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    Paul Connerton How Societies Remember Themes in the Social Sciences 1989

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    Paul Connerton How Societies Remember Themes in the Social Sciences 1989

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    637 views63 pages

    Paul Connerton How Societies Remember Themes in The Social Sciences 1989

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    Προσεχώς Όνομα
    Paul Connerton How Societies Remember Themes in the Social Sciences 1989

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    dtr joa Dur, Joo Gandy Bugne A Ha kun Lt Cue umm eit ch yh cone Tavis tof rte os i el nips Arion Heath: Raion he nd inl ecg: fxn ary Abrams a A MCh Commun, syn ty Jick Goody hedometio fe sg mint en Lois Fi om i re ii. cl seat en Due Pl yh if te fia avd Toma: Naan cept emprics ply of iat ‘Cae Mella: Maen, me on moyen i doe comma avd Lae Lev oil lettin ack Goo Cin, ie onl ay crt ey Roy Elles: Enso bad yt ty fam eros S.N Erstad Rie: Ftons aed fin: mero os ond ‘ect of cy en aT pti i cy iti ery Matin ese: Hiri at f te oly ‘Tam ngels Etter ie avid Levies Ri fe aif gk pain ity abet inde: nih, ioc ee yond How societies remember PAUL CONNERTON i | CAMBRIDGE | CAMBRIDGE | i bad ye Pre Syd ey fC "he Rang ane Ce I 10 Sami Road Oop be 3166 Ase © comin Uney Pe 1989 pba 1908 epee 191, 1982, 1896 195,196 tant in athe ety Pro, Ce rsh ary cling pbeion da — ow sce ome = (Theme in tbe eal enc rr of ogres eo pein date aon. P (amen hea) Iso 0521249481 arc ISBN 082127093 6 peace Contents Acreage Invrodueton Socal memory Commemorative ceemonie Bodily practices us 1 Acknowledgements {wish to thank the Distr and Deputy Distr of the Homans Reseach Cante tthe Avstaian Natonl Unversity forthe ivaton ot 2 Viting Fellowship andthe provision of congenial conditions in which femme ofthe work towards ths Sook was done [ove speci debt of thanks to Geottey Hawthomy for hs seadlast suppor fo this projet {fom ineption ae «quite iflerent de to eventual appearance a. methine, and Yo Ruse Keath whom dscused the details at the workstmow stages. The book has benehite om thecal comments fon an evier verano ade by them and aso bY Gregory Blue [Nicholas Bove Peter Edwards, Riche Roberton and Blesbth Sopp. ‘dep grael to them lor helping me to sya ite mre dea shat I wanted to sy. Fay, {wish thank Babe Coe and Joyce vere who cheertlly and ffceny prepared ths manuscript for publeaton Introduction We genenlly think of memary a a ndvidual cy. None the es {here are a number of thinkers who concur in baring tat hee soe ich thing aa colectie or scl memaryTshate hat sumption, but tend bo vege ver She queaton ast here this phenewnon, soc ‘Barory canbe found tobe mow cual operative ‘Acardngy the question o whic hs Boks addessed how is the memory of groups conveyed and sustained? The erm group isherebeg Seedina enerouly capaci sense an with me fenbity of meaning (oil both smal fcetofae sxe (such a lager ub) an ‘erty extensive societies mest of whose members cannet know each other personally (such as nation-states and word religions). Readers might reasons expect ht the question ths posed — haw ie themernoryol groups conveyed and sane? ~ mig lend to cone son, ether of social memory at dimension of pol power, of the ‘enconscious clement sn socal memory or both. In what flrs thane ‘sss are ocasionaly touched upon, bu hey ae intentionally nota Sresed in an exc and systemic way. The value of aesing ch {sous take can hardly be doubted. For ssurey the case hat cont oa roi’ memory Irs conan the hierarchy of power: 2 tht, {or example, the age of preseay information technologie. and Ince the organisation of clive memry tough the use of daa processing machines, snot merely «technval mater bt one dsecty raring on Ipiimstion, the question ofthe contol and ownership of infomation being» ropa fre" Again. the fact hat Mo longer beevein the ret ‘subject’ of tary =the prltart the party the West-mears, nat the dlsappeaance ofthese great master nate, but eather heir continuing unconscious efectivnes sways of Ning Shoutand acingin our contemporary stuaton tir persistence, nother ‘words as unconscious clectve memories” TE nelther the poli nor the unconsciousness of memory is expcly edo How sti ter seddesed in this