PROCEEDINGSOFTHESULAWESIMINERALRESOURCES2011SEMINARMGEIIAGI 2829November2011,Manado,NorthSulawesi,Indonesia

MineralDepositsofSulawesi
TheoM.vanLeeuwenandPeterE.Pieters
ABSTRACT Sulawesi can be divided into three geologicalmetallogenic provinces: 1) Northern Sulawesi, which consists of series of Late Cenozoic calcalkaline magmatic arcs built on a basement of Early Cenozoic tholeiitic basaltic volcanicsunderlainbyoceaniccrust;itcontainsnumerousmineraldepositsandoccurrencesofpredominantlyLate MiocenePliocene age, including porphyry CuAuMo, high, intermediate, and lowsulphidation epithermal Au Ag, sedimenthosted Au, intrusionrelated base metalAu, skarn, and VMS styles of mineralization; 2) Western Sulawesi, composed of Late Cenozoic highK calcalkaline to ultrapotassic igneous suites overlying a series of Early Cenozoic sedimentary rocks and subordinate calcalkaline volcanics deposited on a basement of metamorphic complexes and Late Cretaceous flysch deposits; mineralization styles include porphyry Mo, porphyry CuAu, intrusionrelated(?) Au, intrusionrelated base metalAu, and VMS; and 3) Eastern Sulawesi, comprising a western metamorphic belt and eastern ophiolite belt, which are interthrusted with MesozoicEarly Cenozoic sedimentary rocks and unconformably overlain by Late Cenozoic postorogenic sequences; weathering of the ophiolite has given rise to a number of Ni and Fe laterite deposits, and chromite beach sands; gold mineralization of uncertain originislocallyhostedbymetamorphicandpostorogenicsedimentaryrocks. Mineral exploration and mining activities have been undertaken in Sulawesi since the turn of the19th century,but byworldstandardslargepartsoftheregionremainunderexplored.Todateonlytwocommoditieshavebeenmined onasignificantscale,viz.goldwithatotalproductionofabout90t(excludingartisanalmining),andnickeltotaling about4.8 Mt.Gold depositsfound todate are of small to modest size (< 2 Moz Au) and mostly low grade (<4 g/t), whereas Ni laterite deposits vary greatly in size (3 Mt to greater than 200 Mt dry weight averaging 1.3% to 2.3% Ni).Estimates of potentially economic CuAu resources in porphyry deposits in Northern Sulawesi vary from about 300Mtto350Mtaveraging0.6%Cuandbetween0.3and0.5g/tAu. Factors that have led to significant mineral discoveries since 1970 include: 1) exploration of known mineral districts(Ni,Au);2)localknowledge(Au);3)streamsedimentsampling(porphyryCuAu&Mo,Au);4)mineralized float (Au); and 5) remote sensing interpretation (Ni). Over the past 40 years exploration has evolved from greenfields to brownfields investigations. This trend reflects in part a significant increase in knowledge and data pertainingtoSulawesisgeologyandmineralwealthgainedovertheyears. Keywords:Metallogeny,copper,gold,nickel,explorationhistory,Sulawesi,Indonesia

1.0 INTRODUCTION Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) is located in the centre of the Indonesian Archipelago, straddling the equator. It is a region where three major platesconvergeandinteract(Figure1),whichhas given rise to a highly complex and diverse geology, consisting of metamorphic complexes, ophiolite terranes, volcanic arcs, granitoid belts, andsedimentarybasins.Thisinturn hasresulted inadiversityofmineraldeposittypes. The history of mineral exploration and mining in Sulawesigoesbackmore than150years,but the region remains underexplored by todays

standards. Most of the mineral deposits found todate are of modest size, with the exception of several nickel laterite deposits. Exploration efforts have been targetting shallow environments with surface geochemistry as the priciple prospecting tool, or in the case of nickel laterite, remote sensing methods. Sofar little attention has been paid to buried or conceptual targets. Gold, nickel and copper have been the major target commodities, which has resulted in the development of a number gold and nickel mines. Sulawesi has an average NS length of about 800kmandisabout400kmwide,coveringaland
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 Table1.MaingeologicalandmetalogeniccharacteristicsofNorthern,WesternandEasternSulawesi
Tectonicsetting Basement NORTHERNSULAWESI IslandArc Oceanic(backarc)crust WESTERNSULAWESI Continentalmargin Continental fragments; accretionary rocks/mlange; overlain by Late Cretaceous flysch deposits. Calcalkaline: intermittent localized. EASTERNSULAWESI Suture Continental fragments; accretionary rocks/mlange; ophiolites; Mesozoic Paleogene sedimentary terranes.

Paleogene magmatism

Voluminous highK calc alkaline (mostly granitoids); and shoshonitic to ultra potassic. Paleogene Synrift siliciclastics sedimentation overlain by platform and deeper marine carbonates; pelitic sedimentsinthenorth. Neogene Siliciclastics in isolated Marine sediments and sedimentation basins, including Plio volcaniclastics; Plio Pleistocene Celebes Pleistocene Celebes Molasse. Molasse. Main mineralization Porphyry CuAu; high, PorphyryMo; intrusion types intermediate, and low relatedAu. sulphidationepithermal AuAg; sedimenthosted Au. Otherstyles VMS; intrusionrelated VMS; intrusionrelated base metal Au; base metal Au; FeAuskarn alluvial Au; FeAuskarn; Mn Febeachsands. ironstones.

Neogenemagmatism

LowK tholeiitic, bimodal (basalticfelsic); submarine; intense, widespread. MediumK calcalkaline, predominantly andesitic; also bimodal during latest Pliocene Pleistocene. Minor;deepsea.

and

Minor,localized.

Widespread deposition ofCelebesMolasse.

LateriticNi&Fe.

Primary and secondary chromite; alluvial Au; epithermalAu,Sb.

Figure1.RegionaltectonicsettingofSulawesi(afterWilsonandMoss,1999)

Figure2.DigitalterrainmodelSulawesi

area of 172,000km2. It is the most mountainous of the larger islands within the Indonesian archipelago. With the exception of some narrow stretches of coastal lowland and intermontane plains, the terrain consists entirely of mountain ranges with the highest peaks being in excess of 3000m (Figure 2). Unlike the other larger islands/island groups in Indonesia, which are partly bordered by extensive shallow shelf areas, the sea bottom off the Sulawesi coasts drops in most places rapidly below 100m, and the 1000m bathymetric line is located at a distance of only a few10sofkilometersorlessfromthecoast. The island has a peculiar K shape, consisting of four peninsular known as Arms, which are separated by deep gulfs and united in central Sulawesi (Figure 3A). The narrow northtrending partoftheNorthArm,iscommonlyreferredtoas theNeck. The Sulawesi region can be divided into four distinct geological and metallogenic provinces, named here (modified after Sukamto, 1978), the Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi Provinces and BanggaiSula Province (Figure 3B). As the latter province does not contain any significant known mineralization, it has not been included in this review. The main geological and metallogenic features of the other three provincesareshowninTable1. Thepresentpaperconsistsoffourparts.Thefirst part describes the history of mineral exploration and mining in Sulawesi. It is followed by an overview of the regional geology. The main part of the paper comprises a detailed review of the various mineral deposit types found in each of the three provinces together with some additional exploration history data. In the last section we discuss how the various deposit typesare distributed in space and time, when and how they were discovered, and how they feature in Sulawesis mining industry. It also briefly addressespastandpresentexplorationtrends. A number of sources of information are available for the history of exploration and mining in Sulawesi,andtheregionsmineralresources.For the Dutch colonial era these include the

Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen (Mining Yearbook), ter Braake (1944), van der Ploeg (1944), and van Bemmelens (1949) Economic Geology of Indonesia. A publication by the Indonesian Mining Association and Mining and Metal Agency of Japan (IMAMMAJ, 1995), the anually published Register of Indonesian Gold/RegistrerofIndoPacificMining,andvarious trade journals record mineral exploration activities post1967. Several review papers on thecopperandgoldmineralizationofNorthern(+ Western) Sulawesi have been published (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992; Soeria Atmadja et al, 1999; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Papers on individual deposits and prospects can be found in various proceedings and journals. Mostoftheseareincludedinthereferencelistof the present paper. More detailed information is containedinCOWcompanyreports,whicharean open file in the library of Pusat Sumber Daya Geologi (PSDG). Unfortunately a number of reports are missing, often the more informative ones, and the quality of the reports is rather variable (some discuss at great length weather conditions, topography, etc but give little geological information). Websites of foreign junior companies are another source of information, although they tend to focus on trenchanddrillresults. Recently Pusat Sumber Daya Geologil published two geochemical atlases covering the northern and southern halfs of Sulawesi, which include maps for the following elements: As, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn (PSDG, 2008). They also compiled a mineral resources atlas for Sulawesi as part of a series of atlases for the entire country (PSDG, 2010). It comprises a series of maps for each Kabupaten (administrative district), including geology and mineral locations maps, and a list of metallic and nonmetallic mineral resources (name of deposit, coordinates and resource figure). No geological information or references are given, limiting somewhat its usefulness for mineral explorationists. For this review we have made extensive use of a GIS data base called Indonesian Mineral Deposit Database(IMDD),thatwehavebeencompiling
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 Figure3.Sulawesi.(A)Geographicdivision;(B)Geologicalmetallogenicprovinces

Figure 4. Simplified geological map of Sulawesi (modified after Sukamto,1975b;Hamilton,1979;Silveretal.,1983;Parkinson,1991) 5

Table2.HighlightshistoryofmineralexplorationandmininginSulawesi
Year 18961908 18961929 1900 19001921 1911 19131931 19161919 1938 1968 1969 1970 19721973 19741975 1976 1977 1978 19801982 19831984 19861987 1987 1988 1989 1994 19941997 1998 1999 2004 2008 2011 Results SmallquantitiesofAuproducedatSumalata. Palelehmine;6.2tAu,5tAg,550tPb. G.Panidiscovered. Totokmine;3.7tAu. AbendanonrecognizesNiFelateritepotentialofESulawesi. ThreeminesinBolaangMongondowdistrict;5tAu,4tAg. SeveralNiandFelateritedepositsfound,includingPomalaaandSoroako. NilateriteminingstartsatPomalaa. Large2ndgenerationCOWareaawardedtoPTInco. SasakporphyryCuAuprospectidentified. Second generation COW awarded to Endeavour Resources; Bahodopi Ni laterite depositdiscovered. TapadaaandTombulilatoporphyryCudistrictsidentified. Discovery of the Cabang Kiri, Cabang Kanan and Kayubulan Ridge porphyry prospects. Commercial ferronickel production starts at Pomalaa; Malala porphyry Mo discovered. 3rdgenerationcontractsignedbyRioTinto. CommencementofnickelmatteproductionatSoroako. Drill testing of Cabang Kiri, Cabang Kanan, Kayubulan Ridge and Sungai Mak; combinedresourceof296Mt@0.57%Cu,0.47g/tAu. Motombotohighsulphidationsystemdrilled. Twentytwo4th generationCOWssigned. Several discoveries made, including Bulagidun (porphyry CuAu), Binabase (HS), andTototopo,Anggrek,Tanoyan(IS). MiningofchromitebeachsandscommencesinESulawesi MeselandAwakMasdiscovered. TokaTindungandPoboya discovered. 115th7thgenerationCOWssigned. RiskaandMasabofound Palopodistrictdiscovered. MiningstartsatRiska;annualproductionca50.000ozAu. GoldrushatBombanainvolving>20,000localminers. FirstgoldpouredatTokaTindung;annualproductionca160,000ozAueq.

since 2005 (van Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011). It contains all available relevant descriptive information about deposits and prospects, including location details, commodity, deposit type, host rock, mineralization, alteration, structure, resource data, exploration history etc. Most of the data in IMDD are derived from sources mentioned above and unpublished companyreportts. Thepresentpaperisaimedprimarilyatgeologists engaged in mineral exploration in Sulawesi and those who wish to assess its mineral potential. The focus is on providing descriptions of the more significant mineralizing districts and individualdeposits. 2.0 History of Mineral Exploration and Mining inSulawesi The documented history of mineral exploration and mining in Sulawesi spans a period of about 125 years, but traces of iron slag with a Ni content of 12% found at an archeological site near Lake Montano suggests there was already some mining activity more than 1000 years ago (Bulbecks, 2000, in Rafianto, 2011). The highlights of the past 125 years are summarized in Table 2 and discussed below in some more detail. Local gold mining activity in Northern Sulawesi was recorded as early as 1813 and has continued up to the present day, its intensity depending on the price of gold and economic conditions. British maps of Sulawesi published in 1885 show a gold mine in the Ratatotok district, named Mt. Tottik. Mining there was done by local people from the neighbouring province of Bolaang Mongondowtoprovidegoldfortheirchief. In 1848, the government of the Netherlands East Indiesdecidedtoinvestigatethemineralrichesof the archipelago. It was thought that six mining engineers would be sufficient to carry out the task. They were employed by Het Mijnwezen (Bureau of Mines), founded in 1852, that twenty years later began to publish Jaarboek van het Mijwezen (Mining Yearbook). Initially the focus

was on Java, Sumatra and Borneo. Investigations inSulawesistartedmuchlater,around theendof the 19th century.The reason for this was threefold: i) Sulawesi was highly inaccessible; ii) the island had not yet been pacified; and iii) very little was known about its mineral endowment (Rutten,1927). The first government mining engineer to investigate some of the gold deposits known at that time in Northern Sulawesi was van Schelle (1889). Private enterprise soon followed, prompted by historical reports of artisan gold mining in the region. Between 1896 and 1929 four underground mines were operated (Table 2) and in the Ratatotok district elluvial deposits were also exploited using hydraulic mining methods. In addition two unsuccessful attempts were made to carry out underground mining at G. Pani between 1900 and 1910. Mining of nearby alluvials produced only marginally better results. Also not overly impressive were the results of alluvial mining at Tapaibekin in the Doup district. When more than 50 years later geologists of Endeavour Resources undertook a mineral survey in the central part of the North Arm they observed short trial adits in even the most remote parts of the region, suggesting that it had been thoroughly covered by the early gold prospectors(Trailetal.,1974). Truscott (1901) published a description of gold mines and prospects in the North Arm known at the time, presenting highly optimistic evaluations. He also noted that copper deposits in the hinterland of Gorontalo were being developed, but no further records are available. Attempts to produce copper at Buhu, Molosipat and Bukal in the early 1900s all failed.Two of the gold mines in Northern Sulawesi were investigated in some detail by government engineers and geologists, namely Sumalata (Molengraaff, 1902) and Totok (Ratatotok) (Koperberg, 1900; Hirsh, 1911). The origin of the gold mineralization at Totok, which is hosted by limestone,wasexplainedintwoways:i)thegold was originally derived from rocks located further inland and transported by the Totok river at a time that its level was several hundreds of meter higher thanatpresent.Goldandsilica werethen
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dissolvedanddepositedfromdescendingfluidsin fractures and cavities in the limestone, believed to be younger than underlying andesite, and ii) the limestone was intruded by the andesite and gold deposited from associated hydrothermal fluids. During the early part of the 20th century government geologists discovered several precious metal, base metal and iron occurrences in central Western Sulawesi, including at Sasak, which more recently has been explored for its porphyry copper potential. A rather curious copper occurrence was found in the Latimojong Mountains, where small pockets of native copper are present in slates, the socalled KoperLeien or Copper Slates (van Bemmelen, 1949), these days knownasToradjaFormation. Far more important (from a presentday perspective) was the work done in Eastern Sulawesi. Abendanon (191517), who investigated the region in 1909/10 was the first to observe the presence of extensive ultramafic rocks and their lateritic weathering products. He was convinced that iron and nickel ores would be found in this part of the island. Following his recommendation, a more systematic survey was initiated in 1915, and in a relatively short period of time significant iron and nickel laterite resources had been outlined. One of these, the Larona Fe laterite deposit was explored in considerable detail outlining proven reserves of 370 Mt (air dried) averaging 49% Fe (Dieckmann and Julius, 1925). Extensive studies were undertakenintheensuingyearsonthepossibility of establishing an iron and steel industry in Sulawesi, but without much success, one of the reasons being the lack of known coking coal deposits in Indonesia. The outlook for developing the more Nirich laterite deposits was equally discouragingbecauseofthelowNicontents(0.50 1.15%), whereas at the time grades of 3.5 4.0% were required. Using the rich nickel deposits of New Caledonia as a model efforts were subsequently directed towards finding higher grade garnierite (Nisilicate) ore. After an extensive search this type of ore was discovered inthehillssouthofLakeMantanoatSoroakoand near Malili (Pomalaa). In 1934, two private

companiesweregiventherighttofurtherexplore and develop these deposits. By applying a method of selective mining, which involved careful stripping of overburden and removing peridotite boulders, dry ore of 3.5% Ni was produced at Pomalaa, and shipped to Japan and Germany, starting in 1937. By 1940, a government engineer had succeeded in developing a new process for the treatment of these Nisilicate ores on site, but before it could beappliedJapaneseforcesinvadedIndonesia.By that time a total of about 150.000 t of ore had beenexported(Darmono,2009). Before the outbreak of the Pacific War the Japanese had obtained nickel ore from Canada and New Caledonia, but these sources were now cut off. Sulawesi became an important new source to supply their war industry. The Dutch mining operations were taken over by Sumitomo Metal Mining, which built a smelting plant to produce Ni matte, but before it was completed it was destroyed by the allied forces. Between 1942 and 1945 a total of 184.000t of nickel ore was produced (Darmono, 2009). The Japanese also carried out limited mining for base metals at SangkaropiincentralSulawesi. After the Dutch returned in 1946 they resumed nickel mining, but only for three years. Eight years later NV Perto (Pertambangan Toraja) shipped nickel ore still remaining in stock piles from the Japanese occupation to Japan. In 1961, it became PT Pertambangan Nickel Indonesia, a stateowned enterprise, which then merged with several other stateowned mining companies to become PT Aneka Tambang (Antam). This company has been operating the Pomalaa mine since 1968. In the central part of Eastern Sulawesi, including the Soroako area, all exploration activities were suspended until 1965 becauseoflocalinsurgency. Following the promulgation of new foreign investment and mining laws in 1967, Indonesia offered for tender several areas with known tin and nickel laterite potential, including a large block in Eastern Sulawesi. This concession was awardedin1968toaconsortiumheadedbyINCO (International Nickel Cooperation) of Canada.
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The consortium company, which includes Sumitomo Metal Mining as a shareholder, is usually referred to as PT INCO. In the early years the company carried out extensive exploration with the assistance of the Geological Survey of Indonesia(GSI) and about 40 geology students from the Institute Teknologi Bandung (ITB). Initially the exploration focus was on the coastal areas, but in mid1969 it shifted to Soroako, where four years later mine development began. Soon afterwards oil prices escalated and the international nickel market deteriorated. In ordertocounterthesenegativedevelopmentsPT INCO built a hydroelectric plant and tripled annual production capacity to 45,000 tonnes of nickel matte, but it had to wait until 1988, following an improvement in the nickel market, to see its operations become profitable (van Leeuwen,1994). The first company to carry our gold and base metal exploration in Sulawesi was Newmont, which between 1967 and 1969 undertook reconnaissance and limited follow up work in the North Arm with porphyrycopper deposits as the main target. They examined recorded mineralization and diorite rocks easily accessible from the north and south coast, and in the hinterland of Gorontalo and the Bone Valley, and made more detailed investigations around the abandoned G. Pani gold mine, and at a few other localities,includingtheBuhucopperprospect. In the early 1970s two other companies initiated porphyry copper searches, namely Endeavour Resources, a junior Australian company, and Rio Tinto. The former obtained a 2nd generation ContractofWork(COW),knownasBlockII,which covered an area of 12,000km2 in the central part of the North Arm. Their objective was to test the hypothesis that the Philippines porphyry copper belt might extend into northern Sulawesi, an initiative that was rewarded by the discovery of porphyry Cu style mineralization in the Tapadaa and Tombuililato districts. Following a literature study and the second years survey work that revealedthatgoldmineralizationwaswidespread in Block II, the scope of the survey was extended toincludealluvialandhardrockgoldtargets.

The two porphyry districts were investigated in more detail in joint venture with Kennecott from 1973 to 1976. In 1980, Utah International took control of Endeavours local company and carried out an intensive exploration campaign in the Tombuililato district until 1982. Together these efforts resulted in the discovery of three porphyry prospects in the Tapadaa district and five porphyry prospects in the Tombuililato district, including Cabang Kiri, Kayubulan Ridge and Sungai Mak with a combined resource of 296 Mt @ 0.57% and 0.47 g/t Au (van Leeuwen, 1994). In addition high sulphidation AuCu mineralizationwasfoundatMotomboto. Rio Tinto applied for a large COW area, Block III, located to the west of block II and covering an area of 17,200km2in 1973, which was granted in 1977. In the intervening years reconnaissance geochemical sampling identified 18 anomalous areas, follow up of which led to the discovery of the Malala (Anomaly B) porphyry molybdenum deposit in the Tolitoli district. Drilling between 1978 and 1982, partly in JV with SANTOS of Australia, outlined a resource of 100 Mt @ 0.14 MoS2, which was not economically viable at prevailingmolybdenumprices. Further south, GIS carried out reconnaissance geochemical surveys in the late 1960searly 1970s, outlining three areas anomalous in base metals, i.e. Sasak, Seko and Sangkaropi. These were subsequently investigated together with Antam, and drilled. Porphyry Cu mineralization was found in the former two locations, but appearedtobeoflowgrade(0.30.4%Cu)andof limited extent. In the Sangkaropi area, three VMS deposits were subjected to detailed exploration that failed to outline an economic resource. In those early years exploration was often carried out under conditions reminiscent of the Dutch days, requiring a true pioneering spirit. This is exemplified by the story of the Kuda mati berdiri(standingdead horses)(Geomin,2010).In 1975, Antam decided to drill test Seko, located 200km to the north of Sangkaropi at an altitude of 1000m, which could for the most part be reached only on foot. The party included 30
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porters and 70 horses. As the track followed mostly mountain ridges grass and water were very scarce. After 10 days one of the horses refused to move even after some of its load had been decreased. It took a while to realize that the poor animal was already dead, probably because of dehydration. A number of other horses died the same way without falling over. Thelocationwasfinallyreachedafter30days. By the mid1980s the porphyry search was virtually over and the focus shifted to gold. In Northern Sulawesi the gold search was spearheaded by BHP Minerals (which had taken over Utah in 1984), soon to be joined by Newmont, Ashton, Placer Dome, and New Hope Colliers. A total of thirteen 4th generation COWsweresignedinthelate1986and1987. The gold exploration undertaken during the second half of the 1980s and early 1990si Northern Sulawesi was quite successful. Newmont discovered a sedimenthosted gold district in an area of old Dutch workings (Ratatotok district). It subsequently developed a mine (Mesel), which between 1996 and 2004 produced 1.9 Moz Au. Another gold district was identified by Ashton at the northern tip of the North Arm centred on Toka Tindung. This company was also involved in the discovery of high sulphidation gold mineralization in the BinabaseBawone area on Sangihe island. BHP drilled five gold prospects, including Motomboto. In addition, a high resolution aeromagnetic survey identified several targets, only some of which were followed up. A reevaluation of the Tombuililato district resulted in a geological resource estimate of up to 356 Mt @ 0.6% Cu, 0.37 g/t Au, including a mining reserve of between 67 Mt @ 1.08% Cu, 0.43 g/t Au and 118 Mt @ 0.94% Cu, 0.40 g/t Au at a strip ratio of ~2.75:1 (BHP Minerals Sulawesi, 1997). Finally, New Hope Colliers geochemical sampling identified a number of gold anomalies which were subsequently followed up by Newcrest, resulting in the discovery of gold mineralization atTototopoandPetulis. Concurrently with the signing of the 13 COWs in Northern Sulawesi, nine 4th generation COW

agreements were entered into for areas in Western Sulawesi, but serious exploration was carried out only by Aberfoyle Resources, which held a block containing Sasak and Sangkaropi (relinquished in 1994), and new Hope Colliers, which discovered the Awak Mas deposit in the LatimojongMountains. In Eastern Sulawesi PT Palmabim commenced exploration for chromite beach sands in the Bungku area where it outlined 700,000 tonnes of recoverable chromite. The deposit was put into operation in 1988. It has since been closed down (yearnotknown). The 1990s witnessed the signing of one 5th generation Cow by Newcrest covering most of the old Endeavour Block II, and two 6th generation COWs, also located in Northern Sulawesi (Newmont in the Bolaang Mongondow district, and Aurora Gold, which had acquired Ashtons areas in 1993,in an area adjacent to their Toka Tindung COW), and eight 7th generation COWs, all but one located in Western Sulawesi, including two blocks held by Rio Tinto and one by North Ltd). The latter company had selected a large block in central Western Sulawesi, which based on the widespread occurrence of potassic alkaline volcanic and intrusive rocks combined with the presence of known porphyry mineralization (Sasak) was believed to have good potential for finding Parkestype porphyry copper deposits. (The Parkes mine in Australia was operated by North at the time). Arguably the most comprehensive investigations were carried out by Newcrest, which between 1993 and 1998 covered their entire COW area in Northern Sulawesi with drainage reconnaissance sampling, resulting in a large number of anomalies. Many of these were investigated in 1996/97. A total of 168 prospects were identified (including previously known ones), twelve of which were drill tested, in most casesdowngradingtheireconomicpotential. The highlights of the 1990s include Newmonts discovery of the Northern Lanut trend, which contains several styles of mineralization, including highsulphidation epithermal gold mineralization. Work by Aurora outlined a
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mineral district around Toka Tindung, containing seven epithermal gold systems. In Western Sulawesi, Rio Tinto discovered the Masabo porphyry copper and the Poboya gold deposits. Rather surprisingly the latter deposit was previously not known despite being located only 7km from the provincial capital Palu and next doortoPoboyavillage,formingadistinctoutcrop with high gold grades. Rio Tinto also discovered towards the end of the decade the La Sampala laterite deposit in Eastern Sulawesi, believed to be one of the largest undeveloped nickel laterite resources in the world. Around the same time Antam found several new gold prospects near Palopo Sulawesi. The company also initiated an intensive exploration programme in Eastern Sulawesi with the objective to find additional nickel laterite resources to supply their ferronickelplantatPomalaa.Several prospective areaswereoutlined. As elsewhere in Indonesia, the combined effect of the Busang scandal (the largest fraud in the history of mining, which was committed in East Kalimantan), the Asian economic crisis, and domestic political instability that took place towards the end of the 20th century had a severe impact on the mineral exploration activities in Sulawesi (and elsewhere in Indonesia). Most foreign companies, both big and small, withdrew fromtheregionorcurtailedtheiractivities. The first decade of the 21st century saw some important new developments: 1) regional autonomy gave the local government of Kabupaten(Districts,subdivisionsofProvinces)a significant direct say in mining and related matters ; 2) a new mining law was promulgated in 2009, which among other initiatives introduced a tender system for new areas, abolished the COW system, which up to then had been the cornerstone of Indonesias modern mining industry, and promoted processing of ore to at least a semifinished state within Indonesia; 3) commodity prices started to rise around 2004, which spurred an increase in domestic involvement in exploration and mining, particularly of nickel laterites; and 4) the exploration focus was on known, more advanced prospects.

Some of the highlights of the decade include commencement of gold production at Riska and Toka Tindung, and revisiting of some old tired prospects. At Riska, which was discovered by Newmont in 1988, Avocet Mining started production in 2006 with an annual production of about 50,000 ounces. Toka Tindung was bought by Archipelago Resources in 2002; after long delays the first gold was poured in 2011 with a forecasted annual production of 160,000 ounces. Gunung Pani (looked at by 7 companies since 1967) and Awak Mas (investigated by 5 companies since 1988) are presently under detailed investigations by One Asia Resources Ltd. The Tombulilato porphyry Cu and Malala porphyry Mo deposits, discovered in the mid 1970s, are being reinvestigated by Bumi Resources and Victory Moly West respectively. The former company also acquired the Poboya gold deposit, but up till now has been prevented from carrying out exploration because of illegal mining activities.The latter company has expanded its activities into nickel laterite and base metal explorations in central Sulawesi. Antam started exploration at Esang, which had been discovered during North Ltd regional exploration programme in central Western Sulawesi a decade earlier. A new arrival on the scene is Golden Peaks Resources which recently acquired the Palopo gold property in Western Sulawesi and the Tanoyan and Anggrek gold prospects in Northern Sulawesi. And finally, in 2008 seven domestic companies started nickel laterite production, all being relatively small operations. The only important new discovery that has been reported since 2000 is the rich alluvial gold deposit at Bombana in SE Sulawesi found by local villagers in 2008. It is the first indication of the presence of potentially significant gold mineralizationinEasternSulawesi. In summary, the documented history of mineral explorationandmininginSulawesicanbedivided intosixstages: 1) 1813 1888. Local gold mining activities in various parts of Northern Sulawesi, which
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have continued intermittently until the presentday. 2) 1889 1941. Exploration by the Netherlands East Indies government and private enterprise that resulted in the development of several goldandnickellateritemines. 3) 19421967. Relatively small scale nickel laterite mining by Japanese, Dutch and IndonesianStatecompanies. 4) 1968 1984. Exploration with the main focus on nickel laterite and porphyry copper deposits; initially reconnaissance surveys of large tracts of land, followed by more detailed investigations of selected areas; mine developmentatSoroako. 5) 1985 1999. Focus shifts to gold; 23 COWs signed; exploration mix of regional surveys and prospect evaluation; several significant gold discoveries made, one of which (Mesel) wasdevelopedintoamine(nowclosed). 6) 2000 present. Activities that began to decrease sharply in the late 1990s pick up again around 2004/5 with increased involvement ofdomesticcompanies,mainlyin nickel laterite exploration and mining; focus on known gold and nickel laterite deposits/districts; two gold mines developed (RiskaandTokaTindung). 3.0 Geology In this chapter we briefly describe the geology of the Northern, Western and Eastern Provinces. The former two provinces are often treated as a single tectonostratigraphic unit, referred to as the West Sulawesi Pluton Volcanic Arc (WSPVA), whereas the Eastern Sulawesi Province is commonly divided into a western Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt and an Eastern OphioliteSulawesiBelt. SeparatingtheWSPVAintotwodifferententities, as first proposed by Taylor and van Leeuwen (1980), is based on the recognition of significant

differences in tectonic setting, age and character of rock units (Table 1). The tectonic relationship between the two domains is not clear. They probably formed a more or less continuous belt throughout the Cenozoic, but were definitely connected not later than the Early Miocene (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). A simplified geologicalmapofSulawesiisshowninFigure4. 3.1 NorthernSulawesiProvince The Northern Sulawesi Province occupies a large part of the North Arm and the row of islands extending to the north as far as Sangihe Island (Figure 3B). The EW part of the North Arm, referred to as the Gorontalo section (van Bemmelen, 1949), is made up of Cenozoic arc volcanics and associated sedimentary rocks. Towardsthe eastthe NorthArmbends sharplyto a NE trend and this region, the Minahasa section, islargelycoveredbyPliocenetoRecentvolcanics. The young volcanic arc continues northwards through the Sangihe Island group and is often referred to as the Sangihe Arc. Like the rest of Sulawesi, Northern Sulawesi consists of mountainous terrain, although rarely reaching altitudes higher than 2000m. The landscape of thenorthernpartoftheprovinceisdominatedby the presence of (partly eroded) volcanic cones, someofwhicharestillactive,likeLokonVolcano, which erupted as recently as October 2011. Several grabenlike depressions occupy the centralpartoftheGorontalosection. The rock sequences that make up Northern Sulawesicanbedividedbroadlyintothreegroups thatareseparatedbyregionalunconformities.In this paper they are informally referred to as the Early,MidandLateCenozoicgroups. TheoldestgroupconsistsofathickpileofMiddle EoceneLate Miocene submarine oceanic arc volcanics, named Papayato Volcanics (Trail et al., 1974; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005), which are widely exposed in the southwestern part of the Gorontalo section forming a 275km long belt, and are found further east as smaller exposures. This unit consists of a thick series of basaltic volcanics that occur in bimodal association with much less voluminous felsic rocks. It contains
12

subordinate intercalations of red calcareous mudstone, red limestone, greywacke, and radiolarian chert, and is intruded by basaltic dykes, locally occurring as dyke swarms, and stocks of gabbro and diorite. The basaltic volcanics include massive, autobrecciated or pillowed lava flows, and volcanic breccia. The bulk of the mafic and felsic rocks have geochemicalcompositionsthataretypicaloflow K tholeiitic island arc (IAT) volcanics, but some, thought to have been produced late in the evolution of the volcanic arc, show a highK calc alkaline affinity (Elburg et al., 2003; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005), and contain small volcanogenicmassivesulphidedeposits. Near Labanuki on the north coast of the Gorontalo section, the Papayato Volcanics are underlain by basalts, which show geochemical similarities with basalts that form the basement of the Celebes Sea and are interpreted to represent backarc basalts (Priadi et al., 1997). Both basalt sequences are overlain by green and black mudstone. These similarities suggest that the Labanuki basalts formed as part of the CelebesSeacrust(Ranginetal.,1997).Anumber ofauthorshavesuggestedthatmostoftheNorth Arm is underlain by similar crust (e.g. Taylor and vanLeeuwen,1980;Kavalierisetal.,1992;Rangin etal.,1997). The Early Cenozoic rocks commonly display steep dips, and in places are highly deformed (Koperberg, 1929; Trail et al., 1974; Kavalieris et al., 1992). This, together with the presence of a regional unconformity separating the unit from the MidCenozoic group (Koperberg, 1929; Ratman, 1976; Carlile et al., 1990; Pearson and Caira, 1999) indicate that a significant tectonic eventtook place in the Early Miocene (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). The cause of this eventisnot certain.Ithasbeensuggestedthatit may be related to the collision between the North Arm and either a small continental fragment or the Sula Spur (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005; Spakman and Hall, 2010). In the latter scenario the Sula Spur was subsequently fragmented during extension caused by subductionrollbackindeBandaregion.

The MidCenozoic group occupies a large part of the Gorontalo section, and is locally exposed in the southern part of the Minahasa section. It consists of a predominantly volcanic unit (Bilungala Volcanics), a mixed sedimentary volcanic unit (Dolokopa Formation), and several sedimentary units, including the Ratatotok Limestone, which hosts Mesel and associated gold deposits. The volcanic rocks consist predominantly of andesitic lava flows and pyroclastics, debris flows, and related volcaniclastics, marking multiple periods of uplift and erosion during the development of the mid Cenozoic volcanic arc (Pearson and Caira, 1999). Felsicrocksarecommonlypresentinsomeareas, includingtheTombulilatodistrict(Perello,1994). The base of the MidCenozoic group has been observedonlyinafewlocalities,whereitconsists of chaotic masses of Papayato Volcanics fragments or poorly sorted conglomerates (Trail et al., 1974; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). The sequence is intruded by comagmatic bodies, varying in size from dykes and stocks to batholiths of diorite, quartzdiorite and granodiorite (e.g. Trail et al., 1974; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Limited radiometric age dating results (Lowder and Dow, 1978; Polv et al., 1997; Pearson and Caira, 1999) suggest that batholithsized bodies were emplaced during the EarlyMiddle Miocene (1612 Ma), irregular stock and dykelike intrusions of diorite and monzodiorite composition during MiddleLate Miocene times, and small stocks and plugs of quartz diorite composition during the latest Miocene (85 Ma). According to Pearson and Caira (1999) the batholiths were probably exposedbyoneormoreperiodsofintraMiocene erosion. Published geochemical data for the volcanicand plutonicsuitessuggestthatthe Mid Cenozoic was dominated by mediumK calc alkaline magmatism (Polv et al, 1997). Porphyry CuAuMo and intrusionrelated base metal Au mineralization is commonly associated with the MiddleLate Miocene suites. However, most depositsaresmalland/oroflowmetaltenor. ThestructureoftheMidCenozoicrockshasbeen studied in most detail in the Tombulilato district, where several periods of lowangle thrusting
13

were followed by development of highangle northerly trending faults, which was succeeded by several stages of easttrending block faulting (Perello, 1994). A regional unconformity between the Mid and Late Cenozoic sequences marks a major tectonic event that is generally believed to be related to the collision of the BanggaiSula continental fragment with Sulawesi (e.g.Perello,1994;PearsonandCaira,1999). The Late Cenozoic, which was the most productivemineralizing period, witnessed widespread and intensive volcanism. The Early Pliocene Wobudu Breccia, exposed along the north coast of the Gorontalo section, is composed almost entirely of basaltic to andesitic agglomerates, breccias, pyroclastics, and lava flows (Trail et al., 1974).Along the south coast, a series of dominantly dacitic volcanics and co magmatic highlevel intrusions are exposed, named Pani Volcanics (Trail et al., 1974). They form major caldera complexes that have developed within the SW corners of large arc parallel and arcnormal fault rhombs, and host significant gold mineralization (Pearson and Caira, 1999). Similar rocks are found in the Tombulilato district, where they have been named Motomboto Volcanics by Perello (1994). K/Ar dating suggests the two units were formed between 5.3 and 2.0 Ma (Perello, 1994; Polv et al., 1997; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Significant porphyryCuAuandepithermalAumineralization isassociatedwiththismagmaticevent. ThePinogoVolcanics(Trailetal.,1972)constitute a volcanicsedimentary succession that occurs over a distance of 170km along the south coast, from 40km west of Tototopo to more than 60km east of Tombulilato, where it is up to 300m thick. Isolated remnants are present within the central LimbotoBone rift valley, and up to 40km to the north. The unit is thought to have formed in latest PliocenePleistocene times, a period dominated by explosive volcanism (Kavalieris et al.,1992;Perello,1994;PearsonandCaira,1999). Thevolcanicsarecharacterized,atleastinpart,by a bimodal association of basaltic andesite and rhyolite (Kavalieris et al., 1992). Throughout the Gorontalo section diatreme and irregular magmatic hydrothermal breccia bodies appear to

postdate and intrude the Pani Volcanics. They include postmineralization diatreme breccias at the Cabang Kiri and Sungai Mak porphyry copper deposits(CarlileandKirkegaard,1985). Volcanic units in the Minahasa section include the locally named Maen Volcanics and Toka Tindung Breccia (Wake et al., 1996), which are contemporaneous with the gold mineralization in the Toka Tindung district and of Late Pliocene age, and the Tondano Tuff of Effendi (1976), which are the result of explosive eruptions from the Tondano caldera, now occupied by the Tondano Lake. Quaternary to Recent volcanics mask most of the older rocks in the Sangihe Arc (i.e. northern Minahasa section to Sangihe Island). The Late Cenozoic units are mostly flat lying to gently dipping. Significant subrecent vertical movements in the Gorontalo section are evidenced by the elevation of young coral limestone up to height of 5501000m, and the formationofbroaddepressions(Rutten,1927). The Gorontalo section is dominated by three structural elements: i)long ESE trending fault corridors, which are arcparallel structures; ii) regularly spaced NWNNW arcnormal fault zones;andiii)shortNEENEarcnormalconjugate faults (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Carlile and al. (1990) and Kavalieris et all. (1992) observe that much of the most recent faulting along the arcparallel structures comprise normal vertical movements, resulting in uplifted EW trending mountain chains and graben. In the Minahassa section two fault sets dominate: i) NE, showing vertical movement,andii)NW,whichprobablycomprises an orthogonal tensional fracture system comparable to the Gorontalo section (Carlile et al.,1990). 3.2 WesternSulawesiProvince In terms of geomorphology and geology Western Sulawesi can be divided into three parts: Southwest (SW), Central West (CW) and Northwest (NW) Sulawesi (Figure 3B). SW Sulawesi is geomorphologically separated from
14

