact poison Derris sp. - roots insecticidal Ryania speciosa - anti-insect Erigeron affinis (Fleabane) - roots insecticidal Schoenocaulon officinafe (Sabadilla) - insecticidal Glycine max (Soya bean) - stems insecticidal Tripterygium forrestii I T.wilfordii roots insecticidal Hap/ohphyton cimicidum (Cockroach plant) - stems insecticidal Hefenium mexicana (Yerba de la Pulga) - flowers anti-insect Nicoliana sp. (Tobacco) - leaves insecticidal Yucca schidigera (Dagger plant) - Ivs insecticidal Pheffodendron amurense (Amur cork tree) - fruit insecticidal
Pheromone traps
At dusk, female moths emit a scent (pheromone) which attracts males . Sticky traps or lures baited with the synthesised pheromone are routinely used in commercial orchards to monitor the flight and numbers of male moths as an aid to spray timing ; but can also be used as a control method in their own right. Lures placed in the upper canopy (2-4 m , 6-' 3 ft in height) are most successful in capturing males. One lure per 5 trees is reasonably successful. with traps set up in mid May and the pheromone lure replaced in late June and perhaps again in early August. If more than 15 moths are caught in a trap per week , the infestation is severe and additional traps may be needed. Of course, in gardens with neighbouring infested trees which are untreated , moths can continue to immigrate in . More than 5 moths caught per trap per week for 2 weeks is taken by commercial growers as indication to start a spray programme (with traps at one per 2.5 hectares or 6-7 acres.) Traps also aUract the fruitlet mining tortrix.
Other biological controls

Several biological controls have proved very successful in controlling codling moth , however they are not all available in Britain and some other countries . Pheromones used as mating-disrupters. These include the attractant pheromone used in traps; but in this system a large number of dispensers are used (1000-2500 per hectare, 400-1000 per acre, ie every 2-3 m or 6-10 ft) and the quantity of pheromone released is such that mating is
Page
ae
disrupted to an extent that control is achieved . Dispensers are in the form of impregnated ropes , squares and the like; they are most successful if placed in the upper canopy (2-4 m, 613 fI in height). Tri als have shown that at relatively low pest densities , and where trees are not exposed to immigration of adults, such cont rol is as efficient and economic as chemical sprays . It is advantageo us to contig uous growers to coope rate with such systems . Unsuitable cond iti ons for this system include steep orcha rd slopes and exposed windy sites . Trichogramma dendrolimi and T.embryophagum parasilise the eggs . Ongoing studies in North America show that this is a potentially cheap and effective control method . A virus disease of codling moth was discovered in 1963 (codling moth granulosis virus) and British and French research has been examining the use of this as a control. The caterpillar must consume some of the virus with its food , and the virus becomes active in the specific intestinal cond itions of this species, reducing activity and killing the caterpillar. It has been tested for over 15 yea rs and is now produced commercially ('Carpovirusine') ; it is applied every 10-12 days and results in a high level of control. Available in Britain.
Sources
Agralan Ltd, The Old Brickyard , Ashton Keynes , Swindon , Wilts , SN6 6QR, UK. - make the 'Trappi!' codling moth pheromone traps. Avai lable in most garden centres. Andermatt Biocontrol AG , 6146 Grossdeiltwil, SWITZERLAND. - make 'Madax 2 & 3' codling moth granulose virus . Arbico , P .O.Box 4247 CRB , Tuscan , Arizona 85738 , USA. - make codling moth pheromone traps . Bedoukian Research Inc, 21 Finance Drive, Danbury , CT 06810 , USA. - supply pheromones. Calliope SA, 16 Rue Baudin, 92300 Levallois Perret , Paris , FRANCE . - make 'Carpovirusine ' codling moth granulose virus, ava il able in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, UK. Celaflor GmbH, Konrad Adenauer Sir. 30, 6507 Iwoel heim am Rhein, GERMANY. - distribute ' Obstmaden -Frei Granupom' cod ling moth granulose virus . Farchan Laboratories, 2603 NW 74th Place, Gainesville , FL 32653-1207 , USA. - supply pheromones . MicroFlo Company, P.O.Box 5948 , Lakeland , FL 33807 , USA. - distribute 'Isomate-C ' pheromone dispenser for mating disruption control of codling moth . Necessary Trading Company , 422 Salem Ave, New Castle , VA 24127 , US A. - make the 'BioLure' codling moth lure. Point Enterprises SA , 21 Route de St.Cergue , P .O.Box 48 , 1260 Nyon , SWITZERLAND. - make codling moth pheromones. Research Institute for Plant Protection , IPO-DLO, P .o . Box 9060, NL-6700 GW Wageningen, NETHERLANDS. - suppJy pheromones. Shin-Etsu Chemical Co. Ltd., Fine Chem icals Depl, 2-6-1 Ohtemachi, Chioda-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN. - supply pheromones. Siber Hegner Raw Materials Ltd , P.O.Box 888 , CH-8034 Zu rich, SWITZERLAND. - supply pheromones .
References
Alford , 0 V: A Colour Atlas of Fruit Pests. Wolfe Publishing , 1984. Biache, G: Lutte a I'aid e d 'un virus specifique. L'Arboriculture Fruitiere , 504 (April 1997), 25-26. Codling Moth. MAFF Leaflet 42, HMSO, 1985. Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties . Wiley, 1988 . Kehat, M et al : Control of the codling moth. Phytoparasitica , 1995,23:4,285-296 . Weissling , T & Knight, A: Vertical distribution of codling moth adults in pheromone-treated and untreated plots. Entomologia-Experimentalis-et-Applicata , 1995, 77 :3, 271-275 . Web searchers can find useful information on all aspects of codling moth al: http://www.ippc.orst.edu/CodlingMoth http://www.ippc .orst.edu/C MPheromone
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Book Reviews
Plantation Silviculture In Europe
Peter Savill , Julian Evans, Daniel Auclair, Jan Falck
Oxford University Press , 1997; 297 pp; 22 .50. ISBN 0-19-854908-3 . All aspects of plantation silviculture are covered in this book. Plantations are defined as " forest crops or stands raised deliberately by sowing , planting , or inserting cuttingsH and thus in clud e plan ti ng bare land and grassland, and reforestation with a sim il ar or different tree crop . And plantation silviculture is no longer largely a question of how to grow extensive , industrial plantations successfully . but must include farm forestry, urban forests , energy crops etc .
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Forest production and long-term productivity is discussed, along with a brief discussion of the use of exotic species . In Britain , where we have such a limited native tree flora , there have been few doubts about the use of exotic species . The principles of plantation silv iculture are all described: site preparation, choice of specie s, plantation establi shment (including bare~root vs. containe ri sed plan ts, direct seedi ng , using mixtures including 'nurses'), weed control , nutrition and fertilise rs (includes a brief piece on mycorrhizas which could have been extended) , spacing and thinning regim es, pruning , rotation lengths, protection from pests and pathogens ( includes some biological controls), protection from wind and fire . Several specialised forms of plantation silviculture are described, including planting on reclamation sites, short~ rotation crops like traditional coppice, short-rotation energy coppice (of willow , poplar , plane and eucalyptus) , poplar plantations, shelterbe lts, agroforestry (very brief description - 2Y: pages ~ with few recommendations), and other products from trees and forests.
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The focus of the book is silvicu ltu re bas d on understandin the eco lo ical and h sio lo ica processes in a forest sta nd . By giving greater emphasis then previous books to the environmenta l , biodiversity , and social issues , this makes a useful addition to the literature on plantation silviculture .
The Bamboos (Linnean

G P Chapman (Ed)
Society Symposium Series Number 19)
Academic Press, 1997 ; 370 pp ; 65 .00. ISBN 0-12-168555-1 . This book is a collection of papers presented at an Internalional Symposium in London in March 1996. The sheer usefulness of bamboos is well known - they have been utilised in a thousand ways _ but these papers concentrate on the botany of bamboos. Bamboos and other grasses combine both primitive and advanced features, and span the Americas . Africa and Asia. The books provides a wide coverage of many of the most intriguing aspects of both New and Old world bamboos . Following an introductory chapter outlining various research concerns, there is a contribution based on Chusquea. examining the place of bamboo in stable forest conditions. Anothe r paper examines conservation of bamboos in Yunnan (China), where several species are endangered due to conti nued deforestation. A later paper link s Asian bamboo flowering with the diet and survival of the Giant Panda . Other papers discuss bamboo and grass classification and terminology, propagation , and various aspects of bamboo anatomy. The book closes with a detailed glossary.
Forest Products Biotechnology

Alan Bruce & John Palfreyman
Taylor & Francis , 1998; 326 pp ; 49.95. ISBN 0-7484-04 15-5. This interesting book includes papers on a wide range of topics regarding the use of biological organisms in many aspects of the use and processing of wood and products from it. Biopulpi ng is described in a fascinating chapter. The main steps in paper making are to separate the fibres from the plant tissue , to bleach them and to rearrange them to form a paper sheet. The fibres are separated mechanically, often assisted by chemicals and high temperature an extremely energy-consuming process. Biopulping is the pretreatment of wood chips with selective whiterot fungi prior to mechanical or chemical pulping: the fungi (in about 2 weeks) help break down the tissues, leading to an energy reduction for the whole process , and reduce toxic effluent. The bleaching process in paper making , too , can be aided by live organisms. Here , enzymes are used, and these ('Hemicellulases') are now used on a large scale in the industry. Other chapters include the bioremediation . the cleaning using biological processes . of soil s contami nated with organic wood preservatives like creosote and PCP , and of wood it self which has had wood preservatives used on it, but is no longer required (white rot fungi are efficient at biodegradi ng such wood preservatives) . Various products obtained from wood are discussed , including wood & bark extracts as adhesives and preservatives, ethanol from forest product wastes and mushroom production on woody substrates. A chapter on drug s from plants includes an interesting table of clinically useful drugs and the plants they are obtained from, for example the antiinflammatory 'Aescin' from the horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastaneum) and the oxytocic drug 'Sparteine' from broom (Cytisus scoparius).
Page 39
;:: 44
Biological control of wood decay (a potentially very useful technique which could reduce the amount of chemicals used for wood preservation) and biological control of forest pests are also covered.
-,
Nature is Culture: Indigenous knowledge and socio-cultural aspects of trees and forests in non -European cultures
Klaus Seeland (Ed)
IT Publications, 1997; 152 pp; 15.95. ISBN 1-85339-410-6 The meaning of forests is reflecled in their cultural perception to a particular society. Indigenous knowledge about, and the meaning of, forests and trees in different cultures is important in order to demonstrate the many needs and values associated with forests in a given locality, and the importance of forested areas for the survival of indigenous people and their cultures. The book consist of a series of studies of different cultures and their relationship to trees. The Kissia population in Western Africa are a vivid example of a tribal population whose lifestyle is characterised by dependence on trees, forests and their products. The Rai mountain farmers of Eastern Nepal do not separate the sacred and the secular. In the mountain forests of Japan, the lore where forgiveness is asked before killing plants or trees still persists , despite modernity , because of a cultural recognition of a commonality between humans, animals and plants. The mythology of the Huaorani tribe in the Ecuadorian rain forest is centred around a giant ceibo tree , which represents life, and their cosmology stresses the importance of trees and vegetation. They highly value the peach palm for food and though neither naturally grown or cultivated in the strict se nse , its propagation and hybridisation through domestication are a product of the Huaorani food habits and sociality. The future of indigenous forest communities is in question as social change due to economic development and population growth, as well as the degradation of the forest itself, approaches with some rapidity. Such peoples cannot escape change once exposed to life styles which alienate them from their traditions and present them with a new outlook on a modern world. This book is a useful contribution to the documenting of such cultures and their relationships to trees, from wh ich we ca n all learn .
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Page 40
Agr.oforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturel horticulture to produce a diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food , materials, timber and other products. It can range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter, shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected and productive system. Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a year in October, January, April and July. Subscription rates are: 18 per year in Britain and the E.U. (14 unwaged) 22 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling) 32 per year for institutions. A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on request for 3 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 3 .50 per copy including postage (4.50 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to ' Agroforestry Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Agroforestry Research Trust The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440), with the object to research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
11
Volume 6 Number 4
July 1998
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 6 Number 4
July 1998
Contents
2 6 12 28 33 37 News Forest Gardening: Perennial leaf crops Nut profile: Almonds Pest & disease series: Scab of apple & pear Propagation: Greenwood cuttings Book reviews:
The Fruits and Fruit Trees of Monticello I The Fruit Garden Displayed I The Seed Search I Principles of Ecology in Plant Production I Temperate Forage Legumes I The Pathology of Food and Pasture Legumes I Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals
40
Classified adverts
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be
tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a
qualified practitioner; somebody , somewhere , may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions : Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington , Totnes , Devon , Tag 6JT. U.K. Email: AgroResTr@ aol.com Website: http://members.aol.com/AgroResTr/homepage.html
Page 1
News
Commercial elderflowers
Richard Kelly , a farmer in the Cotswolds (UK) hopes to harvest the largest commercial crop of elderflower in Britain in the year 2000 . Two years ago he planted 60 acres of his organic farm near Stroud~ with 27,000 elder bushes. A nearby soft drinks company has promised to buy all the elderflowers he can produce and has helped invest in the business .
Ancient tree damage in pastures

The decline and death of many old pasture trees in Britain is linked to the intensive agriculture seen in the latter half of this century which has turned pastures into biologically impoverished areas. There is increasing evidence that inorganic fertilisers disrupt the connections between tree foots and fungal mycorrhizae , thereby making trees more susceptible to stress from pathogens and drought. Lime applications can also result in significant reductions in species diversity.
Ploughing damages root systems and fungal mycorrhizae , thereby causing premature dieback and reduced potential, and should not be undertaken too near to trees - not nearer than 2 metres . Grazing animals can damage trees by de-barking by gnawing. This appears to have become much more widespread in recent years , and there is circumstantial evidence that stock damage to trees is associated with mineral deficiencies caused by botanical impoverishment of pastures; trees are more likely to die from this damage when their fungal mycorrhizal connections have been disrupted by inorganic fertilisers . Source: ' Managing our ancient trees' , K Alexander et aJ; Tree News , Spring 1998.
Stockless rotations
EFRC has been experimenting with stockless rotations since 1987 , using fertility building legumes crops and green manures in rotations to supply nutrients for crops of cereals and potatoes. The general outcome has been positive, showing that stockless rotations can be profitable (at least over 3 cycles). Lower yields occurred with one green manure year in 4 than one in 2 (with a crop a beans acting as one green manure). More research is needed, particularly as there appeared to be a decline in soil organic matter over the rot~tion. These results are useful indicators for potential agroforestry systems which use nitrogen-fixing trees or shrubs: they confirm that a proportion of 25-40% of tree cover may provide enough nitrogen to sustain cropping; in addition , soil organic matter may be able to be maintained from the annual leaf and twig litter produced by the trees. Source: Elm Farm Research Centre Bulletin No. 37 (June 1998)
Tree planting on upland slopes