book, that snot therefore, Because of any doubts ‘hterainey th author arto thamportanc, bet Becnuse what share being advanced aferen argument an argument at snot incompet IBeweith ong he poston ust inated but one which suscepti ‘findependent vestigation. What hat invesgauonintendscan perhaps bet brindle by noting tthe outset we points tht are KER a ‘omic One concems memary a5 such Ihe cher concerns focal ‘memory in particular. \Conconing meinaey such, we may nate that our experience of the present very gly depends upon our knowledge fhe pst We exper nce present word a content whichis aay connected with ast ‘vent and objects, and henee wih reference to evens and objets which ‘temtengrencng where ne epertcng me A we ou preset erent in aecoranee withthe deze [ut tel wee the toconecta preset Hence dest of ‘tating our pot rom aur present ot mpl becuse presen ators tendtoiuence-some might wantto sty distort -ourreclectionsof the Ds butaio because pastors tend tines oF disor our exper- hot ofthe present Tis proces, should be sree reaches ie the | nootninute snd everday deta of ourives, Tes Prost shows us how Marc's memories of seing Shana’ face were feighted ith farther Inempones FortheSwenn who in Marcel s youth wat afar gure nal {herashcnabeclabs of thoee dys iene largely rom he Swann created bbyMarce'soeatunt-ang hence seen by Merel~ when he appeaedin the evening Combray Sean, ho was eeher those days 50 “ugh ater, wa tested by Maras reat-aunt wth the ough simpy (fa child win wil play witha colacorspiece wth no More cecum Section han wete some cheap abet. From e Svan tat Mates {Boil had constructed for themectves hey haletout in theignorane, ‘any dens hee at hat tien the fashionable wor, details which ledoer people, when hey meh to seeallthe graces envied is face. Ina t face divested ofall glamour Mare’ fay implanted © Seer oie rap ol ony rg conan ht hor Swann ce leoepora en so wall is residue ofseminscence ta! ‘thle un spect Soann’ ‘dbcometa Maret slivingcreatre’ Thus even ‘Bsecrngly simple an at ae that whic we dese Seg somecne twe know, Prout emi et amet! a tlt oes She puck the physical utine of the person we see with al he notions we Fave ale armed about them, ann the ttl pure of them which we Compose in our minds those notons have he principal plc. the end “thy come il ot s0 completely the curve OF chen 10 allw 50 ‘iatou orton ‘nat thetne of his nose they Hens armaniousy inthe sound of hi Soest were io more hata ansparent envelope, tate sane fe the fice orhea the Vie ts these tins wich we ogee and to sich we ster Concersing 0 ee in pascal, we may not tatimages of he resent soil one iran imp re tat ‘member can share neler experiences for assumptions, Th ef Is ‘een peshpe most obviously when communiston scces generations imped by ileren ete of momories. Avot generations, erent col memars, Frequent in the shape of pict bekgroand narratives, Stil encourer eachother, 20 that though physically present fo one Shother ine parale setting the fren generations may remain ‘ental and emotionally inelted, the Memes of one generation leche tatievbly, seit wry inthe brane ap bodies hat generation Proust shows us the saconcering atenaton-liy,tesense fs mental jo that ul from the nection of icommensurable mers He hos Win te experience of Mara, when he returns 0 fshionable ‘ect ater a lng absence and te to ngage forthe fis ein coer Etton witha young Amencan woman who had herd ot bout im rom the Dachese de Guermantes, and who was regarded ne ofthe ost ‘Gehonabe women ofthe day but whose name was ently unknown to Mare Conversation with her was agreeable, but for Marcel rendered dcaleby the novelty wo hs ets ofthe names of most of the people she hed about although these were the very people wh formed the core ot polite socey at tat time. And the convere way so trues her request Marelnarated many anedotescfthe pst and any ofthesames which hhepronounced meant uting ots ed forthe mostpur never even ‘eae ther. Tis was not merely because she was youn because she ad not ed in France or long ad when she fis ative had krown ‘obody, she fad ony begun #9 move in ahora society sme years ‘erMarcl had winrar ome Te converation was urmligble ‘rene the bo of thesn hed ved inthe anne sol world bat with ‘mterval of vente yeas. Thus although fr orinaty speech he and Marcel edhe sme language, when