CW Sulawesi by a NW trending depression filled with Quaternary sediments, which may mask a major structure. It differs from the rest of the province in being less tectonically deformed and less mountainous, lacking large Neogene granitoid bodies, and having Neogene volcanics with isotopic and trace element characteristics that are different from those found in CWNW Sulawesi(e.g.ElburgandFoden,1999).Themain differences between CW and NW Sulawesi are in the nature of Late EoceneEarly Miocene sedimentation (dominantly carbonate and dominantly siliclastic respectively) and the relative scarcity of Neogene volcanic deposits in thelatterarea.CWSulawesihasthemostrugged terrain, with many mountain ridges between 20003000m altitudes reaching a maximum heightof3495m. Western Sulawesi contains an almost complete stratigraphic sequence ranging between Late Cretaceous and Recent, which developed on a basement of continental fragment and accretionary/mlange rocks. It represents several major periods of sedimentation, including Late Cretaceous flysch, Eocene synrift siliciclastics, Late EoceneMiddle Miocene platform and deeper marine carbonates, Middle MioceneEarly Pliocene shallow marine deposits, and latest Cenozoic synorogenicsedimentary successions. The sedimentation cycles were accompanied or interrupted by several magmatic eventsthattookplaceduringthePaleocene,mid Eocene to midOligocene, Early Miocene, and Middle Miocene to Pliocene, locally continuing into the Quaternary (e.g. van Leeuwen and Muhardjo,2005;vanLeeuwenetal.,2010). PreTertiary accretionary/mlange complexes are exposed in the Bantimala and Barrublocks in SW Sulawesi and in the Latimojong Complex in SW Sulawesi. They consist of imbricated tectonic slices of both continental and oceanic rocks, which have been metamorphosed to greenschist amphibolite and blueschist facies (Sukamto, 1986; Wakita et al., 1996; Maulana et al., 2010). The complexes have been interpreted by Parkinson et al. (1998) to belong to a dismembered midCretaceous accretionary/ subduction zone that extended from central

Eastern Sulawesi through southern Western SulawesiandSEKalimantantocentralJava. Three metamorphic complexes are exposed in NW Sulawesi, i.e. the Palu, Karossa and Malino Metamorphic Complexes, which are composed of continental fragments derived from the AustralianNewGuinea margin,andinthecaseof the former two complexes, also contain slices of oceanic crust (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005; vanLeeuwenetal.,2007).ThePaluMetamorphic Complex hosts a gold deposit named Poboya, which is of uncertain origin. The metamorphic complexes are believed to form part of asingle large fragment (or composite fragment) that underlies most of Western Sulawesi, the Makassar Straits, Java Sea and East Java, and has been named the East JavaWest Sulawesi Block by Hall (2009). This author interprets the fragment(s) to have been separated from NW Australia in the Jurassic and accreted to the SE SundalandmargininthemidCretaceous. The basement complexes are unconformably overlain by weakly metamorphosed Late Cretaceous flysch deposits, which occur widespread throughout the province and in CW Sulawesi host significant gold mineralization.No mineralization, other than minor sediment hosted Cu occurrences, has been found todate in the unconformably overlying siliciclastics and carbonate sequences which were deposited in midEocene to midMiocene times. Volcanism that took place during this period appear to have been intermittent and localized, as a result of which no major continuous volcanic arc developed (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005; van Leeuwen et al., 2010). The volcanic rocks arecalcalkaline in composition and generally believed to be related to active subduction (e.g. Yuwono et al., 1986, 1988; Elburg et al., 2002, 2003). The only mineralization known to be associated with the Early Tertiary volcanism is Kurokotype VMS near Sangkaropi in CW Sulawesi. A major tectonic event took place in the early Middle Miocene under extensional conditions. It was characterized by block faulting that resulted in local unconformities and development of a
15

 Table3SelectedfeaturesofporphyryCuAuMosystemsinNorthernSulawesiexamples
Prospect Name Bulagidun Hostrocks Alteration Type hydrothermal collapse bx associated with diorite &qtz diorite stocks diorite porphyry & tourmalinebx qtz diorite; andesite volcanics qtz diorite stock; (andesitevolcanics) (upper)muscchlorthqtzillkaol; (inner)btqtzmgt (outer)chlepi. sulphide cement fillingbx Mineralization Mineralogy Vertical extent (cm) cpypymgt;Auwith 500 cpy and in native form cpypo(pymo); Au withCp pycpybo; chalc blanket up to 40m thick cpypybomgt, chalccovpy Resources Cu% Au g/t 37 0.61 0.6 Mt Age

9.4(HR) 8.15(A;bt)

Dunu Tapadaa

(inner)btqtzalb stk&bxfilling (outer)chlactepi (early)qtzchlbtanhalbmgt stk&dissem (late)ser+qtzdiaspandpyroph. stk&dissem

12.5(A;bt) 100 43 0.54 0.08 5 & 2.5 (A; bt) 5.25 (HR; hbl) 2.93(A;bt)

CabangKiri

Kayubulan Ridge SungaiMak

1. (top)kaoldiaspal 2. clayserchlmgt 3. chlmgt 4. (bottom)qtzseralbchlmgt bt pipelike breccia qtzmgtbt overprinted by serill complex chl diorite porphyry, sill qtzmgtbt overprinted by serill like chlvuggysialkaol

400

105

0.42

0.43

Stk&dissem Stk&dissem

cpypybo chalc blanket, up to 176m;+pycp

150 200

32 0.60 0.33 92 82 0.74 0.29 159 0.69 0.27

2.36(A;bt)

Source:vanLeeuwenandPieters(2011) Abbreviations(Tables35):A=alteration;act=actinolite;al=alunite;alb=albite;ad=adularia;and=andalusite;anh=anhydrite;aspy=arsenopyrite;Au=gold; ba=barite;bo=bornite;bt=biotite;bx=breccias;carb=carbonate;chalc=chalcocite;chald=chalcedony;chl=chlorite;cov=covellite;cpy=chalcopyrite;diasp = diaspore; dissem = disseminations; en = enargite; epi = epidote; ga = galena; HR = host rock; ill = illite; kaol = kaolinite; luz = luzonite; mgt = magnetite; mo = molybdenite;musc = muscovite; orth = orthoclase;py = pyrite; pyroph = pyrophyllite;po = pyrrhotite; qtz = quartz; ser = sericite; si = silica; sph = sphalerite; stib = stibnite;stk=stockwork;

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major strikeslip fault in SW Sulawesi (Walanae FaultZone),alongwhichanoceanicfragmentwas emplaced (van Leeuwen et al., 2010). Another oceanic fragment exposed further north, the Lamasi Ophiolite Complex, may have accreted to the Western Sulawesi continental margin around thesametime. Thetectoniceventheraldedtheonsetofaperiod of widespread shoshonitic to ultrapotassic magmatism that lasted to the Early Pliocene, and locally continued into the Quaternary (Lompobatang Volcano). Over 5000m thick deposits of volcanic, comagmatic intrusive, volcaniclastics and intercalated sedimentary rocks cover large parts of SW and CW Sulawesi (e.g. Sukamto, 1982; Bergman et al., 1996). In NW Sulawesi, their distribution is more restricted (Elburg et al., 2003). The potassicultrapotassic suiteshavebeenreferredtoasHKseriesbyPolv et al. (1997).In CW and NW Sulawesi, the HK series magmatism was accompanied by a distinct magmatic event that started around the beginning of the Late Miocene and produced large volumes of granitoids and subordinate amounts of tuffs that were exclusively felsic in nature and of highK calcalkaline composition, the CAKseries of Polv et al. (1997). This event lasted until the Pleistocene, making the granites oneoftheyoungestintheworld. Most of the mineral deposits and occurrences found in Western Sulawesi are related to the HK and CAK magmatism. They include porphyry Mo, porphyryCuAu,intrusionrelatedbasemetalAu, and probably also the Awak Mas and Poboya gold deposits, and others found in the same belt, which in this paper we refer to as intrusion relatedAudeposits. Synorogenicsedimentary deposits of Plio Pleistocene age, collectively known as Celebes Molasse (Sarasin and Sarasin, 1901) occur widespread throughout Western Sulawesi. They reflect a major tectonic event, involving rapid uplift, folding and thrusting (? gravity sliding) in CW and NW Sulawesi. This event has previously beenattributedtocollisionbetweentheBanggai Sula microcontinent and the East Arm (e.g. Bergman et al., 1996; Hall and Wilson, 2000).

However, there is increasing evidence to suggest that the CWNW SulawesiNorth ArmGorontalo Bay region has been in extension since the Early Pliocene,whichmayhavebeendrivenbyrollback of the subduction hinge at the North Sulawesi Trench (Cottam et al., 2011). However, the extremely rapid rates and large amounts of uplift and subsidence in the region (ca 3km and >2km respectively) suggest that significant flow of lower crust, from beneath basins towards topographically elevated areas, may also have beenacontributingfactor(Hall,2011). 3.3 EasternSulawesiProvince TheeasternSulawesiProvincecomprisestheEast and Southeast Arms, the eastern part of central Sulawesi, and the island of Buton. The terrain is in many places very rugged. This, combined with the highlytectonizednatureoftheregion,means thatitsgeologyisstillpoorlyunderstood. As discussed by Hamilton (1979), the province consists of several quasicentric arcuate belts, which are composed of, from west to east: 1) sheared metamorphic rocks, 2) highly tectonized mlange of ophiolitic, metamorphic, and MesozoicPaleogene rocks; the latter also occuring as more coherent masses; and 3) predominantly ophiolitic rocks. A fourth zone of imbricated Mesozoic and Paleogene rocks that fringes the southeast margin of the East Arm belongs to the BanggaiSula Province and marks the collision zone between the BanggaiSula continentalfragmentandtheophiolite terraneof the East Arm. The rocks that constitute the four zones are unconformably overlain by synto post orogenic sedimentary deposits (Celebes Molasse). Metamorphic rocks form a 460km long, 80km wide zone, including the Pompangeo Metamorphic Complex in central Eastern Sulawesi (Parkinson, 1991; 1998), and the Mehongga and Teimosi Metamorphic Complexes in the SE Arm (Rusmana and Sukarna, 1985). Several smaller masses occur at the south end of the SE Arm and on Kabaena Island. In central Sulawesi, the metamrphic belt is bounded on the west by a profound tectonic dislocation, the
17

Median Line (Brouwer, 1947), against Western Sulawesi, and to the east it grades into a tectonic mlange. In the SE Arm, the southwestern boundary of the metamorphic zone is marked by a narrow strip of ophiolite, whereas a major strikeslip fault (Lawanopo Fault) forms the northeastern boundary, separating the metamorphiczonefromtheophiolitezone. The metamorphic rocks include both blueschist and greenschistamphibolite facies (e.g. Parkinson, 1998; Helmers et al., 1989; 1990). In central Eastern Sulawesi an increase in the degreeofmetamorphiccrystallizationisapparent fromeasttowest(Brouwer,1947).Thistogether with the style of deformation of the Pompangeo Schists is consistent with successive underthrusting of slices of downgoing material in a westdipping subduction, which based on limited K/Ar dating of the schists probably took place during the midCretaceous (Parkinson, 1991; 1998). Parkinson (1998) suggests that the protolithsofthemetamorphicsconsistsinpartof Jurassic sedimentary rocks, similar to the ones exposed in small terranes to the east. Until the recent discovery of gold in metamorphic rocks near Bombana in the SE Arm the metamorphic complexes were considered to have little mineral potential. The contact zone between the metamorphic rocks and the ophiolite is marked by a tectonic mlange in central Eastern Sulawesi, which is composed of a highly complex mosaic of tectonized and metamorphosed ophiolite fragments, schist fragments and variably disrupted Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. K/Ar ages of 2832 Ma suggest that the mlange was formed during the middle to late Oligocene, possibly as the result of eastward subduction beneath the ophiolite terrane, that was subsequently thrusted westward over the metamorphicbasement(Parkinson,1996). Large ophiolite masses are distributed over most of the East Arm and the northwest part of the Southeast Arm, and on the adjacent islands of Buton and Kabaena. They cover over 15,000km2 and are known as the East Sulawesi Ophiolite or ESO (Simandjuntak, 1986). From an economic

point of view this is the most important rock unit in Eastern Sulawesi, as it has given rise to extensiveNilaterite depositsand chromitebeach sandsdeposits. A complete, but highly imbricated ophiolite sequence has only been observed in the East Arm, whereas elsewhere only the lower, ultramafic portion of the sequence is present. The age of the ophiolite is poorly constrained. A widerangeofK/Arageshavebeenobtainedfrom ESO rocks, varying from Cretaceous to Miocene (Mubroto et al., 1994; Monnier et al., 1994; Simandjuntak, 1986), which are difficult to interpret. It has been suggested that Cretaceous deep marine pelagic sedimentary rocks which are spatiallyassociatedinseveralplaceswiththeESO may represent the uppermost part of the sequence(e.g.Kndig,1956).Variousoriginsand timing of emplacement have been proposed for the ESO. It is likely, however, that the ESO is a compositeterranewithmorethanoneoriginand ofdifferentages(HallandWilson,2000). MesozoicPaleogene sedimentary rocks are mostlyinterthrustorininterminablefaultcontact with the metamorphic basement and ophiolite sequences throughout Eastern Sulawesi. Broadly speaking,theyconsistoffluvialtoshallowmarine siliciclastics and subordinate carbonates of late TriassicJurassic age that were formed along the Australian continental margin, and Cretaceous Oligocene deep marine, pelagic sedimentary rocks, which were laid down on fragments rifted from the margin and transported westwards to theSulawesiregion(e.g.PigramandPanggabean, 1984;Villeneuveetal.,2001;Surono,2008). Synto postorogenic deposits are widely distributed throughout Eastern Sulawesi. They can be divided into clastic and carbonate sequences with coarsegrained clastic sediments dominating (Surono, 2008). Deposition started earlier in the southern part of the province (around the Early Miocene) than further north (MiddleLateMiocene).
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4.0 Mineraldeposits Inthischapterwepresentareviewofthevarious mineralization styles that are known to occur in the Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi Provinces.Examplesofeachtypearedescribedin some detail as either individual deposits or mineral districts, for which a brief summary of their exploration history is also given. We have assigned them to 17 categories, which are shown in Figure 5 together with their map symbols for Figures 6, 25 and 35. In this paper we have adopted the most widely used nomenclature. The reader will be familiar with most of the terms,butafewneedfurtherexplanation. 1) High, intermediate and lowsulphidation epithermal AuAg.This broad group of epithermal mineral deposits has been subjected to over a dozenclassificationschemessincethelate1970s, which in part reflects the wide range of characteristic features displayed by orebodies belonging to this group (Simmons et al., 2005). The currently most widely used terminology of high, intermediate and lowsulphidation, terms introduced by Hedenquist (1987), Hedenquist et al (2000) and Einaudi et al (2003), is based upon the sulphidation state (or sulphur fugacity) of sulphurbearing minerals that occur in the epithermal mineral assemblage. Intermediate sulphidation is a relatively new term, which was previously included in the lowsulphidation category. Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) emphasize the linkage between sulphidation types and volcanotectonic settings; most high sulphidation deposits are generated in calc alkalineandesiticdaciticarcsunderneutralstress state or mild extension conditions, and commonly show a close connection with porphyry Cu deposits; intermediatesulphidation deposits occur in a broadly similar environment but lack such close relationship; and most low sulphidation deposits are associated with volcanicsuitesinabroadspectrumofextensional settings. Corbett and Leach (1998) divided the low intermediate sulphidation deposits into two broad groups. The first group dominates in magmatic arcs and displays an association with

intrusionsgradingawayfromtheintrusionsource as; quartzsulphideAu+/Cu, carbonatebase metalAu and epithemal AuAg. The second group,termedadulariasericiteepithermalAuAg, dominates in rift settings. Corbett (2007) subsequently renamed the latter group banded chalcedonyginguro epithermal veins. Where appropriate we refer to this classification scheme inthetext. 2)Intrusionrelated base metalAu. This category includes vein deposits which usually contain significant amounts of base metal sulphides and show, or are inferred to have, a close association with (porphyry) intrusions. It overlaps with the quartzsulphideAu+/Cu category of Corbett and Leach(1998). 3)Intrusionrelated Au. This category has been assigned to a few deposits in Western Sulawesi, including Awak Mas, Mangkaluku and Poboya. As discussed below, the origin and classification of these deposits is problematic. We describe them in 4.2.4 under the (more neutral) heading Gold inmetamorphicterrains As for many mineral deposits and occurrences in Sulawesi there is no detailed information available, assigning them to a particular category can be quite subjective. In a few cases where there was too little togo by, or an occurrence did not seem to fit any of the categories,we assigned themtothenotclassifiedcategory. For each of the three provinces we have prepared a map showing mineral localities and the names of deposits/prospects or mineral districts mentioned in the text. The maps were compiled from the Indonesian Mineral Deposit DataBase(vanLeeuwenandPieters(2011). 4.1 NorthernSulawesiProvince Northern Sulawesi is relatively well endowed with mineral deposits and prospects (Figure 6). Asdiscussed earlieritisa regionofbothpastand presentgoldminingactivity.Anumberofmineral styles have been recognized todate. These are porphyryCuAuMo,high,intermediateand
19

Figure5.MineralizationtypesfoundinSulawesiandtheirsymbolsusedinFigures6,25and35

Figure 6. Northern Sulawesi. Distribution of mineralization types, and location of prospects and mineralizeddistrictsmentionedinthetext;forsymbolsseeFigure5

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lowsulphidation epithermal AuAg, sediment hosted Au, brecciahosted base metalAu mineralization, intrusionrelated base metalAu veins, FeAu skarns, and CuPbZn volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS). The VMS mineralizationistheonlystyleassociatedwiththe Paleogene volcanic activity. All the others were formed during the Miocene and particularly Pliocene magmatic epochs. Tables 3 and 4 show selected features of the more significant Northern Sulawesis porphyry copper and preciousmetalsystemsrespectively. 4.1.1 PorphyryCuAuMomineralization More than 40 porphyrystyle deposits and occurrences have been identified, which commonly occur in clusters. They can be divided into two groups, Late Miocene and Pliocene. Their main features have been described by PearsonandCaira(1990). The Late Miocene group (e.g. Bahumbang, and Dunu) are hosted by irregular dykelike bodies of dioritetoquartzdiorite compositionintrudedinto comagmatic basaltic andesite andesite volcanics. A central quartzbiotitemagnetite zone grades outwards to chloriteepidotecalcite alteration, and upwards to quartzsericite carbonateclay assemblages. Albite is present in some prospects. Advanced argillic lithocaps are absent. In some deposits sheeted quartz veins are well developed (e.g. Petulu) but most are characterized by quartz stockworks. The porphyry systems are poorly mineralized, showing the following zonation: central chalcopyrite+molybdenite pyrite+chalcopyrite pyrite leadzinc. Gold is associated with chalcopyrite. Molybdenite commonly occurs in early veins. Rather unusual is Bulagidun (4.1.1.2) where CuAu mineralization is hosted by a series ofhydrothermalbrecciasdevelopedperipheralto a biotite altered, but unmineralized diorite complex. The Pliocene systems show both similarities and differences with the Miocene systems. Examples include the Tapadaa district (4.1.1.3) and Tombulilato district (4.1.1.4) and Taware on Sangihe Island (4.1.1.5). With a few exceptions

(e.g. Taware) the Pliocene systems are better mineralized. They are centred on multiphase cylindricalstocksanddykesshowingfractionation to more felsic endmembers (quartz diorite to dacite porphyry) that are associated with co magmatic volcanics of dacite composition. Diatreme breccias are commonly present. Alteration zonation consists of a central quartz albitemagnetitebiotitechlorite core, an outer chloriteactinolitemagnetite zone, and an upper sericitekaolinitealunitediaspore zone. Quartz sulphide stockworks are well developed. Higher gold grades show a strong association with bornite,magnetiteandchalcopyriteinthecentral zone that grade outwards to a pyrite zone with supergene chalcocite. Au:Cu ratios are relatively high. 4.1.1.1 Bahumbung Bahumbung is the only Miocene porphyry Cu prospect that has been described in some detail (Lubis et al., 2011). It consists of several mineralized centres up to 500x400m in diameter. The area was identified during Newcrests regionalexplorationprogrammeinthelate1990s as a CuAu anomaly. It was investigated in more detail by Ivanhoe Mines Ltd in the late 2000s, including groundmagnetics and drilling of 3 deep holes(1,544m)and13shallowholes(561m). The prospect area is underlain largely by andesitic lava, tuff and volcanic breccias belonging to the Bilungala Volcanics. These are accompanied by minor dacitic volcanics and intruded by multiple intrusives ranging in composition from diorite to aplite. Three diorite units have been recognized, referred to as Old, IntermediateandYoungDiorite. The Old Diorite (only detected in two drill holes) ischaracterizedbystrongalteration(potassicand pale green mica), moderate to high density quartz stockwork, and moderate copper grades (0.3%0.4%). The Intermediate Diorite has a lower density of quartz stockwork (up to 3%) and lower copper grades (0.10.3%), and is moderately altered (PMG). The Young Diorite occurs as latemineral dykes with low sulphide andCucontents,<1%and<0.1%respectively.
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 Potassic alteration has affected most strongly the Old Diorite and andesitic wall rocks. Very fine grained secondary biotite and magnetite completely replace mafic minerals, and are intergrown with actinolite in veinlets. The alteration is associated with quartz stockwork zones, varying in intensity from 3 to 10%, and <2% sulphides consisting of chalcopyrite, lesser pyrite and minor bornite.The sulphides fill fractures and occur as disseminations in quartz veinlets and altered host rocks. Better Cu grades (>0.4%)havebeenobtainedfromstronglyaltered andesitic wall rocks adjacent to the Old Diorite. Pale green mica alteration is characterized by the presence of shreddy chlorite and green sericite, which replace earlier secondary biotite and primary feldspar. In rocks that are not too weathered chalcopyrite and pyrite can be observed. Sericitechloritemagnetite alteration is associated with the Young Diorite. Mafics are replaced by chlorite and magnetite accompanied by various amounts of pyrite. Primary feldspars are partially or totally altered to sericite. This alteration assemblage is prominent in ore zones of a number of major Philippine porphyry CuAg deposits (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), but at Bahumbung contains only very little chalcopyrite.Molybdenite appears to be mostly associated with sericitechloriteclay alteration overprintingpotassicalteration. 4.1.1.2 Bulagidundistrict(Figure7) This district is located 170km WNW from Gorontalo and 10km inland from the north coast. It is the largest known Miocene system in Northern Sulawesi, covering an area of 50km2, and encompassing five separate prospects of porphyry, vein and skarn styles, of which the largest known is the Bulagidun prospect. The district is outlined by a 790 ppm Cu 80# stream sediment anomaly, while Au anomalism is centred on Bulagidun, and Pb and Zn anomalies are related to peripheral vein systems. It is covered by dense tropical rain forest with steep relief(500to1700m).

The district was identified in 1987 by BHP during followup of stream sediment and panned concentrate geochemical anomalies. Systematic exploration until 1991, including ~8000m of drilling outlined a geological resource of 14.4 Mt @ 0.68 g/t Au and 0.61% Cu in three separate breccia bodies. Further investigations were carried out by Newcrest and Cyprus in 199697 involving detailed surface work and drilling (Bulagidun, 2793m; Matinan9, 760m; Matinan6, 1484m). The results of the two campaigns are discussed by Lubis et al. (1994), PT Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi (1999) and Pearson and Caira (1999). The geology comprises a deeply eroded Miocene volcanic centre within a sequence of volcaniclastics and immature sediments covered by andesite lava, which in turn is overlain by andesite pyroclastics and volcanogenic conglomerates. Two samples of unaltered andesite lava yielded KAr whole rock ages of 9.4 Ma. The sequence is intruded by a sequential fractionation intrusive suite consisting of seven partially superimposed plutons that range in composition from pyroxenebiotite diorite to quartzbiotite feldspar porphyry and aplite. Limited whole rock analyses presented by Lubis et al. (1994) suggest that the igneous rocks in the Bulagidun area belong to the medium and highK calcalkalineseries. A regional scale NNWtrending arc normal structure passes through the western part of the system. A set of NEtrending faults bracket this system linking it across to another arc normal structure, 20km to the east. Intrusive bodies forming aligned circular features, 2 to 4km in diameter, are centred on the Bulagidun and Matinan prospect areas, suggesting a collapsed magma chamber at depth. Mineralization is strongly controlled by EW structures and intersections with crosscutting NS structures. This pattern is consistent with dextral transpressuring of the arc normal structures. Twelve breccia pipes have been mapped in the system. The Bulagidun/Matinan alteration system extends over 7km in an ENE direction with a
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Figure 7. Simplified geological map of Bulagidun district and prospect locations (modified after PT NewcrestNusaSulawesi,1999)

Figure 8. Simplified geological map of Tapadaa district and prospect locations (modified after PT NewcrestNusaSulawesi,1999)
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Figure 9. Simplified geological map of Tombulilato district and prospect locations (modifiedafterPerello,1994)

Figure10.CartoonshowingporphyryCudepositstylesintheTombulilatodistrict

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width of 3km. It is concentrically zoned with a biotite core (2000mx300m) surrounded by an albitemagnetite zone that grades outwards into an albitesericitepyrite assemblage. Another shell of epidotechloritecalcite surrounds these assemblages. Sericiteclay chloritequartzcarbonate alteration, both pervasive and structurally controlled, cross cut all theearlyassemblages.WholerockKArdatingof this assemblage yielded an age of 8.75 Ma. Late stage claypyrite alteration occurs as narrow zones along faults and fractures. Disseminated blebs and fracture fillings of radiating black tourmaline are found in biotite magnetite and sericiteclaychlorite altered rocks. It typically constitutes 12% of the rocks, but locally may attainvaluesof1020%. Styles of hypogene CuAu mineralization include a porphyryrelated collapsedrawing down brecciainfillinatleast7brecciapipes(Bulagidun) and disseminated mineralization controlled by microlitic cavities in the causative intrusions, representing orthomagmatic mineralization (Matinan9).Drillingofthemainbrecciapipehas demonstrated that the mineralization extends to greater than 500m depth. The dominant sulphides are chalcopyrite and pyrite (largely in veinlets and breccia matrix). Molybdenite is locally abundant, whereas bornite, galena and sphalerite are rare. Gold is associated with chalcopyrite and pyrite in solid solution or as minuteintergrowths. Breccias are fragment supported with angular fragments ranging in size from cm to 10s of m withlittleornorockflourmatrixandnoevidence ofhydrothermalstreamingorfragmentedmilling. The breccia void spaces are filled with coarse grained, pegmatitic, hydrothermal minerals, which have a remarkably consistent paragenesis across the system, from earliest to latest; magnetite (replaced by specularite in places), apatite, biotite (partly replaced by chlorite), molybdenite, quartz, tourmaline, chalcopyrite, galena, pyrite, ankerite. A characteristic of the Bulagidun district is the apparent lack of quartz stockwork development associated with zones of CuAu mineralization. Preliminary fluid inclusion studies show a wide range of homogenenization

temperatures (180oC to 700oC) and salinities, suggesting multiple separate stages of hydrothermal fluid and mixing between saline magmaticanddilutemeteoricfluids. Quartz veins, partly sheeted, occur adjacent (up to 500m lateral distance) to the mineralized breccias. They are up to 2m thick and contain minor sphalerite and galena. In excess of 10 g/t Au was recorded in surface samples, but in drill holes only 0.5 2 g/t Au was obtained. In some places meterwide zones of abundant tourmaline occurincloseproximity. A large tabular body of magnetiteepidote garnetpyrrhotite skarn (Matinan6) is found within the propylitic zone, 2km to the NNW of the central CuAu zone at Bulagidun. It contains patchygoldmineralizationinnativeform. 4.1.1.3 Tapadaadistrict(Figure8) Discovered in 1971 by Endeavour Resources, the district was investigated in some detail by Kennecott between 1972 and 1974, including 1,222m of diamond drilling. Four small systems were outlined (Tapadaa South, Central and North, and Mogi Wapo), each containing between 2 and 15 Mt @ 0.20.4% Cu in primary ore and a total of 20 Mt @ 0.61.0% Cu in supergene enriched ore (van Leeuwen, 1994). In 1994,NewcrestobtainedalargeCOWareawhich included the Tapadaa district. It undertook regionaltoprospectscalesurfacework,whichled to the discovery of a fifth system, Tapadaa West. The best result obtained was 252m of chip sampling averaging 0.39% Cu and 0.13 g/t at TapadaaSouth. Literature on the Tapadaa district inludes papers by Lowder and Dow (1977; 1978) and a report by PTNewcrestNusaSulawesi(1999). ThedistrictgeologyconsistsofMioceneBilungala Volcanics, which are primarily andesitic to lithic tuffs. They have been intruded by a series of porphyritic diorite stocks and dykes on the western margin of the Miocene Bone batholith. These have been subdivided into premineral weakly porphyritic diorites, synmineral quartz
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diorite plugs and quartzdacite porphyry dykes, and postmineral andesite porphyry dykes. Pleistocene Pinogu dacite tuffs (some with mineralized clasts) unconformably overlie much ofthearea,includingpartofthemineralizationat TapadaaNorthandCentral. The Tapadaa prospects lie within a >90m ppm Cu elliptical halo defined by stream sediment sampling. Internal to this is a >4 ppm Mo halo, that only includes Mogi Wapo. Plots of Cu and Au in rock show small Au bull eyes (>0.1 ppm) within larger Cu (>500 ppm) zones. At Tapadaa West the largest Au anomaly measures 460mx400m. Porphyry mineralization appears almost continuous from Tapadaa South through to Tapadaa North, except where obscured by postmineral Pinogu Volcanics over an area of 100300m by 3000m. Mogi Wapo measures about 200mx1000m, and Tapadaa West has the smallest exposure (200x400m). Mapping by Newcrest has shown that the Tapadaa West mineralization is hosted by the Bilungala Volcanics, and not by diorite intrusive as thought by previous explorers. This introduces the possibility of a larger concealed intrusivehosted system. The porphyry prospects occur in a NWtrending structurally controlled blocks. Copper mineralization is associated with early alteration consisting predominantly of quartzchlorite biotiteanhydrite, and in areas of better grades (0.20.4%) also green sericite and albite together with albitequartz and magnetitequartz veinlets. Two secondary biotite samples yielded KAr ages of5and2.5Ma.Sulphidecontents(chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite) are typically low. Sulphides and magnetite are present mostly as fracture infill, and also as disseminations and in quartz veinlets. There appears to be a positive correlation between primary Cu grades and magnetite concentrations. The early alterationmineralization assemblages areoverprintedbysericite+quartzorclay,quartz sericitediaspore, and/or andalusitepyrophyllite assemblages. Corundum and specularite are associated with high pyrite contents. Supergene blankets, up to 30m thick, are locally developed

underlying of strongly leached pyritic zones in advancedargillicrock. 4.1.1.4 Tombulilatodistrict(Figure9) The Tombulilato district has been an exploration teaser for many years. Following its discovery in 1971 by Endeavour Resources, Kennecott carried out exploration between 1972 and 1975 which led to the discovery of Cabang Kiri where 1,070m ofdrillingoutlinedaresourceof24Mt@0.7%Cu and 0.75 g/t Au, Kayubulan Ridge with an estimated resource potential of 200 Mt @ 0.5% Cu and 0.35 g/t Au based on surface data only, and Cabang Kanan. Following Kennecotts withdrawal in 1976, Endeavour drilled 6 holes at Kayubulan Ridge, one of which intersected significant mineralization. Between 1980 and 1982 Utah International embarked on a major exploration programme involving 5 drilling rigs and2helicopters.Thethreeknowndepositsplus a new discovery, Sungai Mak, were drill tested (~1600m) outlining a combined resources of 296 Mt @ 0.57% Cu and 0.47 g/t Au. The original Endeavour COW was terminated in 1986. Two years later BHP entered into a JV with Antam which obtained two socalled super KPs over the district. In 1991, a national park was declared over the area and all work ceased. After a 2 year exploration permit was obtained from the Minister of Forestry in 1996 BHP embarked on a heliborne magnetic survey, which identified a number of anomalies, two of which appeared to beassociatedwithpreviouslyunknownporphyry style mineralization, i.e. Gunung Lintah and West Kayubulan Ridge. Because of uncertainties pertaining to the national park and other reasons BHP withdrew in late 1997. Recently the district was excised from the park and exploration title wasawardedtoBumiResources. The Tombulilato district (Lowder and Dow, 1978; Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985; Carlile et al., 1990; Perello, 1994; BHP Minerals Sulawesi, 1997) is composed of a >3400m thick volcano sedimentary sequence in which three main stratigraphic units are recognized: i) Bilungala Volcanics (Upper Miocene base Pliocene) divided into a Lower Member (tholeiitic basaltic and spilitic volcanics), Middle Member
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(alternating andesitic and felsic volcanics with minor sedimentary intercalations), and Upper Member (subaerial andesitic fragmental volcanics); ii) Motomboto Volcanics (Upper Pliocene), which consists of subaerial felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks; iii) Pinogu Volcanics (Pleistocene), characterized by poorly consolidated, subaerial bimodal volcanics.The sequence is intruded by strongly porphyritic bodies of andesitic to dacitic composition, and equigranular bodies of granodioritic to dioritic composition. Field relationships and two whole rocks KAr ages of 2.35 and 2.05 Ma suggests a Late Pliocene age for these intrusions. A foliated granodioriteexposedintheNEpartofthedistrict isprobablyMiddleMiocene(orolder). The structure of the Tombulilato district is characterized by northerly striking highangle faults, normally a few metres wide and containing tectonic breccias, hightomoderate angle normal faults showing an easterly trend and of postmineralization origin, and common lowangle thrust faults, typically accommodated by ductile sedimentary intercalations in the Bilungala Volcanics and showing a random orientation. All intrusive bodies postdate folding andthrusting. Five mineralized system have been identified todate, i.e. Cabang Kiri, Sungai Mak, Kayubulan Ridge, Cabang Kanan, and Gunung Lintah which show both similarities and differences (Figure 10). Mineralization at Cabang Kiri East is hosted by a cylindrical multiple diorite porphyry stock intruded in the Middle Member of the Bilungala Volcanics. Synmineralization breccias occur at the intrusivewall rock contact. Post mineralization breccias are also present. The bulk of the mineralization occurs in intrusive phases, with some hosted by volcanic wallrocks. The deposit displays subhorizontal alteration zonation, from top to bottom, claysericite alunitediasporepyrite (30150m thick), montmorillonitesericitepyrite (4060m), chloriteactinolite (060m), sericitesilica montmorillonite (030m), and silicaalbite sericitechloritemagnetite (>150m). The

alteration geometry may be the product of the superimposition of several hypogene events coupled with the effects of latemineralization intrusions. Remnants of biotitebearing Ksilicate alteration is present, which yielded a KAr age of 2.93Ma. Mineralization at Cabang Kiri has been tested over 400 vertical meters. It is associated with moderate to strong quartz stockwork zones. Increasing potassium feldspar and magnetite alteration with numerous hairline magnetite chalcopyriteborniteveinletstypifymineralization at depth. There is a steady increase in Au values going downward with a corresponding decrease in Cu/Au ratios, from >1 at the top to <0.3 at deeper levels, where gold grades average 2 g/t. Drillingstoppedinthebestore. Minorchalcocite enrichment occurs at higher levels.The geological resource at Cabang Kiri is 103mt @ 0.42% Cu and 0.43 g/t Au. A preliminary feasibility study undertaken in 1982 suggested that the deposit wouldbeamenabletoblockcavemining. At Sungai Mak, a silllike diorite porphyry body is intruded in Lower Member Bilungala Volcanics. Hydrothermal alteration is strongly telescoped with quartzstockworked Ksilicate alteration (quartzmagnetitebiotite) being overprinted by intermediate argillic assemblages (sericiteillite chlorite), which in turn are oblitered by advanced argillic alteration (vuggy silica, alunite, kaolinite, minor native sulphur). Postmineralization brecciascutthedeposit. At least two styles of mineralization are present: i)hypogene,withvariablesupergeneenrichment, associated with the diorite intrusion, and ii) supergene chalcocite in the upper levels, forming an irregular blanket up to 176m thick. The blanket consists of sooty chalcocite with minor covellite and digenite, but pyrite is also common, and chalcopyrite and bornite are present in subordinate amounts. Chalcocite is present on fractures and as disseminated grains, typically coating sulphides. Supergene Cu mineralization is developed best in intensely veined and argillized intrusives with kaolinite and alunite as the dominant alteration minerals. In general the orebody is mushroomlike shaped with a
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geological resource of between 82 Mt @ 0.74% Cu, 0.29 g/t Au and 159 Mt @ 0.69% Cu, 0.27 g/t Au (depending on the search ratio). It is amenabletoopenpitmining. At Kayubulan Ridge, intrusion and host rock composition are similar to those of Sungai Mak. Much of the mineralization is associated with a major pipelike breccia complex that surrounds a weakly mineralized intrusion. Mineralization is also similar to Sungai Mak in that the highest copper grades (>1% Cu) are associated with strongly developed quartz vein stockwork zones at high levels. As at Cabang Kiri, remnants of quartzmagnetitebiotite alteration are also present. The geological resource was estimated to be between 32 Mt @ 0.60% Cu, 0.33 g/t Au and92Mt@0.60%Cu,0.34g/tAu. Intrusions at Cabang Kanan occur as feldspar porphyry dykes. Copper and gold mineralization is hosted both by the dykes and hornfelsed stockworkbearing wallrocks. Mineralized intrusions display weak to moderate potassium silicate alteration of the groundmass, numerous hairline magnetiteKfeldspar veinlets, and chloritized hornblende. Only three holes have been drilled with the best intercept being 138m @0.5%Cuand0.35g/tAu. Gunung Lintah, a relatively new discovery, is a north eastern extension of Cabang Kanan. It is characterized by a high magnetic anomaly wich lies at the intersection of NW and NE trending lineament. Detailed mapping and grid soil sampling has identified a 400x400m zone of quartzsericiteclaychlorite alteration coinciding with copper and gold soil anomalies. Drilling intersected zones of sericitic alteration with quartzstockworksandcoppermineralization. A number of goldbearing quartzveins are present in the southern part of the Tombulilato district, including at Kaidundu, Mamungaa, Mootadaa, and Bilogantunga. These are believed to represent distal manifestations of the porphyry CuAu cluster located further to the north, and are classified as intrusionrelated base metalAu veins (see 4.1.6). The veins are hosted inregionallychloritizedvolcanicsbelongingtothe

