1.

Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some flowers
depends on soil composition

 classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral

Acid Base/Alkali
Produces hydronium or H+ ions in solution Contains O²ˉ OHˉ or produces the hydroxide ion
in solution
- have sour taste - soapy feel
- corrosive - bitter taste
- conduct electricity - good conductors of electricity
- turns blue litmus red (BAR) - red litmus blue
Strong Acids: Strong Bases:
- HCl - NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
- HBr (hydrobromic acid) - KOH
- HI (hydroiodic acid) - LiOH
- H2SO4 - RbOH
- HNO3 - CsOH
- HClO3 - Ca(OH)2
- HClO4 - Sr(OH)2
- Ba(OH)2
Weak Acids: Weak bases:
- CH3COOH (acetic acid) - NH3 (ammonia)
- C6H8O6 (ascorbic acid) - NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide)
- 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3- - N(CH3)3 (Trimethyl ammonia)
tricarboxylic acid - C5H5N (Pyridine)
(Citric acid)
- HCN (hydrocyanic)
- Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
- Hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
- HNO2 (nitrous acid)
- HF
- H2S
- CCl3COOH (trichloroacetic)
- CH3NH2

 solve problems by applying information about the colour changes of indicators to classify some
household substances as acidic, neutral or basic
Acidic Neutral Basic
- lactic acid (milk) - water - ammonia solution
- car battery acid - lactose solution - oven cleaners
- carbonated soft drinks - salt water - washing soda solution
(carbonic acid) - glucose solution - limewater
- vinegar - alcohol mixed with - baking soda solution
- fruit juices H2O - NaOH (caustic soda)
- ascorbic acid (vitamin
C)

 identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and bromothymol blue can
be used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a material over a range, and that the range is
identified by change in indicator colour

Indicator: substance which changes colour in solution depending on how acidic or basic the solution
is.
 Methyl orange: 3.1 –
4.4

Bromothymol blue: 6 -
7.6

Litmus: 5.5 – 8

 identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the testing of soil acidity/basicity
Indicators are cheap and convenient for:

- testing pH of soils: some plants need more acidic soils then others to grow--> used in
agriculture

o if soil is too acidic adjustments are made by adding calcium oxide (lime)
o soil sample is obtained and diluted with pure water
o solution is filtered
o an indicator is added
- testing home swimming pools : pool needs to be approximately neutral  adding chemicals
for sanitation purposes changes its pH balance
o if pH is too low, skin irritant, eye irritant
o range pH: 7.2 – 7.6
o use phenol red  collect water sample and add indicator
- monitoring wastes in labs: wastes are discharged off into sewerage ways --> sewerage ways
lead out to the ocean therefore wastes pH should be measured and neutralised

o domestic waste and industrial waste water is tested to ensure that it isn’t too acidic so
that it wont corrode sinks, drains and sewerage pipes.

- Hydrangea grown in basic soils are pink

 In acidic soils are blue

 perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator

Aim: to produce an indicator using a natural substance
Method:
1. A few red cabbage leaves were crushed using a mortar and pestle and then boiled over a blue
flame in a 500mL beaker with 200mL of water.
2. When the colour of the cabbage leaves became pale indicator the transfer of its substance to
the water, it was taken off the Bunsen flame and left to cool (if solution is too pale, the cabbage
will need to be boiled for longer to concentrate the solution)
3. Two 2mL samples of NaOH was measured and placed into separate test tubes. This step was
repeated for all other substances for testing while solids were added to a solvent (i.e. water).
4. Three drops of red cabbage indictor was added to the solution in one of its the test tubes and
the colour change (if any) observed was recorded.
5. The second solution in test tube was tested for its pH using an universal indicator. Three drops
of universal indicator solution was dropped using a pipette into the test tube while the colour
change was compared to the indicator chart.
6. The pH of the substance was then matched up to the colour change from addition of the red
cabbage indicator. This comparison was used to generalise a trend in colour change of red
cabbage indicator in acidic and basic substances.
Results:
Substan Red Cabbage Indicator Universal indicator Acidic/Basic/Neut
ce Colour Colour ral

Trends: red cabbage turns

- green/blue for basic substances
 - purple for neutral
- pink for acidic substances.
Discussion:
We can compare our results with standard results. If there is an inconsistency between the two
results this could be explained by the different solutions used to be tested. While the experiment
carried out used common household acids and bases, the acids and bases used to obtain the colour
changes above were more accurate (pH was exactly the number written instead of belonging to a pH
range).

