Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Menjalankan penyelidikan bermaksud mencari maklumat lebih lanjut mengenai sesuatu perkara ,
menyelami lebih lanjut, menjalankan kajian menyeluruh atau menyiasat dengan lebih mendalam.
Penyelidikan adalah aktiviti penyelesaian masalah yang membawa kepada pengetahuan dan
penemuan baru dengan mengunakan kaedah mengenalpasti dan persoalan yang sedang
digunapakai oleh sarjana-sarjana didalam bidang tersebut. (Helmstadter, 1970, mukasurat 5)
Penyelidikan adalah suatu penyiasatan atau ujikaji yang bertujuan menemukan dan
mengintrepretasikan fakta-fakta, mengulang semula teori yang diterima didalam penemuan baru
atau amalan penggunaan teori atau undang undang dan peraturan baru atau yang digunapakai
semula. (Woolf, 1975 mukasurat 984)
Ho : peserta kursus metodologi adalah kumpulan yang hanya mementingkan diri sendiri ;
Ha : peserta kursus metodologi adalah kumpulan yang tidak mementingkan diri sendiri;
Mari kita sama-sama tunggu dan lihat beberapa ramai dari peserta yang akan membantu
menterjemahkan perkara ini. Tetapi saya yakin ramai akan buat tak peduli sahaja.
Ciri-Ciri Penyelidikan
Sejarah (Historical)
Membina semula perkara yang selepas secara sistematik dengan mengumpul, menilai,
mengesah dan sintesiskan fakta bagi menemukan rumusan yang dipertahankan.
Petikan (Descriptive)
e.g. Kajian dan definisi keatas bilangan jawatan didalam Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam
Kajian keatas petani-petani Malaysia
Kajian Tindakan
Membentuk kaedah baru dan jalan menyelesaikan masaalah dengan aplikasi terus dengan
kehendak dunia pekerjaan
Mengkaji sesuatu masaalah, fenomena atau hal baru dalam aturan bertujuan mengetahui,
menganalisa atau memperakui masalaah, fenomena atau hal yang dikaji. Dijalankan bagi
membolehkan kajian dijalankan atau dijalankan kemudiannya
Kajian tinjauan berusaha untuk mendapatkan jawapan bagi soalan-soalan berikut : samada
masaalah itu benar-benar wujud, apakah jenis masaalah yang dihadapi, berapa beratkah
masaalah tersebut, patutkah kita menumpukan dan memberi perhatian kepada masaalah
tersebut.
Kajian ini mencuba untuk menwujudkan hubungkait pembolehubah. Kajian ini bermaksud
sesuatu perkara atau hal adalah factor penyebab atau penentu kepada hasilan perkara atau hal
yang dikaji.
Azizi Page 2009-08-12
Bergantung kepada penentuan pembolehubah dependent atau independent
Bergantung kepada ketepatan data yang dikumpul
Bergantung kepada kekuatan hubungkait
Kajian Eksperimen
Kajian ini adalah untuk membuktikan atau memastikan sesuatu keputusan melalui ujian yang
dijalankan mengikut sesuatu prosedur atau kaedah sebelum sesuatu rumusan di nyatakan
References
What Is a Research
What Is A Survey
A Guide To Writing A Research Paper
Social Science Research Network
American Educational Research Journal
American Journal of Education
American Journal for Vocational Education Research
British Educational Research Journal
British Educational Research Journal
Australian Educational Research Journal
Statistics Research Educational Journal
Proses Penyelidikan
Rumuskan
Hipotesis
Teori
Cadangan
Hipotesis
Tolak Hipotesis
Model
Kajian Awal
Pengumpulan Data
Analisa Data
Ujian Hipotesis
Penerimaan Hipotesis
Penemuan
Rumusan
Cadangan
Di dalam membentuk hoptesis terdapat dua jenis yang utama (Mohd Majid,1998). Antaranya
ialah :
1. Hipotesis Induktif. Di dalam hipotesis ini ianya dibentuk melalui proses cerapan. Di
dalam hipotesis ini penyelidik akan menentukan susur galur dan kemungkinan hubungan
antara pemboleh ubah yang dikaji.
2. Hipotesis deduksi. Di dalam hipotesis ini ianya dibentuk daripada teori. Ianya akan
memandu penyelidikan ke arah sistem pengetahuan yang lebih umum.