Upper Member Bilungala Volcanics, and controlled by N to NE trending steeply dipping faults. Single veins vary from 5cm to 3m in thickness. The best studied prospect is Kaidundu with a total known length of 350m and an average thickness of 2.5 to 3m. Quartz from the main lode is both crystalline and chalcedonic, displaying comb and cockade textures. A typical feature is open vugs, up to several decimeters across lined with coarsegrained, terminated and botryoidal quartz. Adularia is conspicuously absent. Sulphides(<5vol %)consistof pyriteand chalcopyrite with subordinate galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedritetennantite. AuAg tellurides are also present. Free gold fills fractures in pyrite or forms intergrowths with tellurides. Ag/Au ratios are relatively low (0.2312.3). Gold values, up to 127 g/t, average around 33 g/t, and silver values, upto359g/t,areerratic. Narrowveinenvelopes with wall rock fragments are dominated by illite alteration. Primary, liquidrich inclusions in vug filling quartz homogenize at temperatures between 66 and 286 oC with salinities between 0.50.8 wt % NaCl equiv. Primary vaporrich inclusions show similar ranges (172324oC) and average0.2wt%NaClequiv. 4.1.1.5 Tawaredistrict TheTawaredistrictislocatedatthesouthernend of Sangihe island. Its geology and mineralization have been briefly described by Carlile et al. (1990)andBautistaetal.(1998). Mineralization was first discovered in pan concentrates in the Taware drainage in 1986. The discovery was soon followed by a local gold rush involving mining of both rich alluvials and quartz veins. Drilling was undertaken during 19871988 and 19941997 by Muswellbrook EnergyandMineralsandBrexrespectively. The area is underlain by andesitic volcanics, including lapilli tuffs and lavas with minor interbedded sediments, which are intruded by a porphyritic microdiorite stock. The sequence is of probable Miocene age. NW and NE structures dominate. Intersection of these structures
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probably controls the high level emplacement of themicrodioriteporphyry. PorphyrystyleCuAu mineralizationiscentredon the microdiorite stock with peripheral auriferous goldveinsoccurringwithinaradiusof2km.A2.5 by 1.5km clay altered zone (claysilica chloritepyrite) with some local structurally controlled phyllic (silicaclaypyrite) zones characterize the surface alteration. It grades downwards to biotitemagnetite alteration. Cu Au mineralization is hosted in diorite porphyry and andesitic volcanics, occurring as pyrite and chalcopyrite disseminations and stringer zones, quartzchalcopyritepyrite veinlets, and quartz carbonate veins with pyrite and base metal sulphides. Highest grade zones (0.471.97 ppm Au, 0.14%0.38% Cu) are largely confined to the intrusive contact. Available evidence suggests that the mineralized body is small (ca 200mx200m). Multiple intrusions are absent, whichmayexplainthelowCutenor. The peripheral mineralization appears to be controlled by the NEtrending fracture set. It occurs in silicarich phyllic zones (Kupa, Sede and Mou) and mesoepithermal quartz veins enveloped by silicaclay alteration zones (Taware Ridge and Kelapa). The latter are characterized by massive to simple banded (dogtooth) textured quartz, indicating a high temperature of formation. Gold mineralization is hosted in sheeted quartz veins and stockworks associated with minor pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite and sulphosalts. It appears to be erratically distributed and is overall of low tenor. However, in the oxidized zone supergene enrichment has occurred, resulting in the commonpresenceoffreegold. 4.1.1.6 Comments The Pliocene porphyry systems are characterized by strong development of advanced argillic alteration, which locally may be associated with ore grade mineralization. Lowder and Dow (1978)suggestthatthisisrelatedtothepresence of albite and montmorillonite instead of potash feldspar, to the dioritic nature of the host rocks, and to unusually acid ore fluids. Advanced argillic

alteration is absent in the Miocene porphyry systems, which have similar host rocks and commonlycontainalbite.Apossibleexplanation is that these systems have been eroded to a deeper level (Lubis et al., 2011), either during or afterthelatestMiocenetectonicevent. The Pliocene porphyry systems, especially the ones in the Tombulilato district, are better mineralizedthantheMiocenesystems.Carlileand Mitchell (1994) note that at Tombulilatodioritic stocks intrude older basaltic and andesitic volcanicrocksofMioceneagetolevelsjustbelow or just above an unconformity with overlying Pliocenedaciticvolcanicsthatarecoevalwiththe mineralized stocks. They point out that such a relationship suggests that the generation of (better mineralized) porphyry coppergold systems may be dependent on the ascent of magma to a high level, at or near the base of eroding andesiticdacitic volcanoes, as proposed bySillitoe(1990). Lowder and Dow (1978) observe that field evidence indicates that the Tapadaa district is more deeply eroded than the Tombulilato district, which has exposed a shallow plutonic environment where total sulphide contents and metal grades are relatively low due to strong fracture control on mineralization, erratic or patchy nature of the hydrothermal system, and dilution by younger intrusions. The intrusive stocks at Tombulilato are interpreted to form cupolas above Tapadaatype intrusions. This interpretation is supported by the presence of higher temperature minerals at Tapadaa with respect to Tombulilato, i.e. albite instead of montmorillonite, and andalusite or corundum instead of pyrophyllite or diaspore. The high level stocks at Tombulilato had a channeling and concentrating effect on hydrothrmal circulation, which at this higher structural level provided a greater opportunity to mix with meteoric fluids (LowderandDow,1978). A marked increase in Au/Cu ratios with depth observed at Cabang Kiri has also been reported from some other porphyry deposits in Indonesia, e.g. Grasberg (Van Nort et al., 1991) and Batu Hijau(Meldrumetal.,1994).Moreunusualisthe
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common presence of tourmaline at Bulagidun, which is generally lacking in porphyry deposits in the southwestern Pacific region, in marked contrast to Cordilleran porphyry Cu deposits in the western Americas. Bulagidun possibly formed from magmas which incorporated more subducted boron than is usual in the region or theboronmayhavebeenextractedbymagmaor fluid interaction with compositionally distinctive islandarc crust (Silltoe, 1994). Tourmaline is also present at Masabo in Western Sulawesi and Mamut in Sabah (see 4.2.1.3). In all three cases associated intrusive rocks are relatively potassic rich,whichmaysuggestapossibleconnection. 4.1.2 HighSulphidation Epithermal AuAg Mineralization Four significant highsulphidation (HS) epithermal clusters are present in the Northern Sulawesi Province, three in the North Arm (Motomboto, Lanut and Bakan ) and the fourth on Sangihe Island(BinabaseBawone). 4.1.2.1 Motomboto(Figure11) Mineralization in this area, which forms part of the Tombulilato district (Figure 9) is represented by a highsulphidation Lepanto style CuAu system, located 1.5km west of Sungai Mak, consisting of three deposits (Motomboto East and West, and Tulabolo). It was initially identified by Kennecott in 1977 during followup stream sediment sampling in the Tombulilato district, which led to an outcrop of silicapyrite rock anomalous in Cu and Au was. Enargitetype mineralization was recognized by Utah geologists in 1980 and followed up by BHP starting in 1984. Between then and 1996, 8378m of drilling was done with the best intersection obtained from the last hole (51m @ 1.6% Cu, 11.2 g/t Au, 75.6 g/t Ag), which intersected a blind ore zone under 250m of postmineralization cover at the Tulaboloprospect(BHPMineralsSulawesi,1997). The Motomboto CuAuAg system has been described by Perello (1994). It is located at the contact between an Upper Pliocene hornblende dacite porphyry, probably an endogenous dome, and strongly altered volcanics. Parts of the

mineralized bodies and associated alteration are buried by postmineralization Pinogu Volcanics, whichareupto250mthick. Mineralization at Motomboto, which has been dated at 1.89 Ma (KAr; alunite), is associated withamultiphasehydrothermalbrecciacomplex, with a strike length of >4.5km and a width locally exceeding 250m. A central zone of vuggy silica with an average width of 150m is surrounded progressively by zones of quartzalunite (0 120m), quartzkaolinite, and chloriteepidote calcite. Several stages of brecciation and silicification have affected the central zone. Pyrite, enargite and luzonite are locally major components (up to 15%), occurring a disseminationsorasvugfillings.Nativesulphuris locallypresent. Oregrade CuAuAg mineralization is restricted to the silicified cores, whereas the quartzalunite and quartzkaolinite assemblages are characterized by lower gold values, typically <1 ppm. Two main styles of mineralization have been recognized: i) multiphase, sulphide cemented breccias with significant Cu, Au, Ag, and locally Zn, values; and ii) vuggy silica zones with AuAgCu. The former style dominates at Tulabolo. The breccias constitute linear features, 200m to 700m long. Typically, they contain clasts of residual silica, finegrained pyriteenargite intergrowths and earlierformed hydrothermal breccias. These are cemented by several phases of pyrite (earliest phase), galena, sphalerite, enargite, luzonite, and marcasite. Covellite is an important constituent. The second style of gold mineralization occurs in irregular ledges of residual silica and pervasively silicified rocks, and is characterized by enargite, covellite, scorodite, and limonite assemblages. The latter two minerals developed by supergene oxidation of coppersulfosaltsandpyriterespectively. 4.1.2.2 Lanutdistrict(I) TheLanutdistrictcomprisesalargehydrothermal system, measuring 7x9km, which straddles a major NWstriking arctransverse strikeslip fault zone, 30km long and 4km wide, which has been referred to as the Kotamobagu Shear Zone
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(Surmont et al., 1994) or Inobonto Fault (Flindell, 2003). The district contains several styles of mineralization (Figure 12) : 1) highsulphidation epithermal Au, including the Riska and Effendi deposits (discussed below), 2) intermediate sulphidation epithermal Au, including Tobongan and Lanut (4.1.3.3.), 3) porphyry Cu; and 4) an activemetalrichhotspringsystem. Tobongan and Lanut were mined by the Dutch during the early part of the 20th century. The latter deposit became a significant local mining area in the early 1980s. It was investigated by a Placer DomeBHPAntam joint venture from 1986 to 1990, including 4560m of diamond drilling. In 1990, following the joint ventures withdrawal fromthearea,Newmontinitiatedasurveyovera large COW block that included the Lanut district. A number of anomalous areas were identified. Detailed investigations were undertaken between 1998 and 2000, focusingon the Riska and Effendi prospects, which involved 6332m of diamond drilling. A total resource of 14.2 Mt @ 1.5g/tAuand4.5g/tAgwasoutlined,wellbelow the companys minimum target, and consequently the property was divested to Avocet. In the meantime Oropo (previously Flinders Gold NL) investigated Lanut under an agreement with a cooperative of local miners. It withdrew in 2003 and Lanut became part of Avocets holdings. This company focused its activities initially on Riska, which was brought into production in 2004, based on a resource of about 600,000 oz. The same year a resource of 110,000ozwasoutlinedatEffendi. The Kotamobagu Shear Zone cuts through a Late Miocene sequence of shallow marine platform limestone and calcareous, volcaniclastic mudstone, siltstone and sandstone. This is overlain by a Pliocene sequence of subaerial pyroclastic rocks that includes andesitic to dacitic crystallithic tuff, tuff breccia and isolated fluviallyreworked volcanic sandstone and siltstone. This is the dominant unit in the project area and is informally known as the Lanut Sequence. A series of diorite and dacite plugs punctuate the Late MiocenePliocene sequences. PleistoceneRecent dacite ashcrystal tuffs blanketthenortheasternmarginofthefaultzone

and cover a significant portion of the Lanut district. They were erupted from the nearby dormant Ambang volcano and postdate mineralization(Flindell,2003). The Riska deposit (Figure 13) has been described by Nugroho et al. (2005).It is hosted by the Lanut Sequence and consists of a mineralized body, 450m long 350m wide, that comprises mostly silicaalunite assemblages. It has an EN WSW trend reflecting the initial structure that controlled early and more widespread advanced argillic alteration. The body is crosscut by several narrow, 28m wide, 100250m long, verticallydipping,NNEto NStrendingstructurally controlled hydrothermal breccias that served as pathways for magmatic volatiles and the subsequent main phase of alteration and gold deposition.Riska is similar to most high sulphidation deposits in that a core of vuggy, massive silica and silicasulphide assemblages, occurring along feeder structures, is enveloped by silicaalunitesulphidedicketepyrophyllite diaspore alteration that funnels out near the surface and forms a broad alteration halo. The silicaalunite is in turn surrounded by kaolinite illitetoillitesmectiteassemblages. The following sequence of events has been recognized: i) early zoned vuggy silica, silica alunite and intermediate argillic alteration along ENE structures with fine grained pyrite and enargiteluzonite plus gold deposited along feeder structures and favourable lithologies; Au grades range from 0.5 to 2 g/t Au in the feeder zones, and 0.1 to 0.5 g/t Au in the silicaalunite shell; ii) main event consisting of hydrobrecciation and fracturing of the silica alunite cap accompanied by alunite and gold deposition along NNE to NS structures; sub microscopic gold was deposited in pore spaces of tuffs, structural controlled breccias, and in broader alunite >> silica altered wall rock with grades of>10 g/t Au in the breccias, 1.0 to 5.0 g/t Au in the peripheral hydrofractured zones, and 1.0 to 3.0 g/t Au in the outer, aluniterich shells; and iii) intensive but structurally constrained supergeneoxidationandweathering.
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 Figure 11. Motomboto. (A) Simplified geology map; (B) Map showing alteration zonation; (C) Cross section of simplified geology and alteration zonationatTulabeloandMotombotoEast; legendalterationasinFigure10B (modifiedafterPerello,1994)
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Figure 12. Simplified geological map of Lanut district showing location of different styles of mineralization(afterFlindell,2003)

Figure13.Riska.(A)Alterationmap;(B)Crosssection(afterNugrohoetal.,2005)

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Petrographic studies indicate a very high temperature gradient between the lower and upper sections of Riska during the main events, possibly due to the capping effect of the silica alunite zone in the upper part of the deposit. Isotopic characteristics of alunite material indicate a strong magmatic input. A KAr alunite age of 2.09 0.08 Ma indicates that the main eventtookplaceduringtheLatePliocene. High gold values in pitch limonite veins in the oxide zone, the presence of native sulphur at depth, and a broad increase in Au grades at the oxidesulphide zone interface suggest supergene leaching and reprecipitation of gold during the laterevent. In conclusion, Riska follows a similar evolutionary pathway to most high sulphidation deposits, but possess a unique feature in that the main mineralization event is characterized by alunite dominant alteration deposited along structures that are of adifferent orientation than those that controlledtheearlyalterationphase. 4.1.2.3 Bakandistrict(Figure14) The Bakan district was initially identified during a regional survey carried out by a Placer Dome BHPAntam team in the late 1980s as a broad zone of scattered AuAgPbZn(Cu) stream sediment anomalies associated with vuggy silica alteration. These were followed up by Newmont in1995,whichledtothediscoveryofseveralsub cropping silica ledges. Detailed investigations (mapping, soil and trench sampling, and various geophysical surveys) resulted in the identification of nine mineralized sites. Between 1996 and 1998 five of these were drill tested (17 holes totaling 2008m). Although several significant gold mineralization intervals were intersected Newmont decided to shift its activities to the Lanut district as Bakans perceived potential did notmeetitscorporateobjectives. Avocet acquired the tenement in 2002 and following the commencement of developing the Riska Mine in North Lanut, began exploration in the Bakan district targeting a similar style of mineralization, i.e. oxide highsulphidation gold.

The companys programme consisted of two phases, target generation and resource definition. By 2007 a small high grade Au resource was outlined at the Osela prospect and a larger resource, but with lower grade, at the Durianprospect,totaling16.87Mt@0.96g/tAu. A comprehensive discussion of Bakans discovery and exploration history is presented by Harjana andSweeney(2011).Theirreportformsthebasis ofthefollowingsummaryofthedistrictsgeology andmineralization. The geology consists of a thick sequence of Middle to Upper Miocene marine to submarine sedimentary rocks that is overlain and/or interfingers with andesitic lava flows. These rocks are intruded by stocks and dykes of diorite. Unconformably overlying the Miocene basement is the informally named Bakan Sequence that consists of a series of PlioPleistocene subaerial dacitic pyroclastic rocks and coeval dacitic stocks or domes. During the waning stage of the felsic volcanism, diatreme and hydrothermal breccias were emplaced and the dacitic rocks were reworked. Renewed volcanism during the Pleistocene to early Recent times resulted in the formation of tuffaceous laharic breccias and debris slide breccias. Continued uplift of the district in recent times led to the development of raised alluvial gravels, outwash fans and extensivesloperubble. The structure of the district is dominated by a conjugate set of NWSE and NNESSW faults with subvertical dips. These constituted the main channelways for the hydrothermal fluids. High sulphidation alteration assemblages hosted by structures of different orientation form zones that coalesce into a large area at Bakan, measuring 2.5x3.5km. Structurally controlled vuggy silica cores grade outwards into silica alunite, kaolinitealunite, and illitesmectite alterationassemblages. Disseminated gold and silver mineralization is largely restricted to the silica core zones in the upper parts of the alteration system, where it is associated with pyrite, whereas enargite and covellite are found at depths in some of the prospects. The NNESSW structures, which
34

control mineralization at Durian and Osela, appear to host higher grade, especially where intersected by NWSE faults, and at Osela also, where the structure bends to the northeast at its northern end, possibly reflecting a dilational zone.At Osela,goldappearstohavebeenadded by a later phase of chalcedonic veining and extremely finegrained quartz deposition typical of intermediate and lowsulphidation epithermal styles. Gold enrichment has also occurred by supergene processes, as evidenced by the presence of gold in vugs and cavities in association with goethite, limonite and supergeneclays. 4.1.2.4 BawoneBinabasedistrict TheBawone andBinabasedepositsare located in the southern part of Sangihe Island. The first record of mineral exploration on the island dates back to 1987 when Muswellbrook undertook reconnaissance exploration in the southern part. This resulted in the discovery of Au, Ag and Ba bearing rock float on the coast at Binabase. Results of extensive soil and outcrop sampling and limited geophysical survey were used to develop drill targets. A 5000m diamond drilling programme was completed between 1989 and 1993, which mainly tested targets at Binabase and Bawone, and to a lesser extent, at Salurang. This work led to the discovery of gold mineralization at Binabase and Bawone. Ashton Mining Ltd, which had taken over the property from Muswellbrook in 1990, relinquished the area in 1994. Limited trenching was undertaken by an Indonesian company in 2006. The following year East Asia Mineral Corporation commenced drilling at Bawone and Binabase, in part testing anomalies identified from an IP dipoledipole survey. The two deposits are estimated to contain a total inferred resource of oxidematerialof11.3Mtwithagradeof1.27g/t Au and 20.23 g/t Ag. In addition Bawone contains about 6 Mt of sulphide material grading 1.12 g/t Au and 0.97 g/t Ag, and Binabase 10 Mt withagradeof0.49g/tAuand13.60g/tAg. Descriptions of the geology and mineralization Binabase and Bawone have been provided by Swift and Alwan (1990), Corbett and Leach

(1998), Bautista et al. (1998), WilliamsJones (2008), Wisanggono et al (2011), and Sangihe GoldCorporation(2011). Sangihe Island is composed of volcanic rocks eruptedfromatleastfourvolcaniccentres,which became progressively younger in a NNW direction. These centres include the active Awu volcano in the north of the island, the Tahuna caldera immediately to the south of Awu, the extinct Tamako volcano in the centre of the island, and the deeply eroded Taware volcanic centre in the south. The Binabase and Bawone prospects are located immediately to the east of Tamako. Prominent easttrending structures dissect the area between the volcanoes. Other majorlineamentstrendnorthwestandnortheast. The oldest rocks in the BinabaseBawone arc are andesitic pyroclastics (Binabase Group), which are the main host to alteration and gold mineralization. They are intruded by dykes and high levelstocks of porphyritic andesite and dacite domes. Polymitic breccia intruded the older units and consists of similar material. The youngest lithological units are unconformably overlying basaltic andesite flows and volcaniclastic rocks derived from the Tamako volcano (Tamako Group) and epiclastic and marine sedimentary rocks of the penecontamporaneous Pintareng Formation. The presence of Stegadon fossils in the Pintareng formationindicatesaLatePliocene(2Ma)toLate Pleistocene age. The young unitscontain fragments of hyddrothermally altered volcanic rocks,includingsilicapyritematerial. NNENE trending structures transect southern Sangihe island and control regional alteration pattern. In the BawoneBinabase area, a NNW trending structural corridor is defined by magnetic lineaments. Its subdued topographic expression suggests it may be a grabenlike feature. Mineralization is localized where it intersectsthethroughgoingNEstructures. AtBinabase,fourENEtoNEstrikingzonesofgold mineralization have been identified with a combined overall dimension of 900m x 425m. Both o xi d ea n d s u l p h i d e typ es o f gold
35

zonation, structures and prospect locations (after Figure 14. Map of Bakan district showing alteration HardjanaandSweeney,2011)

deposit(afterSangiheGoldCorporation,2011) Figure15.SchematiccrosssectionthroughtheBinabase

36

 flowmodel(afterCorbettandLeach,1998) Figure16.BawoneBinabase,structuralsettingandfluid

Figure17.SimplifiedgeologicalmapofGunungPanidistrictshowingprospectlocations(afterNewcrest NusaSulawesi,1999)

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mineralization are present. The oxide zone is up to 60m thick, with an abrupt transition to sulphide mineralization. Gold grades commonly exceed 1 g/t. Supergene enrichment played an important role in producing economic precious metal grades. Silver grades increase significantly toward the base of oxidation. At a deeper level, the mineralization is closely associated with pervasive silicapyritebarite alteration zones and brecciation. The breccias consist of +10mm quartzbariterich clasts, pyrite grains and chalcocitebearingpatchessetinapredominantly finegrained quartz groundmass. Common cavities, vugs and veinlets locally contain traces ofchalcopyrite.Inplacesappreciableamountsof Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag are present within, or adjacent to, the zones of gold mineralization. The main gold zone is interpreted to occur as a vertical to subvertical body that flares in the upper levels where oxidation is most intensely developed (Figure15). At Bawone, the gold mineralization is interpreted to occur as a vertical to steeply dipping tabular bodywhich trendsinaNWdirectionoverastrike distance of 300m and has a maximum width of around 75m. It is hosted within breccia zones in pyritealunitequartzbarite altered rocks. Angular to subangular quartz and sulphiderich clasts are embedded in a grey to greenishgrey groundmass. Pyrite is the most abundant alteration mineral followed by quartz, clay, barite and marcasite. Massive pyrite is cut by thin bariteenargitepyrite veins. Alunite has been confirmed by XRD analyses. Significant amounts of copper are associated with goldrich intervals, andZn,Pb,AsandAgaremoderatelyanomalous. Copper minerals include chalcopyrite, covellite and enargite. Sphalerite is generally Fe poor as indicated by its light yellowish colour. The main mineralized body appears to be zoned with stockworks and breccias surrounded by selvages of claysilicapyritebarite alteration. Wall rock alteration around a nearby diorite porphyry stock consists of a 2.5km x 1.5km zone of claysilica chloritepyrite with some local structurally controlled claysilicapyrite and Kfeldspar quartzsericitepyritebiotite assemblages in areasofquartzchalcopyritepyriteveining.

Early workers, who noted at Binabase the common presence of gypsum and barite (implying a major seawater component to the hydrothermal fluids), a strong stratabound control, and the very fine nature of the sulphides with colloform and framboidal textures( indicating rapid deposition), tentatively interpreted the mineralization to have been deposited from volcanicrelated seafloor hydrothermal exhalations (Swift and Alwan, 1990; Garwin, 1990). Carlile and Mitchell (1994) drew a comparison with the VMS deposits on Wetar Island, noting that both appeared to have a highsulphidation component. Corbett and Leach (1998) and the geological staff of East Asia Minerals subsequently proposed a high sulphidation epithermal origin for the mineralization on the grounds that pyrite is largely secondary in origin, alunite and kaolinite are important alteration minerals, and high gold grades are associated with the occurrence of enargite. Detailed core logging at Bawone by Williams Jones (2008)hasshown that in goldenriched zones finegrained crystal tuff isreplaced by very finegrained pyrite and minor to subordinate silica, varying from incipient pyritization along fractures to complete replacement of the tuff by pyritequartz assemblages. This alteration was followed by fracturing and brecciation, partial infilling of the remaining open spaces by barite pyriteenargite assemblages, and the formation of veins up to 0.5cm thick, containing the same mineral assemblages. In only partly pyritized rocks, crystal fragments, and commonly also groundmass, have been partially replaced by kaolinite and alunite. The fact that pervasively pyritized rock devoid of later brassy pyrite and bariteenargitepyrite generally contains >1 g/t Au suggests that much of the gold mineralization wasearly.However,thecoincidenceofhigh gold grades in intervals with bariteenargitepyrite in pores and veins impliesthat there was also significant introduction of gold late in the evolutionofthehydrothermalsystem.Thegoldis either in the structure of the pyrite or as nanoparticles that are not visible under a high power electron microscope (WilliamsJones, writtencomm.,2011).
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 Wisanggono et al. (2011) note two phases of barite fracture filling crosscutting silicasulphide alteration. Barite is typically massive to weakly crystallineintheearlyphaseandaccompaniedby light coloured spalerite, galena and minor chalcopyrite, whereas the later phase is coarse crystalline and lacks base metal sulphides. Decreasing amounts of barite fracture fill with depthsupportaseawatersource. The primary sulphidegold mineralization and alteration at Binabase are quite similar to those observed at Bawone, with the main difference being that the former deposit contains considerably more silica. This indicates that both deposits owe their origin in large part to the same hydrothermal processes (WilliamsJones, 2008), an interpretation that is consistent with themodelproposedbyCorbettandLeach(1998). These authors infer a magmatic source for the high sulphidation system localized on the margin of a NNW graben by the intersection of through going NNE structures, and dilation of ESE structures by sinistral rotation on NNW structure (Figure 16). Fluid upflow was centred on Bawone with hot magmatic fluids having been derived from the vicinity of a nearby diatreme breccia. The fluids flowed laterally along dilatant structures to the northwest (Binabase) and southeast (Salurang). The model explains the declining metal grades and alteration intensity from upflow to outflow. Mineral assemblages also indicate a distal relationship of Salurang to Bawone, while Binabase is marginal to the fluid upflow zone (Bautista et al., 1998). The local sharp contacts between residual silica, silica alunite and peripheral clay alteration are indicative of a high level setting/distal relationship to the inferred magmatic source. The abundant gypsum and barite suggest that incursion of seawater could have occurred, possibly from the NW. A seawater source is supported by the decrease in the amount of baritefillwithdepth(Wisenggoroetal.,2011). In a recent paper Wisanggono et al. (2011) suggest that the mineralization is not of high sulphidation origin, but more characteristic of low/intermediatesulphidation epithermal

mineralization for the following two reasons: i) the alunite is supergene in nature, and ii) the vuggy silica is not a residual primary product, butratherrepresentsoxidizedboxworkremnants of silicapyrite altered breccia. They suggest that the interaction of seawater with possibly weakly acid fluids may have had a buffering effect. This interpretationisnotsharedbyA.WilliamsJones (written comm., 2011) who comments: The alunite is clearly hypogene and intimately associated with auriferous pyrite, and our evaluation of changes in bulk rock chemistry shows clearly that silica was leached during hypogene alteration, consistent with the presenceofvuggysilica. 4.1.2.5 Comments Corbett and Leach (1998) categorize high sulphidation(HS)systemsas: Porphyryrelated Lithologicalcontrolled Structurallycontrolled The latter two categories are endmembers of a continuum with many systems displaying a combination or variation between these two elements. A typical example of a porphyryrelated system is the high sulphidation alterationmineralization at Cabang Kiri. It shows a style of alteration that is indicative of progressive cooling and decrease in fluid pH away from the porphyry intrusion. It is initially dominated by andalusite, than pyrophyllite+diaspore, and most distally, alunite+kaolinite. Significant CuAu mineralization occurs in andalusitepyrophyllite zones, but does not extend out into the alunite bearingassemblages(LowderandDow,1978). Motomboto can be classified as a structurally controlled system. Alteration and mineralization are apparently controlled by rift faults parallel to the Neogene arc (Kavalieris et al., 1992). Based on the limited information available the Bakan deposits are probably also dominantly structurally controlled. Riska and Binabase Bawone display aspects of both lithological and
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structural control. Structural control is provided by dilatent structures and lithological control by permeable rock units such as pyroclastics. Hydrothermal breccias appear to be a common feature, and diatremes have been reported from MotombotoandBinabaseBawone. A (spatial) association of highsulphidation deposits with porphyry copper systems has been commonly observed (e.g. Sillitoe, 1983) and in recent years a genetic connection has been more firmly established (e.g. Heinrichs et al., 2004). In the case of the Northern Sulawesi HS systems, such association is most obvious at Cabang Kiri. Motomboto displays a clear spatial relationship to a porphyry copper system, 1.5 km east at Sungai Mak. Similar ages shared by the two systemssuggestthattheymaybealsogenetically related. Alternatively, a blind porphyry Cu body may be present at depth. Perello (1994) proposes a model whereby one or more hydrothermal systems developed around several quartz diorite porphyry stocks, about 3 Ma ago, which was accompanied by porphyry CuAu mineralization. Following collapse of the hydrothermal system(s), ca 2.352.00 Ma, enargitebearing CuAuAg formedaround 1.9 Ma at Motomboto. Weak porphyry Cu mineralization/alteration has also been observed in the other three HS epithermal Au districts, but its relationship to the HS mineralization is unclear. Corbett an Leach (1998) note that HS systems in the southwest Pacific are generally remarkably low in silver, unlike those in the eastern Pacific. Motomboto appears to be an exception (Table 4). The authors also note that in most HS systems coppergold mineralization postdates the formation of silicaaluniteclay alteration. At Motomboto, the timing and location of the gold dposition is known only poorly. At least one phase of enargiteluzonite mineralization posesses a good correlation between Cu and Au, but EDS scanning failed to detect gold in the copper minerals, pyrite and marcasite; limited metallurgical test work suggests it may be free (Perello, 1994). As we have seen, at Riska the main gold mineralizing event postdates enargiteluzonite depsition, and is accompanied

by alunite. For BinabaseBawone two scenarios have been proposed: the main gold mineralizing event is early (WilliamsJones, 2008; see above) or took place during a later phase of silica, pyrite and minor chalcopyrite deposition (Wisenggoro etal.,2011). 4.1.3 IntermediateSulphidation Epithermal Au AgMineralization The category of intermediatesulphidation (IS) epithermal AuAg mineralization is well represented and includes (bonanzastyle) vein systems (e.g. Bolangitang, Lanut) associated, at least spatially, with andesiticdacitic volcanics, and mineralization related to felsic volcanic domediatreme complexes (G.Pani and Tototopo). Mineralization styles include stockwork,disseminated,veinandbrecciahosted gold mineralization. Veins and stockworks consist of commonly colloform banded quartz adularia carbonate. Most vein systems have very low sulphide and base metal contents (e.g. Bolangitang and Lanut), whereas a few carry a higher sulphide and base metal content (e.g. Doup)(Carlileetal.,1990;vanLeeuwen,1994). Pearson an Caira (1997) note numerous mineral occurrences hosted by hydrothermal breccias, which are commonly associated with rhyodacite dacite intrusions and contain gold and/or base metals. They occur in six ENEtrending mineralized corridors that are defined by Plio Pleistocene regional dilatant zones. The authors recognize two metal associations: CuPbZn and AsSbPbZnMo, characterized by chalcopyrite covellitegalena sphalerite and tetrahedrite tennantitemolybdenite assemblages respectively.Thebrecciascommonlyoccurinthe unconformity zone between Pliocene subaerial felsic volcanics and Miocene andesitediorite basement. The unconformity has provided a reservoir for groundwaters, which have been superheated by high level felsic intrusions and mixed with magmatic fluids, forming extensive argillic and advanced argillic alteration zones.The breccias are common along volatilerich apophyses and margins of larger Pliocene felsic intrusivebodies(e.g.Buata).
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 Table4SelectedfeaturescharacteristicsofAuAgsystemsinNorthernSulawesiexamples
Deposit Name Bawone Binabase Bolangitang Doup GunungPani Lanut Mesel Motomboto Paleleh Class high sulphid. interm sulphid. interm sulphid. interm sulphid. interm sulphid. sediment hosted high sulphid. intrusion related BMAu high sulphid. interm sulphid. low sulphid. interm sulphid. DepositStyle qtzpyba bx;baenvns qtzcarbvn qtzcarbsulphvns; replacement qtzvns, dissem, fractures,bx qtzstwk; fracture dissm,bx replacement; minor qtzvns hydroth,bx,vns qtzvns&bxzones HostRocks Ag/Au ratio andesitic tuff & tuff 1:1 breccia 8:1 2:1 <1 <0.5 25:1 1:1 MetalSignature Age(Ma) Au,Ag,Cu ?Pliocene Resource Mineralogy py (cpcoven sph); Au in pyrite lattice Au as electrum minorpy&BM pygasph(cpy) Au as electrum & nativeforminpy Free Au minor py, cpy,bo py,aspy,marc Alteration alkaobapy 27.3 Mt @ 0.95 g/t Au, 13.6 g/t Ag Au,Ag Pliocene 4 Mt @ 2.72 g/t Cu,Pb,Zn Au,21g/tAg Au,Ag,As MMiocene 17 Mt @ 2.15 g/t Cu,Pb,Zn Au Au,As,Sb Pliocene ~3.2 9.9 Mt @ 1.57 g/t (HR) Au Au(Ag,Cu,Pb) MMiocene 19 Mt @ 1.8 g/t Au Au, As, Sb, Hg, MMiocene 8.8 Mt @ 7.10 g/t Tl Au(premining) Au,Ag,Cu,As Pliocene 3.5 Mt @ 1.5% 0.841.89(al) Cu,4.0g/tAu Au,Ag,Pb,Zn LateMiocene 1 Mt @ 6.2 g/t Au, 5 g/t Ag (pre mining) Au,Ag,Cu Pliocene 1 Mt @ 1.5 g/t Au (premining) Au,Ag,(Cu) ?Pliocene 2.2 Mt @ 1.3 g/t Au Au, As, Sb, Hg, Pliocene 15.5 Mt @ 3.4 g/t Mo 1.72.7(HR) Au, 8 g/t Ag (all 1.82.2(ad) deposits) Au,As,Sb,(Pb) Pliocene 5.4Mt@3g/tAu

subvolcanicandesite qtzdiorite,sedrocks rhyodacitevolcanics; domediatremecomplex interbeddedvolcanics&se dimentaryrocks limestone, jasperiod rocks andesiticvolcanics diorite & volcanics andesite

qtzillad; chl epipy serillcarbad 1) qtzadser 2) chlser 1) qtzadill 2) chlillpy

pyenluz, native 1) qtzalpy Au 2) kaochl pypoga(cpy qtzillchl sph) yyenluz py(cpy) qtzal(dick pyrophdiasp) qtzclay

Riska Tanoyan TokaTindung

hydrothermalbx; fractures,dissem qtzchaldvns qtzchaldad vns Qtz

andesiticpyroclastics andesiticbx/aggl.

3:1 1:1 2:1

stk, andesiticvolcaniclastics

Tototopo West

rhyodacitevolc; dome diatremecomplex

Au as electrum & qtzadchlill native form; Ag Sesulphides,py Au as electrum & qtzadillpy native form; py (aspystibsphga)

Source:vanLeeuwenandPieters(2011) Abbreviations:seeTable3

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 4.1.3.1 GunungPanidistrict(Figure17) The Pani district, located 120km west of Gorontalo and 10km inland from the southern coastoftheNortharm,coversa120km2areaand encompasses 11 separate prospect areas. It is defined by a >0.19 g/t Au in 80# stream sediment anomaly that follows an EW axis coincident with a major arc parallel structure (PT Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi, 1999). The centre of the district is occupied by the Pani Ridge prospect. As mentioned earlier the district has a long history of gold exploration and mining activity (alluvial and hard rock), starting around the turn of the 18th century. Sampling of old Dutch undergroundworkingsbyNewmontin19671969 yielded Au values in the 1.2 to 13.4 g/t range. Between 1973 and 1993 systematic exploration was undertaken in the district by Endeavour Resources, Kennecott, Utah and BHP, which included surface sampling, drilling and the excavation of 3 adits. BHP calculated a resource of 6Mt @ 2.3 g/t Au. In 1994, mining rights were granted to a local cooperation (KUD) over the central part of the area (Pani Ridge). Two years latertheKUDsignedatechnicalcooperationwith PT Pertiwi Nusa Mega, which in turn entered into a JV agreement with Paramount Ventures and Finance, and in 1998 with Azure Resources, subsequently renamed Pencari Mining Corporation. The property was acquired by Pan Asia Resources (recently renamed One Asia Resources) in 2009. A forestry permit was recently obtained and drilling is expected to commenceinlate2011. In the meantime, the area surrounding the KUD became part of Newcrests COW. Between 1992 and 1999, when it withdrew from Indonesia, the company carried out an aeromagnetic/ radiometric survey, regional stream sediment sampling and detailed followup work, which outlined 15 prospects, 6 of which were drill tested. The area was subsequently taken over by Avocet in 2007, but the company did not carry out any work. (In 2011 Avocet sold its properties inNorthernSulawesitoJSM).