Self-seeded trees can be found growing in upland , heavily grazed areas, against all the odds. On an area of sloping land, be it mountain , stream bank or gully, the trees have a strategy not possible on flat land. They are forced to grow out , away from and over the slope; shoots then repeatedly grow and are then grazed, but stem length increases a little each year , and once a leaning stem begins to form , the buds on the down-side are protected and the tree grows over and away from the slope. When leading shoots are beyond the reach or grazing animals , growth c ontinues straight upwards, and the resultant trunk ends up sabre-shaped. Using this strategy, it should be possible to plant trees in upland areas which are unfenced. A slope of 35-40 0 or more is required - gentler slopes can be planted by seeking out the bumps and hollows and planting just above a drop. Upland slopes are often very stony , making the planting of bare-root
Page 2
trees very difficult; semi-standard pot-grown trees are a better bet , planted a little deeper then they were in the pots . The tree is planted at an angl e away from the slope and the lower side-shoots pruned off to minimise grazing. A spiral guard can be used for in itia l protection. Because this method requi re s no fencing and does not exclude stock, it holds great promise for the reintroduction of trees to areas which have been denuded for far too long . Source: 'S abres in the hills', Steve Watson ; Tree News , Spring 1998 .
Slugs and seedlings

Corry Ki lroy from County Kerry in Eire has written with some hints on protecting seedlings from slugs. Many species germinate well if sown in trays/boxes and left on an outdoor window sill - they gain winter or spring chilling but are away from soil level and most pests. If slugs and snails are still a problem in such a situation, Corry recommends either of the following two measures: Sit seed boxes on top of fruit crates with a severe overhang - they don't seem to like crawling upside down! Strips of stee l mesh reinforcement sheets used for strengthening concrete can be laid around trays. They only cost a few pounds per sheet. and are a sharp deterrent to slugs.
Trees as sound barriers

Trees and shrubs can be used to reduce noise levels by 5-10 decibels (ie reduce noise by approx imate ly 50% to the human ear). To do this requires careful planting design; general recommendations are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. For best results, plant close to the noise source rather than close to the area to be protected. When possible, use taller plants with dense foliage . Use plants with foliage which persists from ground level upwards . Everg reen plants will give better year-round protection. Plant trees/shrubs as close together as the species will allow and not be overly inhibited. To reduce noise of moderate vehicle traffic , plant: 6-15 m (20-50 ft ) wide belts of trees (W) with the roadside edge of the belt within 6-15 m (20-50 ft) of the road centre (0) using 2-2 .5 m (6-8 ft) shrubs near the road and behind use tree rows to a minimum of 4.5-6 m (15-20 tt) tall 7. To reduce noise of heavy vehicle traffic, plant: 20-30 m (65- 100 ft) wide belts of trees (W) with the roadside edge of the belt within 18-24 m (60-80 ft) of the road centre (D) using trees in the centre of the belt with a minimum height of 14 m (45 ft) 8. The buffer should be twice as long (L) as the distance from the noise source to the recipient (S). It should also extend an equal distance in both directions parallel to the source . Source: ' - Leaf- The Noise Out' , Inside Agroforestry , Spring 1998 .
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Frank Hemming from Hereford repo.rts ~uccessfUl ground. covers on his heavy ~ojl include C r e~ping com frey (Symphytum grandiflorumllbencum) and Good kmg Henry (ChenopodIUm bonus-henncus) . He (and I) would also be interested to hear of other readers' experiences of using ground cover
plants.
Ground covers
At our Schumacher forest garden in Dart in gton (now 4 years old), the following ground covers have been used in fairly large areas, and have proved excellent and minimum work; it is important for herbac.eous pe rennia ls to be fast growi ng in the spri n g to minimise the work needed in weeding:Ca/amintha grandiflara (Garden ca lamint) - quite fast to get going in spring and quick ly forms a
com plete cover in light shade.

G/echoma hedera cea (Ground ivy) - self-sown in several sh ady and semi-shady places. Grows well around other , la rger, plants . Bit too invasive for small gardens. Mahonia aquifofium (Oregon grape) + Duchesnea indica (False stra wberry) - Individually not nearly as good as whe n mixed. Oregon grapes are quite slow growing, evergreen and woody. False strawberri es are fast growing semi-evergreen perenn ials, spreadi ng via stolons li ke strawberries , but they too tend to become weedy over winler . Together (p lanted alternalely in each direction) though, these species form an excellent cover in shade (under deciduous trees) . Melissa officinafis (Lemon balm) - excellent in sun or semi -shade, on light or medium soils. Very quick to cover the grou nd in spring , and very little work to maintain. Mentha longifolia (Horsemint) and M.suaveofens (Applem int) - good in damp locations and heavy soils. Applem int is more or less evergreen here in Devon, making it even better. Invasive. Prunella vulgaris (Self heal) - excellent on heavy damp soils in semi shade. Self- seeds rampantly . Rubus 'Betty Ashburner' & R.tricolor - excellent and vigorous cover for sun or shade, though not many f ru its. Rubus calycinoides (E merald carpet) - an exce ll ent ve ry low creeper, needs to be used around and between other plants - fills gaps up well. Rubus nepafensis (Nepalese raspberry) - excellent in dry shade (u nderneath ash trees), making a good cover and fru iting well. In a sun nie r site, hav ing trouble competing with creeping buttercup. Saponaria officinafis (Soapwort) - slightl y slow to get going in sprin g (necessitating a good weed), but once growing it forms an excellent cover q uickly in semi- shade. Sedum rupestre (S.reffexum) & S.telephium (Orpine) - Good fast covers on we ll -drained ligh t soils, and both with excellent leaves for salads. Symphytum spp (Comfrey species) - all are excellent in light or heavy soils, in sun or part shade, including S.officinafis, S.orientalis and S.x upfandicum. The first two self-seed and spread more quickly than the third. Quick to get going in spring. Tiarella cordifolia (Foam flower) - very good in shady co ndition s, fast to get going in spring.
We have had less success with the following covers:
Campanufa portenschlagiana & C.poscharskyana - good in light soils, but were planted in medium texture soils and were swamped with other plants. Mentha piperita (Peppermi nt) & M.spicata (Spea rmin t) - not as vigo rous as the other mints and quite slow to get goi ng in spri ng, allowing weeds to co mpete we ll w ith them . On ce cover h as formed in late spring they are quite good though.
Page 4
Rumex acetosa (Garden sorrel) ~ fine in summer, but dies down completely in winter and quite slow to get going in spring, allowing weeds (notably creeping buttercup) to compete. A new planting of the Russian Rumex 'Schavef' (obtained from the HDRA) appears much more promising: more vigorous, larger leaved and evergreen. Tanacetum vulgare (Tansy) - OK in summer, though only casts a moderate shade. Weeds a problem in winter and spring.
Silvopasture recommendations
16 years of experience of grazing sheep in conifer/pasture silvopastures in the USA (Oregon) has led to the following principles for silvopasture design: Pasture production is greater when trees are planted in rows or other aggregates (leaves wide pasture interspaces) than when trees are spaced equally throughout the pasture. Tree growth is little affected by planting pattern, provided that each tree has at least one side exposed to full sun. Hence single and double rows of trees should grow at similar rates, though in triple rows the centra l row will eventually suffer reduced growth from competiti on. Rows of trees provide better animal protection from the elements than do single trees. Row silvopastures have a large amount of forest/pasture edge, which is very attractive to wildlife including rabbits and deer. Keeping the tree rows weed-free may then increase the problem of tree damage from browsing. Birds often use the trees as perches to survey the pasture alleys for insects and other food items. Heavy bodied birds can sometimes break the terminal leaders off trees. Birds faeces deposited near trees may contain weed seeds and thus introduce competition at an earty age. Livestock are genera lly easier to herd in row silvopaslu res than in cluster or even-spaced plantings. Their natural tendency is to drift parallel 10 barriers such as tree rows, making herding between rows fairly easy. However, they make be reluctant to cross between rows, especially if they are used to electric fencing (whe n they may perceive any hard edge as a potential fence line). Trees are planted too near to gates may make it hard to herd animals through it for the same reason. Livestock can be very difficult to herd in cluster or even ly-planted silvopastures (particu larly with conifers). Animals attempt to maintain a personal space between them and a potential predator such as a herder. As you approach them, they will walk away to maintain th is space. Once this space is re-established, they will often stop and look around to see what is happening. Once livestock pass behind a tree, they lose sight of you and assume that you can't see them, and so lose all interest in being herded. When you suddenly appear around a tree, they are spooked and attempt to flee. W ith a large group of livestock , some who can see you and some who can't, the situation can be interesting. Tree rows on steep slopes are often planted along contours for soil con servation. This may impede livestock movement - li vestock trails up hills are normally at a slight angle to the contour. It may be preferable to plant tree rows at a slight angle like this, which will still retain most of the soil conservation benefits. To summarise, Dr Sharrow's experience is that silvopastures planted in rows are far superior for livestock production than cluster or even-spaced plantings. The large amount of edge maintains high biodiversity. For new silvopastures he recommends double offset rows of trees ( 1.5-1 .8 m, 5-6 ft apart) with 12 m (40 tt) pasture alleys. Source: 'Designing Silvopastures with Animals in Mind', S H Sharrow. The Temperate Agroforeste r , Vol 6 No 3 (July 1998.)
Page 5
A.R.T. 1998/9 Catalogue

Our new catalogue will be produced at the end of August and sent oul then to all subscribers of Agroforestry N ews . We also send copies out to all who bought goods from us over the past year .
Forest Gardening:
Perennial leaf crops

Introduction
Perennial leaf crops - used either raw in salads or cooked - can form a significant part of a forest garden , usually in the herbaceous or ground cover layers but occasionally in the shrub or climber layers. These perennial crops often break into leaf early in the spring and many continue to produce edible leaves throughout the season until autumn. The advantages over growing 'standard' salad or green vegetable crops like lettuce, endive and spinach are several: they only have to be planted once , the season is longer, they are less prone to drought, wet weather, pest and disease damage. Particularly useful are evergreen or overwintering crops, which can be picked in winter at a time when there are few 'conventional' leafy crops available. Deciduous species which come into growth early in the spring are also very useful for cropping in the MayJune 'hungry gap '. Apart from limes , the trees and shrubs which furnish edible leaves have a short season, just while the leaves are young; but many of the herbaceous and evergreen perennials remain succulent for most or all of the year. Particularly well represented below are species from the Alliums (onion family) , Malvas (mallow family) and Rumex (sorrel family). Most folk can only cope with a limted supply of sorrel leaves , but those of the onion and mallow families can easily form the mainstay of leafy crops. When testing out new leaf crops , don't be unfairly harsh on them - not many of us would nibble lettuce leaves in the garden and declare them delicious! Many leaves which are edible when raw do not have a strong flavour (including lettuce) and are best made into a mixed salad with a dressing. Do your comparisons in this form and you'll find many new species which are surprisingly good. Many of the species below have other edible parts, eg . flowers , but this will be covered in a separate article . This article concentrates on: 1. Species whose leaves can be used in bulk - ie not very strongly flavoured. Herbs and flavouring leaves like minis (Mentha spp.) , bay (Laurus nobilis) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) are not included. Species which tolerate part or full shade. Species which demand a very sunny site are not included here , although of course they may fir into a forest garden in a sunny glade or at the base of a sunny hedge or fence.
2.
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J..1 Tolerates full sun
Tolerates partial or dappled shade - beneath an open canopy , near trees and hedges Tolerates full (deep ) shade under trees
Page 6
Trees and shrubs

Akebia qui nata . Akebi, Chocolate vine The only climbing species included here, which climbs many metres , even well up into trees . It can be kept smaller and bushy by pinching out the shools (and eating them) and training on a wall. fence . or through another shrub. The young leaves are relished for use in salads in Japan .
Crataegus monogyna - Hawthorn, May, Quick The familiar hedging tree/shrub wh ich can be cop piced or trimmed to keep it small. The young leaves and shools are edible in salads, though rather small and fiddly to harvest. Several books mention a nutty flavour to them , but they are bland to me.
Fagus sylvatica . Beech Familiar large tree which can be kept shrubby by trimming (it doesn't coppice.) The young bright green leaves are edible with a fine lemony flavour - good in salads. The season is quite short 2 weeks or so.
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Oxydendrum arboreum Sorrel tree A large shrub or small tree which ca n be kept small by trimming or coppici ng. The young leaves are tend er and sorrel-like , suitable for sa lads and coo king . Tilia cordata - Small-leaved lime A large tree, easily kept shrubby b y co ppicing every 510 years. Tolerate s plenty of shade. It produces very nice edible leaves, mild and somewhat mucilaginous excellent in salads when young. T.platyphyllos (large-leaved lime) and T.x vulgaris can be used in the same way. Ulmus glabra - Wych elm A large tree which can be kept shrubby by trimming; not quite as susceptible to Dutch elm disease as the English elm. The young leaves are edible, being mild and slightly hairy - a reasonable salad leaf. Other elm species have similar uses, including the De-d resistant u.pumUa .
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Perennials
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Allium cernuum - Nodding onion
Forms a spreading clump , 45 cm (18") tall by 25 cm ( 10") wide; comes into growth in early spring. The leaves have a strong onion flavour and can be harvested through to early autumn.
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Allium moly - Golden garlic

Easily grown in most soils , reaching 30 cm (1 ft) tall and 10 cm (4") wide . Leave s have a pleasant mild garlic flavour .
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Allium neapolitanum - Daffodil garlic Forms a spreading clump , 25 cm (8 ") tall; comes into growth in autumn and the excellent leaves, mild garlic flavoured , can be harvested over the winter until the plant dies down in mid summe r. May need a sheltered position in co ld parts of the UK.
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Allium sativum - Rocambole A type of garlic (which can be grown as a perennial) which tolerates some shade. II produces fine ch ive-like leaves between autumn and spring, dying down in summer for a few month s.
Allium shoenoprasum - Chives Well -known herb which can produce oni on-flavoured leaves from early spring to late autumn . The leaves can be used raw or cooked. Allium tuberosum - Garlic chives Also quite well known, forming a clump 40 cm ( 16 ~) tall and 30 cm (1 ft) wide. The leaves have a garlic flavour and are available over a long season.
JlAllium triquetrum - Three cornered leek Grows in deep shade but prefers partial shade, and grows 35 cm (14 ~) tall. Leaves are milder than ramsons and excellent in salads. Comes into growth in mid-autumn leaves can be harvested throughout the winter - and dies down in early summer. Naturalised in the SW of Britain , but not hardy in the colder paris (to -10"C). Allium urslnum - Ramsons, Wild garlic Grows well in shady sites, self-seeding and sometimes invasive, growing 30 cm (1 tt) high. Comes into growth in early spring, dying down after midsummer, so a good source of early leaves. The raw leaves are strongly garlic flavoured; cooked they are much milder. Brassica o/eracea subspecies - Cabbage, Kale, Broccoli Perennial forms exist of these three brassicas which like the same conditions as other brassicas. They tolerate light shade. B.o.'Tree Collards' produces edible young leaves and shoots, cooked and tasting like cabbage; B.o .acephala 'Da ubenton ' is a perennial kale , with good cooked leaves; B.o.botrylis aparagoides 'N ine Star Perennial Broccoli' produces small white cauliflower-like heads in spring and numerous sides hoots after (may live only 2-4 years). All these, unfortunately, are v ery prone to caterpillar damage like other brassicas. They grow 120-200 cm (4-6 ft) high. Campanula species Most or all of these have edible leaves , particularly early in the season; in the summer many of them turn bitter and are best avoided. I ha ve yet to find one which I would term delicious. Not all species tolerate partial shade; those that do include C.Jatifolia and C.persicifofia. Chenopodium bonus-henricus - Good King Henry A long-lived perennial, easily grown and a possible ground cove r on heavy soils. Grows about 30 cm (1 tt) high and wide . The young leaves and shoots are edible, best cooked; it was often cultivated as a vegetable in the past. Chrysosplenlum alternifolium & C.oppositifolium - Golden Saxifrage Two perennials which like a moist or boggy soil, forming a good ground cover about 20 cm (S") tall which spread freely . The leaves are edible in salads or cooked, best in early spring or autumn - can be somewhat bitter in summer.
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I Claytonia perfoliata (Mantia perloliata) Miner's Lettuce