tcameloames-when came, we right say, to ter scking to exchange a socal legitimate carreney of rmerionies heir voesbuaies had nothing im commen “Thee may’ aay tht our expences of the presen rg depend pon our kncwiedge of the pos and that our ioages of the past ‘omonly serve legitimate a presen social order. Andy! these os ign oe are they stan nscent when thos at For mages of 3 f° ti renter the past and recited knowledge ofthe past, T want 0 argue ate “conveyed and stains by (more res Hal performance. Tn steking to sho how ths is the cau I shall ogi by considering & parodoial sample that ofthe Fench Revolution isa paradoveal ase ecnusef there's anywhere you would nt expe! odd ssl mesa stork fmt sur be sn times of great revelutons. But one hing a {Ende to gt fngten sou! the French Revaltion that ke al Bap ‘ing involved ecalecon, Another hati lnvoved th cevering os heat an a change inthe cothes people wor. F believe that there 3 ennecton between these two things, aa that what we can sa about hat Connection i generainale beyond the pertclanatance tow, fr {her that the slaton othe question posed above how isthe memory of ‘poups conveyed and sisted? invoives bringing these fo things {Geoletgn and bodies together ina waythat wemight not have ought ‘One might not have thought of doing that because, when rcllection Ins been fest erator than aah indigo act, I hat tended to be set a he reaicton ofa calttaltraibon ane such trade, in tum, hastened r be thought ofa something that i i {eked Moe than two millennia indeed the whole history of expt hermeneutic activity operetes in favour of ts presupposition 13 tue that, fr along time now, the unity of hemenewics hasbeen seen 38 residing the unity ofa procedure which in principle appa to any bject andany practice cpsble of eainga meaning’ Leland theog ‘al texts, works of at, tual sets bly expressions all re posible ‘bjs of interpretative acti Yet ahough bodily patie are Prciple included as posse objets of hermeneutic nguy n practice Rermeneucs as faken inscription ass prvlged object. arose om Sndin the course of i hitry shay constant returned he kind ‘estionshipwithiaditon which ocaseson the ansmssion of what as teenie on teats, ora the very ston documentary evidence ‘whch shld to ve a satus comparale to tees tobe cnstted a6 ‘wee in the image an kenes of et. TWisapaint ths antithetical contes that salle io give an acount of how preter of2mon acre Kind are tanemited, nana aio, The fender should perhaps be warned as Yo ow th end ll be ap proached: What flows cast ot so much inthe form of 2 teats a5 Father tat ofan aralyicl quest the metho is cumulative, Despite he ‘ity fap hat wil be cured a ore loge connecon sana ‘mong them. Thatconnecton canbe expresses by saying that ivalved a _» progssve raring ef focus ight is sucha thing arecrmemery pe Intducion smoratve Taras Thy re pina performative ba tought cannotbe thought without soto this way shall soko show that here isanineta ‘Rasa structures tat rot adequately explained by an te caret fthodones of what cial strata Social memory All beginnings contain an element of zealecton. This parla 0 ‘hens socal poup makes concerted ello to bpin with» hall new Snr Theresa meture of eompletenbitainensin every nature ofan [Suchettepted beginning. Thebepinninghas aching whatsoever the ‘onto tas if teame out of nowhere Fora moment, the moment of Tegning, iis arf the beginners had abolished the sequence of fey poly tf andwertowm out tnecomtinaty ofthe temporal onder Fed the alors often ete thi sone of he act y snaugurating 2 ‘eweaundar Buh sbeoktely new ninoncevable snot as has ‘ery alicl to begn with = whey nesta, ha Yo many ol yas {ed habe inhib the subatuton ots nove eterpnie for ama and ‘tbls one. More fundamental, is that nal des of experience ‘realy Bae our particle experiences ona prior cones in ode ‘hau that they at ineligible al: tha lor fo any single experince, Surmind sale prediposes with amevtrk of cuines, 8 type Shapes of exponen jess To perceive an objector act upon 8 © Joc within ti system of expectations. The werd ofthe pest ‘eine in tem of temporal experience, ran organised body of ec ‘sana based on recllecion Timapining hata historic begining might bei the modern i Agiation hae tuned back again ad agai othe events ofthe French Revolton Thishisovieupture movetnanany