The geology and mineralization of the Pani district have been discussed by Kavalieris (1984), Kavalieris et al. (1984;1990), Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi (1999), Pearson and Caira (1999), Walters(1999)andPooley(2004). The Pani district is composed of a rhyodacitic diatreme and flow dome complex of Pliocene age, measuring 6kmx15km, which represents an eroded volcanic edifice emplaced on a Miocene dioritic and granodioritic basement. It is located in the southeast quadrant of a large caldera structure. Early dacitic dykes show a strong NE orientation. Extensive development of intrusive breccia bodies occurred along with synor post mineralintrusiverhyodacitedomes. The district is bounded by NWtrending right lateral strikeslip faults, about 60km long, which may have resulted from the collision of the Northern Sulawesi arc with the continental edge or fragments of the Australian Plate during the MiocenePliocene. These NW structures control the distribution of the Pliocene rhyodacitic volcanics at the southern portion of the district. However secondary conjugate NNE and WNW tensional structures appear to effect the localization of the intrusivehosted and veinstyle mineralization. The Gunung Pani Dome complex was emplaced at the intersection of these two fault trends. It is surrounded by three late dome complexesandassociatedfragmentalvolcanics. The volcanic stratigraphy of the area consists of a porphyritic rhyodacite lava dome and coeval interbedded pyroclastic breccias and tuff. Three main rock units have been recognized: i) polymict breccias, which represent the oldest unit, showing textural features that suggest explosive fragmentation in a central vent environment; ii) rhyodacitic lapilli tuff, which is the most widespread unit covering mostly the flanks of the dome ridges; and iii) porphyritic rhyodacite, believed to represent apophyses fromashallowendogenouslavadome. Three main alteration assemblages have been mapped at Pani Ridge: i) silicaadulariasericite/illite (silicification); ii)
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sericite/illitesilicasenderite (argillization), and iii) chlorite sericite/illitepyrite (chloritization). Silicification is characterized by pervasive silica replacement of the rhyodacite groundmass, and locally as quartz overgrowths of fractured phenocrysts and recrystallization of fractured phenocrysts. Primatic quartzadularia fills open spaces in fractures and vugs. Argillic alteration is pervasive in pyroclastic units and reflects the increasing invasion of meteoric fluids in the hydrothermal system as the rhyodacite ascended towards the near surface. Chloritization is the earliest alteration event following alkali metasomatism that accompanied crystallization and cooling of the rhyodacite lava. It is commonly present in the core of the dome complex. Gold mineralization at Pani Ridge is hosted by silicasericite altered porphyritic rhyodacite and associated pyroclastics as fracture and breccia fillings, quartzadularialimonite veins, and as disseminations in permeable volcanic rocks and at contacts. Gold occurs as electrum as late rims on or intergrowths with pyrite. In the oxidized zone, pyrite is altered to limonite, and supergene gold occurs in fractures and drusy veins. Significant supergene enrichment has taken place. The mineralized zone is >1000m long and about 400m wide, following the general outcrop patterns of the porphyritic rhyodacite and the dominantstructuraltrends. The gold mineralization is controlled by WNW extensional fractures and along NNE millimeter wide, but closelyspaced fractures. Lithological control is shown by pyritelimonite fillings in vugs, quartzadularia along fractured wall rocks on the margins of silicified rhyodacite, and in the matrix of hydrothermal breccias and permeable volcanic rocks. The pyroclastic and rhyodacite intrusive contacts also exert strong lithological control on the mineralization, probably because of hydrofracturing along the margins due to escaping fluids from the intrusive. The primary control of mineralization at Pani Ridge is a NNE trend, with a series of silicified and nonsilicified flow banded units that have a shallow westerly dip away from the ridge. Intersection with three

NWtrending structural zones crossing Pani Ridge may control the location of high grade shoots. Recent interpretations as a result of new 3D geological modeling indicate the possibility of stackedsheetsofmineralization. On a districtwide scale mineralization and alteration are associated with a wide, late crackle breccia and fracture event that commonly hosts drusy quartzlined cavities, they occur in zones of strong structural control, such as around the margins of diatremes and along throughgoing faults. Quartzillite alteration is pervasive with broad haloes of adularia. The AuAg epithermal adulariasericite system is transitional at depth into a base metalcarbonate system. Late domes arefreshordisplayonlyweakalteration. Goldoccurrencescanbedisseminatedoroccurin facture and vein stockworks, microveining, and traction breccias. High grades are focused in hydrothermal breccias, shears, quartz veins, and where rhyodacite dykes cut basement. Broad, lowgrade drill intersections of gold mineralizationarefoundinporphyritic rocksnear the margins of diatreme bodies and their concentric ring fractures. The Pani Ridge deposit occurs within big blocks of rhyodacite hosted within the large central diatreme. The phreatic breccias themselves are poorly mineralized, probably because their high clay content has renderedthemvirtuallyimpermeable. Stronglyanomalousantimonycoincideswithhigh gold. Elevated base metal values occur in basement rocks, in deeper epithermal levels within the rhyodacite, and in carbonate veins. There is a zonation from higher base metals in theNWtohighSbandAsinthesouthandeast. 4.1.3.2 Tototopodistrict(Figure18) The area is located 55km west of Gorontalo and measures 13km x 8km. It was explored by New Hope between 1987 and 1991. Their work located narrow, lowgrade NEtrending quartz veins in the upper part of the Tototopo drainage (Lalunga and Motebo prospects). Newcrest re assessed the district between 1994 and 1996, recognizing that it is underlain by a felsic caldera
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complex. The work was concentrated on the Motebo and Lalunga prospects where 14 holes (2427m) were drilled with as best intercept 86m @0.6g/t.Subsequent moredetailed mappingat Tototopo West in 1996 identified narrow Au bearingquartzadulariaveins.A9holes(3021m) scout drilling program was undertaken in 1998 to test the depth extensions of the veins and the presence of conceptual large tonnage unconformityrelated disseminated gold mineralization similar to the McDonald gold deposit in Montana, USA. Further work was carried out, including an IP/resistivity survey to definefollowupdrillingtargets.Soonafterwards Newcrest withdrew from Sulawesi. Renewed exploration was undertaken by Avocet in 2007/8, which outlined an Inferred Mineral Resource of 5.4Mt@3g/tAuattheBundulipuprospect. The following summary of the geology and mineralization of the Tototopo district is largely based on reports by PT Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi (1999), Pearson and Caira (1999), Santos et al. (1999),andBudimanandHardjana(2011). The Tototopo district is centred on a dacite volcanic complex considered to be contemporaneous with the Early Pliocene Pani Volcanics. It unconformably overlies a Miocene basement consisting of andesitic volcanics intruded by a polyphasal batholith (granodiorite quartzdioritediorite), which contains earlier porphyry CuAuMo style mineralization. The dacitic volcanics include subaerial pyroclastics and lavas and are accompanied by epiclastics. The sequence is intruded by high level rhyodacite dykes and stocks and cut by associated diatreme breccias. Surface outflow from the volcanic system deposited sinters. These are closely associated with lacustrine sediments, which are strongly silicified (interpreted as silica caps). Hydrothermal breccia boulders are found on top of a diatreme body. All of the above rocks are flanked by young sediments and an extensive dacite pyroclastic cover collectively marking an ancientventareawithintheTototopocaldera. EW to ESEtrending arcparallel fault corridors transect the district and are cut by NW to NNW trending arcnormal faults, one of which bounds

the western flank of the caldera. A major arc parallel structure forms the northern margin of the district. Broad zones of silicaclay alteration with associated quartz veining are emplaced in NE to ENEtrending structures. These are interpreted to be dilational splay faults related to sinistral wrenching of the regional fault fabric, and to roughly define the boundaries of a pull apart basin that played an important role in the deposition of the pyroclasticepiclastic pile, and emplacement of diatreme and auriferous breccia veinzones. Zones of epithermal quartz stockwork straddle the unconformity between the Pliocene volcanic complex and Miocene basement within zones of quartzilliteadulariapyrite alteration. At least three broad zones are present, namely Tototopo West, Lalunga and Motebo. Low grade gold and silver mineralization with higher grade patches is present in association with minor base metals and molybdenum in the stockworks at the Motebo and Lalunga prospects. Thousands of local miners became active on these prospects in 1996. At Tototopo West, a quartz+illiteadulariabarite alteration affects all rock types except the younger pyroclastic cones/domes and dacite dykes. These are also the most common gangue minerals occurring with the auriferous breccia veins. Steam heated alteration consisting of kaolinite dickitealunite and displaying vuggy leached surfaces occur in the area of hydrothermal breccia boulders. This alteration assemblage and the presence of sinter indicate the upper levels of an epithermal vein system. Quartz, illite/smectite, ankerite, chloriteepidote alteration occurs at depth and peripheraltotheveinfield. Mineralization at Tototopo West includes diatremebreccia, vein style and unconformity related dissemination style. The former style occurs in steeplydipping quartz veins and veinlet stockworks concentrated at the edge of the diatreme. Gold is present in the form of native gold and electrum in several generations of gold bearing veins. The early mineralization is associated with sphalerite, barite, galena, chalcopyrite and stibnite as cement and cavity filling,whereasthelatermineralizationoccursas
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 map of Tototopo district Figure 18. Simplified geological (modifiedafterBudimanandHardjana, 2011)

Figure19.Diagram showing theevolution of the Tototopo West epithermalgoldsystem(modified afterSantosetal.,1999)

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Figure 20. Simplified geological map of Doup district showing prospectlocations(modifiedafterPorter,1997)

of Toka Tindung district showing Figure 21. Simplified geological map prospectlocations(modifiedafterAngeles,2001)

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cement and is associated with quartz, pyrite and arsenopyrite. Fluid inclusion studies yielded homogenization temperatures of 221246o C and 0.701.04 wt % NaCl eq. The primary fluid inclusions are generally vaporrich and CO2 bearing. These findings combined with the occurrence of hypogene hematite, bladed barite and late kaolinite, and breccia vein textures are indicative of deposition resulting from fluid mixing and boiling. Several vein systems show a marked increase in gold grade from surface towardsdepth. The Oletanggungaloba, SolupiteNiwu and Bandulipu prospects are interpreted to represent different structural levels in the hydrothermal system. At the highest level is Oletanggunga loba, which is characterized by a thick silica cap, illiteillite/smectitekaolinitesilica alteration and chalcedonic, simple banded veining, features all typical of a low temperature environment of formation. Veins at SolupiteNiwu show multiple banded and dogtooth textures. At Bandulipu, mineralization zones consist of quartzsulphide veins, veinlets and stockworks. Veins are generally thin (< a few cm) and have narrow haloes of silica or phyllic alteration. Gold grades aregenerally>5g/t. There are at least four major events in the development of the Tototopo West epithermal goldmineralizationasshowninFigure19. 4.1.3.3 Lanutdistrict(II) The exploration history and geology have been describedin4.1.2.2.Herewebrieflydescribethe LanutandTobongandeposits. At Lanut (Carlile et al., 1990; Register of Indo Pacific Mining, 2004), gold mineralization is hosted by a Miocene sedimentaryvolcaniclastic sequence and overlying Pliocene volcanic unit, which consists of trachyandesitic lavas and interbedded volcanics. The volcanic section, which is at least 250m thick, hosts most of the mineralization. It is developed as quartzadularia veinveinlets zones enveloped by chloriteillite pyrite haloes and overprinted by kaolinitepyrite marcasite assemblages in the upper part of the

system. The quartz veinveinlets are generally sulphide poor and include green to grey chert veinlets, dog tooth quartz veins and veinlets/stockwork, and quartz cemented wall rock breccia zones. The different styles of quartz veining developed from multiple events of hydraulic fracturing. The richest gold mineralization occurs in quartz veins up to 1.5 m wide, which in places show evidence of episodes of brecciation recemented by later generation of quartz. Fluid inclusion temperatures of 175250o Chavebeenreported.Carlileetal(1990)observe that the contact between the sedimentary volcaniclastic and volcanic units had a significant control on the mineralization with the upper unit forming a cap to fluids focused along faults in the lower units. Lateral flow along the contact produced brecciated, flatdipping veins and a stockworkinthehangingwall. At Tobongan (Carlile et al., 1990), mineralization occurs in quartz veins and stockworks, and as fracture disseminations hosted by andesitic rocks and surrounded by illitepyrite alteration grading outwards to chlorite. As is the case at Lanut, pyriteandbasemetalcontentsarelow. 4.1.3.4 Doupdistrict(Figure20) The Doup district is located about 10km SW of the Mesel district in the Regencies of Mongondow and Minahasa. It hosts four intermediatesulphidation epithermal Au prospects (Doup, Benteng, Tungau, Parabo) and an alluvial Au deposit (Tapabeken). The Dutch carried out both hard rock and alluvial mining in the area. The district was investigated by Placer Dome between 1984 and 1991, including 7252m of diamond drilling at the two main prospects, DoupandBenteng.Aresourceofabout12Mt@ 2.09 g/t Au and 4.4 g/t Ag was outlined. Initial metallurgical testwork suggested that the deeper mineralization, which contains sulphides, may be refractory. The upper 40m of the prospects is oxidized and gold is recoverable using conventional carboninleach technology. Antam subsequently obtained a KP over the area and in 1995 entered into a joint venture with Pacific Wildcat Resources, which conducted further drilling. In late 1996, the company calculated an
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inferred resource totaling 17 Mt @ 2.15 g/t Au (uncut) or 1.64 g/t Au (using a 20 g/t topcut). Preliminary test workconfirmed that the primary ore from both Doup and Benteng is refractory, but might be amenable to a biooxidation process. In 1998, reconnaissance sampling was undertaken around Doup, which generated several targets including Hulu Sita (up to 156 g/t Au), but work was stopped in 2000. The property was obtained in 2007 by Avocet, which carried out 11,288m of diamond and reverse circulation drilling and in early 2009 announced an Inferred MineralResourceof25Mt@1.2g/tAu. The following account is largely based on unpublished reports by Porter (1997) and Wake andLapian(1998). The Doup district is located 30km northeast of the Gunung Ambang Volcanic Complex, which is an area of active geothermal systems. It consists of Miocene volcanic and marine sedimentary rocks, which are intruded by diorite stocks and overlain by Late Miocene limestone and calcareous clastic sediments and Pliocene to Recent volcanics and alluvium. Structurally the area is complex with subduction related NE trending arc parallel faults and subsidiary NW trending fault development. The interaction of these faults is interpreted to control the emplacement of shallow and deeper level intrusivebodies,togetherwithproximalporphyry and intermediatesulphide styles of mineralization (Doup), and more distal sediment hosted (Mesel) and highsulphidation (Hutu Sita) styles. The DoupBenteng area is largely covered by alluvial dioriticdacitic boulder conglomerate and waste material produced by the Dutch and more recent artisan mining activities. The host rock to the Doup mineralization is a quartz diorite which has undergone an early porphyry style alteration (biotiealbite) overprinted by intense illite/illite smectitepyriteadularia alteration assemblages. Late finegrained andesitic to dacitic porphyrys cutthealtereddiorite.Themineralizationformsa pipelike body that extends to a depth of at least 200m, and is 100 by 200m in diameter elongated in a NWSE direction. At Benteng, a separate

dioritic body is present that intrudes sedimentary rocks and shows alteration that is similar to the clay assemblage seen at Doup. Goldbearing silicapyrite replaces calcareous mudstone in an EW oriented zone, 50100m wide and 300m long,thatextendstoadepthof300m. Three styles of gold mineralization occur in the district.Theseare: 1) Early porphyry CuAu mineralization associated with quartzmagnetitesulphide stockwork stringers/veinlets centred on altered diorite intrusions. These show relatively high Au/Cu ratios like the Taware porphyry deposit on Sangihe Island with better intersection of the order of 0.71.32 g/t Auand0.10%Cu. 2) Higher grade, carbonatebase metalAu/Ag veins associates with sericitecarbonateclay alteration controlled by dioritesediment contactsandfaultintersections.Theveinsare generally narrow (<1m wide) and the primary target of local mining activity. Disseminated to massive sphalerite galena mineralization invariably occurs within the orebearing material. One of the better drill intercepts included2mat49g/tAuand27g/tAg. 3) Sedimenthosted, replacementtype base metalAuAgAs mineralization. This style is associated with strong carbonate sericite/claysulphide alteration, and relatively minor silicification in calcareous, volcaniclastic mudstones and sandstones. Drill intercepts example:116m@3.33g/tAu,17g/tAg. Ageneralizedparagenetic sequenceofalteration, veining and mineralization observed at Doup and Benteng consists of four stages; 1) porphyry/metasomatic; 2) quartzadularia sericite; 3) pyritebase metalsulphidesgold; and 4)carbonateclaymarcasite. 4.1.3.5 TanoyanAnggrekdistrict The following account is largely based on unpublished reports by Pieters (2003) and Mclean and Williams (2010). Mineralization in
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the district was discovered by a Placer Dome BHP UtahAntam joint venture in 1986, which led to artisanal gold rushes at both Tanoyan and Anggrek. At the latter prospect mineralization is centred on a diatreme breccia forming Patung Hill. In 1987, 120 processing units were in operationatTanoyan.Bothproperties(excluding Patung Hill) were subsequently acquired by AMS who undertook limited exploration in 2004, and two years later Avocet acquired an interest in them. This company carried out detailed surface work at Tanoyan and Anggrek, and a 4,400m drilling programme at the former prospect, outlining an inferred resource of 3.95 Mt @ 2.1 g/t Au. Golden Peaks Resources acquired the properties in 2010, and started drilling at Tanoyan the following year. Patung Hill is currentlybeingexploitedbylocalminers. The geology of the Tanoyan prospect is dominated by andesitic pyroclastics and lava, and dacitic tuffs belonging to Pliocene Pinogu Volcanics. These have been intruded by a variety of dioritic stocks and dykes. Four lode systems have been identified, trending predominantly NE with subvertical dips and NNE to N trending splays. A conjugate set of generally NWtrending faults, locally contain brecciahosted sulphide mineralization. The lode systems consist of elongate altered zones of quartzchalcedony and brecciation, typically with a silicified core and argillic halo. They are up to 2.3km in strike length and from 2 to 15m wide. The volcanic sequence has undergone widespread propylitic alteration. Cockade vein textures are dominant and accompanied by crustiform, bladed carbonatepseudomorphs and comb textures, and colloform banded sulphide stringer veins. Pyrite is the dominant sulphide phase; chalcopyrite was locally observed. Visible gold is relatively common. Local miners reported gold grades in theorderof17to67g/tAu. At Anggrek,the Patung Hill diatreme breccia pipe is about 700m in diameter and intrudes a series of Miocene volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks and maficintermediate volcanics. The sequence is alsointrudedbynarrowdykesandsmallstocksof

diorite, andesite and dacite porphyry. The diatreme is a polymict clast supported breccia with milled, rounded clasts set in a matrix of rock flour.NEtoNNEtrendingdextralstrikeslipfaults are the dominant structure, and locally contain mineralized breccia zones. Secondary faults includeNWtrendingstrikeslipandnormalfaults, which are also associated with gold mineralization. Relatively narrow halos of silica pyritelimonite and minor kaoliniteclaysericite alteration assemblages envelop quartz veins, which are up to 15m wide and show cockade crustiform textures.Magnetite andbarite are locallypresent. Six zones of alteration and coincident geochemical anomalies and gold mineralization have been identified, including the OsingOsing prospect. Gold mineralization in this prospect occurs in a 1.5 km long hydrothermal breccia zone, varying in width from 1 to 3m. The breccia is polymict with a matrix of rock flour and quartz flooding with associated sulphides, adularia and strongargillicalteration. 4.1.3.6Comments Intermediatesulphidation deposits possess sulphidation states between those of the high and lowsulphidation types, typically with stability of chalcopyrite, tetrahedritetennantite, and Fepoor sphalerite, but lacking appreciable arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite (Einaudi et al., 2003). Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) list several other defining characteristics, including a genetic relationship with andesite to rhyodacite rocks, sericite as the key proximal alteration mineral, but adularia generally uncommon, common carbonate gangue, barite and Mnsilicates present locally, and sulphide abundances of 5 to 20%. Genetically related igneous rocks commonly includediatremeanddomecompexes. The IS deposits of Northern Sulawesi meet some ofthesecriteria,butdifferinotherrespects.The Gunung Pani and Totopo West deposits, for example, contain Fepoor sphalerite and barite, and are associated with felsic diatremedome complexes, but have low sulphide contents, while adularia is a significant alteration product.
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Carbonate is not a prominent gangue mineral in these deposits. It is in the Bolangitang and Doup deposits, but the former is sulphide poor. Many of the Northern Sulawesi deposits appear to be transitional to the lowsulphidation class. They fit more closely the category of epithermal quartz goldsilver systems of the classification scheme proposed by Corbett and Leach (1998), which include the following characteristics; i) veins are dominated by quartz which is intimately associated with either adularia or illite, smectite and/or kaolin clays, and locally with carbonates; ii) the sulphide content is generally low and base metal sulphides are rare; iii) the mineralogy is silver rich; 4) hypogene hematite is locally present (as e.g. at G.Pani and Totopo West); and 5) diatreme or milledmatrix fluidized (phraetomagmatic) breccias are common.The main difference shown by the Northern Sulawesi depositsisthattheyaregenerallysilverpoor. The Northern Sulawesi epithermal gold deposits demonstratethatitisnotalwayspossibletohave a one fits all classification. With so many variables, it is not surprising that there are so many variations in deposit character and transitions between deposit types.A good example is Mexicowhere three types of epithermal ore deposits have been recognized in addition to rare HS deposits, named A, B, and C (Camprubi and Albinson, 2007). Type A (or IS type) contains exclusively from top to bottom IS styles of mineralization with a consistent polymetallic character and a tendancy to form in deeper environments. Type B (or LSIS type) exhibits dominant LS characteristics but has polymetallic IS roots. Type C (or LS type) shows only LS styles of mineralization and represents shallow boiling deposits. These three types are not mutually exclusive in time and space as is the case in certain other areas like the Great Basin in Nevada (John et al., 1999). G. Pani is the only Northern Sulawesi deposit which to date has beenshowntohavepolymetallicrootsandhence to be similar to type B in Mexico. More detailed work, including deeper drilling, at some of the other deposits may similarly reveal type B characteristics.

4.1.4 LowSulphidationEpithermalAuAg AuAg mineralization in the Toka Tindung district is the only example in Sulawesi that shares many featureswiththelowsulphidation(LS)type. 4.1.4.1 TokaTindungdistrict(Figure21) The district is located in the Minahasa Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Arm. Records suggest there was little activity relating to gold explorationandminingintheregionuntilthemid 1980s, when the Teweti Group commenced exploration. It was continued by Ashton Mining Ltd in late 1989. Their activity was the first to identify goldbearing quartz float shedding into creeks surrounding Toka Tindung, and produced a best result of 3.6 g/t Au in a grab sample.The source of the Aubearing quartz float was discovered by Aurora Gold Ltd in 1993 following their takeover of Ashtons gold interests in Indonesia. Further prospecting identified gold vein systems at three major prospect areas: Toka Tindung, Batupangah and Talawaan. The company carried out extensive drilling during the next 5 years (72,000 diamond drilling, 49,000m RC) at Toka Tindung and on adjacent prospects, resulting in a global resource estimate of about 1.75Mozgoldequivalent.Theprojectwassoldin 2002 to Archipelago Resources and after lengthy delayswasbroughtintoproductionin2011. The following account on the geology and mineralization of the Toka Tindung district is based on Wake et al. (1995, 1996, 1997), Moyle et al. (1997a & b), and Angeles (2001), and additional information provided by B.Wake (writtencom.,2009,2010). The Toka Tindung district is located at the tip of the North Arm and covers an area of about 400km2. It contains a number of gold deposits and occurrences of which the Toka Tindung deposit is the largest known one. The Batupangah area, located about 4km SSE of Toka Tindung, contains four other significant vein deposits; Araren, Pajajaran, Blambangan and Kopra. The deposits are exposed in windows of PlioPleistocene volcanics within a widespread cover of Late Quaternary tephras and other
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volcanics derived from relatively recent eruptions of the nearby Dua Saudara or Klabat stratovolcanoes. The PlioPleistocene sequence consists predominantly of basaltic andesite flows containing intercalations of volcaniclastic rocksthat range in composition frombasaltic andesite to rhyodacite,and are locally associated with hydrothermal eruption breccias, silica sinters and carbonaceous tuffaceous sediments. These rocks are partly overlain by poorly consolidated volcaniclastics of basaltic andesite and rhyodacite composition, with minor interbedded limestone which are thickest in the northern part of the district. The sequence is intruded by rhyodacite domes and dykes. Limited age dating results (Figure 22) and geological considerations indicate that the basaltic andesites and rhyodacites are contemporaneous, i.e. they are the result of bimodalmagmatism. TheTokaTindungandBatupangahdepositsoccur in a 2km wide structural corridor defined by a series of NNWtrending faults that extend over a strike length of >15km. Other prominent structural trends in the PlioPleistocene rocks are ENE, NNE and NW. Circular fracture sets representing possible caldera features have also been observed. The main gold deposits are interpreted to lie peripheral to one such circular feature associated with dilational Ntrending fracture sets at the intersection of NNW and ENE trending faults. The gold mineralization is mostly hosted by fault controlled veins, stockworks and breccias. The Toka Tindung deposit is a series of steeply dipping linear stockwork vein zones with more than 60 vein domains, up to 200m wide and over 1.7km long, elongated along a northerly striking structure. It has a drill tested depth of 175m. At the southern end this zone is separated into the Ako and Western vein systems with low intensity stockwork veining occurring between them. Volcaniclastic rocks sandwiched between basaltic andesite flows are the primary host of the gold mineralization. They comprise massive to thick bedded volcaniclastic conglomerate grading

upwards into thinner bedded, locally carbonaceous, volcaniclastic sandstones, siltstones, mudstones interbedded with silica sinters at the top of the package. The coarse sediments are interpreted to have been deposited as a series of massflows in a fault bounded basin changing with time into a lacustrineenvironment. Atleastthreesilicasinterbeds,eachup toseveral metres thick and separated by fine grained volcaniclastic rocks, are recognized at Toka Tindung. These occur at the top of the mineralized zone; the lower sinter horizons are cut by the gold veins. The silica sinters, which generally form thin beds, are composed of chalcedony after an opaline silica precursor. They show rhythmic wavy laminations, geyserite pearls, vertical growth structures (fossilized filamentous algal mats), dehydration cracks, hydrothermal brecciation, and are characterized bylocallyanomalousSbHgMogeochemistry,and lowlevelAuanomalism. The mineralized zone is overlain by hydrothermal eruption breccia, up to 50m thick, composed of fragments of all the underlying rock types, including some mineralized vein, wall rock and silica sinter material at its base. The breccia matrix comprises multiple generations of silicified, locally carbonaceous and sulphidic, hydrothermal mud together with comminuted rock flour. The brecciacrosscuts the lower sinter beds and terminates(?) within a third sinter bed horizon exposed at the northern end of Toka Tindung.ThebrecciaunitproducesstrongAs,Sb, Hg and Mo anomalies, whereas anomalous Au values occur only where the breccia has incorporated mineralized fragments or is cut by weaklydevelopedveinstockwork. The vein systems in the Batupangah area are hosted in a porphyritic basaltic andesite unit overlain by recent mantlebedded tephra, up to 5m thick. The main gold deposits found to date lack the nearsurface features present at Toka Tindung, such as sinters and hydrothermal breccias, and are interpreted as deeper level deposits. These deposits consist of 1) Pajajaran, two parallel NWtrending composite veins, 27m
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thick, 800m long, with a drill tested depth of 250m, intersected by a Ntrending vein set; 2) Blambangan, single curvilinear Ntrending composite vein, 1 to 15m thick, 1.25km long, > 200m vertical extent; 3) Araren, two parallel N trending vein sets, 17m thick, with highgrade gold mineralization restricted to localized pods associated with crosscutting faults or flexures, and 4) Kopra, composite vein system comprising eight anatomizing veins, including centrally located main vein, 25m thick, 600m long, drill testedtoadepthof135m. The Talawaan area, located about 15km west of Batupangah, contains several vein deposits, the most important of which is Bima. This is a simple NWtrending sheeted vein stockwork system, definedbydrillingoverastrikelengthof1kmand widths of up to 125m, and to a depth of 140m. Stockwork veins range in thickness from 0.1m to 5m. Twelve principal veins make up the northwestern portion of the deposit, which progressivelyreducetoasinglemainveinalonga WNWtrending fault in the south east. These are hosted by a rhyodacitic flow dome and breccias complex. At Marawuwung, located 3km NW of Toka Tindung, gold mineralization is associated with silicified sulphidic hydrothermal breccias and minor banded quartzadularia veins. In contrast to the Toka Tindung and Batupangahdeposits,significant gold mineralization (>1g/t Au) at Marawuwung occurs in the matrix of sulphidic breccias and is accompaniedbypronoucedAsSbHganomalism. The goldbearing veins in the Toka Tindung district consist predominantly of chalcedony, quartz and adularia. The strongest gold grades occur in colloform banded, ghostsphere, ghost lattice bladed,and mosstextured chalcedony adularia rich veins. Lower grade gold grades generally occurin brecciated veins cemented by later stage crystalline quartz. Vein breccias are generally younger than the chalcedonyadularia veins. Late barren to poorly mineralized calcite have been observed in a number of deposits. The sulphidecontentoftheveinsisgenerallyverylow (<1vol%),mainlyfinegrainedpyrite.

At Toka Tindung, the volcaniclastics show pervasive silicification and adularization within and around vein systems. The matrix of the volcaniclastic rocks is completely replaced by microcrystalline quartz, adularia and a mixture of chloriteillitic clays. These minerals also occur as overgrowths on phenocrysts in lithic fragments. In contrast, in the Batupangahand Tawalaan areas the wallrock alteration is characterized by narrow envelopes of strong silicaillitic claypyrite alteration which grade outward into zones of weaker chloritesmectitezeolite alteration. Adjacent to the veins plagioclase phenocrysts in porphyritic andesite are altered to adularia or albite,andthenpartlyreplacedbyillitesmectite. Gold occurs as sub20m anhedral free grains and as electrum occupying interstices between quartz and adularia together with pyrite, minor seleniumbearingsilversulphides(Seacanthiteor aguilarite) and traces of chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena. Gold grades are relatively low at Toka Tindung; average 3 to 5 g/t in veins, locally up to 30 g/t, and 0.2 to 3 g/t in intervening stockworks. The highest average grades are found at Bima (57 g/t Au). Higher grades are also present in portions of the Pajajaran and Blambangan deposits. In the former deposit the higher grade portions are associated with vein breccias, occasionally very vuggy, in the central part of vein where a narrower set of composite veins trending NS coalesce. A characteristics feature of the veins in the Batupangaharea is the presence of gingurolike brownblack siliceous bands of disseminated sulphides and rare red, pyritic jasper. These bands are associated with the strongest gold (+10 g/t Au) and silver (+100 t/g Ag) grades. Silver values are generally low in all deposits with Ag:Au ratios in the order of 2:1. Toka Tindung has the largest resource (7.9 Mt at 2.9 g/t Au), whereas the others contains 11.8 Mt with average grades varying from 2.9 to 5.7 g/t Au. KAr dating of adularia material from veins and wallrock yielded ages in the range of 2.16 to 1.88 Ma. This falls within the age range of the bimodal volcanic suite that hosts the mineral
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Figure 22. Schematic stratigraphy, mineralization and radiometric age dates TokaTindungButapangahprospects(B. Wake,writtencomm.,2009)

Figure 23. Simplified geologicalmap of Ratatotok district (after HendriandFarmer,1997)

53

 Figure 24. Geological interpretation of Mesel deposit, section 20280m E (after HendriandFarmer,1997)

Figure 25. Western Sulawesi. Distribution of mineralization types, and location of prospects and mineralized districts mentioned in the text; forsymbolsseeFigure5

54

ization indicating that mineralization and magmatismarecogenetic. 4.1.4.2 Comments Asmentionedatthebeginningofthissection,the deposits and prospects in the Toka Tindung district show many of the characteristics of LS mineralization as defined by Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003). These include association with bimodal volcanism, presence of sinter, proximal alteration dominated by illite/smectite and adularia, nature of vein filling (crustiform, colloform, chalcedony, quartz, carbonate replacement textures), carbonate gangue relatively minor and late, low sulphide content (< 1%), low base metal content,low Au/Ag ratios,andanomalousMo,As,Sb,andHg Bimodal volcanic suites are a characteristic feature of extensional tectonic settings. Such settings are conducive to formation and preservation of hotspring sinter, and their usually low topographic relief leads to deposition of fluviolacustrine sediments (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). The sedimentation is broadly contemporaneous with hydrothermal activity (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), as appears to be also the case in the Toka Tindung district (Wake etal.,1997). As discussed by Wake et al. (1997), the AuAg bearing stockwork vein systems underlying the sinter and hydrothermal breccia zones were formed in a dilation zones produced by a combination of reactivated faulting along major regionalstructuresandhydrofracturingcausedby overpressuring of upwelling hydrothermal fluid. The pervasive distribution of quartzadularia alteration at Toka Tindung is a function of the primary porosity and permeability of these rock types, acting as a large geothermal aquifer. This style of alteration may have had some effect on the structural preparation and broader development of stockwork, resulting in a larger body of mineralization than at veins that developed in basaltic andesite flows, e.g. at Batupangah, where vein development is tighter, and wallrock adularia alteration less widespread

because of the lower permeability of the host rock. The mineralized vein and stockwork systems and pronouncedgeochemicalzoninginverticalprofile through the fossil hot spring system occurred in response to boiling of rapidly upwelling, near neutral pH, alkalichlorite fluids focused on highly permeable fracture zones (as evidenced by the common presence of adularia). Venting of these fluids at the paleosurface produced the silica sinters exposed at the highest stratigraphic level. A hydrothermal eruption occurred late in the hydrothermal cycle, producing the shallow breccia apron in the upper part of the stratigraphy. This generally marks the terminationofhotspringactivity.Thebulkofthe goldsilver mineralization and the overlying breccias occur within 150m from the paleosurfaceofthefossilhotspringsystem. As mentioned earlier, in Corbett and Leachs (1998)/Corbetts (2007) classification scheme adulariasericite epithermal /banded chalcedony giguro goldsilver systems are the equivalent of lowsulphidation systems. They are subdivided with increasing depth of formation as systems dominated by i) sinter and hydrothermal breccias; ii) stockwork or sheeted veins, and 3) fissure veins. All three styles are represented in the Toka Tindung district. Black sulphidic ginguro bands, which are a typical feature of this category, have also been obderved in the Toka Tindung district, although they do not appear to beaprominentfeature. 4.1.5 SedimenthostedAumineralization Sedimenthosted gold mineralization is prominently developed in the Ratatotok district, which also contains other styles of gold mineralization. Other occurrences have been observed at Doup (Kavalieris et al., 1992) and in the GabanboraBatumaja district (Pearson et al., 1999). 4.1.5.1 Ratatotokdistrict(Figure23) The Ratatotok district, measuring 8km x 4km, contains sedimenthosted disseminated gold
55

mineralization at Mesel, paleokarst breccias and contact siliceous replacement at the interface oflimestone andandesiticrocksatLobonganand Alason, and widespread residual clayquartz breccias resulting from the weathering of the other two styles of mineralization. The total pre mininggold contentof thedistrictisestimated to exceed 93 t (van der Ploeg, 1945; Turner, 2002). Papers by Turner et al. (1994), Garwin et al., (1995), Corbett and Leach (1998), and Hendi and Farmer (1997) form the basis of the following summary. Gold mining in the Ratatotok District dates back to at least the 1850s when it appeared on British maps of Celebes as the Mt. Tottik gold mine. It was carried out initially by local people, both at surface and underground. Between 1900 and 1921 the Dutch mined about 5 t Au, mostly from unconsolidated eluvial deposits and locally from underground hard rock mineralization at Hais in the Lobongan area.In the early 1980s an unnamed Japanese company sampled some of the underground workings in Hais. Local mining activity resumed in 1985, involving 8000 miners, before it was restricted by the regional government. In 1989, Newmont initiated a gold exploration program in Indonesia, and the Ratatotok district was one of several areas selected, based on historical reports. Exploration was initially directed at the old Hais workings and Alason area, locally returning very high gold grades. Followup drill testing in 1987, however, produced disappointing results. The next year Mesel was (re) discovered and explored in detail duringtheensuingthreeyears.Thefirstgoldwas poured in 1996 and the mine closed down in 2004,havingproducedatotalof1.9Moz. The Ratatotok district is underlain by a restricted extensional sedimentary basin that is separated from a volcanicdominated terrain to the north by the ENEtrending Limpoga fault. Lithologies consist of a mixed siliciclasticcarbonate successiondominated by limestone.Itisoverlain by andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, and intruded by sills, dykes and laccoliths of porphyritic andesite composition. Volcanic

conglomerates unconformably overlie the sequence and are particularly thick to the north of the Limpoga fault. The district is dominated by ENEtrending arcparallel and NNWtrending arc normal faults. Movements along these faults affected sedimentation and controlled facies distribution. The Mesel deposit and several smaller satellite deposits are hosted by a sequence of limestone, polymitic conglomerate and sedimentary breccia, mudstone and mixed siliclasticcarbonate horizons.Thecarbonatesuccessionwasintruded by andesite forming a laccolith that overlies the mineralized sequence and locally reaches a thickness of >100m. Although it rarely hosts any gold mineralization it is strongly argillized where in contact with mineralized carbonates. At the surface it is characterized by a 2040m thick zone of yellow and red clay. Calcareous planktonic foraminifera and nannofossils indicate a maximum age range of 13.711.4 which overlaps with the age range of the emplacement of the andesite intrusions (13.90.5 to 11.20.3 Ma, based on K/Ar dating of hornblende separates from 3 samples). This suggests that the sedimentation and intrusive events were roughly contemporaneous. Gold mineralization is both lithologically and structurally controlled (Figure 24). Lithological control is provided by permeable carbonaceous and enhanced by dolomitization.Orecontrolling structures in the Mesel area are inferred to be ENE trending zones of imbricate high angle reverse faults and tight folds that emplaced receptive limestone into the relatively impermeable andesite intrusion along the Heins FindFaultZone.Anotherimportantcontrolisthe NNW trending sinistral Mesel Fault and its intersection with the Heins Find Fault Zone, characterized by high grade mineralization and extensivehydrothermalalteration. Alteration and mineralization occur within the carbonate rocks and locally in the overlying andesite sills. Four main stages of hydrothermal activity are recognized: 1) early decalcification and dolomitization adjacent to major faults and along the contacts with the overlying andesite; 2)
56

intense silicification, in the form of open space fillingandreplacementofcalciteanddolomiteby smectiteillite; decreasing intensity away from areas of inferred fluid upflow; alteration is present in the andesite but its distribution is restricted to an envelope of 15m either side of theHeinsFindFaultZoneanda25thickflatlying zone above altered limestone close to the Mesel Fault; 3) gold mineralization in association with quartzsulphide deposition during polyphasal brecciation of the silicified dolomite and altered limestone; the dominant sulphides are early marcasite and pyrite, and later pyrite that becomes progressively more arsenicrich during thisstage;and4)postmineralcalciteveining. Goldissubmicroninsizeandassociatedwithvery fine grained (<10 micron) arsenical pyrite. High grade (>10 g/t) gold zones are highest in the polyphasal silicified breccias proximal to feeder (fluid upflow) structures. Gold contents decline rapidlyfromtheupflowzonesbelowtheandesite sills. The gold is accompanied by anomalous values of As, Sb, Hg and Tl. Stibnite occurs as a late sulphide phase associated with both stage 3 quartz veins and stage 4 calcite at shallow levels andinzonesperipheraltotheorebody. In the Lobongan area, karst terrain has been extensively developed consisting of at least two phases. The first phase preceded andesitic volcanism, the products of which covered much of the limestone. Mineralization formed at and below the unconformity, with gold being deposited together with quartz and calcite in openspace karst breccias, and with siliceous replacement of finegrained clastic sediments at the contact. The anastomosing veins are crystalline and vuggy to banded and crustiform, and commonly contain visible gold. Higher grade Au mineralization mostly formed at major structural intersections, which also controlled the formation of the paleokarst, a feature that is also commonly observed in the Bau district, West Sarawak (Wolfenden, 1965). Base metals occur in negligible to minor quantities as chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, covellite, bornite, chalcocite, and native copper. Arsenic values (in arsenopyrite) are variable up to 3% and Sb is also anomalous.Verylittleinsitumineralizedcontact

and paleokarst breccias remain in the Alason area. Residual quartzclay breccias, derived from the insitudeflationofamineralizedkarstsurfaceare widespread in the Ratatotok district, formed by weathering of both Mesel and Lobongan/Alason styles of primary mineralization. The difference between both weathering products is the former does not contain easily extractable gold, whereas in the latter type relatively coarse gold is commonandcanbeextractedbylocalminers. Sparse, possibly main stage, fluid inclusions from quartz in jasperoid peripheral to Mesel gave temperatures of 238o to 296o C with evidence of CO2liquidpresentinmanyinclusions.Thesedata and calculations of cover rock thickness suggest that the mineralization was formed at a depth of at least 1000m. Primary fluid inclusions homogenization temperatures from late stage quartz and calcite are within a range of 119170o C, recording the waning stage of the hydrothermal system. Fluid inclusions in vein quartz and calcite at Lobongan indicate the veins formedattemperaturesrangingfrom270to152o Cfrom lowsalinity, CO2 bearing boiling fluids. Stable isotopic data on orerelated minerals suggest ore fluids consisted of magmatic fluid that evolved by interactions with limestone and mixingwithmeteoricwater(Turner,2002). 4.1.5.2 Comments Sillitoe (1994) observed Mesel is the first large sedimenthosted Au accumulation (>60 tonnes Au) defined in an oceanic islandarc setting. We are not aware of other sedimenthosted gold deposits having since been found in a similar setting, i.e. Mesel may be unique in this respect. Otherwise it shows many similarities with sedimenthosted Au deposits in Nevada (the classic Carlintype), including micronsize gold in arsenian pyrite, a distinct AuAsSbHgTl geochemical association, and passive alteration of silty carbonate units characterized by decalcification, dolomitization, silicification, and argillization (Turner et al., 1994), and control by highanglefaults(Sillitoe,1994).
57

Like several of the other mineralized districts in Northern Sulawesi, the Ratatotok district is characterized by the presence of more than one mineralization style.Carlile et al. (1994) note that the spatial association of the Mesel mineralization with intermediatesulphidation veins may suggest a genetic relationship where similar structurally focused mineralizing fluids may either pervade porous reactive hostrocks, orbecontainedwithinstructuresinimpermeable rocks to form veins. More speculative is Kavalieris et al.s (1992) suggestion that high sulphidation mineralization at Simbalang, located 20 km away,may also be related to the same magmatichydrothermalsystem. Various models have been proposed for the genesis of sedimenthosted gold deposits (Hofstra and Cline, 2000, and references therein), including; i) intrusiondriven circulation of meteoric water, plus or minus magmatic fluid input; ii) meteoric fluid circulation resulting from crustal extension and/orwidespread magmatism; and iii) ascent of metamorphic fluids to shallow levels in the crust. In the case of Mesel, isotope characteristics suggest a direct connection with magmatism (see above). Another example is the Bau district in Sabah, where a genetically link has been proposed between porphyry stocks and skarn , vein, and distal sedimenthosted gold mineralization (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990). As mentioned above, porphyry type mineralization has been observed in the nearby Doup district. This, or another proximal porphyry system, may have been the source of the gold deposited at Mesel. 4.1.6 Intrusion related base metal gold mineralization Numerous base metalgold vein and vein swarm occurrences are present in Northern Sulawesi. They occur at varied distances around individual intrusions, commonly porphyries or within porphyry Cu districts, of both Miocene and Pliocene age. Examples include Taware Ridge (4.1.1.5), Kaidundu (4.1.1.4), Paleleh, Sumalata, and Petulu. Some of the vein and vein swarms (e.g. Paleleh, Sumalata, Dinuke, Kwandang, and Kasia) have witnessed production from both

underground and surface mining methods for decades by the Dutch and more recently by artisanminers. Published information regarding this style of mineralization is limited. According to Kavalieris et al. (1992) at Petulu, sheeted quartz chalcopyritebornitemagnetite veins intersect a zone of magnetite alteration and are (spatially) associated with dacitic dykes inferred to be related to a deeper granitoid. Gold is present in pyriterich veins peripheral to the magnetite zone. It should be noted that Pearson and Caira (1999) classify Petulu as a porphyry CuAu deposit. Palelehis hosted by diorite porphyry with Au occurring in native form associated with chalcopyrite was a significant producer of gold, silver and lead during the Dutch time. Miocene andesitic volcanics are intruded by diorite. Pervasive quartzchloriteillite alteration is developed along the intrusive contact, which appears the main control on mineralization. Quartzgoldpyritepyrrhotitechalcopyrite galenasphalerite mineralization is localized within subvertical zones of hydraulic fracture breccias that grade outwards to veinlet and fracture zones in both volcanic and intrusive rocks. Gold occurs in native form (Carlile et al., 1990;PearsonandCaira,1999). 4.1.7 Volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralization Volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) mineralization is hosted in the Papayato Volcanics in two localities at the western end of Northern Sulawesi. These are referred to as the Papayato and Bukal prospects (Aspinall et all., 1980). The Papayato prospect is exposed in the Papayato River, about 20km upstream from its mouth. A 32m thick massive pyrite body with intercalations of pyritic mudstone occurs in a sequence of felsic tuffs. The sulphides display in places colloform banding or fine laminations. Samples taken across the body gave values of only0.1%CuandtracesofPb,Zn,andMo.
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The Bukal prospect is located in the headwaters of the Bukal River. It was investigated in some detail by a London based company in 1900 that excavated shallow pits and aidits in the main body(DixonLode)overastrikelengthof130m. Several companies revisited the area in the 1970s,includingUtahandRioTinto. The mineralization occurs as two enechelon stratiform lenses in massive rhyolitic volcanics, which are chloritized, especially along the hanging wall contacts. Where exposed in old trenches it consists of a 2.25m thick zone of massive pyrite and chalcopyrite overlain by 0.75mofsphalerite,chalcopyriteandsubordinate pyrite. The sulphides show in places finegrained banding. Gangue minerals include barite and quartz. In addition, an up to 2.7m thick discordantlensispresentconsistingofsphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, tetrahedrite, and minor galena, enveloped by pyrite selvages. Disseminated chalcopyrite and sphalerite occur withinnarrowzonesofkaolinizedrhyolite. While base metal grades are high (3.812% Cu, 2.733.7% Zn, 0.52.6% Pb,) the length of the lensesappearstobelimited(upto140m). 4.1.8 Skarns Skarns are developed as partial aureoles in the propylitic zones surrounding several Miocene porphyry stocks (Kavalieris et al., 1992; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Examples include Matinan6 (4.1.1.2) , Adapi, and Boloila. The skarns are hosted by the Dokokapa Formation. They are controlled by both steeply dipping faults and calcareous beds. Their mineralogy consists of magnetite,pyrite,epidote,andgarnet,containing locally high gold values which are associated with horizons of pyrrhotite, pyrite, magnetite, galena, sphalerite,andtetrahedritetennantite. 4.1.9 PlacerAuandFedeposits The widespread occurrence of primary gold mineralization in Northern Sulawesi has resulted in the common presence of alluvial gold throughout the province. However, the deposits are generally small and/or of low grade. The

