Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design Delft University Press Kluwer Academic PublishersSynthesis of Subsonic ‘Airplane Design An introduction to the preliminary design of subsonic general aviation and transport aircraft, with emphasis on layout, aerodynamic design, propulsion and performance Egbert Torenbeek with a foreword by H. Wittenberg 1982 Oo Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht / Boston / LondonLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Torenbeek, Egbert. CIP ‘Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1, _Aigplanes—Design and Construction. L Title ‘TL6T1.2.T67 1982 629.134°1 82-12469 ISBN 90-247-2724-3 Joint edition published by Delft University Press, Mijnbouwplein 11, 2628 RT Delft, The Netherlands and by Kluwer Academic Publishers P.O. Box 17 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada by Kluwer Academic Publishers 101 Philip Drive Norwell, MA 02061 USA. Inall other countries, sold and distributed by Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, P.O. Box 322 3300 AH Dordrecht ‘The Netherlands. Reprinted 1984, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1999 Copyright © 1982 by Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of the copyright owner, Delft University Press, ‘Mijnbouwplein 11, 2628 RT Delft, The NetherlandsContents page PoREWORD by Professor H. Wittenberg wi aotuon's PREFACE awit AckwowLeDcerieNts xix unrzs wat CHAPTER 1. GENERAL ASPECTS OF AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION DEVELOPMENT 1 1.1, Tntroduetion 2 1.2. Aireragt design and development : 1.3, configuration development 5 1.3.1, Te design concept ; 1.3.2, Initial configuration design and configuration variations 7 1.3.3. Baseline configuration development e 1.3.4, The preliminary design department 9 1A, The initial specification 10 1.4.1, Te need for a new type of aircraft 10 1.4.2, Transport capacity 2 1.4.3, Design eruising speed and range Bb 1.4.4. Loweapeed characteristics and field performance “4 114.5. Other requirenents 15 1.5. A continuous thread running through the design process 16 1.5.1. The iterative character of design a 1.5.2. Searching for the optimum 7 1.5.2. A suggested scheme for preliminary design 18 1.6, Impact of civil airvorthiness requirements, and operating and flight rules 19 1.6.1. Genera re 1.6.2, Federal Aviation Regulations 2 1.6.3. Bektish Civil Airworthiness Requirements 22 1.6.4. Alrworthiness standards and design 23 1.7. Conclusion ey CHAPTER 2. THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT a 2.1. Introduction =High , low or mid wing? 2.2.1. High wing 2.2.2. Mid wing 2.2.3. Low wing 2.2.4. Effects of wing location on the general arrangement Location of the engines 2.3.1, Propeller aireraft 2.3.2. Jet-propelled transport aircraft 2.3.3. Single~engine subsonic jet aircraft Arrangement of the tailplane 2.4.1, Classification of tail surface configurations 2.4.2, The location of tail surfaces Arrangement of the undercarriage 2.5.1. Tailwheel undercarriage 2.5.2. Nosewheel undercarriage 2.5.3. Tandem undercarriage - Some unconventional aircraft configurations 2.6.1. The flying wing 2.6.2. Tailless aircraft 2.6.3, Tail-first (or canard) layout CHAPTER 3. FUSELAGE DESIGN vi Introduction 3.1.1, Function and design requirements 3.1.2. Drag and optimization of the external shape 3.1.3. A design procedure for fuselages with cylindrical mid-section The fuselage of airliners and general aviation aircraft 3.2.1. Importance of comfort and payload density 3.2.2. Cabin design 3.2.3. Passenger seats 3.2.4. Passenger emergency exits, doors and windows 3.2.5. Cargo holds 3.2.6. Services + The fuselage of cargo aircraft 3.3.1, The case for the civil freighter 3.3.2. Payload density and volume of the freight hold 3.3.3. Loading systems 3.3.4, Accessibility of the freight hold Flight deck design 3.4.1. Location of the pilot's seat and the flight controls 3.4.2. Visibility from the cockpit 3.4.3, Flight deck dimensions and