oer, assssumedfor us the status of todern myth, it tk on that status very uly All ‘efletion on story on he continent of Europe throughout heen Cenfary looks behind tt the momen of fat revolton In whieh Oe ineining of revoltion se was wansfonmed fom a ceca of rove ‘en! tothe advent the new For thoseeho came fer, he present was ‘eens tne ofall into the enn of pose her age or 253 permanent « ‘Ss mony suateof css theamipation,whetherhopedforor feared ofa reurent pions Revo snagning ches beyond he Eropen he {End ee the nt rncteenthenry we hae hved the myth te Rovloon mucha eft Chriss generations ved the mj of he Endo he Noni. Asesry ob 1798, Kant remarked tht Phenamenan of this Lind can never again be forgoten® "Yer this belong whch provides us with our mth of «historic bepnning, serves ao, and all the mre sly. to bing int eel the ‘mente recolton inal apperet beginnings. The wok of 3 KEcton peat inant agpt expily end imply, and a many ‘iferendjrets of xpenenes tut {mean to snout here or specie commen he vayin wich cal “The besinnng which was sought inthe ial and execution of Lous XV of Franc ex this cicumstanceina pecan damatieway.Theleaders ‘lth Revastion who sin adgementon Lot ace aprblem that ws ‘ot uniguetothemreiver fas 3 problns hat contonts any gin for Itsanee hat naps bythe Nuremberg Tal, which sek oe inh in deve manne the fot and complete substation af «new soci ides, The epelde of 178 may be seen san stance ofa mare ‘ener phenomenon the Waly fat ofa sucesorregame. Ths sunle Sry ther ype oft Te diferent in hn from tose that ake lace “Under the authority ofalongrestabished regime tisnolike those ae iste which reiforce «syst of retuton by sting is governing DPancplor ane mare into maton o by mowing the deals of the [pple its nto frther ik in soquence of eelerens through thick t regime wither aches greater soldat or moves towards 1s Uikowte disintegration. Those who adhere mst reseately the Prine ‘Spesol the nee regen sose whe have sere most severely athe fandsof theo seine mant nt only evengeforparteslar wrongs and = Feviation of prt iuguites The etdement they seek one in Iwhich the continuing trugeeBeeee the new order andthe od Wl be Ustitvly terminates, Base the letimay fe Vos wl be va fated once snd forall A brent be ered against future tans: ~ tresion The presents tobe seperated om hat preceded iby an acto {Thogunoal demarcation, The tl by fat ol successor repimes ke the traction ofa wall unisakable sn permanent, between The eh? beginnings a the ld yranny. To pass judgement on he practices ofthe ‘i epee te connate at the new order a al He iti oem ‘Te aan executonof Louis XVI wasnotthe murder ofaralerbutthe evocation ofa ruling principle: the princpie according 0 eich the ‘nasi eal was the ony imaginable patil sytem. Fad indeed bron possbie to envisage epi whit to tens ofthat system. For centuries kings had bee ile by would-be kings: by private assist the pay of would kings or, more aes, by rapousfanatis Bee Ue ‘musterrs of Hen land nn 1 of France. But whatever fat might ‘eal ndvidul kings, the pre of dynaste succession remained {ruc Whether he ie through matuacauses hvu ol pay, the ‘eat ofkings andthe coronation other successors were comprehen ‘pues inthe continuum of lineage Why did the murder of Kings eve the msttoton of kingship untouched? Baause, 43 Camus Suna put inane ofthe murderers ever imagined tat the Hone might remain empty No pew lesa sos had eee shaugheietobein thet rea in on, sth te natn noma sae eahen ue one raya athorty the peron whose dat they had insta. This fom o ret et te gS the benchmarks of ne were the ss fate Tarde F: Tha ting reer breakin public Emerbetweon one ing ac another timestond til Thee esa past rintemegnum ~ which people sought oe as brie spss When | ous Xl of France dated his accession the hone fom te xeon ‘this predeessor twas otis dyna rinepe hat eres oe he thinking 0 epee 2 tha lays eer hina within he ‘ontet of the dynamic rnim, 3 contest in which asasiatons cel sheays be accommodates epsode within the naratve of nasi Continuity, conte ined in which assassination was Rt 50.mUe 3 threat othe power of dynasty 2s ther an pict homage tit. Asses ‘ation Ie the principe of he eymete realm intact Benne tl | [ted the ing 2 pubic person “The whole point of Lows ial ard execution ly in ts ceremonial pubs: as ths hated im