2.

Electric Charge
1. There are only two kind of electric charge, namely the positive charge and the
negative charge.
2. Like charge repel each other.
3. Unlike charge attract each other.
4. The SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C).

Unit of Charge
The SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C)

1Coulomb (C) = 1 Ampere Second (As)

Example

• Charge of 1 electron = -1.6 × 10-19 C

• Charge of 1 proton = +1.6 × 10-19 C

Formula - Total Charge

Example 1
1.25×1019 electrons are added into an object. Find the nett charge of the object in the unit
of Coulomb. [Charge of 1 electron = -1.6×10-19]

Answer:

Number of electrons, n = 1.25×1019

Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.6×10-19
Total charge, Q = ?

1
Q = ne
Q = (1.25×1019)(-1.6×10-19) = -2C

Current
An electric current I is a measure of the rate of flow of electric charge (Q) through a
given cross-section of a conductor.

Direction of Current

Conventionally, the direction of the electric current is taken to be the flow of positive
charge.

The electron flow is in the opposite direction to that of the conventional current.

Unit of Current
The SI unit for current is the ampere (A).

Therefore, we can say that a current of one ampere is a flow of charge at the rate of one
coulomb per second. (Note: This is not a definition of ampere.)

2
Formula of Current

Example 2
If 30 C of electric charge flows past a point in a wire in 2 minutes, what is the current in
the wire?

Answer:

Charge, Q = 30C
Time taken for the charge flow, t = 2 minutes = 120s
(Since the unit of current, Ampere (A) is also equal to Coulomb per second (Cs-1), the
unit of time must be changed to second)
Current, I = ?

Electric Field
An electric field exists in a region of space where a small positive charge experiences an
electric force.

Line of force

3
 1. The direction of the field is defined as the direction of the force on a small
positive charge.
2. Lines of force are used to represent the direction of an electric field.
3. The lines of force are directed outwards for a positive charge and inwards for a
negative charge.

Strength of Electric Field

The strength of the electric field is indicated by how close the field lines are to each other.
The closer the field lines, the stronger the electric field in that region.

4
Field Pattern of 2 Point Sources

5
Ping Pong Ball in an Electric Filed

The ball will still remain stationary. This

is because the force exert on the ball by
the positive plate is equal to the force
exerted on it by the negative plate.

If the ping pong ball is displaced to the

right to touch the positive plate, it will
then be charged with positive charge and
will be pushed towards the negative
plate.

6
 When the ping pong ball touches the
negative plate, it will be charged with
negative charge and will be pushed
towards the positive plate. This process
repeats again and again, causes the ping
pong ball oscillates to and fro
continuously between the two plates.

Candle in an Electric Field

The heat of the candle flame

removes electrons from the air
molecules around it, and therefore
ionised the molecule.

If the candle is placed in between 2

plates connected to a Extra High
Tension (E.H.T.) power supply, the
positive ions will be attracted to the
negative plate while the negative
ions will be attracted to the positive
plate.

Electrical Potential
The electric potential V at a point in an electric field is the work done to bring a unit ( 1
Coulomb) positive charge from infinity to the point.

7
Potential Difference (Voltage)
The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is defined as the energy converted
from electrical to other forms when one coulomb of positive charge passes between the
two points.

Unit of Potential Difference

The SI unit of potential difference is the same as that for e.m.f., i.e. the volt. We define
the volt as follows:

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points in a conductor is 1 volt if 1 joule of
energy is converted from electrical to other forms when 1 coulomb of positive charge
flows through it.

Formula of Potential Difference

Example 1
How much energy had been transfer when 5 C charges moved across a potential
difference of 10V?

Answer:

The charge, Q = 5C
Potential difference, V = 10V
Energy, E = ?

8
Ohm's Law
The current flowing in the metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference applied across it’s ends, provided that the physical conditions ( such as
temperature ) are constant.

Formula:

Any other conductors, other than metallic conductors, which obey Ohm’s Law are
described as Ohmic conductors.

Example 2
What is the current through an 8Ω toaster when it is operating on 240V?

Answer:

(In this question, 2 physical quantities are given, they are the "240V" and "80Ω". The
question doesn't tell what quantites they are. However we can recognise these quantities
from its unit. Ω is the unit of resistance whereas V is the unit of potential difference.)