Dutch worked alluvial deposits at Tapaibekin in the Doup distric between 1938 and 1942 producing in total 68 kg Au and 13 kg Ag. Endeavour Resources carried out Bangka drilling in the Gunung Pani district, where 2.8 M cum @265mg Au and 400500,000 cum @ 500 mg Au were outlined in two deposits. They also carried out exploration in the Paguyaman river reporting a resource of 0.5 M cum @ 169 mg Au/cum. A larger resource figure (1.6 M cum @350 mg Au/cum) is given by PSDG (2010). No other alluvial gold exploration has been reported, reflecting its restricted potential for company scale exploitation. However, in recent years the region has witnessed extensive artisanal panning and sluicing activities supported by high gold prices. The lack of large size alluvial deposits is due to the mountainous nature of most of Northern Sulawesi with poor development of alluvial plains. Dilution of grades occur in areas with unconsolitatedsedimentary/volcaniccoverrocks. PSDG (2010) reports the presence of a few Fe placer deposits along the coast of the Minahasa section up to 31M cum in size (hypothetical resource).Nofurtherinrormationisavailable. 4.2 WesternSulawesiProvince Western Sulawesi appears to be less well mineralized than Northern Sulawesi. Furthermore it hosts mostly different styles of mineralization,reflectingsignificantdifferencesin geologicalsettingbetweenthetwoprovinces.As mentioned earlier, mining activities have been verylimitedtodate. The oldest known mineralization comprises chromiteintheCretaceousBarruComplex,which is hosted in serpentinized peridotite intruded by diorite and dacite, and is best developed in shear zones and at intrusive contacts (Purawiardi, 2008). Copper occurs in the socalled Koper Lei (CopperSlate) Formation, now known as Toraja Formation, in the foothills of the Latimojong Mountains as small pockets of native copper and malachite in a shaly sequence (van Bemmelen, 1949). Only a few porphyry Cu
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prospects/occurrences are known, all of which appear to be associated with Neogene potassic alkaline intrusives and have peripheral vein and/or skarn mineralization. Mineralization associated with intrusive rocks other than porphyry style, include base metal veins at Baturappe, base metalAu veins at Esang, and magnetitehematite skarns at Tandjung and Salo Talimbangan. A small cluster of Kurokotype deposits is found near Sangkaropi. Manganiferous ironstones, the weathering product of sulphide and magnetite mineralization,occurwidespreadintheBiruarea. A notable feature of the metallogeny of Western Sulawesi is the apparent poor development of typical epithermalstyle gold mineralization. In the central eastern part of the province several significant gold deposits are present in the Awak Mas and Palopo districts and near Palu. We have tentativelyclassifiedthemasintrusionrelatedAu vein deposits and discuss them under the headingGoldinmetamorphicterrains Following are description of the more significant and/or interesting deposits and occurrences in Western Sulawesi. Their locations and those of others are shown in Figure 25. Table 5 summarizes the main features of some of the moreimportantdeposits. 4.2.1 Porphyrycoppergold Known porphyry copper Cu prospects/occurrences are present atSasak and Seko, both found during a reconnaissance geochemical sampling programme carried out by the Geological Survey of Indonesia in CW Sulawesi and drill tested by Antam in the early 1970s, and at Masabo and Malawa. No information is available for Seko, other than that only low grade Cu mineralization (0.40%) was intersected (Geomin, 2010). It is located about 200km north of Sangkaropi, but its exact position is not known. Malawa, which is present near Malawa village in SW Sulawesi, is a recent discovery. Only preliminary investigation has been carried out todate (www.terrafirmaresources.com). Copper mineralization (malachite, chalcopyrite in veinlets, covellite and Cubearing gossan) occurs

as float and outcrop associated with an altered and sheared diorite body. Potassic alteration (K feldspar and biotite segregations) is overprinted by phyllic assemblages (quartzsericitepyrite kaolinite)andsurroundedbypropyliticalteration. Skarn veins, dominated by carbonate and containing chalcopyrite pyrite and arsenopyrite, have also been observed. The other two prospects, Sasak and Masabo, are described below. 4.2.1.1 Sasakdistrict Porphyry copper mineralization was discovered near Sasak in 1969. It has been intermittently explored between 1972 and 1998 by Antam, Aberfoyle, and North Ltd, and is currently being investigated by Victory West Moly. The exploration activities included drilling of about 43 holes. The following account is based on Taylor and van Leeuwen (1980), Muller (1998) and Schwager (1998). A crosssection is shown in Figure26. The Sasak area comprises mainly andesites, diorites and various tuff breccias, which have been intruded by monzonite stocks and related dykes. The region forms a large magnetic high anomaly reflecting the high magnetite content of the dioritic and andesitic lithologies that dominate the geology at Sasak. The monzonites have medium to coarsegrained porphyritic texturesandconsistoflargeplagioclaseandalkali feldspar (up to 10mm) crystals and smaller biotite, set in a finegrained groundmass of alkali feldspar and minor quartz. No geochemical and age dates have been reported for the intrusive rocks, but they are likely to belong to the Neogene potassic suite. Three types of tuff brecciashavebeenrecognized:andesiticbreccia, polymict breccia with diorite, andesite, monzonite and silicified siltstone fragments, and a felsic tuff breccia, which has been described as afragmentedmonzonite. The Sasak area is crosscut by a NWtrending structural corridor, which forms a magnetic low anomaly, probably reflecting the presence of an elongated monzonite stock at depth. A second welldevelopedfracturefaultsystemhasaNE
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 Table5SelectedfeaturesofporphyryCuAu&MoandAubasemetalveinssystemsinWesternSulawesiexamples
Deposit Name Malala (AnomalyB) Sasak Masabo Class porphyry Mo porphyry CuAu intrusion relatedAu intrusion related Au DepositStyle qtzkfspveins 1) 2) 1) 2) disspy+cp qtzkfspsulphveins diss qtzvns,micro fractures qtzalbcarb vns, partly sheeted, stk, bx HostRocks quartzmonzonite monzonite stocks &dykes;breccia syenite dykes; metabasalt metasediments Ag/Au ratio Metal signature MoCuPbZn CuAuPbZn CuMoPbZn Bo AuSbAs Hg) ( Age(Ma) 4(HR) Late Miocene Late Miocene ?Pliocene Resource Mineralogy Alteration 1) 2) 1) 2) 1) 2) qtzbtkfsp carbser/illchl btmgt serillchl actalb btmgt

100 Mt @ 0.14% momgtpysph MoS2 gacp pycpbomgt pycppo

AwakMas

<1

Mangkaluku intrusion relatedAu Poboya Esang intrusion relatedAu intrusion related Au

qtzcarbvns

metasediments, qtzmonzonite metamonzonite, gneiss,schist metasediments

<3

AuAgAs ( CuPbZn).

Pliocene

qtzcarbvns qtzcarbvns

<1

Pliocene

41.7 Mt @ 1.23 g/t py(cpsph) Au(2004) 20.4 Mt @ 0.82 g/t Au(2011) Au as electrum; pyaspy (arg cpcov) 18Mt@3.4g/tAu py

albcarb

1) kfspbtactqtz 2) qtzchlser/ill 3) qtzchlepiact nearby zone of kaoldickqtzal py,arsenianpy qtzser/illpy pocp

Source:vanLeeuwenandPieters(2011) Abbreviations:seeTable3

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alteration zonation at Sasak porphyry Cu Figure 26. Cross section showing geology and Auprospect(PTNorthMiningToradja,1999)

Figure 27. Simplified geological map Masabo porphyry Cu prospect (PT MandarUliMinerals)

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trend. The NEand NWtrending systems have been interpreted to be controlled respectively by extensional and compressional forces, related to right lateral strikeslip fault movement along the nearby northerly trending Sadang fault system, which may be the northerly extension of the East Walanae fault system. The NEtrending extensional structures include narrow alteration zones, galena veins, dykes and hydrothermal breccias. The Sasak porphyry system is characterized by a zoned alteration pattern, which is typical for porphyry CuAu deposits worldwide. Propylitic alteration extends over an area of approximately 3.5 x 2.5 km, including a zone with strong clay pyritejarositealterationcoveringanareaof1000 x 700 m. Central potassic (biotitemagnetite) alteration is exposed in three zones at S. Doi, S. Darung (~800 m NW of Doi) and S. Patani (~600 m SE of Doi). All three zones occur within the NWtrending structural corridor, the latter two at the intersection of NE trending faults. The potassic alteration is surrounded and partly overprinted by argillic (kaolinitejarosite) and phyllic (pyritesericite) alteration. Late stage, crosscutting anhydrite veins are a common feature. In places, anhydrite replaces earlier pyrite veins. Argillic alteration is commonly structurallycontrolled. The S. Darung zone extends over about 130 m and is surrounded by kaolinitejarosite alteration, which grades outwards into propylitic alteration. Several quartzpyritechalcopyritesphalerite galenaveinsoccurbothtothenorthandsouthof thispotassiczoneandcontainupto8.9g/tAu.At S. Patani, the potassic zone outcrops over 80 m and is overlain by moderately to strongly kaolinitejarosite altered rocks. It contains coherent anomalous Au and Cu values, suggesting the possible presence of porphyry style mineralization at depth. This interpretation is consistent with the presence of argillic alteration in the overlying and surrounding rocks, and of potassic altered monzonite dykes containingquartzpyritechalcopyriteveining. Porphyry CuAu mineralization in S. Doi is hosted by a succession of monzonitic tuff breccias and

crosscutting synto post mineralization monzonite dykes. It stops abruptly at 40 m depth, truncated by a low angle fault dipping to the NNE. The thrust fault has emplaced the mineralizedbodyontopofapolymictbrecciaina southwesterly to southeasterly direction. A buried monzonite intrusive to the NW of Sasak could include the lower, autochthonous part of the mineralized porphyry system. Mineralized quartz veins, stockworks and fractures mimic the main structural orientations with quartz Kfeldsparpyritechalcopyritebornitemagnetite veins being crosscut by steeply dipping NE trending quartzpyritechalcopyritebornite veins. The sulphide vein mineralization overprints earlier disseminated magnetitepyrite chalcopyritemineralization.Betterdrillintercepts include76 m @0.4g/tAu,0.22%Cuand99m@ 0.35g/tAu,0.25%Cu. The Sasak district also contains intrusionrelated base metalAu veins and skarn occurrences (van Bemmelen,1949). 4.2.1.2 Masabo(Figure27) The Masabo porphyry Cu prospect sits about 25km inland from the west Sulawesi coast in rugged terrain. It was located by Rio Tinto in 1998 by following up a BLEG anomaly (136 ppb Ag, 4 ppb Au) in S. Masabo, which initially let to the discovery of a quartz vein in the middle reachesoftheriverwithsignificantAu,AgandAs values. Subsequently a robust Pb stream sediment anomaly was identified with several areas of elevated Cu on the Masabo watershed. A5601000ppmCuinsoilanomalywithelevated B, Mo and Pb was tested by four shallow holes in 2000, two of which averaged 0.3 to 0.4% Cu for theirentirelengthandupto1.0%Cuovershorter intervalswithgoldbeingconspicuouslyabsent. The following description is based on a report by Kavalieris(2001). TheMasaboprospectishostedmainlybyfoliated metabasalts of amphibolite facies, which belong to the Karossa Metamorphic Complex (van LeeuwenandMuhardjo,2005).Themetabasalts have been intruded by metatonalite, which
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yielded a U/Pb zircon age of 51.5 Ma (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005), and rare dykes of syenite and related Krich intrusives, which also contain copper mineralization. A larger body of syenite, about 3km in diameter is exposed 1.3km SW of the prospect area. These rocks are cut by postmineralization syenodiorite dykes. The K rich rocks were formed during the MiddleLate Miocene potassic alkaline magmatic event (see 3.2.). Copper mineralization is closely associated with biotitemagnetiteactinolitealbite alteration occurring in several irregular areas distributed over several sq km, without a clear center, and without a typical porphyry zonation. Porphyry type quartz veins (<10% vol %) occur on the margins of mineralized syenite intrusions and are sparsely distributed in the metabasalts. The mainstyleofmineralizationisfinelydisseminated chalcopyrite in microfractures, along foliation in metabasalt, and in quartz veins. In the latter case it infills centerlines in the veinlets and is invariably associated with molybdenite. In addition, chalcopyrite occurs in tourmaline arsenopyritepyrite veins localized by major sub vertical structural zones up to several meters wide, and in galenasphaleritecarbonate veins. Associated with the disseminated style is pyrrhotite and minor pyrite, but the total sulphide content is low (< 23 vol %). The copper mineralization correlates reasonably to zones of stronger biotite alteration. A general paragenesis for the Masabo system may be actinolitealbite biotite magnetite porphyrytype quartz veins with chalcopyritepyrrhotitemolybdenite sericite(minor)polymetallictourmalineand base metal carbonate veins. A close relationship between stages of magmatism and porphyry veining is suggested by the intrusion of mmwide aplitedykesincenterlinequartzveins. TheprospectareaiscutbyaseriesofN120Efault zones, which may be an important control on the porphyry system. They are intruded by post mineral syenodiorite dykes and host large tourmaline and base metal carbonate veins. Oxidation along these structures is about 50m deep, and significantly deeper along tourmaline veins.

4.2.1.3 Comments At both Sasak and Masabo porphyry mineralization is associated with relatively small dykes of potassic calcalkaline to alkaline composition,andrelativelylargebasemetalveins that cover a much broader area. Sasak is Aurich like potassic igneous porphyry systems worldwide, and it is enigmatic why the Masabo system does not contain significant gold. Aurich porphyries are commonly also rich in magnetite, which at Masabo is present in relatively small amounts only. But neither are Sasak and Mamut in Sabah, which have Au (ppm): Cu (%) ratios1. Mamut is hosted by a potassic calcalkaline intrusion. As at Masabo, pyrrhotite is associated with chalcopyrite, and actinolite with secondary pyrite, and tourmaline is common at the Tampang porphyry, 10km SE of Mamut (Kavalieris, 2001). Masabo differs from the other two deposits in lacking porphyrytype quartz veins, and yet significant chalcopyrite mineralization is found disseminated in hairline fractures. In contrast, at both Sasak and Mamut there is a close relationship between quartz vein intensityandgrade(Kavalieris,2001). 4.2.2 Porphyrymolybdenum The only known significant porphyry Mo mineralization in Indonesia is found in the Malala District at the northern tip of the Western Sulawesi Province. The district was discovered during a regional porphyry Cu exploration programme carried out by Rio Tinto in 1973, covering an area of 1,700 km2. Several base metalmolybdenum anomalies in stream sediments from catchments in excess of 15 km2 were obtained, including the Takudan River catchment,whichyielded80#valuesof245ppm Cu, 390 ppm Pb, 340 ppm Zn, and 15 ppm Mo. Followup sampling in 1976 led to an exposure of molybdenite in quartz veins, in an area named Anomaly B. This prospect was investigated in detail between 1977 and 1981, outlining a geological resource of 100 Mt @ 0.14% MoS2, which was well below the minimum target of 150 Mt @ 0.25% MoS2, a target deemed to be economically viable at the prevailing
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molybdenum price. Three other anomalies areas, A, C and K were examined during the same period, involving only surface exploration. Following a surge in the price of molybdenum in the mid2000s renewed interest in the district was shown by Victory West Moly, who initiated an exploration programme in 2007 with the prime focus on Anomaly B. Work carried out up to mid2011 included limited drilling (2100 m) andsurfacesampling. Thefollowingaccountisbasedonanunpublished report by Aspinall et al. (1980), a paper by van Leeuwen et al. (1994), personal communications from L Whitehouse (2009), and media releases fromVictoryWestMoly(VWM). 4.2.2.1 Malaladistrict The geology of the district consists of metasedimentary and volcanic rocks belonging to the Middle EoceneEarly Miocene Tinombo Formation, which has been intruded by a suite of porphyritic rocks, named Malala porphyries. Theseporphyriesoccurintheroofzoneofalarge intrusion, the Dondo batholith, composed of predominantly porphyritic biotitehornblende granite and biotite granite with subordinate quartz monzonite and granodiorite. It was emplaced/cooled around 4 Ma ago. Near some of the intrusive contacts the Tinombo rocks have been altered to biotite hornfels, forming contact aureoles usually of only a few tens of metres wide. In contrast, quartz veining commonly extends for at least 1km beyond the intrusive contact. In places the Tinombo rocks are present asthinroofpendantsand wedgesintheintrusive rocks. The Malala porphyries occur as stocks and dykes. They represent late stage differentiates of the Dondo intrusive suite, and locally display unidirectional solidification textures consisting of subparallel, crenulated layers of quartz that area separated by layers of intrusive material. These textures, which are relatively common in porphyry Mo systems, are probably the result of quenching during cyclic vapor release. Narrow rhyodacite dykes are the youngest magmatic phase. They were emplaced after the main

mineralization event but before the cessation of hydrothermalactivity. The dominant structural trends are NW and NE. The Takudan fault is the most prominent structure in the district, striking 040o to 60o over a distance of about 30 km and passing through Anomaly B. Another prominent fault is the 310o trending AB linear, which connects Anomaly A and B. Northerly and easterly trends are also common, but less pronounced exposed faults, fractures and veins suggest that dips in all four sets are predominantly steep to vertical. The faults appear to have been active before, during and after the emplacement and solidification of the batholith. Sharp truncation of some soil geochemical anomalies indicates post mineralizationmovement. At Anomaly B, alteration and mineralization are erratically developed over an area of 4 km2, predominantly as a shell, up to 50 m thick, at the intrusive contact, with minor mineralization occurring in the Tinombo Formation. Another important control is a series of NW trending, steeplydippingfracturezones,collectivelynamed the East Zone. This zone, which is more than 1850 m long, 30300 m wide and more than 200 mdeep,hoststhebettermineralization(Fig28). Early potassic alteration and silicification is overprinted by sericite/illite and carbonate assemblages. Four stages of vein alteration and mineralization have been recognized: 1) barren quartzKfeldspar; 2) quartzKfeldsparapatite molybdenite; 3) sericitechloritecarbonate and base metal sulphides; and 4) carbonate and kaoline/dickite. Stage 1 veining is multiphase. Early veins are highly irregular, discontinuous and podlike, commonly showing plastic deformation, whereas younger veins tend to have subparallel walls and may be zoned with respect to quartz and K feldspar.Locallytheveinsformstockworkbodies with quartz constituting is up to 85% of the host rock.These occur close to or straddle the SW margin of the East Zone extending vertically over 300mwithamaximumthicknessofabout130m. Stage II vein silicate assemblages are similar to
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the intrusive wallrock groundmass in terms of composition and in the case of quartz also texture, with vein and groundmass quartz locally merging. The nature of the Stage I and II veins combined with the presence of disseminated molybdenite intergrown with primary biotite in the host intrusive and high salinities and formation temperatures of stage I and II fluids, suggests that the ore forming fluids exsolved directly from the crystallizing magma. The dominance of Mo over Cu can be readily explained by the strongly fractionated nature of theintrusiverocks(Sillitoe,1994). On a prospectwide scale there is no distinct alteration and metal zoning, which earlier workers interpreted to indicate that the mineralization and alteration formed in a closed high pressure system with small thermal and chemical gradients. However, recent drilling throughtheEastZonehasshownadistinctlateral zonation, from SW to NE, barren quartz stockworks potassic alteration overprinted by sericitecarbonate containing molybdenite and minor chalcopyrite propylitic alteration with pyrite, chalcopyrite and minor molybdenite galena and sphalerite, suggesting more pronounced thermochemical gradients within the major fault zone. In the northern part of the East Zone bornitemagnetite mineralization is foundatarelativelyhighlevelgradingupwardsin a Zn zone, which may possibly indicate vertical zoningaswell. The Anomaly A prospect is located about 10 km NW of Anomaly B. (This would seem to be the same area referred to as Promitis by VWM, describedasanewdiscovery).Itappearstohave beendownfaultedrelativetothelatterarea,asa result of which much more Tinombo roof pendant rocks have been observed. Another difference is that while at Anomaly B the main intrusiveTinombo contacts are predominantly vertical, at Anomaly A they tend to be more gently dipping. Contact features vary in width fromafewhundredmetrestoseveralkilometers. They include dyke swarms, and shearing, hornfelsing and silicification of the Tinombo rocks.

The prospect is defined by three stream sedimentsoil anomalies. A weak Mo in soil anomaly, covering an area of about 1.5 km2, is located in the northern part. A CuMo anomaly, measuring1200mx600m,isfoundtothesouth. The most prominent feature is a PbZn anomaly which is about 15 km2 in size. Cu is locally anomalous and detectable Au in soil is widespread.ZonesofhigherPb(+1000ppm)and Zn (+400 ppm) are linear and trend 310320o, i.e. parallel to the AB linear, suggesting strong structural control. An interesting aspect is that soil values generally increase with decreasing elevation, suggesting an increase in mineralizationintensitydownwards. Pyrite, galena and sphalerite are widespread, but molybdenite is rarely seen. The total sulphide budget is up to 3 volume % in the most intensely altered area. The sulphides occur as disseminationsandveinletsintheintrusiverocks, coatings on fractures in the metasediments, veins, and mineralized shears. The total sulphide budget is considerable, but nowhere were galena and sphalerite found in sufficient concentrations to be of economic interest. Hypothetically, porphyrytype mineralization may be present at depths, although at the surface there is no evidenceforsufficientgroundpreparation. AnomalyCis locatedabout4kmNEof Tolitoli.It ischaracterizedbya1000mx600mCuMoPbin soil anomaly. Quartz monzonitediorite dykes located about 3 km SW of a dioritic batholith intrude Tinombo metavolcaniclastics. They appear to be randomly orientated, are mostly narrow, and show patchy quartsericite alteration. Pyrite is the dominant sulphide phase occurring as fracture surface coatings in the Tinombo rocks or as disseminations in dykes and surrounding alteration haloes. Traces of molybdeniteandgalenawereobservedinnarrow pyritic shears and minor chalcopyrite in silicified rock. 4.2.2.2Comments Two major classes of porphyry Mo deposits have been generally recognized: 1) high grade, rift related deposits accompanied by Frich, highly
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evolved rhyolitic stocks, and 2) low grade, arc related deposits accompanied by Fpoor calc alkaline stocks or plutons (e.g. Westra and Keith, 1981). Malala closely fits the second category. It differs mainly in its tectonic setting, which for most other Fpoor deposits is believed to be a subductionrelated compressional environment withmantledominatedplutonism(Sillitoe,1980). As mentioned earlier, during the Neogene Western Sulawesi was characterized by a post subduction,extensionalregime.Furthermore,the CAK suites that host the mineralization were most likely derived from melting of lower crustal rocks (eg Polve et al., 1997; Elburg and Foden, 1999; Elburg et al., 2003). However, the granitic rocks associated with the Malala mineralization haveachemicalcompositionthatissimilartothat of other Fpoor deposits, suggesting that magma chemistry may be a more important control than tectonicsetting. 4.2.3 Volcanogenicmassivesulphides In the Sangkaropi district Kurokotype VMS mineralization is present at three localities, Sangkaropi, Rumanga and Bilolo, forming a linear distribution along a SWNE trend. Small scale mining was carried out by the Japanese during World War II. In 1974, Antam embarked on a major exploration programme that lasted for a number of years and involved detailed shallow drilling.Aberfoyleinvestigated thearea aspartof a COW exploration programme that took place between 1987 and 1994. An UTEM survey was carried out, but no significant mineralization was found. The mineralization forms lenses, up to 70 mlongand18mwide,atthecontactofarhyolitic tufflava unit and an underlying andesite unit. The rhyolite unit is overlain by marls containing Middle (?) Oligocene foraminifera assemblages (Jones and Kristianto, 1994) indicating an Oligocene age for the mineralization. Yoshida et al. (1982) recognize two styles of mineralization: i) syngenetic brecciated to stratiform massive sulphide ore, and ii) epigenetic vein and stockworktype underlying the brecciated to stratiform ore. A thin layer of barite covers the orelenses.

Three ore types have been described by Jurkovic and Zalokar (1990): i) yellow ore consisting of pyrrhotite and pyrite and later abundant chalcopyrite with minor amounts of sphalerite, tetrahedrite and enargite; ii) black ore that is composed of pyrite, sphalerite and tetrahedrite and accessory chalcopyrite, chalcocite and galena, and iii) impregnation ore consisting of pyrite disseminated in silicified host rocks. Quartz is the dominant gangue mineral. Yoshida etal.(1982)reportawide rangeoffluidinclusion filling temperatures, including 250o160o C for stockwork ore, 184o160o C for sphalerite, and 280o to 200o C for druse quartz in stratiform ore; the latter temperature range is typical of Kuroko mineralization in Japan. Assuming that the maximum temperature of mineralization was about 280o C and taking into consideration the lack of boiling phenomena, the authors conclude that ore deposition took place at a sea depth of notlessthan640m. 4.2.4 Goldinmetamorphicterrains Relatively coarsegrained highpurity alluvial gold derived from metamorphic complexes in the northernpartofWesternSulawesiiswidespread, but most important in the Moutong and Molosipat catchment area in the Malino Metamorphic Complex and in the Upper Lariang River that has its catchment in the Palu Metamorphic Complex. In both areas auriferous quartz occurs as lenses and layers, up to several metres thick along foliation and as narrow (generally <0.5 m) crosscutting veins. In the former area the veins are predominantly hosted bygreenschist,whereasinthelatterhighergrade metamorphic rocks are the host (Kavalieris et al., 1992). In the Malino Metamorphic Complex the cross cutting veins fill gashes and form irregular stockworks, consistent with hydrofracturing. They were formed after ductile formation and peak metamorphism, probably during uplift and extension of the metamorphic terrain. Ag/Au ratios are typically <1 (Kavalieris, 1991). Kavalieris et al. (1992) point out that the gold mineralization is comparable to mineralization in the Otago Schist, New Zealand, described by Henleyetal.(1976).
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and mineralization/alteration Figure 28. Cartoon showing geology distributionatMalalaporphyryMoprospect

of Awak Mas district showing Figure 29. Simplified geological map prospectlocations(modifiedafterQuerubin, 2011)

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Figure30.SimplifiedgeologicalmapofPalopo districtshowingprospectlocations

prospect with interpreted vein and Figure 31. Summary geology of Mangkaluku alterationzones(afterMclean,2010)

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 holes MLD006 showing interpreted Figure 32. NWSE section through drill sheetedveinsystem;locationofsectionshown inFigure31(afterMcLean,2010)

Figure33.SimplifiedgeologicalmapofPoboya prospect(PTCitraPaluMining)
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The alluvial and hard rock gold has been known for many years to local miners. More recent is the discovery of three primary mineralization prospects/districts i.e. Poboya in the Palu Metamorphic Complex, and Palopo and Awak Mas in the Latimojong Complex and adjacen rocks.Thesethreedepositshaveseveralfeatures in common: 1) they are located close to a major structure; 2) there is no spatial relationship with volcanic rocks; 3) Ag/Au ratios and base metal contents are low; and 4) quartz and carbonate are the dominant gangue minerals. Paboya appears to have formed at a higher structural levelthantheothertwodeposits. 4.2.4.1 AwakMasdistrict(Figure29) The following account is based on Katchan (1994), Archibald et al. (1996), Cox et al. (1998), RGSGlobal(2004),andQuerubinetal.(2011). The Awak Mas deposit is located together with four satellite prospects in the foothills of the Latimojong Mountains, 67 km southwest of Palopo. The project area is characterized by moderate to rugged topography with elevations in the range of 800 to 1,500 m above sea level. Extensive preexisting workings infilled with mechanically crushed sand have been encountered in drilling. The age of these workingshasnotbeenascertained. The deposit was (re)discovered in 1989 by New Hope Consolidated Industries Pty Ltd (NHCL) during a regional exploration programme. In 1991, Battle Mountain Gold entered into a farm in agreement with NHCL. Initial drilling of 74 diamond drill holes outlined significant mineralization. However, Battle Mountain decided to withdraw from the project and sold their interest to Lone Star Exploration (LSE), who in turn on sold 45% interest to Gasgoyne Gold mines NL (GGM). The two companies drilled 791 holes (DDH and RC) at Awak Mas with an aggregate meterage of about 95,800m between 1993 and 1997. In 1996, a feasibility study was undertaken based on a 3 Mt per annum mining and milling rate. In 1998 Placer Dome entered into a joint venture agreement with Masmindo Mining Corporation Ltd (MMC), in which LSE and

GGM each held 45% equity. They withdrew a year later after having drill tested two of the satellite prospects, viz. Salu Bulo, where a geologicalresourceof160,000230,000ouncesof gold was outlined, and Tarra. A total of 43 holes with an aggregate meterage of about 3,400 m weredrilled. The project was acquired by Vista Gold Corporation in 2004. This company carried out various studies and in 2006 drill tested two other satellite prospects named Rante and Lematik, which involved drilling of 13 holes totaling around 2,570 m. In late 2009, after having assumed the development for the Awak Mas project, Pan Asia Resources Ltd (since renamed One Asia Resources Ltd) embarked on a drilling programme with the aim of upgrading the inferred resource category into a measured and/or indicated category. By mid 2011 75 holes (5,137m)hadbeencompleted. In all, 1,012 holes totaling 118,081 m have been drilledandoverUS$30millionhasbeenspent. The Awak Mas district is situated in the southern part of the Latimojong Complex. To the west it is separated from the Eocene Toraja Formation by an easterly dipping thrust, whereas the eastern margin is defined by a major basement structure (mlange) against which the Lamasi Ophiolite Complex is juxtaposed. The Latimojong Complex comprises the weakly metamorphosed Latimojong Formation, an Upper Cretaceous turbiditic flysch sequence with intercalations of andesitic volcanics and limestone, and higher grade metamorphic basement rocks, including blueschists and other schist types, serpentinite and metadolerite, showing in places highly contorted foliation. The metamorphic units are intruded by plugs and stocks of diorite, monzoniteandsyenite,probablybelongingtothe NeogenehighKcalcalkalinetoalkalinesuites. The basement rocks belong to a midCretaceous dismembered accretion zone that extended from Central Sulawesi and through to the Bantimala Complex in Java (Parkinson et al., 1998). In the Awak Mas district drilling has indicated that the basement rocks form an approximately 250 m
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thick slab, which is tectonically intercalated withintheflyschsequence.Inthisareatheflysch rocks are foliated metapelites and metapsammites with protoliths including graphitic mudstone, predominantly greenish mudstone to siltstone, and finegrained lithic sandstone. The sequence is capped by foliated, coarsegrained, tuffaceous sandstone, which is largely confined to ridge crests. Sheared/mylonitic intervals occur as interbeds oriented parallel to subparallel to foliation, frequently between major structures. These are represented by a series of NNE to NE trending, parallel to subparallel, subvertical fault zones. Syn to postmineralization movements have resultedinthedisplacementofmineralizedzones in the Awak Mas prospect. Early dextral displacement appears to have shifted subsequentlytowardssinistralmovement. Gold mineralization in the Awak Mas district is predominantly hosted within the Upper Cretaceous flysch sequence that generally dips 15o to 50o to the north. It is commonly associated with abundant quartz veining and accompanied by albitepyritequartzcarbonate alteration which overprints ductile fabrics. Mineralization is preferentially localized in the dark graphitic mudstones with minor amounts in the green mudstones, especially where these rocks are tectonically interleaved with the dark mudstones. It also is found in the basement schists and associated with shear zones in the ophiolite sequence. Oblique normal faults, as well as extensional shears and fractures, formed in response to extensional deformation, serve as local control to mineralization as does the orientation of the host foliation. The depth of oxidationismaximum20m. Two main styles of mineralization are present, both being mesothermal in character; one as shallow dipping zones of sheeted quartz veining andassociatedalterationthatarebroadlyparallel to the shear fabric, particularly in the dark mudstones, and the other as steeper zones associated with high angle faults cutting both basement schists and the flysch sequence. The steeply dipping faults and shear zones are associated with repeated silica flooding and

brecciation. They may represent the main feeders to mineralization where higher grade gold intercepts are closely related to elevated valuesofsilverandothermetals. The results of limited mineralogical studies suggest that gold occurs as either inclusions in pyrite,oralongcontactsbetweenpyritegrains.It also occurs together with trace amounts of chalcopyrite and sphalerite as inclusions within the pyrite. Other sulphide species observed are covellite, arsenopyrite, bornite, and tetrahedrite. Although the mineralization is predominantly a goldpyrite association, the alteration system is overall sulphurpoor. Mineralized quartz veins are surrounded by an outer chlorite alteration halo and inner albitecarbonate halo. The term chlorite alteration is probably misleading as this type of alteration marks the oxidation of carbonaceous matter to carbonate, which is accompanied by a change in colour from grey/black to green. The chlorite/oxidation front extends from a few meters to a maximum of 10 m from the mineralized veins. The well developed oxidation front and rare presence of hematite attest to the oxidizing nature of the mineralizing fluids. Carbonate species in wall rock and veins include calcite, ankerite and dolomite. They are probably mostly derived locally by oxidation of the host rocks. Intense albite alteration forms haloes around mineralization varying from a few tens of centimeterstoameterwide. Archibald et al. (1996) note that the flysch sequence is unlikely to be a source of the gold owingtothelowgoldcontentsgenerallyinherent tothesetypesofsedimentaryrocks.Ifthesource of the fluids was the Neogene potassic igneous suites, potassicrich assemblages would be expected as alteration products. A more likely sourceforthefluidsarethebasementblueschists and associated serpentinites and/or adjacent ophiolites. Intense sodic metasomatism invariably accompanies low/medium temperature seafloor hydrothermal alteration, an environment where gold being leached from the basalticgabbroic rockswouldbeexpected.
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 Archibald et al. (1996) and Cox et al. (1998) infer that the gold mineralization took place between 86 Ma based on crosscutting relationships, radiometric dating and superimposition of likely fluid temperatures on fission track uplift curves. The radiometric age and fission track data are fromBergmanetal.(1996). The current Measured and Indicated Mineral Resources at Awak Mas amount to 41.7 Mt at 1.23 g/t au and additional Inferred Mineral Resourcesto20.4Mtat0.82g/tAu,inbothcases usingacutoffgradeof0.50g/tAu. 4.2.4.2 Palopodistrict(Figure30) The following description has been summarized from a report written by Mclean (2010) , information provided by P. Flindell (written com., 2008)and a recent paper by Musri et al (2011a), which is based on a MSc thesis carried out by the seniorauthor(Musri,2001). There are anecdotal reports of prospecting for gold and base metals in the region during the Dutch colonial times and of gold panning in the Latuppa River in the 1960s. In the course of a stream sampling programme carried out by Antam in the region in the late 1990s a number of AuPbZnCu anomalies were located. Follow up exploration led to the discovery of the Mangkaluku and Siguntu prospects, located about 6 and 10 km southwest of Palopo respectively, and several other prospects. Trenching at Mangkaluku outlined extensive widths of gold mineralization, but drill testing (11 holes, 1831 m) of these zones returned mostly narrow mineralized intercepts, and Antam subsequentlyrelinquishedtheground. Following a review of the geological and exploration data for the region Avocet selected a 150,000 ha area in CW Sulawesi in 2005, which after a preliminary assessment was reduced to the Palopo block. Trenching and channel sampling was carried out at Mangkaluku over outcropping mineralization as well as anomalous areas identified by soil sampling, which was followedup by a 12 hole drilling programme. As

with the Antam drilling it did not confirm the surface extent of the mineralization, possibly reflecting nearsurface supergene enrichment, although the rocks are not deeply weathered. Ownership of the property changed hands in 2010/11 via Reliance Resources Ltd to Golden PeaksResourcesLtd. The geological setting of the Palopo district is similar to that of the Awak Mas district; the mineralizedareastraddlestheboundarybetween mafic volcanics belonging to the Lamasi Ophiolite Complex and metasediments of the Upper Cretaceous Latimojong Formation, which have been intruded by the latest Miocene Palopo Granite. The granitoids are of monzonite to monzodiorite composition and show weak foliatedtextures. At Mangkaluku, gold mineralization is hosted by quartzcarbonate veins containing pyrite and arsenopyrite (<3%), that are controlled by faults and shears developed predominantly within coarse, porphyritic monzodiorite. The veins are concentrated in two NNE to NE trending zones, each comprising both numerous discrete, in places close spaced sheeted quartz veins as well as multiple vein zones (Figures 31 and 32). Vein zones are 0.5 m to tens of metres wide, with individual veins within the zones varying from 5 to 30 cm in width. The western zone measures about 300 m by 100 m, and contains moderately to steeply WNW dipping quartzsulphide veins. The eastern zone is more laterally extensive but less continuous. It contains both vein zones and individual veins of variable orientations. Both mineralized zones are commonly displaced by latercrosscuttingfaults. Three main alteration assemblages have been recognizedatMangkaluku:i)biotite+/Kfeldspar actinolitequartzchlorite (potassic); ii) quartz chloritesericite (phyllic), and iii) quartzchlorite epidoteactinolitecalcite (propylitic). The potassic alteration is overprinted by the other two types. Narrow alteration vein selvages (1.5 cm) are best developed in volcanic host rocks compared to intrusive host rocks, and where veins are closely spaced. Alteration assemblages include albitesericite, carbonatechlorite,
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sericitesilica and carbonatechloritekaolinite. Highergoldgradeswouldappeartobeassociated with silicasericite assemblages. Carbonate phasesaredominatedbydolomiteandankerite. Mineralization occurred in multiple episodes as indicated by banded veins and cross cutting vein relationships. This and the variety in vein orientations may reflect a changing stress field during mineralization. The much stronger vein developmentinthemonzodioriteascomparedto the volcanics suggests that the more competent nature of the former facilitated more effectively thedevelopmentofdilationalfaults.Atleastfour generations of veining have been recognized, the oldest having porphyrytype affinity. Gold mineralization is closely associated with arsenopyrite and pyrite and with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, covellite and chalcocite in two vein generations. Gold is present as electrum and is accompanied by argentite. High gold values in some veins are related to supergene enrichment in the top 5m, where scorodite is a common constituent. Arsenopyrite occurs as bands within massive quartz veins and within laminated quartz veins which contain only minor sulphide. Carbonatesappearlateintheveinparagenesis. Fluid inclusion measurements on 19 vein samples yielded three ranges of homogenization temperatures;i)140oand170oC;ii)200oand270o C; and iii) 280o and 340o C. Salinities vary from 0.2% to 6.2% wt NaCl equiv. No information is available regardingfrom what vein material and which generations of veining the data were obtained. At the Siguntu prospect, located about 5 km SW of Mangkaluku, the mineralization occurs in massive to crystalline quartz with accessory pyrite and base metal sulphides hosted in the contact zone between foliated monzonite and metasediments. They may be the equivalent of theporphyrytypeveinsobservedatMangkaluku. Alteration haloes around the veins are relatively narrow selvages of silicachlorite and claysilica sericite. No drill testing has yet been undertaken because of forestry issues, but artisan miners havebeenactive.