Very good salad plant, growing in the deepest shade. It is included here although it is an annual, but it selfseeds so readily that once planted, you'll have it perennially. Grows about 15 cm (6") high and stays green over winter. Likes acid soils , good in dry shade. The leaves are mild and excellent in salads , available all year round.
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C/aytonia siblrica (Mantia sibirica) Pink Purslane Very good sa lad plant , growing in the deepest shade. An evergreen perennial, 20 cm (8- ) high which self-sows freely and forms a good ground cover . Needs a moist soil . The leaves have a mitd beetroot flavour and can be harvested all year round .
J.lClay onia v/rginica - Spring beauty Another woodland perennial which provides nice beetrootflavoured leaves through the winter. Likes a moist soil and grows 20 cm (8") high .
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Crambe maritima - Seakale Another brassica, which likes a well drained sail, not too acid. Grows about 60 cm (2 tt) high and wide . The young leaves are eaten, usually cooked; traditionally, the young shoots are blanched then cooked before eating. Cryptotaenia japonica Japanese parsley, Mitsuba A short-lived perennial often cultivated in Japan. Grows to 1 m (3 tt ) tall and 60 cm (2 tt) wide; prefers part or full shade. The leaves can be used raw and cooked as a delicate parsley-like flavouring. Foeniculum vulgare Fennel Well known herb which likes light soi ls, with flower spikes 150180 cm (5-6 tt) high . Self-sows readily if the seed is not harvested for use itself. The leaves have an aniseed flavour and are excellent raw in salads and cooked urbanum - Wood avens A woodland perennial growing 50 cm (20 ) high which likes a humus-rich soil. The leaves can be harvested and cooked - it was formerly widely cultivated as a potherb . Hemerocallis species - Oaylilies The young shoots and leaves of most species of daylily are edible, usually cooked as a tasty vegetable (sweet fla vo ured , much appreciated in Japan) . Many can be used for ground cover.
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J.!LamlUm album - White deadnettle Often found growing wild , reaching 1 m (3 tt) high. This is one of the best deadnetUes for edible leaves , which are mild are good in sala ds. Prefers shade and a moist soil.
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Lev/st/cum offleinale - Lovage A well known culinary herb which comes into growth early in spring . Grows to 180 cm (6 tt) high when flowering. The leaves and shoots can be used in place of celery in any recipe, with a similar but distinctive flavour; small amounts in salads, but larger in cooked recipes . Malva a/cea A robust perennial reaching 1 m (3 tt) ta ll and 60 cm (2 tt) across, easily cultivated. Produces excellent mild leaves for sa lads from mid-spring to midsummer . Self-seeds.
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Malva moschata - Musk mallow Thrives in part shade , growing 75 cm (30") tall and 50 cm (20") wide. Easy 10 cultivate. An excellent summer salad planl with mild leaves which are harvested from mid-spring until midsummer. Self-seeds . Malva pusllla Growing 30 cm (1 tt) tall and wide, this annual produces very good mild leaves which can be harvested in quantity for use in salads. Self-sows freely. Malva sylvestrls - Common mallow A straggly plant, a short-lived perennial in cultivation , growing 1 m (3 ft) high, producing nice edible leaves. Those of the cultivar 'Mau riliana' are reputed to have a better flavour. Self-seeds and prefers a not too acid soil.
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J.lMalva verticillata - Chinese mallow, Whorled mallow An annua l which can reach 2 m (6 tt) high, but included here as it self-seeds free ly in wood land cond itions . Produces very good mitd flavoured large leaves for salads. The leaves are easy to pick and reach 30 cm (1 tt) across! The form 'C rispa ' has curled leaf edges.
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Myrrhis odorata - Sweet cicily Likes a site in part shade or sun and a moist soil, grows easily to 1 m (3 tt) tall and wide. Comes into growth very early in the year, providing aniseed-flavoured leaves for 10 months or so. These are excellent in salads and can be cooked with acid fruits to reduce the need for sug ar. Oxalis acetosella - Wood sorrel Leafs out early in spring, leaves are lemony and delicious in sa lads into the summer (use in small amounts because of oxalic acid) . Forms a low clump about 30 cm (1 tt) across. Oxyria digyna - Alpine sorrel. Mountain sorrel A perennial of Alpine regions, which surprisingly tolerates deep shade, it is happy under large deciduous trees and still se lf-seeds there. It spreads its seeds free ly. Grows about 30 cm (1 ttl high and wide. It produces perhaps the nicest sorrel-type leaves, lemony with a melting texture , which can be used in salads or cooked recipes (in moderation).
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J.lPeltaria alliacea - Garlic cress An evergreen perennial forming clumps 30 cm (1 ttl high and spreading freely. The leaves , with a garlic & cress flavour , can be harvested almost all year round; dies down for a few weeks in summer after setting seed. J.lPrunella vulgaris - Self-heal A perennial growing 25 cm (10-) tali, with flowers much-loved by bees. Happy in both sun and shade as long as the soil is moist , and self-seeding vigorously. The young leaves are mild (but slightly bitter) and are quite acceptable in salads or can be cooked. Pulmonaria officinalis - lungwort An evergreen perennial, making good ground cover, forming a clump 30 cm (1 tt) tall and wide. Doesn't like dry conditions , but tolerates sun in a rich soil. Leaves are somewhat bland and hairy, OK in salads .
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Reichardia picroides An evergreen roseUe-forming perennial growing 30 cm (1 tt ) high and 25 cm (10 R ) wide, liking partial summer shade but winter sun - ideal near or beneath deciduous trees. On ly hardy in milder areas , it produces tender mild leaves for use in salads . Rumex acetosa - Sorrel Easy to grow plant. growing 60 cm (2 tt) high and 30 cm (1 tt) wide . Leaves are lemony and delicious in salads or can be cooked (but used in moderation). A largeleaved form , 'SchaveI' , is usually evergreen and can be harvested all year round . Rumex acetosella - Sheep's sorrel Often found growing wild in Britain , this sorrel forms a spreading clump , 30-40 cm (12-16 -) tall , which self-seeds readily . Quite happy in part shade. The leaves are much like other sorrels and add an acid flavou r to salads or cooked foods (used in moderation) . Rumex patienta - Herb patience, Sorrel spinach Grows to 2 m (6 tt) high , a very hardy and easily grown plant , coming into growth ea rl y in the yea r. The flavou r of the leaves is milder than sorrel so they can be used in larger quantities in sala ds or cooked dishe s. Rumex scutatus French Sorrel Another sorrel wh ich prefers light soi ls, growing abo ut 30 cm (1 tt) high and wide, form ing a reasonable gro und cover, though it is not early into growth in the spring . Lea ves are lemon-flavoured and very good in salads or cooked (used in moderation). Sangu;sorba minor - Salad Burnet An evergreen perennial of light calcareous soils , but tolerates mosl condilions , growing 60 cm (2 tt) high and 30 cm (1 tt) wide . The young leaves can be used all yea r round in salads, with a mild cucumbe r-like flavou r. Sedum telephium One of the few sed um s which quick to start growing in spring 45 cm (16 ") high . The leaves which makes Ihem an excellent
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is happy in light shade , this large-leaved species is and makes a good ground cover o n light soils. Grows are mild fla vou red but ha ve a delightful succu lence basis for or addilion to salads .
J...lUrtica dioica - Stinging nettle A very well known perennial weed, which you almost certai nl y won 't need to cultivate. The young leaves and shoots in spring are good coo ked as a vege table or with other foods, and are very nulritious.
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Viola odorata - Sweet Violet The sweet violet is a low growi ng (10 em , 4-) evergreen woodland perennial which spread s freely to form large clu mp s. Easy to grow and tolerates most cond ition s, maki ng a reasonable grou nd cover. The leaves can be used in quantity in sa lads , be ing mild and available all year round .
References
Fe rn , K: Plants for a Future . Perm anent Publications, 1997 . Larkcom , J : The Salad Garden . Frances Lincoln. 1984. Sa nya l, S: Edibles from the Orchards , Fields and Forests of Japan. Fruit Gardener , Vol 25 , No 6. Whitefield , P : How To Make a Forest Garden. Permanent Publications .
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Almonds
Introduction
The almond (Prunus dulcis - formerly P .amygdaJus, P.communis, Amygdalus communis) has been cultivated for its edible seed since ancient times . From it's centre of origin in Central Asia, it was djsse~inated to all ancient civilisations in Asia (2000 BC) , Europe (350 Be) and North Africa (700 AD) . Almonds were introduced into California in the Spanish Mission period , but significant plantings made there only after the Gold rush.
World production of almonds is concentrated in three regions: Asia (Iran . Turkey , Syria , Iraq , Pakistan , Afghanistan, NW India - all grown by traditional practices, also Israel , Tadjikstan and Uzbekistan); the Mediterranean (Italy, Spain, France , Greece , Portugal) ; and California. Tota l world production is around 300,000 tonnes per year, with California accounting for 70% of the world almond production.
Description
The almond is a smell deciduous tree growing 6 10 m (2033 ft) high (occasionally more). upright branching when young , of bushy habit with a broad crown when older. It is part of the Rosaceae . Leaves are longpointed and finely toothed, 712 cm (3-5 ") long and 24 cm (0. 751.5~) wide , light green above and shiny. White or pink flowers are produced singly or in pairs with or (usually) before the foliage , and are 25 cm (12 ") across. Because of the low winter chilling requirement , almond flowers very early (January to March or April , depending of the selection and locality). The fruit is oblong, 3-6 cm (1.22y., " ) long, consisting of a kernel within a pitted shell , which itself is within a leathery hull; the hull is downy, and the tough flesh splits at maturity to expose the pitted seed. The seed can be thick or thinshelled , and is flattened and brown ; size ranges between 22-45 mm long by 1525 mm wide by 1020 mm thick. Within the shell is a single flattened kernel, 20-30 mm long by 1216 mm wide by 512 mm thick. Fruits occur mainly on short spurs . Almonds are fairly coldhardy - about as hardy as peaches : normally regarded as hardy to zone 7 (15C , 5 F) but in some selections , temperatures as low as 20"C (4" F) may be tolerated when fully dormant (zone 6) ; the limiting factor in growing it is the frostsensitivity of the flowers and young fruit. Almonds need only 100700 hours of winter c hilling (ie below 7.2" C , 45F), hence come into flower very early in spring .
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Sweet almonds, the type normally grown for fruit. are from va r. dulcis; Bitter almonds , from var. amara, have nuts wh ich are bitter 10 the taste and poisonous to eat; they are moslly grown for oil production.
Uses
Almonds are a concentrated source of energy, supplying significant amounts of fats, protein and fibre . The average nutritional content of almond kernels is (amounts per 100g):
Water
Protein Fat
Carbohydrate Fibre Sodium Potassium
4 .7 9 18.7 9 54 . 1 9 19.6g 2.7 9 4 mg 770 mg
Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Calcium Phosphorus Iron Magnesium
0.24 mg 0.67-0.92 mg
3.5-4.6 mg 234 mg 475-500 mg 4-5 mg 625 mg
Almonds are used in sweets, baked products and confectioneries. Nuts are available in-shell, shelled . blanched , roasted, dry roasted , as a paste (marzipan) , a butter and cut into various shapes.
Almond oil from the kernels is sweet and scented , valued for marinades and cook ing , . used as a flavouring agent in baked goods , perfumery and medicines; and used for cos metic creams and lotions . Sweet almond kernels contain 4455% oil, 67% of which is unsaturated oleic. Green almonds - whole fruits picked in early summer before the shell forms and in which the kernel is very soft and tender - are popular as dessert in almond-growing countries . They are sometimes preserved in sugar or the young fresh kernels in spirit (eau-de-vie). Milk of almonds (Sirop d' orgeat) is a refreshing drink made from crushed almonds in France , and regarded as having medicinal properties. The gum which exudes from damaged stems is edible . It has also be used as a glue . The seeds and/or the oil have long been used in traditional medicines , being alterative , astringent. carminative, cyanogenetic , demulcent, discutient, diuretic, emo lli ent, laxative, lithotriptic, nervine, sedative, stimulant and tonic. Used in cancer remedies and for asthma , skin complaints and ulcers to name a few. The leaves are used to treat diabetes in Chinese medicine . The oil is often used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy . The twigs and branches have been found to ha ve a repellent effect on flies (including the house fly) and on human head lice. Bitter almonds are used for the production of almond oil and almond essence for flavouring only; the bitterness is due to high levels of hydrogen cyanide . The kernels contain 38-45% oil , and a majority of the almond oil used comes from bitter almonds as this is a cheaper source. The dry fibrous hulls left over after nuts are hulled are a valuable livestock food - they contain 25% sugar. The oil from seeds is an excellent lubricant and is still used in delicat e mechanisms such as watches . Va rious dyes can be obtained : green from the leaves; dark grey-green from the fruit ; and yeJlow from
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the roots and leaves. The burnt shells were formerly used as an absorbent for coal gas. The timber, usually only available is sma ll amounts, is used for fuel. carving, cabinet making and turnery. It is purplish-brown, strong and durable. It is an early bee plant - particularly bumble bees in Britain - being a source of nectar and pollen.
Cultivation
Almonds, like olives, are adapted to drought and poor soils, and until the last 150 years orchards were grown on marginal soils without irrigation because they could survive and produce under these conditions. Initial Californian plantings copied these tactics , with trees grown on droughttolerant almond-seedling rootstocks, and orchards planted on hillsides without irrigation. Growers soon found that almonds grew well on fertile, deep, well-drained soil, and responded to irrigation and fertilisat ion so that yield s increased by 100-200%. Of course, more intensive cult ivation enta ils much more work, makes trees more susceptible to pests and diseases , uses water resources and ferti li sers (usually oil-based). Ends do not always justify the means, and in dry regions almonds can be grown as a very low-maintenance crop as long as lower yie lds are tolerated. Almonds are best not grown near peaches, as they can hybridise and produce bitter nuts.
Rootstocks
In arid areas of the Mediterranean and the Caucas us. almonds were traditionally sown as seed nuts, and later budded in situ with improved selections. This method is still carried on today . as it produces better rooted plants which are we ll adapted to the dry, rocky, ca lcareous soil conditions. In most other regions, seedling or clonal rootstocks are desirable. The most common of use are: Almond seedling Produce vigorous, deeply tap-rooted trees requiring a well-dra ined soil. Well adapted to drought and calcareous conditions. Poorly adapted to wet and waterlogged conditions. Susceptible to Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens), honey fungus (Armillaria melfea) and crown rot (Phytophthora spp.). Also very susceptible to nematodes. Slow growing when young (delayi ng bearing) but with age trees can become large and very long-lived. 'Miss ion' seedlings are sometimes used in California because of the general uniformity and vigour of the seedlings. Peach seedling Peach seedlings are the dominant rootstock in California and several other regions where irrigation is used and where soils are slightly acidic. Produces vigorous, somewhat shallow-rooted trees with more fibrous roots; productive at an earlier age than almond rootstock. Well adapted to moist (irrigated if necessary) but well drained, sl ightly acidic so ils. Poorly adapted to drought and calcareous soils. Slightly less susceptible to crown gall, honey fungus and crown rot than almond rootstock. Seed lings of 'Lovell', 'Nemaguard' and 'Nema red ' (red leaved) are used in California. The latter two are resistant to root knot nematodes. Peach-almond hybrids These have been developed recently for commercia l almond orchards. They have very vigorous root systems. deeply rooted and well anchored. They are well adapted to drought, calcareous soils; are long-lived and precocious; but are susceptible to crown gall and honey fungus. Trees are vigorous, larger, and yield more heavily than trees on almond or peach rootstocks. Best used where trees are
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not to be irrigated, although GF 677 is better adapted to wet soils.
Adafuel. Vigorous recent Spanish introduction . Young shoots are intensely red . Easily propagated by hardwood cullings. GF 557 : Resistant to root-knot nematode (Me/oidogyne spp. ); used in France . Propagated by hardwood cuttings. GF 667 : A peach-almond hybrid , now the dominant almond and peach rootstock used in France and the Mediterranean . Tolerates drought and wet soils , also to crown rot and root knot nematodes . Compatible with most varieties . Propagated by softwood cuttings . Hansen 536 & Hansen 2168 have been released by the University of California as vigorous root knot nematode-immune rootstocks . They are tolerant to drought and calcareous soi ls, are well anchored and deep rooted . Propagated by hardwood cuttings . Marianna plum Three clones, Marianna 2623 and Marianna 2624 in California, and GF 8-1 in Europe, are used as almond rootstocks particu larly in heavy, poorly drained soils or to replant in honey fungus infected spots (the laUer two selections are resistant to honey fungus). Trees are shallow rooted and poorly anchored, producing trees of moderate vigour dwarfed to about 65% of trees on almond or peach stocks. Poorly adapted to drought but tolerant of waterlogging . Not all almond cultivars are compatible, including Ferraduel and Nonpareil. Propagated by hardwood cuttings. Other plum rootstocks Many plum stocks have reasonably good compatibility with almond , but are rarely used in dry summer areas because of lack of drought tolerance . In wetter areas though , like Britain , they are probably the best choice of rootstock . Plum rootstocks do make almonds hardier. Damas: Good compatibility. To lerates waterlogging , resistant to bacterial canker. Propagated by root cuttings . Ishtara: A recent French introduction , resistant to root knot nematodes , tolerant to honey fungus . Myran: A very vigorous plum-peach hybrid developed in France . Tolerant of wet soils and honey fungus, resistant to root knot nematodes. Good compatibility . Propagate by hardwood cuttings . Myrobalan: Used to a limited extent in heavy, poorly drained soil conditions. Tolerant of alkaline soils and some drought. Trees are low in vigour. SI Julien A : Good compatibility. Tolerates some drought and waterlogging , resistant to honey fungus . Propagated by hardwood cuttings.
Siting and growth