Risk assessment:
- use heat mats + gloves + tongs (to remove wire gauze) and safety goggles for testing
- Apron should be worn (red cabbage can stain)
- Read labels of safety precautions  heed safety warnings (don’t test CAUSTIC or POISON
marked substances)
- Operator awareness + monitoring - Use a fume hold or have good
required ventilation
- Rinse after contact with substances
Conclusion: an indicator can be produced using a natural substance while its own colour changes
occur for different pH ranges.
2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally
contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur. The concentrations of these
acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution

 identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under which they act
as acids
- the higher the oxidation state of a non-metal, the more acidic the oxide
- non-metal oxides dissolve in water to form acids except for the neutral oxides

Acidic Oxides – Basic Oxides - Amphoteric Neutral oxides

NON METALS METALS Oxides
Covalent Ionic compounds ZnO, PbO, Al2O3 CO, N2O, NO
compounds
Reacts with water Reacts with water Behaves as both a Formed from non-
to form an acid to form a base BL acid and Bl metals: C and N
base
Reacts with bases Reacts with acids Reacts with both Doesn’t react with
to form salts vice to form salts but acids and bases to both acids and
versa not with other form a salt -> i.e. bases
alkalis neutralises
Covalent Ionic compounds Al, Zn, Be, Sn, Pb C and N form
compounds form amphoteric neutral oxides
oxides
Neutralisation reaction:
Acid + base  salt + H2O
Eg. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O
The net ionic will be:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Neutralisation reactions generally produce water as well as salts but there are
exceptions:
Eg. H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (aq)  (NH4)2SO4 (aq)
 analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the relationship between
position of elements in the Periodic Table and acidity/basicity of oxides

Elements on the  decreasing electronegativity Elements on the right of

left of the periodic  more metallic the periodic table are
table are more  more basic more non-metallic)
metallic and less hence has a higher
Increasing electronegativity 
electronegative. electronegativity.
More non-metallic 
These oxides are Therefore their oxides
More acidic
more basic are more acidic.

 define Le Chatelier’s principle

Le Chatelier’s Principle
“When a system of equilibrium is disturbed, it will shift in such a direction to counteract the change.”
This is used to predict how a system of equilibrium will respond to a disturbance.
Chemical equilibrium: state of reversible reaction where the rate of forward reaction is equal to the
rate of the backward reaction.

 identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction

To obtain a chemical equilibrium:

- Reaction must be reversible
- Reaction is performed in a closed container
- Sufficient time must be allowed to reach a chemical equilibrium

Position of equilibrium: the dominant direction of the reversible reaction

Factor Achieved by
Pressure or concentration Adding more molecules

Temperature changing the temperature by adding or removing heat

 this affects only exothermic and endothermic equilibrium
systems
Volume changing the size of the system

Adding a catalyst:
- Has no effect on the final position of a chemical equilibrium
- The same amounts of reactants and products are obtained for the same reaction at the same
temp condition
- Helps to reduce the time taken for a reversible reaction to reach the state of equilibrium by
lowering the activation energy for both forward and backward reactions.

Possible changes to a chemical equilibrium:

- Concentration:

o The reaction shifts to the opposite side of the change in concentration

o Eg H2 + I2  2HI(g); if h2 increases, the reaction shifts to the right hand side to favour
the production of HI and counteract the change in equilibrium

o When there is an addition of a pure solid and/or pure liquid there is no shift in of the
chemical equilibrium

- Pressure/volume

o Pressure is proportional to the number of moles of gaseous molecules

o If there is an increase in pressure in a vessel, there is a decrease in volume to counteract

the change

o If pressure decreases, volume increases

- Temperature

o Depends on whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic

o Decreasing temperature of an exothermic reaction causes the equilibrium to shift to the

right to release heat

o Increasing temperature of an endothermic reaction causes the equilibrium to shift to the

left to absorb heat
 - Catalyst

o Catalysts have no effect on the final position of a chemical equilibrium  rates of

forward/backward reactions are increased equallly

o Lowers activation energy of the forward/backward reactions

o Reduces time take for the reversible reaction to reach equilibrium

 describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions as an equilibrium process
and explain in terms of Le Chatelier’s principle
The solubility of carbon dioxide gas in water can be fully described using four equilibrium equations:
- CO2(g) CO2(aq) EXOTHERMIC

- H2O(l) + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)

- H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)

- HCO3-(aq) H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

There is a chemical equilibrium between the reversible reactions of carbon dioxide gas into aqueous
and aqueous into gas.

Fizzing in a drink
- When lid is opened
o Pressure decreases (CO2 (g) escapes into the atmosphere)
o Equilibrium shifts to LHS to favour production of CO2 (g)
- Place in a refrigerator
o Fizzing of drink is less
o Temperature is decreased  equilibrium shifts to the RHS (since exothermic)

o i.e. favours production of aqueous CO2 (CO2(g) dissolves into CO2(aq))

Le Chatelier's principle predicts that:

- addition of acid (increased concentration of H+) shifts equilibrium to the left
- addition of base (OH- reacts with and reduces concentration of H+) shifts equilibrium to the
right
- addition of a soluble carbonate (increased concentration of CO32-) shifts equilibrium to the left

Example: Use Lechatelier’s Principle to relate the increase in burning fossil fuels to a
possible increase in the acidity of the oceans
The increasing in burning fossil fuels leads to an increase of concentration of SO2 gas in the
atmosphere. This leads to the formation of acidic rain when SO2 dissolves in the water vapour in the
atmosphere. The formation of acid rain due to SO2:
H2O (g) + SO2(g)  H+(aq)+ HSO3-(aq)
The acid rain falling into the ocean leads to an increase it its acidity.
In terms of Lechatelier’s principle, the increasing SO2(g) causes equilibrium to shift to the right.,
producing H+ which increases acidity hence acidity of oceans increases.

 identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
Natural Sources Industrial Sources
Sulfur - geothermal hot springs - smelting of sulphur ores in the
dioxide - volcanic activity extraction of metals process
- burning of fossil fuels such as coal
which contains sulphur
Nitric - lightning activity generates
Oxide high temperatures to allow  burning of fossil fuels in transport
oxygen and nitrogen to vehicles (cars, trucks etc) and power
combine stations ( for generation of electricity)
Nitrogen Nitric oxide combines with
Dioxide oxygen in the presence of
lightning
Dinitrog Bacteria in nitrogenous  use of nitrogenous fertiliser in
en Oxide material in soils agriculture which provides raw
 / nitrous material for the bacteria in the soil to
oxide feed off and produce dinitrogen oxide

 analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of sulfur dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their release into the environment

Effects
Sulphu - irritates the respiratory system
r - causes breathing difficulties even at low concentrations
dioxide - unpleasant odour
- causes formation of acid rain
Nitrog - irritates respiratory tracts
en - causes breathing discomfort at concentrations of 3 to 5 ppm (higher
Dioxid concentrations does extensive tissue damage)
e - sunlight acts on nitrogen dioxide in the presence of hydrocarbons and oxygen
to form ozone
NO2 + sunlight  NO + O
O + O2  O 3
- ozone aggravates respiratory problems eg asthma
- contributes to global warming  rise in sea level  adverse changes to the
biosphere
- pollutes atmosphere and increases the chances of the formation of
photochemical smog  visually unattractive an a health hazard
- heath effects for the aged with respiratory weaknesses
- health effects  money spent on medication and visits to doctors/ surgery
for severe cases

Analysis of secondary sources

Secondary sources available: Evaluate:
- internet search engines - Usefulness
- newspaper - accessibility
- scientific magazines / journals - validity
- books - reliability
- CD-ROMs - accuracy

 describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide and chemical
reactions which release oxides of nitrogen
Process Reaction
Sulfur Smelting of sulphide ores 2 ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s ) + 2SO2(g)
dioxide
Combustion of coal containing S + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)
sulphur

Nitric Nitrogen combining with oxygen in N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)

Oxide the atmosphere
Nitrogen Nitric oxide combining with oxygen in 2NO(g) + O2 (g) 2NO2(g)
Dioxide the atmosphere

 assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen
Direct evidence for increases in atmospheric oxides is more difficult to measure:
- Sulphur dioxide is naturally released into the atmosphere by volcanic activity and geothermal
hot springs. Since volcanic activity varies year to year, it is difficult gain an accurate measure
of the increase in atmospheric sulphur dioxide due to industrial sources.
- Instruments to measure very low concentrations have only been commercially available since
the 1970s so there isn’t accurate data before then

Indirect evidence for increases of atmospheric oxides:

- A decrease in pH in lakes and rivers
- Corrosion of buildings and statues
- Formation of photochemical smog
 - Damage to pine forests
- Antipollution measures have been employed to reduce industrialised output of SO2
o The government have input measures to reduce the sulphur content in fuels
o Catalytic converters are made compulsory for new cars to reduce the oxides of
nitrogen released

 Evidence of atmospheric oxides is the effects of acid rain are more difficult to observe directly
 To have a valid detection of acid rain due to the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, long term data
must be collected and compared. It is difficult to measure the increase in these concentrations using
direct evidence however indirect evidence is the best alternative  more practical

 calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in reactions, and calculate masses
of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0˚C and 100kPa or 25˚C and
100kPa
- equal numbers of molecules of different gases occupy the same volume (at same temp and
pressure)
- to calculate volumes
1. find number of moles produced
2. find number of moles reacted
3. find volume by multiplying number of moles with the volumes of gases at the
corresponding pressure

 explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Oxide Acid formed Reaction
Carbon dioxide Carbonic acid CO2(g)+ H2O(l)  H2CO3(aq)
Sulfur dioxide Sulphurous SO2 (g) + H2O(l))  H2SO3(aq)
acid
--> Sulfuric acid 2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g)  H2SO4(aq)
Nitrogen dioxide Nitrous and 2NO2(g) + H2O(l))  HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
nitric acid 2 HNO2(aq) + O2(g)  2 HNO3(aq)
HNO3(aq)+ H2O(l)  H3O+ + NO3-

Emissions of pollutants such as SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and the oxides of nitrogen lead to the
formation of acid rain. In the atmosphere, when water vapour condenses to form rain drops, the
pollutants are dissolved in the process which forms acid rain. The oxides having dissolve in water
turn into acids.