layout 3.4.4. Emergency exits for crew members : Some remarks concerning the external shape 3.5.1. Fuselages with a cylindrical mid-section 3.5.2. Fuselages for relatively small useful loads page 30 3e 36 7 7 39 39 a 46 50 50 51 54 54 54 35 55 56 58 58 a 62 62 63 “7 68 68 6 15 16 78 9 a a1 83 84 84 88 ee 90 92 94 94 94 95page CHAPTER 4. AN APPRECIATION OF SUBSONIC ENGINE TECHNOLOGY 97 4.1, Introductory comparison of engine types 99 4.2, Current reciprocating engines roa 4.2.1. Some characteristics of the four stroke engine 101 4.2.2. Engine design and its influence on flight performance 106 4.2.3. Engine classification by cylinder arrangement 110 4.2.4, Two-stroke and Rotary Combustion engines aun 4.3. Basic properties of aircraft gas turbines for subsonic specds a2 4.3.1, The gas producer 43 4.3.2. The propulsive device 116 4.3.3, The pure jet engine 16 4.3.4. The turbofan engine 116 4.3.5. The turboprop engine 47 4.3.6. Overall efficiency, specific fuel consumption and specific thrust (power) 18 4.3.7, Analysis of the engine cycle us 4.4, Assessment of turbojet engines 120 4.4.1, Overall Pressure Ratio azn 4.4.2. Turbine Entry Temperature 123, 4.4.3. Bypass ratio 125 4.4.4. Engine noise a 4.4.5. Summary and prognosis for the turbofan engine 133 4.4.6./ Engine performance in non-standard atmosphere 133 4.5. Assessment of turboprop engines 134 4.5.1, Performance re 4.5.2. Weight and drag 137 4.5.3, Turboprop engine configurations 437 CHAPTER 5. DESIGN FOR PERFORMANCE aan 5.1, Introduction 143 5.2. Initial weight prediction aaa 5.2.1. Stages in the estimation of airplane weight 14a 5.2.2. Examples of weight “guesstimates™ 145, 5.3. Initial estimation of airplane drag 148 5.3.1. Drag breakdown 148, 5.3.2. Low-speed drag estimation method 149 5.3.3. Compressibility drag 452 5.3.4. Retracing a drag polar from performance figures 153 5.3.5. Drag in takeoff and landing 183 5.4. Evaluation of performance requirements 155 5.4.1, High-speed performance 155 5.4.2. Range performance 157 5.4.3, Climb performance 160 5.4.4, Stalling and minimum flight speeds 165 5.4.5. Takeoft 167 5.4.6. Landing 170 vit5.5, 5.5.1. 5.5.2. 5.5.3 5.5.4. 5.5.5. 5.5.6. CHAPTER 6. er 6.2 6.2.1. 6.2.2. 6.2.3. 6.2.4. 6.3 6.3.1. 6.3.2. 6.3.3. 6.3.4. 6.4 6.4 6.4.2. 6.5. 6.5 6.5.3 6.6. 6.6.1. CHAPTER 7. me aa oe) aa. fare 7.3.3. 134 74. ae 1.4.2 7.4.3 vu + Aircraft synthesis and optimization Purpose of parametric studies Basic rules Sizing the wing of a long-range passenger transport Wing loading and thrust (power) loading diagrams optimization for low operating costs Community noise considerations CHOICE OF THE ENGINE AND PROPELLER AND INSTALLATION OF THE POWERPLANT Introduction Choice of the number of engines and the engine type Engine installation factors Engine failure Engine performance and weight variations choice of the engine type - Characteristics, choice and installation of propellers General aspects Propeller coefficients and diagrams Blade angle control Propeller geometry Installation of propeller engines Location of the propellers Tractor engines in the nose of the fuselage 6.4.3. Wing-mounted tractor engines Installation of turbojet engines 1 General requirements 6.5.2. Fuselage-mounted podded engines Wing-mounted podded engines Miscellaneous aspects of powerplant installation ‘Thrust reversal 6.6.2. Auxiliary Power Units (AU) AN INTRODUCTION TO WING DESIGN Introduction and general design requirenents Wing area 7.2.1. Wing loading for optimum cruising conditions 7.2.2, Wing loading limits and structural aspects = Some considerations on low-speed stalling Stall handling requirements and stall warning Design for adequate stall characteristics Stalling properties of airfoil sections Spanwise progression of the stall Wing design for low-subsonic aircraft Planform Aspect ratio ‘Thickness ratio page im im 172 173 174 178 178 181 182 163 183 184 186 187 190 190 asa 195 199 204 204 205 205, 206 206 207 209 210 210 213 217 219 219 224 227 227 228 223 231 232 232 233 235