PNRA Course on

Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
1
Lecture 2
UNCHARGED RADIATION
SOURCES
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
2
SOURCES/ORIGIN OF RADIATION
Radiation
Types
Charged
Particulate
Radiation
Uncharged
Radiation
Heavy
Charged
Particles
Light
Charged
Particles
Electro-
magnetic
Radiation
Neutrons
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
3
LIGHT CHARGED PARTICLE SOURCES
Light
Charged
Particles
Beta
Decay
Internal
Conversion
Electrons
Auger
Electrons
Beta
Negative
Beta
Positive
Electron
capture
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
4
HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLE SOURCES
Heavy
Charged
Particles
Protons
Alpha
Particles
Fission
Fragments
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
5
UNCHARGED RADIATION SOURCES
Electromagnetic Radiation Sources
Gamma rays following radioactive decay
Gamma rays follow nuclear reaction
Annihilation radiation
Bremsstrahling
X rays
Neutron Sources
Spontaneous Fission
Radioisotope (o,n)
Photo-neutron (,n) sources
Accelerator Sources
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
6
Electromagnetic Radiation Sources
Electromagnetic Radiation
Gamma rays following radioactive decay
Gamma rays follow nuclear reaction
Annihilation radiation
Bremsstrahling
X rays
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
7
Electromagnetic Radiation Sources
Gamma rays following radioactive decay
Monochromatic electromagnetic radiation
Emitted from nuclei of excited atoms
following radioactive transformation
Emission of a charged particle leaves the
daughter nucleus in excited state.
The excited nucleus de-excites by emission
of electromagnetic radiation called gamma
rays

|
+ Y Y X
*
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
8
Example









137 137
30.Y
Cs Ba |
-
+
( )
0.662
r
Ba r E MeV + =
1
A A
Z Z
X Y |
-
+
+
( )
1
A
Z
Y r s
-
+
+
4 4
2 2
A A
Z Z
X Y o
-

+
( )
4
2
A
Z
Y r s

+
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
9
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
10
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
11
Gamma rays following nuclear reaction

Nuclear reaction leaves the product nucleus
in excited state
The de-excitation gives rise to a gamma ray
photon
4 13 16 1
2 6 8 0
C O n o
-
+ +
( )
16
8
6.13
r
O r E MeV + =
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
12
Annihilation radiation
When the parent nucleus undergoes
positron decay, the positron after slowing
down, annihilates with an electron
Two photons are generated in opposite
direction 0.511 MeV energy each
The photons are called annihilation photons
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
13
Bremsstralung
When high speed
charged particles are
deaccelerated in matter,
part of their energy is
converted into
bremsstralung photons
This phenomenon is
most prominent in X-ray
machines, where high
speed electrons are
stopped by high Z
material
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
14
Characteristics X-rays
Produced as a result of de-excitation of atoms
Energy of X rays is equal to level difference of
two atom shells
K series X rays
K
o
, K
|
,X rays are generated when electron
jumps respectively from L, M, shells to K shell
L series X rays
L
o
,L
|
, X-rays are generated when electron
jumps respectively from M,Nshells to L-shell
Energy of K
o
is greater than that of L
o
X rays

Energy of K
|
is greater than of K
o
X rays

PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
16
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
17
Atom Excitation Methods
Atom
Excitation
External
Methods
Radioactive
Decay
X ray machines
(electrons)
Alpha
particles
Internal
conversion
process
Electron
capture
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
18
Excitation by Electrons (X ray machines)
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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19
Excitation by Alpha Particles
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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20
Excitation by Internal Conversion
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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Excitation by Electron Capture
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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SOURCES OF NEUTRON
Neutron Sources
Spontaneous Fission
Radioisotope (o, n) Sources
Photoneutron (,n) Sources
Accelerator reactions
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
23
Spontaneous Fission
Decay of
252
Cf



The dominant decay mechanism is alpha decay
The alpha emission is about 32 times that for
spontaneous fission
Neutron yield is 0.116 n/Bq
Specific emission rate is 2.3010
6
n/s per g
Energy spectrum of neutron is shown by figure
Q s s n Z Y X
y
+ + + + ' '
85

Q Y X
y
+ + o
65 . 2
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
25
Radioisotope (o, n) Sources
The most common reaction is



The alpha emitter is alloyed with Be
Only 1 alpha in about 10
4
react with a Be
nucleus
All alpha emitters of practical interest are
actinide elements
The most commonly used neutron source is
241
Am/Be
4 9 12 1
2 4 6 0
Be C n o
-
+ +
( )
12
6
4.44
r
C r E MeV + =
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
26
Photoneutron (,n) Sources
Only two target nuclei,
9
Be and
2
H are of
practical significance for isotope photo
neutron sources




( )
9 8 1
4 4 0
1.666 Be hv Be n Q MeV + + + =
( )
2 1 1
1 1 0
2.222 . H hv H n Q MeV + + + =
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
27
Photoneutron (,n) Sources conti.
Advantage
Mono-energetic neutrons are obtained
Neutron energy depends upon energy of gamma
photon.
Disadvantage
High energy gamma sources are required which
is the main disadvantage.
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
28
Accelerator reactions
D-D reaction


D-T reaction

2 2 3 1
1 1 2 0
3
3.26
n
E MeV
H H He n MeV

+ + +
2 3 3 1
1 1 2 0
14
17.6
n
E MeV
H H He n MeV

+ + +