America on the World Stage

1890 - 1916

Imperialist Stirrings
Throughout early U.S. history, most Americans were unconcerned by the outside world. But as the nations population and production grew, pressure mounted to expand. Adventure, evangelism, global Darwinism, and colony envy also sparked overseas expansion. It was control of the sea, argued Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, that was the key to global dominance. Americans thus demanded a mightier navy, demonstrating a more aggressive national mood.

Cubans Rise in Revolt

Cuban patriots rebelled against their longtime Spanish oppressors in 1895. Americans sided with the Cuban freedom fighters, and millions of U.S. trade dollars at stake in Cuba. America was outraged by the ruthless tactics of Spanish General Butcher Weyler whose job was to crush the uprising. Congress demanded action, but President Cleveland defiantly resisted.

The Mystery of the Maine Explosion

Sensationalized reporting flooded the newspapers of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer as they competed for readers. Yellow journalism exaggerated and even invented stories to sell newspapers. In this environment, the U.S. battleship Maine was sent to Cuba to protect American interests. An international spat arose after an offensive letter from Spanish diplomat de Lome headlined the news. Five days later, the Maine exploded, killing 260. Frenzied Americans, assumed Spanish guilt and would settle for nothing but war with Spain.

McKinley Unleashes the Dogs of War

The national war fever burned hot. President William McKinley, who was personally opposed to the war, eventually yielded to the will of American people, and on April 11, 1898 urged Congress to declare war on Spain.

Victory at Manila
Americans entered the war with pomp despite being sadly unprepared. Spain however, was even less able, as evidenced by the annihilation of their Pacific fleet in the Philippines by U.S. naval forces under Commodore George Dewey. U.S. troops soon collaborated with Filipino insurgents like Emilio Aguinaldo to undermine Spanish control. Americans thought it a strange way to free nearby Cuba.

The Confused Invasion of Cuba

Spain sent a ramshackled back-up fleet to help fortify Cuba. The U.S. sent in an almost equally ill-prepared fighting force that still used Civil War weaponry and woolen winter uniforms. The most famous of the disorganized American troops was Theodore Roosevelt won glory with his Rough Riders' in the decisive battle of San Juan Hill.

Curtains for Spain in America

Despite being outmatched, the Spanish were commanded to continue the fight for honors sake. After only four months of fighting, 70,000 Spaniards were dead, leading Spain to sign a cease-fire. Americans cheered their victory in the splendid little war.

The Spoils of War

The post-war treaty secured Cuban independence, and granted the U.S. control of Guam and Puerto Rico. Control of the Philippines posed a dilemma, but it to was eventually acquired by the U.S.

Americas Course (Curse?) of Empire

By acquiring the Philippines, the U.S. had become an empire. Anti-imperialist League sprang into being to fight the expansionist moves. Colonization they argued was contrary to the principles of the Declaration of Independence. Expansionists countered by appealing to the glory and national pride generated by foreign conquests. A national debate was on.

Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba

The Foraker Act of 1900 granted Puerto Ricans a limited degree of self government and U.S. citizenship in 1917. Honoring the 1898 Teller Amendment, the U.S. stunned the global community by withdrawing from Cuba in 1902. A year prior however, the U.S. solidified control over Cuba with the paternal Platt Amendment which established the U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay.

New Horizons in two Hemispheres

The Spanish-American war was a kind of coming-out party. American prestige rose sharply, and European powers grudgingly gave more respect. An exhilarating new national pride thrilled America, but our motives were universally questioned and many became suspicious of the U.S. The great victory further helped heal the wounds of Civil War as citizens from both North and South again rallied under the American flag.