‘THOMAS J. SWEENEY ond WILLIAM ELLINGSWORTH Kassas City, Missouri Police Department Issues In Police Patrol: A Book of Readings Published by KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI POLICE DEPARTMENT, Kansas City, Mou THE POLICE FOUNDATION, Washington, D.CCconyiaks © 1973 1 Kans City, Minow Police Depart All hs fevered. No pt of ths book may be cepeduced in any form of by any means witht peamison fom te poise exept by a reviewer who ray’ se bri exerts for review Fist Eton Printed in he Unies Stes To The Patrol Task ForcesINTRODUCTION “These selected stays have been particularly weful to the ‘Kansas City, Misioati Poice Departneat ia pavrol planing ‘They are not put forth as she word on patrol, but ony as & framework in which police may want to question transl patol practices and begin thiaklag about new alternatives. The ‘Kansas City Department is definitely no avocatng any spect alte strategy. At this stage of police study, such advocaey is simply not feable. A rest deal of esearch and experi ‘mentation nets to be done before we have enough information for competent patol decision-making. Ta ay case, every jar istetion most set prions based on its own problems. “Therlore, I hope this ook wil be accepted in the same spit in which it was conceived, that is, as a Basic “reader,” 4 besinnng point, stimu for more advanced thought. It ead inthis spit, i sbould be a valuable tool for members fof the law enforcement community ‘clareace M, Kelley Cet of Paice Kansas City, Mistur tise Department June 1, 1973Foreword In Ostober, 1971, the Kansas Cy, Missouri Police Department inated a series of task Toren to develop more etective and responsive patrol statepiee These tek foros eiffere senicanty tem any process Previouly eed in large municipal law enforcement ogeney. The bul [Statee membership weve fed officers, motlypatrolmen, who maintained regular assietments in patrol thoughout the design pose. Within the Tina constants of mcting prior deployment comments to the Public and of mainalning oe improving present levels of service, the task Forces were given fll uutorty fo dssipn ptel strteses withthe asso- lve from the Chef of Paice that those designs would be implemented “The results of she ask force process were most rewarding. Five project designs emerged fom for task forces. Each projet approached eral but diferent sues In pr Field personnel united with administation in actively supporting the ‘nttducion of change. OtGeers declined Sppoinineats fo spevalied units to rem im patel and cominve work Shh heir task forces. ndvidualpatolmen, piven the responsiblity of par sing sad implementing prorams displayed both significant administrative Competence and a deep understanding of the complex issues surounding Patrol Accompanying this personal growth, was am inereased interest fa compstent evasion and the generation of Knowledge that would serve the interests of the law enforcement fle “The tsk fore proces was ot without probleme, 1 thrived on the conf of ras. In exending participatory management to the Towest fevel inthe deparmen. devinon-making power was redisbuted witin the organization. Thess factors frecd redefinition of the role of middle tanagers. In addition to the superison ef coutine actives, they were euired ta encourage discussion and facltate the inueduction of hange ‘The pace at which new ides emerged made lteut to keep all depart tment personnel informed 9s 10 propesedproprams andthe rationale for thelr inteducton ‘After the prliminiy identiiation of problems in thee respective visions, the task forces confronted the inadequacy of police patrol litera ture, In the early developmental stages, the task forces and tele con rullants acknowledged they were unable to adequitely apawer sch bas questions as What is patot? ‘What is good patrol? How does one measure the efectvenes of parc cvs? “They rejected the bolk of the literature a¢ naive and ielevant to the realty of their patel experience. ‘The state of the Ieratre they ound i, perhaps rellected best in the unpublished comments of We ‘prapher, Bert Radin. She noted im sn Api, 1972 memorandum to the Police Foundation: “Most ofthe aceptd bady of Knowle abot patrol fall nto two {terres one caters ated the apecic and Said Facet y the {naiaua pavcran andthe oer concer wah the Seman of Ie tap of the pols cxpantnicn col te aces wal which he ‘tay cies. Both eto erreur ta he plc oration an be likened io a macho Tne howsodol, amy mama cere ot the erature on pastes of the inca parla vw the mens Ing ln ae aaa ierchangeabi part, popsmmed 0 pulls Bor UNS cova ie: to be tnenly or hart wer the ropa ssal ae gre {o'ny, wear and‘ the ht anowe on ca owl ole owe [ih omeane che,in' eat bike Motoreee bext Neopet” WHE ‘Sera wi Seaton acon the pervading veto ois es tie denis nda ferences among the alma we she somck Inne ofthe totay tn Which poloeten a ced to sve, “The othr clater of iterate on te pao function approastes the oblem tom the nage point of the 1p deisonmaker a atunes {Sat puvol sa mechan Slocaton chaltnge of geting ptoinan fo Ihe scene ofa rine inte bot posable ine. is heavy rence (2 computers and ‘ther for of harSeat, ts cretion snp fe Paice ‘minim (confcting gah cannot br etiecvey gett wih becuse {he probaies produced by mand conten vats need {0 ceurcat acon econmendans),Tafrce te aeaty pervae ve ofthe pelos yer a homogsatn pyramid te pecan sodas ies AE adoel beavortranre™shomes tha pune ef ‘angele pars to be dpachd bya mashne when reed” Both of the aforementioned catgois of wing insult the inteligence of police field personnel. By not viwing pata as complex, multtevel system, the literature ignores sintcant ses and frees effecting pat ignores the dypamies ofthe tlatonship betveen 2 poe deparment and is communi ze Ick of seem a to the poe ole and the Inherent conflicts between muliple and conflicting resposibiie, "Sen.lariy.it ignores te cots between he pct concerns ofthe nv etic an the demands ofthe trmel and informal stactues within the poicedepatnent The teeoal erature aceps wry mye tout what plc do, wht they ae capable of ding abou extain pro tems, and how pole sein fogged i eat. Quesonssurounding the vast dscredon ofthe paclman ate svoded if they were & ROM. ison proc “Tis book emerged from an lft to ety an adequate text on patel tht could fe uaa for captain’ examination By the, Kans Gis, Mio Polne Deport Tews the general comers, Row vee tht single published fest adequately covered the eal sues Gm pal cy forth mate, proved slficeatbuckgonnd for tk tere proects that were aad) underway inthe departnents pal Givsion Litre that od proven uel (0 the atk forges In thle tesarh drig the preceding yar hal oon dew fom widely verge feuces Ths book represents an atfempt to compile» portion of that Satri in' form beri, not only to penonnel of the Kansts Ci, Mout Pole Deparment but ao to Seporiment ates te nation ‘The book docs ot espouse a specie mode or structure of patal opear Tos as, forever avs ner sprog fal ps St present and proposed pl sti, This aevocay 1s consent ‘The tance sumed by the Kass Cy. Maxous Paice Department tn eamining ts own eflccvenesfrovth fo taskforce, Such exis ten viewed a the poesia rsponiiy ofa eve dlvery en. ‘The tek sects fo cutie some of the cOmIEN ites in pata and to treat tov sues in reser detail than that which normaly follows Hltiades desc pal ws the vhuckbone of the poe depurinent” ‘Thc book wi have been succes! seis fo simul fener questions and thoughts on present and fate pol aces. Thomas J. Sweeney Wiliam Elingsworth Kansas City, Misour June, 1973 CONTENTS Page FOREWORD % (Chapter! THE PATROL FUNCTION 1 Democratic Order and the Rue of Law 3 by Jerome H.Skobick ‘Standards for the Performance of the ‘Urban Police Funeton as ‘by The American Bar Ascciation Police Policy Formulation: A Proposal for “improving Police Performance 55 by Hermon Goldin Chapter THE PATROL SYSTEM ” Policing Everyday Life 8 by Alter Reiss Police Identity and the Police Rote 129 by dese Rubin Conclusions and Policy Impistons 151 ‘by Jones 0. Win “The Quasi:Mittary Organization of the Police m ‘by Epon Bitmer Chapter IIL PATROL FUTURES. 183 Organization: The Coming Ad-Hocracy 15 by Alvin Teer ‘The Fature Policeman 207 by James 0. Wilson Toward an Alternative to the Clic Police Organizational ‘Arrangements: A Democratic Model 23 by John E. Angell *CChapier1V PATROL DEPLOYMENT Chapter V ‘Methods fr Allacting Police Patol Resources ‘by The Rend Corporation [Aves of Neoted Research and Experimentation ‘by The Red Corporation “The Use of an Incident Seriusnes inthe Deploynent of Police Patrol Manpower ‘by Nelson Heller ‘THE EVALUATION OF PATROL, EFFECTIVENESS ‘Concepts and Principles of Evaluation by Edward Suchan “The Evaluation of Police Programs by Rober M. Carter “The Proctve Reactive Patol Deployment Experiment by South Patrol Dsision Task Force, George L. Reng, nd Thomas J. Seeney Citizen Itervions, Organizational Feedback snd Pole Commonity Relations Decision ‘by Deni J. Bordus and Lary L. Tit 29 m1 26 269 us an 308 a9 1. THE PATROL FUNCTION Pressures on police agencies to change are likely fo increase as mayors and ety managers are increasingly pressured by neighborhood resdens to provide more effective and responsive. public services. While the pole provide some of the most ciel and controversial service, these Sir leader generally spear uncertain as to how to approach ot work with thee ptce agencies Wain police depactment, there is an increas Ing aumber of offcers who sense the soil changes going on around them and who ate increasingly fustated by the inertia of tel agencies. Rarely fo police depariments provide a mechanism by which these individual ‘an affect decisionmaking or play an active cole in fostering changes. Tn tome measur, tei frstration fe Incteaingly refed inthe mutency of police unions actoss the nation For he past century, problems ofthe palce have been religiously docu rented with amusing consistency. Nevertheless, very Iie real progess has been made foward define or improving the nature of polit opera tions, and with a few otable exceptions. the impetus for change has ‘ome from outride the agencies themlve. The performance record of ‘efor efforts can best Be described as damal. They have met ih repeated failure primarily for the reasons. Fist, they fled to re00r- tne the complexity of the police function Tavariably, they sought 10 optimize single police fwntions or components without regard for thei tHfcts om the emite system. Sccood, they Tailed 10 understand er ade ‘wstely acount for the rsaizntional milieu of the police. They reed frequent on "bad person” explanation for system problems when closer tamination would have reveled thatthe nature of the work, organi tial stuctore, and the politcal environment were all prime contnibtos to the problems evidenced Thing. the extemal opine of change ffs fen caused poe personne to resist proposed changes and to ee them & ielevant, misguided oF malicious. Meaningful chante in police departments will only come when persons in and out of police agencies fly recognize the complexity and inherent conflict in police responsibilities. ‘The general public frequently enter- tans fae images of the crime-ighter and tralf-enforcer” They have Tile understanding of the daily police routine. Police personnel ain ther emeraency fesponse occupations, generally define thelr "proper tole in terms of periods of excitement and ses. This perception 6 reflected in watements ike that of a former poise chief who noted, "Eighty percent of what police don't police work." Because this conition perists thoughout the United States, one might reasonably ask: ‘Whose Work i i if not the pois? In the fist article, Jerome Skolnick examines the conflicts between the goal of ssi order and the ule of lw in a democratic society. He imsiatans thet value conicte ina democratic society undermine the apucty of the police to respoad tothe rule of law. Law and order, he oes, ace not syronyinous fers, and, at times, they may be ia diet ‘onic with one meth. ‘Two excepts Irom the American Bar Association's Stndards ar she Performance of the Urban Police Function comprise the next seletion ‘The fe focuses on the mytad. of police responsibities and many of tbe argument advanced (9 nasrow and simpli the police roe. It con ‘laser that such argument, ax presenlly advanced, ae subjet to serous ‘question and thatthe eves of the police function ean be expected Cominus, Oatning present police respoasbitis, the commentary Of the aevond cncerpt fcunes of inherent conflicts fa the dues with Sich the police are ow charged Recognizing the diversity of the police function and the absenee of adequate legislative guidlines in many areas, Herman Goldstein, inthe ‘Bind selection, arcs that police admaisvators most articulate adequate policy guidelines to provide the individual offer with more detled uidenet in excising discretion, "The author recognizes the existence informal standards for th exercie of discretion within police depart iments He argues, however, that he vast steton afforded the individual Utfeer should be acknovlodged and tht adminstatve guidelines for fhe we of that dicreion should be publely articulated Democratic Order and the Rule of Law by Jerome H. Skonick For what sci purpote do police exist? What values do the police serve in a democratic society? Are the poie to be peincpaly an agency tk seca! contol with tei chief value the elicit enforcement of the prohibitive norms of