Almonds tolerate most well-drained soils, but are most produc tive on loamy , deep , uniform soils . They need a sunny site to crop well , although they will tolerate partial shade. Spacing of trees depends on several factors , most importantly the vigour of the cultivar/rootstock combination , the fertility of th e soil and the growing region . Wider spacings are used for vig orous combinations, and on fertile irrigated soils. Generally, fertile soils require spacings of about 7.3 m (24 tt) or more , while on less fertile soils 6 m (20 H) is appropriate . Orchard plantings are usually square or hexagonal (triangle or diamond). A hexagonal planting has all trees equally distant from each other and allows for about 15% more trees per unit area, and increased production in the early years . Distance between trees 6m(201t) 7.3 m (24 It) No. trees square 109/acre, 273/ hectare 75/acre, 18S/hectare No. trees hexagonal 126/ acre , 315/hectare 871ac re , 218/hectare
Planting on a North slope may be deSirable, as this will delay flowering for 1-2 weeks. All frost susceptible areas must be avoided .
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Almonds can be planted in large pots, which enables plants to be kept under cover during the winter and flowering in spring - thus avoiding frost and peach leaf curl damage. Many commercial orchards are managed by allowing annual weeds to grow as a ground cover, which is mown regularly. Other options are to grow a nitrogen-fixing cover crop like clover (white or subterranean) which is mown. A 2 m (6) wide weed-free strip around the trees is the norm , and mulches can be used instead of the usual herbicides.

Commercial orchards are heavily fed with soluble sources of nitrogen (often at 100 Kg = 220 Ib per acre , 250 Kg = 550 lb per hectare) and other fertilisers to maximise nut yields; however, this can lead to many other prob lems, incl uding excessive sappy growth which is susceptible to pests and diseases. It is worth noting t hat nut yields with no added nitrogen can often reach 50-60% of those of heavily fertilised trees - alm onds are well adapted to poor and impoverished soi ls. Additions of compost and mulches sho uld suffice on a small scale. Irrigated commercia l orchards are supplied with a total of about 1 metre (39") of water, with most app lied between June and September. Water stressed trees yield less and smaller nuts, and the nuts are more susceptible to hull splitting.
Pruning
Formative pruning and the pruning of bearing trees is standard practice in comme rcial orchards. In damp climates like Britain , pruning is probably best minimised to avoid fungal diseases and bacterial canker , and pruning in winter avoided completely . Any large cuts should be treated with a protective paint or biological control (Trichoderma viride). "
l -year-old spur
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2-year-old wood
Formative pruning
In the spring after new trees are planted, their tops should be pruned back to 90 cm (3 tt) from the ground (unless already feathered above this height). During the first year, select the main limbs that will form the framework of the tree. These should be selected with as much space between them as possible, ideally 3 branches radiating at 1200 (viewed from above) around the main trun k. If possible one of these shou ld face into the wind .
Flower buds
mond bearing habit
The angle at wh ich limbs are attached to the trunk should be near to 45 - if too vertical, the limb will be likely to split.

Between April and August, pinch oul the lips of all other branches arising from the trunk except for the main limbs ; in August, cut out all these other branches back 10 the trunk. Just the main limbs and any small branches arising from them are left growing . This method of pruning (called 'long pruning') allows the tree to develop a natural branching habit; fruilwood develops quickly and the canopy, relatively uncontrolled , grows rangy. Long-pruned trees like this may well need their main limbs tying every few years : a rope is placed as high as possible encompassing all the main 'imbs , to minimise the risk of limb breakage. During the third and fourth seasons, app ly the same strategy as in year 2, moving a level higher in the tree. Aim to create a full goblet-shaped canopy.
Pruning bearing trees

Almonds produce most fruit on spurs which grow a little each year , typically living for about 5 years . The main aim of pruning mature trees is to stimulate renewal of fruiting wood , and to allow light into the canopy. Annual prun ing is recommended, and 10-20% of the fruiting wood should be removed every year: this usually involved 4-6 thinning cuts of 4-8 cm (1'h_3 diameter branches of older unproductive wood which is removed back to a lateral which is younger and more productive . A few well -spaced water sprouts, which will bend out when they start to crop, are left to develop new fruitwood. Some thinn ing of wood in the centre of the tree may also be needed to allow light penetration. Any dead wood should also be cut out. Annual pruning is best carried out immediately after harvest in August, September or October.
ft )
Flowering & pollination

Almonds flower early in the year and are susceptible to frost damage. The flowering period of almonds varies by up to 6 weeks, with early flowering cultivars more susceptible to damage. Late and very-late flowering cultivars flower around mid-March or even early April. From flowering time onwards, temperatures below _3C (26'hF) can seriously affect many cultivars (most of the Californian ones, for example, with almost all flowers/nutlets damaged). Cross pollination is essential for most cultivars - something the early Californian growers did not understand and which led to erratic and poor yields . At least two , preferably three compatible cultivars should be grown together in orchard plantings, using whole rows of each variety alternately. For a particular variety, the earlier bloom usually has a higher percentage set than does the later bloom on the tree. Hence a main crop variety is better pollinated with another flowering slightly before it than with one flowering just after it. Best pollination occurs with alternating rows of varieties - ie 50%:50% or 33%:33%:33% of each variety. The time of flowering may change from year to year , depending on conditions and location , but the sequence of floweri ng of cuUivars changes little. Several self-fertile cultivars are available, but none of these is well-suited to commercial cultivation. Also, these cultivars need warmer temperatures for fertilisation to occur. Temperatures of 15C (60F) or more are needed for good pollen shedding . Pollination is heavily dependent on bees, and good crops require plentiful nearby bee acti vity. In warm regions , hives (38 per hectare , 1-3 per acre) are best placed in almond orchards at flowering time . There is evidence that warm sunny weather immediately after flowering increases both nut set and nut size. In cooler regions like Britain, flowering occurs very early in spring, before hive bees are likely to be flying much. Here, wi ld (bumble) bees are more like ly to the pollinators, and these should be encouraged wherever possible . Artificial pollination , by hand using a camel hair or rabbit tail brush , may be needed in cool regions ; all flowers should be pollinated if possible when attempting this .
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Almond varieties fall into specific groups ('pollen incompatibility groups ') within which crosspollination does not occur. Flower induction for the following year takes place around August. On bearing trees , flower buds typically develop on short spurs 5- 10 cm (2-4 ~ ) long , which extend each year from the vegetative term inal bud . Flower buds are formed in the axils of leaves. Almonds need only 300-600 hours of winter chilling , after which temperatures of 4-10C (40-50F) induce top growth to start. The typ ica l "June dropH usually occu rs in April and May, when unpo lli nated and unfertilised fruitlets drop off.
Irrigation
As mentioned above , almonds do not need irrigation to grow and produce crops ; but irrigation in dry regions (especia ll y when combined with fertilisation) can double or triple yields. Irrigation should never be necessary in Britain; even in Spa in on ly 5% of orcha rd s are irrigated. Wate r stress in summer can reduce shoot growth and reduce yields by slowing hull , shell and kernel enlargement. Too much water, on the other hand , can damage roots by depriving them of oxygen and by creating conditions favourable to fungi like Phytophthora crown and root rot.
Harvesting & yields

The traditional method is to shake trees over canvas sheets . Mechanical harvesting is now standard practice in Ca lifornian and other large commercial orchards , using shaking machines and pickup equipment (necessitating level orchards) . Hand harvesting is usually carried out a few weeks earlier, with nuts still slightly green , to minimise the labour needed to gather early windfalls ; this has the advantage of greatly reducing the chance of nut infestation by the na vel orangeworm . All parts of the almond fruit reach their final size months before harvest; in the kernel , however, dry matter continues to accumulate . The first sign that the nut is maturing is an indented U V" followed by a spl it along the suture of the hull. Harvesting is usually 30-45 days after this point, during which time the sp lit hull continues to open , exposing the nut inside . A separation (abscission) zone forms between the fruit and the stalk , and when fully formed the nut is attached to the tree only by a few remaining fibres: these are broken during harvest shaking , and the nut falls from the tree. Time of ha rvesting varie s over a period of 2% months (mid July to ea rly October) , depending on the cultiva r. A lthough the time of harvest may vary from year to year, the sequence of maturit y for varieties rarely cha nges. To determ ine when to harvest. shake a branch with your hands and if nearly all nuts fall , then harvest immediately (as long as the weather is dry) . The nuts in the centre of the tree are last to ripen. Nuts ripen earlier on non-irrigated trees than on irrigated Irees. Late-maturing varieties require a long growing season and are more susceptible to inclement harvesting weather. Ease of knocking nut off the tree is a requisite for efficient harvesting on any but a very small scale ; the complete removal of nuts without causing tree injury is essential. Nuts left on the tree after harvest can harbour pests like the Navel orangeworm. Yields for a particular variety vary from year to year and are dependent on a host of factors including location, pollenising co ndi tio ns , orchard management etc. Crop ping usually begins by about the 4th year after planting . The approximate ranges given here vary from non-fertilised, nonirrigated trees to highly irrigated and fertilised commercial orcha rd s; yields are those of nut kernels:
Page 18
Years fr planting 4-6 7 12 12-15
Yield per tree 0.5-2 .5 Kg (1-5 Ib) 3.5-1 8 Kg (7-40 Ib) 5-18 Kg ( 11-40 Ib )
Yield per acre Yield per hectare 37-188 Kg (82-410 Ib) 92-470 Kg (205- 1025 Ib ) 260-1350 Kg ( 570-2970 Ib) 650-3375 Kg (1425-7425 Ib) 375-1350 Kg (825-2970 Ib) 937-337 5 Kg (2060-7425 Ib)
Afler harvesting and hulling (by machine commercially ; eas ier before the hulls are too dry), nuts for drying are usually dried in a blown air stream at 54C (130F) for 610 hours (more if the nuts are very wet) to achieve a nul moistu re of 7%. Shelling machines are extremely expensive and only feasib le on a large scale. Dried in-shell nuts can be stored for up to 20 months al OC (32F) or 16 months at 1QC (50F) or 8 months at 20C (68 F). Commercial in shell nuts are usually bleached with su lp hur dioxide to make their appearance more attractive . Shell softness or hardness varies and is related to the shelling yield (or percentage of kerne l with in the whole nut); classifications are: Ve ry hard shelled = 20 25% kernel Hard she ll ed = 2535% kernel Semi hard shelled = 3545% kernel Soft shelled = 45-55% kernel Paper shelled = 556 5% kernel Kerne l size varies : small kernels yield approximately 400-450 kerne ls per Kg (8801000 per Ib) ; medium size kernels 350400 kernels per Kg (775880 per Ib); la rge kernels 270350 kernels per Kg (600775 per Ib). The kernel colour also varies from light to dark. Diffe rent cultivars produce different percentages (which varies from year to year) of double kernels. Comme rciall y, the presence of double kernels is considered undesirable mainly because of difficulties in handling and processing. However, there is some evidence thai trees which produce double kernels may well yield a higher total weight of kernels.
Nut uses
For products in which almond kernels are visible , those which are uniform , fairly flat , and light co loured are preferred . 'Nonpa reil' is used the most, also 'Kapareil' , 'Milow' and 'Jeffries'. Other manufactured products require kernels which are easil y blanchable , and use 'Carme l', 'Ha rvey', 'Merced ', 'Norman ', 'Price ', 'Thompson '. ' Jordano lo' and 'Ne Plus Extra ' have large elongated kernels that are used for panni ng (covering the kernel with a sugar glaze). In shell nuts need uniform, well-sealed she ll s, are blancha bl e , and with little worm damage: ' Peerless ' is the main variety used .
Pests
Note that hard shelled cultivars are generally much more pest res istant than soft or paper shelled cuUivars.
Navel orangeworm
Amye/ois t(ansitella . A principle cause or wormy kernels in N.America , and the most important pest in Cal iforni a. Adult moths lay eggs on fruits or nearby twigs , and the larvae infest deve loping nuts, which they can tota ll y consume . Susceptibilit y va rie s between cu liivars . The most important control measure is to remove mummified nuts in winter , as these are the sites of overwintering . Two parasitic wasps also provide some control in California .
Peach twig borer