Other prospects include Bilantungan (hosted by basaltic andesites and metasedimentary rock), Mangkaluku North (faulted contact between monzodioriteandmetasedimentaryrocks),Babak (monzodiorite), and Battang. These have undergonelimitedexplorationtodate. The age of the mineralization in the Palopo district is constrained by the age of the Palopo Granite, which has yielded 3 biotite KAr ages of 5.40.2to6.80.3Ma,fourhornblendeKArages of6.00.3to10.71.1Maandthreezirconfission track ages of around 6.3 Ma (Bergman et al., 1996).Thustheageofthemineralizationislatest Mioceneoryounger. 4.2.4.3 Poboya(Figure33) Discovered by Rio Tinto in 1994, the Poboya prospect, also known as Palu prospect, was drilledtestedin19961998(33holes,7966m),by which time a Taman Hutan Raya (Great Forest Park) was established, the western border of which cut through the prospect area. Mining is not allowed in this type of park. More recently the area, which at the time of its discovery was not known to contain gold, has witnessed a high level of local mining activity. Because of these two factors, no significant explorationwas carried out between 1999 and 2010, during which period ownership of the project changed hands twice (Newcrest and Bumi Resources). A resource and reserve delineation programme started in September2011andisexpectedtobecompleted bymid2012(Wajdietal.,2011). The following account is largely based on reports byMarten(1999)andWalkerandAngeles(1999), an information memorandum prepared by Newcrest Mining (2004), and a paper by Wajdi et al.(2011). The prospect is interpreted to consist of a number of gently SWdipping sheetlike quartz carbonate bodies that are exposed in three main areas and are referred to as Reef 1, 2 and 3..The reefsstrikeWNW,havestrikelengthsofupto2.5 km,andareupto200mwide.
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The mineralization is hosted by variable foliated, brittle monzonite and biotite gneiss, passing downward into ductile chloritebiotite schist with intercalations of feldsparporphyroblast schist, belonging to the Palu Metamorphic Complex (PMC). The schists contain a strong tectonic fabricthatis paralleltothefoliationin thebiotite gneiss. Young fanconglomerates (Celebes Molasse) drape the metamorphic basement to the west and contain fragments of quartz reef materialandalteredcountryrock. Veining at the Poboya prospect displays a progression from metamorphic, synductile deformation veining, through porphyrystyle propyliticveins,toauriferouscalcitequartzveins. The latter type, which is the most important one from an economic point of view, shows typical highlevel epithermal vein textures, such as colloformcrustiform banding, bladed carbonated pseudomorphs, gellike chalcedonic quartz, and bladed and blocky calcite. The common presence of bladed carbonate in outcrop and drill holes suggests the mineralization investigated todate representsarelativelyshallowpartofthesystem. Individual veins are very variable in terms of thickness (1cm to >10m), orientation and grade distribution. The main vein in Reef 1 (also referred to as River Vein Zone) is enveloped by an up to 20 m wide zone of Aubearing chalcedonic quartzcarbonate stockwork veining, with vein thickness in the 15 cm range. The relationship between the two vein styles has not yetbeenestablished. Gold is generally not visible in hand specimen, even not in outcrop containing bonanza grades, including 150 m @ 15 g/t and 55 m @ 47 g/t Au (not true widths). It is present as inclusions in pyrite and as anhedral grains up to 50 microns in diameter. Ag/Au ratios are on the order of 1:2. Pyrite is present in trace amounts only, and no base metal sulphides have been observed. Thin lines of greyish finegrained sulphides are commonly observed along vein edges. A coincident Au+Sb+As+Ag+Mn soil geochemistry anomaly clearly defines the trace of the reefs. A limited amount of oriented core measurements suggest a dominant ENE strike of individual gold bearing veins, dipping to the SW at moderate to

steep angles. A geological resource of about 18 Mt@3.4g/tAuhasbeenestimated. Argillic wall rock alteration is primarily associated with the veining. Spatially, and probably also genetically,relatedtothemineralizationisazone of kaolinitedickitesilicaalunite alteration. The alunite is hypogene in nature. It contains high atmospheric argon indicating dominance of meteoric hydrothermal fluids. It probably represents acid leaching above a boiling water table. An alunite sample yielded a KAr age of 1.65 Ma and the postmineralization fan conglomerates contain a Pleistocene planktonic fauna (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). This evidence combined with the fact that the host rocks of the mineralization were metamorphosed and exhumed only 73 Ma ago (van Leeuwen et al., in prep.) suggests a Late Pliocene age for the mineralization. The structural setting of the Poboya prospect is very complex. Drilling has defined a gently to moderately SW dipping fault zone termed the Footwall Fault (FF). This fault displays post mineral movement truncating mineralized zones and containing fragments of mineralized rock. It probably also had synmineral movement and is thought to be the primary conduit for gold bearing fluids. The FF is marked by a 2030 m thick zone of gauge and strong fracturing. It overprints and generally mimics an earlier ductile fault zone marked by mylonite. Relatively thick fault zones with moderate to steep dips, some hosting quartz veins, are interpreted to be splays of the FF having listric geometry with respect to the latter. The area is also transected by high anglefaultzonesstrikingENEandNW. Thestructuralframeworkhasbeeninterpretedto have been developed in response to extension above a detachment fault, which was driven by rapid uplift of the metamorphic complex to the east of the Palu Fault Zone with resultant gravitational collapse along early ductile low anglefaults.Astheelevatedrockcolumncooled, faulting transitional from ductile to brittle deformation developed with superimposition of brittle structure onto ductile mylonitic fault zones. Initiation of a pullapart basin along the
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PaluFaultZonewestofPaluprobablymarkedthe beginning of highangle extensional faulting in thearea. 4.2.4.4 Comments As mentioned earlier, the origin and classification of the Awak Mas, Palopo and Poboyadeposits is problematic. For convenience sake we refer to these deposis as the central Western Sulawesi(CWS)golddeposits. P. Flindell (written com., 2008) and McLean (2010) suggested that Mangkaluku is an orogenic lode deposit. The former notedsimilarities between Poboya and highlevel orogenic gold depositsfoundinPeninsularMalaysia. Originally, the orogenic model applied strictly to syntectonic vein type deposits formed at mid crustal levels in compressional or transpressional setting related to accretionary/subduction or collisional processes (cf Robert et al., 2007). However, the term has been progressively broadened to include deposits that are post orogenic relative to processes at their crustal depth of formation. This has led to significant ambiguity. Sillitoe and Thompson (1998) have pointed out that orogenic deposits are often difficult to distinguish from intrusionrelated deposits which formed directly from fluid exsolution during granitoid emplacement within metamorphicrocks. Using the expanded classification, McLean (2010) assigned the gold mineralization in the Palopodistrict to the orogenic gold category on the basis that; 1) the mineralization is mesothermal in character, 2) gold is associated with late stage sulphurpoor sodicrich fluids producing albitepyritesilicacarbonate alteration, and 3) gold mineralization is structurally controlled in sheeted and stockwork quartz veins located within shear zones and late stage brittle fractures related to a regional tectonic event.Musri et al. (2011) on the other hand favour an intrusionrelated origin for the mineralization, which they suggest formed proximal to the source intrusion based on its low Ag/Auratios.

An extensional setting is envisaged by Marten (1999) for the Poboya deposit. He interprets the structural framework to have developed in responsetoextensionaboveamajordetachment fault driven by rapid uplift of the metamorphic (core) complex. Alteration and mineralization resulted from a hydrothermal system initiated by juxtaposition of hot lower plate rocks with cool upper plate rocks along a detachment fault. Proximity to metamorphic core complexes and associated detachment faults has been observed in a number of gold deposits and prospects elsewhere in the world, including in the SE California/SW Arizona region (e.g. Spencer et al., 1986), the eastern Rhodope Massif in Bulgaria (Marchev et al., 2002), and the Modern Massif in Turkey (Yigit, 2009). Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003), who note that most of the Au veins are not hosted by the detachment faults themselves, assign these deposits and prospects to the low sulphidation epithermal class. A different model is proposed by Wajdi et al (2011), which envisagesthatthemineralizationisrelatedtothe retrorade stage of a contact metamorphic event.This eventt is characterized by epidote formationfollowed by chlorite and relatively strong development of quartzchloritepyrite veining, and late stage calcite and chlorite smectite. Assuming that indeed such a genetic connection exists and our interpretation that the Poboya mineralization is of Pliocene age is correct, it follows that it is most likely that the contact metamorphicmineralizing event was caused by CAK magmatism. In this context it is of interest to note that mineralization of similar character to the Poboya mineralization has been foundassociatedwithCAKgranitoidsatAnggasan tothenorth oftheMalalaporphyrymolybdenum district(Purnomo,1998;NewcrestMining,2004). Archibald et al. (1996) and Cox et al. (1998) propose a model for Awak Mas whereby the mineralization was induced by the onset of rapid uplift following soon after Miocene continental collision, which resulted in the obduction of the LamasiOphioliteComplexoverthebasementand the Latimojong Complex. The rapid uplift induced hydraulic fracturing in zones of high D2
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strain. Circulation of hydrothermal fluids occurred in response to the regional high geothermal gradient associated with the rapid uplift of the Latimojong Mountains. These fluids areinferredtohavebeenofmetamorphicand/or meteoricorigin. In summary, several models have been proposed for the CWS gold deposits invoking either an orogenic origin, a direct or indirect connection with igneous activity, rapid uplift and associated high geothermal gradient, or gold deposition caused by detachment fault tectonics. The CWS deposits have a number of features in common with orogenic gold deposits. In addition to the ones listed by McLean (2010), these include a tendancy of higher gold grades to be associated with carbonaceous rocks, as seen at Awak Mas, and salinities of < 12% observed at Mangkaluku, and a spatial association with greenschist facies rocks (cf. Goldfarb et al., 2005). The main objection we have against the orogenic gold model for the CWS deposits is that they were formed more than 50 my after the tectonic event that metamorphosed (part) of the host rocks, whereasorogenicgolddepositsmostconsistently develop in the latter stages of still ongoing regional deformation in the host metamorphic terranes(Goldfarbetal.,2005). The other models have in common that they are linked to various aspects of the Pliocene tectonic event that took place in Western Sulawesi, including voluminous magmatism, rapid uplift and high heat flow. The fact that in some places, like in the Palopo district and at Anggasan, the gold mineralization is hosted by young CAK granitoids does not constitute by itself evidence for a direct connection. If the porphyry type alteration/mineralization observed at Palopo forms part of the same magmatic/hydrothermal event that gave rise to the later stages of gold mineralization, this would support more strongly sucharelationship. Based on the above observations were have assigned the CWS deposits to the intrusion related gold deposit category in the broadest sense, without implying any specific genetic model. Regardless of their origin, they appear to

be one of the more interesting deposit types in Western Sulawesi from an exploration point of view. 4.2.5 Intrusionrelatedbasemetalgoldveins Examples of base metal gold veins that are not located around (known) porphyry Cu systems are foundatBaturappeandEsang. At Baturappe, which was already known in the late 1960s (Supardi, 1970), more than 20 quartz veins hosted by late MiddleMiocene basalts intruded by adioritegranodiorite stocks and numerous dykes occur in three zones: Bincanai, Baturappe and Bangkowa. These have been described by Nur et al. (2010). Individual veins are narrow and consist of quartz, siderite and sulphides showing multiphase crustiform banding. Bincanai and Bangkowa contain intermediate sulphidation assemblages (pyrite, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite tennantite, galena, sphalerite and polybasite, whereas Baturappe also locally contains enargite and covellite indicating a high sulphidation component. Fluid inclusion formation temperatures for the three veins systems are 2300C, 2800C and 2600C respectively.The average salinityis2.2wt%NaClequiv. Esang was found by North Ltd in the late 1990s by following up BLEG, stream sediment and pan concentrate anomalies. Since 2004 Antam has carried out investigations in the prospect area, including detailed mapping, trenching, IP and ground magnetic surveys, and limited drilling. The following brief description is based on an unpublished North report (PT North Mining Toradja,1998) and a paper by Aryani and Sinaga (2010). The geology of the area consists of metasediments and metavolcanics belonging to the Upper Cretaceous Latimojong Formation, which are intruded by monzonite and diorite. The rocks have undergone extensive silicaclay pyrite and chloritepyritecarbonate alteration and are cut by a prominent NWtrending fracture
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zone. This is also the main trend of the mineralization, which occurs as veins, up to 2 m thick, in (meta)volcanics and as millimeter to microsize foliation replacement in metasedimentsina500mlongzone. Gangue minerals consist of varying amounts of quartz, carbonate and sericiteclay. The mineralization is sulphiderich with pyrite and pyrrhotite as the dominant phases. Minor chalcopyrite and arsenian pyrite are also present. Gold grades range between 1.0 and 98.6 g/t, and coppergradesbetween0.2and18.7%.Theveins are also locally high in Zn and As. Aryani and Sinaga (2010) suggest that the mineralization formedasacupolaoveranintrusivebody. 4.2.6 Iron Several ironrich skarns have been found in Western Sulawesi including at Salo Talimbangan inthecentralpartoftheprovince,whichisrichin iron (60%) and contains some copper, but is very irregular and of limited size (van Bemmelen, 1949). Small magnetite bodies are found near Tandjung in SW Sulawesi associated with garnet, pyroxene and epidote alteration (Widi et al., 2007). The magnetite, which locally shows malachite staining, occurs both in massive form and as disseminations. The skarn is developed in a small tectonic block of PreTertiary metamorphics (Jaya and Nishihawa, 2011) which are intruded by the Biru Intrusive Complex from whichMiddleEoceneandLateMioceneKArages have been obtained (van Leeuwen, 1981; Elburg et al., 2002). Widi et al. (2007) report Fe grades varyingfrom59%to67%. A different type of iron deposit is present at Biru, located 5km NE of Tandjung. It consists of secondary manganiferous ironstones formed afterhydrothermalmagnetiteandsulphides.The prospect was investigated in the mid1970s (including limited drilling) by Rio Tinto with base metal mineralization at depth as the target. Recently a domestic company initiated explorationtotesttheprospectsironpotential. The following account is mainly based on an unpublished report by van Leeuwen (1976) with

additionalinformationobtainedfromA.Sumantri (pers. comm., 2011) and a paper by Widi et al. (2007). Numerous manganiferous ironstone bodies occur scattered over an area of about 5km2 and locally containsignificantquantitiesofsecondaryPband Ag minerals. The area is underlain by Eocene volcanics and Eocene to Middle Miocene limestone (Tonasa Formation), which have been intruded by andesitic dykes and are partly covered by Neogene volcanics. They are mostly concentrated along three E to NE trending fault zones.Individualbodiesvaryinlengthfrom10to 200 m, in aggregate totaling about 4 km, and in widthfrom2to50m.Thewideroutcrops,which are unconformably covered by Late Miocene and younger volcanics and volcaniclastics, rapidly diminish in size with depth. In the southern part of the area the ironstones form large sprawling masses. Their depth extent depends on the host rocks: about 36m in volcanics and >80m in limestone. The manganiferous ironstone was formed over a series of discontinuous, steeply dipping veins at the contact of Middle Miocene andesite dykes and along fracture zones in the Paleogene volcanics and limestone. The veins are generally less than 5 m thick, and consist of disseminations, small blebs and veinlets of argentiferous galena, pyrite, arsenopyrite, magnetiteandminor chalcopyriteand pyrrhotite. Galena also occurs as lenses and short veins. Quartz and carbonate are the dominant gangue minerals. In addition magnetite and (primary) hematitesilica bodies up to 10 x 15 m in diameter are present in the limestone, probably mostly as cavity fillings. Based on geologic relationships the age of the mineralization is MiddleMiocene. The ironstones consist of, in order of abundance, goethite, manganese oxides (predominantly pyrolusite and coronadite), secondary quartz, hematite, magnetite, cerrusite and various copper and lead arsenates. Their iron content variesfrom30%to54%,manganesefrom0.2%to 12%,andsilicafrom2%to24%. Petrographic examinations show a complex history of oxidation and reduction with some
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magnetite being replaced and surrounded by hematite followed by a phase in which some hematite was converted back to magnetite before the rock was subjected to further surface oxidation.Thisinturnsuggestsacomplexhistory of weathering> burial> weathering (Figure 34). The presence of ironstone pebbles in Late Miocene volcaniclastics unconformably overlying the volcaniclimestone sequence indicates that initial weathering and ironstone formation took placepriortothedepositionofthevolcaniclastics (stage 1). The large, sprawling masses may have formeddirectlyatthesurfaceormorelikelyafter deposition of the Late Miocene volcanics had started (Stage 2). As pointed out by Blanchard (1962), unconformities of flat attitude near the earths surface are especially favourable to the formation of such mushrooming ironstone deposits. He attributed this to ready circulation along the unconformity contact and different chemical compositions of rock units on either side of it. During continuing burial oxidation changed to reducing conditions. Subsequent uplift and erosion removed most of the volcanic cover and some of the ironstone, which was subjectedtorenewedoxidation(Stage3). 4.3 EasternSulawesiProvince Mineralization types found in Eastern Sulawesi are mostly associated with the provinces large ophiolite masses. They include lateritic nickel and iron deposits, and primary and secondary chromite deposits. A few small pieces of Cu bearing siliceous rock found near Lampea, south of Malili, are probably also derived from ophiolitic rocks (van Bemmelen, 1949). In addition alluvial and primary gold are known to occur in a few localities, mostly notably at Bombana, the origin of which has not yet been established. Figure 35 shows where most or the known mineral deposits and occurrences are located. 4.3.1 Nickellateritedeposits The total exposure of ophiolite rocks in Sulawesi is one of the largest in the world. This combined with favourable climatic, topographic, vegetation

and structural control conditions have given rise to the formation of a large number of deposits of varying size, from a few million tonnes to >200Mt, the largest of which are found in the Soroako, Pomalaa, Bahodopi and LaSampala areas (Table 6). Information used for the followingdiscussionwasobtainedfrompapersby Golightly (1973, 1981), Harju (1973), Melky Budiantoro et al. (2010), Rafianto and Tutuko (2010) and Rafianto (2011), and written communications from M. Hartley (2011), Suratman(2010),andG.Tutuko(2011). Ultramafic rock exposures, the principal parental rock for nickel laterite development, are present inthreeforms: i) As large irregular masses, the largest of which is found in the Lake Area District (Lakes Mantano, Towuti and Mahalona) covering several thousand sq km. This body contains the Soroako, Bahodopi and La Sampala deposits. ii) As imbricated tectonic slices following the general structural grain of the obduction complexinwhichtheyoccur. iii) As small irregularshaped and isolated bodies which commonly appear to be aligned along regional trends, as for example SuaSua, Pao PaoandPomalaa. Laterite development is controlledby six main factors: i) nature of the ultramafic parent rock; degree of serpentinization; iii) climatic conditions (rainfall, temperature); iv)degree of faulting, fracturing, shearing, and jointing in the bedrock; v) geomorphology; and vi) rate of ersosion.Favourable geomorphological landforms (which are an important guide in the initial exploration phase) include plateaus, terraces, rollinghills,andgentlehillflanksandridgespurs. From north to south there is a distinct change in geomorphological character. The East Arm is an extremely rugged terrain, up to 3000m high, consisting of peridotite horst blocks and molasse filled graben structures, which is undergoing rapid active erosion, resulting in a highly dissected topography. These conditions do no favourextensivelateritedevelopmentconditions.
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Figure34.DiagramshowingthedevelopmentofmanganiferousironstonesatBiru

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 Figure 35. Eastern Sulawesi. Distribution of mineralization types, and location of deposits and prospects mentioned in the text; for symbolsseeFigure5

Figure 36. Simplified geological map of Bombana area showing location of artisanal miningandcolluvial/primaryAuSbmineralization(modifiedafterSuronoandTang,2009)
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 Table6.MainnickelresourcesinEasternSulawesi
Name Bahodopi BahubuluIsl LaSampalaSouth Pomelaa Soroako Material saprolite saprolite limonite saprolite limonite limonite saprolite saprolite saprolite Source:vanLeeuwenandPieters(2011) Volume(DWT) 200,000,000 17,500,000 103,000,000 51,000,000 111,000,000 222,000,000 60,000,000 26,000,000 55,000,000 138,000,000 Grade(%Ni) 1.86 2.30 1.53 2.10 1.41 1.45 1.65 1.74 1.88 1.30

Table7.Mineraldeposittypes:distributionintime
Pliocene latestMiocene Porphyry CuAu; porphyry Mo; high, intermediate and low sulphidation epithermal AuAg; intrusionrelated Au; intrusionrelated basemetalAu;NiFelaterite;Au,CrandFeplacerdeposits. Porphyry CuAu; FeAuCuskarn; intrusionrelated base metal Au; Mn ironstones. SedimenthostedAu. CuZnPbvolcanogenicmassivesulphides. ?SedimenthostedCu. PrimaryCr.

LateMiocene

MiddleMiocene oryounger Oligocene Eocene Cretaceous

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The central region, comprising the Soroako Bahodopi La Sampala ultramafic terrain, has experienced relatively less uplift. Some large up faulted or arched areas have local relief in excess of 600m and are being actively eroded. Other areas, in particular the Lake Area District comprise extensive lateritecovered plateaus which are partly capped by ferricrete and have dissected peripheral areas with well developed nickelbearing saprolites. Movement along the leftlateral Matano strikeslip fault caused the blocking off the northward drainage along the Tamalako valley to form the lakes. This in turn caused a rise in base level, thus retarding erosion and helping preserve laterite deposits in the district. In the Southeast Arm the topography is older and relatively subdued, a favourable condition for deep lateritic development. However, as the ultramafic bodies in this region are mostly small, individual deposits are also generallysmallinsize. The weathering profile commonly varies from 5 to 30m in thickness. At Soroako, the laterite deposits form remnants of once extensive erosional surfaces at different topographic levels, with the thickest laterite development usually occurring on the lower levels. These levels host numerous internally drained, swampy depressions that may be filled with transported limonite, in places overlying buried Crrich cemented pisoliticduricrust. At La Sampala South, an unusually thick laterite profile has developed, which is up to 70m thick and overlain by an up to 9m thick ferricrete layer. The deposit occupies a large depression. Most of the nickel is residual following removal of large amounts of SiO2 and MgO during the weathering of the host rocks. This process is most effective in cases wherethehostrockisserpentinizedandsheared, causing significant volume collapse. Hypogeneserpentinization (i.e. preweathering) already leaches some SiO2 from the protore, in contrast to supergene serpentinization. Saprolites after hypogeneserpentinized protores tend to have relatively high melting points, and hence such material is probably best suited for hydrometallurgicaltreatment.

The Sulawesi laterite deposits fall into two categories: i) those developed over unserpentinized bedrock, usually harzburgite (e.g. Soroako West, La Sampala North), and 2) those formed over bedrock containing from 20% to 90% serpentinized olivine, usually lherzolite, (e.g. Soroako East, Bahodopi, La Sampala South). In this paper we refer to them as type I and II respectively. Ultramafic rocks originally containing a high proportion of forsteritic olivine, which host a Ni content of between 0.2 and 0.4 wt %, constituteparticularly good protoliths. The laterite profile in both types consists of an upper limonitezoneandalowersaprolitezone. The limonite zone is the oldest layer in the profile. It is similar in either deposit type including a usually <1m thick discontinuous ferricrete cap, the main difference being that stringers of quartz are commonly found only in type 1 and the limonite in this type tends to have a yelloworange colour as compared to the darkerbrown or yellowbrown colour of type II limonite. The average Fe content of the limonite zone is typically on the order of 4546.5%. The values are highest in the top part and decrease gradually toward the bottom of the zone. A sharp drop in the Fe content marks the boundary with the saprolite zone. Because of their solubility SiO2 and MgO occur in relatively small amounts (<10 and 3% respectively). Average Ni contents of limonite material are typically in the 0.9 to 1.2% range, with the highest values (1.3 1.5% Ni) occurring in the bottom part, which is usually <5m thick. Over the unserpentinized peridotite (type I) the limonite is separated from the saprolite zone by a thin limonite band with around1.6%Ni. The saprolite zone shows more variability between the two protolith types. Saprolite from type I contains cores of unweathered harzburgite with yellow to orange saprolite rims and fracture fillofgarnierite,quartzandMnO.Thisorecanbe substantially and cheaply upgraded by screening out the fresh rock material. Type II saprolite can be divided into immature or hard saprolite, which can be similar in appearance as bedrock but shows a different geochemical signature, including higher Ni, and mature or soft
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saprolite, which is composed of soft, friable material and in some cases difficult to distinguish visually from the overlying limonite zone. Soft saprolite usually overlies hard saprolite, but the reverse may also be the case. Generally the Ni content of rocky saprolite is lower than that of soft saprolite (e.g. Bahodopi: average 1.44% versus1.87%).ThesaprolitezoneintheSulawesi deposits is generally 5 to 10m thick and has averageNigradesof1.7to2.3%. 4.3.2 Felateritedeposits A number of laterite deposits in Eastern Sulawesi have low Ni contents (<1%) and can be classified as iron laterites. Exploration programmes conducted by the Netherlands Indies Government between 1916 and 1921 resulted in the discovery of about 10 deposits, the largest of which is located on the right bank of the Larona River, near Lake Towuti. This deposit was investigated in some detail outlining measured reserves of 370 million with an air dried content of 49% Fe. Extensive metallurgical studies were undertaken from 1918 to 1926, but the lack of coking coal in the Indonesian region, suitable for the blastfurnace process, proved to be a major stumbling block. New processes subsequently developed in Germany and Holland, which did not require the use of coking coal, were never put to the test in Sulawesi because of the outbreakofWorldWarII. The iron laterite deposit at Larona has been described by Dieckmann and Julius (1925). It occurs in a tectonic depression within a peridotite terrain, which in earlier times was covered by water. During that time the laterite deposit developed, covering an area of about 25km2andvaryinginthicknessfromafewmeters to20m. 4.3.3 Chromite Chromiteoccursinanumberoflocationsassmall lensshaped bodies hosted byperidotite. The largest reported deposit is found near Lataoe on the coast, containing 3000t @ 50% Cr2O3 (PSDG, 2010).

Of greater economic significance are placer deposits found along a +30km stretch of the east coast, in the Bungku area, about 200km north of Kendari. The following brief description is based on Asia Pacific Mining (1990), Utoyo (2010) and Toreno(2010). The chromite deposits occur as old beach and strand line deposits located 50 to 400m inland from the present day beaches. They lie on a basement of barren marine gravel and extend to surface or rarely are covered by <1m of recent swamp material and soil. The chromite is accompanied by magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, quartz, and peridotite fragments. The heavy mineral suite is contained in sands, sandy gravel and their clay rich soil equivalents with a thickness of 1.5 to 3.5m. The chromitebearing layers increase in thickness towards the coast. Chromite contents vary from 1 kg/m3 to 29.2 kg/m3,averaging13kg/m3. 4.3.4 Gold Up to recently, the only reported gold mineralizationwasalluvialgoldinAerLagegoand Leboni area (Dieckmann and Julius, 1925). In Aer Lagego, located north of malili, float consists mostly of metamorphic rocks, milky to clear quartz, and minor granite. Alluvial gold grades of up to 400 mg/ cu m were obtained. The Leboni area is located close to the boundary with Western Sulawesi, from which the gold may have been derived. Alluvial gold was observed in the 2 km wide valley of S. Tedeboe with local reports suggesting it to be present over a distance of 10 km. In 2008, a sudden gold rush took place in the Langkowala area (Bombana Regency) following the discovery of placer gold (Figure 36). It involved initially about 20,000 traditional miners, a number that swelled the next year to more than 63,000 (Surono and Tang, 2009). Gold is recovered from both active stream sediments and paleoalluvial material contained in the Lower Miocene Langkowala Formation (Celebes Molasse). Gold grains have subrounded to angular shapes (Makkawaro and Kamrullah,2009). Reported grades range from
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0.16to22.12g/m3(www.esdm.go.id;1622010). The gold is accompanied by cinnabar with both mineralsgenerallyshowingapositiverelationship Gold is also found in colluvial material on the northern slopes of the nearby Rumbia mountain range (Idrus et al., 2010). This area is underlain by various metamorphic rocks, including mica schists, amphibole schists, metasediments, metavolcanics and serpentinizedperiodite, which have undergone greenschistfacies metamorphism, and in places contain Aubearing quartz veins (Idrus et al., 2010;Setiawan et al., 2011). The primary gold mineralization has been described by Idrus et al. (2010), Setiawan et al. (2010), , Musri et al. (2011b), and Idrus and Prihatmoko(2011). There are at least three generations of quartz veins.Thefirstgroupconsistsof2cmto2mthick veins that are roughly parallel to the foliation of mica schists, phyllites and metasediments in up to 10m wide zones. They are commonly massive tocrystalline,andsheared,brecciated,andlocally boudinaged. The second group is composed of narrow (<20cm), more massive quartz veins that cross cut the first generation of veins and foliation. They show a fair degree of brecciation and contain rare bladed carbonate pseudomorphs. The third group consists of laminated quartzcalcite veins, which are interpretatedtobelatestage. The host rocks are generally weakly altered. Alteration types include silicification, clay sericitesilica, which is largely restricted to narrow(<1m)veinselvages,carbonatealteration, and carbonization. Carbonate alteration is characterized by calcite veinlets/stringers, and carbonization by the rare presence of graphite withinoradjacenttoquartzveins. The quartz veins and silicified wall rocks contain very finegrained pyrite, chalcopyrite, cinnabar, stibnite, tripuhyite (a FeSb oxide mineral), and rarearsenopyrite.Onlysmallamountsarehosted by the quartz veins. Cinnabar commonly occurs as thin layers along the foliation of metamorphic rocks. Stibnite and tripuhyite fill fractures parallel to the the foliation and are disseminated within

silicified wallrock. Gold is mostly very fine grained, but is occasionally visible as free gold in quartz veins. It appears to be erratically distributed with grades varying from below detection limit (0,005g/t) to 134 g/t. Available evidence suggests that the bulk of the gold is associatedwiththe2ndand3rdgenerationveins. Base metal values are consistently low, while arsenicisdistinctlyanomalous. Preliminary fluid inclusion data presented by Idrus and Prihatmoko (2011) show the following homogenization and salinity values: 1st generation veins, 184 to 245 C, 5.3 to 9.1 wt% NaCl eq; 2nd generation, 132 to 283 C, 3.6 to 5.9wt% NaCl eq; and 3rd generation, 114 to 176 C,0.35wt%NaCleq.Thegeneraldecreaseinfluid temperature and salinity is attributed to mixing of magmatic and metamorphic fluids with cooler, less saline fluids. CO2rich fluid inclusions are rare. As pointed out by Idrus et al. (2010) the gold in the alluvials and paleoalluvials is likely to be derived from the quartz veined metamorphics because of i) the juvenile nature of the alluvial gold grains, indicating limited transport; and ii) increasing abundance of gold grains in the colluvial material inan upslope direction, anda decreasein gold content in present stream sediments away from the metamorphic rock outcrops. A>100mlongand10mthicklensofcoarse(upto 10cm)stibnitecrystalsoccursinthevicinityofthe alluvial workings in altered Neogenecalcarenites near the faulted contact of the metamorphic terrane and close to a hot spring. The stibnite is accompanied by galena and minor chalcopyrite. Goldwasobservedasnuggetsinthecalcarenites at a depth of 20m in a hole drilled beneath the stibnite lens (Musri, pers. com., 2011; Musri et al.,2011). 4.3.4.1 Comments The origin of the primary gold mineralization at Bombano is not certain as it has been subjected to only preliminary studies. Idrus et al. (2010) and Idrus and Prihatmoko (2011) suggest that it
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may belong to the orogenic gold type based on its (spatial) association with greenschist facies metamorphics and the sheared/deformed, segmented, and locally sigmoidal nature of the 1st generation quartz veins. They interpret the presence of stibnite and cinnabar to indicate that the mineralization is transitional between mesozonal and epizonal mineralization, and suggest that pressure conditions at this relatively shallow level were not sufficient to preserve C02 in the hydrothermal fluids. ( The common presence of CO2 in fluids is often used to distinguish orogenic gold from other major types of gold deposits).Stibnite is a common sulphide phase in orogenic gold deposits hosted by meta sedimentaryrocks,whichmayalsobeenrichedin mercury, reflecting the association of Hg, aswell as Sb, As, and Au, with sulphur ligands in low salinity hydrothermal fluids (Goldfarb et al., 2005). Setiawan et al. (2010) interpret the mineralization to postdate the regional metamorphic event as indicated by the crosscutting relationship of the (2nd generation) veins with the foliation of host rocks and by the replacement of muscovite by epidote and quartz by calcite adjacent to the veins. They link it to postorogenicmagmatic/hydrothermalactivity. Based on the limited information at hand we proposethefollowingspeculativescenerio.There have been at least two mineralizing events; pre Neogene, as evidenced by the occurrence of gold in the Neogene paleoalluvials, and Neogene or younger, as indicated by the presence of the stibnitegold vein that is hosted by Neogene calc arenites. The earlier event produced the 1st generation veins hosted by the metamorphic complex, which may be of orogenic origin. The younger event generated stibnitegold veins hosted by both metamorphicc basement rocks and overlying Neogene sedimentary rocks. The veins are epithermal in nature and associated with volcanism. Surono (written comm., 2011) observed large (>2.5m) boulders of unaltered andesite in the Bombana area (north of Kasiputih) and notes that this rock type has not been found as fragments in conglomerates of the Neogene formations that surround the

metamorphic complex, suggesting that a young volcanic event took place in the area. The hot waterspring may represent the waning stage of thisevent. Clearly, much more work is required to gain a better understanding of the nature and origin of the mineralization in this newly discovered gold district. 5.0 Discussion In this section we discuss some aspects of the metallogeny of Sulawesi and topics related to mineralexplorationandminingintheregion. 5.1 Distribution of Sulawesi mineral deposits inspaceandtime While establishing the distribution of Sulawesis mineral deposits and prospects in space is relatively straightforward, their time distribution is more problematic, as only a few deposits have been accurately dated. If the age of the host rocks is known this will give a maximum age for the mineralization, or if the two are genetically related, the actual age, whereas the age of spatially associated postmineralization rocks provides a minimum age. Using these criteria and data presented in the previous chapter we have assigned the various mineralization types to broadagebrackets(Table7). Northern Sulawesi is characterized by the presence of mineralization types that are commonlyassociatedwithcalcalkalinemagmatic arcs. These include porphyry CuAuMo, high intermediate and lowsulphidation epithermal AuAgveinandbreccia,intrusionrelatedAubase metal vein, FeAu skarn, and VMS deposits. Erosion of goldbearing rocks and volcanics has resulted in the formation of alluvial Au and Fe beach sands deposits respectively. The only mineralization style that is unusual for Sulawesis island arc setting is Carlinlike sedimenthosted Au. As can be seen on Figure 6, known mineral deposits and occurrences are not evenly
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distributed within Northern Sulawesi. This is related to both geological and nongeological factors. Areas of PleistoceneRecent alluvial and volcanic cover rocks appear to lack mineralization, as do large batholiths. The Paleogene Papayato Volcanics host only insignificant younger gold mineralization, and a few small contemporaneous VMS deposits. The majority of the deposits and prospects appear to occur in areas of Middle Miocene Pliocene rocks. The absence of porphyry Cu deposits in most of the Minahassa section is probably becausethisregionislessdeeplyerodedthanthe Gorontalo section. There appears to be a noticeable concentration of gold deposits in the areawheretheNorthArmbendsintoanortheast direction. Both northeast and nortwest graben structures are well developed in this area, suggesting that these extensional structures have influenced the distribution of gold mineralization. An example of a nongeological factorinfluencing the spatial distribution is the location of the large NaniWartaboneNationalPark,eastofGorontalo. Very few deposits/occurrences have been recorded from this area, with the exception of the Tombulilato and Tapadaa districts, which werediscoveredpriortotheestablishmentofthe park in 1991. Furthermore the high concentration of deposits and occurrences found in the central part of the Gorontalo section reflects, at least inpart, the fact that this area has been covered by more than one regional survey, including the systematic exploration programme carried out by Newcrest in the 1990s. Pearson andCaira(1999)noteatotalof184prospectsand mineral occurrences in this region, comprising the following mineralization types; porphyry Cu Au (39 occurrences), porphyryrelated veins (44), skarn (9), intermediatesulphidation epithermal Au (31), highsulphidation epithermal CuAuAs (3), gold and base metalbearing hydrothermal breccias (37), and sedimenthosted gold (12). Of these, 31 prospects have been drill tested, the others are mostly small occurrences for which no information is available. Figure 7 in Pearson and Caira(1999)showstheirdistribution.