Di dalam membentuk hipotesis yang baik terdapat beberapa ciri hipotesis yang baik. Antaranya
ialah :
1. Menduga hubungan antara dua atau lebih pemboleh ubah. Dengan kata lain ianya cuba
untuk mengkaji sama ada kedua – dua hubungan tersebut mempunyai hubungan
ataupun tidak (mampu diuji).
2. Hipotesis tersebut seharusnya dinyatakan secara logik, jelas dan terang. Dengan kata
lain ianya harus seragam dan tepat terhadap apa yang ingin diukur.
3. Selain itu ianya berupaya untuk diuji sama ada hipotesis itu ditolak atau disahkan. Ianya
cuba untuk mengenal pasti apakah hubungan antara kedua – dua pemboleh ubah
tersebut. Ini bermaksud bahawa ianya cuba untuk membandingkan sama ada terdapat
perkaitan atau tidak pada bab hasil dan perbincangan.
4. Hipotesis itu juga seharusnya bersifat khusus dan bukannya bersifat umum. Jelasnya
hipotesis yang dibentuk adalah khusus kepada sesuatu perkara yang ingin diukur. Ianya
tidak boleh melebihi daripada apa yang seharusnya dan bersifat umum. Jelasnya ia
perlu mengukur pemboleh ubah – pemboleh ubah yang dikaji sahaja.
5. Hipotesis yang dibentuk juga seharusnya berbentuk khusus agar ianya berupaya
dijadikan panduan. Jika hipotesis tersebut adalah khusus, secara tidak langsung ianya
Di dalam menentukan hipotesis kajian, penyelidik berhadapan dengan realiti dua tahap yang
penting bagi memastikan pengukuran kajian dapat dijalankan. Dua tahap tersebut ialah :
Pengujian Hipotesis
Pengujian hipotesis ialah satu proses untuk memastikan sama ada sesuatu andaian saintifik
yang dilakukan itu diterima atau sebaliknya. Tujuan utamanya ialah untuk menentukan probabiliti
(kemungkinan) yang sesuatu itu adalah benar dan dapat disokong oleh fakta.
Daripada sini hipotesis kajian boleh dibentuk sama ada hipotesis tersebut berarah atau tidak
berarah. Hipotesis yang berarah ialah merupakan hipotesis yang menentukan arah jangkaan
jawapan kajian dan sebaliknya bagi hipotesis tidak berarah.
Pernyataan Hipotesis
Di dalam membentuk hipotesis terdapat dua jenis hipotesis yang sering digunakan. Antaranya
ialah :
Hipotesis ini adalah merupakan hipotesis sementara yang tidak pincang (Mohd Majid, 1998).
Ianya adalah merupakan hipotesis negatif atau menunjukkan tiada perbezaan / tiada terdapat
persamaan / tiada perhubungan / tiada terdapat perkaitan antara kedua – dua pemboleh ubah
(sama ada berarah atau tidak berarah).
Ianya biasa dibentuk pada peringkat awal sesuatu penyelidikan (Mohd Majid, 1998). Hipotesis ini
digunakan sebelum data dicerapkan. Ianya adalah merupakan versi hipotesis positif atau
menunjukkan terdapat hubungan / terdapat persamaan / terdapat perbezaan / terdapat perkaitan
antara kedua – dua pemboleh ubah (sama ada berarah atau tidak berarah).
Walau bagaimanapun hipotesis nul adalah amat diperlukan kerana ianya mampu untuk membuat
interpretasi terhadap tujuan hipotesis dan interpretasi. Ini terutama jika ianya diterima atau
ditolak. Cumanya jika hipotesis nul ditolak maka pilihannya adalah hipotesis alternatif.
Beberapa perkara perlu diambil kira dalam menjalankan pembentukan hipotesis dan
mengenalpasti permasaalahan. Di antaranya adalah kita perlu tahu akan :
Pembolehubah (variables) adalah satu bahan yang berlainan bentuk. Ia adalah simbol bagi
pernomboran atau nilai yang dinyatakan e.g jantina, pendapatan, kelas sosial dan sbgnya.
Pembolehubah yang di waikil oleh X boleh dimasukkan sebagao sebarang nilai set e.g. dalam
kes kepandaian kita memberi nilai sebagai contoh rendah hingga tinggi atau 50 hingga 100.