Anarsia lineatella . Another serious pest of almond (and peach) , causing of wormy kernels. Found both in N.America and in Europe and the Mediterranean area . Ad ul t moths lay eggs on fruits and leaves , and th e larvae feed on leaves , buds and shoots . Peach twig borers overwinter as hibernating
Page 19
larvae, usually under the thin bark in limb crotches on 1-3 year old wood . Commercial control is usually via organophosphate insecticides - dangerous substances. Safer control can be achieved by using the biological control BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) sprayed at pink bud and again at full flower.
Squirrels
May seriously damage growing and mature nuts. Control by trapping or shooting is most sound .
Bird.s
magpies , starlings , blackbirds and woodpeckers may all eat almonds and damage trees. Bullfinches can be a problem in Britain , but they only take a small proportion of the crop . Frightening by using sound or visual cues is m ost appropriate .
Crows~
Diseases
Leaf curl
Taphrina deformans. Well known as peach leaf curl , this fungus affects leaves which curl and distort, falling off to be replaced with new leaves often unaffected . Copper fungicides as leaf swell and just before leaf fall control the disease ; a better strategy is to choose unsusceplible cultivars . Growing trees against a wall and protecting from rain for two months in spring prevents infection.
Brown rot blossom blight

Monilinia laxa. A fungus which infects flowers in damp weather, causing them to wither, and then spreading to the shoot or spur where a canker is formed ; the shoot often dies back to this point. Wind and rain splash spread the spores . Occurs in most regions , worst when rains or fog are frequent during flowering. To avoid using fungicides in damp reg ions, resistant cuftivars should be grown if possible .
Shot hole
Stigmina carpophifa (or Wifsonomyces carpophilus). A fungus which causes lesions on leaves and fruit, leading to holes in leaves . Occurs in most regions , worst when there is frequent and prolonged spring rainfall. An early infestation may lead to heavy shedding of leaves and fruit drop. Not usually serious enough for action to be taken , though a copper fungicide in early spring can be used.
Bacterial canker and blast

Pseudomonas syringae. A bacterium which affects most Prunus species - worse on cherries than almonds in 8ritain. Canker caused isolated cankers which cause branch death ; canker is more serious on trees grown in light sandy soils , on weak growing trees , on young trees (trees over 7-8 years old are somewhat reSistant) and in wet regions . Blast causes flowers to blacken and young shoots to die back . Blast (found independently of canker) is associated with cold or freezing temperatures at flowering time.
Scab
Cladosporium carpophifum. a fungus causing spotting and blotching on leaves , fruits and twigs ; can result in premature leaf fall. Favoured by wet weather. Occurs in most regions. Not usually serious enough for action to be taken , but a copper fungicide can be used in spring (2-5 weeks after petal fall). Cutting out diseases shoots can also be carried out.
Hull rots
Several molds which attack fruits and fruiting WOOd, including Rhizopus st%nifer, Monilinia frutico/a and M./axa. Occurs in most areas , most severely on vigorous growing , soft-shelled cultivars like ' Nonpareil '. Lower leaves and spurs are killed a few weeks before harvest and hulls are attacked both outside and (if split) and on the inside . Minimise damage by harvesting as soon as hulls split , and by minimising nitrogen input to reduce vigour.
Page 20
Nonifeclious bud failure

A genetic disorder prevalent in a number of almond varieties . Causes vegetative buds on vigorous shoots of the previous year's growth to fail to emerge, and thus bare sections or tips of branches . High temperatures , above 27 C (80F) facilitate the development of the disorder. which is unlikely to be significant in Britain.
Almonds in Britain
In the South of Britain, modest crops of almonds can be expected in most years ; further North the crop is more risky, but with shelte r and good siting, and increasing temperatures due to global warming, most of England and Wales should be suitable. A South-facing sunny site is essential; trees here rarely surpass 6 m (20 tt) high. In Britain, the most promising culOvars are those which flower late but mature early season. Many of the recent French selections and some of the older types too show the best promise, including Ai, Be lle d'aurons, Ferraduel. Ferragnes, Ferralise , Lau ranne , Rabasse and Stelielte. The recent Spanish introductions Ayles , Guara and Moncayo may also be worth trying. The pruning required in Britain is normally much less than in warmer climes . Once the head is shaped, occasional thinn ing , and removal of dead and crossing wood , should suffice.
Cultivars
The primary source of Californian culti var germ plasm originated from cultivars in the Languedoc area of southern France. Ai : Kernels 40% of nut , low quality. Tree bushy, hard to prune, a regular producer , resistant to
Monilinia. An old French cuitivar.