substantive criminal law? Or are the police 10 be Er institution falling oder the hegemony of che Tegal system, with & tase commitment tothe ule of la, even i his obligation may result, Ina reduction of toil order? How docs this dilemma of democrat feelers hamper the capacity of the police. lastutonlly and individually, to respond to legal standards of law enforement? Such questions have posed a predicament since the intodustion of the London metopolitan pie in 1829. Charles lth, in his book The Potce tdeas deserbes the hostility of eaiy nineteenth century England vento the idea of developing metropoitan police force out of fear that the notorions actives of the pre-Revlutionary French poie would be UBplicted. He cites a pariamentary report of 1818 which considered the Dobe sea and recommended against the cxablishment of a police fre: “The pole ofa fee country ist Be found ig rational and bumane law in in eee and erghened magragynand i the jelous and Proper ictich ot those officers ot se, whowe hand a consrtators Of the ese, enecule Bae ae Iga pice, but above al, in the moc! abi ed Spann of the pean. an in proportion These apeosinate towards {ate of erection” so that people ay retin eerie and though heir ScSey ry eccaonally be ivade or thir Hives eodangededy the hands Fr eke ae aeoerte inal et the astuions of the county being Scand is nws well adpnted. and asic executed gat offender, 0 Sane Siequatd"can betobuinel’ wiht sciiclng al how rights wAch foci wat nse to peste GE eit, The Pls de Hoy and Elion i Baled i the enc Sy ad ir (hotan: One Une Pre, 1938) ina. vist pein, Meine" wirour 1R1AL: LAW ENFORCEMENT IN DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY. By Jerome Ht Sa “Gove (2) B66 jl Wie Son, IneReith, who is pro-police and pro-Pesl, may eraggsrte somewhat the degree of oppesion to the police. Other authors alo interpret the Petiod as one of considerable hostility to formal instiationaization of police, Mather. for example, points out that Nrorias, like Whigs, are fundamentally anipoice™ Gen soch opposition, therefore, before, ‘rodscing hie Bil for Improving Poise mand neat the Mtopals™ I 1829. Pel laid formidable ground work, A. A. W. Ramay describes i 2 follows Peel with his sul easion.troded fr years over the problem tafore De ‘of comparing crime with populabon. tn IN28 he secired the appointment of f Panty one nei the cco or ‘work He bad at frst ftended mesure i stale poe oe Sor infin Lonon ond fist nied ano pus To buttress his arsument for the necessity of a police forse, Pee! based is claims the noed for ble order. Citing populition statisti feom Leadon and Middlesex. he argued tht crime was. dramatically increasing inthis early period of industri revolaion. and increasing 8st ate than popution. Inthe peso of 1821 to TA2R, population had ineeased 181 per cet. while criminal committe had risen by 41 er cent. Deploving the exstone of an army of "tained and hardened {iminals” ia London and Midler Poel announced tht “not. es than one perio in every three hundred and eihty-thee had Been convicted for some ete ot other in 1828. without mentioning. although he was fully avare of the fact, thatthe number of ste conser ermal was 4 large, andthe conditions of the working clases so onerous, tht the figures he etd were hardly shocking In making this appeal for mow ecient contol ovr rime, Pel was quik fo adé that he wos "confident they would be able to dipense wih the necesity of a miliary force in London for the preservation of the tranquility of the meteopots:™ an assurance he could hardly dispense with ‘considering the stehth of his opposition, The early conception of police accountability o the rule of lw fea tradition which has continued sy es BBN — 3p ap 230 & te Order and the Ral of taw to the present diy. Maitland reaffimed it in 1885 when he wrote in @ book ented Jurce and Police Thee bs «are body of rule defining crimes and the puisient of thoxe athe commit them. rah andthe remaies of these who are meonge Set {hee sao body aus dtining how and by who ted thee ee Seat ‘uly of the former ind can te pt in force? wl te ah oe (ura about rigs ad remedies toes ad punnety gay at ‘snd ernie eocedore shay and iefcae? ‘This sme teadtion ofthe hegemony ofthe rule of lw ix eloquetly sated in the 1962 Royal Commission Report n'a refutaion ofthe woe ‘ent that 2 national potice farce would led to the development of a police state" in Great Bisa, “The common argue, Desi ry dow not depend wd verbs deen, won any parce ir fo fle organi “i Specs ua Neopets of eee Andon the leo Ie We do te tp tka ernst sieaement ivhciey acount pole fest Yager toast es a the, om, Denar and Sncion sald We dere penne ‘The oper ron net the poise ae anaes ef ee ‘Minto demorntealy eel Pekan they oa Shah diction foe oun ween fe ad eo et ine Gumi fo ch the tem pts ses gui ono ie fs Seva inet it hy a ea a Fis Se natonl orga bat becuse he pace nes 4 comhiy 0 & damecrataly eased paar td he ee Story othe ut to prt Nin Thus ak Soi ee So open whch et Sey es nt sae ‘The theory of the police inthe United States mittors he confit between oder and legality found in English conceptions of the police but char, ‘sceristically American features add compleny Ta reading’ about the American poise. especially through the period of the 1930s, one fel ‘hat constitutional issues of legality have been almost too remote to be of immediate concern. Not that American police conformed tothe rae of law, Rather, they seme 5 far out of line tht a wer summareing 8 major American study of police practices ened his book Our Laniog, Police, The study, completed in 1931 by the National Commitee of Lav Observance and Enforcement (the Wickersham “Commision. foved Dratces so appalling and sadistic as to pote no intellectual fous fer 7, FW Ma, Jie and Pain (Landon: Menino Company, 1665), oak Cammpie 2 eRe Cnet 1728. at: Hr Mi avlned men? Tt is one thing to take quitly to a suspect without his ‘counsel and arly, perhaps by deceit persuade him 1 inerininate him- Sei tis quite anoerto-hang a suspect out of a window by his hee fom a reat heh, orto eat confersion ut of him by puting a tle phone Book on his ficad and pounding the book with a Blackjack 50 i Ter not leave marks Hoth techniques may te egal but responsible pole officials would not publely support blckjack Interrogation. On Ue other hand, interrogation of suspets without the presence of counsel ind even deceptive inerogstion are standatd "profesional" poise technigues* For many municipal police forces in the United Sates. the observers queton Is therefore not whether pice operate under the consis Stave process of law. but whsthr they operate within bounds of eviized Eoadect In the olilashioned police department. ried with poe! Sppoitces and working hand fn hand withthe rakes, 9 reformer isnot Concerned primarily wih the pistes of constitutional rights. Whe the Curry is facing the sbvary ose of “cub, blaejpek. and gn. the police reformers problems {0 cece gross brutality. which seems ta Fronaly to have been asorntd with corruption. Given this station, i is not surprising thatthe elution tothe "police problem” in Ameria has bean frequently conceived st coneing tke quali of people. rather than {he philoophies of poling. Foudik woot in 1930 n'a characteristialy ‘American passage on pole reform ‘We are concerned with fxs an cations snd at with heres abel 1 Wear mater of eeotcy af ci. or hth er postion. © aNSthNg Ue, Wssiey't matr el fnding te Ret pele Baie fo hand 4 mex Police reform mas finding new source of pie, and police cont ea mater of having the righ” sort af people i conto. "Reform" of police means increasing the cfisieres of police personnel. Tt is rarely fas Sm nc Sel th he © eg Fe ee wake Cnc Rat En ome Democratic Order he Rule of Law ape ha cob fp my eel ns nda 0) ts ted mesa he ans yt Tn nya en a a Sicilian mth yt ees ene 1 ot jo ed eof ne Oey Sn ain 7 aerate ee eee Masa selon’ vou pe a alee Tea Teeter ee ela" Sree a a ed Fone ee Tf mrad et ee hy Seid drmsen Seer oe = A roe mes ene eS ne of. mem fe cei arc aly ss foe wap Eos lt pte nr cue eee eerie Tt etabtsin epee ey ‘ome oie rin beset fm of ep a Am «ort snd Sahl fp antinBa LISTS hoe Ss Meta none alee oe Se, apts ran ae ey STONE Wee Rl Sher pene ota ae *eicaBy ti ed nin oe pee foe ei spl et ncy' nate Sy pp ceerad AP thag ps wal shea io [At the same time, there has always been a considerable body of opine ond Meagan (Be: The Fsnaon % Si Cilia Paks, Pre om Paleo. W. Wi (Spiga corti € Tames 1955, 6. W Wn, Tuer Peng (Sponge, thas: ‘Gh Crome ttt ee wo pole tray Tb Pale Cla sh Chgs) Fae pak pian).fo, usually outite police crcles—among defense attorney law pro: fessor, and jadger—demanding tat police adhere sry to the ule _overning the legal system, tht they wlimately be accountable to the eel ‘order irespetve oftheir "prctcl” needs ar law enforcement offi ‘This postion was summarized in the landmark cate of Escobedo», Minot the United Sates Supreme Court overtarsing a eoavietion whe the police refused to honor the request of a suspect to have a Lawyer prestat at his interogation, Justice Goldberg. fr the majo, wate We hive... learned the... lesan of history that a0 stem of caimial june ci, or shoul, arvve Hf comes to depend forts conaued ‘Hfetenes on the citer” absieation though unawares of thee com ‘Satonal right. Ne stem worth prexevig should have fo fear hat an ccued I permiaed to cont wih lawyer. be wll ecm save 02nd ‘ere, these ih It the exeche of contains gel thea he ‘Mfesinenes of 5 ue of lw enerccmen, then thre someting sry ‘rong wi dat tem ‘The porpote of this stidy fs to chow, through empirical investigation of police, how vale conflicts ot democratic saclety crete conditions un ‘ermining the capacity of police to respond tothe rale of law. Its ciel ‘conclusion (and erieting hypottesis), elaborated inthe closing chapts tay be summarized: The police (nv democratic socet are required fo tmaniin order end 10 do to wider the rule of lw. At functionaries ‘horged with maintaining order, they are part of the bureaucracy. The ldeology of democratic bureaucracy emphatic: inaive rather then di plied adherence 10 rules and realttons. Dy contrast, the rule of Tow emphasizes the rights 0} india eons and consrans upon thei ‘nve of lg offisialr This tonsion beroeen the operational consequences, Of ideas of onder, ficiency, and initve, om the one hand, and egy (nthe other, const the principle problem of police as @ democrat tepot organtztion. ‘The work atempis to anljze, through empirical lnvesgation of police, how conceptions associated with order and ite Dreations reparding legality develop within a professionalized. police ‘partment, and to sty the proses throuah which thee conception tnd interpretations come to be associated with certain pateme and practices of policing LAW AND ORDER: THE SOURCE OF THE DILEMMA Ifthe poice could maintain order without rear to legality, their short run difelies woul! be corsidecbly dimiished. However, they are TEs 2 300) 16 aus G8 60 Inevitably concerned wit interpreting legality Because of their use of lw San introment of order. The criminal In coatalas a set of rules fot the maintenance of seal order. This arsenal compries the substantive part of the criminal lw. that the clement of crime, the pencples Under which the acated i toe beld accountable for alleged ere, the Principles jstiying the enactment of specific prohibitions, and the crimes themseves, Sociologists usualy concentrate here, asking how well this Contol system operates. analyzing the conditions under which it achieves, Intended goals, andthe circumstances rendering it Teast efficient” ‘Another port of the criminal law, however, requlates the conduct of state official charged with procesing clzens who are suspected, acute, {rtound pully of crise!" Tnvolved here aze such males 2s the aw of Search the Iw of arrest, the elements and degree of pron. the right 10 ‘ounst, the nature of wil accusation of crime, and the faimess of tial The procedures of the criminal aw, therefore, suess protection of indvidul Mets within system of seal order “This dicholomy sugaists that the common juxtaposition of “aw and cede” an oversiplifcstion. Law i ot merely an instrument of odes, tht may frequently bee advorsry* There ae communities that ePpeat aordery ta some (eich a6 bobemian communities valuing divest) bout wih neverteles mointuin = substantial degree of legally. The ‘Sra thai i oh Ra Reel Hs i sae Un ely Pe 9a; Joh Saber ‘Sithernog ed Dosa R Cece, Pipi of Criminology, 6th el. (Phe 4 Pat W. apps, mich emp cima pete sa nee ten To ido eee Soe Cn asin pcbien tthe islet of chia iw See Monta’ Paes an Sanord EE ot nal Ld es Pceer (Boon Lt Bown and Coma, 182). ‘ctr Cope Est od Sie axa Te (Gr foo wen fiuag Cor 1539, Pat Wee, ‘cluied Pests font Sat ode (en ee Meat Utty Rei ec ee in Tanager cede” Yate La: Jonna Che 1060) 148195, Sa ie Bar kaw efovee Toon Toe ime (Nem Yo Cale Bok 8)contrary may also be found: situation where order i well maintained, but where the policy and pracice of eglity not evident. The totalitarian foetal sytem, wheter in a mation or an isiation a sution of order witout rae of law. Such a situation is probably test iustated by martial ‘le, where military authority may claim and exec he power of amnesty tnd detestion without warrant If in tion, the writ of habeas corpus the right to fnguie ito these ace. ls euspended, ari typiclly ir under Iara rol, the executive can execs arity powers" Sich a system ‘oscil