Pembolehubah juga boleh mempunyai hanya dua nilai seperti jantina (lelaki, perempuan).
Jenis-Jenis Pembolehubah
Statististiks menumpukan kepada dua jenis perkara iaitu penerangan data dan juga pengaruh
pembinaan sesuatu populasi yang berdasrakan maklumat terkandung didalam sampel. Tersurat
dalam perkara ini adalah kita sebenarnya boleh membuat pengukuran ciri-ciri berkenaan.
Apabila pemerhatian keatas sesuatu fenomena atau sesuatu hasilan ujian berterusan didapati
tidak berubah ianya dipanggil “malar” (constant). Contoh bagi malar ialah jika kita bertanya
kepada semua peserta didalam kelas ini berapakah harga yang dibayar untuk memperbaharui
lesen memandu kita akan dapati bahwa jawapan yang diberikan adalah sama.
Apabila pemerhatian terhadap sesuatu fenomena berubah dari satu ujian ke satu ujian yang lain
ianya dipanggil pembolehubah. Contohnya adalah apabila kita bertanya berapakah yang
dibelanja oleh pegawai-pegwai INTAN untuk makan tengahari tentunya kita akan dapati
jawapannya tidak sama kerana perbelanjaan makan tengahari adalah berbeza dari seorang
pegawai dengan yang lain.
Ahli sains sosial biasanya menumpukan pada pemerhatian pembolehubah. Rumusan dan
ringkasan data akan lebih mudah jika pemerhatian dibuat keatas pemalar. Tiada mana-mana
maklumat teori diperlukan untuk dijadikan sandaran jika nilai-nilai pemerhatian adalah constant
dari satu ujian ke satu ujian yang lain.
Ahli sains sosial bersetuju bahawa ada empat skala asas bagi membuat pengukuran. Ia berubah
bagi tahap ke satu tahap dalam mengumpulkan jenis bilangan pembolehubah. Skal yang
dimaksudkan adalah nominal. ordinal, interval dan ratio.
Skala Norminal
Skala Nominal menerangkan kategori tertentu dengan nama. Kategori ini dipanggil tahap
skala. Semua pembolehubah kualitatif diukur dengan skala nominal. Contohnya, kaum boleh
dibahagikan kepada empat jenis iaitu Melayu, Cina , India dan lain-lain agar semua pemerhatian
setiap bakal repsonden boleh diukur atau dikategorikan pada tahap peringkat tertentu.
Skala Ordinal
Skala ordinal mengabungkan ciri-ciri skala turutan dan ciri tambahan yang diperhatikan boleh
disusun atau diletakkan dalam turutan dari rendah ke tinggi. Walaupun pada skala ordinal kita
boleh meletakkan tahap pemerhatian dari rendah ke tinggi, kita tidak boleh menetapkan jarak
diantara satu tahap. Contohnya kita boleh mengkelasifikasikan kakitangan awam kepada empat ,
kumpulan A, B, C, dan D tetapi kita tidak boleh menyatakan status tahap atau jarak diantara
kelas tersebut adalah sama diantara satu yang lain.
Skala interval mengabungkan semua ciri-ciri ordinal atau nominal dan kita boleh menyatakan
jarak atau had bagi sesuatu skala. Contohnya adalah seperti Ujian IQ yang sama tahap
dijalankan bagi 8 buah sekolah di sesuatu kawasan , jika purata ujian skor bagi setiap sekolah
seperti yang ditunjukkan dibawah , kita bukan sahaja boleh mengkelaskan purata IQ tersebut dari
tinggi ke rendah tetapi kita boleh juga mengetahui jarak sebenar, yang diukur dalam unit skorbagi
ujian IQ terebut diantara sekolah-sekolah terlibat. Berdasatkan purata skor IQ, skor sekolah 7
lebih mirip dengan skor sekolah 6 dari skor sekolah 8
Keputusan Purata IQ
Sekolah IQ
1 150
2 128
3 126
4 125
5 122
6 120
7 110
8 75
Satu ciri kurang baik skala ini adalah punca skala tidak dinyatakan yakni kita tidak tahu dimana 0
diletakkan, dengan tidak mengetahui dimana 0 diletakkan pada skaal bermakna , kita tidak boleh
mengesahkan nisbah pemerhatian. Sebagai contoh kita mungkin ingin mengetahui nisbah bagi
IQ Sekolah 1 = 150 = 2
IQ Sekolah 8 75
Keputusan yang diperolehi tidak membenarkan kita menyatakan purata pencapaian IQ pelajar
tahun 6 pada Sekolah 1 adalah dua kali lebih baik dari pelajar Sekolah 8. Jika 0 boleh dinyatakan
pada skala selang, skala tersebut menjadi skala nisbah.