Aldrich: Nut softshe lled, we ll sealed; kernel sma llmedium . Tree larg e, moderately upright. Origin : Ca lifornia. AIIin-One: Shell soft, well sealed; kernel medium size. Tree semidwarf, precocious, heavy cropping . Selffertile tree bred for home gardeners . Origin: Ca lifornia. Ardechoise: Nuts soft-shelled (60% kernel), kernels elongated , moderate quality. Tree very erect, productive, highly resistant to fungal diseases. An old French cultivar. Ayles: Nuts hardshelled (30-35% kernel), kernel heart-shaped, medium-large, good quality. Tree self-fertile, moderately vigorous, spreading, compact growth, tolerant to late frosts. A recent Spanish cultivar. Bartre: Nuts larg e, very hard shelled (15-16% kernels). Tree large with large leaves and branches ; a shy bearer. An old French cuUivar. Belle d'aurons : Nuts large , flat (kernels 35%), kernels good quality. Tree large, very resistant to Monilinia. An old French cultivar. Brandes Jordan: Nut medium size, soft shelled; kernel broad, flat. Tree upright. light cropping. Used in Australia. Butte: Shell semi-hard (52% kernel) : kernels relatively sma ll. Tree spreading , moderately vigorous. high yielding, susceptible to brown rot. Origin: Ca lifornia, used to pollinate Mission . Carmel: Paper shell (60% kernel) : kernel sma ll , elongated , li ght coloured. Tree upright, medium sized, precocious , productive. Susceptib le to brown rot. Origin: California, a bud sport of Nonpareil. Chellaston: Nuts soft shelled; kernel small-medium, flat. Tree semi-upright, compact, medium vigour. Origin: Australia . Cristomorto: Nuts hard shelled (25-36% kernel): kernels large. quite light coloured, many doubl e kerne ls. Tree upright. vigorous . low susceptibility to pests & diseases , very productive. An old Italian cuitivar. Cruz : Nuts medium size, softshelled (60% kernel) , well sealed: kernel roundish , medium size. Tree upright, medium size, open; heavy and consistent producer. Origin: California .
~~
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--
--
~~~
--
~~
~-~-~-
-~-
- ---
~- -------=~~---
-~-=--~
---
Davey: Shell soft: kernel medium size, light coloured. Tree vigorous, upright. slow to bear , low productivity, hard to harvest. Used to pollinate Nonpareil. Dehn: Nut hard shelled; kernel large, plump. Tree productive , cold hardy, Origin : USA (Utah) . Oesmayo larqueta (Largueta) : Nuts very hard sheJled (25-29% kernel) ; kernel medium-large , flat , dark. Tree somewhat frost reSistant . moderately vigorous and productive , spreading . Ha s some resistance to Monilinia. An old Spanish cultivar. Oesmayo Raja : Nuts hard shelled , triangular. An old Spanish cultivar. Distomou Viotias : Nuts soft-shelled (60-65% kernel). Tree leafs early. An old Greek cultivar . Dor~e : Nuts with very hard she lls, kernels 18-35%; trees of quite low productivity. An old French cultivar. Fascionello : Nuts very hard shelled (24% kernel) ; kernels large , light coloured . Tree upright, moderately vigorous and productive . Ferraduel : Nuts hard-shelled (26% kernels) ; kernels large , flat. Tree vigorous. precocious , productive, resistant to peach leaf curl. A recent French cultivar, now one of the most important cultivars in new European plantings - used to pollinate Ferragnes. Ferragnes: Nuts hard-shelled (30-43% kernels); kerne ls large , elongated, light coloured , somewhat wrink led . Tree moderately vigorous, upright, precocious , productive , resistant to peach leaf curl and Monifinia. A recent French cultivar , now one of the most important cultivars in new European plantings . Ferralise : Nuts hard-shelled (30% kernel) ; kernels small , el ongated, smooth. A recent French cultivar. Ferrastar: Tree vigorous, resistant to some fungus diseases. A recent French cultivar. Filippo Ceo: Nut hard shelled (35-37% kernel) ; kernels large , light coloured, very many double kernels. Tree self-fertile , moderately vigorous , upright, very productive , low susceptibility to pests & diseases. An old Italian cultivar. Flots: Nuts with very hard shells, kernels 18-35% ; trees of quite low productivity. An old French cuitivar. Flour en Bas : Nuts with very hard shells, kernels 16-35%; trees of quite low productivity. An old French cultivar. Fourcouronne: Nuts with very hard shells, kernels 18-35%; trees of quite low productivity. An old French cultivar. Fragiulio (Fra Giulio Grande): Nuts are hard shelled (30 %) and uniquely shaped ; kernels very large , light coloured , sometime many double kernels . Tree moderately vigorous , spreading , very productive , resistant to Monifinia. An old Italian cultivar. Francoli: Nut very hard-shelled (30% kernel); kernel large . Tree vigorous , dense foliage, precocious, highly productive. A recent Spanish introduction. Fritz: Nuts semi-hard shelled ; kernels re latively small. Tree upright, vigorous , heavy blooming and yielding . Origin: California. Garden Prince : Nut soft shelled; kernel medium size. Self-fertile tree bred for home gardeners - a genetic dwarf to 3 m (10 tt) high . Origin : California. Gaura : Nuts very hard-shelled (30-35% kernel) ; kernel medium-large, good quality. Tree selffertile, productive, frost tolerant, spreading, medium sized . A recent Spanish cultivar. Genco: Nuts very hard-shelled (35% kernel); kernels medium sized , quite light colou red. Tree selffertile, vigorous, spreading , very productive, low susceptibility to pests and diseases . An old Italian cultivar. Glorietta: Nut large , very hard shelled (30% kernel) ; kernel large , pointed , good quality. Tree vigorous , upright, open , dense foliage. A recent Spanish introduction . Hashem II : Nuts soft-shelled ; kernels large, long , flat. Tree upright , productive . Origin : California . Ingrid: Tree self-fertile, quite resistant to peach leaf curl. IXL: Nuts long with a pronounced keel towards the tip, shell soft to paper ; kernel medium-large, light coloured. Tree upright with large leaves, shy bearing . Johnston's Prolific : Nuts large. soft shelled ; kernels large , flat . rough . Tree moderately spreading , biennial cropper . Grown in Australia .
Page 22
-55!
Jordanolo: Nuts soft shelled (60% kernel); kernels large, light coloured, of good quality. Tree upright, vigorous, precocious, productive. Kapareil: Nut paper-shelled; kernels small. Similar to Nonpareil in most aspects . Languedoc 320 : Nuts soft-shelled (50-60% kernel) . Tree large , very productive , susceptible to fungal diseases. An old French cultivar . Lauranne: Hard shelled (38% kernel) ; kernel small , light coloured. Tree spreading 10 drooping , moderately vigorous , precocious. A recent self-fertile French cullivar released in 1989. Le Grand: Tree vigorous, upright, partially self-fertile . Susceptible to brown rot and shothole. Livingston: Nut thin-shelled, well sealed; kernel medium size. Tree medium size, semi-upright. Origin: California. Lodi: Nut soft-shelled , well -sealed (60% kernel) ; kernel medium-large, broad , slightly bitter. Tree medium size. Origin : California . Macrocarpa: Long grown in Britain , with large fruits and nuts. Flowers are large . Tree very resistant to peach leaf curl. Malaguena : Nut hard shelled, kernels large, long and narrow. Tree upright, vigorous, very productive, susceptible to Molinina . An old Spanish cultivar. Marcona: Nuts very hard shelled (25-27% kernel) ; kernels broad, ftat, dark, susceptible to Monilinia. Tree vigorous , drooping , very precocious , biennial bearing , moderately productive . An old Spanish selection, the leading commercial cultivar there. Masbovera: Nut very hard shelled (30% kernel); kernel medium-large, high quality. Tree vigorous , dense foliage, precocious, very productive . A recent Spanish introduction. Merced: Nuts paper shelled (58-63% kernel); kernel medium sized, light coloured. Tree upright, small-medium sized. Precocious , yielding well from young trees , susceptible to worm damage and fungi. Origin : California , used as a pollinator for Nonpareil. Mission (Syn : Texas) : Nuts semi-hard shell (40-50% kernel); kernels medium sized , dark, many doubles. Tree upright , vigorous when young , decre asing later: very productive. Sus ceptible to mallet wound canker . Origin : Texa s. Mollar de Tarragona : Nuts very large, triangular, hard shelled (40-45% kernel ). Tree very productive. An old Spanish cuJtivar . Monarch: Nut fairly hard shelled, well sealed: kernel large. plump. Tree large , upright. Origin : California. Moncayo: Nut s very hard shelled (25-28 % kernel) ; kernel medium-large , good quality. Tree v igorous , medium-large , spreading to drooping , self-fertile , tolerant of late frosts . A recent Spani sh cultivar. Monterey: Kernel large , elongated . Tree vigorous , spreading , very productive . Origin : California . Ne Plus Extra: Nuts easy to harvest, paper shell (55-60% kernel) . Kernels very large, quite light coloured, many doubles . Tree vigorous, spreading , precocious, moderate cropper , difficult to train. Susceptible to frost , fungus and worm damage. Origin : California , where often used as a pollinator for Nonpareil. Nonpareil: Nuts paper-shelled (65-70 % kernel) ; kernels medium sized , light coloured . Tree large. upright-spreading , vigorous ; a consistent heavy bearer ; relatively resistant to frost damage . Leading Californian culti var. Padre: Nuts hard shelled (45-50% kernel); kernels relatively small. Tree upright , of moderate vigour, productive . A recent Californian introduction. Peerless: Used for in-shell nuts, shelf semi-hard (40% kernel); kernels of mediocre quality, quite light coloured , some doubles . Tree medium size , vigorous , spreading , moderate ly upright, moderate cropper. Origin : California, used as a pollinator for Nonpareil. Phyllis : Nuts similar to Mission . Tree resistant to several fungal diseases. Greek cultivar. Pizzuta d'Avola: Nuts very hard shelled (21% kernel) ; kernels medium-large , dark , used in confectionery. Tree vigorous, spreading, moderate cropper. An old Sicilian cultivar. Plateau: Nut soft-shelled, well-sealed; kernel large . Tree semi-upright, medium sized . Origin: California. Price (Syn : Price Cluster): Nuts soft shelled ; kernels good quality. Tree quite vigorous , somewhat spreading . Has a tendency to crop biennially & hea vily. Origin : California , used as a pollinator f or Nonpareil.
Page 23
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Princess 103: Nuts with sort shells (45-47% kernel), round - sold in-shell. Tree upright. sparse branched. productive. An old French cultivar. Rabasse: Nuts small, round , hard-shelled (30% kernel) . Tree highly productive. An old Frenc cultivar. Rachele : Nuts hard shelled. An old Italian cuUivar. Retsou : Nuts soft-shelled (55'% kernel). Tree productive, resistant to Monifinia. An old Gree cultivar. Robijn : A recent release , nuts with a soft shell. RiJby: Nuts hard shelled (53% kernel). Tree small, upright. productive. Origin: California, used t pollinate Mission. Solano: Kerne ls of high quality, resembling Nonpareil. Sonora : Kernels large, elongated, smooth and light skinned; nut thin-shelled. Tree roundish medium sized, precocious , heavy bearing . Flowers are quite frost-resistant. A recent California introduction. Steliette: Nut semi-hard she ll ed (45% kernel) : kernel large, light co loured. Tree precocious moderately vigorous. A recent self-fertile French cultivar released in 1989. Sultana : Nuts soft-shelled (25% kernel) , kernel thin, soft; nuts drop prematurely and are usuall eaten green . An old French cultivar. Supernova: Nut fairly hard shelled (40% kernel): kernel large. Tree pre cocious, moderatelvigorous, susceptible to Monilinia. A recent Italian cultivar which is self-fertile . Tardive de la Verdi ere: Nuts with very hard shells, kernels 18-35% : trees of quite low productivity An old French cultivar. Tardy Nonpareil: A later-flowering sport of Nonpareil. Thompson: Nuts soft to paper shelled (60% kernel): kernels small , plump , slightly bitter. Tre upright. medium sized, precocious , productive . Origin: California. Titan : Nuts thin-shelled, well sealed. Very hardy tree, large and well-branched, resistant to pea c leaf curl. From N.America. Tournefort: Nuts with very hard shells, kernels 18-35% ; trees of quite low productivity. An 01 French cultivar. Tuono: Nut hard shelled (35-41% kernel); kernel s large , light coloured , many doubles. Tree self fertile , moderately vigorous, spreading, productive , low susceptibility to pests and diseases. Ver ancient cuUivar from Italy and Greece. Vesta: Nuts paper shelled (62% kernel) ; kernels large , light coloured. Tree vigorous, spreading moderate cropper, low susceptibility to pests and diseases. Wood Colony: Nut fairly soft-shelled , well sealed; kernel medium size, plump . Origin: California.
Key to Gultivar table
Flowering : Time of flowering is divided into six, Early (E), Early-Mid (EM), Mid (M) , Mid -Late (ML) Late (L) , Very Late (VL). Flowering period can vary by about 6 weeks , so each of these categorie lasts about one week. Early roughly corresponds to late January/early February ; Very late to mie March or later. Varieties in the same group or an adjacent group will overlap and cross pollinatE satisfactorily unless they are in the same pollen incompatibility group . See ' flowering' above also.
Pollen incompatibility group (,Poll Inc'): Indicates the incompatibility group number. Cultivars i the same group will not pollinate each other. 'N ' indicates that no incompatibilities have been foune - such a cultiva r should be compatible with all others. 'SF' here indicates the cultivar is self-fertile.
Harvesting: Indicates harvest period . Almond ripening can be spread over 60 days (2 months) The ripening of Nonpareil is taken as Day O. E = Early (0-7 days ) EM = Early-Mid (7-15 days) M = Mid (15-25 days ML = Mid-Late (25-40 days) L = Late (40-60 days)
Page 26
Ease of nut removal (' Nut rem') : Indicates ease of knocking of nuts off the tree . + = Easy I = average - = difficult Navel orangeworm (' Nav org ' ): Indicates known susceptibility or re sistance to navel orangeworm damage of nut kernels . S = susceptible , M Moderately susceptible , R resistant
Noninfectious bud failure ('Bud fair) : Indicates prevalence of this disorder in va rieties . H = high prevalence , M = moderate prevalence, L = low prevalence , N = not found at all Leaf curl (' Lf curl '): Indicates resistance to peach leaf curl. SR resistant. flowerin g EM M ML L VL Poll Inc
= somewhat
resistant, R
Cultivar
h a r v est j n 9 E EM M ML L
Nut Nav Bud Lf rem org fail curl
A;
Aldrich AII-in -One Ardechoise Ayles Ballico Belle d'aurons Brandes Jordan Butte Carmel Carrion Chellaston Cristomorto Cruz Davey Desmayo Largueta Desmayo Roja Distomou Viotia s Drake Emerald Eureka Fascionello Ferraduel Ferragnes Ferralise Ferrastar Filippo Ceo Fragiulio Francoli Fritz Garden Prince Gaura Genco GlorieUa Guara Granada Harvey Hashem II Ingrid IXL
I
Jl
II III
I SF N
SF
2
I
I
I I
5 5
R R
N H L
I
II
6
Ii II II II
II II
SF
N

I I
'I
II
SF SF SF
4 4
I
I
R R
II
SF
1
SR
-8
E
;;;
flowerin 9 EM M ML L VL
$.
Poll
Inc
1,5,6, 71
Cultivar
harvesting E EM M ML L
Nut Nav Bud If rem org fail curl
Jeffries
Johnston's Prolific Jordanolo Kapareil Langeudoc Lantluedoc 320 Lauranne LeGrand Livingston Lodi Long IXL Macrocarpa Malaguena Marcona Masbovera Merced Milow Mission (Texas) Monarch Moncayo Mono Monterey Ne Plus Ultra Nonpareil Norman Padre Peerless Pizzuta d'Avola Phyllis Planada Plateau Price Princess 103 Profuse Rabasse Rachele Retsou Ripon Robson Rosetta Ruby Sauret #1 Sauret #2 Solano Sonora Steliette Supernova Tardy Nonpareil Thompson
II i
I
I
.1 I I. I-I I II
I1I1
5
6
2
I
I
I
I I
H i
SF SF
I[
R
M
S
R
H
L
2 5
I
I
SF
4
7 3 1 3
+ + + +
M M M
N N N M L N L
I[
I
3 N 5
4
M L
6 6
I I
II
SF SF
1
4
PaQe 26
flo w e r i n 9 Cultivar Titan Tokyo
Poll
I I
harvesting
Nut Nav Bud Lf
EM
M ML
VL Inc
EM
M ML L rem, org fail curl

R
N
Tuono
Vesta Wood Colony Yosemite
:II il '
II
III
II
SF
:II '
II
6
4
.1 , II I
Propagation
Almond seeds (sometimes grown for rootstocks) require 3-4 weeks of cold stratification to germinate. Peach seeds require 3 months of stratification. A lmond cuttivars are either budded or grafted onto a suitable rootstock ; any of the common methods is applicable.
Sources
A limited number of cultivars are avaliable in Britain. Many more are available in North America and Southern Europe. Clive Simms, Wood hurst, Essendine, Stamford, Lines, PEg 4LQ, UK. Tel: 01780-755615. Deacon's Nursery, Godshill, Isle of Wight, P038 3HW, UK. Tel: 01983-840750 . Nutwood Nurseries, School Farm , Onneley, Nr. Crewe, Cheshire, CW3 9QJ , UK. Tel: 01782-
750913 .
Jos Frihjns & Zonen B.V. , Postbus 74, 6269 ZH Margraten , NETHERLANDS. Bay Laurel Nursery, 2500 EI Camino Real , Atascadero , CA 93422, USA. Tel: 805-466-3406. Fowler Nurseries Inc, Garden Center, 525 Fowler Rd , Newcastle, CA 95658, USA. Tel: 916-6458191. Sierra Gold Nurseries, 5320 Garden Hwy , Yuba City, CA 95991, USA. Tel: 916-674-1145 . Stark Brothers Nursery, Hey 54, PO Box 10, LouiSiana, MO 63353 , USA. Tel : 314-754-4734.
References
Bean , W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. John Crawford , M: Plums. A.R.T., 1996. Cummins, J: Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties, List 35. Cummins, J: Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties , List 36 . Cummins , J: Register of New fruit and Nut Varieties, List Murray, 1973. HortScience , Vol 26(8), August 1991. HortScience, Vol 29(9) , Sept 1994. 37. HortScience, Vol 30(6), October
1995.
Duke, J: CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press, 1989. Duke, J A & Ayensu , E S: Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications , 1985. Facciola, S: Cornucopia. Kampong Publications, 1990. Fleming , 0: Fleming's Oeciduous Fruit and Ornamental Trees. Fleming's Nurseries, 1992. Flowerdew, B: Bob Flowerdew's Complete Fruit Book. Kyle Cathie, 1995. Grainge , M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties. Wiley , 1988. Howes, F: Nuts. Faber & Faber, 1948. Jaynes, R: Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA, 1979. Krussmann, G: Manual of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1985. Micke, W (Ed): Almond Production Manual. University of California DANR, 1996. Mitra S, Rathore, 0 & Bose, T (Eds): Temperate Fruits. Horticulture and Allied Publishers, 1991. Moore, J N & Ballington Jr, J R: Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops . ISHS, 1990. Phillips, 0 & Burdekin, 0 : Diseases of forest and Ornamental Trees. Macmillan, 1992. Rom , R & Carlson, R (Eds) : Rootstocks for Fruit Crops. Wiley, 1987.
Page 27
=
Scab of apple & pear

I {1trod uction
Apple scab, Venturia inaequalis, is one of the most widespread diseases of apple trees . Pear sca Venturia pirina is common on pears and is virtually identical in biology and co ntrol to apple sca These fungal diseases occur wherever apples and pears are grown, but are most severe in area with moist, temperate springs and summers; pear scab is more serious in Europe than in Nor America . Commercially , scab can cause almost total destruction of an economic crop, especially susceptib le cultivars. Hence, except for organic crops , nearly all commercial crops are spraye with fungicides against the diseases .