contol efficent, bu docs not conform to penerally held natons bout the “rue of law." Atough there is no peste definition ofthe ral ff, its synonym, the principe of legit, is essential element the reduction of arti ttarnes by offrils—for example, constraints on the activites of the police—and of arbitar nese In poste low by the appiation of “rational Dncpis of cive ores A'sttemea expressive of the rule of lw found in a report on police arrests for “investigations,” The authers. who are lavyers, wit, “Anglo-American law has 2 tration of snipathy to the imprionmentof a czen atthe will of exceutive offers "4A more expt definition ofthe rae of Inw inthe administration of ciminal lew bat been presented a follow “The principle of mula goene sine ese pos formidable resets pon the detion of cima! conduct Standards of conduct mat ret sogot {eis f speriiy and slay, ray act oly pronpectly, and. moat be [Muy conte In favor of the sccuee. Further, the definon of etimioa Sonduct ay lngely come to be roparde a4 4 legate faction, thereby predig te udeiry fom devng new cies." The publicmchiet doc ine and te smeines ove geertzd "ends of riminal conipiary te Unily regarded a anoslous deputies frm this main sea. The Cop fate pip of procedural seul and fares, in sho due process of fam, commands thatthe legal standard be applied to he nde! With ‘Sroplous Tee order fo inimize the chances of convicting the i oven, pote agin abuse of ffi pomec, aod geerate am smowphere of imperial se, Asn conssjunnc, t complex network of procedufl feaureneats embodied varicmy in comttons, attr), oF jgemade {aw i imposed upon the cimialadjudleatory procee—public ttl, unbied TBH Be Ges Biman Th oof Maris al (Chao: Calapan and Compa, 190), pcp’ Chpes 3 "Te Ni af Mol Rae 388. "SNe Dad 3h 3 lp ‘si al hd paw ow Fem, us) 95 EL Rep end Romans of or Conmsion Commo oe Av Jor Ieelgice (Da of Cay Jay, a2) una, legal representation, open Bearing, contention, and related con omans of procedural janice ‘Thus, when law i used as the instrumet of social order, it necessarily poses dilemma. The phrase “aw and order” is misleading because i ‘raw attention away (rom the substantial incompatible exating be teem the two ideas. Order under lw suggsts procedures diferent fom sthlevement of “Sci conte!” through threst of eoerion and summary judgment Order under ln i concerned not merely with the ashlvereat fof regularized socal activity bt with the means used to come by peace: ble behavior, certainly with procedure, Bat lso with pesfive law. Tt ‘would surely be a Wolation of the rule of law for legate to make eplepsy a ime, eventhough a public “seizure” typically disturbs oxder In the commoniy While mort law enforcement fits regard. deug adits os menacing tothe community, law makiag i's erime Io be an dit has been declared wnconttsionsl™* This example. purposly Selected from substantive criminal lw, indicates that conceptions of leeaty ppl here aswell asin the move traditional realm af erninal procedure Tm thort, “law” and “order” are fequently found to be in opposition, because nw implies rational restraint upon the rues and procedures Utllzed to achieve order. Onder under law, therefore, subordinates the Ideal of coaformity to the ial of lay. ‘THE DILEMMA COMPLICATED “The acualrequlrement of msatining social oder under the pencple of legality places in unceasing burden upon the police as x soca inti tion. Indeed, the police is the inition best exemplifying the stain between the two ideas. The 1962 Royal Commission on the Police sates the Iw enforcement demi as follows: BSH Kay “Lege Nic en Dicion ia thPlae sod Sending Peat Hard Law Revi 39th), 04503 Sete a V. obion, 56 US. 20° C939). Lon Fale cin dn pout te ean The ut hl nie tha he wa toed ah ‘Kenda by tnpoing 1 nd ual punt” fers“ Pte ‘ier Sges ta the se Su! bein oem stants arto spf sl van a The Nori of tw (New een Yale Uneiy rm, {BAN pe 108400" 34 own goin in bes se I ds cece fas ‘tren wt cy hl the ate of Emi se whe ete lag Siom,"Telte tHe theo fs fea Scien in than oping, On whet ‘Eee Kee ec ol tpl eae of pein ee oh n“The police ems fa England, Scotnd and Wales aes the products of series of ccnpromics betwen colicin principle or Heat” Cootestety Inconrastrooter pub soc sich at Seah and eats, the vaionale tthe. police service dors ot ret por any single and delinte cone Of the pulle gods Thos it to the publi good thatthe pole should be ftom and efecive in preserving low and ofder and preventing crime: bot Ecoualy tothe public good that plce paver shoul Ye cone tod on fice aa as not 0 intefore whiunly wit pecsonal freciom The rest compromise, ‘The poze shold be powefl bot tak oppresive they shold ecient but no ofisius they fou Yorn an mati ore inthe boy Poi, and yet be abject To 2 depree of corrl by persons ho are ot ‘FEqured tebe inact and who are tunes able police soperison’? The law enforcement lemma, however, Is more complex than sos ested by the Royal Commission Not only re the ole ina democracy the product of a series of compromises between conflicting principles oF Sean, but the ideas thecer are not as clear as they (and We) have 50 far suggested. Teo and order” sn milesding cick then 8 #ros8 con epion of order may be even more misleading Depending on the inst tion or community, there may be quite different conceptions of ore ome more permisive, others lest A teadional arial conception of fonder, for example, abhors individual diferences, The soldier whose beating or anifrm sets him off rom his comrades in arms isan abomine tion to his commanding officer Even the slightest deviation. such a5 wearing gloves on a cold day. 8 forbidden as an expression of eiflerences in individual feeinps In any given millary unit either all the solders ‘eat gloves, or none do. The hands of some solders wil perspiee, ohers Wl be ms with ol, but al Sldiees wil ct alike. Otter instations or potions of society are tational more vedi ‘The area surrounding the University of Pars 1 noted for its emphasis ‘pon individuality. Students, tite writers may be deste elsanty poorly, rffihly or provostnly he mode being considered an extension (ofthe ego, an expesion of pceonsly, or perhaps merely an stempt {o experiment with novelty. The lca of order inthis sein Is suey 2 ‘more permissive conception than the standard miiry notion. Our com luslon ie that concepions of order seem to be arable and tend 10 orrerpond to the requirements of differnt communes or isittions Conceptions of order also seem 19 be asclated with conceptions of appropriate modes of schiving it The response of a soldier aceds tbe {HEK und wedioning, since fallore to rapond fnsantancously sy fesult in severe damngs to hints ond to his comrades inarms. The Fal Comminin he Pl, of 8 P8 2 Democratic Order andthe Rul of Law Socialization ofthe sole therefore emphases unquestioning obedience ‘Avtesined soldier is. man who responds onthinkiagly to command, and ‘he norm of command i sharp command. allure to respond i met With punishment, Seemingly severe to those who receive itt Jueieaion, weve, i located not Ia the precipitating act Rel, but in the impicn: tion of nonobedience forthe combat stustion. The base trainee whore inepeted boot has been found to have slatively low goss may Tse a weekend's liberty aot because a less than sparing boot it intially Important, but Because i presmablysianiesfotsre sloth By contrast, an istiution expressive of iberal and humanistic value, such a a univer, will sully emphasize persuasion through reason a5 ‘he instrument for the achievement of order Since He institationl gol Is scholarship, i 1 teadiionlly tolerant of Behavioral and atitudial ‘sitions sessing contemplation and dialogue over obedience to rae, nd persuasion rather than force se the Instrument of an onder predated ‘pon versity. Univesity police, for example, are far more permissive ‘han lal urban police forces. Later on, some of the reatoas for sich a Aiterence ae dsussed, notably the reaive absence of eanger within the niveriy community Here ti enough to tte as an hypothesis of the study that varying social condtions—the astute ofthe ceminal law, the presence of danger in the community. the poltcal compleron af the ‘community the seial dissimilarity of the population being policed—all, eatebute tothe conception of order held ty the ple ‘The organizational model ofthe police alo influences thee conception of onder. To the degre that police ate organized on a military model ther sao likly tobe generated a marl concepion of onder Internal repultons based on martin! principles suazest exeral cognons based ‘on similar principles The presence of an expt hirrchy, with a ‘sociated chain of command and a srong sese of obedience, br therefore likely to indoce an atachment of social uniformity and routine and a somewhat iid conception of ode, Sach a conception of orders probably increasingly at variance with segments of the community where police, perosving themselves as “workers” who should exeece dntatve, are Eoming to be concentrated. As this process occur police are more likely to lean toward the acbitary invoation of authrity to achleve what they prrceive to be the sims of substantive criminal law Along with these ‘ets an elevation of crime contol to position where ie valued rmote than the principle of accountability to te rule of le. Aiting this process is ambiguity about the application of the rule of Taw. In the abstract, the rule of lw embodies rational resteint ponnous Polos Patt thority att defins criminal conduct. There must be specifiy, clay, prospectivity, and stkct construction in favor of the cused. There ms Be procedural regularity aod auess, and 0 forth. In practice, However, Such standards may not be cles The picipe of procedural regularity nd faimess commanding thatthe legal standards be applied 30 1s 10 minimize the chances of convicting the innocent, protet apanst the abuse of offal power, and generate an stmosphere of impartial jstie"= {s for example, sobject to ¥aryng lterptetation by the police and the ours. One ear ilepllysoied evidence may be admitiod into evidence der a legal system subscribing to the rule of fam, and the ext year it ‘may ot. A conesion may be amid into evidence at one pont in Time whether or nthe suspect wos informed of his ight To eounse; at a Sigh late point in time sch a confession is found to volte constitu tional, protectors, ‘Thus, although cerinm fundamental and lative changelessprinpes ofthe role of la” ote apeifible, the practical co Strains on offal conduct derived from these princpies are always in Gegree of fx, A legal ort is nover 3 ted ody of ras. but, 38 Fle suggest, an “enterprise” of governance by rule Te may alo be sutgisted, a8 some ofthe fllowine materials wil show that whenever rues of consraot ave ambiguous, they srengtien the very ondoct they are intended to retrain, ‘Ths the policeman already eom- fied to a conception of liv av an instrament of order rater than 9 an od in sel ike to ile the ambiouty of the euks of rset 38 ‘justteaton for testing or even violating them. By such a process. the Dratical ambiguity ofthe rte of law may serve to undermine Ks salience Esra vale, In sim, the getoal enterprise of maintaining order by rule Of law serves to complicate the cont of these principles inkeren in 3 ‘emoeratic rity ‘THE SECLUSION OF ADMINISTRATION ‘THE DILEMMA’ SETTING Perhaps ifthe administration of criminal law conformed to is popular image study ofthe police would be les important. Popularly, eventhough the police are an ebject of much romanticled atetion. the tal i per fried ab the culmination ofthe process of adiasering criminal law. ‘Trl see dramati spectacles. and folklore suroandins prominent criminal {Ha attorneys has had » profound impacto the genet publi. Tn fae By in pop ot a at Ta” td ye u the typical method of conviton is by the accused's plea of vi, with ‘po teal require. Tn the federal cours the guilty pea receives the Reavest ‘ie, B6 pe cent in the sal years 1960 through 1963, whl i the tte cous, the use ofthe plea til by 5 t0 10 per cent" (The county under ftudy in tht report Was about aerage. with 82 per cent of convictions ‘tained by plea of puily in 1961.) Morty, therefore, the system af ‘dministering criminal justice in the United States is a system of justice ‘thot ea “The plea of guy is often seen by criminal Iw personnel st 3 means ‘of coping with the problem of ited eourt facies Tn pata justia: tion fora Reaver sentence om the one of tive defendants who refused 19 ‘lead gully. a federal judge opined: *.. Cin one year, 248 judges ae to seal with 38,317 defendants, the dst cours most encourage plas ‘of pity, One way to encourage pleas of gi ist establish or announce 5 poly that, in the ordinary case. leniency will ot be gramted 10a Getendane wo stands tal”™ Not only the pea of gil recognized {playing an integral role inthe crimial proves, ii ako evident that the necessity for ftequent invocation of the plea is key istitional factor in shaping the poston ofthe defendant visas the State “The statist pattern of guilty pleas and the reasons for this patern are intcesting themselves. but not 80 intresting as their mplieaton that Toute decision-making inthe administration of criminal justice Hiden from public view. When a plea of sity i entered, encounters between proscutor and defense attorney. defense attomey and client, prosecutor {nd polseman, policeman and suspect are never brought to public aen- tion and in the nature of the station cannot te. The case