Skala nisbah mengabungkan semua ciri skala selang dan ciri tambahan yang membentuk tahao
skala. Contohnya kadar kelahiran, kadar kematian, ketinggian, berat, bilangan pelajar. Kesemua
keempat-empat skala berbeda keupayaan mereka dalam mengkelaskan data.
Kriteria Pengukuran
Tiga kriteria utama dalam membuat penilaian dalam pengukuran ialah kebolehpercayaan
(reliability), kesahihan (validity) dan sensitivity.
Kebolehpercayaan (reliability)
Azizi Page 2009-08-12
Soerang tukang jahit mengukur kain dengan mengunakan pita pengukur, mengukur dengan tepat
, panjang kain yang perlu dipotong dan jika tukang jahit tersebut membuat ukuran berulang dan
sentiasa menanggar ukuran yang sama adalah dikatakan pengukuran menggunakan pita
pengukur adalah boleh dipercayao. Apabila hasilan proses mengukur disiapkan , alat pengukuran
dikatakan boleh dipercayai.
Kebolehpercayaan digunakan bagi mengukur keputusan yang sama berbilang kali sepanjang
masa. Secara amnya, kebolehpercayaan adalah tahap pengukuran dimana ianya bebas dari
kesilapan dan menghasilkan keputusan yang tekal (consistent, tidak berubah) Ujian yang
digunakan adalah Alpha-Cronbach.
Kesahihan (Validity)
Tujuan pengukuran ini adalah untuk mengukur apa yang kita ingin ukurkan. Kesahihan
menyatakan pemasalaahan mengenai samada pengukuran yang dijalankan mengukur apa yang
sepatutnya diukur. Kebiasanya kesahihan mengukur kandungan (content), kriteria (criterion) dan
konstruk (construct)
Sensitiviti
Skala sensitiviti adalah konsep pengukuran yang mustahak apabila perubahan sikap atau
hipotetikal konstruk dikaji. Ia merujuk kepada kebolehan instrumen mengukur dengan tepat
kelainan jawapan dan rangsangan.
Pembelajar
an (K)
Asingkan
Peristiwa Emperik
Bentuk Konsep
Minat
Huraikan Konsep
Pembentukan dan
Operasi
Bentuk Skala
Pengukuran
Nilai Skala
Mengikut
Kebolehpercayaan
dan Kesahihan
Gunaka
Skala
I. WHAT IS TO BE MEASURED?
A. Concepts
B. Operational Definitions
I.WHAT IS TO BE MEASURED?
Any researcher has the opportunity to select a measuring system. Unfortunately, many
measurement scales used in business research are not directly comparable. The first question
the researcher must ask is "What is to be measured?" This question is not as simple as it first
seems. A precise definition of the concept may require a description of how it will be measured,
and there is frequently more than one way of measuring a concept. Further, true measurement of
concepts requires a process of precisely assigning scores or numbers to the attributes of people
or objects. To have precise measurement in business research requires a careful conceptual
definition, an operational definition, and a system of consistent rules for assigning numbers or
scales.
A. Concepts: Before the measurement process can occur, the researcher has to identify
and define the concepts relevant to the problem. A concept (or construct) is a
generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes.
Concepts such as brand loyalty, personality, and so on, present great problems in terms
of definition and measurement.
B. Operational definitions: Concepts must be made operational in order to be measured.
An operational definition gives meaning to a concept by specifying the activities or
operations necessary to measure it. It specifies what the investigator must do to measure
the concept under investigation. An operational definition tells the investigator "do such-
A rule is a guide instructing us what to do. An example of a measurement rule might be "assign
the numerals 1 through 7 to individuals according to how brand loyal they are. If the individual is
an extremely brand loyal individual, assign a 1. If the individual is a total brand switcher with no
brand loyalty, assign a 7." Operational definitions help the researcher specify the rules for
assigning numbers.