Symptoms
The first sign of scab attack on apples is th e appearance of olive-green or brown velvety spots am patches on the foliage . On pear leaves , the velvety spots are usually brown . Later, similar da spots appear on the fruits . Some of the infected fruit drop prematurely . Gradually, the le infections turn darker and expand (and leaves may blister or pucker) , while the fruit damagE becomes more extensive as the patches coa lesce to form large scabby patches beneath which th tissue stops growing , resulting in misshapen fruit. Severely infected leaves may yellow, wither am fall. As the fruits mature, the scabby areas tend to crack, and this can let in brown rot and othe fruit-rolting diseases either on the tree or later in store . Scabbed fruits are still ed ible .
Twig infection occurs occasionally on so me cultivars (eg. Cox) but is not usually important. Youn wood on ly is infected. Scabby patches (pustules) form from which spores are released in moi conditions. The blister-like pustules on apple wood persist for 1-2 years; tho se on pear wood ca persist for 4-5 years .
Infection is related to temperature and hum idity. So me infection occurs at all temperature between 5-2SoC (41-77 F), with the optimum temperature for infection of 20C (68F). The fungu spore only germinates if surrounded by a film of water for 6-18 hours. With these conditions, th spores of the apple scab fungus will germinate and start an attack. Spots (lesions) on leaves w appear 8-18 days (about 14 in Britain) after spore germination .
In apples, most of the spring infection will come from spores on fallen leaves, or occasionally fro scab pustules on the wood of ve ry susceptible va rietie s. In pears , spring infection comes from bat fallen leaf and twig infectio n . Spores are ejected in wet weather, most often in the afternoon (appl scab) or at night-time (pear scab), in optimum temperatures of 16-20D C (61-68F). Spor germination is sharply reduced if they experience more than 24 hours of dryness. Spores ca travel great distances and reach great heights (they have been found at 2000 ft over the Englis Channe l ). Mummified fruit with scab lesions from the previous season are not a so urce of diseas spores.
Later infections in summer or autumn usually result from spores bei ng generated from a sp rin attack , from newly infected leaves and fruit. Such infections are usually restricted to regions wit moist climates at these time s. Rain splattering and windblown raindrops are very important in th spread of spores.
Leaf and fruit age also influence infection: young leaves are susceptible to infection on bot surfaces ,
Page 28
but older leaves only on the lower surface. Fruits are most susceptible when young, though even mature fruit can develop infections when pro longed rains occur in autumn (which may only develop after the fruit is in store.) Trees grown in crowded conditions, where the air flow is sluggish, are more susceptible to attack. Excess nitrogen applications which produce soft sappy growth also favour the diseases. Overhead irrigation, common in some parts of the world, can simulate the moist climatic conditions which favour the diseases. Trees infected by Venturia are more susceptible to infect ion by Nectria canke r spores, which enter through the wounds made by the scab fungus.
Hosts
Severa l races (biotypes) of the diseases are known to occur in most region s - at least 6 of apple scab and at least 5 of pear scab. Res istance in a cullivar may be slight, moderate or strong depending on how many races it is resista nt to. Im mune cultivars are resi stant to all races - there are few of these! Th us even a resist ant cullivar occas ionally may be infected by one of the diseases in the form of a race it is still susceptible to . Also, a cultivar resistant in one region may turn out susceptible in another. Severa l species of Sorbus are susceptible to apple scab, including rowan (S.aucuparia), whitebeam (S.aria), service tree (S.domestiea) and wild service (S./ormina/is). Severa l of the popular apple varieties are susceptible to apple scab, including 'Blenhe im Orange' (moderately susceptible), 'Bramley's Seedling' (mod) , 'Cox's Orange Pippin' (very susceptible), 'Crispin ' (very susc), 'De li cious' (very susc), 'Gala' (mod) and 'James Grieve' (mod). These and other susceptib le va rieties (*) should be avoided un less you live in a region with a fairly dry spring and summer climate. (* See 'Fruit Varieties Resistant to Pests and Diseases' for a full lis!.) In the following tables, cuUivars marked (*) are also resistant to Neelria canker.
Table 1: Apple cultivars very resistant to scab

Antonovka Beauty of Bath Belle de Boskoop (*) Britegold Buckley Giant Centennial Cheddar Cross Chehalis Cockle Pippin (*) Conkle Jonathon Cornish Aromatic Crimson Beauty Crimson Beauty of Bath Dayton (') Duke of Devonshire Earlijon Egremont Russet Ellison's Orange Enterprise Florina Forge Freedom (*) Gavin Golden Bittersweet Goldrush Goring Grenadier C") Hocking's Green (*) Holstein Hubbardston Nonsuch Hudson's Golden Gem Jefferies Jonafree Judaine Judeline King of Tompkin 's County Lady's Finger Lane's Prince Albert (*) Uberty Longkeeper Macfree Mci ntosh Malus floribunda May Queen McShay Moira Monarch Mother Murray Northfield Beauty Nova Easygrow Novamac (*) Novaspy Nured Jonathon Pear Apple Prairie Fire
,
9
h
e
h
Priam Prima Primicia Priscilla Raritan Red Baron Red Beauty of Bath Red Belle de Boskoop (.. ) Red Ellison Redfree Richelieu Rival Ross Nonpareil Rouville Shay Sidney Strake Sir Prize Stirling Castle Stoke Red
w
Taunton Cross Tim's Early Tom Putt Town Farm NO .59
-*f
Tregonna King (*) Trent Vanda Wagener
=~t=F---z
Wilhelm Ley (0) Williams' Pride Winston (0) Winston Sport
Worcester Cross Wynooche Early
Table 2: Apple cultivars resistant to scab
Acklam Russet Acme Adam's pearmain Akane Alexander Alfriston r) Allington Pippin Allington Pippin Sport American Golden Russet Annie Elizabeth (*) Ard Cairn Russet Arkansas (O) Aromatic Russet Arthur Turner Ashmeads Kernel Autumn Arctic Baker's Delicious Ballinora Pippin Bamack Beauty Baukro Baxter Beacon Belrene Black Oxford Black Twig Blushing Golden Boiken Bovey Bringewood Pippin Brown Russet Brownlees' Russet (*) Bulmer's Foxwhelp (*) Calville Blanc d'Hiver Captain Broad Captain Kidd Carter's Pearmain Case Wealthy Catshead Charles Ross Christmas Pearmain Claygate Pearmain Cae's Golden Drop Cornish Gilliflower
Cornish Pine Court Pendu Pial Courtagold Crawley Beauty C') Crimson King (*) Crimson Newton Wonder (*) D'Arcy Spice (*) Oabinette Davey Delbard Devonshire Buckland Dianaspur Discovery Dolgo Douglas Wormwood Duchess of Oldenburg Dudley Dulmener Rosenapfel Early Fiji Early Spur Rome Easter Orange Edward VII Ein Shemer Elliot Spur Emneth Early (O) Empress Spur Encore Exeter Cross Fall Russet Filippa Fisher Fortune Fortune Franklyn 's Golden Pippin (*) Frazier'S Spur Fromme Scab Resistant Fuji Geneva Geneva Early Gibbon's Russet Gipsy King Gladstone (*) Glass Apple
Gold Spur Golden Auvilspur Golden Delicious Golden Glory Golden Knob Golden Morspur Golden Noble (*) Golden Nugget (*) Golden ReineUe Golden Russet (0) Goldensheen Goldenspur Graniwinkle (O) Greensfeeves Gros Fenouillet Hall's Pink (*) Halslow Natural Henry Kohankie Herring's Pippin Heusgen's Golden ReineUe Hillieri Honey Sweet Hoople's Antique Gold Horsham Russel Hunter Spartan Idared Ingrid Marie John Standish (*) Jonagrimes Jordan Russet Judor Juliana July Tart Jupiter Jupp's Russet Jurella Keepsake Kerry Pippin Kidd's Orange Red Kim King of the Pippins King Russet Knobby Russet
Lady Sudeley Leathercoat Russet Locli Longney Russet Loop Wealthy Lord Derby (*) Lord Hindlip Lowland Raspberry Lutz Lysgold Marston Scarlet Medaille d'Or Melba Melcombe Russet Merrigold Merton Russet (0) Morris's Russet Morspur Nero Newton Wonder (*) Nonpareil Norfolk Beauty Norfolk Royal Norfolk Royal Russet Old Somerset Russet Orenco Orleans Reinette (0) Paulared Penco Pepin Shafrannyi Perleberg Perrine Yellow Transparen
Pine Apple Russet of Devon (0) Pilmaston Pine Apple Pixie Pixie Red Sport Ponsford Port Allen Russet Porter's Perfection Powell's Russet (0) Prairie Spy Ralph Shay
Page 30
Red Charles Ross Red Devil Red Duchess of Oldenburg Red Fortune Red Fuji Red Hook Red Ingrid Marie Red Melba Red Newton Wonder Red Sentinel Red Sudeley Redfield Redsleeves Reine des Reinettes Rouge ReineUe du Canada
ReineUe Grise Ancienne ReineUe Grise du Canada (*) Reverend W.Wilks (~) Rhode Island Greening Rockingham Red Rosemary Russet Rote Goldparmane Roundways Roxbury Russel Saint Edmund's Pippin (*) Saint Johnsbury Salome Sam Young n Sansa Sanspareil (.) Sawpit
Scarlet Crofton Siddinglon Russet Simon's Russel Smoothee Snowdrift Spartan Spigold Stark's Earliest Starkspur Golden Delicious Stevenson Wealthy Sundale Sunset Suntan Sweet Sixteen Sykehouse Russet Tangowine
Telltsaare Tydeman's Early Tydeman's Late Orange Upton Pyne Veitch's Perfection Vinnoe Wealthy Wheeler's Russet White Transparent Wolf River (*) Woolbrook Pippin (*) Woolbrook Russet Wyken Pippin Yellowspur
Most of the commonly grown pear cultivars are susceptible to pear scab; ' Beurre d 'Anjou ', ' Easter 8eurre ' and 'Winter Nelis ' are highly susceptib le; 'Doyenne du Comice' , 'Emile d'Heyst', ' Fertility' , 'Laxton 's Superb' and ' Williams Bon Chretien' ('Barlett'), are moderately susceptible . 'Conference' is only slightly susceptible. Asian pears do not appear to be susceptible to the disease , though they are to the similar Venturia nashicofa which is not known to occur in Europe or North America. The following tables include perry pear cultivars as well as dessert pears.
Table 3: Pear cultivars very resistant to scab

Bennett Beurre Giffard Bristol Cross Brown Bess Catillac ChaceJey Green Dead Boy Gin (0) Gorham Hessle (0) High Pear Jenkin's Red Judge Amphlett Louise Bonne of Jersey Lumber Merrylegs Orcas Pine Pint T eddington Green Winnal's Langdon
Table 4: Pear cultivars resistant to scab

Arlingham Squash Arnold Barnet Beurre Hardy Biggar Russet Bartlett Clara Frijs (0) Clark Doctor Jules Guyot Double Williams Douglasn Early Griffin Flakey Bark Fondante d'Automne (*) Glou Red Williams Hendre Huffcap Improved Fertility Jargonelle Jeanne d'Arc Kieffer Legipont Nailer Ne'Nbridge Nouveau Poiteau Ovid Parburton Precoce de Trevoux Red Beurre Hardy Redbald Rosired Russet Bartlett Sack Santa Claus Shipova Sierra Souvenir du Congres Staunton Squash Striped Williams Thorn Turnbull Turner's Bam Ubileen Warren Williams Red Yellow Huffcap
Control
Most commercial growers, often growing cultivars which are susceptible to the diseases, rely on 10-15 fungicide sprays per season to control the diseases. Their primary aim is to prevent infection of
Page 31
the young leaves and flower sepals. Resistance of the diseases to several fungicides is no problem . The fungicides used are often systemic and are taken up into the leaves and fruit.
&
Organic growers , where the diseases has occurred , gathe r up and compost fallen leaves in autumn, or go over them with a mower wh ich chops them into small pieces , which worms will t down under the soil (where the scab spo res cannot grow). This effectively removes nearly all of potential spores and shou ld control the diseases. Sulphu rbased fungicides , which may aC1"eplable 10 some organic certification bodies, control the apple scab for only a shorl lime ab 5 days; but they are ve ry effective at killing twig infections of pear scab . Bordeaux mixture m also control the diseases, sprayed every fortnight from early spring onwards.
Some control is achieved by cutting out and burning diseased twigs before the buds burst m applicable to pears where twig infection is more problematical.
Biodynamic growers recommend the use of mare's tail (Equisetum arvense) preparations aga ins range of fungal diseases in cluding scab. A 'tea ' is made by boiling 20 g (3/4 oz) of the dried herb 1 litre (2 pints) of water for 30 mins, then allowing the mixture to stand for 24 hours. The mix then strained, made up with wate r to 4.5 litres (1 gallon) and sprayed on leaf surfaces at 1014 d intervals. Mare ' s tail and this extract contain silica which is believed to strengthen cell walls a thus give a measure of immunity.
Regrettably, less effort has been given to loo king at biological controls than new fungicides. Th are severa l fungi which are antagonistic towards Venturia , wh ich are possible biological contro including Aureobasidium pullulans, Athelia bombacina, Chaetomium globosum , and Trichoder viride. The redu ction of inoculum of both diseases by microbial action has been enhanced by autumnal application of folia r sprays of urea to scab-infected leaves.
Grow trees in uncrowded conditions to all ow free air flow through the branches. 1f trees are gro in multi-layer systems , eg o forest gardens , where co nditions are more crowded, then be sure choose resistant varieties .
Trees grown on heavy, badly drained sqils can be more susceptible to the diseases. On such so be sure to add plenty of organiC matter as mulches to make the soil more friable and free-dra inin
When pruning trees, try to ensure there are no crowded branches, and maximise airflow throu the tree . Do not over-feed. Excess nitrogen causes sappy growth which favours not on ly these diseases others too as well as aphid attack.
References
Corrin , G: Handbook on Composting and Biodynamic Preparations. Crawford , M: Directory of Apple Cultivars. A.R.T., 1994 . Crawford , M: Directory of Pea r Cultivars . A .R.T. , 1996. Crawford , M: Fruit Varieties resistant to Pests and Diseases. A.R.T ., 1997. Culpan , G: Pests , Diseases and Common Problems. Hamlyn, 1995. Greenwood , P & Halstead, A : RHS Pests and Diseases. Darlin g Kindersley, 1997 . Janick, J & Moore , J : Fruit Breeding , Volume 1 - Tree and Tropical Fruits . Wiley , 1996 . Ogawa , J & English , H : Diseases of Temperate Zone Tree Fruit and Nut Crops . USDA, 1991 . Phillips , D & Burdekin , D: Disease of Forest and Ornamenta l Trees . Macmillan , 1992.
Paae 32
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 6 Nc
Propagation series:
Greenwood cuttings
I ntrod uction
Cutti ng s taken after the initial growth flush in spring is completed are classified as greenwood or semi-hardwood . The wood of such shoots is reasonably firm and lea ves have essentially matured. Fruits common ly propagated by this method include Citrus and Olive.
Timing
Greenwood cuttings are taken between mid Ju ly and early September. The base of shoots to be used should have become somewhat woody.
The cuttings
Cutti ngs can be taken from established plants or from container and field nursery stock . The latter, and plants that are regularly pruned (perhaps for cuttings) are in a juvenile condition which improves the chances of rooting . Ideally, the stock plant should not be water or nutrient stressed.
Cool conditions are the best time for taking greenwood cuttings . However, this is often unrealistic and it is perfectly acceptable to collect cuttings when warmer as long as plastic bags with suitable moisture (eg. ice) ca n be used to hold the cuttings immediately on co llecti on. Cuttings should be taken from nonflowering shoots . Normal straight cuttings are fine for the majority of plants , though a few species root significantly better by using heel cuttings or mallet cuttings. Heel cuttings have some old wood attached, while mallet cuttings have a small piece of attached ol der wood reminiscent of a croquet mallet. (See ' Softwood cuttings ', Vo l 6 No 3 for illustration.) For most species, it makes no difference where the cuttings are taken from the stock plant. For a few (notably conifers like yew), cuttings from horizontal branches produce spreading plants and those from vertica l shoots produce upright plants. The cuttings shou ld be processed as soon as possible, although they may keep in a fridge for a day or two . It is often convenient to place them on a wire mesh bench rigged with misting nozzles to keep them mois t whi le processing. Greenwood cuttings are generally easier to handle than softwood cuttings. Cuttings are usually 715 cm (36") long, from new growth both terminal growth and growth beneath this is suitable. The lower cut is usually just below a leaf node. If the growth is still ' soft' at the stem end , it is often best removed otherwise it often dies back . The lea ves are removed from the lower half of the cutting by carefully cutting with a sharp knife ; all flower buds are removed . The remaining leaves are best left untrimmed unless they are ve ry large to reduce risk of fungal diseases. Some greenwood cuttings benefit from wounding. A thin piece of bark , 1225 mm (~1 " ) long , is removed near the base of the cutting with a sharp knife or razor blade . The wound induces internal hormonal changes which may improve rooting , exposes active ce lls to applied rooting hormones . and removes physical barriers to root penetration . Many needle evergreens are wounded in the process of manually stripping the lower needles.
"" )4
Page 33
Use of a hormone rooting compound usually significantly increases the success rate; these ofte contain a fungicide which reduces cutting mortality. Alternatively, or in addition to bought hormones, a willow rooting substance (WRS) can easily be home made and can significant improve rooting of some plants . To make WRS, cut current year 's willow stems into small piece pack into a container, cover with waler for 24 hours, then drain off Ihe water and store . Cutting should be placed upright in the WRS for 24 hours and then potted. Refrigerated WRS is stable fo several years.
Cuttings media & containers
Greenwood cullings can be rooted in any media providing good air/water relationships ~ 25~40% a space in ideal. Composted bark, coir, peat, perlite, vermiculite and sand can be combined in man ways. Simple mixes which work with most species include 2 parts perlite or vermiculite with 1 pa peat or bark or coir.
In general there is no benefit in incorporating or adding any type of fertiliser into the rootin medium until the cuttings have rooted. If the cuttings are to be transplanted as soon as they hav rooted, then the new media they are transferred to can contain nutrients for growth. If the cutting are to be allowed to continue to root into the initial media, though, then some nutrient sourc should be avai lable.
The rooting container should be at least 9-10 cm (3Yz_4H) deep to allow for reasonable drainage 'Rootrainers' are ideal, but ordinary pots or deep trays work well.
Conditions for rooting
The vast majority of plants do not require bottom heat for greenwood cullings to root. Idea temperatures for rooling are 18-24C (65-75F) and if a particularly cool spell occurs after takin the cuttings then some heat, eg o via a heated bench, may be desirable. Shading of up to 70-80% may be optimum during the summer.
Mist systems
