68 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 300 rpm 1 mm Fluid h1 h2 Stationary cylinder Stationary surface Stationary surface

V = 5 m/s

FIGURE P287
288 Reconsider Prob. 287. If the viscosity of the oil above the moving plate is 4 times that of the oil below the plate, determine the distance of the plate from the bottom surface (h2) that will minimize the force needed to pull the plate between the two oils at constant velocity. 289 A rotating viscometer consists of two concentric cylinders an inner cylinder of radius Ri rotating at angular velocity (rotation rate) vi, and a stationary outer cylinder of inside radius Ro. In the tiny gap between the two cylinders is the fluid of viscosity m. The length of the cylinders (into the page in Fig. P289) is L. L is large such that end effects are negligible (we can treat this as a two-dimensional problem). Torque (T) is required to rotate the inner cylinder at constant speed. (a) Showing all of your work and algebra, generate an approximate expression for T as a function of the other variables. (b) Explain why your solution is only an approximation. In particular, do you expect the velocity profile in the gap to remain linear as the gap becomes larger and larger (i.e., if the outer radius Ro were to increase, all else staying the same)?
Liquid: r, m

FIGURE P283

284E The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 3-ft-long concentric cylinders. The inner diameter of the outer cylinder is 6 in, and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.05 in. The outer cylinder is rotated at 250 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.2 lbf ft. Determine the viscosity of the fluid. Answer: 0.000648 lb s/ft2 285 In regions far from the entrance, fluid flow through a circular pipe is one-dimensional, and the velocity profile for laminar flow is given by u(r) umax(1 r 2/R 2), where R is the radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of the pipe, and umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the center. Obtain (a) a relation for the drag force applied by the fluid on a section of the pipe of length L and (b) the value of the drag force for water flow at 20C with R 0.08 m, L 30 m, umax 3 m/s, and m 0.0010 kg/m s.

2 umax 1 r 2

Ro

vi

r R o

umax
Ri

FIGURE P285
Rotating inner cylinder Stationary outer cylinder

286

Repeat Prob. 285 for umax 7 m/s. Answer: (b) 2.64 N

287 A thin plate moves between two parallel, horizontal, stationary flat surfaces at a constant velocity of 5 m/s. The two stationary surfaces are spaced 4 cm apart, and the medium between them is filled with oil whose viscosity is 0.9 Ns/m2. The part of the plate immersed in oil at any given time is 2-m long and 0.5-m wide. If the plate moves through the mid-plane between the surfaces, determine the force required to maintain this motion. What would your response be if the plate was 1 cm from the bottom surface (h2) and 3 cm from the top surface (h1)?

FIGURE P289
290 Consider the rotating viscometer of Problem 2-89. We make an approximation that the gap (distance between the inner and outer cylinders) is very small. Consider an experiment in which the inner cylinder radius is Ri = 0.0600 m, the outer cylinder radius is Ro = 0.0602 m, the fluid viscosity is 0.799 kg/ms, and the length L of the viscometer is 1.00 m. Everything is held constant in the experiment except that the rotation rate of the inner cylinder

69 CHAPTER 2

varies. (a) Calculate the torque in Nm for several rotation rates in the range from 700 to 700 rpm. Discuss the relationship between T and vi (is the relationship linear, quadratic, etc.?). (b) Run FlowLab with the template Concentric_inner. Set the rotation rate to the same values as in part (a), and calculate the torque on the inner cylinder for all cases. Compare to the approximate values of part (a), and calculate a percentage error for each case, assuming that the CFD results are exact. Discuss. In particular, how good is the small-gap approximation? Note: Be careful with the sign ( or ) of the torque. 291 Consider the rotating viscometer of Problem 289. We make an approximation that the gap (distance between the inner and outer cylinders) is very small. Consider an experiment in which the inner cylinder radius is Ri = 0.0600 m, rotating at a constant angular rotation rate of 300 rpm. The fluid viscosity is 0.799 kg/ms, and the length L of the viscometer is 1.00 m. Everything is held constant in the experiment except that different diameter outer cylinders are used. The gap distance between inner and outer cylinders is h = Ro Ri. (a) Calculate the torque in Nm for the following gaps: 0.0002, 0.0015, 0.0075, 0.02, and 0.04 m. (b) Run FlowLab with the template Concentric_gap. Set the gap to the same values as in part (a), and calculate the torque on the inner cylinder for all cases. Compare to the approximate values of part (a), and calculate a percentage error for each case, assuming that the CFD results are exact. Discuss. In particular, how good is the small-gap approximation? Note: Use absolute value of torque to avoid sign inconsistencies. 292 A rotating viscometer consists of two concentric cylindersa stationary inner cyliner of radius Ri and an outer cylinder of inside radius Ro rotating at angular velocity (rotation rate) vo. In the tiny gap between the two cylinders is the fluid whose viscosity (m) is to be measured. The length of the cylinders (into the page in Fig. P2-92) is L. L is large such that end effects are negligible (we can treat this as a twodimensional problem). Torque (T) is required to rotate the inner cylinder at constant speed. Showing all your work and