A scale may be defined as any series of items that are progressively arranged according to value
or magnitude into which an item can be placed according to its quantification. In other words, a
scale is a continuous spectrum or series of categories. The purpose of scaling is to represent,
usually quantitatively, an item's, a person's, or an event's place in the spectrum.
This chapter thus far focused on measuring a concept with a single question or a single
observation. However, measuring more complex concepts may require more than one question
because the concept has several attributes. An attribute is a single characteristic or fundamental
feature pertaining to an object, person, situation, or issue.
Multi-itemed instruments for measuring a single concept with several attributes are called index
measures, or composite measures. For example, index of social class may be based on three
weighted averages: residence, occupation, and residence. Asking different questions in order to
measure the same concept provides a more accurate cumulative measure than does a single-
The second underlying dimension of reliability concerns the homogeneity of the measure.
An attempt to measure an attitude may require asking several questions or a battery of
scale items. To measure the internal consistency of a multiple-item measure, scores on
subsets of items within the scale must be correlated. The split-half method, when a
researcher checks the results of one half of the scale items to the other half, is the most
basic method for checking internal consistency.
The equivalent-form method is utilized when two alternative instruments are designed
to be as equivalent as possible. If there is a high correlation between the two scales, the
researcher can conclude that the scales are reliable. However, if there is a low
correspondence, the researcher will be unsure as to whether the measure has
intrinsically low reliability, or whether the particular equivalent-form has failed to be similar
to the other form.
Both of the above methods assume that the concept is uni-dimensional; they measure
homogeneity rather than over-time stability.
1. Face or content validity: This refers to the subjective agreement of professionals that
a scale logically appears to be accurately reflecting what it purports to measure.
2. Criterion validity: Criterion validity is an attempt by researchers to answer the
question "Does my measure correlate with other measures of the same construct?"
Consider the physical concept of length. If a new measure of length were developed,
finding that the new measure correlated with other measures of length would provide
some assurance that the measure was valid. Criterion validity may be classified as either
concurrent validity (when the measure is taken at the same time as the criterion
measure) or predictive validity (when the measure predicts a future event).
• Research starts with the demarcation of the main field of the search (the problem) and
the division thereof into smaller manageable subdivisions (subproblems).
• Direction is given to the research by means of setting applicable hypotheses which are
based on suppostions.
• Research has to do with factual knowledge.
• A problem statement/question
• A subproblem statement
• Hypotheses statement
• A time schedule
• Researcher's qualifications
• A resource list
Before an attempt is made to start with a research project, a research proposal should be
compiled. For the beginner researcher, this is usually the most difficult part. It is, however, the
most important aspect of the research project and should be considered carefully by the
researcher. This does not only require subject knowledge, but also insight into the problem
that is going to be investigated, so as to give logic and structure to research envisaged.
The research proposal can be envisaged as the process (step by step guidelines) to plan and to
give structure to the prospective research with the fina1 aim of increasing the validity of the
research. It is therefore a written submission to spell out in a logic format the nature of the design
and the means and strategies that are going to be used.
1 The Title
The title is usually only formulated after the research problem and subproblems have been stated
in a more or less final format. The research project title should demarcate the following:
• the WHO or/and WHAT is researched;
• the WHERE;
• the WHEN;
• the HOW; and
• an indication of the ENVISAGED SOLUTION or possible NEW
PRODUCT.
2 Problem Statement
It was previously mentioned that research forms a circle. It starts with a problem and ends with a
solution to the problem. Problem statement is therefore the axis which the which the whole
research revolves around, because it explains in short the aim of the research. Prospective
researchers can search within their own subject field for suitable problems. What should,
however, be mentioned, is that not all identified problems within a scientific field of study is
suitable for research.
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification). The question that he/she should ask him/herself is: Are there questions about this
problem to which answers have not been found up to the present? The research problem should
be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with
the aim of possibly concluding solutions to the stated problem.
The following aspects are important when formulating a research problem:
• Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered
questions or controversies, and/or to identify the the most significant issues for further
exploration.
The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on
the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem.
Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
• The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as
completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use.
Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your
intentions are.
• Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into
subproblems is of the utmost importance.
3 SUBPROBLEM(S)
Subproblems are problems related to the main problem identified. Subproblems flow from the
main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set goal in a
manageable way and contribute to solving the problem.
4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie the
WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the hypothesis.
The various kinds of human science research can be subdivided according to three criteria:
1 The measure of generality and applicability:
• basic research
• applied research
• in-service research
• action research
2 The level of ordering:
• descriptive research
• prophetic research
• diagnostic research
3 The measure of control by researchers:
• library research
• field research
• laboratory research
METHODS OF RESEARCH:
• Exploratory research
• Experimental research
• Correlation research
• Testing research
• Case studies
• Sociometric research
• Instrumental-nomological research
• Interpretative-theoretical research
OTHER NAMES GIVEN TO RESEARCH:
• Micro-study
• Macro-study
• Pilot study
AN OVERVIEW OF SOME RESEARCH METHODS:
1 Action research
Action research is regarded as research that is normally carried out by practitioners (persons that
stand in the field of work). It is a method par excel lance for instructors/trainers. It enables the
researcher to investigate a specific problem that exists in practice. According to Landman (1988:
51) this requires that the researcher should be involved in the actions that take place. A further
refinement of this type of research is that the results obtained from the research should be
relevant. to the practice. In other words it should be applicable immediately. This means that the,
researcher, as expert, and the person standing in the practice, jointly decide on the formulation of
research procedures, allowing the problem to be solved (Jacobs et al. 1992: 431).
Action research is characterized according to (Jacobs et al. 1992: 45) by the following four
features:
Problem-aimed research focuses on a special situation in practice. Seen in research context,
action research is aimed at a specific problem recognizable in practice, and of which the outcome
problem solving) is immediately applicable in practice.
- Collective participation. A second characteristic is that all participants (for instance the
researchers and persons standing in the practice) form an integral part of action research with the
exclusive aim to assist in solving the identified problem.
- Type of empirical research. Thirdly, action research is characterized as a means to change the
practice while the research is going on.
Outcome of research can not be generalized. Lastly, action research is characterized by the fact
that problem solving, seen as renewed corrective actions, can not be generalized, because it
should comply with the criteria set for scientific character.
2 Historical research
Historical research, as the term implies, is research based on describing the past. This type of
research includes for instance investigations like the recording , analysis and interpretation of
events in the past with the purpose of discovering generalizations and deductions that can be
useful in understanding the past, the present and to a limited extent, can anticipate the future
(Landman 1988: 65). Historians should consequently aspire to getting to the original events that
took place and therefore the researcher is dependent on the availability of documentary sources.
• Test sampling
As mentioned previously, when descriptive research is exposed, demarcation of the population
become unavoidable. Test sampling therefor forms an integra! part of this type of research.
Two important questions arise frequently when test sampling is anticipated by researchers,
namely:
- How big should the test sample be?
- What is the probability of mistakes occurring in the use of test sampling (instead of the whole
population)?
Special care should be taken with the selection of test samples. The results obtained from a
survey can never be more authentic than the standard of the population or the representatives of
the test sample, according to Klopper (1990: 64). The size of the test sample can also be
specified by means of statistics. It is important for the researcher to bear in mind that it is
desirable that test sampling be made as large as possible. The most important criterium that
serves as a guideline here, is the extent to which the test sample corresponds with the qualities
and characteristics of the general population being investigated. The next three factors should be
taken into consideration before a decision is made with regard to the size of the test sample:
- What is the grade of accuracy expected between the test sample and the general population?
- What is the variability of the population? (This, in general terms, is expressed as the standard
deviation.)
- What methods should be used in test sampling?
• Bias saying
When you attempt descriptive research, you should take care that the test sample reflects the
actual population it represents. The following example holds validity for the latter: you cannot
make a statement regarding all first-year students if you do not include all first-year students in
your research. If you do make such a statement, you have to select enrolled first-year students at
all the tertiary institutions or a balanced proportional manner, and include the latter when you
select your test sample for your research.
Landman ( 1988: 91) points out that, when a test sample does not truly represent the population
(universum) from which it is drawn, the test sample is considered a bias sample. It then becomes
virtually impossible to make an accurate statement or to predict about the population.
