Some Calculus Suggestions by a Student Author(s): Benjamin Graham Reviewed work(s): Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol.

24, No. 6 (Jun., 1917), pp. 265-271 Published by: Mathematical Association of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2973181 . Accessed: 05/11/2012 13:28
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Mathematical Association of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The American Mathematical Monthly.

http://www.jstor.org

SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.

265

interest as establishing a definite retaintheir importance theseearlydocuments in arithmetical series as earlyas and geometrical on thepartoftheBabylonians and 700 B. C. and in squareand cubic numbers. It is relatedby Iamblichus fromthe Babyprogression took the harmonical Porphyry that Pythagoras interest we have of Babylonian but thesetabletsare theonlyevidence lonians, not disputed, mentions accuracy is usually in series. Proclus, whosehistorical comtriangles that theBabylonians werethe first to note that sixequilateral documents to confirm but againBabylonian pletely fillthespaceabouta point, thepointare notavailable. is themostnatural series The contemplation and geometrical ofarithmetical ofthereasoning faculty. Consideraand inevitable development oftheexercise leads to the sequence tionofthe number sequence1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . .. naturally common difference lead more witha known 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, *** and suchsequences in which a common difference to series or less naturally, amongrational beings, whichis is not knownbut whichcan be determined by some othercondition the arithmetical seriesled to imposed. Amongthe Greeksand Babylonians ofnumber thediscussion ofsquareand cubicnumbers, and to thegeneral subject of thiscontemplation was problems whilewiththe Egyptians the fruit theory, ofthekindwhich we have set forth. and developments This briefsurveyof algebraicaldevelopments amongthe Egyptiansand and extended shows thatmuchofthematerial which was developed Babylonians and in substance, with the bothin methods originated, by Greek mathematicians oftheOrient. The writers to acknowledge of Greecedid nothesitate scientists of Egypt and to the mathematics the indebtedness of Greek mathematics in recent have been but nevertheless achievements yearsreal scientific Babylon, ofthe deniedas emanating from thesecivilizations.To measure themagnitude is beyondourpower, indebtedness but to recognize the debtof modern mathethat maticalscienceto the scientists of Egypt and Babylonis onlyto render is due. which SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.'
By
BENJAMIN GRAHAM,

New York City.

I This paperwas prepared to theMONTHLY by theauthor severalmonths ago and submitted and wouldhave without the knowledge of his instructor.The editors wereat once interested of the MONTHLY exactlyas it came to them, been glad to present the paperto the readers but, forpublication, of the authorin writing it was foundnecessary to owingto the inexperience

in the calculusare apt to find Instructors theirownthorough of knowledge of an obstacleto the complete understanding of their theirsubjectsomewhat has made everything equallyclear, pupils' difficulties. Wherelong experience it is noteasyto feelsubjectively thevarying ofobscurity thatenshroud degrees the course as it appearsto the eyesofthe beginner.Someinterest mayattach to thecalculus, therefore to thefollowing account ofhisintroduction bya student

266

SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.

to be a serious to himat thetime including a detailed discussion ofwhatappeared in the development a possibleremedy weakness of the subject,and suggesting for thisdefect. with an excellent Ourswas a typical classin a typical instruclarge university, the torand Osgood'sCalculus fora textbook. We sailedquitejauntily through first semester, finding the theory of differentiation essentially simpleand the and evenobvioussequel. reverse process of integrating the derivative a natural an insufficient Whatdifficulty thepoorer students camechiefly from experienced ofanalytical knowledge geometry. It was withthe definite thatourtroubles and it was due to integral started, are thisingenious that theyneverafterwards ended. Instructors contrivance to regardthe definite as a by longfamiliarity so accustomed integral merely newdevelopment ofthe calculusthatI wonder or division whether theyrealize in the mind of the inexperienced what a logical catastrophe it precipitates student. He has learned that differentiation seeksto discover the rate of changeof a and in logicalsequence, the integral is a function givenfunction.Conversely, he is confronted withan entirely witha givenrate of change. Suddenly new is transformed intothelimit ofa sum-a notion conception.The integral which, as faras he can see,has absolutely no connection withany previous division of the subject. Connection of some sortis indeedestablished arbitrarily by the so-calledfundamental whichdeclaresthe new integral theorem, equal to the old. Although in general it had appeared thatoursas an academic course aimed rather at rigor oftheory thanextensive practical to we wereshocked application, observethat our textbookwaived the proofof this vital proposition.To Omar: paraphrase
"I mustabjurethe Rate of Change,I must,
Lured by Summation Reckoning, ta'en on trust."