ths pubicapety by denying is aussi. Te dynasic pind war detroyed not by aearination| ‘ory npricrment or anihment bt by puteng Lous she embod ‘ental kingship t death in uch way hat fil pul abhorence of {he instuton of Kngahip was actualy expressed and witneseed* The ‘revolutonans needed tote some ritual proces tough Wich he a2 elit suroundng kingship cul bey repadted, What thoy thae wept wae moony an inetutonbtthe pail nelogy thstlegiimated hat instaton That poi thesog, tebe! atthe ‘ing united in one person his natu body a am indadal and Ni representative body a the king, was most cay expressed the cro * Sec eng tation ceremony. was expressed notin theactofcownnglonebutalso Evtheaoanting by eishop of the church. wit he alimporant phrase snnouning that he animes kng rules‘ the race of Gad Is this Souble component that gave the coronation nef quotacamental ‘racer, Fors thousand years the Kings of France ad rected at et ‘oromation the haly ols well asthe cown upon thle hetds ater the ‘manner ofthe apostes’ successor. The effect was to tansform te ene tes of royally into appatentysaciegious persons, This wasthe efit hat the pute eid s Lous sought o undo. Here was the onymaronic tdetent oft eiie: Lous wa tobe given «soya unesl ocd ‘yal feral, The ceremony of hil and exceton wes intended to frase the memsxy ofa poe ceremony. The anolated head was deap- fated andthe ate of coronation ceremony eecked. Not simply the atralbody ofthe hing bu alsoandaboveallns pola boy was led Inthisthe scons ofthe revolutionaries borrowed fom the anguage othe Sere which for ong the dynastic veal had appropnated 3:5 own hei victim well unrstood that ths was an event in the demize of poke theaogy Louis 10 ike Chaves fot England expt ened tse withthe God who did when he poke Shs detent ae Peston! The proceedings at the al and excuton ceremony sanded the sense of screge that had surounded the murder of kings One ite revoked another "Arte revoking an institution ony makes seus by inverted recaling ‘he other es ha hithenaconfemed htinetation. The tal ending ngshipwasasetingefacount with nd gig ofan count of what ‘epudted. Theejectono the principle of he dynastic realm, in scase the nual enactment of that rejection, was sll an eccount of and ¢ ‘alingal the superseded dyastresim. The prolem heels sia © ‘hat wach are over the quero ofthe snrbution of property. Some peopel fom others dezeudthemr siete produc Inallthase Wrage they may acquite possessions by means rot sanctioned by the prevaling princes of asic in regard o possessions. The existence of pstinjrtce andthe continaed memory of taint rases the ques on of he rccation of njustcon For pat injustice hat thea the structure of soces present arrangement for holding proper in ‘erlous ways~or analogous tse tha post inate has hoped the Structure ofa soc’ aangements or founding is soveregnt =the ‘etion ass ae to whut now, if anything, ough tobe done to reckly thew nace. What kind of erminaare and what abigations do the pertormer of past injustice hate toward those whe poston worse {han it would Rave Been had the injustice not bean perpetrated? How far back must you go in faking acount ofthe memory of pat injustice, in How sit emer teteen the new bepnnig and the old tyranny iso rea ana. ‘The siyes of doting characteristic af the revoatonay psi! cl etvated If ot so deintive «Being, then at east a teparary ber ‘ton tom the practice ofthe ortalshed order They tate he ate Stash nev set of pial bay pass The pba in He Tea ‘on existed ¢ lrm of behaviour that wae not unique Yo themeeves behaviour hati tobe found nalearrivas whe nee he rsperon of Ferra ank,prveges, noms and potions SivesofCethingin Praispased tough Wo phases dung he evolutionary pend. Daan thefist which dominated the years 79-4 clthesbecame norms. The Calo of siple cat andthe absence of adornments were entenai of ‘he deseo elena scl bares inthe stehing fr egaaty by Making thebody neutral cizens wer tobe ref del with ane anther thot the strarion of stferencer in socal sats During the send pve, tnhich dominated the years of Thermor beginning ln 195, uber of Ass care to mena iret body movement People now began tes ih bch way aso expose ther bodies fo one anser onthe ste 2 ‘deplay the motions othe body. The meres, th wonsan fiom, wore light musin drapery which reveals the shape ofthe bess