Acid rain causes:

- increased acidity in lakes and rivers : affects fish populations (when pH<5 aquatic animals
die) and the river ecosystem
- damage to plants and hinders their growth
o eg pine forests  affects agricultural and pine industry
- erosion of marble and limestone structures requires funds for repairing
- severe damage to vegetation--> protective waxes are lost on leaves causing damage to
plants
- increase in pH of soil inhibits plants from absorbing sufficient nutrients such as calcium or
potassium
- corrosion of metals
- limestone buildings and monuments will crumble when attacked by acid rain:
CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  CaSO4(s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Rain which has not been subjected to pollutants is still slightly acidic. This is due to the presence of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.
H2O (l) + CO2 (g)  H2CO3 (aq)

Example
Explain why acid rain has not been as severe in Australia as Europe/USA.
Australia has a relatively small population meaning there are less cars and appliances which emit
gases which cause acid rain. Also because Australia is surrounded by oceans, it is protected from the
atmospheric pollution of other countries.
Major cities of Australia are also on the coast which helps disperse pollution produced by the
industry. Our coal and oil supplies also have relatively low sulphur content

Demonstrate the effect of more carbon dioxide on the pH of oceans

Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid which ionises to produce H+.
CO2(g)  CO2(aq) EXOTHERMIC
H2O(l) + CO2(g)  H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq)  H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
A greater amount of carbon dioxide in the ocean increases the production of carbonic acid because
according to Le Chatelier’s principle, when an equilibrium system is disturbed, the system will react
in such a way to counteract the change. Therefore an increase in CO2 concentration drives the
system to the right, increasing hydrogen ion concentration and lowering the pH.
Also, with an increase of carbon dioxide emissions more acid rain formed from carbon dioxide is
produced. This falls into the oceans and ionises to produce hydronium ions.

Outline problems that could arise from these oceanic changes

The decrease of pH in the ocean water would have detrimental effects on aquatic organisms as the
lower pH would prevent the fish eggs from hatching and may affect the growth of some marine
organisms which are sensitive to changes in acidity. Furthermore, the acidic conditions result in
reduced reproduction which leads to a drop in fish numbers hence affecting the food chain. It also
increases the rate of corrosion of ships. Shells of invertebrates and corals contain CaCO3 which
dissolves under acidic conditions as shown in the following equation:
CaCO3 + H+  Ca 2+ + HCO3-

Describe a process which might offset these effects by removing carbon dioxide from the
oceans.
- Global warming: since CO2(g)  CO2 (aq) is exothermic, by increasing the temperature, the
reaction will move to the left by Le Chatellier’s principle. This will remove the aqueous carbon
dioxide form the ocean to form carbon dioxide gas.
- Photosynthesis of plants  reduces concentration of dissolved CO2 hence raising the pH of
the ocean
6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l)  C6H12O6 (aq)+ + 6O2 (g)

 identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to decarbonate soft drink and gather
data to measure the mass changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25˚C and
100kPa
Aim: To determine the amount of CO2 gas dissolved in a soft drink (carbonated drink)
Method:
1. A 500 mL beaker was weight using a balance. Then a 300mL bottle of coke was weighed
before opening and then was completely emptied into the 500mL beaker. This was then
weighed again. The measurements were recorded.
2. The beaker holding the carbonated drink was heated using a low heating flame. It was set up
using a tripod above a Bunsen burner with the beaker sifting on top of a wire gauze on the
tripod.
3. The beaker was gently warmed using a heating flame, preferably an electronic heater. Before
the solution began to boil the flame/heater was removed to prevent evaporation of the
carbonated drink.
4. The beaker was allowed to cool and then it was reweighed on the balance. This measurement
was recorded and used to calculate the loss in CO2 (g) from solution by subtracting it from the
initial mass. Using this measurement the number of moles of CO2 released was calculated by
substituting values into the equation n=m/M. This quantity was converted into litres at 250C
and 101.3 kPa using the molar volume.
Risk Assessment: The experiment involves the heating of a carbonated drink to speed up the release
of gas from its aqeous form.
- To prevent spilling  planning and careful monitoring while solution is heated.
- Wear goggles when observing beaker  it might fix and “spit”
- Use heat mats and tongs and gloves to handle hot instruments.
Calculations required to determine the volume of gas released
• Loss of mass due to escape of carbon dioxide gas. (final mass – initial mass)
• Conversion of grams of CO2 lost to moles of CO2.
• Number of CO2 released  Volume of CO2

Discussion:
- Differences between standard values and experimental results  due to evaporating
- Methods to improve reliability  repetition
- Methods to improve accuracy  use electronic balance
- Some remnants of coke could be remaining in its packaging bottle affecting the results
- Discuss reason for heating solution
o A gradual increase in heat prevents the carbonated drink to foam or spray out of the
beaker
o By Le Chatelier’s principle, the reaction will favor the release of CO2 (g) in order to
absorb more heat (i.e. decrease the temperature).
o This speeds up the experiment
- Using a hot plate would provide a very gentle heat and help heat the solution without
evaporation