is often “ea in an informal seine. perhape over 4 cop of caffee or in the coridr Behind the eourtroon, SP Sie mend ek onthe le fly tv conduc ty Demat J neve ie ty Paslot Gul fe Conowins, A saiy ef Baia a Wea Sate tems See and Nerie E Walang (oi), The Soe {5 Netelgat "chan thew Pou jibe Wey tod So Joe. 962) ShSeUaSh Fe Deion fo Gu leur (Chic: Aen Bar Fae. fina hf nner ear Gully se” iret of Peewnitama wR, 11 (ap 1964), SESees°RID, toe ite marie on he zl tate ke ued Ald Seu The Rana of June consneond Rigi ol he Camel Pra ‘itp Beri Rng Une 1864) SE Cate Sauls iy, OCF Spy 679 (MDM, 1960). Sea, Ves,“The frequeney and seclason of the plea of gully ase far-reaching questions i legal theory: (1) To the extent that cours seek to conal the tehavir of police im such sear ae searches and seizures, eavesdp- ping, and confessions, does the Fequent invocation ofthe plea of uly ern toatl from public view the patterned occurrence of violations of imma aw by police? (2) At every other lve ofthe system are there Systematic practices which rarely oe never come to light because the gully ‘lea "coves up whatever tok pace before i occurred? (3) What factors {i nueace agreement fo. pea of piky, and what i the elationship of these factors to what would be couslenanced Ia the formal ssstem of ppelate devsiont? (4) Floally, how doer heavy dependence on the Hea of pully affect the aeomplsheut of te gals of the legal stem. Police work consttes the most secluded part ofan aleady secluded system and therefore oflers the arestst opportunity for arbirary behavior. [AS ivokers of the citinal wy tbe police frequently actin protice as its chit Inerpre'er. Thus. they are necessoriyealed upon to test the limits of thet legal authoriy. In so dolag, they also define the operative Tegal ofthe system of alinistrng crim law. That ithe eiminl low is especialy salient to 2 population which Rar moce or les recurrent interactions with the police, its the police who define the system of oder to his popslation. This work of interpretation, this “notice -ivng™ func tion of police sa crucial consideration in tsi the degree Yo which leplty penetrates ster of imal Jose ‘Whenever a system of justice tukss on a inn character, a question is raed a to the degree of jst such asjtem i capable of generating Ton L Fale, 1 legal phlosopter, has sugested the broadest sipieance ff the seclusion of criminal sw” amination when he diseases the Minty between legality and juste. “He weers that both share a com- ton quality, snc they act by known rule. Fuller discusses the significance ‘of public seratiny a8 flows “The internal moraligy of the taw demands tat thee be rules that they be made brawn, a that hey be ober in practice by those charged with thar sdminsraion Thee demande may ‘wom ec neural 0 Tat as the extra sine oftware coneroed Yet jt tlw 4 precontion fr (Bod ins ao ating by frown. us is preconiion for ry meaning ‘fpr! ofthe joe of awe "A fest United power” expresig Hel ~F5Bemad J, Sean pois ou ht sh lee of ira cevicion mata Rete hcl) ae atic or grant ‘eae on oon Sooo al Simin ses ae ‘Gul Yor Coote oon =" = Demncrate Order andthe Rae of Law nidely in uopredicabe and paternen inervetions ia human affis coud TE Pompe onty i the seme that er not wet by Known rule. Mond be hard call unc many more specific rns one discovered ‘Ska atden penile fans gue ir tersemions Wis the vite Of 4 TEES Ger" ctoceouny coerce and nominiered hat expres 0 ‘pic torlayhe rae by which i ac ‘The system of juice withot tril isnot a system of “unpredictable and Pateraess interventions” Rather, iit one which operates apalast a Background of known roles, tut which also, especially inthe instance of the police, develops set of informal noes or "hidden principles” in Fesponse tothe forma roles. ‘These intra, are influential in determining fw the formal ules actully operate LAW AS AN ENTERPRISE “That lw isan enterprise summons ws to is empirical study. 1 reminds us that highly general propositions about law may be elther circular ot premature, Consider the ‘oloving propostons: the economic structure rte society affects laws the pomer srctre affects laws pubic opinion Sifets In, the Protestant ete affects lav: and s0 on. All such sae fments are but e betinang, ar » statement that Iw is “integrative, {at aw affects the economy. Whether lw i Seen as an independent o¢ Sependent.varble, the important work is the specifietion of those process intervening tetwonn the two. Thus from the perspective of fw asa enterprise. what ncods to be pecfed is how economy affects Iie poles affects in. andthe Bind of legal order enhancing types of| cll intesfation. “The development of a sociology of law depends upon fdualed analysis of the soca foundations of Tegal and of empirical Claboratins of proceaes through which relations among, variables result in determinate autcomes Se attiat et eraced one asda he ceo ny mer tn “el ly age eo yf woe oer en 2 ‘sel wih ey al we et i. Te tai fea (ee conn under nha ncoptos bead all or achieve 4 an in voc aed Be core cei cent ens eee sing he eugene ‘Boe mt me ye sd ie us a he arte aaoaeat Te otic Patel 1 may be instractive to daw am analogy tothe seiolory of bureau ray, whete scholars have taken a similar view. They have not tried Spell oat the “fonctions” of bureaucracy in soe, but eather have €on- Centra on case stuies investigating probleme aetocated with certain forms of orgnizd cooperation. Nether have they primarily attempted to be managerial experts who would Improve the ffcieney ofthis system, ‘They have Been concerned, to be sur, with the effects of diferent forms of organized cooperation on the satfctions of human existence; but a8 fehelas they have sought first of allo understand the conditions under Irth these forme result in varying outcomes. Their approach has been {o conser what Croie hat termed "the bureaucratic phenomenon." CCozir sees this asthe indapenssle “exploratory” phase of siete evelopment a phase which elaborates the problem by the generation of ‘eaeipive hypotheses Such hypotheses serve enly as examples. to be fore, andere vaid only forthe caveat hand. Crozer 24s, however, that Timied as such examples may seem iil, they are eapable of yielding ‘more information about the fentoning of social systems ofthe same ode, fd even of larger systems, than studs issing upon a “premature igo.” He concludes “To reste vpoo sine approich may seem regesive aes ceiin cartor Sablon of (he soil seunces However thi tems 10 ine Eicon a se problems which touch upon the seology of inttutons Ende soilogy of ston "There are no shortcut posible. General sai vane, wblch can be pestsed at the opnin Wve, ae Tagmentry Sn ‘unferenntes thy eon texto accomplsned changes. ut ot 1 he Docem of change nor tthe i af acon, or ene tthe gereral ection Erte eolton, Only mal of funconig tan aperatina Tee ca help (prose. his what acne approach can fe st CCeoier's examination of French bureaucracy also indicated to him ‘at understanding the dyaunice of bareaveracy Is not possible unless i ‘Operation examined within the setiag of eulture. Although there are milvtis, under close empirical examination the dypamis of bureau ‘racy in France and in Germany are vitngushabe. Crovir asserts that, the "sty of te bureaseratic phenomenon peanits a new breakthrough Seika cece, The Rees Phvomenoe (Cap: Unvesiey ef ria ean 960 Sh a ap 43 Democratic Order andthe Rule st this more “operational lvek"™ Silay, Blau found that certain features ofthe bureaucratic model wee not equally applicable in dierent culures. He argues tht inthe Germany of Max Weber sist hierarchical ontsol may have consiued the most efficient method of management, but that in an American coltre valuing socal equality “permiting jul officals considerable discretion In discharging their responsible may tea more efeent system of admiration ™ Such findings, ad eters 25 well suggest thatthe operation of rial organizations il always ‘elect the cultural politcal, Social, and economic contexts in which they sre located. The important task i to specify the roles of cular and ‘eology in determining the cooduet of men and their seal erganiatons. LAW ENFORCEMENT IN DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY ‘The police in this study are considered as » cass of authors facing ‘he problem of managing divergent expectations of conduct. Demoeracy’s ideological confit between the noes governing the work of maitsning ‘order snd the principle of accountability to the rule of law provides the justin for various demands upon the pelican. He may be expected te be rule enforcer father, triad, social servant, moralit,sestigher, ‘marksman. and officer of te law. The problem of orsaizing and deta. Ing such demands furnishes the bass for the isitionl analysis of police, The problem isl sussets the stationsl difculiee affecting ‘he policeman’ capacity to bea esponsibe Tew enforcement afi who tnforees order under the rule of law ‘The dilemma of the poise i forther complisstd. Tt posible practice for applications Of the rule of law ar well as conceptions of order {0 vay. Standards fr applying the rule af law ae veloped bythe coats in the setting of specie police practices, Standards. governing search and seizure practices, fo example, ar usally developed in nareouc case, Whe standards of the legality of procedutes for ebtining confessions ‘opicaly arte in case where there isan clement of assault Sina, conceptions of order are subject to varying ltrpetations and tend (0 Bp Pow Ba, 7he Dyer of Havemccy (Co: Unie of Cian Pr 10 Reed ra, Wk ol Anthony in Ida (Mew Yak: Rar and Rom 196th Buon R Ca The Ope Des Cale (ew ace Mei 190), re GoliePatrr of Ideal Barty (lee I Tae, {Dh Plip Seni 14nd ve Gar et heey Une a sera Pe, 198)fatuence and be inlvenced by canlions pevaling in poi work, Gen Ear sutemens about the police conception of order and its sources can onde but i as possible fo show how the generalized coneption is Peined by the percewed requirments of various oie asignmens. Giner the informer stem is dteused, for example, it becomes cleat That the meaning of criminal conde! is diferent evaluated depending an ty pertned criminality is in with procedures charactensically ied to enforce spite catezoris of the lw ‘The division of labor within the police department (bursary. vee contol tafe contol, pata) supplies 2 methodological framework for SKacving and comparing te assumptions and outcomes of police practices $Ptcmoeate society. Policing speiltis geusrate distinctive paters for Be Aitecaton and enforcement of the lw of crimes: who ist sees @ ‘inal act hows reported, how apprehension takes pace. Th ether: er Ripanctserainal data, then the ion of plice Tabor set a repand forthe working hypthers af the siody: the characteristic eeicon a enforcement, with ie spetal ervangements for gathering infor. rate graven otenders, ond cvoarng the compete of personel ar eet of aw, determines operational iw enforcement. The idea ot era at aw coforcrnent should sopget bath the atitudes and Meyeeia bt policemen responding to jodi ulings and interpersonal eniey wit the acused, the proveeutor, defense atorey, judge, and ‘hencrer applicable. with the gener publi, eae cr eng wet tt emirate Onder and the Ral of Law the parent, the teacher, the pest, the chaman, the decor. AS the sat {Pate afcally though the ipl item, bt Hs parpoe 50 acing 10 ial in et Sele sen ood uns ret Seles, Mar ‘i nen mei crac fe ao ta ae ‘Werhave ton tet ea cosequnces tlw from ins conception f he soe in. "Con yer ney, he ul rs ilgns ngs Coteus Of their ignorance an ares fo them Be Ik of i ihe a0 des trenton petal pecs ected ‘Sha emer vhs tenon Thee “E he Fouhnen ie cnc” supplemented ough not opm) y 1 reer ne phe fe he'mansse CO SUPA) By Oe “The conection of lw a 8 teacher it lly connected wih the Sen tint Tow ib primey an instruct fr aching soil order Ths, the Smit repine (end te Chince Conon a well) sdoped tere polite ames immediatly on coming ito exitnce, The Soviet tect Fol te Chloe Bod pes aus wat not 924 Tint even document was publaed exliing ks extence an prone Under is Satutorysuboriaton the main ek ofthe score poe wat {ovtet he ive sod poo arn of the diatahp, hunting fut and Iigldaing"counerevolitlonary =. -alempls and. atloot Shroughout Rusia no mater whet thei origin “© "The Chek wos anrwer the only tothe top leadership of the Party and government. although ‘rperience was to demonsrate that whatever actions the Chek consiered frorsary fo defend the dictstorahip ofthe polar, iclading ere Tnprsonment and even executor, meld bs approved by the Pat ade ship. notitisanding any formal or legal Kiations on i power ‘Asa sytem bed wpon aw at the instrument for ining 4 ese su" socal ender, te Gtcka trcrme he objet of widerandng ecm tot only among i cpponents. Bt within the ranks ofthe Per ill Ts om Weoty acknowiedacd these complains. noting hat “report te Conine in from all side that not ony tweety Det onl erin SNdidoals are tying fo pente the Chekas™” But in reply fo Tech erica, Lenn defended the secret police on around tat the DMtery ue of author wat peibbe the cna of achieving surety oedred on proven prncen He tal to w tonerete cf HE jean, tie the USSR, (New tk: Rand Howe, i te Handa Howe, 1983), A pret, Dee 38, 1912p 2. ered in Sinn Wein ad Raber M, Sse cde, Te ei st ae New Yet: Pree A Pee, ST 1S able eb why Se £Sguads Bib ain ‘Wolin and Stuser (eds), op, ct, p. & * “eau In Pot Pata: CCheka representatives in November, 1918 that despite the presence of Strange clement” in it ranks the Cheka was “putting into practice the Gitatoihip of the prokarnt and in thls fespect is roles invaluable ere is no other pith to the frecine ofthe masses than the seppresion te exploiters by force, The Chk f enessed in this and inthis com Sats ie service to the protetarit."