fl tnd cofered ether the am norte legs blow the knees whl the Imusin showed the movement othe mts when the Boy change pos: on, Her male counterpart the ner, ase man deeds the fom ‘ofacone witht ip on the round very ight Houses ed upto hore land ended in igh and exaggerated clars,baghly coloured cavts a Ihe worn dhevelled or atone inthe stl of Romianslaves, While the ‘yleo the meselle was intecded av a bwation fasion, tha of he incroilen meant as sat pared thera proce the Mac ‘oni. stylish dresser ofthe 175s, by using lorgetes and walking with Iincing steps Ts wae moment nthe story of Pas when nor ‘es were suspended: when, asinallcinval the peopl acted oa helt ‘tvarenss tha etblahed suthonty wa, in vay, mater of fea Presciption TH the revolutionaries jected the paces of bs behaviour dom rant under these nine tht was bacase they Kes tat nab oF Serve ss inearporated inthe behsour ofthe sewle group by way of thew own habs a body department. This wae the poi hat the ep ties othe Third state were mangvhenin ay 1789 they remonsated, fist at thes Rumibating ofc costume sd ten, hen tat Rad be ‘hanged, st the very ea of costume dtingushing them om the ‘deputies of he nobly. Ins pamphlet of? May 1789 they atached the 0 Sec ney convention requtng the deputies to wer diferent costumes emblematic otter entate rach practic they stata perp on onaseptable Inequaliy, destructive of te very essence ofthe Asem What uated Was inequality in an incorporated foes that aiton af Bally practice i ccorsance sth wehien te upper ranks soy 3>- pearedon the stret in saboate costumes which th set her apa fom the lower orders and allowed them to dominate the set. a tation Furher upheld by sumptuary avs whch eiged to ech soil statu inte hierarchy sett appropiate dress and fete anyoneta wer he otingoffialy and publicly pronounced suitable for anther soca} sank The epreenativer ofthe Third Estate wanted lesa tne {resslon, a tangressve act which cried te point not spl fom & remediate begining for ‘ture pital sty, bu fom the sesee {trerospectve imagination which recaled a hae and a form of soc Seder when apperences onthe sect were pce nds of si ‘Nera ts teen argue = Burk the preeminot spokes a sich a view and Onvesot a ieent sxemplsy exponent hat pola Sdeoiogy mst be understood not ae an independently premeiated ‘begining for pola acti’, But as knowledge, an abstract act [enerlaed form of concete manner of atending othe aangements [rset ha dealapies as exprened hte form of pole pre srames or ofc mass, can ieverbe eve than abreviatonsol ome ‘manner of concrete behavior and Wat a wadion of behavior n- reat tnowndge of deta, nace hat fas tobe earned not sates ora ae of ck, nor oven aa uta cnet, eherent ‘manner of ving in all ts neratonens® Such an insight tis fequeny| flamed, i exclusive to the tue Conserve: bu the representatives of ‘ne Turd Etat nasigning suc importance fo the deals of everyday dress showed themeelvesasawareasther opponents thatdotheshadthe ination a seying something stout the snr the went and what equally important, of making ha ststement abl one "To rad or wear ces na signcant respec smi to eading ot comporingaiterary tx. To read or composes text as erature and longing to 2 paricuar gene ofitertire, i not to approach twat preconception” one mat bring fo it an snp anderstanding of the ‘Operations oft discourse wich lone what olook fro how to ft about composing. Only thse who pssetsed the rege itera) ‘ompeiens would be able to pres Yo make sense af tre cones ‘nation af phrases y reading them berate ose pe anal ‘gous, only these who posses the equi sol compete woul beable read the dress ofthe noo an «prod o the Macao us ‘Sone group has itera the amar of heatere whe enables ow es ember them conve linguist sentencesint Merry structre and meanings soltewise asthe ater ineralind the grammar of dress wih nates them to convert othing tems iso coming sucttes and mennings [Anyone who doesnot pores ach competences anyone unfiaith the enwersons by wes fons are ved or people ted, woul or ‘sample, be gate puszied if confonted with s Ie poem a= person “resedin the sve of an teroyate Tn eeding erature one eign the ‘bjectin queston to agen innterpetng clothes one proceeds Lk. ‘Anindial ray festare, or sn naval cathing ature, possesses Imeanng bens perceived a pr fa whole une of