Resistance, R = 80Ω
Potential difference, V = 240V
Current, I = ?

V = IR
(240) = I(80)
I = 3A

Resistance
The resistance R of a material is defined as the ratio V : I, where V is the potential
difference across the material and I is the current flowing in it.

9
Unit:

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). One ohm is the resistance of a material through
which a current of one ampere flows when a potential difference of one volt is
maintained.

Resistivity
The resistance R of a given conductor depends on the:

length l,
Longer wire - Higher Resistance

cross-sectional area A,
Thicker wire - Lower Resistance

temperature
Higher temperature - Higher Resistance

the type of material

copper has resistance lower than iron

Superconductor
Superconductors are materials where their electrical resistance is exactly zero at some
relatively low temperature.

Application of Superconductor
1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
2. Magnetic-Levitation Train (MagLev)
3. Electric generators

10
Resistance, Current and Potential Difference in Series
Circuit

Effective Resistance: R = R1 + R2

Current: I1 = I2 = I3

Potential Difference V = V1 + V2

Resistance, Current and Potential Difference in Parallel

Circuit

11
Effective Resistance: R = (R1 + R2 + R3)-1

Current: I = I1 + I2 + I3

Potential Difference V = V1 = V2 = V3

Example 1
What is the effective resistance of the connection shown in the picture below?
a. b.

Answer:

a. Effective resistance, R = 2 + 3 + 6 = 11Ω

b. Effective resistance, R = (1/5 + 1/5)-1 = 2.5 Ω

Example 2
Find the resultant resistance of the arrangement below.
a. b.

Answer:

a. Effective resistance = 3 + (1/2 + 1/2)-1 = 4Ω

b.

Card 3: Current in Series Circuit

12
Current in Series Circuit

The current flow into a resistor = the current flow inside the resistor = the current flows
out from the resistor (I1 = I2 = I3)

In a series circuit, the current at any points of the circuit is the same.

Current in Paralle Circuit

The current flow into a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the current in each branches
of the circuit.
(I = I1 + I2)

Example:

13
If the resistance of the 2 resistors is the same, current will be divided equally to both of
the resistor.

Example 3
In each of the diagrams below, find the reading of the ammeter.
a. b.

Answer:

a. In a series circuit, the current at any points of the circuit is the same. Therefore, the
reading of the ammeter is also 0.5A.

b. Reading of the ammeter, I = 6A - 2A = 4A

Example 4

In the diagram above,

a. find the reading of the ammeter.

b. find the current flows through each of the resistors.

14
Answer:

a.
Resistance of the (whole) circuit = 2 + 4 = 6Ω
Potential difference across the whole circuit, V = 12V
Current, I = ?

V = IR
(12) = I(6)
I = 2A

Reading of the ammeter = 2A

b.
Since in a series circuit, the current at any points of the circuit is the same. Therefore, the
current flows through each of the resistors is also 2A.

Potential Difference in Series Circuit

The sum of the potential difference across individual resistor in between 2 points in a
series circuit is equal to the potential difference across the two point.

V = V1 + V2

Example

15
Potential Difference in Parallel Circuit

The potential difference across all the resistor in a parallel circuit is the same.

V = V1 = V2

Example

Example 5

Find the reading of the given voltmeter(s) in the diagrams below

a. b
.

16
Asnwer:

a. Reading of the voltmeter, V2 = 12 - 7 = 5V

b. The potential difference across all the resistor in a parallel circuit is the same.
Therefore, the reading of the voltmeter V1 is also 5V

Example 6

Find the potential difference across each of the resistors in the diagram above.

Answer:

The potential difference across the whole circuit = 12V, but the potential across the 2
resistor R1 and R2 are unknown. In order to find the potential difference across the
resostors, we need to find current passing through the resistors.

V = 12V, R = 6Ω, I = ?

V = IR
(12) = I(6)
I = 2A

For resistor R1,

R = 2Ω, I = 2A, V = ?

V = IR
V = (2)(2) = 4V

For resistor R2,

R = 4Ω, I = 2A, V = ?

17
V = IR
V = (2)(4) = 8V

The potential difference across the resistors R1 and R2 are 4V and 8V respectively.
Card 7: Potential Difference and E.M.F

Potential Difference and E.M.F

If we assume that there is no internal resistance in the cell, the potential difference across
the cell is equal to the e.m.f. of the cell.