* "The meaning of lew na soety i whiney dependent pon its polis and focal phifosopy.When I viewed primarily a8 an instrament of ‘Mucaton oe as am instrument of order rather than 25 2 oal In sel the society no Tongerconcives of punishment a5 est res. to Be used fnly reluctant. Lipson dciribes Soviet nw asthe instrument of stale morality as follows: Coecion 19 viue i eeemed not only for vias sake Bot ako a6 8 roto telling the lines of leaking The mime of aon Te ice ewelen by the stiectice of he coy andy the roa BENS pata of what onovnes to a nolation, The more precarouy the see reer ne uate she peter te perceived daveer of sakerson he eT tne the yrs nto deviate from fe Even short of die Bho twcmtor. ane devon he fare To do one’ part ip ang he Sra, SP aes an oftence rate he poeepposiion ofthe Teale TaMhaal ano the ws of he veal. IF fom aeconomirus tet Rpeaate South to below om he sage. hi Tne he sven 10 homo he chien to many ae to noch Weannat eel fim By DOPE ot foward Tei not erly that the lw of total sate as a its esenfialconiton tat the society conceive of tc ay sinsle areat family. Snel srt fame where the queso of value open to discussion oe imaginable ‘There needs tobe also a conception othe ineviabiy af exes, sense UE place in the interpretation ofthe grand seep of Hisar. a Toil conection, and. ultimately. bli in the rihteoasess of Kline forthe fake of losie, This sort of certnints ao what nha the wineess To sdopt the mest extreme punitive messes in defense of ti he estence fof the conception of law in 4 al state, Father knows all ia sch a family. and he may. if he tinks i necessary. rule by the ro. This con ception of lw necessarily contempltcs minimal restint on autho By contast. a democratic evict envsins constraint upon those who are granted the right to invoke the processes of punishment fm the name FEW tein, Sciorie (Woks) (Menotennga, 19261932 Pale). 23, po Sh ath Moodie Wate and Save eb op 6 See Be Sande Te FG ssi Bare,” Poon of Co mei 12 ch ape 19) 7273 2 Democrat Order and the Be of Las ofthe law. They must draw their cules clearly, sate them prospectively ‘The rte themselves mutt be rational, not whimsically constructed, and amiss gut with procedural regularity end falmess. Most importat of “ty rales from Below, aot above. Authorities are servants ofthe peopl, fot a “vanguard” of eis instructing the masses. The overriding value Freouent ofthe govemed, Prom i derives the principle of the accounta- Dili of authority, accountability primary to courts of law and widely os demceratealy constituted legislature based upon vniversalsuffage. 1 is itereting that while Lenin jnied the excesses of the Cheka on ‘teologieal grounds, namely, that they were necessary to establish the fort of social onder envisioned by the conception of the dictatorship of ‘he proletariat a mote sociological analss of the excesses was made by shablcranking Chek, Mastin Lats who saw the occupational envion= ‘pent at ereting the conitons for Chit eutaly. ati eseted that feork inthe Cheka,condocted in an atmosphere of physical coercion, ‘aes corrupt and ought eriminal elements which, profiting frm their ‘otlton ar Cheka agents, blackmail and extort ling thee own pockets. ‘However honest aan i however crystal-clear his heart. work in ite‘ cheka, which s carted oa with almost unlimited vihts and under ondions greatly affecting the neevous stem. bein to tell. Few cape the effet of the conditions under which they work ™* “The Soviet secret police may be taken as an example of lw enfrce- rent whith, while having administrative accountability, s without serious ‘Blemmastesaring the rule f las" The pifsophy of the society does Sot ace Teal aan end in lf but asthe instrument fr the acieve- ‘en of 2 polieal order in which lor will ultimately disoppear. The {orf thet "legal rule wil underpo a qualitative transformation into ronjtrdcal moral standards, This ia turn wit lead to a concomitant rpatalon ofthe sphere of behavioral noems and habits ented «as ‘Fler of socast community Nfe*"® "What happens during the period TEI a ryan nat ie Geetagengre tar a rasa SE a EE nee wien eed eS Sa a i ne ete ees sel cee Soo nate ce Sehr as emer ene soit act sat ew eae Bhs Se ey: Pi of oe oo eras crof tanstormation i, however, opea to some question, Lats’ observation that unconstrained authority corupis rugests the consequence, His eon- clusion & by a0 means new, but a socologst wises for te opportunity to study the process by which even the Ronest and well-meaning polce- ‘man ins totalitarian Society may become corrupted. From the pant of iw ofthe socal sient, not nly the outcome important, bat aso {he analyte exploration ameng variables in the syst accounting for the outcome. The mature of a ‘otltaran series, however presides such investigation. ‘One ofthe virtves of 2 society with democratic valves isthe ebliation police themselves may fel for sel-anlysis and improvement, ineuding ‘ven a willingness to hive themscles examined onthe jb by potently ritical professor. Tn return, they are entitled to factual accuracy and tenable laterpctation ia the desertion and anise of thee work, The ‘emphasis upon the work of police should in tis sudy mot be undestood 48 an Investigation such the police themselves might conduct. The urpose fs nt to reveal that the police vate rules and regulations. That, ‘much is assumed, ‘The intrest Hee is analy description, the understand ing of conditions under which rules may Se violated with areter of leer Inteasiy. There js an emphasis on the “ection perspective” and on the meaning of his work wo the policeman himbel, especialy asi is derived fom and reflects ack upon socal ideas repnding worker stonomy, the need for onder, andthe rule of law. Sch an emphasis ehould provide {he bas for eonelsion on ov the working environment of pice Ith ences law enforement, tat, the capacity of pie to respond and con tebute othe rule of law a a master ial of governance. Soc concusons should hopefully onsite tothe development of theory of lw enforce ‘ment in democrats sores, and fo the role of pie within sch x sytem, ‘Standards for the Performance of the Urban Police Function by The American Bor Associaton (GENERAL. PRINCIPLES Imnyoductory Note "The need for improvement inthe quality ofpotisng in our society as tong been apparent. Stody afer study hae ocumented—vith alot ‘monotonous feglariy—the gross deficiencies tobe found in the caliber Sd performance of police agencies. In recent yeas, police administrators, tenses have been amone the most vociferous in calling atention to the need for upgrading the quality of police services and police personnel! Pestve change, to the extent that thas occured, hat been arly response to sporude demande for “reforming” the police. “Reform” has ‘meant diferent thags et aferent times in the history of policing. The first major efforts a proving plies operations focused pon uperading the eafber of personel hized as police officers. Reform, in the early day, age ing i ofc in al ce oie Foucr, Nota 19s), sed Suey Fees Sees ms Uncap Srars Od feral 1960), Mow randy he eat Camm cn Law Enlgmet od ‘Kiahinncen of Jose compel ln acptbntve te fh pcien fee {line proves pomp ui cpg oi Dacstcers Covbason’ OX ae ‘Sronchuner sho Aanaatio Op Josie, Tuk Gea or CR I Free Soctrr {036)) (heer reece Chile of Come) See abe Farsnewrs connasiow on Low Barencausyr 0 Anastasio Joe, ‘Tok ones Haron: ae Puls (150) (here ee om Tk Fo: Rep The fos) Mah of he Chen of Cit fxm open the pew ‘iptm ofan nce impotent Many ne poem whch fw Com ‘Efe: Me tcensate mew teen form's sone he ee ein. oro ple sei ‘eine wih peminon fm Suadads Rang 10 the Ure Pale Facion (cise dnt). AntianBar Avion Now Vo Wan TOT pe TAT ETEtleo called for isolting the police from pansan pots, ving police ‘Miminitatrs tenure and eliminating covrpt practices. During the 19305 tnd 1940s, emphasis in. progams aimed at improving the police wat ‘upon the development of taining, the adoption of mechanical aids, end the grater ute of selene methods for the investiation of ees. Ta ‘the 19505 and 1960s, emphasis was given to the centration of police ‘operation and tothe increased use of techaolo—espeiallycommnica- ‘ons and the motor vehicle. And, i the cartent decade. the most com monly advocated chonges are those that call for college education for police personnel; use of the computer for police work, andthe develop rent of new techniques for improviae ‘elatonships between the police And the community. “Together, on a cumulative bas, these Yaloat po- porale have come to bo widely accepted a5 the established elements in {ny progiam aimed at inproving police services. “There i, tay, an inesnsed sense of urency rearing the need for Improvine bok the eaiber and the peeformance ofthe pie. ‘The un precedented demands bsine made upon the police have served to pont Up the complenity and importance ofthe police fonction. They have also ved to make more vrble the adeguacies that have resulted from Years of neglect, "There appear to be widespread agreement that if the Problems for whlh the poles are Del primarily responsible are t9 be feat with more effectively, police acencies must te improved. But there ie moch ler certsinty a fo the for such improvements should take. Doubt as to the wali of pat efforts at improverent has arisen polarity as a result of the difielie that hive been experienced fn copie with ‘orrentday eves by eten those departments that have consistently Been ia the forettent in effecting chante. Some ofthe speci proposls for ‘hangs are being ineeainly subject to question. Thus, for example, the fppropitene of oreniationalarrancements dsiened to insulate the poli trom plieal infience ® now Being challenged in the Hake of the demonstrated need for stater responsiveness on the pat ofthe police to the needs of the community. Purposeful efforts to assure a depee of feachment, on the part of indices police olcers, fom the com rmunly they police (ea. probibitons against police fers working in the neighborhoods in which the reside) ate belag abandoned in some jursitons in preference fora policy that encourages officers to reside Jn the neighborhoods in which they work. The vew tat almost ll patrl- ‘men should be assigned to squad cats is now telag mediled by the Incresed sisimment of police officers to foot patrol And the strong ‘movement to highly centralized form of control over pollce operations— ‘pecially ia the lager eles—is being reversed by the establishment of Stovlrontofces and by various other forms of decentralization intended Jn part fo meet the Kinds of complaint that give 1s to demands from clhizen groupe for neighborhood contol over the police, ‘These developments offer substantial support forthe observation that some of the older “nonprtesionlized” poe agencies that have been ‘bypassed by the several waver of “form” have been moce effective in Coping withthe probes that police sre curently experiencing than have those agecis tat have consistently adopted sll proposals advocated fr the improvement of police operations? Given te commen Tag tetmees proposals for change and ther implementation, the police flld Is experi Enclag the rather awkward situation today of having some police agencies sping to effect changes that are being substuataly modified or aban- floned by thore agencies hat have alveady adopted them. "The fat that so much ofthe effort o improve police operations appears to have been midrected dove not negate the importance of aresing ch fundamental are ae police pesonsel, taning, and management. ‘Rather, what this realization suggest is that such efforts have been Timed in their value besuse they have not gone fr enough. They have been feo narrowly conseved, ‘They have in some instances teen based upon ‘quesiinable astumptions. Ad they ive been developed without ade- [Gate regard forthe oval nates and complesty ofthe police function. 