OTHER Methods:
- warming method: uses the drop in water solubility of gas on heating
- salting method: uses the stronger attraction between soluble salt ions with water than
dissolved gas molecules have for water.
- Shaking the bottle of carbonated drink and open lif to reduce pressure and in turn release
carbon dioxide + repetition.
NB:
- Do not spill  small amounts of spilt carbonated drink results in a large percentage error
- To improve accuracy  use electronic balance
- Remnants of coke could be remaining in its packaging bottle affecting the results
- To improve validity and reliability  cover the beaker while it is cooling (to prevent
evaporation)

3. Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomachs
 define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water
Acids are formed by metal oxides which ionise in water by donating a proton to the water molecule,
forming the metal aqueous and a hydronium ion.
 When acid molecule is placed in water it can IONISE; releasing a proton (hydrogen ion) and
forming a negative ion.
 Free H+ ions do not exist in aqueous solution, therefore it is donated to the water molecule and
joins to form hydronium

NB: A hydrogen atom, H, consists of one proton and one electron. A hydrogen ion, H+ is formed when
an H loses its electron, leaving just a proton. A proton and a hydrogen ion are thus the same and
can be represented by H+.
- When an acid molecule is placed in water, it ionizes by releasing a proton and forming a
negative ion.
- The proton, H+, can attach to a water molecule, H2O, forming what is called a hydrated
hydrogen ion or hydronium ion, H3O+

 gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic equations to represent the
ionisation of acids
Ionisation of an acid
 identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic),
hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
- Sulfuric acid is called a diprotic acid because each molecule can release up to two
protons.

- Phosphoric acid is called a triprotic acid because each molecule can release up to three
protons.

- Acetic acid occurs naturally in the decomposition of biological material, eg by oxidation of

ethanol  it is found in wine alcohol. Most acetic acid used by humanity is manufactured
industrially.
- Citric acid occurs naturally in fruits but most added to food as preservatives is
manufactured.

Hydrochloric and sulfuric acid are produced industrially on a large scale.

• Most sulfuric acid is manufactured, but it can also occur naturally.
• Sulfuric acid is produced by glands in the lining of our stomachs  helps enzymes to break
complex food molecules
• For example, most sulfur dioxide released into the earth’s atmosphere is oxidized and
dissolved in water to form the sulfuric acid in acid rain. If the acid rain results from volcanic
eruption it could be regarded as natural, but if acid rain results from smelting of sulfide ores,
it could be regarded as manufactured.

 describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases

The more pH scale ranges from 1 to 14 according to the concentration of hydrogen ions present in
the substance.
Acids have a pH ranging between 0 and 7 ; a neutral solution has pH=7 ; a basic/alkaline has
pH>7

 describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong, weak,
concentrated and dilute
 strength of an acid refers to the degree of ionisation it has
 a weak acid doesn’t fully ionise when dissolved in water (backward reaction is more
successful than forward reaction--> ions react easily to reform the acid and the water)
 a strong acid has a degree of ionisation of 100%

 when an acid partly ionises it means it only partly converts to ions while the rest of the acid
remains as molecules
 concentration refers to the amount of acid per unit volume
 identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+]

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

Strong acids like hydrochloric acid are the sort of acids you normally use in the lab have a pH around
0 to 1.

NB: The lower the pH, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.

 compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and
explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their molecules
- Hydrochloric acid completely ionises in water, therefore is a very strong acid.
- Citric acid however is a weak acid as it only partially ionises in water to form fewer H+
ions.
o Tripotic  up to 3 hydrogen ions are produced
o Stronger than acetic acid
- Acetic acid is also a weak acid as it only partially ionises in water. Because of this the
dissociated acid exists in equilibrium with its aqueous molecules.
 describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an equilibrium between the
intact molecule and its ions
A strong acid has a very high degree of ionisation meaning their molecules completely ionise in
water. Because of this, as all the molecules of the acid are ionised, this reaction is not a reversible
reaction since the forward reaction is completely dominant and there are no remaining reactants.
(IONISATION REACTION GOES TO COMPLETION)
 independent of concentration

A weak acid has a low degree of ionisation meaning their molecules partially ionise in water. In this
situation only a part of the acid is ionised, meaning the reaction can be reversible. (DOESNT GO TO
COMPLETION  EQUIILIBRIUM)
 depends on concentration

Electrical conductivity: ions moving in a liquid can conduct electricity. Electrical conductivity of an
acid can be determined by applying a fixed DC voltage between the two electrodes and measuring
the current flow.
 The more ions in solution the higher the electrical conductivity.

 plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical concentrations of

strong and weak acids
Example of a strong acid problem: What is the pH of a 0.010 M HCl solution?
-->Hint: HCl is a strong acid. The H3O+ concentration will equal the HCl concentration: ([H3O+] =
0.010 M)
The pH is determined by taking the negative log of the [H3O+] concentration:
pH = -log[H3O+] = -log(0.010) = 2.00

Example strong base problem: What is the pH of a 0.010 M NaOH solution?