mesning®| hd. ineach ase, ths ype whole must be a mre or ess exp ges ‘hoot the kind of uterance or the king of Greve hate Being ered Unlesinterpeters makes ese about he Kind ofmeanngtey confront they ave no way of ung her wansent encounters with te deta [And thissubtumpsion ofthe partisan experene under ypecr gene! rotsimpiya proces dentiying certain pl features. alo entails Set of expectations by virtue of which one boleves that aay oF the tnesamined features the new experince wil be the same a Features ‘charactrticof previous experience they ae nothe same thst hey ire deseble i terms of ther degree of divergence from thse of ‘expectations Tl tructurofimplatexpectatonssalwaysacomponent ‘latype-atypeof literature ora ype ofcthing~becauseltsby virtue of "hem har are instance canbe subsumed beforetiscompleely WR. Inthe to caer jut looked at that of ceremonial tial and ect, and that of newly deveaped pracicr of clthing = we find» common ‘eature. The atempe to beak definitely wth an oder sal order em ‘ourlersaind of istoraldepositand twentens to ounder upon‘. The ‘more total the sepraton ofthe nee regime, the more imperil wl Sek fo ntodce an eof forced forgetting Tosa that Soles are Sititerpreting communis ito inaine te nature ofthat epost ‘isimporanto add hat among the most power ol hese selenterpre ‘tions are the mages of themeaves x continuously ening thet sos ‘eat and presarve. Foran inddua'sconscousnes one ta ge Segre an awareness of soit’ contin of moreexac of he image ofthat cantly which hesitates. Ihave sugested, with espect {othe Fench Revlon, that at at part tha depots be found in repeated comemorativeactsand atleast pat cultural speticbodly proces. That depost was composed, in regard tothe ceremony of Tei, offecings with respect othe king, o athe owards hs king Shp, that bore the mak of ances belts th rot eign and ‘waysolthought ht leltbeind a ens thein ated vita [no the pubicexection of Louis was ely alla conteperais abe Secel meney so anes an even. And was compte, gad tthe cbthing ‘aco he cay evohtonay peed tad Theater, of heros Frocrpns ht were corporeal ody paces tS ‘hy tiene lhonslthe Hoo werexpeianced bye prunes Sichahady else Reghidewas ante voto caoralcece eas Bearers: Intoh yes acho ese pple tng oan Gut the bound of rat bmn sod meter et Begining hone imagrotsce scontny even ate that iSedemen af colar of ectecion bth spt sd mpi The attempt esatichabepnning refers backinevorbly ts pattem sca a ne pia ater tee fence te eee er a eas senna eat pire, ete bed i in Soe ile ee ere ees oe ne me mre sere cet meciennee i ae ee eee Seo cee ed pcr te tel cperoes seateaeg oan mae about that for which itis taken as evidence. me aa ar cet age ty Thy te geracnmmecmetoearet et ence eles enna ena tat eaeseaeeadareeeeeraart ee ema cree cee lee Serie ree toes ge mee meer tayy goes tiene paeameraena tenes casate me Scecpeaennaeranntue, atte fe Bieter ammeter erect fined brat cei a Serirenees oe eee B sities remo ther evidence in the sense that they possess eitraby reference to which "Histor reconstruction thus not dependent on scl emery. Even shen no ststoment about anevent or cst asreached he stern n-unbroken radii fom ejewtneses, is sl possible fo he hie teria orelsoverwhathas been completa forgten, Hisoraneesn do this pay by the crea! eananason of stutemens cntained in thie tener sours, whee wien sauce ean sources conning sae ment asserting or implying alleged fact regarding the subject in which the historian Is ierested, and pany bythe use of what ae called ur Seiten source, fr example schacsngal material connected with the Sie subj the pnt of deserbing these a unwrten sours being India tha since they ae not Tet, they contain no seadymede ‘But historical contraction isl nosey even when soi memory preserves dre testimony ofan event Fors horn working on froblen ia recent history and sccve a rt hand a ead ade ates {othe very questioning puttethe evidence, than the Rstran wl eed to question hat statement iis tobe considered as evidence and hss {horas enon ifthe anwer whch the tora receiver i given BF a tpeteas ory the peron who di what he Mtoran x inguin no ‘istnne do nt conhnue fo question the statment of tha infoemants becuse they think tat the ifornant want fo deceive therm or ave themseves ben deceived, Historans continue to question he statements thir iformants