1 recogation of thete shortcomings, this study departs spifcanty from what his bocome the traditional patter for addressing the need for improvement in the police field. Primary emphasis has been placed tion examining the overall ole ofthe police ia effert to can and, i some instance, hopeUlly to reach conclusion regarding some of the ase underlying sues that mist be confronted ara prerequisite to eet- ing meanlngsl and Tasting improvements in police agencies and in thelr ‘Operations This stedy teas the more tYedional aeas of concern as Se, but eny t0 the extent that concusins reached with regard 10 the Jose base shes have diet impietons forthe form that programs in ach areas should take, Complexity of polie task. (a) Since police, as an ageney of the criminal justice system, have a major responsibility for dealing with serious crime, efforts “ZEET. Wien, The Pale dl Thi bom A They 12 Pom LAY 19) 056should continually he made to Improve the capacity of police to Gischarge this responsibility effectively. Tt shoul also be reeog~ rized, however, that police effectiveness in dealing with erime is bften largely dependent spon the effectiveness of other agencies both within and outside the criminal justice system. (i) To achieve optimum police effectiveness, the police should be recognized as having complex and multiple tasks to perform In ‘dation to identifying and. apprehending persons committing ‘Serious eriminal offenses. Such other police tasks include protec: tion of certain rights such as to speak and to assemble, partie. pion either directly or im conjunction with other public and Srcial agencies In the prevention of eviminal and delinquent be havior maintenance of order and control of pedestrian and vehle tlar traffic, resolution of confliet, and assistance to citizens in need of help such as the person who Is mentally Hl the chronic leohalle, oF the drut adlet (c) Recommendations made in these standards are based on the view that this diversity of responsibilities is likely to continue “and, more importantly, that police authority and skills ave needed {a handle appropriately’ wide variety of community problems Commentary It is barely necessny to restate the dimensions of the problem of serios crime in Ames ori impact upoa te ves of our eizens, Thi thw been documented in an effective and fighting way by the Report, of te Presidents Coninision on Law Eeforcement and. Administration ‘Of Justice in 1967, and the scope ofthe problem Is cestated anally by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in its Uniform Crime Reports. These reports indicate not only tat crimes in most categories are increasing fe elaturing tate, but ako tht clearance rates (Khe rates indiating the percentage of cfimer which have Been “solved” by an ares of the tlleged ender) remain Tow for most Spee of fests. It is obvious thatthe pie as an agency of the criminal justice system hve @ major and cental esponsllty for dealing with serious crime Concentrated forts must be mnde, therefor, to Metify and implement ‘ew approaches to improve the pice response to scious crime, Thi may involve, among other this, developing new types of specialized preventive aod investigative personnel; ulling more scientific methods Toe allocating personnel aad Leducing the time for responding to calls for » ‘standards forthe Perfomance ofthe Urban Plce Funai sevice; and improving crime Taborstory and otber supporting services for investigative personnel 1e most be noted, however tht even with dramatic improvements in police resources, thee are revere Iinitations on what the poise alone Fedo about many type of serious crimes Thee ae serous weaknesses fn'thinting about crime as esentily “police problem.” Axia i undertantate tn mater chy ne eont of ad cit with exentatiy st n pols. paste, the narowness of pernetve SEU IME load. Percention of chive tes pale proble ees ea fare {S'S to improve her cmponents othe iil fates ste ch a eee on and tone, corretinal and youth sericea oe sees eer neni tht eat and should Recon iveved woo 2nd Beer eal offender an lfendre and the commonity sell. To ng, BiePercenton reins fale fo understand the seem a5 8 eNotes, Zemuned of neces fterdenendent lous no ffecthely TREE cmentea prose that lows from the commanty—wvhere he inf nna beaver event an Te roars ee (2 Sa ne e~thouph the ple the cours and correctional sel, ‘SECS Sate to the commen wih the return of the otfender® “Thus, although ii most important to develop ways fo improve the police capability to deal with serious crime it equally important to Pete at the police conte only one part ofa total system tht must the improved i serous crime isto be contended with mote effectively, Further, in tlaking about nseded comprehensive improvement fa police effectivenest, mst be recoaived that the police do far more {fam entity and apprehend persons commiting serious criminal offenses efforts to improve poi operation have wually been based upen the wsidely eld notion thatthe primary rsponsTity of the poi i {Bat of combetine crime and that most oftheir work i ected toward {his cal. A numberof recent studies challege this stereotype and point Up the importance of recognizing the broader role of the pot “The President's Commission on Law Eaforcement and Adminstration TES pawn mommendnes male a TAS FORCE RAFORT: THE POLICE, adie Se Ed dsoeers Couns oo Le EsoncenaN 190 ADMIN ‘Seu Geuste Tae Roce Renn. cmice tes Treo (920). oP ee eng wson Vast or Pouce Behavon 9 (196) Cotter redone YanessafPoer Bebe) Stan Kiser Th Uren Cs nd Crime, $0 BU. 1 Re. 38,347 (1970) (cele dt foe Uta Cs td Cit).of Justice which conducted the most comprehensive study of the police that hes teen undertaken in secet years, reported that police department ‘corde "rarely reveal wht proportion of werking time policemen spend fon what actitig"* Bot in acknowledging the wide array of dates for Sh per ar tapi, the Commision mde the flows ‘A reat lors of he situations in which poicaen intervene ae tot, oF aloe ple Slane a Se coun Hn to pth te pee iene ee Staton, imteniy. Mny of them sce ler ple nviencer hat the commu a sped Ris sito duking tobe moe Sie Serie a ier te owe ae facy situations invohe pple who need bey whether dey want itor sat" flupias nts tu in Tieng weather, rnauay boys who fie (0g ome tera seeh of exeiing mit Bde la a Superour neler. Many of them invols cont that, we nlf cxmnat be prevented of cre ype by an eyo Sera sia Jtstce ‘system? Ung tuo, promsuaion, gambling alcoolisn. Man ition ene tty alee ‘Smut ay be threatening? ‘Rilseakoytor cerning te ght of fe speech i he iat af a bose lows. a midigh see tomer guering of Youhs whose inewion ae Soaniontantfer by a belietat dank to ek any mun fa the howe “Al of ths statins could iavole the voaion of some ordiaance or suc “A'of them cold lad to stout beach of pale over of fo a ‘Mater toa secur Sipe, Mbsh of pace work fs seog to toy do ot Eid‘to‘ths eateme. Ts means coming inaled athe 90 nina ‘tion may with he Unes and problem of eee fal Kinds Siace publication of the Crime Commision’s reports, there have been several dons to develop more detailed data. descriptive of the police Eonetion, In exploring the roe of patelman, Professor James O. Wien ‘undertook to analyze citzen ills transmitted to. police cars by the Syracise Police Deparment for a period of one week. He reported: ‘About ove {ith required the olicer to gather information Cet reper” ‘Dor anlage ine for which no sngect wap thought sil o Be on the ‘Sou, "The patna’ funcon i beens mally cece aks routine ‘tote he pina i A id ‘Eig Were fof urns that owl ar exnly be prorided—and in many cls ecy' ilrene goverment agen) or OY a prvate fr Only about one TE Gaattmsc oF Cue, spre oe 1 98 {; aucuaren or Cane 5 Standard forthe Performance ofthe Urban Police Funeton tenth of the cal afforded, even petal. an opportunity 10 perform a sa at cnfrcementfucion bY sopping « burglary in pogrer sching ice making a ares of mupert being Bel by tothe par, Hee retidows car or an open wed In fat, very few of re ‘eves Tee ere il be ne prom except in woman's imagine Tee Sisto ail signify an owner overeh rather than a het den. Frail cat wl occupied by a respectable clan, and te ERI LS be gone Alot hed of all eall-and the vast majo Cette eas coner alegton of disorder arin out of SsPues, ‘ub and pate elo and va Somewhat similar Sndings were reported by several other stadis. A sony of the Kansos City Depatmeat in 1966 revealed that patrol officers SHUG Tomy Du per cont of ther tne to criminal matters AM apayss SPs eccved by the Chicagn Police Deparment in x twenly-four-hour ‘esod tem’ section of the ity contsiing approximately one evel Pe the cys population revealed that, of the 394 ells received, 16 percent ced of report of rimes in progtess or erimes that bad aeady ‘SKeured; 44 por cen conrsted of reports of incidents that could have holed a ceminal aston (eq, a disturbance or an intxisted mn), Ba whlch expenence has sndiated mest frequently rire no, more {hans warning. informally resoving confit or the proving of some {bom of mrtence: and 40 per cent consisted of requests fr various forms fof sevice and for information * 1n thee slice of the police a¢ “support agen” Elsine Cumming, an Cuning, and Lavra Edel found that mote than one bal of the ‘Ris nade tthe police appetr to involve requests for help in pescaa AP imerpersoaal matters unrelated {o crime" Raymond Paras, explo- ing pole handling of domeste disturbances, found that “The everyday pois reponse othe minor family confi probably excends nc BaP SDSRE er muaets agsroatel bats, an all be serous ces see ere the Chicags’ Paice Deparnent publahes « Patel Dion 5 Am, one mele to the pub, one subeategery of wich Sterations RePeh trounce inclades menor fomfy confit Comte di ater en doturbance, gary habe and te Hs. 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POpERP “PIP Y st Tuptiodsoom ‘Roqonp sig ut svou o1 uo} we paintidas“sunpsson MMTIELY Tad pe 2bo> PPO At Oh ppogwD “ANS, MET UESTAMTY 2 70 (ear ea oalass In Police Pat: the various forms of behavior with which the poise are concerned. Ta the long rua, the exerese of dicroton in accordance with defensible titra woul create greater confience in the pole establishment. More immediate, it would lead to reduction ia the nombet of abitary actions taken by indskdual officers, thereby substantially reducing the tensions which sah actions crete—partculaly in areas in which missy ‘groups are afecte, Acknowledgment of te "Risk Factor” Involved in Polling [Namerous festorscontsbute wo the defensive postr commonly aoe by the police. Among thom isan awareness om their pot that members fof the publle wil often question their exercise of dcretion In eae Ia Which subsequent developments focus attention upon aa officer dein. For example, a police officer may lcate one underage youth in a group of youns people eneaged in drinking party. The fact thatthe youth fnly one month under age may prompt the ofier to release him with 2 warnlog.”Howevec, ifthe youth subsequently becomes invalved in 2 Serious scident, the fact tht he ah related ears im the evening. will ten result nthe officer’ being catated by hi soperig, because the ‘tier as no publiyackowledged right fo exercbe discretion although AM apes that i is both necessary and desitable that he do 50. Given the wide range of responsibilities that the police have, they cannot te held to ¢ system of decision-making whish invlves no ike {akiagsoy moce than could payin in desing beter to release ‘person who has atlemptod susie or parole board members in voting pon the release ofan inmate. "The formultion of poly aod te areal tion tothe public would, over a period of time, begin to educate the public to recognize thatthe police must not only exercise discretion, but Trust also arrome a rk in doing so. Prior statements of policy bic “pat the community on notice” with ropard to. police functioning in visio areas would afford some ret from the current dilemma in wih, inthe absence of such policy formulations. the police are subject {o both rideule for not exercising discretion and condetation for mak ing siereonary jadements when they do not work out A Means for Using Police Experise ‘Many ations whieh the police officer takes are based upon the Knost- edge and experince he as accumulated in his yeas of sevice. In eon ling that crime i being commited, an ofcer may reach a jdement ‘git different fom that ‘which would be reached by an inexperienced Jayman or even an experienced Wal judge, since the lficer may have, toe example, the ability to recogniae the smell of narcotics or the sound a pre wsed in pring egal unbers or poly tekets. There has cher been litle effort made to eapitalize upon police experience. In {eter to do so, the police would ecesarily have to attempt 10 assess its ‘Slab they. woold have to disinguish acurate inferences (such 8, {fe ound o that of e gamblers pritng press) from inaccurate of ‘proper ones (such as Negots are moral Tt would also be necessary {er te police to sstematize thir experience so that it ean be effectively (ramomeated to new eles trough taining programs end to other, Ike fadaee, when the propelety of police ation is challenged. To TS Ae nat operating criteria reflect police experienc, the police I Sllonded «vehicle ia the poley-making process for articulating ther expertise. More Effective Adminitrative Conrol Over Police Behavior While the actions of an individual officer may appear on the surface to be improper, there soften no biss on which his roperior ean take Tptiny action against him, since bis conduct voles neither the caeary existing departmental polices. In sucha sation, the police ‘Shumutor ie eaught fa a confet between his desire to be responsive seein’ who has reason fo complain about a policeman’s behavior vee oor Concerning the reaclon of his force to seemingly arbitrary ‘ciple where there Is no clear beach of @ preannounced standard of oper conduct, "The reluctance to characterise an officers conduct a¢ unwise i i read when the edministrator fel that to do so wil result in eter the ‘Mtcer or the mniipality being sued for damages. Consideration of {hs peel may force the adminstvatr into the position of defending Pefessteron a legal, and thos seemingly “proper” even though i ‘fected poor jdgment 08 the part ofthe offer. To minimize the hike {hood ef sina stations arislag inthe future, the administrator may Lee his subordinates to use "omen sense," But such » request is of Tide ame unless he i prepared to spell out pestely what is meant by enslgton of ples to whieh pote offer are requied by reuaila to sibere would provide bars for dining those who TEER SLeN pte, But, more important, 1 would serve In pose TONG inocy members o's force wht I expected of them. Progest