-->Hint: NaOH is a strong base. The [OH-] concentration will equal the concentration of NaOH: [OH-]
= 0.010 M
pH is determined by calculating the pOH.
1. take the negative log of the [OH-] concentration
2. convert the pH to pOH.
To calculate pOH:
P[OH] = -log[OH-] = -log(0.010) = 2.00
The pH can now be determined by using the formula pH + pOH = 14:
pH = 14.00 - 2.00 = 12.00
To find degree of ionisation:
- concentration of hydrogen ions/ concentration of acid

 gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use of acids as food
additives
Acetic acid and citric acid are used as food additives are they are both weak acids.
Acids have the ability to prevent the growth of bacteria and foreign microorganisms.  Used as a
preservative
Due to its sour taste, acids can also be used for flavouring.

 identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify examples of
naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical composition
Naturally occurring acids
- hydrochloric acid: produced by glands in stomachs to allow for the efficient operation of
enzymes that break complex food molecules into easily transportable small molecules
that are absorbed into the bloodstream when they pass into the intestine
- acetic acid : acid is present in vinegar which is commonly made from wine by the
oxidation of ethanol
- citric acid: found in citrus fruits
- vitamin C (abscorbic acid)
Naturally occurring bases
- ammonia : NH3
o present in the stale urine of humans and other animals  manufactured in huge
quantities for the production of fertilisers, nitric acid and other chemicals
- amine: compounds with some alkyl groups
- metallic oxides
- carbonates

Verbs to know

Account for State reasons for, report on, give an account of, narrate a
series of events or transactions
Analyse Identify components and the relationships among them, draw
out and relate implications
Apply Use, utilise or employ in a particular situation
Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of something
Assess Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size
Calculate Determine from given facts, figures or information
Clarify Make clear or plain
Classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories
Compare Show how things are similar or different
Construct Make, build or put together arguments
Contrast Show how things are different or opposite
Critically Add a degree of level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and
(analyse/eval understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to an
uate) analysis or evaluation
Deduce Draw conclusions
Define State the meaning of and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate Show by example
Describe Provide characteristics and features
 Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and against
Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from,
note difference between things
Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria
Examine Inquire into
Explain Relate cause and effect, make the relationship between
things evident, provide why and/or how
Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details
Extrapolate Infer from what is known
Identify Recognise and name
Interpret Draw meaning from
Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
Justify Support and argument or conclusion
Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features
Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information
Propose Put forward (a point of view or suggestion, argument etc) for
consideration or action
Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Recommend Provide reason in favour
Recount Retell a series of events
Summarise Express concisely the relevant details

4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used and
studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of acid and base have
been refined

 outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:
o Lavoisier
o Davy
o Arrhenius
Changing Concepts of Acids
1776 – Antoine LavOiser: non-metal compounds containing oxygen produced acids when they
dissolved in water. “Acids are substances which contain oxygen” DISPROVED  many acids do not
contain oxygen and many substances containing oxygen are basic

1815 – Sir Humphrey Davey: active metals which reacted with acids produced hydrogen gas.
“Acids are substances which contain replaceable hydrogen” FLAWED  only provided us with a way
to recognise acids but didn’t explain the properties of acids. Also did not explain why many hydrogen
compounds were not acidic.

1884 – Savant ArrH+enius : solutions of acids conducted electricity hence these acids are
electrolytes and therefore contains ions. “Acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions
in water”. Then he showed that an aqeous solution of a base conducted electricity. Hence the ions
responsible for the conductivity of an alkaline solution were hydroxide ions. “ bases are substances
which ionise water to produce hydroxide ions”  important in explaining differences between strong
and weak acids and the development of the pH scale

 gather and process information from secondary sources to trace developments in understanding
and describing acid/base reactions
Lavoisier: was wrong but stimulated research into the composition of acids and created awareness
of the need to define an acid.
Davy: defined an acid interms of its properties and reactions  helped classify substances/did not
interpret properties
Arrhenius: increased our understanding significantly  interpreted acid properties in terms of the
hydrogen ions they produced
- explained weak/strong acids in terms of the extent to which the ionisation reaction
proceeded
- increased our understanding considerably  big step forward towards developing the
concept of an acid
- restricted definition of a base: a substance that produces hydroxide ions in solution 
bases can be insoluble (do not produce hydroxide ions in solution)
Bronsted-Lowry: increased our understanding further by showing acidity depends on both the
structure of the substance as well as its properties relative to another reactant/its solvent.
- Showed neutralisation does not need to involve ionisation to H+ and OH- ions
- Can proceed directly by proton transfer

 outline the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

Acid: proton (hydrogen ion) donor
Base: proton acceptor
Neutralisation: transfer of protons

 describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its conjugate
acid
An acid gives up a proton to form its conjugate base.
Acid + water --> H3O+ + conjugate base
NB: product Is called a base as it tends to gain a proton

A base accepts a proton to form its conjugate acid

Base + water --> conjugate acid + OH-
NB: product is called a conjugate acid because it tends to give up a proton

 identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their acidic,
neutral or basic nature
Salts: compound formed when an acid is neutralised by a base.
A salt formed by a strong acid and strong base is neutral, eg NaCl
A salt formed from a strong acid and a weak base is acidic, eg NH4Cl
A salt formed from a weak acid and strong base is basic eg CH3COONa

 choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the pH of a range of salt
solutions