4 Experimental research
This type of research is known in literature by a variety of names. Synonyms are, for instance: the
cause and consequence method, before and after design, control group design and the
laboratory method. Landman (1988: 82) summarises experiential research when he states that it
is research designed to study cause and consequence. A clear distinction between the terms
experiment and experimental research should be evident. In the former there is normally no
question about the interpretation of data in the discovery of new meaning. Experimental research,
however, has control as fundamental characteristic. The selection of control groups, based on
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proportional selection, forms the basis of this type of research. Experimental research is basically
the method that can be applied in a research laboratory. The basic structure of this type of
research is elementary: two situations (cause and consequence) are assessed in order to make a
comparison. Following this, attempts should be made to treat the one situation (cause) from the
outside (external variable) to affect change, and then to reevaluate the two situations. The
perceivable changes that occurred can then be presumed as caused by external variables.
• Control group
Because: control is a fundamental characteristic of this type of research, control groups are a
prerequisite. Control groups are selected from a group of selected persons whose experience
corresponds with that of the experimental group. The only difference is that they do not receive
the same treatment (Landman 1988: 58).
• Variable
In order to do experimental! research, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms
dependent and independent variables. In experimental research it is a prerequisite that the
researcher should be able to manipulate the variable and then to assess what the influence of the
manipulation on the variable was.
A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on different values.
Objects are usually not considered as variables - but their characteristics are. As example the
following can be considered: a transparency is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics
of the transparency are variables, for example the colour, design etc. In other words, a
transparency as an object can take on different values.
• Independent variable
According to Landman (1988: 98) the independent variable is the circumstances or
characteristics which the researcher can manipulate in his effort to determine what their
connection with the observed phenomenon is. This means that the researcher has direct control
over the variable. As example of an independent variable, is study methods.
• Dependent variable
The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the circumstances or characteristics that change,
disappear or appear when the researcher implements the independent variable. For example,
learning content that should be mastered (student performance) is the dependent variable, while
the manipulation of study methods by means of different teaching methods, is the independent
variable.
• Internal and external validity
The importance of control in conducting experimental research has been pointed out earlier. A
further pre-requisite for this type of research is validity.
Validity is a term used in research methodology that indicates the extent to which a test complies
with the aim it was designed for. (You should ensure that you understand the terminology used.)
- Internal validity
Internal validity means that the perceived difference in the
independent variable (characteristics that change) is a direct
result of the manipulation of the obtained research results, and
therefore possible to conclude. In experimental design, emphasis
is placed on the way in which reference between independent
and dependent variables should not be confused by the
presence of uncontrolled variables (Landman 1988: 97).
- External validity
External validity means that the results of the experimental
research should be applied to a similar situation outside the
Hipotesis (Hypothesis)
1 WHAT IS AN HYPOTHESIS?
An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what the
researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is an informed/educated guess.
It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the most specific
way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.
Mouton's (1990: Chapter 6) and Guy's (1987: 116) presentation of the hypothesis:
Mouton:
Statement postulating a possible relationship between two or more phenomena or variables.
Guy:
A statement describing a phenomenon or which specifies a relationship between two or more
phenomena.
2 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN HYPOTHESIS AND A PROBLEM
Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or refutes
an existing theory. An hypothesis differs from a problem. A problem is formulated in the form of
a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived. An hypothesis is
a suggested solution to a problem. A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an
hypothesis can be tested and verified.
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3 WHEN IS AN HYPOTHESIS FORMULATED?
An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been
concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical
background to the problem.
4 THE PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS
• It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically
tested.
• It furnishes proof that the researcher has suffucient background knowledge to enable
him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.
• It gives direction to an investigation.
• It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the
examination of the problem.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS
• It should have elucidating power.
• It must be verifiable.
• Observation
• Questionnaires
• Check lists
• Measurement
1 LITERATURE STUDY
A thorough literature study is an indispensable component of all research. It familiarises the
researcher with both research which has already been done in his field as well as with current
research. A literature study makes the researcher aware of what the current train of thought is, as
well as the focus of existing and acceptable thought regarding a specific topic. lt also helps him
demarcate the boundaries of his research theme. When doing this, he finds ideas for his own
research theme and for possibly processing his data.