Watney of iw enforcement much more Hey to Be we vows Cer and terse standards as bs or ng,4 proper response ffom police fficess, eather than considering such Standards primaly a the basis forthe taking of display tions gains police offices The Improvement of Recrlt ond In-Service Training Programs Rect tring in poce specie feqenty imguate because the intracton br ie seep fo what eget tthe fet ‘ee goo to work nthe Reid. dn the abner of poles a Fene to an aan of polos expec, the ntectr ul et ‘ith only the formal iin of pote sutheiyto communal to the trance, and ths is olen tasnied to the aden metely Dy resi Satter dettios to him Studest are toh tnt al as eet Be fly enfored. ‘Tw toscsc of poe auhaiy snr) teh fe docile fasion Wi his Kind of formal taiog, he new seer ‘indy oon his aignnent othe Ci tht he ha tee om the sore expeined fiersh whom he initay none wld Oa he pate of sxommodstion std modifenions As be Boome "wee ofthe impact an ls sean of muh of what he ned SS asudet, Re unortutly bein to question the ay ofl apes ‘th tora ining. Obviously, tee 9 need for tng more dicey related to the import probes whith titer il ace eft eh il ot ony fsa hs om the lini of foal authority, eo intr hin of he departs judgment so wat te ment deal mira praciee to follow tr cxrhing ft uty Caf Aevlopedsdminsouv pales wood serve tt Inport freien A Bass or he Profesional ofthe Pole 11s sow commonlas to rer o psy ny ef that same 24 improving law alerts eonrbton to he protestonltion of the polee. Thus, improved ining apteaion ‘of te complet to pole wok apn oa cole of es, td eed es veal, a oe ime or another, bch dhs contain fo pole ‘professionalization. Bie Cerin here mock thet pole do fofny tht would ot under any definition ofthe tc, be viewed a conta profesor wor. Dieting wate a! stestntrsoson or enforcing arkig reson reques sania, bat ile Knowledge In sharp contest to these fc, tons, homer, re the rapes of atolnan ape ole ‘cong aes in wich numerous crimes occ he faled ‘pon inks hig sopinioted judgments having 9 mur impact upon he « aie Poly Vorsaton: A Propel fr Inprovieg Pllc Performance lives of the individuals involved. Sach judements are aot mechanical in rare, But rater are every bit as complicated and difficult to make 38 tre the dessins made by any ofthe behavioral sceatiss, and in many lanances they are more dificult because they must be made under the pressure of the immediate circumstances, Devoipment of criteria for dealing with such complex social and be- avioral. problems wil fequie extensive research, the sstematzing of frperience and knowledge, and continual testing of the validity of the ‘Ssumplis and findings upon which the tera ae based. The form ffvon of such rteria wil ala requir adherence to alues relating to Oe role of the police and law enforcement in « democratic society that are tnore bas than those values which are involved ia a cousderaton of teenical operating elfieiency. ‘The making of judgments based upon Stein that are formulated porssnt to extensive experience, research, fnd experimentation together with 4 commitment to vales that reflect {sence of responsbly to society cnstiute important elements in the development ofa tue peoesion. A Method for Involving the Police in he Improvement fhe Sytem of Which They Are a Part Decisions relating to the enforcement function have tradtionally been made for the pole by persons outside the pale establshmeat The otic have fypeally nt'even been contlted when changes have Been eatemplaed im the substantive or procedural criminal lay, despite the fact they clearly have more experince than anyone else in dealing with, some of the basic sus, Flite to fvolve the police in ost revson [ples is probaly due to the fact that police personnel are not cos Sidered qualified to deal wih the complicated questons involved. But, if tve that police lack te necesar silo parciate in such effors, this tek of ablity i im large menue attributable to the fact that in the post they have aot been Involved inthe making of impostast decisions ‘There js today, 4 strong commitment tothe involvement of dsad- vantaged groups ike the poor and the youn. in decisions about their fotes im soca. This commitment it based on the belie hat they wil fespond most affiematively i they havea fesing of participation in such Gesbions The stme need is apparent with respect 19 the police, for, in this ence atleast they also area disadvantaged proup. Law enforcement personnel are more likely to want to conform and are mare likely t0 ESyelop an ably to conform i they are made a pat of the procest for ‘making imporant deine afecting thee function. «Miustrations of Areas of Police Functioning ‘Which Are Subject to Policy Formulation Practlly every aspect of polis functioning sve re to important sd sensitiv urs of Kad whch can and shoul be dest with reg the carefl and systematic development of poles by «kw enforcement ‘gency. The folowing ate ery luve of th Spe of feetns tat are in need of atest, te felt ue to whch hy Be fe, tod the inporance of facing upto thm The Decision Whether To Invoke the Criminal Process Whee int oni nt en ai dpe in moat intanes, upon pole judgment ‘Teeretealy, his fodpnen 's ted pon te sattery dtnlon of he erne alot t abund any cleat ta here ae ey stuntens fn whi late bas fact tected and Is Knows tothe poe, bat in whch there no eller! by the pole fo make an art. Among te fac acouning fo his teary dco not f invoke th xn pros ae the tlume ot ola of «sina sat, the Tiniedreowees of the pal the ‘crergnealzaon of lepiute enscinents dein tinin!condcr, fn te vais focal prsue efletng community ales and sade ‘The social gambling station affords g00d example of the demma ubich the pote face" In most justo, all forms of gambling ae ga Yet is apparent sha lepltres eke end nor expec at sh tas be iy nr The cnet a ot pale ae let wh the cesponsibity for developing an enercenest poly for their pura commu The ply of» department may fo cna te cer, set unwrten that gamer of chance a church carnal a te permed because of fiir ehrtabe atte" However, inthe sme oman, the police response to gambling in private heme may vary withthe chcunstanes of the inal case ‘Whether the pale tke tsfoement acon may depend onthe answer thy bin to Seve ey Suesions: is there a complainant aad, i, s he esl afsted By the pmag sei; Whe gambling the prime purpone fr the eeu ting together ot I Hise to sme ober act oF estima the anti onan othe partzpants know eseh eke; nee they sured tothe loestion for porpnes of enasing fn gambling ov i the assenblage 4 gettogther of od fled what is te amu of money nrg ce sy pono ut ofa ted ply af eon ‘ea ain ng ches rd sgn et J ane od Boch Demon ‘Get Co Popa Ne. 18 86). ‘Pot Pokey Formsaton: A Prpeal fr Improving Plies Performance ae sind wet pt ngage sgt te to fom ra Sica a os ety aa ae Sn ll ent ge ply ee coarse Seer in mature, Te eiffel thatthe employment Se Mae gt Se ty See woh cy ns 2 a es ain are not ralzed and thus not considered or resolved, Complaints SAE Hie uA Sa ae seo fs ea eh OF le ie ee Sey a et es Se eet a a eee “Tetra Sube tac ctas Stt e eee ree et inf eeson ieee mi ee a Se ee ary en oneness Sc le eh Sa ey ay Spr i oe ys torpedo = an oe fs teen oy ee oes reel to kop, dined oherih, sod trout efor «jaar mead er or earch ce nee le ie eee teat ion a 7a eth cea to te dpm Hthe so ae oe ree ee comps fom peghbors who ae dure y he shee ity abe rp th pe ae unt Hd es te pam io wich ress eae en 18 8S, ly expres: mcs Folin Homicides Tnteveaton by the pobee hc i ey ing» ime pcenion futon, Bat att sper of the community nor the Finiosip ofthe de game fomore serious crime it studied and evaluted. As 2 consequence, the rent police prastce gives the appearance of being the product of Improper class Or rcial discrimination. ‘The police weatment of agaravated assaults rats issues of a diferent character, Ths type of eflene comes to palie attention moe routinely because it fequenly ocsrs in publi, the vstim or winesses seek out the police there le ¢ desite for lie intervention before more Rarm done, or timpy Becht the vietim desires police assstance In acquiring ‘medical ad. Even though the perpetatoriskrowa tothe wim in a high petentage ofthese cases, however, hee feequeniy fe no arrest oi an eet is made, it may te fllowed by release without prosecution. This tspecialy tue ths sum reas of lage utban centers andi dv piarily tovan uawilingness onthe pot ofthe victim to cooperate in & prosecution Ifthe parties involved are related or ate close tends, the victin Is frequently waving to exabiah the ideally ofthe asalan, stead show. Ups view photograpts, or even answer questions truthful. IC the vin doce cooperate atthe investution stage, ho may stil refuse to testy ft tial and may even express » desire that the assaulting eave ot Aguaintance te set fs. Due 10 the fotatons police offers have xpeienced in handing such case, they offen taken lee than the expected fegree of intrest in pursuing a prosecution when there is any’ caly indlcaton of reluctance on the part ofthe Weim to participate ln the prosecution. In some Jirsdisions, the accomulted police experience fesuls In an carly decision not 10 prosecute and, ia some cai, not 1 would be ponible for the police to prosecute more fequeaty those pets who commit steals by rerortng to the Ssunce of «subpoena fo compel the attendance of the vst at ta, asumiag the judge Would te willng to compel the vin to testify. Thi procedore, however, seldom used. Given te high volume of eases and the competing demands Spon polle agency, the path of lest resistance ir to acquiesce inthe desiree of the vistim, Such acquiescence is often rationalized on the round tht the Injured party wes the only person harmed andthe com Ionity as 2 whole was not affected by the erime, There cases ean be titen off statistically as clarances—vbich ate viewed as an index Of police efficieney—and thus the most immediate adminisctvepresute 1 ssid, ‘Thete is some question about the selationship between cuteat police ‘practice in slum assault cases on the ene hand, and the amouat of eime and the community's attitude toward potice on the other If the criminal Jintice proves has some deterrent vale, why would Kt not deter assaulive avian in the sim area? To what degree does an awareness of the [tude of the police toward aseltive conduct result inthe formation tt negative atudes onthe pat of slum residents toward Taw and order lh generat? What the impset upon the residents of such an area when fnvattack by 1 shim fesdeot upon person residing outige the area reall in vlgorous preseeution? “Today, these and ther basis poticy questions which can be eased are ot deat with by the police Routine practices are at examined in the Tigh of overall enforement goals and, as a consequence, may very well Sve to complicate tether than save’ important socal problems. Were the police to review their current practices, they might well conlude that nso as anal, for example, are concerned, it is desirable © tse police decisions to rest on such eta asthe natre of the assault the sous ofthe Injury. andthe rior revoed of te astallan, rather thao prima on the degree to which the vit Is wiling to cooperate Seton of Investigative Methods Tn the past few yeas nreasingstention hasbeen given by lisatres ant partclrly by cours to the propriety of curent police detection nd vestigation methods" Nevereess, there remain many areas 18 which the determination ae to the investigative technique to be ase is Tet to the pole. For example, ncthr leslatures nor courts have ye feted mach concern withthe proprity of plie use of “undercover Ur "infiteation” technigus,survllanc, or other methods which afford Sh alleged offender an opportu to commit a ere in a manner which ‘sit make evidence of offense avaiable to the pole. TE the present trend toward jadcial remaking coninues, ti aot at all unlikely that Current investigative practices thooaht by police to be proper and efetve wl be subject to Increasingly specific rules. This has already occurred With respect to tn-ostody inversion, which Is now specifically eon Tiled by the Manda decision. Whetber this wll coeur with respect to other polce practices wil depend jn large measure upon whether the Pollor cam develop policies ‘which diferenlate tbe proper fom the TT Te ee oth pies urs hv ll ei galic Mer pclae enters con of vee be eof eae a rats nl geonng of supe exe ie lawreace Tay, Sia Mate feted Bool Rue Deon of Came: Soe and Bena, Uy" 2G anes exnagemeet ood Bupa (Bom tie, Bowe 196 nImproper use of partuar iavesigatve practices and can se to tat Improper metode are aot ied ss 4 ater ef ifomel departmental Poly or By idl lize tether gornge or exces tal Fie itropton& latave of important ple investigate leche sigue which my of msy not sve atack Pole have geal fred tbat ther igh 0 stp and question peopl essentespecaly ‘ein respect to tose penont who re observed inn ea fo Wich {rine fas jst been commie With tov excotns, however, thre far been litle fore de to provide inieal offers wih cael Aveloped guides 19 a are tat sh ineroqain sparing fd carefully employed under conden that sy Hs se "The we of field itropton at an Inventive technique i compl cated by the fat tat prt ofthe ol reese pate progam wich a caret vspense by plc n rg cis tothe demand ta the "wre be mate safe" Pevente puto! often tavolves sopping persons sig the sets in higher aree and mating setcher of Both penens aad whi. The pape of this ebnigoe Isnt al tak with nuts wo may be rpc