A conceptual model for the mineralization types observed in Northern Sulawesi is shown in Figure 37. The Pliocene was in terms of both quantity and quality the most important mineralizing epoch in Northern Sulawesi (Table 7). All known economic and subeconomic deposits were formed during this time (with the possible exception of Mesel), e.g. Toka Tindung, Riska, Bolangitang, Gunung Pani and the Tombulilato porphyry systems, which represent the main mineralization styles in the province. Many of the hydrothermal breccia deposits were also generated during the Pliocene (Pearson and Caira, 1999) together with some intrusion (porphyry)relatedAubasemetalveinsystems. A number of metaldeficient porphyry CuAuMo systems developed during the Late Miocene. Locally extensive skarn mineralization, also with low metal grades (e.g. Matinan6), are associated with these systems. In contrast, peripheral base metalAu veins commonly have high gold grades. A number of these have been mined in the past by the Dutch or are still being exploited by local miners, such as Paleleh, Sumalata and Kasia. Some of the Miocene systems are cut by younger (Pliocene?) intermediatesulphidation veins and also by superimposed peripheral porphyry related veins, which attests to contemporaneous rapid rates of uplift, leading to telescoping of mineralizationtypes(PearsonandCaira,1999). The only example of mineralization older than midMiocene is VMS mineralization hosted in the upper (latest Oligocene earliest Miocene) part ofthePapayatoVolcanics. The age of the sedimenthosted mineralization at Mesel is poorly constrained. A Middle Miocene age of the host limestones and andesites which cut them and are altered near the contact with the ore bodies gives a maximum age for the mineralization. Turner (2002) reports the presence of Early Pliocene andesite intrusions in the Ratatotok district, but their relationship to themineralizationhasnotbeenestablished. Pliocene gold and copper deposits are also dominant relative to other periods elsewhere in SE Asia. It has been suggested that this reflects
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increased likelihood of erosion with increasing age (e.g. Sillitoe, 1989; Carlile and Mitchell, 1994; Garwin et al., 2005). Barley et al. (2002) point out that although erosion will certainly remove older nearsurface ore deposits, prePliocene volcanic and highlevel intrusive rocks are common in SE Asian arcs with little evidence that they were richly mineralized.They suggest another factor that played an important role is a major tectonic reorganization that has occurred in the SE Asian region since about 5 Ma, and that in Northern Sulawesi this led to subduction reversal with subduction being initiated at the North Sulawesi trench. In such a setting, local extension may result from slowing subduction on one side of the volcanic arc and incipient subduction on the other. This would induce melting of subarc mantle that had been both metasomatized and previously melted by earlier episodes subduction, with such magmas being intrinsicallygoldrich(Solomon,1990). Such a scenario is favoured by Perello (1994) for the Tombulilato district. He suggests that the reversal of arc polarity was caused by the collision of the Sula microcontinent with Sulawesi. Pearson and Caira (1999) believe that strong dextral tension caused by the collision, at the close of the Miocene, led to arc parallel rifting. Sinistral reactivation of major early structures in the Pliocene caused further rifting and ENEdilation with Pliocene intrusions and related mineralization exploiting these dilational settings. Western Sulawesi differs from Northern Sulawesi in both the types and number of known mineral deposits and occurrences (Figures 25 and 38). A notablefeatureofitsmetallogenyistheapparent lack of significant highto lowsulphidation epithermal AuAg mineralization. Another differencewithNorthernSulawesiisthepresence of a mediumsized porphyry Mo deposit and several gold deposits of uncertain origin, tentatively referred to in this paper as intrusion related Au deposits. More obviously intrusion related deposits occur around several small porphyry CuAu systems and other intrusions. In contrast to the intrusionrelated Au type, they

contain significant amounts of base metals and aregenerallysulphiderich. The (apparent) poor development of volcanic arc related mineralization in Western Sulawesi is rather puzzling. During the Neogene the region witnessed widespread and intensive shoshonitic to ultrapotassic (HK) magmatism. This magmatic type has elsewhere produced major porphyry copperandgolddeposits(e.g.MullerandGroves, 1993; Sillitoe, 1997). Potassic alkaline igneous suites are generally thought to be formed by melting of subarc mantle that has been extensively metasomatized by fluids from earlier subduction events, which may generate fluid rich, highly oxidized magmas and destabilize mantle sulphides to release Cu and Au (McInnes andCameron,1994). Muller and Groves (1993) discuss four different tectonic settings in which potassic igneous rocks occur together with their associated mineralization. These are: 1)late oceanic arcs (examples; Ladolam gold deposit in Papua New Guinea and Emperor gold mine in Fiji); 2) continental arcs (Cripple Creek gold district in the USA and the Chilean Andes porphyry Cu province); 3) postcollisional/postsubduction arcs (Porgera gold deposit, Grasberg and OK Tedi porphyry CuAu deposits in New Guinea);and 4) within plate tectonic setting (no direct genetic association with economic gold or base metal mineralizationknown). Asdiscussedearlier,theNeogenetectonicsetting of Western Sulawesi is a matter of disagreement, some workers favour a synto postcollisional setting related to the docking of the Sula microcontinent or another continental fragment with Sulawesi (e.g. Kavalieris et al., 1992; Bergmanetal.,1996;Polvetal.,1997),whereas others believe it was mostly extensional in character and more akin to a withinplate setting (e.g. Yuwono et al., 1988; Hall, 2009; van Leeuwen et al., 2010). However, the setting is distinctly different from the withinplate setting in Muller and Groves (1993) classification (which includes the African Rift) in which potassic volcanic rocks, unlike their Western Sulawesi
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Figure 37. Conceptual model for mineralization types in the Northern SulawesiProvince

Figure 38. Conceptual model for mineralization types in The Western SulawesiProvince

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brethern, do not display a geochemical subductionsignature. Whatever the nature of the Neogene tectonic setting of Western Sulawesi it appears to have been conducive to generating the intrusion related Au mineralization. Rapiduplift , voluminous CAK magmatism, and high heat flow may have played a role in their formation. While a direct genetic connection between this magmatism and the gold mineralization has not been established, a broad spatial relationship exists in that the more significant gold prospects occur in the CAK granitoid belt, as do the porphyry molybdenum prospects.There is also a temporal relationship; both the granitoids and the CWS gold and Malala molybdenum prospects formed during the latest MiocenePliocene. It is worthnotingthepresenceofanumberofalluvial gold occurrences in the granitoid belt between Palopo and Palu. It is tempting to speculate that the gold is, in part,derived from mineralization that is similar to that found at Awak Mas, MangkalukuandPoboya. Regarding the formation ages of the other mineralization types in Western Sulawesi, porphyry Cu and associated skarn and base metalgold vein mineralization appears to be related to potassic alkaline magmatism, which took place between about 14 and 5 my. Hence this is the maximum age bracket of the mineralization. The manganiferous ironstones at Biru developed over a relatively long period, ie Middle Miocene to Recent., and the Kurokotype mineralization at Sangkaropi formed some time duringtheOligocene. Differences in the nature of the basement (cf Garwin, 2000) may be one of the reasons that Northern and Western Sulawesi have developed as distinct metallogenic provinces. The Northern Sulawesi and Sangihe arcs are built on oceanic crust. Most Cu and Au deposits formed within and adjacent to highlevel intrusions, which are emplaced in Neogene volcanic to volcaniclastic sequences. The thin nature of the oceanic crust facilitated the ascent of causative intrusions to a relativelyhighcrustedlevel.Incontrast,Western Sulawesi is largely underlain by thick continental

crustwiththemajorityofdepositsandassociated intrusions being hosted in Eocene and older formations. This suggests that the heat sources responsible for the palaeohydrothermal systems were largely confined to deeper crustal levels. Garwin (2000) suggests that magmatic arcs that overlie transitional zones between continental and oceanic crusts are sets of weakness and a potential focus of mineralization. This type of setting appears to favour largetonnage and low grade disseminated and vein stockwork, intermediatesulphidation gold deposits like GunungPani. The distribution of most of Eastern Sulawesis known mineral deposits and occurrences is obviously closely linked to the location of peridotite exposures. Other controlling factors in the case of NiFe laterite deposits include topography and rates of uplift and erosion. Because of economic reasons areas located relatively close to the coast have been more thoroughly explored than the hinterland, which probably explains why most of the known (or at least reported) Ni deposits are found within a radiusoflessthan10kmfromthecoast.Theages of the Ni and Fe laterite deposits have not been accurately established. Golightly (1979) estimated that about 15 Mawere needed to form the laterite profilesat Soroako. He suggested that the laterization process started earlier in the southeastern part of Eastern Sulawesi than further north. As mentioned above, limited evidence suggests that gold mineralization at Bombana took place both prior andduringoraftertheNeogene. 5.2 Discoveryhistoryofmineralizationstyles Here we discuss when in Sulawesi the more important mineralization types were first found (and recognized as such). A summary is presentedinTable8. Like in many other parts of the world, the oldest known mineralization type is represented by low/intermediate sulphidation epithermal gold veins. This style was first documented from Sumalata in Northern Sulawesi (van Schelle,
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1983), but is likely to have been known to the localpopulationforamuchlongerperiod. From an economic point of view, the next discovery has been the most important in Sulawesis exploration history, namely the discovery of Nilaterite in Eastern Sulawesi in 1916. It resulted from the recognition that the extensive ophiolite exposures found some years earlier had the potential to give rise to Ni and Fe laterite deposits. Around the same time base metalAuveinswerefoundintheSasakarea. After more than 30 years of hardly any exploration activities porphyry Cu mineralization was discovered at Sasak in 1969 and soon afterwards in the North Arm. It was at a time when this typeof mineralization had become a major exploration target in various other parts of the world. An unexpected outcome of the porphyry Cu search during the 1970s was the discovery of the Malala porphyry Mo deposit, a type of mineralization that had previously not beenreportedfromtheSEAsianregion. The 1980s witnessed the discovery of three new gold mineralization styles, i.e. highsulphidation epithermal Au at Motomboto, sedimenthosted (Carlinlike) mineralization at Mesel, and intrusionrelatedAuatAwakMas. Like the discovery of Malala, Mesels was unexpected as sedimenthosted style gold mineralization had previously not been reported from Indonesia (although it was known to occur in the Bau district in Sabah), and furthermore it was the first example of such style occurring in a volcanic island arc setting. It was probably no coincidence that the discovery was made by Newmont,acompanywithvastexperienceinthe exploration and mining of Carlin deposits in Nevada. Less of a surprise was the discovery of highsulphidation style mineralization at Motomboto as Northern Sulawesi has the right setting. It is in fact more surprising that this type had not been found earlier as it commonly forms distinct topographic features (silica ledges) and long float trains of silica material. It is possible that earlier prospectors found highsulphidation mineralization but did not pursue it because of

the generally low gold grades associated with it. The intrusionrelated Au style is, as discussed earlier, of uncertain origin. Some characteristics which distinguish it from the low base metal variety of intermediatesulphidation epithermal mineralization are Au/Ag >1 and no apparent associationwithcontemporaneousvolcanics. The most recent discovery is either low sulphidation Au style, which was foundat Toka Tindung in 1994 (at the time low and intermediatesulphidation styles were still grouped together).,or possibly, pending further studies,orogenicAuatBombana. What next? Will it be nickel sulphides, which since 2008 have become a prime exploration target of PT Inco (Rafianto et al., 2011), or perhaps sedimenthosted copper in the Copper Slates of CW Sulawesi? Or will indications of anomalous Sn, W, Zr and Ta values in many stream sediment samples collected from Banggai and Labulo islands in the BanggaiSula Province (Sukmana, 2006) lead to the discovery of mineralization types which have as yet not been recognized in the Sulawesi region? Only time will tell. 5.3 Discoverymethods In this section we discuss what the first indications were that led to the discovery of the more significant porphyry Cu/Mo, gold and nickel deposits in Sulawesi since 1967. These include Old Dutch reports, local mining activity, local knowledge, stream sediment and/or pan concentrate anomalies, mineralized float, and remote sensing. In several cases more than one factorcanbeattributedtoadiscovery(Table9). Initial area selection for gold and nickel exploration was based in a number of cases on the reported presence of mineralization, often sites of past mining activity (Dutch, artisan mining). Examples include G. Pani, Mesel, Doup, Lanut, Soroako and Pomalaa. In other cases, virgin areas were selected on the basis of their perceived favourable geological setting, which resulted in the discovery of several new mineralizeddistricts,e.g.Tombulilato,Malala,
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 Table8.Mineraldeposittypes:yearofdiscovery
Mineralizationstyle Yearofdiscovery (prospectname) IntermediatesulphidationepithermalAuAg LateriticNiandFe IntrusionrelatedbasemetalAu PorphyryCuAu PorphyryMo HighsulphidationepithermalAu SedimenthostedAu IntrusionrelatedAu LowsulphidationepithermalAu OrogenicAu(?) Pre1831 1916(Soroako,Pomelaa) 1916(Sasak) 1969(Sasak) 1976(Malala) 1984(Motomboto) 1988(Mesel) 1989(AwakMas) 1994(TokaTindung) 2009(Bombana)

Table9.Discoveryfactors
DepositStyle Tombulilato Tapadaadistrict Bulagidun Sasak Masabo Malala Binabase Motomboto Riska GunungPani Lanut Doup Tototopo TokaTindung Mesel AwakMas Poboya Palopo PorphyryCuAu PorphyryCuAu PorphyryCuAu PorphyryCuAu PorphyryCu PorphyryMo HSepithermalAu HSepithermalAu HSepithermalAu ISepithermalAuAg ISepithermalAuAg ISepithermalAuAg ISepithermalAuAu LSepithermalAuAg SedimenthostedAu IntrusionrelatedAu IntrusionrelatedAu IntrusionrelatedAu 1 V V V V 2 V V 3 V V V V V V V V V 4 V V V V V V V 5 (V)

1=Dutchminearea;2=localknowledge;3=geochemicalstreamsedimentsampling; 4=floatobservations;5=geophysicalmethods 92

Toka Tindung, south Sangihe, Bahodopi and La Sampala. Almost all porphyry districts/deposits were initially identified as the result of reconnaissance stream sediment geochemical sampling of major drainages, primarily as base metal anomalies (in the 1970s stream sediment samples were not routinely assayed for gold). As the mineralized areas were covered by dense tropical rain forest with very poor rock exposure, detailed followup sampling of 2nd order streams was required to locate the source of the anomalies. After that the normal sequence of methods applied was: soil sampling (contour or grid), pitting, trenching and ground geophysical survey, and drilling. Gunung Lintang and West Kayabulan Ridgeare the only examples of a porphyry target being initially identified from an airborne magnetic survey. There are no documented cases of geophysics having played a significant role during the prospect evaluation stage of porphyry systems. As seen at Tombulilato, in a single porphyry Cu district styles of host rocks and mineralization/alteration can differ significantly. Similarly, surface expressions of adjacent porphyry bodies can vary widely within a very short distance with patterns of leaching and enrichment being controlled by features of the geology which cannot be seen or assessed at an early stage of exploration. As an example, at Cabang Kiri and Cabang Kiri Northwest three porphyry systems are present which have low sulphide contents. As a result formation of copper oxides and enrichment has taken place in theweatheringzone.Becauseofthepronounced Cu anomalism these systems were quickly identified during the initial exploration stage, but subsequently proved to be of little interest. In sharp contrast, nearby Cabang Kiri East, which has a higher pyrite content and relatively inert alteration assemblages, has been strongly leachedandsignificantsecondaryenrichmenthas occurredbelowthezoneofoxidation.Asubdued geochemical base metal surface expression and lack of outcrop made this orebody invisible during the early followup stage. Gold in soil subsequently proved to be an excellent

pathfinder (Lowder and Dow, 1978). Another exampleisKayubulanRidge,whichyieldedstrong geochemical anomalies, but no geological indications despite occurring in steep terrain. A number of experienced geologists knowing the copper anomalies were there walked past this area in 1973 looking hard for the source but failingtofindit(TvL,unpublisheddata). Stream sediment sampling has been a less dominant factor in the gold discoveries made in Sulawesiduringthepast30years(Table9). One of the more interesting gold discovery histories is that of Mesel in which local knowledge played a key role. Outcropping mineralization at Mesel was sampled by the Dutch with shallow trenches and pits, but the prospect was not pursued, probably because of the refractory nature of the gold. More than 60 years later, Newmont applied for a COW area over the Ratatotok district. Following initial disappointing results from the Lobongan and Alason areas, Steve Turner, who was the project manager at the time, showed a collection of typical goldbearing rocks to several local field assistants. Two of them remembered having seen similar rocks while working for a logging company a decade earlier, in an area located 2.5km to the west of Hais. The area was prospected for a few days. Channel samples taken over 25m from very ordinarylooking silicified limestone returned an average grade of 8.9 g/t Au. (Hendri and Farmer, 1997). After that Newmontneverlookedback. As mentioned above, Newmonts exploration activity was initially directed at old Dutch workings located about 2.5km from Mesel, which produced highly anomalous Au results in both BLEG and stream sediment samples. In contrast, Mesel was barely detected by BLEG sampling, andnogoldwasdetectedinpannedconcentrates or80 mesh silt. Furthermore hardly any altered float was observed (Turner et al., 1994). Thus had it not been for local knowledge Mesel may nothavebeen(re)discovered. Turner et al. (1994) attributed the lack of gold in stream sediment and panconcentrate samples to
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two factors: the micronsized nature of the gold and the host rocks being limestone. In the weathering zone the mobility of gold was greatly reduced as oxidizing fluids were chemically buffered to a nearneutral pH by the limestone soils. Shallow auger sampling results showed no apparent downslope hydromorphic dispersion of the gold in soil anomalies. Furthermore, any coarser free is likely to have been trapped in cavitiesinthekarstedlimestone. Another example ofthe discovery of a gold deposit with subdued geochemical expression in which local knowledge played a significant role is Toka Tindung (Moyle et al., 1997a). During the initial broadspaced reconnaissance drainage sampling of the general district no pannable gold was observed and stream sediment samples produced only very weakly anomalous to below detection gold results. A 4.9 g/t Au float sample was followed up in an attempt to find its source, but only sparse outcrops of silicified, pyritic volcaniclastics were observed and quartz vein floatabundancewaslessthan1%.Subsequently, a local field assistant (Ako) guided the team to a place where local people had once attempted to dig a shallow shaft. A 2 by 2m wide banded quartzadularia vein outcrop was discovered and named the Ako vein, at what is now known as the Toka Tindung deposit, returning 2m @39.2 g/tAuand21g/tAginsemicontinuousrockchip sampling. The first drill hole drilled after additional surface work returned 49m @ 2.7 g/t Au. BLEG and finefraction stream sediment sampling failed to detect secondary gold shedding from Toka Tindung due to the presence of a younger, widely spread, mantlebedded tephra which had largely covered the gold deposit and diluted the surrounding drainages with barren volcanic sands and silts. Thus the keys to discovering Toka Tindung were good prospecting skills in finding a very small amount of mineralized vein float and local knowledge which resulted in the discovery ofthesource. Poboyaisthethirdexampleofawellmineralized outcropping body (including 55m @ 47 g/t Au) that yielded only a weak geochemical response.

In 1992, Rio Tinto selected the Neck of Sulawesi for a rapid BLEG sampling (maximum 1 sample per 25 sq km) combined with80 +200 mesh and 200 mesh stream sediment sampling. This region, which had previously been sampled during the companys porphyry copper search in NW Sulawesi when samples were not routinely assayed for gold, was deemed to be suitable for this type of survey because of its favourable logistic, geomorphological and geological conditions: coastal roads on either side of a relatively narrow mountain range lacking widespreadpalaeoalluvials,likeinKalimantan. The sample collected from the Poboya river, which cuts the deposit, yielded only subdued anomalism: 27 ppb Au and 51 ppb Ag in BLEG, and5ppmMoin200#streamsedimentanalyzed by NAA. Stream sediment samples were not anomalous in Au and Ag in either fraction. There was no obvious sign of quartz vein float. The reason for this very subtle geochemical/geological fingerprint is that the Poboya area is covered by thick deposits of poorly consolidated sediment (Celebes Molasse) immediately downstream of the outcropping mineralization, resulting in significant dilution of mineralizedmaterial. In the case of Awak Mas it was a combination of stream sampling and evidence of past artisan mining that resulted in its discovery. In the mid 1980s, New Hope Consolidated Industries selected an area for reconnaissance stream sediment sampling in the Luwuk District. During the course of this programme evidence was found of extensive past artisan mining activities, resulting in the identification of a number of drainage basins requiring further investigation. A major drainage survey undertaken in 198889 outlined seven anomalous areas, one of which was Awak Mas, which was subsequently identifiedbyrockchipsampling. Two high sulphidation gold discoveries were the direct result of tracing mineralized float back to its outcrop source, i.e. Binabase and Riska. The first indication of mineralization in the Binabase area, which did not have a previous history of exploration or local mining activity, was the
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presence of boulders of massive gossanous material and barite observed on the nearby coast in 1987. The source was subsequently found a few km inland. Soil sampling gave encouraging results, leading to trenching that returned up to 34m @ 5.2 g/t Au, 39 g/t Ag, and 52m @ 2.2 g/t Au and 55 ppm Ag (Swift and Alwin, 1990). In the case of Riska, one of Newmonts field teams traced float back to a ridge formed by silica alunite altered tuffs. The prospect was subsequently named Riska, after one of the discoverersgirlfriend(Nugrohoetal.,2005). Nickel laterite deposits that had not already been identified by the Dutch were subsequently discovered by remote sensing methods, mostly aerial photography and Landsat interpretation (Taranik et al., 1978), followed by ground checking. Aerial photography and Landsat interpretation assisted in outlining areas underlainbyultramaficrocksandwithfavourable geomorphological features. Interestingly, while La Sampala North was identified by this method, it failed to recognize La Sampala South. As mentioned earlier, this deposit does not have the typical morphological expression of most Sulawesi deposits, but instead occurs in a swampy depression. However, it was readily identified during subsequent false colour Landsat image interpretation, showing up as a distinct redcolour anomaly, which reflectedthe abundant development of ferricrete in this area (TvL, unpublisheddata). 5.4 Explorationtrends Mineral exploration is carried out in several stages, from regional reconnaissance surveys and initial follow up, through districtsize exploration, to prospect and detailed deposit investigations. A company can initiate exploration at any of these stages, depending on a number of factors, including the amount of information available, available opportunities, market conditions, companystrategy,etc. Regional reconnaissance and initial follow up surveys, mainly for porphyry Cu deposits, dominatedmineralexplorationinSulawesiduring the 1970s and first half of the 1980s. At the time

very litlle was known about the mineral potential of the region, and hence regional surveys were the only way to generate targets. The early work outlinedseveralporphyryCuAuandModistricts. Thesecondhalfofthe1980sand1990ssawamix of regional surveys and more detailed investigations, this time with gold as the main target. A number of significant gold discoveries were made during this period. Since early 2005 the focus has been on advanced exploration of known gold prospects, some of which have had a long history of exploration. The main reason for this is that following the drastic downturn in exploration activities in the late 1990s a number ofprospects becameavailableatrelativelylowor no costs. This combined with rising commodity pricescreatedsomeattractiveopportunities. ThehistoryofNilateriteexplorationis somewhat different. Initiallyin the 1970s, it involved both investigations of known districts and regional exploration and was carried out by two companies, viz. INCO and Antam. Significant resources were outlined at the known Soroako and Pomalaa districts, a large new deposit was discovered at Bahodopi, and a few smaller ones were found at several other localities. Activities were at a low level during the 1980s and 1990s with the exception of Rio Tintos review of the Ni laterite potential of Eastern Sulawesi, which resulted in the discovery of the important La Sampala district. When nickel prices started to rise in 2004, activities picked up again. This time smaller domestic companies were leading the way, exploiting relatively small laterite deposits and shipping the unprocessed ore to China. Some of the areas mined overlapped with concessionscontainingknowndepositsthatwere held or under application by the larger companies. No published information is available onwhatbasisotherareaswereselected. Looking ahead, it is likely that in the foreseeable future only brownfields exploration will be undertaken. This is partly because over the past 40yearsalargeamountofgeologicalandmineral resource data have been collected. This combined with everimproving remote sensing methods enables a more focused approach to target selection. However, it would be wrong to
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assume that there is no need anymore to carry out greenfields exploration because the whole of Sulawesihas alreadybeen adequatelycoveredby grassroots surveys. On the contrary: i) some areashavebeensurveyedonlyonce,whichisnot sufficient to make a comprehensive mineral potentialassessment;ii)surveysoftenfocusedon a single deposit type or commodity; iii) in some casestheareawasnotsampledsystematically,or sampling and/or assaying methods were used thatdidnotleadtooptimumresults;iv)thereare several examples of significant outcropping mineralization having been almost missed becauseofcertaingeologicalconditions(see5.3); other deposits may have gone unnoticed for similar reasons; v) large areas have not been surveyed at all, in particular in Eastern Sulawesi, because of their perceived low mineral potential, but as the recent gold discovery at Bombano has shown, this may not always be the case; and vi) new concepts and information may require revisiting certain areas to collect additional data ona(semi)regionalscale. Under the present mining law the maximum size of an exploration permit area is 500 sq km, as opposed to 2500 sq km and larger in the past.Furthermoreitisnotpossibleanymore,asin the old days, to select an area on the basis of literature research and carry out field checking on a socalled SKIP (walkin permit) before deciding whether or not to go ahead. This enabled a company to assess whether minimum expenditure commitments required by the COW agreement were within acceptable risk limits. At present, an exploration company has basically two choices, either enter into an agreement with an existing title holder or participate in a tender for areas selected by the government. In either casefrontendpaymentsarelikelytobeinvolved, which is a disincentive in the case of areas for which little information is available. Theoretically it is possible for a company to select an area on the basis of its own project generation work, but it still would have to go through the tender process with the risk of losing the area to the competition. Forestry permit issues are another importantfactorintheareaselectionprocess.

It is because of the above considerations that we believe that in the short to medium term the main exploration focus in Sulawesi (and for that matter elsewhere in Indonesia) will be on relatively small areas with known mineralization under existing title or for which title can be obtained at an acceptable cost, and which are free of major forestry issues. This in itself is not necessarily a bad thing, as experience elsewhere has shown that the chances of success are greater when exploration is carried out in well mineralized districts with a mature exploration history than in less known areas (e.g. Sillitoe, 2010). However, by world standards Sulawesi is underexplored and opportunities for brownfields exploration are rather limited. Therefore, if current conditions, which are not conducive to carrying out (semi) grass roots exploration of larger areas, persist, this may have a negative impact on further development of the mining industryinSulawesiinthelongerterm. 5.5 Sulawesisminingindustry Historically, gold and nickel have been the two pillarsofSulawesisminingindustry. Recorded gold production comprises about 15t for the period 1896 to 1941, and about 76t for the period 1996 to 2011 (Table 10). The total amount of about 91t does not include gold producedbylocalminersduringaperiodofmore than 180 years for which no records exist, but which is likely to be significant. With two gold mines currently in production, i.e. North Lanut mine(withaminimumminelifeof2yearsandan annual production of about 50,000 oz) and Toka Tindung (6 years, 160,000 oz Au eq.),one project in the feasibility stage (Bakan, 4.5 years, 50,000 oz) , plus several other gold projects in an advanced stage of exploration, gold is likely to continue to play a significant role in the short to medium term, especially if the current high price of gold is maintained. Based on published data (van Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011) it is estimated that Sulawesis total gold resources amount to roughly 285t, with an additional 135t Au associated with porphyry Cu deposits.We should stress that these estimates are geological
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Table10.HistoricalgoldproductioninSulawesi
A. B. PreWarperiod Paleleh BolaangMongondowDistrict Totok PostWarperiod Mesel Riska TokaTindung Source:vanLeeuwenandPieters(2011) 6.25tAu 5.0tAu 3.7tAu 14.9tAu 62.0tAu 10.5tAu 3.2tAu 75.7tAu 6.2tAg 4.0tAg 1.8tAg 12.0tAg 1.5tAg 1.5tAg

Table11.HistoricalnickelproductionatPomalaa
Period 19381941 19421944 19591966 19671975 19762010 Source: Darmono et al. (2009). Assumptions: 1) average grade of ore mined between 1938 and 1975 was 3%; 2) annual production 19671975 (not given by Darmono et al.) was 135,000t based on 1966 and 1976 production figures; 3) production 2009 and 2010 was 60,000t annually. Production 155,000t@ca3%Ni 184,000t@ca3%Ni 406,000t@ca3%Ni 1,215,000t@ca3%Ni 1,109,000tferronickel ContainedNi (metrictonnes) 4,650 5,520 12,180 36,450 255,070 313,870

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resources only without any economic connotation. Nickel mining has overshadowed gold mining in terms of both size and revenue. Most of the nickelproducedtodatehascomefromtwoareas, Soroako and Pomalaa. Data provided by PT Inco show that between 1976 and 2010 a total of 234 Mt of laterite ore was mined at Soroako, containing a total of 4.5 Mt Ni (Gde Tutoko, written comm., 2011). The total nickel production at Pomalaa, starting in 1938, is estimated to be around 310,000t, mostly as ferronickel. However, this figure is based on several assumptions (see Table 11), and furthermore includes also some ore processed at Pomalaa that came from outside Sulawesi. As mentioned earlier, there has been an increasing involvement of domestic companies in nickel laterite mining in Sulawesi in recent years, but production figures are not readily available. An announcement made by the government of Southeast Sulawesi in 2011, indicates that companies operating in the province are producing 50,000t to 70,000t of ore per year. Assuminganaveragegradeof1.6%thismeansan annual production in the order of 800 to 1,000 t Ni. Sulawesi has vast undeveloped nickel resources, estimated to be in the order of 1,500million dry weighttonnes(MDWT)averaging1.57%Nibased on data collected by van Leeuwen and Pieters( 2011). About 15% falls in the Proven + Probable Reserves category. Individual deposits vary greatly in size (3 >200 M DWT) and grade (1.2% to 2.3%). Having a large resource base in itself does not guarantee a long term future for the regions nickel industry. As discussed by Rafianto (2011), development of Sulawesis Ni laterite resources involves a number of factors that have to be addressed, including: i) adequate tonnage and grade to support economic projects with a minimum mine life of 20 years; ii) mineralogy, type and chemistry of the ore, which will determine optimum mining and processing methods, and in turn the economic viability of a project; iii) the high costs of producing nickel matte or ferronickel (PAL/HPAL); iv) lack of

infrastructure, such as power plants, roads and ports; and v) forestry issues. The author offers several suggestions that may reduce risks and enhance project economics: i) apply heap leach or tank leach technologies, which are currently under development by several companies; ii) produce nickel pig iron, which has a lower Ni content than ferronickel (<15%) and higher impurities such as P and S, but has a growing market; iii) develop low grade Ni laterite deposits with a high cobalt grade (0.2% Co) occurring as coarse minerals , which can be easily separated and concentrated using low costs techniques, with cobalt concentrate as the main product, and nickel and manganese as byproducts, and iv) as an alternative to Ni laterites explore for nickel sulphide deposits, which potentially can be developed at much lower capital costs and in a moreenvironmentalfriendlymanner. Commodities other than gold and nickel have hardly featured in the mining history of Sulawesi. Only small quantities of base metals and chromite have been mined in the past. This may changeinthefuture,inparticularasfarascopper is concerned. The porphyry copper deposits in the Tombulilato district may be economically viable at copper and gold prices seen in recent years. The longer term outlook for copper appears to be favourable. Average head grades at copper mines throughout the world are on a decadelong downward trend, and there is a shortageofnewminesdueto comeonstream to offset declining production from existing operations. Only one large deposit is under development, i.e. OyuTolgoi in Mongolia (81 billion lbs Cu and 46 Moz Au), and this creates opportunitiesforsmallerdepositslikeCabangKiri and Sungai Mak. However, at the end of the day the fate of these projects may be decided by sociopoliticalandenvironmentalissues. 6.0 Conclusions Sulawesi consists of three distinct geological metallogenic provinces, viz Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi. Of these, Northern Sulawesi shows the widest variety
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in mineral deposit styles and contains the largest number of (known) deposits, prospects and occurrences, whereas Eastern Sulawesi ranks first in terms of economic mineral(viz.nickel)resources.. Magmatic mineralization style associations include: ophiolite: Ni and Fe laterite; primary and secondaryCr. calcalkaline: porphyry CuAuMo, FeAuskarn,intrusionrelatedbasemetal Au, sedimenthosted Au, high and intermediatesulphidationAuAg. Potassic alkaline: porphyry CuAu; intrusiverelatedbasemetalAu;skarn. Bimodal: lowsulphidation epithermal AuAg;VMS. Potassic felsic: porphyry Mo; intrusion relatedAu. A rather puzzling aspect of the metallogeny of Western Sulawesi is the apparent poor development of typical epithermal volcanic arc related precious metal deposits despite the widespread occurrence of potassic volcanic rocks, which elsewhere in the world have generated a number of large gold deposits. Several mineralized districts contain more than one deposit type, e.g. the Tombulilato district (porphyry CuAu, highsulphidation epithermal AuAg, intrusionrelated Au), and the close to each other located Doup and Ratatotok districts ( porphyry Cu, high and intermediatesulphidation epithermal AuAg, replacement Au, and sedimenthosted gold). Recognition of a single type, even if only weakly developed, may therefore help direct exploration for potentially more significant mineralization of other types in the same district. The Pliocene was the most productive mineralizing period, especially in Northern Sulawesi.Inthisprovince,identifyingcentres ofPliocenemagmaticactivitymaybeauseful

tool in the project generation stage. Another potential guide is the regional unconformity between the Mid and Late Cenozoic sequences. Some well or partly exposed gold deposits may have very subtle surface geochemical signatures, especially in areas with semito unconsolidated sedimentary or volcanic coverdeposits. Uptonownickelandgoldhavebeentheonly two commodities of economic interest; they may be joined by copper and possibly molybdenum in the foreseeable future. Known nickel resources are large (of the order of 1.5 billion DWT) and gold resources moremodest(about420tcontainedAu). By world standards Sulawesi is underexplored. It is likely to remain so in the foreseeable future as the exploration focus is expected to be on relatively small areas of knownmineralization,ratherthanon district scale, (semi)grassrootsoriented programmes. This is because of existing opportunities (short term) and prevailing nongeologicalconditions(longerterm).

7.0 Acknowledgements Many colleagues have provided data for this review or helped in other ways, including John Carlile, Peter Flindell, Han van Gorsel,Jeff Hedenquist, Arifudin Idrus, George Katchan, Muhardjo, Thomas Mulya, Musri, Joseph Ogermans, Sukmandaru Prihatmoko, Hendro Purnomo, Dick Sillitoe, Gde Tutuko, Dave Trail, Stephen Walters, and Wily WilliamsonJones, all of whom we grateful acknowledge. We specially thank Tuti Mariani for preparing the manuscript, Supriyadi for drafting the figures, and Brad Wake forreviewingandeditingthefinaldraft.

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for future mineral exploration. Economic geology,104,1951. Yoshida, T., Hasbulla, C., Ohtagaki, T., 1982. Kurokotype deposits in Sangkaropi area, Sulawesi, Indonesia, Mining Geology, 31 (5), 369377. Yuwono, Y.S., Bellon, H., SoeriaAtmadja, R., Maury, R.C., 1986.Neogene and Pleistocene volcanisminSouthSulawesi.Proceed.PIT.XIV IAGI,Jakarta,1011December1985,169179. Yuwono, Y.S., Maury, R., SoeriaAtmadja, R., Bellon, H. 1988. Tertiary and Quaternary geodynamic evolucation of South Sulawesi: constraints from the study of volcanic units. GeologiIndonesia.Jakarta,13(1),3248. Walters, S., 1999. Summary Report, Geology, Mineralization and Ore Resource Estimates, Gunung Pani Project North Sulawesi, Indonesia, Report written for Azure Resources Corp. White, N.C., Hedenquist, J.W., 1995. Epithermal gold deposits: Styles, characteristics and exploration. Society of Economic Geologists Newsletter23,p113. Wolfenden, E.B., 1965. Bau mining district, West Sarawak, Malaysia, part 1, Bau. Geological Survey of the Borneo Region, Malaysia, Bulletin7.

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PROCEEDINGSOFTHESULAWESIMINERALRESOURCES2011SEMINARMGEIIAGI 2829November2011,Manado,NorthSulawesi,Indonesia

SulawesiMagmaticArcs
BambangPriadi StudyProgramofGeology,InstitutTeknologiBandung bpriadi@gc.itb.ac.id
ABSTRACT Magmatic products in Sulawesi mostly are distributed in WestNorth Arm that elongate from MakassarToraja (South) to PaluTolitoli (Central) to Manado (North) areas. The oldest magmatism exposes in southern parts, indicating Jurassic in age. It has chemical characters of BackArc Basin or MarginalBasin magmatism that might have similar origin with Ophiolite Complex in EastArm, that had been tectonically emplaced in its present position. Paleogene to Early Neogene time is mostly characterized by subductionrelated magmatism. Distribution of its products may indicate that West and North arms have not been connected until in Paleocene, and has been connected in Eocene. The local Paleocene non subductionrelated magmatism in North Arm could represent southward obducted parts of Sulawesi Sea. The Middle Miocene to Recent magmatism has different magmatic affinity that are distributed in different areas. This distribution is correlated with collision of Banggaisula micro continent to Sulawesi island in EarlyMiddle Miocene. The collision would affect to the melting of lower continentalcrust,producingmagmawithpotassiccalcalkalineaffinitythataredispersedinPaluTolitoliareas. The collision had also halted the subduction in the southern parts, resulting magma with alkaline/shoshonitic affinity of postsubduction magmatism, in MakassarToraja area. Meanwhile Manado area is not affected by collision, it continues producing magma with calcalkaline affinity of subduction magmatism. The occurrence of adakiticvolcanitesmaybeinterpretedasproductsofsouthwardsubductionofSulawesiSea,orindicationofpost collisionmagmatism. Keywords:Sulawesi,magmatism,subduction,collision

DISTRIBUTIONOFVOLCANICPRODUCTS The island of Sulawesi with its specific K shape is situated in the complex tectonic system representing the junction of several different tectonicplates of Eurasian, Indo Australia and Pacific (Hamilton, 1979; Silver et al., 1983). The island itself is geologically subdivided into (1) East Arm that consists of mostly obducted ophiolitic nappes, (2) Central parts of metamorphic areas, and (3) West North Arm consisting volcanomagmatic products of PreTertiary to Recent ages. Another part that is considered as part of Sulawesi geological system is (4) BanggaiSula terrain in the eastern part of Sulawesi that represents a microcontinent consisting of sedimentaryvolcanic rocks of Mesozoic ages (Sukamto, 1975 ; Sukamto & Simandjuntak, 1981;Halletal.,2002)(Figure1). In the WestNorth Arm of Sulawesi, volcano magmatic products are dated of Paleogene Pliocene ages, distributed from the southern parts (in Makassar and TanaToraja areas), to the central parts (PaluTolitoli area), until to Manado area in the northern parts. They present various magmatic affinities indicating that magmas were produced in different tectonicsetting(Priadietal.,1993,1994;Maury etal.,1995;Polveetal.,1996). Middle Miocene to Recent Volcanic products show interesting geographic distribution (Priadi et al., 1994): alkaline/shoshonitic volcanic is concentrated in the southern part (Makassar Toraja area), potassic calcalkalin plutono
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volcanics are found in the central parts (Palu Tolitoli areas), whereas calcalkalin products dominate the northern part (Manado area) (Figure1).

K40Ar dating has been done in Laboratoire de Geochimie de lUBO, Brest, France using Mass spectrometry Thomson Cameca 205 SE. Chemical analyses have been done in the same laboratory, mostly using NA (Neutronic Activation) and AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrometry), for certain elements and for comparison using ICPAES (Induced Coupled PlasmaAtomicEmissionSpectrometry). PRETERTIARYMAGMATISM The oldest dated volcanic products indicating Jurassic in age (40K40Ar of 158.60137.17 Ma; Polve at al., 1996; Priadi et al., 1997), and its petrogeochemical data show the LowPotassium Volcanism of BackArc or Marginal Basin setting. These volcanic products widespread in the eastern sides of SouthArm of Sulawesi, known previously as volcanic units namely Lamasi and Kalamiseng Volcanics (Yuwono, et al., 1988 ; Priadi et al., 1993). The facts that the western sides of these two volcanic units are bordered by tectonic contacts to the other rock units, are indicating the emplacement of these rockunits to its recent position is supposed to be tectonics. Thepresenceoflayeredgabbro,(normal)gabbro, dyke swarms of basalt dolerite/diabas and the pillow lavas, is suggesting that the known Lamasi volcanics may represent a Dismembered Ophiolite (Priadi et al., 1997) as mostly found in the EastArm of Sulawesi. Monnier et al (1995) has also mentioned that parts of Ophiolite Complex in the EastArm of Sulawesi are originatedfromBackArcTectonicsetting. These data may indicate that these rock units have been formed somewhere in the east/southeast areas associated with certain subduction system(s), and then have been emplaced in Sulawesi at around in Middle Miocene (~1815 Ma ; Yuwono, et al., 1988 ; Ranginetal,1990).