Our professor had someinkling ofthe disastrous thiscomplete consequences ofviewpoint for he remarked thatwe wereforced change entailed, apologetically to "swap horses a stream." But I doubtwhether he realized crossing fully what hardgoing it on ournewmount. In thefirst we found place,notonlywas the ofa summation concept to us logically, but its verymechanical entirely foreign was cumbersome, expression and repellent. Our experience unfamiliar, with serieshad been confined to powersof x, and as we delvedmoredeeplyinto
reviseit in orderto put it intosuitableform. After submitting it to two or three well-known of mathematics, professors all of whomrecognized that thisyoungman had hitupona weak of the calculus, spotin theteaching but noneofwhomseemedwilling to undertake a revision of the paper,the editors, it to theveryinstructor in question. He has referred by merechance, takenit up withthe authorin personalconferences and by his assistancethe author has been enabledto rewrite thepaperin its present form. two or threeotherpapershave, during Strangely enough, thistime,been presented to the MONTHLY proposing or modifications substitutes of,Duhamel's theorem. From these the for, editors have selectedthe one by Professor in thisissue,as representing Huntington, printed the besttreatment. Doubtlessmanywill find"food forthought" in these paperswhich maylead in the Department to contributions of Discussions. EDITORS.

SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.

267

and we becamelostin a maze ofletters thedefinite integral problems involving subscripts. in This might be called a smallmatter, wereit not that our awkwardness thatfrom result, namely, produced one mostunfortunate handling summations forDuhamel's the necessity thoroughly the verystartwe failedto understand which Theorem. That is to say, most of us were unable to tell accurately process or which neededan intermediary directly expressions couldbe summed withthishandicapto beginwith,it was a to aid the integration.Of course, mechanism ofDuhamel'sTheorem thatthe wholeelaborate foregone conclusion to mostof us, and shouldbe seen shouldultimately provean absolutemystery stars. by ourbrightest onlyin a glassdarkly withtheadvent did notdiminish As maybe imagined, thesebasicdifficulties of ourcumulative bewilderments of doubleand triple integrals. The netresult we had it not. The rigorof theory, is easy to summarize.As forscientific an as best theycould by securing rank and fileof the class solvedproblems it by the aid of Pierce's and integrating foran element approximate expression werecontent. Of that and perforce Tables. We knewthe answer was correct and which fitted to impart which the Calculusis so eminently logicaldiscipline in a purely there academiccurriculum, alone perhapsmay justify its inclusion a vestige. remained scarcely The writerfeels entitledto This sad tale is entirely autobiographical. at reactions ofthesemental not onlybecausehe learned speak authoritatively, largely them but also becausehe experienced first hisfellow students, handfrom mastered himself. It was onlyby additional thathe finally the theory efforts in the subjectand of the definite inspired by a specialinterest integral-efforts to make. As his own original whichthe student cannotusuallybe expected in his mind, he was led veryvividly difficulties and thoseof his class remained in the integral problems to devise an entirely different methodof attacking and thetechnique of he believed which wouldsimplify boththetheory calculus, by integration. solving problems The processsuggested Bliss in the ANNALS OF MATHEMATICS by Professor in 1914obviates Theorem. to a great ofDuhamel's thetechnical complexity extent the mechanical method, thewriter of thesummation But aside from difficulties the feelsthatifthe original wereretained throughout conception rate-of-change and unified idea ofthemeaning calculus thestudent wouldgaina more consistent ofthesubjectas a whole. in finding integral consists of problems by use ofthe indefinite The solution an expression forthe derivative-orrate of change-of the desiredquantity, is limited and thenintegrating thisexpression.The application ofthismethod is notexpressible as somefunction by thefactthatin mostcasesthe derivative of the unknown form. The analogous and henceis not in integrable variable, that the eleor summation, of the definite process-namely integral, difficulty as Duhamel's ments surmounted by suchartifices be summed directly-is cannot forindefinite Theorem. The ensuing aim to perform a likeservice propositions integrals.