Potential Change in a Series Circuit

18
 V1 = V2 = V5

V3 + V4 = V5

Potential Change in a Parallel Circuit

V1 = V2 = V3 = V4

Example 7
Find the reading of the voltmeter in each of the circuit below.
a. c.

19
b d
. .

Answer:

a. Reading of the volmeter = e.m.f. = 3V

b. Reading of the volmeter = e.m.f. = 3V

c. Reading of the volmeter = e.m.f. = 3V

d. Reading of the volmeter = e.m.f. = 3V

Electromotive Force
In a circuit, electromotive force is the energy per unit charge converted from the other
forms of energy into electrical energy to move the charge across the whole circuit.

Unit:

The unit of e.m.f. is JC-1 or V (Volt)

20
Formula of Electromotive Force

Comparing E.M.F. and otential Difference

Electromotive Force Potential Difference

Similarities:

• Have same unit (Volt)

• Can be measured by Voltmeter

Definition
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
defined as the energy per unit
charge that is converted from
chemical, mechanical, or other
forms of energy into electrical
energy in a battery or dynamo.
Definition
The potential difference (p.d.)
between two points is defined as
the energy converted from
electrical to other forms when
one coulomb of positive charge
passes between the two points.

Symbol: Symbol:
Denote by the symbol, E. Denote by the symbol, V

Internal resistance
The internal resistance of a source (cell or generator) is the resistance against the moving
charge in the source.

21
Load Resistance
The load resistance in a circuit is the effective resistance against the moving charge
outside the source of electric.

Terminal Potential Difference

• Terminal potential difference or terminal voltage is the potential difference across
the two terminal (the positive terminal and the negative terminal) of an electric
source (cell or generator).
• If the internal resistance of the cell is ignored, the terminal potential difference is
equal to the e.m.f.

Formulae of Electromotive Force and Internal

Resistance

22
Finding E.M.F and Internal Resistance - The Open
Circuit Method

In open circuit ( when the switch

is off), the voltmeter shows the
reading of the e.m.f.

In close circuit ( when the switch

is on), the voltmeter shows the
reading of the potential difference
across the cell.

With the presence of internal resistance, the potential difference across the cell is always
less than the e.m.f.

Finding E.M.F and Internal Resistance - Linear Graph

Method

Gradient od the grapf, m = - internal resistance

Y intercept of the graph, c = e.m.f.

23
Electrical Energy
From the definition of potential difference, the electric work is given by the formula:

W = QV

(W = Work done; Q = Charge; V = Voltage)

Since the work done must be equal to the energy to do the work, therefore we can also
say that, the electrical energy ( E )is also given by the formula

Electrical Power
1. The electrical power, P is defined as the rates of energy that supply to the circuit
( or the rates of work been done ) by sources of electric.
2. The unit of electric power is the watt (W).
3. One watt of power equals the work done in one second by one volt of potential
difference in moving one coulomb of charge.

24
Formulae of Electrical Power

Resistance and Power

In a series circuit, the higher the resistance of a resistor, the higher the power of the
resistor.

In a parallel circuit, the higher the resistance of a resistor, the lower the power of the
resistor.

25
Sum of Power

The effective power in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the power of each resistor in
the circuit.

P = PR1 + PR2

Sum of power in a Parallel Circuit

The effective power in a parallel circuit is also equal to the sum of the power of each
resistor in the circuit.

P = PR1 + PR2

26
Calculating The Cost Of Electricity Consumption
The cost of electricity consumption is based on the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) of
electrical energy used. The kilowatt-hours are sometimes known as the domestic units of
electricity.

Formula

Ferromagnatic Material
A magnet can attract certain type of metal.

The metals that can be attracted by a magnet are called the “magnetic materials” of
“ferromagnetic materials”. Examples of magnetic materials are iron, steel, nickel and
cobalt

Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is a region in the surrounding of a magnet which a magnetic material
experiences a detectable force.

27
Magnetic Field Line
The magnetic filed of a magnet is represented by the magnetic field line.

The closer the field line, the stronger the field. Magnetic field A is stronger than magnetic
field B because the line in magnetic field A is closer.

The magnetic field line flowing out from the North pole and flowing into the South pole.

28