The researcher also gains personally by his literature review. It fosters a certain attitude and
leads to the attainment of certain skills:
* It develops the ability to recognize and select the significant and the relevant, without getting
lost in trivialities.
* It helps in gauging the quality of research material and in planning his research accordingly.
* It develops a critical attitude regarding others' research as well as his own efforts.
* It trains him to be an astute observer especially in respect of certain obstacles, making it
possible for him to avoid them.
* Knowledge of relevant literature helps the researcher to define the boundaries of his field.
1.2 The role of a literature study in research
The literature study helps the researcher to:
* select a research problem or theme. Relevant literature enables the researcher to discover
where inconsistencies, wrong designs and incorrect statistical conclusions occur.
Often research reports are concluded with recommendations regarding research which still needs
to done. The researcher's thinking can be shaped in this way, which in turn will enable him to:
* define the boundaries of his field;
* establish the size and extent of his research;
* consider the procedures and the instruments which he will use in his research. After having
considered other researchers' procedures and instruments, the researcher becomes more
sophisticated in the choice of his own;
* see his own problem in better perspective through a better understanding of the underlying
theory. This enables him to establish whether his research will make a contribution and what the
value of his contribution would be;
* avoid unnecessary (non-purposeful) repetition of research already undertaken. A researcher
often develops a brilliant insight into how to tackle a problem, only to discover, through a study of
relevant literature, that someone else has already done so;
* better evaluate the significance of his own findings. This applies especially in respect of which
techniques were used, and which contributions were made to gaining a better understanding of
the problem, etc;
3 QUESTIONING
The four most important data-gathering techniques in which questioning plays a role are:
- interviews
- questionnaires
- check lists
- critical incidents.
3.1 Interviews
In the interview, the researcher talks to the respondent and obtains information directly.
3.1.1 Advantages:
a) Flexible. In-depth.
b) Situation can be adapted.
c) Reasons for answers can be sought.
d) Clues can be followed up.
e) Yields a higher percentage of answering.
3.1.2 Disadvantages:
a) Time.
b) Costs.
c) Difficult to analyse responses.
d) Subjectivity.
3.2 Types of questions
Structured or unstructured.
4 Central tendency
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Central tendency is defined as the central point around which data revolve. The following
techniques can be employed:
• The mode
The mode is defined as the score (value or category) of the variable which is observed most
frequently. For example:
375864595
From the above mentioned, the mode equals 5 because 5 appears to be the most frequent score
amongst all the numbers (occurred 3X).
• Median
The median indicates the middle value of a series of sequentially ordered scores. Because the
median divides frequencies into two equal parts, it can also be described as being the fiftieth
percentile.
10 13 14 15 18 19 22 25 25
The median in the above-mentioned is the fifth score, that is 18. There are 4 counts on both sides
of the numerical value 18.
In cases where you have, for instance:
10 13 14 15 18 19 22 25 26 29
there are 2 numerical values indicating the median. By dividing the result by 2, the median can be
determined. The fifth score with a numerical value of 18 and the sixth score with the numerical
value of 19 are in the middle of the sequentially ordered scores. The median for the above
mentioned scores is therefore 18 + 19 ) 2 = 18,5. Because 18,5 does not occur in the sequentially
ordered scores, Huysamen (1983: 50) states that one should in cases of these rather refer to the
18.5 percentile.
• Arithmetic mean
The arithmetic mean refers to a measure of central tendencies found by adding all scores and
dividing them by the number of scores. The following is an example:
5 2 6 1 6 =
(Sum total of
scores )
N
Thus 5 + 2 + 6 + 1 + 6 = 20, because there are 5 scores, N = 5, and the sum total of the scores
(20) is divided by 5.
• Standard deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of dispersion of a distribution of scores. The
deviation of each score from the mean is squared; the squared deviations are then summed, the
result divided by N-1, and the square root taken (Landman 1988: 94).
• Inference statistics
Apart from descriptive statistics that deal with central tendencies, statistical methods enabling
researchers to go from the known to the unknown data also exist. This is to say to make
deductions or statements regarding the broad population as the samples from which the 'known'
data are drawn. These methods, according to literature are called inferential or inductive statistics
(Landman 1988: 95). These methods includes estimation, predictions, hypothesis testing and so
forth.
b = 15
Modus = 21
Median = 16
c Modus = 12
Median = 12