Acid Base pH of salt

Strong Strong =7
Weak Strong >7
Strong Weak <7
Weak Weak Depends on which is strong

 identify conjugate acid/base pairs

- Whenever an acid and a base react, they form their conjugates:
HCl + H 2O Cl- + H 3O +
acid1 base2 conjugate base1 conjugate acid2
- Hydrochloric acid and chloride ion are a conjugate acid-base pair.
- Water and hydronium ion are another conjugate acid-base pair
Relative strengths of acid-base conjugates:
- conjugate base of a strong acid is an extremely weak base  negligible
- Conjugate base of a weak acid is a weak base
- Conjugate acid of a strong base is an extremely weak acid

Acid  conjugate base (acid loses proton/hydrogen ion to become base)

Base  conjugate acid (base gains proton/hydrogen ion to become acid)

 identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their behaviour in acidic and
basic solutions

amphiprotic: a substance which acts as a both a Bronsted-Lowry acid and base

e.g. NH3, H2O, HCO3, HSO4, PH3
• Water is an amphiprotic molecule:
Water as an acid: H2O H+ + OH- or more fully H2O +H2O H3O+ + OH-
Water as a base: H+ + H2O H3O+ or more fully H3O++H2O H2O + H3O+
• The hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion is an amphiprotic ion:
As an acid HCO3- H+ + CO32- or more fully HCO3-+H2O H3O+ + CO32-
+
As a base H + HCO3 - +
H2CO3 or more fully H3O + HCO3 -
H2O +H2CO3

amphoteric: is able to NEUTRALISE both bases and acids

 identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic

Neutralisation involves the reaction between an acid and a base where the acid their hydrogen and
hydroxide ions form water.
- It is an exothermic reaction meaning that heat is liberated as it occurs and that enthalpy
change for the reaction is negative.
The net ionic equation of a neutralisation reaction shows it is a proton transfer reaction. That is, a
proton from the acid transfers to the hydroxide ion of the base.

 analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation reactions as a
safety measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills
Neutralisation reactions are widely used for safety in laboratories and factories where acids or bases
are used.

Because many acids and alkalis are very corrosive it is important to neutralise any spills of these
substances quickly. In addition sewage authorities put strict limits on the pH of factory and
laboratory effluents discharged to sewers so as not to upset bacterial breakdown.

Neutralisation reactions are widely used to ensure that effluents from such places are neither acidic
nor alkaline.
- Add a weak base (not corrosive) e.g. CaCO3  suitable for all types of spills
- Neutralises spill to reduce the risk of corrosive action of acid
- A substance containing an amphiprotic ion, such as the hydrogen carbonate ion in NaHCO3, is
quite suitable for neutralising chemical spills.
o If the chemical spill contains an acid, H+ + HCO3- H2O + CO2
If the spill contains a base, HCO3- + OH- CO32- + H2O.
o NaHCO3 is suitable for neutralising chemical spills of acids, bases and unknown acidity
or basicity.  it is also a weak base and has a weak charge  attracts protons less
vigorously

 qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a natural system

A buffer contains both a weak acid and its conjugate base.

It is a solution which resists a change in pH when a small amount of strong acid or base is added.
This is because the weak acid and its conjugate base can react with both acid and base
• HA(aq) + OH-(aq) -> A-(aq) + H2O(l)
• A-(aq) + H+(aq) -> HA(aq)

NB: The conjugate base is added as a salt of the conjugate base: for example, to make an acetic acid
buffer you would add acetic acid and sodium acetate to water.

A natural buffer system would be hydrogen carbonate in our blood.

Hydrogen carbonates ions help maintain the pH of blood to be about 7.4:

H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)  HCO3-(aq) + H3O+ (aq)

When an acid is added, [H3O+] increases, this shifts the equilibrium to the left. This causes more
HCO3+ ions to react with the added H3O+ to form H2CO3. The solution thereby minimises the change in
pH due to the added acid.
When a base is added, [OH-] increases. These OH- ions react with the H3O+ ions to neutralise, which
in turn increases the production of H2O (l). By Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium then shifts to the
right where the H2CO3 ionises more to form its HCO3- and H3O+ ions. This in turn minimises the pH
change due to the added base.

 describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard solutions

titration: volumetric analytical technique used to find the concentration of a solution by reacting it
with a solution of an accurately known concentration.

Standard solution: has an accurately known concentration. There are two types of standard
solutions
- primary standard solution: made from highly pure solid  used to titrate with another
solution of unknown concentration
• must be available in pure form
• chemical formula must be accurately known
• molecular mass should be relatively large to minimise weighing error
• must be soluble in water
• mass must not change when exposed to air
- secondary standard solution: the solution titrated by the primary standard solution reused for
titration with other solutions.