40

PALEOGENEMAGMATISM Volcanic products having ages of Paleocene (40K 40 Ar of 61.4159.17 Ma. ; Obradovich, 1974 in Sukamto, 1978; Yuwono et al., 1988; Polve et al., 1996) can only be found in southern part of SouthArm (in Makassar area). The lithology is mostly basaltic lavas that is classified as part of Bua Formation (Yuwono et al., 1988). Chemically, these lithologies indicate the characters of subductionrelated volcanism (calcalkaline affinity).Sofar,thesevolcanicproductsrepresent the oldest products of subductionrelated magmatismoccurredinSulawesi(Figure2). In eastern part of SouthArm of Sulawesi, basaltic lavas crop out in Ningo river, that belong to Salokalupang Formation. Lava sample of this formation is dated by 40K40Ar giving the Eocene age of 52.20 Ma (personal communication with Alit Ascaria, 2011). Lack of the chemical data makes the magmatic affinity as well as its tectonic setting for the latter are still unknown, but it is supposed to be identical to that of Bua Formation.Datingonagabbrosampleinsouthof Palopo gives also the Eocene age (40.16 Ma; Priadi, 1993) eventhough chemically these samplesarenotindicatingthesubductionrelated magmaticproducts. The other subduction related magmatism of Eocene ages can be found mostly in the Central toNorthernpartsofWestNorthArmofSulawesi, especially around Donggala and Tolitoli area (Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996). Tholeiitic dykes were dated for the rocks of Tinombo Formation around Donggala (46,8244.13 Ma; Priadi, 1993) and tholeiitic intrusion (still classified as Tinombo Formation)nearPalelehTantayuo(eastofTolitoli area) have already been dated for Late Eocene age (37.1537.02 Ma; Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996). In the northern coast of WestNorth Arm around Bintauna, cropout pillow lavas that are classified as Volcanic Units of Tinombo Formation (Apandi & Bachri, 1977). Basalts of this unit were dated, and gave lessreliable ages of 41.8240.27 Ma (Eocene; Priadi, 1993). Geochemically these basaltsshowcharactersofmagmatismcorrelated
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Figure 1. Tectonics and Geological Provinces ofSulawesi (Permana et al., 2006, simplified from Silveratal.,1983,Sukamto&Simanjuntak,1993,andParkinson,1996,1997,1998)

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Figure 2. Distribution of magmatic data in WestNorth Arm of Sulawesi. SH/AK/UK = Shoshonitic/Alkaline/Ultra Potassic ; CAK = Potassic CalcAlkaline; CA = CalcAlkaline ; IAT = Island ArcTholeite;BAB=BackArcBasin.(ModifiedfromPolveetal.,1994)

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to BackArc or Marginal Basin setting (Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996), that are identical to basalt of the seafloor of Sulawesi Sea taken by OceanDrillingProject(ODP;Ranginetal,1990). In MakassarToraja areas, volcanic rocks dated of Oligocene ages were obtained from tholeiitic dolerite dykes crosscutting Kalamiseng Volcanics (33.33Ma;Yuwonoetal,1988)aswellasrhyolite dykes in Lamasi Volcanics (32.8928.60 Ma; Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996). Big intrusion of calcakaline granitic composition (Kambuno Granite) that close to Sangkaropi gives age of 29.87Ma(Priadi,1993;Polveetal.,1996). A tholeiitic basalt dyke around Donggala that cut the rocks of Tinombo Formation, has an age of 34.46 Ma (Oligocene) in 40K40Ar dating, whereas tholeitic basaltic lavas of Dolokapa Formation (in Manado area) are also indicating Oligocene ages (30.5028.30Ma). NEOGENEQUATERNARYMAGMATISM Neogene igneous rocks products are mostly charcterized by subductionrelated magmatism, theycanbegroupedintotwodifferentintervalof ages(Figure2): a). At about interval of 2221 Ma (Early Miocene) isrepresentedbytholeiticrocksthatbelongto Kalamiseng Volcanics in Makassar Area (rhyolite of 21.72 Ma), Tinombo Formation around Tolitoli Area (gabbro of Tantayuo of 22.09 Ma; andesite of 21.93 Ma), and calc alkaline of Bone Diorite (22.4522.19 Ma; aroundGorontalo) b). Rocks aged of around 1815 Ma (EarlyMiddle Miocene) can be found in Makassar area (18.7415.35 Ma; (Kalamiseng and Lamasi Volcanics), around PaluTolitoli area (17.95 17.70Ma;TinomboandBilungalaFormation), until close to Manado area (18.8513.13 Ma; Tinombo Formation and Wobudu Breccia). Bunbulan Granite that is calcalkaline in magmatic affinity has also ages within this interval : 18.14 Ma (Priadi, 1993; Yuwono et al.,1995;Polveetal.,1996). Middle Miocene to Recent magmatism in Sulawesiiscoincidentlyseparatedgeographically: ultrapotassic/shoshonitic magmatic products are

only in southern parts of WestNorth Arm of Sulawesi(Makassararea),calcalkalinepotassicin central parts (PaluTolitoli areas), and calc alkalineaffinityineasterntipsofWestNorthArm (Manadoarea)(Figure3): a).Ultrapotassic/Shoshonitik(SH)Magmatism Volcanic rocks having these magmatic affinities can be found in southern parts of Sulawesi, in form of lava or intrusive bodies having lithologies of basaltsandesites (Yuwono et al., 1998; Letterier at al., 1990; Bergman et al., 1996; Polve et al., 1996). Geochemical and petrological data show the presence of significantly felspatoids that may refers to silica undersaturated magma. The chemistry indicates the high contents of alkaline (Yuwono et al, 1988), and incompatible elements indicating the intensive contribution of granitic continental composition. This kind of volcanic products are dated mostly of 12.814.30 Ma (Yuwono et al., 1988, 1989; Polve et al., 1996), and can be found as lithologies of many volcanic units in the MakassarToraja areas (Baturape, Sesean, Sekala, Talaya, Camba, Sopeng, Parepare, Cindako Volcaniscs ; Sukamto, 1975;Yuwonoetal.,1989;Priadi,1993). b).AcidCalcAlkalinPotassicMagmatism In the central parts of WestNorth Arm, in Palu Tolitoliareas,especiallyalongthePaluKoroFault Area (PKFZ), the occurrence of potassic calc alkaline magmatism is shown by the presence of granitoid intrusions and pyroclastic deposits of dacitic to rhyolitic in composition. 40K40Ar dating totheserocksindicatingtheageintervalsof8.10 0.55 Ma to Recent (Sukamto, 1975; Priadi et al., 1993,1994;Mauryetal.,1995;Polveetal.,1996; van Leeuwen et al., 1996; Widiasmoro et al., 1997) High silica contents (SiO2 = 61.776.5%) and normativequartzaround20%forthismagmatism indicate the involvement (anatexis) of the components of granitic continental crust in its genesis. Comparing the chemical compositions of this magmatic products and those of lower crust components (garnet peridotites, acid granulites and basic granulites; Helmers et al., 1990) that present as xenoliths in granitoid rocks, indicating cogeneticity in Extended Spiderdiagram (Priadi
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etal.,1993,1994;Mauryetal.,1995;Polveetal., 1996). Observation on chemical compositions indicates that the lithologies of the lower crust mayactasprincipalcontributorstotheformation of this potassic calcalkaline magma (Priadi et al., 1993, 1994, 2009; Maury et al., 1995). Meanwhile, the characters of subductionrelated magmatism is also still observed (negative anomalies on High Field Strength elements : Ta,Nb,Ti,Zr,Hf)accompaniedwithhighpresence of Pb and Th of continental characters (Priadi et al., 1993, 1994; Widiasmoro et al., 1997). The products of this kind of magmatism can be found asacidrocks(granite,dacite,rhyolite)alongPalu Koro, around Tolitoli (Tolitoli Granitois; van Leeuwen, written communication, 1990), in Torajaarea(PalopoGraniteandBaruputuff),and aroundTogianislandsinTominiGulf. AdakiticMagmatism Adakite is a kind of igneous rock having composition of high contents in SiO2 (>56%), Al2O3 (>15%), Sr (>300ppm) accompanied with lowcontentofMgO(<3%)andY(<15ppm),giving the Sr/Y ratio of >20. Adakitic volcanism indicates the contribution of melting the young oceanic plates (<25 Ma) to the formation of magma in subduction areas (Castillo, 2006). This kind of rock is supposedly present in Togian islands (in Tomini Gulf) as products of recent volcanism (Sendjaja&Sucipta(2008). c.) Calcalkaline magmatic affinity of subduction related magmatism, mostly are exposed in the eastern proximity of the WestNorth Arm of Sulawesi, (around Manado Area) and prolong northward to SangiheTalaud Islands. They are dated of 7.010,89 Ma until recent time (Jezek et al., 1981; Tatsumi et al., 1981; Yuwono et al., 1995;Priadietal.,2006). TECTONICIMPLICATION The oldest magmatism (PreTertiary, 158.60 137.17 Ma) having characters of Back Arc Basin or Marginal Basin magmatism is supposed to be formed far outside of Sulawesi area. It might be correlated with the origin of East Sulawesi Ophiolite Complex (Monnier et al., 1995). The

presence of this magmatic products in south of Sulawesi is supposedly by westward tectonic emplacement due to collision of BanggaiSula microcontinenttoSulawesi. The oldest subductionrelated magmatism in Sulawesi is in Oligocene age in Makassar area. Thedirectionofsubductionitselfisstillindebate, butmostofresearcherssupposedthesubduction is westward plunging as continuation of SumateraJavasubductionsystematthattime. Products of Eocene subductionrelated magmatism are found in eastern sides of West Arm and in the eastern side of PaluKoro Fault Area (in Donggala), this may indicate that subduction areas occurred in the eastern side of West Arm of Sulawesi, and the North Arm of Sulawesi might not be in the present position. Eocene magmatic products in the North Arm of Sulawesi is supposed to be part of Sulawesi Sea seafloorthatwasbeenobductedsouthwardonto the North arm of Sulawesi during the northwestwarddriftofthisarm. During Early to middle Miocene products of subductionrelated magmatism can be found in all parts of WestNorth Arm of Sulawesi (Polve et al, 1996; Priadi et al., 2009), indicating the West and the North arms have already been connected,asalsomentionedbyHall(2002). The following magmatic products of Middle Miocene to Recent are characterized by different magmatic affinities and geographically separated in three major areas. Northwestward collision of BanggaiSula microcontinent to Sulawesi island that probably occurred in EarlyMiddle Miocene (Hamilton, 1979; Silver et al., 1983; Priadi et al., 1993; Polve at al., 1996) had triggered the melting of the lower parts of obducted continental crust, giving potassic calcalkaline magmatism (high silica and high alkaline contents) that has been distributed in central parts of Sulawesi. The collision has also halted the subduction system in its southern parts, slowed down the upraising magma to be extruded later as alkaline/shoshonitic affinity of postsubduction magmatism (Priadi et al., 1993, 1994; Maury et al., 1995; Waspersdorf et al., 1997,1998).Thisalkaline/shoshoniticrocksare
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Figure 3. Distribution of Neogene magmatic products in Sulawesi having

different magmatic affinity obtained from K2OSiO2 discriminant diagram of PeccerilloandTaylor,1978)

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distributed mostly in the southern parts of WestNorth arm of Sulawesi. As collision was concentrated in the central part of Sulawesi, and the North Arm is positioned out of the north border of BanggaiSula microcontinent, the eastern parts of North Arm (Manado area) is practically less affected by collision, and the magmatism was being continued and still producing the subductionrelated igneous rocks (Priadietal.,1993,1994;Priadietal.,2009). The occurrence of adakitic volcanites in Togian islands (Sendjaja and Sucipta, 2006) may give interpretation that southward subduction of Sulawesi Sea (that could be young) produced magmatism. Rangin et al. (1990) and Waspersdorf et al. (1997, 1998) supposed previously that subduction of Sulawesi Sea could not produce magma as it was not be able to reach the certain depth to form the melting. They considered that the previous northwestward plunged of Molucca plate blocked the down penetration of plunging Sulawesi sea plate. Otherwise, recent observations indicate that adakite magmatism is not only correlated with melting of young subducted plates, but it can also be formed in CollisionalTectonicSetting(Topuzetal.,2011). REFERENCES Apandi T. & Bachri S., 1977, Geological Map of the Kotamobagu Sheet, Geological Research andDevelopmentCenter,Bandung. Bergman S.C., Coffield D.Q., Talbot J.P. & Garrard R.A., 1996. Tertiary Tectonic and magmaticevolutionofWesternSulawesiand the Makassar Strait, Indonesia : Evidence for a Miocene continentcontinent collision, from Hall R. & Blundell D. (eds.), Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia, Geological Society Special Publication, no. 106, p. 391 429. Castillo P.R., 2006, An Overview of Adakite Petrogenesis, Chinese Science Bulletin, Springer,vol.52,no.3257268 Hall R., 2002 Cenozoic Geological and Plate Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia and the SW

Pacific : Computerbased reconstructions, modelandanimations,JournalofAsianearth Sciences,20(2002)353431. Hamilton W.B., 1979. Tectonics of Indonesian Regions, Geological Survey Proffesional Paper 1078, U.S. Govern. Printing Office, Washington Helmers H., Maaskant P. & Hartel T.H.D., 1990, Garnet peridotite and associated highgrade rocks from Sulawesi, Indonesia, Lithos, no. 25p.171188. Leterrier J., Yuwono Y.S., SoeriaAtmadja R. & Maury R.C., 1990, Potassic volcanism in Central Java and South Sulawesi, Indonesia, J.SEAsiaEarthSci.,v.4,no.3,p.171187. Jezek P.A., Whitford D.J. & Gill J.B., 1981, Geochemistry of Recent Lavas from the SangiheSulawesi Arc, Indonesia, The Geology and Tectonics of Eastern Indonesia, Geological Research and Development Centre,Spec.Pub.,no.2,p.383389. Leterrier J., Yuwono Y.S., SoeriaAtmadja R. & Maury R.C., 1990, Potassic volcanism in Central Java and South Sulawesi, Indonesia, J.SEAsiaEarthSci.,v.4,no.3,p.171187 Maury R.C., Polve M., Priadi B., Vidal Ph., SoeriaAtmadja R. & Bellon H., 1995, Geochemistry of PlioQuartenary Acidic Magmatism from Central Sulawesi : Melting of Lower Continental Crust in a Post Collisional Setting, Abstracts of Geosea95, MetroManila,Philippines. Monnier C., Girardeau J., Maury R. & Cotten J., 1995,AbackarcbasinoriginfortheSulawesi ophiolite (Eastern Indonesia), Proc. GeoSEA '95Phillipines,Manila. Peccerillo A. & Taylor S.R., 1976, Geochemistry of Eocene CalcAlkaline Volcanic Rocks from the Kastamonu Area, Northern Turkey, Contrib.Mineral.Petrol.,no.58,p.6381. Polve M., Maury R., Bellon H., Rangin C., Priadi B., Yuwono Y.S., Joron J.L. & SoeriaAtmadja R., 1996, Magmatic evolution of Sulawesi (Indonesia) : Constraints on the Cenozoic geodynamic history of Sundaland active margin,Tectonophysics,272,p.6992. Priadi B., 1993, Geochimie du Magmatisme Tertiaires du Bras Ouest et Nord de Sulawesi: Tracages des Sources et
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Implication Geodynamique, These de Doctorat 3eme Cycles, Univ. Bretagne Occidentale,France. Priadi B., Sucipta IGBE, and Sopaheluwakan J., 2009, PostCollisional Granitoids in Central Sulawesi (Indonesia), Proc GeoSEA Regional Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Juni 2009 PriadiB.,MauryR.,SoeriaAtmadjaR.,PolveM. & Bellon H., 1994. Tertiary and Quaternary magmatism in Central Sulawesi : Chronological and petrologic constraints, JournalofSoutheastAsianEarthSci.,v.9,no. 1/2,p.8193. PriadiB.,PermanaH.,BinnsR.andZulkarnain I., 2006, Maselihe Volcano : A new discovery submarine volcano in the Sangihe Arc, Eastern Indonesia, Proc. Volcano International Gathering, September68,2006.Yogyakarta PriadiB.,PolveM.,MauryR.,SoeriaAtmadjaR. & Bellon H., 1993. Geodynamic implications of Neogene calcalkaline magmatism in Central Sulawesi : Geochemical and isotopic constraints, Proc. 22nd Ann. Conv. of Indonesian Assoc. Geologists, Bandung, p. 5980. Priadi B., SoeriaAtmadja R., Maury R., Bellon H. and Polve M., 1997, The Occurence of BackArc Magmatism in Sulawesi : Geochemical Constraints on Geodynamic Reconstruction, Proc. 26th Ann.Conv. Indonesian Association Geologist, Jkt, p.253 262. Priadi B., Sucipta I.G.B.E., Utoyo H., Sopaheluwakan J., Sudarsono & Widiasmoro, 1996, Kompleks Granitoid Neogen di SulawesiTengah:TinjauanGeokimia,Buletin GeologiITB,vol.26,no.2/3,p.129141. Rangin C., Jolivet L., Pubellier M., and the Tethys Pacific Working Group, 1990, A Simple Model for the Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and Indonesia Region for the past 43 M.Y., Bull. Soc. Geol. France, t. V (8), no.6,p.889905 SendjajaP.&SuciptaEIGB.,2008,Adakiterocks from Unauna island, Central Sulawesi, Proc. 31th Annual Meeting of IAGI, p,213228, Bandung

Silver E.A., McCaffrey R.. & Smith R.B., 1983, Collision, Rotation, and the Initiation of Subduction in the Evolution of Sulawesi, Indonesia, J. Geophysic. Res., v. 88, no. B11, p.94079418. Sukamto R. & Simandjuntak T.O., 1981, Tectonic relationship between geologic provinces of Western Sulawesi, Eastern Sulawesi and BanggaiSula in the light of sedimentological aspects, Geological Research and Development Centre (GRDC), Bandung,Indonesia. Sukamto R., 1975, The Structure of Sulawesi in the light of plate tectonics, Proc. Reg. Conf. Geol.Min.Res.SEAsia,Jakarta,August47. Tatsumi Y., Muratsaki M., Arsadi E.M., and NOHDA S., 1981, Geochemistry of Quaternary Lavas from NE Sulawesi : Transfer of subduction components into the mantle wedge, Contrib. Mineral Petrol, 107 : 137149. Topuz G., Okay a.I., Altherr R., Scahrtz W,H., Siebel W., Zack., Satir M. and Sen C., 2011, Postcollisional adakitelike magmatism in the Agvanis Massif and implications for the evolution of the Eocene magmatism in the eastern Pontides (NE Turkey), Lithos, vol 125,issue12,ElsevierB.V.,p.131150. van Leeuwen T.M., Taylor R., Coote A. & Longstaffe F.J., 1994, Porphyry Molybdenum Mineralization in a Continental Collision setting at Malala, Northwest Sulawesi, Indonesia, Jour. Geochemical Exploration, 50,257258. WalpersdorfA.,RanginC.&VignyC.,1998,GPS compared to longterm geologic motion of the north arm of Sulawesi, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,no.184,p.272280. WaspersdorfA.,VignyC.,RanginC.,BellonH.& Priadi B., 1997, Instantaneous and finite kinematics in the Northern Arm of Sulawesi, Geodyssea Final Symposium, Penang Malaysia. Widiasmoro, Priadi B. & Soeriaatmadja R., 1997, Granitoid Neogen tipe Tumbukan di ZonaSesarPaluKoro,SulawesiTengah,Proc. 26nd Ann. Conv. of Indonesian Assoc. Geologists,Jakarta
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Yuwono Y.S., 1989, Petrologi dan Mineralogi Gunung Lompobatang, Sulawesi Selatan, GeologiIndonesia,v.1,no.1,p.48309 Yuwono Y.S., Digdowirogo S., Cotten J., Bellon H. & Priadi B., 1995, Petrology of somemagmaticrocksfromNorthSulawesi, Indonesia, Jur Teknologi Min., no.3, vol.II, p.2132 Yuwono Y.S., Maury R.C., SoeriaAtmadja R. & Bellon H., 1988, Tertiary and quaternary geodynamic evolution of South Sulawesi : Constraints from the study of volcanic units, Geologi Indonesia, Jakarta, v. 13, no. 1, p. 3248.

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BasementRocksofSulawesiandTheirContributiontotheMetallogenicFormation
AdeKadarusman MiningandExplorationDepartment,PTINCOTbk, Sorowako,SouthSulawesi
ABSTRACT The Sulawesis basement rock distributed within four lithotectonic units. Five type basements are recognized with different origins. It consists of (i) accretionarycollision complex (Bantimala and Barru Complex in SW arm), (ii) metamorphic rocks with continental margin parentage (metamorphic complexes in West, NW, Central and SE Sulawesi), (iii) ophiolitic rock and oceanic crust (East and North arm, respectively), (iv) melange or broken formation (Central part), and (v) continental granitic basement (BanggaiSula and Tukang Besi). All the basements are Mesozoic in age, and some of the metamorphic rocks have Paleozoic in protoliths age. Metallogenesis occurrenceinSulawesicorrelatedwiththebasementtypewiththreeways.Firstly,theyoccurredgeneticallyasthe source such as ultramafic massif of East Sulawesi Ophiolite for Ni laterite deposit and its correlated base metal. Second, the basement as the country rock of metalogenyrelated to subduction magmatism, e.g host of Neogene volcanism in North and NW Sulawesi were occurred in two different basements. Lastly, the basement itself is carrying mineralization before incorporate with rest of Sulawesi terranes, for example discovery orogenic gold deposit in metamorphic terrane in Mekongga block. Therefore understanding the Sulawesi basement will lead a goodexplorationtargeting.

INTRODUCTION The terms of basement and crystalline basement areused todefine therocksbelowasedimentary platform or cover, or more generally any rock below sedimentary rocks or sedimentary basins that are metamorphic or igneous in origin. In the same way the sediments and/or sedimentary rocks on top of the basement can be called a "cover" or "sedimentary cover" (Wikipedia). The same definition about from Glossary Geology, that the basement rock, the oldest rocks in a given area; a complex of metamorphic and igneous rocks that underlies the sedimentary deposits; usually Precambrian or Paleozoic in ages. With a specific definition, the basement rocksarereadilydistinguishablefromtheircovers rocks based on their petrological, structural and stratigraphic appearances. This definition has been applied in this paper to differentiate the basement rocks and their contribution to the tectonic and metallogeny province. The Cenozoic magmatism will not be included in this paper because it is not included in the definition above. Itwillbediscussedseparatelyinthisvolume. StudiesonbasementrockinSulawesidatedback

at least since 1930 where Brouwer led the expedition to Sulawesi. Several publications, geological maps and PhD theses were produced during this period up to post War era (a series publication by Koolhoven 19301932; Egeler 19471949; de Roever, 19471953). In the Plate Tectonic Era, several groups made contributions to the basement studies, e.g. (i) the Royal Halloway University of London Group (Audley Charles, 1974; Parkinson 1991, 1996, 1998; Coffieldetal,1993;Bergmanetal,1996),(ii)LIPI GSJ Japan (Miyazaki et al, 1996; Wakita et al., 1996), (ii) Geological Survey of Indonesia (now as Badan Geologi/Pusat Survey Geologi; Sukamto, 1975, 1986; Simandjuntak, 1980, 1986, 1992;Mubroto et al, 1994; Surono, 1994, 1996), (iii) Rio Tinto Indonesia (van Leeuwen, 1981; van Leeuwen et al, 2007, 2010; van Leeuwen & Muhardjo, 2005), (iv) French ITB Group (Monnier et al., 1994, 1995; Villeneuve et al, 2001), (v) LIPITokyo Institute of Tech. Japan (Parkinson et al., 1998; Parkinson, 1998; Kadarusman & Parkinson, 2000). Contributions are also made by geologists from Australians Group (Berry & Grady, 1987), Incos geologists (Ahmad, 1975), and Indonesian (LIPI)Dutch Snellius II expedition and LIPI (Helmers et al,
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1989, 1991; Sopaheluwakan, 1979; Sopaheluwakan et al., 1993, 1995; Soesilo & Sopaheluwakan,1998). The Sulawesi has been subdivided into four lithotectonic units or terranes, which are bounded by largescale tectonic dislocations and thrust faults (AudleyCharles, 1974; Katili, 1978; Sukamto, 1975; Hamilton, 1979; Sukamto & Simandjuntak,1983inParkinson1991).Theseare from west toeast (see the Figure 1): (i) the West North Sulawesi volcanoplutonic Arc, (ii) the Central Sulawesi metamorphic belt, (iii) the East Sulawesi Ophiolite belt, and (iv) the Continental Fragments of BanggaiSula, Tukang Besi and Buton. The basement rock in each lithotectonic units showed different characteristics and ages, this paper will summarize the basement rock based on studies conducted by above groups and their contribution for the formation of metallogeneticprovinceinSulawesi. THEWESTNORTHSULAWESIVOLCANO PLUTONICARC The West Sulawesi PlutonoVolcanic Arc can be divided into a continental margin segment (SouthwestWest Sulawesi) and a Tertiary island arcsegmentunderlainbyoceaniccrust(Northern Sulawesi). The basement of this SouthwestWest Sulawesi unit consists of (i) PreTertiary Bantimala and Barru complex in the Southwest Arm, (ii) three metamorphic complexes in the Central and NW Sulawesi and (iii) Latimojong Formation in the Central Sulawesi. Those basements form the rifted continental margin of SE Sundaland and are characterized by the widespread occurrence of highK volcanic and granitoid rocks intruded into (van Leuween & Muhardjo, 2005). The Northern Sulawesi basement, which is oceanic crust presumably from Celebes Sea basin did not expose in the surface and covered completely by a Cenozoic islandarcsystem. Bantimala Complex is a part of Central Indonesia AccretionaryCollisional complexes that appear sporadically in an arc extending from Java to Kalimantan and Sulawesi (Sundaland margin) in

the Cretaceous. The Central Indonesia AccretionaryCollisional complexes are result of collisional processes between the Asian, Australian,andPacificplatesfromtheCretaceous tothepresent(e.g.,Wakita,2000).TheBantimala complex is a tectonic assemblage of slabs and blocks consisting of sandstone, shale, conglomerate, chert, siliceous shale, basalt, ultramafic rocks, schist, schist breccia, eclogite, amphibolite, blueschist and felsic intrusive rocks at Jurassic to Late Cretaceous in age (Sukamto, 1975; Wakita et al., 1994, 1996; Miyazaki et al., 1996; Parkinson et al., 1998; Maulana, 2008). The Bantimala Complex is surrounded by Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and unconformably covered by Late Cretaceous to Palaeocene sedimentary rocks and is intruded by Palaeogene diorite. Barru Block is considered to be similar occurrences with Bantimala Complex; however the block is characterized by low to medium grade metamorphic rocks assemblages without trace of HP metamorphic rocks(Maulanaetal.,2008). The Metamorphic Complex is regional metamorphism consists of Malino, Palu and Karrosametamorphiccomplexes (vanLeeuwen & Muhadjo, 2005). The old zircon ages and isotopic characteristics of the host rocks indicate that those complexes represent a continental fragmentofAustralianorigin. The Malino Metamorphic Complex (MMC) is located at the western end of the north arm of Sulawesi (mostly exposed in the southern part of theTolitoliregion).The MMChasbeen studiedin detail by van Leeuwen et al., (2006). It consists of mica schists and gneisses (derived from proximal turbidite and granitoid protoliths), with intercalations of greenschist, amphibolite, marble, and quartzite, forming an EW elongated domelike structure bounded on all sides by faults. This Paleozoic age, the presence of Archean and Proterozoic inherited zircons, and the isotopic signature of the mica schists and gneisses indicate that the terrane was derived from the New GuineaAustralian margin of Gondwana. The rocks of the MMC show a Barroviantype progression from greenschist through epidoteamphibolite to amphibolite
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Figure 1. Lithotectonic division of Sulawesi (Kadarusman et al., 2004) modified from Parkinson(1998)andWilsonandHall(2000)

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facies.PTestimationssuggestadepthofburial of up to 27 30 km. K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages of 2311Ma, and a 7Ma age for unconformably overlying volcanic rocks, indicate that the complex was exhumed during theMiocene(vanLeeuwenetal.,2006). The second complex, the Palu Metamorphic Complex (PMC), forms the backbone of the neck and extends further to the south into the Palu Zone. It is made up of biotite schists and gneisses, amphibolites, and amphibolitic schists and gneisses. Highergrade rocks, including granulite, eclogite and peridotite are locally presentastectonicslices,mostlyalongthePalu Koro Fault zone. The Palu Metamorphic Complex contains metasediments and metagranitoids (dated as PermoTriassic) of AustralianNew Guinea derivation, but also contains metabasites of MORB affinity, and possibly rocks of Sundaland parentage (van Leeuwen et al., in preparation). The highgrade rockshavebeendetaileddescribedinaseriesof abstracts and papers in several groups (e.g. Sopaheluwaken et al., 1995; Helmers et al., 1990; Priadi et al., 1993; Kadarusman and Parkinson,2000;Polvetal.,2001;Kadarusman et al., 2005; Syafri et al., 2005; Watkinson (2010) that limited to high to ultra high pressure rock samples from the PaluKoro valley, mostly involving geothermobarometry with very limited geochemical, isotope and age dating work; however, there is a general consensus that at one stage some of the (U)HP rocks resided at considerable depths (60km), there is less agreement on how and when they were formed and transported to the surface. The recent paper by van Leeuwen et al (in preparation) has been written to attempt postulated origin and the tectonic history of the PMC with detailed isotopic and geochemistry data. Finally, the third complex, the Karossa Metamorphic Complex, which is exposed in the SW part of the Lariang region, consists of a metabasite unit, also of MORB affinity, and a dominantly metapelite unit (vanLeeuwenetal., in preparation). The Palu and Karossa Metamorphic Complexes may represent young

metamorphic core complexes (van Leeuwen et al.,inpreparation). Themetamorphiccomplexesareoverlainbythe Late Cretaceous Latimojong Formation and Paleogene Budungbudung Formation, Tinombo Formation and Papayato Volcanics (van Leeuwen & Muhardjo). The latter consists of a volcanic sequence with rare sedimentary intercalations, whereas the other three formations are composed dominantly of marine sedimentary rocks. The units, which are moderately to strongly folded, have undergone lowgrade greenschist metamorphism and are intruded by midEocene to midOligocene stocks and dykes, varying, in composition from gabbro and diorite to granodiorite and granite (van Leeuwen & Muhadjo, 2005). Latimojong Formation is lowmedium grade regional metamorphosed pelitic and finegrained psammiticrocks,alternatingmonotonouslywith subsidiary intercalations of conglomerate, coarse sandstone, basaltic to andesitic lava and volcaniclastics, quartzite, chert and limestone, andbelievedtobeLateCretaceoustoEocenein age . Several authors like Sukamto (1973) included this unit in the Tinombo Formation or vice versa. I believe only Latimojong and Tinombo Formations are categorized as metamorphic basements. The Latimojong Formation overlies/flanks the Karossa Metamorphic Complex (in the few localities where the contact was observed it appeared to be tectonic) and is unconformably overlain by the Paleogene Budungbudung Formation and younger formations (van Leeuwen & Muhadjo, 2005). THECENTRALSULAWESIMETAMORPHICBELT The Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt comprises of (i) ophiolite melange or broken formation and (ii) metamorphic rocks (Pompangeo Schist Complex, including Mekongga Block at SE arm). The KAr dating yielded ages of ca 111 Ma (Parkinson, 1998). The metamorphic rocks consist of materials of both continental and oceanic derivation, probably including Australian crust (Parkinson,
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1991). The Pompangeo Schist Belt has been describedindetailedbyParkinson(1991,1998), which crops out over ~5000 km2 in Central Sulawesi, and is predominantly composed of interbandedphyliticmarble,calcareousphyllite, graphitic schist, quartzite and metaconglomerate; rocks predominantly of shallow marine with continental origin. Typical low T and high P minerals such jadeite, lawsonite, aragonite, ferrocarpholite and blue amphiboles have been described by de Roever (1947), and famous as Glaucophane metamorphism in early formation concept in high P metamorphism. Along the eastern margin of the complex, Pompangeo complex are interthrust with unmetamorphosed Jurassic sandstoneandlimestone(MesozoicSediments), which may represent parental material of the complex, and both underthrust beneath an extensive nappe of metamorphosed ophiolitic mlange which constitute the base of the East Sulawesi Ophiolite. There is no detailed study on metamorphic rock SE Sulawesi, except detailed discovery of blueschists rock and metabasite in at Mekongga block by Helmers et al.(1989). The eastern part of the Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt is composed of a melange of tectonised and metamorphosed ophiolite fragments and variably disrupted broken formations(Parkinson,1991;Parkinson,1998b). Metamorphosed ophiolite melanges (Peluru Melange Complex and Wasuponda Melange) are of Oligocene age, including metamorphic sole beneath, thrusted in between Pompangeo schist and East Sulawesi Ophiolite (Parkinson, 1998). Within the melange area the western lower part is composed of ophiolitic clasts in a sheared matrix of red phyllite, whereas the eastern upper part has a serpentinite matrix and components have suffered OligoMiocene blueschist recrystallization (Hall & Wilson, 2000). The broken formations, tectonically intercalated within the melange, include upper Cretaceous bathyal limestones and chert, and siltstones, sandstones and conglomerates of Jurassic or Cretaceous age (Rutten, 1927; Koolhoven, 1932; Sukamto and Simandjuntak,

1983 in Hall & Wilson, 2000). Blocks within the melange, derived from the ophiolite, range from pebble size to several hundreds of metres across, whilst those of the broken formations may be up to hundreds of metres across. Melanges are also known from contacts of microcontinental blocks of BanggaiSula and Buton(Hall&Wilson,2000). THEEASTSULAWESIOPHIOLITEBELT The East Sulawesi Ophiolite (hereafter as ESO), a dismembered ophiolite that is tectonically intercalatedwithMesozoicdeepseasediments, and probably includes Indian Ocean MORB, marginal basin crust, parts of the Sundaland forearc or oceanic plateau of Pacific plate. The total length of the ESO is some 700 km from Gorontalo Bay, through the East Arm and central Sulawesi toward the Southeast Arm and the islands of Buton and Kabaena (Kadarusman et al., 2004); it also extends to the Lamasi complex of the South Arm passing through the Bone Gulf. The total outcrop area is more than 15,000 km2. East Sulawesi Ophiolite is one of the three largest ophiolites in the world along with the Oman Ophiolite and the Papua New Guinea Ophiolite. The ESO are now intercalated and juxtaposed in a complex manner with Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks, as a result of Late Oligocene/ Early Miocene collision, subsequent obduction, and later strikeslip faulting (Bergman et al., 1996; Parkinson, 1998; Hall, 2002; Kadarusman et al., 2004). Theoriginandage(s)oftheESOarestillmatters of debate due to incomplete geochemical and geochronological data sets. Three major tectonic settings have been proposed for the origin of the ESO: typical midoceanic ridge (SoeriaAtmadja et al., 1974; Simandjuntak, 1987), a suprasubduction zone (SSZ) setting (Monnier et al., 1995; Bergman et al., 1996; Parkinson, 1998) and oceanic plateau (Kadarusmanetal,2004).
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Monnier et al. (1995) argued that the ESO has similaritieswiththeoceaniccrustoftheCelebes Sea, whereas Bergman et al. (1996) speculated that the Lamasi ophiolite could represent a fragment of Indian Ocean crust, similar to the trapped crust of the Banda Sea. The idea that the ESO is an onland analog of the Banda Sea wasfirstproposedbyKatili(1978)andHamilton (1979). Based on the geological and marine geophysical data, Silver et al. (1983) have proposed that the ESO is laterally continuous with the basement of Gorontalo bay basin. The paleomagnetic data of Mubroto et al. (1994), however, suggest that the ophiolite was some 2000kmsouthofitspresentposition.Parkinson (1998) considered that the origin of (at least) the westernmost segment of the ESO was probably a small ridgetransform basin formed behind an oblique subduction zone at the Sundaland margin in the Eocene. Later Kadarusman et al (2004) suggested two alternatives of nature of ESO; they may have formedinonetectonicsetting(MORorigin)and were later overprinted by magmatism in a different environment (oceanic plateau and subductionmagmatismoverprinting)ortheESO is not a single coherent ophiolitic body, but consists of a composite of imbricated slices of ophiolitefragmentswithdifferentorigins. In addition to the discrepancies regarding the origin of the ESO, the age(s) of the ophiolite is still unresolved (e.g., Parkinson, 1998). There is evidence for both a Cenozoic and/or Mesozoic formation from conventional KAr and Ar/Ar geochronology (Simandjuntak, 1987, 1992; Mubroto et al., 1994; Monnier et al.,1995; Bergman et al., 1996; Parkinson, 1998). They include Cretaceous (79137 Ma), Paleogene (6428 Ma) and Neogene (1623 Ma) ages for basalt and gabbro of the ESO. One possible interpretation for the Neogene ophiolite ages is thattheymayindicateeithertimingofophiolite metamorphism or ophiolite emplacement, or the rock samples may have been mistakenly derived from Neogene volcaniclastic basalt (NVC) covering the ESO as subduction magmatism overpinting. The majority of the oldest ages (Cretaceous) may indicate the initial

generation of oceanic lithosphere or time of first eruption (Kadarusman et al., 2004). Simandjuntak (1992) obtained Valanginian to Lower Cenomanian fossil ages from chert and limestone of the Boba beds in the East Arm. Although a clear depositional contact between ophiolite lavas and overlying Boba beds has never been reported, because the relation is commonly faulted, a rare stratigraphic contact between lava and undated chert of the Matano Formation (which has been correlated with the Bobabeds)intheKolonodaleareasuggeststhat the unit was deposited on top of the ophiolite (Simandjuntak, 1992). If so, a Cretaceous age of at least part of the ESO is supported by the stratigraphicrelationship. In most cases, units underlying the ESO include the Pompangeo schist complex and correlative units (Mekongga Complex and Mesozoic Metasediments)andthePeleru(orWasuponda) melange complexes (Parkinson, 1996, 1998). The age of the Pompangeo complex is Early Cretaceous(Parkinson,1998),whereasboththe mlange complex and metamorphic sole have similar age ranges of 2833 Ma (Parkinson, 1998). Based on the east dipping thrust contact between these underlying units and the ESO, Parkinson (1998) interpreted that the ESO is overthrust onto the Pompangeo schist complex and its correlative units, and the Late Oligocene ageindicatesthetimingoffinalemplacementof the ESO onto the Sundaland margin. In the Poh Head region, underlying units include Banggai Sula microcontinental materials. The Batui Thrust separates the ESO from sedimentary rock deformed along the leading edge of BanggaiSula platform. The timing of collision between the ESO and BanggaiSula microcontinent is probably Late Miocene (Silver etal.,1983). The full suite of ophiolite lithologies (ultramafic and mafic sequences) is present along the northern coast of the East Arm. In the large parts of the ESO, ultramafic sequences dominate in the Southeast Arm, Southern part of the East Arm and Kabaena Island, whereas only the basaltic volcanic unit is exposed in the
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Lamasi and Poh Head area. The ultramafic outcrops in the East and Southeast Arm of Sulawesi occur in three forms (PT Inco MRMR Report2007): As large irregular masses of up to several hundred square kilometres. The largest of these is that of the Malili Lakes Area Massif that covers several thousand square kilometres of continuousultramaficterrain As imbricated strips following the general structural grain of the subduction melange. According to this grain, imbricated strips have their convexsidesgenerallytothewest. As small irregularshaped and isolated bodies of ultramafics (Latao, SuaSua, PaoPao, Pomalaa, Torobulu, KiaKia, Kabaena etc.). These smaller bodies lie in specific regional trends. Thus, Latao, SuaSua, PaoPao and Pomalaa form a distinctnortheasterlytrend. THECONTINENTALFRAGMENTSOFBANGGAI SULA,TUKANGBESIANDBUTON Continental fragments of Australian derivation consist of ButonTukang Besi and BanggaiSula fragments,which collided witheastern Sulawesi during the early Miocene and Pliocene, respectively (Hall, 2002). The BanggaiSula microcontinent is interpreted as to be a fragment of the North AustraliaNew Guinea continent (Garrard et al., 1988). The basement of this microcontinent apparently is not only composed of granitoid rocks (namely Banggai granite), but also composed of regional metamorphic rocks which consist metapelites and intercalation with metabasites and metapsammitic and acidic volcanics rock (Mangole Volcanics). The Carboniferous metamorphic basement was intruded by PermoTriassic Banggai granite and overlain by contemporaneous Mangole volcanics. This basement complex is unconformably covered by Jurassic continental to shallow marines sediments. Early investigation by Kadarusman et al (1994) and Natawidjaya & Kadarusman

(1994) suggest low pressure and high temperature continental metamorphites form a substantial part of the Australian basements rockinthismicroplate. Buton and the adjacent islands Tukang Besi are frequently viewed as two small Australian derived microcontinental fragments, began docking with Sundaland in the Eoecne Oligocene and Pliocene respectively. However, there is no clear tectonic suture between two microcontinents. Both areas have granitic basements below sea level, and only Buton has remnants of obducted ophiolite (Kapantoreh Ophiolite). The basements were overlain by LateTriassicPaleogeneplatformsediments. CONCLUDINGREMARKSANDECONOMIC GEOLOGYIMPLICATION Basement rock can be classified as (i) Continental Basements (e.g. cratons, continental shelf, continental fragments, etc), (ii) Convergent Plate Boundary Products Basements (e.g. island arc, active continental margin, accretionarycollisional complexes, etc), and (iii) Oceanic crust Basement (e.g. marginal basin, ophiolite complex, etc). Based on this classification and detailed of basements description above, the Sulawesi has convergent plate boundary products Basements which consist of (i) accretionarycollision complex (Bantimala and Barru Complex in SW arm), (ii) metamorphic rocks with continental margin parentage (metamorphic complexes in West, NW, Central and SE Sulawesi), (iii) melange or broken formation in the Central part. The continental basement present (iv) in Banggai Sula and Tukang Besi microcontinents. Finally, (v) the ophiolitic rock and oceanic crust occupied in East and North arm basement, respectively. Correlation between metallogenesis occurrence and the basement type in Sulawesi existed in three ways. Firstly, they occurred genetically as the metal source such as ultramafic massif of East Sulawesi Ophiolite. The ultramafic rocks
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are favorable for source of nickel laterite and nickel sulfide deposits. In addition to nickel, we can expect the ultramafic rock host for chromite, cobalt, base metal, platinum group metals (PGM), diamond, gemstone and lateritic iron ores. Sulfides of CuFeNi are common accessory phases in upper mantle peridotites both ultramafic xenoliths and massif occurrences. A large of sulfides compositions have been reported the ultramafic rock association with magmatism. If the exposed ultramafic rocks were overprinted by later magmatism that involving underneath volcanic/granitic basement, then we can expect that base metal and nickel sulphides deposit (+PGM)ispresentinthatsetting. Second, the basement as the country rock of metalogenesisrelated to subduction magmatism, for example host of theoleticcalc alkaline Neogene volcanism in North Sulawesi were deposited on the top of the oceanic basement, and potassic calc alkaline Neogene Volcanism in NW Sulawesi where the metamorphic rocks as the basement (Priadi et al., 1993; SoeriaAtmadja et al., 1999). There is exists of differences mineralization type in both locations; Unique Porphyry CuAu and Lowhigh Sulphidation epithermal AuAgCu in North Sulawesi, and Porphyry Mo and metamorphic gold deposit in NW Sulawesi. Although, most of authors believed that differences because of two different type in subduction magmatism, butbasementrockcontributionasthehostrock alsocannotbeavoided. Lastly, the basement itself is carrying mineralization before incorporate with rest of Sulawesi terranes, for example discovery orogenic gold in metamorphic terrane in Bombana (as a part of Mekongga block). Preliminary investigation showed that this area is a potential host of metamorphogenicrelated hydrothermal ore deposits which not have any relationshipwithNeogenevolcanism.

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