268

SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.

All functions overthe interval discussed are assumedto be continuous conin and have maximum and minimum values each such sidered therefore of intervals. in which definitions We willassumethefollowing y = f(x):

I) dy =(limit
THEOREM

)*dx,

(JI) y =
Ax._o

limity) *dx.
=

1. If Xk < Xk'< Xk + Ax,then limit f(Xk')

f(Xk).

Proof. Let Xk' = Xk + A'x. Then Xk < Xk + A'X < Xk + Ax by hypothesisand 0 < A'x < Ax. When Ax 0, I AxI can be made less than any assignable quantity, suchas e. But whenI AxI < E, thenI AIXI < e since A'X is positiveand < Ax. Therefore, by definition of limit,limitA'x = 0,
limit Xk'
Ax=_0 =

Xk, limit f(xk') = f(Xk)

Ax_o

by definition ofcontinuous function.

Xk', Xk. * * < Xk+AX,

Ax o

THEORiM2. If AQ = fX(Sk/) P(Xk") ... Ax,where Xk<

then Q =ff(x) .

(x)...dx.

Proof. Q =

filimitQ .dx Ax _o Ax
limit (Sk').*")A) A
Ax' Ax.o

Definition (II)
*dx

) * (X limit f(Xk k")

dx

=ff(Xk))(Xk)

... dX

byTheorem 1.

Dropping subscripts,

Q=ff(x)4(x)..dx.
THEOREM 3. LEMMA.-A function, f(x), continuous in the interval(a, b) takesat leastonceevery value comprised between f(a) andf(b) fora value ofx a and b. comprised between This Theoremis provedin Goursat'sCoursd'AnalyseMathematique, pp. 162-3,and we shalltherefore omitthedemonstration here. A specialcase ofTheorem 2 willbe found in practice. useful THEOREM 2a. If AQ = f(Xk') (Xk") ... Ax and f(Xk"') f(Xk) _f(k), f(Xk"') and q/1(xkv) areminimum values, and 4(XkD) c q(Xk,") c 0 (xAP) * where and are maximum values of these functions over the continuous f(Xk'v) O(Xkv') xk < x < Xk + AX, then interval

Q= Proof. f(Xk"')

f(x)* (x) ... dx. Thenfor somevalueofxk'inourinterval,

k'V X

C f(Xk't) _ f(XklV).

xkt c xk'

by Theorem 3.

SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.

269

But by hypothesis,
XkXk, Xl
Xk

+ Ax.

Similarly Then by Theorem 2,

Xk x_ Xk _Xk + Ax.
Xk
X Sk

C Xk

+ Ax.

Q= ff(x)k(x) ...dx.

By meansof Theorems 2, or 2a, and 3 the problems usuallytreated by the and Duhamel'sTheorem summation process may be readily solvedin rigorous fashion by the indefinite integral, i. e., by finding the derivative oftherequired it. The application function and integrating of our method to a problem inwillserveto makeit clearer. volving simple integrals We have selected the water-pressure example, sincethe solution heregiven can readilybe compared withthe current methodas found, say, in Osgood's and withthe simplified Calculus, solution worked out by Professor Bliss in the above-mentioned article. Problem 1. Tofind the pressure ofa liquidon a vertical wall. Solution. Let the wall be boundedas in the figure, the Y axis lying in the surface of the liquid. At the pointxk, let the abscissasuffer an increment Ax. The area Ak and the pressure Pk will take on corresponding increments AA and AP.