cause i they weet accept hem at face vale that ‘would amount fo abandoning ther sstnomy ss practising horns tp They would then have rinquhed their tdapendenceo sal tm independence based on ter lm to have the ight ome up thes ‘wn mind by metode prope to ht cwn sence, as to the Comedt ‘elution fhe problems that asin he course of hat seni practice Despite tisindependenc fram sol memary, the prot of strc seconarscon cin mportnt ways receives uingimpets fom, ond ln in tum give sigaant shape fo, he iemory of Soc groups A partly extere case of euch intercon ocur when sate peas [used in systematic way to deprive is izes oftheir memory. A ‘otataransms behave in his waythementaesiverentofthe subjects lator epme begins whence memonesaretaken aay When “lange per wants to deprive «sal coury oft national conscious essituses the method of organised forging In Cech histor alanethis ‘rzarised oivion hasbeen iste wie, ater 118 and ater 198. Contemporary wits ae prosibed, itorans re amined from het posts and he people who havebeenslencedand cesoved om hess 4 Sc memoy ‘become invisible an forgotten. Wha shoring in tata regines {pot only the vation of nan digty butte fee tot hese might ternal nabody who ould ever ain propery bea test the pt (Onwellseveeaon ofa tem of government ace no ett ns pte henson of state of colecve anes etter ies oat =i ety, {notin Ninton Egy For that there wk ele wo reaned hat he "trugle af zn againet sate power Is the struggle of thee memary ins forced oretng and who made thls fom the begining | ot eny to save temseives butt urive ab witnesses tne genet ions, to become relentless recorders: the ramet of Soohenyn snd ‘Wiee| mast stand formany In suck cicumstences tering of oppo sional histories not the only pace of documented histor trucion; but precelybesure i that peters the metry os troupe whose voice would oleriae have been silenced "Agnn the Nstoriography’o the Causes quent esinony tthe roe of historical writing the formation ef poll deny. Medieval "Musk hinerians di not sare eth medieval European Civitan the sense of wien ret struggle between mn ane Chistendon for the cont ofthe Ho Lang. Inthe extensive Munim istrogaphy of that ime the words Crusade’ and ‘Crasader’ ever ear. The ntemp> ‘ary Moai hitonane spoke ofthe Cracaets hea the inl ore the Franks, and the viewed the tacks nonce by then in Si yp land Mesopotamia, between the end of te elventh andthe end ofthe Thrcen centuries, as bangin no way fundamentally teres rom he former wats waged between say od the nil Sa ain he ‘our ofthe rentncentury andor In Andalstheoughout the Spancth Reconguss, arin Sly asia the Norman, A Nstory ofthe Crsades| ‘cannot be fund inthe Musi stor weting tht ne ont st most ony agents of what such a Rison might be, embeded in| ‘renee on afer sabes Meseval Mus histonogrphy on i ‘Stenalys history ofthe Crsages, But in the pea nce 1945 a ‘expanding body of Arabic hia werstng hes ken the Gruss a ts theme, The Crusades have aow Became 8 eode word fr the malign Intentions of the Wester powers. Must horas Have cme os 3 ‘train paralism bree the period of the eth and tenth cen ‘uses ad te lst hundred yeas In Boh ass the lami Mile Eat ‘was assled by European fore hich succeeds in imposing theca {ol upon e age pert a the region. From 4 Mss viewpoint. the Cre deshate come be seen asthe primary phys of European cloission ‘heprefguation slong term movement whichinclates the Bonaparte expedition, the Brish conquest of Fey, nd the Mandate ster inthe Levent. That movement een ab culminating nthe foundation of he s ow etree ‘ne ec and with ed mig sph Arnal a ‘ued momentum. Muslin Nstorlans now seen the se and fal ofthe {Grader prints paras to contemporary events. The Crusades heel on eg an tae ned ato Prine "Atmore paradoncal case sills tat presented by the tansfoemation of [store wring in the ninetenth century. The pazador es in two fntithecal yt ely eens aspects of hie press a wae intr: ‘rte by hove who Were caught up int. One Ww of hime [nterpie fastens atenson upon the prveged tutu of he store. Scenes Ths way of seeing ings depends upon saliting the practic ot methodical understanding that akes pac inthe histori ences roma Bow allebraan phtaneran te praca oration Bat Tees on fo Sense that he pace of itor esearch resting ne

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