Leaves of greenwood cuttings (though not so susceptible to dessication as softwood cuttings) wi and die if not kept moist in some way, and intermittent mist has become the standard (though ther are small-scale alternatives described below.)
An electrically timed system provides a film of water over the leaves which lowers lea temperature, increases humidity, reduces transpiration and respiration. The timing betwee mistings can gradually be lengthened to harden off the cuttings
Alternatives to misting on a small scale include covering pots or trays with a tight plastic bag o thin polythene sheet cover, keeping the atmosphere moist inside.
The rooting time for a greenwood cutting varies from 4-12 weeks. A simple tug test (pull the cutting upward with a gentle pressure) indicates the cutting has rooted . At this time it is wise to reduce o turn off the mist , and improve venti lation.
Aftercare
Rooted and weaned greenWOOd cuttings may need to be overwintered under protection i poly tunnels I greenhouses etc. If they are strong, they can be planted straight out in the autumn but can be susceptible to winter damage and drought.
Page 34
-.=-e::
Species
July August Sept Comments L E M L E Variable success. Bottom heat beneficial. X X X X X X X X Slow to root. X Easy . X Use epicormic sideshoots only. X X X X Very easy, root in 3 weeks . X X X X X X Most deciduous spp . root we ll. Note 1. X With heel. Note 1. X With heel. Easy. X X X With heel. Easy. X X X X X X With heel, no rooting hormone. Sandy medium. X X X X Take cutti ng at a node. X X X X Usually easy .
Many broadleaf evergreens can be propagated by greenwood cuttings . Needle evergreens, especially junipers, can be rooled as greenwood cultings; most benefit from exposure to cold temperatures and generally root better when taken in September or later. This species list concentrate s on edible , medicinal and other useful plants. Note 1: Do not transplant the newly rooted cutting , but allow to grow on overwinter before transplanting next spring . Otherwise high mortality. Species Aclinidia spp. Akebia spp. Amorpha fruticosa Araucaria araucana Aronia spp. Alriplex spp. Berberis spp. Brachyglottis spp. Broussonetia papyrifera Calluna vu lgaris Calycanthu s spp . Caragana spp. Ceanothu s spp. Chaenomeles spp. Chamaecyparis spp. Cilroncirus webberi Citrus spp. Cornus capitata Comus kousa Comus mas Cryptomeria japonica Cudrania tricuspidata X Cupressocyparis leylandii Cupressus spp. Cytisus spp. Diospyros spp. Drimys spp. Elaeagnus angustifolia Elaeagnus commutata Elaeagnus x ebbingei Elaeagnus multiflora Elaeagnus pungens Elaeag nu s umbellata Empetrum spp . Epigaea spp. Eriobotrya japonica Escallonia rubra Feijoa sellowiana Fuchsia spp. Garrya spp. Gaultheria spp.
~I ~
X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X
X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X
X X
X X
Some bottom heat beneficial. Wounding & some bottom heat beneficial. Difficult. Some bottom heat beneficial. Give bottom heat initially. Easy.
X X X X
X X X X
X X
X X
X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Difficult. With heel. Quite easy. With heel. Difficult. With heel. With heel. Slow but good success. With heel. Good %. With heel. Good %. With heel. Good %. W ith heel easy. Roots in 3 weeks . In clude la st year's wood in cutting . Easy . With heel. Slow to root. Easy , fast rooting. With heel. Sometimes slow.
X X X X
:I
X X X X X X
Page 35
-WHSpecies Gaylussacia brachycera Genista tinctoria Gevuina avellana Ginkgo biloba Halesia carolina (monticola ) Hippophae rhamnoides Juniperus conferta Juniperus horizontalis Laurus nobitis Lavanduta spp. Lindera benzoin Lonicera spp . Metasequoia glyptostroboides Morus spp. Myrica spp. Myrtus communis Olea europaea Oxydendrum arboreum Parthenocissus quinquefotia Passiftora spp. Paulownia tomentosa Poncirus trifoliata Prunus avium Prunus cerasifera Prunus domestica Punica granatum Rhus spp. Ribes nigrum Ribes rubrum Ribes uvacrispa Rosa spp. Rubus spp. Salix spp . Sambucus spp . Staphylea spp. Symphoricarpus spp . Taxus spp . Thuja spp . Thymus spp . Vaccinium macrocarpon Vitex agnuscastus Vitis spp. Zanthoxylum spp. July August Sept L E M L EI Comments
X X X X
xl X X X X XI X X I X
X X X X I Wounding helps.
Slow to grow for first year. Easy . Quite easy. Roots in 4 weeks. Usually taken in later autumn . Slow to rool. High % . Easy.
~; :: I :x
xl xl
Xl
XI X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X
X
:1 ::
X X X X X X X
X
X X
X X X
X X X X X X X
X
With heel. With heel. Good %. Protect over winter. With heel. With With With With With With With With With heel. heel. heel. heel. heel. heel. Easy heel. heel. heel.
X X X
X X
X X
X X X
X
~I~
X ~ I X XI X
X X
X
~I ~
X X
X X X X
X X X X
X
X X X X X
X X X X
~I X ~I X ~I~ X
XI X X X X X
~ I ~I~
I
Very easy. With heel. Easy, needs welt drained medium . With heel. Easy . Use terminal shoots. Good % . With heel. With heel. Difficult. With heel. Quick to root ; easy .
References
Dirr, M & Heuser, C: The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation . Varsity Press, 1987 . Hartmann , H, Kester, D, Davies, F & Geneve, R: Plants Propagation Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall , 1997 . Thompson, P: Creative Propagartion . A Grower's Guide. Batsford , 1992 . Hardwood cuttings will be featured in Agroforestry News, Vol 7 No 1.
Page 36
Book Reviews
The Fruits and Fruit Trees of Monticello
Peter J Hatch
University Press of Vi rginia , 1998 (Distributed by The Eurospan Group); 222 pp; 31.95 (Hardback) ISBN 0-8139-1746-8
This book tells the fascinati ng story of Thomas Jefferson ' s struggle two hundred years ago to produce a useful garden on a grand sca le, and of the recreation of the garden in the last 20 years.
Jefferson's (ruilery was unique in being both an Old World fruit garden and a colonia l farm orchard - seed ling peaches and Virginia cider apples were planted alongside French apricots, Spanish
almonds and English plums; over 170 varieties of temperate fruits aUogether. His horticultural
vision was far-rea ching and ahead of its time, and his plans were carefully documented in letters and papers. His designs redu ced frost risks and created microclimates for the more tender and heat-loving species . Since 1982, Jefferson's fruit plantings (orchards, vineyards, berry squares, nursery) have been painstakingly recreated at Monticello - as much an archaeological and geological as a horticu ltural research project. Many of the exotic fruit varieties have been imported from around the world, althOugh several are now presumed ex tinct. As well as restoring original varieties, new plants and varieties continue to be sought to extend the collection . Well illustrated, The Fruits and Fruit Trees of Monticello is not only a detailed history of Jefferson 's gardens and their re-creation, but a virtual encyclopedia of early American pomology.
The Fruit Garden Displayed

Harry Baker
The RHS I Cassell , 1998 (8th Revised Edition) ; 224 pp: 14.99. ISBN 0-304-35001-X The new and updated edition of Harry Baker's classic maintains the high quality of previous editions . Aimed particularly at British growers, it lim its descriptions of rootstocks and cultivars to those which are avai lable and productive in the UK (si milarly for pests and diseases - those found in the UK.) The first chapter discusses general principles , including siting, windbreaks , planning , a table of yields, tools, nutrition, weed control , pest and disease control. It is a pity that chemica l fertilisers are still very much emphas ised - the only 'o rganic' fertiliser in their table is bonemeal, manure gets once sentence and compost is not mentioned. Similarl y, weed control focuses almost entirely on chemical herbicides and pest and disease control focuses on pesticides (this latter focus is carried through the book when individual fruit pests and diseases are discussed - a great shame when there many other measu res which can be taken to prevent or treat most problems .) After a brief chapter on the basics of tree fruits (including rootstocks, tree forms, planting, pruning and propagation), following chapters cover individual tree crops: Apples, Pears, Plums, Sweet and Duke cherries, Acid che rries, Peaches and Nectarines , Apricots, Figs, Cobnuts and filberts. For each fruit, there is a thorough description of the different rootstocks which are available , and the different types of tree form possible (inclu ding spacing and pruning in great detail). Feeding (mostly chemical) , watering, thinning , harvesting and storage are then covered , before details of selected recommended cultivars are given - about 60 apples, 25 pears , 35 plums etc: although apple , pear
Page 37
and fig varieties are given reasonable descriptions, other fruits are inexplicably given virtually none. Finally, pesls and diseases are covered, with emphasis on chemical control. Two chapters al the end of Ihe tree fruits section deal with overvigorous unproductive trees, and with the renovation of Irees. The soft fruits sections of the book deals chapler by chapter, in much the same way as tree fruits, with Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Blackcurrants, Redcurranls and Whitecurrants, Gooseberries and Blueberries. Good descriptions of cultivars are given for all of these. Final sectio\,s in the book include a useful ca lendar of work in the fruit garden and pollination tables for apples, pears, plums and cherries.
It is very well illustrated with both colour and black and white photographs, and is eas ily readable . Highly recommended for details of fruit care, particularly pruning, though I would look elsewhere for alte rnative cultural practices .
The Seed Search

Karen Platt
Karen Platt, 1997 (Distributed by Grantham Book Services); 352 pp; 10.99. ISBN 0-9528810-1-2 The second edition of this invaluable guide lists over 40,000 seeds from over 150 suppliers, including vegetables, herbs, green manures, flowers, trees and shrubs - almost every species that is available from commercial seed suppliers. Vegetab les, herbs and green manure species are all given a separate listing. Species are listed simply in Latin name order, with codes given for the suppliers which list them; An index of suppliers is given atlhe end of the book. Highly recommended for anybody who grows from seed, and particularly useful for locating those rare and difficult-to-find species.
Principles of Ecology in Plant Production

T R Sinclair & F P Gardner
CAB International, 1998; 208 pp; 14.95. ISB N 0-85199-220-X Susta ined plant production is absolutely essential in assuring the well-being of the human popu lation, and this book aims to provide basic informa tion on the processes that define the ecology and environment of plant production systems . Plant production is the on ly basis for providing food (meat production is itself reliant on feed obtained through plant production): fibre needs such as wood, cotton or wool depend on plants; and plant products remain the main fuel for cooking and heating for much of Ihe world's population. The book begins with an introductory chapler thai discusses issues associated with increasing human population and consequently demand for plant products, and sustaining the environment for plant production. The human population increase is well known, but the book skirts around the issue of population control (it is, as it says , a sens itive matter, and who is to say whose reproductive rights must be restricted . These ethical and moral questions must be tackled, though, and not just in 'develo ping ' nations, for it seems unlikely that the earth can sustain even presentday popUlations.) The bulk of the book is divided into two sections, plant production and its relation to the environment; and aspects of the physical environment that impact on plant production systems. The first section describes ecosystems, then covers the domestication of plant species and the development of crop
varieties ; modern genetic manipulation including biotechnology ; the historical development of various agricultural ecosystems and factors in volved with crop yields ; biophysical limits to yields ; the importance of soils and water for plant production . The second section discusses solar radiation - the quantity and quatity of tight and the impact on plant growth; temperature , and the impact of global warming ; weather patterns ; and the effects of increasing carbon dioxide and gaseous pollutants on plant communities and growth . Demands on plant production have increased dramatically in the last century to unprecedented levels and conseque ntl y, there is now world-wide concern over the sustainability and environmental effects of modern agricultural and forestry systems. This book makes clear the ecological prin ciples unde rlying all plant production - a necessary precursor to setting up sustainab le systems.
Temperate Forage Legumes

J Frame, J F L Charlton & A S Laidlaw
CAB International, 1997; 336 pp; 27.50 ($50.00) (Hardback) ISBN 0-85199-214-5 Temperate forage legumes are of huge importance in sustainable animal production . and this book brings together all aspecls of their basic biology and production. Emphasis is placed on the importance of understanding plant characteristics and their consequences in terms of forage yield. quality and utilisation by livestock. The introduction considers the history, current extent , benefits and limits of temperate forage legume usage . Subseq uent chapters examine each forage species in turn (white clover, lucerne, red clover , subterranean clover, birdsfoot trefoil and greater lotus, alsike clover and sainfoin , serrandellas, sulla and tagasaste), dealing with their origin, physiology, ecology , nitrogen-fixing capability , curtiva rs , seed production , nutritive value and productivity ; key factors for optimal management are identified. Though emphasis is given to forage value , other uses of these legumes are described , for example while clover as a green manure crop, in clover-cereal mixtures and in organic farming practices . Thus the book should be of interest not on ly to those involved in animal production but also all who utilise these legumes.
The Pathology of Food and Pasture Legumes
oJ
Allen & J M Lenne
CAB International , 1997; 768 pp ; 95.00 ($175.00) (Hardback) ISBN 0-85199-166-1 Some 25% of the total crop protein in the world is derived from legumes, which are second in economic importance to the grass-cereal family . Legumes are very important in both animal and human diets, but legume production is limited by major diseases. This reference book details the diseases of all major temperate and tropical legumes. The temperate legumes covered are peanuts (grou nd nuls), soyabeans , French (common) beans, peas , field (faba) be ans, lupi ns and clovers . Tropical species are cowpeas , lentils , chickpeas and pigeon peas . For each disease of these legumes, the biology of the disease is des cribed along with the symptoms on the host plant, and management techniques discussed . Well illustrated (with 32 colour plates) and thoroughly referenced. this volume represents an indispensable reference work on legume diseases.
Page 39
Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals

R R Brooks (Ed)
CAB International, 1998; 384 pp ; 55 .00 ($100.00) (Hardback) ISBN 0-85199-236-6
COb~lt,
Plant species which can accumulate high concentrations of heavy metals (eg. Cadmium , Caesiu Copper, Lead , Manganese. Nickel, Selenium, Strontium. Uranium, Zinc) have been know
for o ver 100 years, and are now called hyperaccumulators.

The discovery of this phenomenon in many new species has stimulated research into a number information on hyperaccumulators and their uses, which include:
scientific and commercial uses, and this book brings together all the relevant ecologic
Phytoremediation - the removal of heavy metal pollutants from soifs and waters . This includ the removal of radioactive isotopes , eg o by using Brassicas and sunflowers in the Chernob region . Phytoarchaeology - the identification of ancient human settlements Mineral exploration. There are well known colonising plants which are good indicators of ba metals (copper-lead- zinc) and uranium . Revegetation of degraded land Phytomining - the commercial extraction of heavy metals from crop plants - is a potenti development.
It is not uncommon for hyperaccumulator plants to accumulate 1-3% of a heavy metal, an exceptionally, plants have been found which contain 5-10% (eg of Nickel). Interestingly, plants the Brassica family are very common in the list of known accumulators.
The use of plants to clean up soils and waters is an exciting new 'green' science which is f sounder in many ways than removal of soils or capping with concrete . Although very little is st known about the actual processes involved in metal uptake , the phenomenon is now well know and experiments in its utilisation are continuing. This book makes a significant contribution to th science of hyperaccumulators.
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Book review: Saponins News (Continued), classified ads

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Editorial & News

New trial grounds

Open days planned

Effects of the drought

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Chestnuts (2): Cultivation for nuts

Nut types and uses

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

natural marrons, canned Whole

Flowering and pollination

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Planning the planting

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Too upright Too low

Secondary laterals developing after laterals cut back by a third

Clean stem of 60-90 em (23 I)

Fig 1 Open-vase pruning

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Pinch out over

Cut out in winter too low

Take out laterals nearest axis

Region of secondary laterals

Clean trunk of 60-90 em (2-3 ft)

Fig 2 Pyramid pruning

Renovation pruning of adutt trees

Feeding & irrigation

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Nutriertt content of comnon organic fertilisers is:

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/4 No 1

5th year 5-8 Kg (t1-1Slb) 2-4 Kg (4l1,-9Ib)

Sth year 15-20 Kg (33-44Ib) 6-10 Kg (13-22Ib)

10-12 years onv..ards 25 Kg (55Ib) 15 Kg (33Ib)

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica or Cryphonectria parasitical

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Anthracnose (Mycosphaerel/a maculiformis)

Chestnut moth (Pammenejuliana, Syn. P.fasciana)

Chestnut codling moth (Lespeyresia sp/endana)

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Chestnut weevil or curculio (Ba/aninus e/ephas or Curculio e/ephas) .

Oriental chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus)

Mound layering - Fig 4. (Page 37)

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

tv.1sting may damage the shoot. This

we girdles the shoot as it gows, leading to oat de\elopment.

Adaption to soil and climate

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

Synonyms of listed cultivars

Cultivar descriptions (C.sativa & its hybrids)

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 4 No 1