Xk-

x~~~~~IA

By physics,

AP WXkAA,(1

w is theweight where perunitofliquidand where

Xk

<

Xk'

< Xk + AX

From the figure where Yk"'AX< AA < ylvAx, Yk"' and Yk" are respectively maximum and milnimum ofAA. ordin-ates

270 Let Then

SOME CALCULUS SUGGESTIONS BY A STUDENT.

AA = yk"Ax.
Ykt/i < ykit <yk lV

(2)

A p-

WXkyk

AX,

(3)

whence applying Theorem 2a to (1), (2) and (3),

P= fwxydx.

to apply ofgeneralization can be extended ourtheorems By a simple process thedemonstrawith order. To save spacewe willdispense to integrals ofhigher to a problem to an exampleof theirapplication tions and confine ourselves a doubleintegral. involving Problem undera surface in cylindrical 2. To findthe volume coordinates. Solution. Let theequationofthesurface be z = f(P, 0). To the angle0 = Ok add an increment AO. To the radiusvector p = Pk add the increment of an increment On the AA construct Ap. smallarea thusformed the surface. in the form volume AV, of a right cylinder but terminated by given z

Let By geometry,
AA

AV=

ZkAA.
LAP),~
2

2 (p

'

whence
AA

p+ +

AOPA,

p <p+

AP < p+ AP.(1

ON SETTING UP A DEFINITE

INTEGRAL.

271

Zk"' and Zk" are respectively zk"AA< AV < zk"`AA, where From the figure, and minimum valuesofz in AV. maximum Then Zk AV = Zk(

< Zk < P+

ZkI,

(2)

2) AOAP

(3)

2a to (1), (2) and (3), form ofTheorem thegeneralized whence, applying

V=

fdpfzpdo.

methodcould be used throughout The writer believesthat the foregoing oftherateof changeof a function the conception the calculus, thusconserving wouldprobably objectto the as thebasisoftheentire subject. Mostinstructors on the ground thatthelatteris the most elimination ofthe summation process practical problems. But is it notpossible ofattacking natural and vividmethod to themonlybecausetheyhave idea appearsmostnatural thatthe summation is notverymuchlogical there to it? To the beginner beenso longaccustomed notion to thatof the inverted aboutthe suddenjump from derivative clearness no method presents the former the integral as the limitof a sum. Certainly and its retention the calculuswouldat least add throughout logicaldifficulties, and consistency to thecourse. unity to solveall hisproblems is supposed process. The engineer by thesummation the of setting an integral signbefore But afterall, his method consists merely and this element an element. Call value ofa single increment, his approximate the For this intuitive process, integral reducesto the simpleanti-derivative. foundation. mathematical wouldseemto provide a rigorous theorems foregoing

ON SETTING UP A DEFINITE INTEGRAL WITHOUT THE USE OF DUHAMELS THEOREM.'

By
EDWARD

V.

HUNTINGTON,

Harvard University.

the by meansofwhich theorem The purpose ofthisnoteis to statea simple and madeentirely maybe simplified up an integral" of" setting ordinary process substitutes. oranyofitsmodern theuse ofDuhamel'sTheorem without rigorous up an integral, ofsetting ofthe process importance In viewofthe fundamental maybe ofvalue in bothpureand applied it is hopedthatsucha simplification mathematics. the totalattracoffinding problem To fixourideas,let us take thefamiliar
1 This note contains Mathematical to the American of two paperspresented the substance 5, 1916,underthe titles: (1) A simpleexampleof the failure April29 and September Society, forDuhamel'sTheorem. and (2) A simple substitute of Duhamel'sTheorem,