Indicator: added to conical flask to signal equivalence point by changing colour  suitable indicator
is used depending on nature of acid-base reaction  should change colour exactly or
near the equivalence point of titration
End point: when indicator changes colour
Equivalence point: when the base and acid has neutralised and the number of moles of the added
species is stoichiometrically equal to the original number of moles of the other species.
OR it is when the solutions are mixed in exactly the right proportions according to the
equation

Three important apparatus of titration

Burette Is filled with the standard solution. Must be rinsed with deionised
water and then the filling solution
Pipette Transfers an accurate volume of the solution of unknown
concentration to the conical flask. Must be washed with deionised
water and then the filling solution
If solution needs to be diluted, it is transferred to the volumetric flask
Volumetri Used to dilute a solution and measure an accurate volume of the
c flask primary standard. Rinsed with deionised water before using.
Conical Rinsed with de-ionised water  filled with indicator and solution of
flask unknown concentration
Steps:
Preparing standard solution:
1. weigh the required mass of dried NaHCO3 directly into a clean dry beaker
2. dissolve a small amount of distilled water
3. add to a clean volumetric flask washed with distilled water
4. rinse beaker using distilled water and pour remnants into volumetric flask
 5. fill the volumetric flask with distilled water to the graduated mark
6. stopper the flask and invert 10 times

Conducting Titration:
1. fill the burette with the standard solution and adjust solution
level to the zero mark
2. add the solution of unknown concentration to the conical flask
3. add one or two drops of indicator to the conical flask
4. open the valve of the burette slowly to allow the solution of known
concentration run slowly into the conical flask
5. when the indicator changes colour stop the solution by closing the
valve of the burette
6. read volume delivered by the burette as accurately as possible
7. Calculate the concentration of the unknown solution using molarity calculations.

Titration of:
- Strong acid – strong base
o Starts low  Ends high
o pH is close to 7 at equivalence point
 bromothymol blue (6.2 – 7.6) should be used

- Strong acid – weak base

o Starts low  ends low
o pH at equivalence point <7
o change in pH not as much
 methyl orange (3.1 – 4.4) should be used

- Weak acid – strong base

o Starts high  ends high
o pH at equivalence point >7
 phenolphthalein (8 – 10) should be used

Naturally occurring acids

 5. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed in the
laboratory

 describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in carbon
compounds
alkanols: alkanes which have one or more H atoms replaced by OH (hydroxyl group)
alkanoic acid: R-COOH

 identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by reactions of straight-
chained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained primary alkanols from C1 to C8

Esters are compounds formed when alkanoic acid reacts with alkanols. The general formula of esters:
alkyl alkanoate
R – COO – R’ O
R – C – O – R’

 explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained alkanoic acid
and straight-chained primary alkanol structures
Esters Polar Has a highly electronegative oxygen and asymmetrical
shape
Intermolecular forces:
 dipole- dipole and dispersion
Alkanol Polar  short chains Has alcohol functional group (OH)
Non-polar  long  displays hydrogen bonding
chain
Alkanoic Polar Has presence of OH and extra O (COOH)
acids  great extent of hydrogen bonds

 identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe, using
equations, examples of esterification
ESTERIFICATION
Alkanoic acid + alkanol concentrated H2SO4 ester + water
Example:

HDYROLISIS OF ETHER
Ester + water diluted H2SO4 Alkanoic acid + alkanol
 describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis
The catalyst used in esterification is concentrated H2SO4 (aq). It acts as a catalyst to increase the rate
of reaction and by weakening the bonds in water hence lowering the activation energy.
The concentrated sulphuric acid absorbs water and forces equilibrium to the right to increase the
yield of ester.

 explain the need for refluxing during esterification

Refluxing: the process of heating a reaction mixture in a vessel with a cooling condenser attached
in order to prevent loss of any volatile reactant or product

During esterification the components in the reaction mixture are heated where the volatile
components then have a chance to escape. To counteract this, a condenser is placed on top of the
reaction vessel so that any volatile components pass into the condenser.
The condenser can be water or air-cooled and causes the volatile components to condense back to
liquid and fall back into the reaction mixture.
Refluxing also improves the safety of the operation, as the volatile components are flammable
 identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to prepare an ester
using reflux

- esterification should be carried out in a water bath rather than a naked flame
- use an electronic heater
- no stopper on reaction vessel
- good ventilation  use a fume cupboard to avoid inhaling vapours
- a catalyst should be used to lower the heat required to be generated

 outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters

- ethyl ethanoate : solver for paint and lacquers

- butyl ethanoate: nail lacquers
- phenylmethyl ethanoate : jasmine fragrance
- ethyl methanoate : rum fragrance
 process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the uses of esters as flavours
and perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics
Esters have :
- pleasant fruity odours
- occur widely in nature as perfumes and flavouring agents

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseeqia/phcurves.html

A system in dynamic equilibrium is a particular example of a system in a steady state. In a steady

state the rate of inputs is equal to the rate of outputs so that the composition of the system is
unchanging in time. For example, a lake is in a steady state when water flows in at the same rate as
water flows out