algebra, generate an approximate expression of T as a function of the other varilables. 293C Consider the rotating viscometer of Problem 292. We make an approximation that the gap (distance between the inner and outer cylinders) is very small. Consider an experiment in which the inner cylinder radius is Ri = 0.0600 m, the outer cylinder radius is Ro = 0.0602 m, the fluid viscosity is 0.799 kg/ms, and the length L of the viscometer is 1.00 m. Everything is held constant in the experiment except that the rotation rate of the outer cylinder varies. (a) Calculate the torque in Nm for several rotation rates in the range 700 to 700 rpm. Discuss the relationship between T and vo (is the relationship linear, quadratic, etc.?). (b) Run FlowLab with the template Concentric_outer. Set the rotation rate to the same values as in part (a), and calculate the torque on the outer cylinder for all cases. Compare to the approximate values of part (a), and calculate a percentage error for each case, assuming that the CFD results are exact. Discuss. In particular, how good is the small-gap approximation? Note: Be careful with the sign ( or ) of the torque.

Surface Tension and Capillary Effect

294C What is surface tension? What is it caused by? Why is the surface tension also called surface energy? 295C Consider a soap bubble. Is the pressure inside the bubble higher or lower than the pressure outside? 296C What is the capillary effect? What is it caused by? How is it affected by the contact angle? 297C A small-diameter tube is inserted into a liquid whose contact angle is 110. Will the level of liquid in the tube be higher or lower than the level of the rest of the liquid? Explain. 298C Is the capillary rise greater in small- or large-diameter tubes? 299 Consider a 0.2-mm diameter air bubble in a liquid. Determine the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the air bubble if the surface tension at the air-liquid interface is (a) 0.08 N/m and (b) 0.12 N/m. 2100E A 0.03-in-diameter glass tube is inserted into kerosene at 68F. The contact angle of kerosene with a glass surface is 26. Determine the capillary rise of kerosene in the tube. Answer: 0.65 in

Liquid: r, m

vo

Ro

0.03 in
Ri

h Kerosene
Stationary inner cylinder Rotating outer cylinder

FIGURE P292

FIGURE P2100

72 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Design and Essay Problems

2125 Design an experiment to measure the viscosity of liquids using a vertical funnel with a cylindrical reservoir of height h and a narrow flow section of diameter D and length L. Making appropriate assumptions, obtain a relation for viscosity in terms of easily measurable quantities such as density and volume flow rate. 2126 Write an essay on the rise of the fluid to the top of the trees by capillary and other effects. 2127 Write an essay on the oils used in car engines in different seasons and their viscosities. 2128 Consider the flow of water through a clear tube. It is sometimes possible to observe cavitation in the throat created by pinching off the tube to a very small diameter as sketched. We assume incompressible flow with negligible gravitational effects and negligible irreversibilities. You will learn later (Chap. 5) that as the duct cross-sectional area decreases, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases according to V1A1 V2A2 and P1 r V2 V2 1 2 P2 r 2 2

(a) If the water is at 20C, the inlet pressure is 20.803 kPa, and the throat diameter is one-twentieth of the inlet diameter, estimate the minimum average inlet velocity at which cavitation is likely to occur in the throat. (b) Repeat at a water temperature of 50C. Explain why the required inlet velocity is higher or lower than that of part (a). 2129 In Problem 2128, irreversibilities such as friction along the duct walls were ignored. With computational fluid dynamics (CFD), we can include the effects of friction. Run FlowLab with the template Pinched_tube. Set the absolute outlet pressure to 11.372 kPa and then vary the inlet velocity while monitoring the throat pressure to predict the minimum inlet velocity at which cavitation is likely to occur. Compare with the results of Problem 2128 and briefly discuss any discrepancies. 2130 Even though steel is about 7 to 8 times denser than water, a steel paper clip or razor blade can be made to float on water! Explain and discuss. Predict what would happen if you mix some soap with the water.

respectively, where V1 and V2 are the average velocities through cross-sectional areas A1 and A2. Thus, both the maximum velocity and minimum pressure occur at the throat.

V1 P1

Inlet

V2 P2 Throat

FIGURE P2130 FIGURE P2128

Photo by John M. Cimbala.