of having eal ocd times but more broadly, tof and concate dangerous weapons and to creat an stmospere of pote omnipresence which wil Saree persons from atempting fo commie crimes Scsaste othe lkliood tthe thing deed td apechended 1 probably true that » program of preventive patrol does reduce the amount of crime on the street, although there has been no caret effort to measures effectiveness. Tt also apparent, however, tat some ofthe practice nclded ina preventive pstol program contribute to the fotaganiem foward the poles fet by minor, groupe whose, members fae subjected to them. A basic isi, never deat with explicitly by pai, |S whether, even from a purely iw enforcement point of view, De gl in enforcement outweighs the cost of community allenation “he continuation of Hed interopation a a police investigative technique epends upon whether the police are willing to develop policies which carefully distinguish fed interrogation from seet practices which are euly legal and to tke administrative steps to demonstrate thst «proper field iterogtion program can be carried out without i lealing lo To ‘an indseriminate stopping and searching of persons. The Decivion Not To ProsceuteIndvituls Who Have Beem Arrested While in some sates i the practice to take all areted individuals before judge is standard procedure in others forthe police to elase Pata Paticy Formation: A Prop for Improving Pace Peformance some individuals prior to thet scheduled court appearance. Drunkards tre olen given her freedom once they are sober, juvenile are often ‘eased after conultation with parents of a socl service agency; and Sh large urban area, naeotic addets and small-time peddlers are often ‘slenied with rant of munity in exchange for information lading fo ihe anat of more seriou violators. Where i isthe practice to release drunkards without charging them, cigity for rlease tends to be Based upon suc factors as appearance, {ios reputation, place of resksnce, and family tes. The process 5 fsnotally intended to teparate the common drunkard from the intoxicated person who “knows beter” but, fa the judgment of the police, simply Fed one too many." Whether this Kind of estinclon adeguately serves tn enforenent or socal welfare objective isnot emily cleat, Certainly price, who are daly confronted withthe problem ofthe drunkard, ought {Dp contlaing attention to whether defensible criteria are being Crplayed and, pethaps more important, ought to lend support to and piipte in an effort to develop ways of deaing with the alshole Thich re more sensible than the current arrest and release programs. Ctra have been formulated in some communis to asst police ‘n deciding whether a jvenle offender should be release to his parents, Feered 0 2 social agency, brought before the juvenile cout. In ‘Sbet comments, however, euch decisions continue 10 be made by the fotce without an arzulated bass and the decoas often reflect the the of much indefensible crea a the cclor of the child, his attitude toward the police or the stats of is parents inthe community. "The practice ofreleatng some narcotic ads and pees in exchange for information or cooperation raies other complex issues Persons ‘Svohed in narcotics contol ausune tat th investgalon of areas {ali equts the aecumaton of kaosledge from those who are involved inthe distribution or use of such eonirabund and that convictions can- fot be obtained without the bel of infornants who cooperate in return {or immunity. ‘The potential for abuse in pusuing this practice makes ‘excl important thatthe standards for extending a fer of immunity Th Fe Donr Yet Din ead Pr rrr of Salty 780964,» 20 Naan Gana “Te Dei Scien Cones” Naso Croll on Cee tod Delngeny (0963). For an oneal Ty tpi se eae oc ye Welt nt 8 Card Igoe Blue" ove nd Cl en Yo Rael So ois Same 205‘sae In Pcs Pate and for measuring cooperation be snifemly and ally applied, There is, moreover, aaced for continual evaluation ofthe pratce to determine ‘whsther the gin derived fom it ell juste he cots whic ae lnvelved, ‘The Issuance of Orders to Individual Regering Thelr Movemenin, Actes and Whereebous The public, wheler as pedestane of motors, generally recognizes ‘he authority ofthe poi to direct tele movements im tafe, There ate many other stations, however, ia which police repay tll people whst to do under circumstances “where police authority it less clear. For ‘example, police erder people to “keep the ie down” or to stop quarrel ing—ally in response to a complaint from 2 neishbor; ret a hosband to stay avay from his wife when they have had fight; ceder 8 youn. child found on the sess at night 1 go home; onder iowblesome “cha ‘cer to slay out Of a ghvenafea ad tll persons congregated acet Comers to disperse Police generally assume that congregiting on a steet comer i Tikely to ive se to dsordery conduct, expecially if sich assembling takes Place outside of a tater, if hose sisembled re intoxicated fo trying ‘egres, an if there i esvy podesrian wfc which likely tobe blocked by the cengreating group. The technique ordinarily used by police Och a situation i to cde the perons to “move on” thus presumably minimizing the risk of « group disturbance, ‘There is a tendency, how. ‘er, for this technique o become slandard operating prose ae ppled to all groups that congregate on sidewalks and street comers, witout regard to the verlag character of the provpe, For example, in some tural groups, congresaing on the rests the moat common form of socliing, and in some congested areas ofa oy, the comer fs teed Teenuse of the absence of adequate public recreational felis, For police to respond to these sutions in the same manner 28 they eespond fo the situation ivolving an intowicated group outside tavern tay not serve any real enforcement objective and’ ay insted strain the relaton- ship between the police and the residents of those areas in which the ‘iret corer is th’ place of sci and recreational acti, ‘The practice of dering people o "move on” i one which ss major Implications and warrants more caful use, Ta confronting the question of what should be thelr proper poley in dealing. with congegating ‘roaps, the police would have an opportutity to give ateation to why ‘Boups congregte, to distinguish these congregations which erste ik fof serious dsorder fom these which do nok and to slate poice work on PotcyPermlaton: A Proposal fr Inproving Poe Performance socaher community programs design to teat ostve sca and Yee Sa meri tor persons who ow lack these oppor The Sting of Dares “bp ten ne atts amount ofthe omy in of oie ofr a haiku gece betwen eens ad wes neh iS nd un means ad toy bd wb he nd snd 2 ney le inportoce fs stached oh andi 2 Teme admins artsy thos ole aban a Ene palnan who raj othe repr of wach a drt Ze ea ae pres eh oi a prose, may ender iy ie Plt oft pute hy odeing te ats teste i en (efor xo 6) avg a intneted stand So temo eat some ct form of entesceae ee era akc in cash cre 4 mater ot choke Spar ef te ind! ocr sant potcy quien are ried with respect 10 the way te eet Pe asc and in part th wy they Pane Fae ange ance ex tee hay beens senate flo made 0 ecu eee mh my wt eee : Salina ee sen lor mate to develop moe puerto osha lai) wh il ae ras bs era pote pote posam fo desi ect ty am elo t\deeop adeote pci fo ee TEA Tie itidalpaaimen, police gece soa comple tn am at act: now fen the same fame become ved eee esa pes Tntrenton how often the hasan eit ats Compt eos ch ca te nr aan ta homie with ret fom domes suet vpctbr te fle a pattern which might cable 8 ‘ae iy pel ngs stuation aad he Hinds of sae cate steed mh pote res to existing communis ‘Sueno ag ih fay tes _ ‘te poco of asi cslon of existing prates earaRt pce ea acgue + competence wish soul male hen eee hh i tes Sunglasses Fo date sowie ot the soap nw cated bon Perelto develop more adequate fotow-up proceduss in the domestic disturb ance ease. ‘This added competence should increase the value and ffs. tiveness ofthe emersency laterventon function of the police and shoul, in the lag run, reduce the heavy burden that presently place on the police ia dealing with thi ype of recurting social problem. The Protection ofthe Rish 10 Free Expresion [None of the functions which the police perform ilsrates the sensitive and unique role of the police in a democratic society at well ay that Thich is iavoled inthe safepsattng of the contutinal rights of fee speech and astemby. Police frequently ate called upon to provide ade uate protetion for a speaker oe demonstating group that wishes to exercit the sight fo express one's opinins—opinions that are fen ‘unpopular and whic are ten vice inthe presence ofa ote audience ‘Many urban police agencies have not developed and formulated policies to guide pote action in such stations. AMhough the sues involied in recent demonstrations reflet’ many Tactors which are beyond police ‘contral i is nonetheless 2 fat thatthe manner in which pofice respond to demonstrations wil determine, in large messue, whether violence wil reak out and, if it does, the desce to which the resting cont vl escalate and spread ‘The problem isa particularly diet one Because police aces may themselves identify more with maintaining order lathe comment especialy to prevent disorder creted by ouside, than wih their base responsiblity fo protest the ist offre expression of social and pli views. For example, the offer in 2 police dit which canst of 4 hile neighborhood may view a Newo march throagh the neighborhood in favor of open housing a8 treat to Both public order in his dict and the values f the very people In the neignborheed upon worn Re epends for support in his ay-erday work Ih roral ates or smal ets the population may be relatively homogeacous and ths the plie offer can be responsive to all af the lea eens without tht predcing con flict for hin. But avery real conflict may devtlop for the office fn a Jarg urban ares, since such areas re spcally made wp of communities which differ in economic, rac. velous, or other characters, The tfce who protects the ght of ee expreston of Meas may find himselt protectin an attack upon the very segment of the commnty with which he iene. In order for the police to respond adequately and consistently in the bighly tense situations which arise from poltcal and social demenstr- Pie Poy Formulation: A Prepsal for Inprovng Plc Perfomance ‘ios, there obviously must be a cattu effort on thelr pat to work xt, in advane, policies which will govera their actions. This developanat of polls’ must be coupled with an effort to communicate them 10 Inalidual officers in a way which wil give each officer a tant for ‘eoiying withthe protection of fcedom of expesion ae un importat caforement objective. In addition, an effort must be made to ateulte och polices tothe affected community so thatthe pubbe wil understand the reasoning behind polie actions” This, im il, can serve to leseen the lkelood of major disorders, {Implementation Since police agensin do not pretetly have the capacity to full the ind of policymaking role that har been culaed in this atl, pl renttion of thi program will require numerous adjustments in thet ‘iting procedures, onetation, and safing The natore ofthese require nents dacuted in detail elaowhore™ bot thir geneeal character wil be summarized bee. ‘As prerequisite, it will be necessary forthe pie to develop a sy tematio proces fr the ientifiston and study of those agpete of thee operations which we in need of atenton, Police administrators must lake the intnive in seeking out the problem areas by analyzing com plains, by observing the results of police actives as reflected in the ‘ours, and by the varius ater procedures avallable for naling the functioning oftheir respective depariments It is esentislthat the police fevelop n raeareh methodology fr exploring the Kinde of peoblee tt te likely o be Hetiied—s procedure tat equips them to elarty ae, {o entity alternatives, to obtain relevant facts, and to analyze thse ‘uot in a manner that provides a bai fr the development of a depart rental policy. ‘The end product must include cleuly articulated ects ‘hat will serve ak guidelines for police oliers and tht wl be open to pubic view. Flexibility being one of the major values in administeative Doley-making, it is lnportant that provision be made forthe periodic consideration of those polices which are adopted so that adjustments to row developments can be effect! and coretions may be made of de [ences which Become apparent afer fonconing under exsig polices Bi fs Trent Commision oo Law Escenas sed Adnininmon of Jac, eh rae Bir ie etn, 8” 0, Cnet IO'U Geli “Almira etior in ing oe Eseries ‘eg Fem! of Gmina Lm, Cision Pl Sn 56A plc gency which eps pty-nakingresponsiity must evel moet adopite ent of Caiol tan aon cit ee empl ois petonel wih the polices adotd”y Hs ‘aan The fren Tat abo expecta should waco respone cutie elo cf tach patie sa pocetion spat arbey poy malig, ‘Nmeroue changss wl be reguied ied in ean patos of laden, pettona sleton ining, an opin fete fo eglp the pao {> fli adequately thee broader response tis important, for ample, that pole leds be peed with an education that il ‘Slow thn to eas lye uigoe fnston ofthe pole a democratic city and that wil enable then to suport the ovriing vale vltng ia ery wh en cant wih hr ant te al maxi efikency inthe acest and rece prosecution cf sd Inport i i prac ie fining, be ‘provided witha profersonl entiation ht supportive of tha Tok ofthe poke an tt sie in devopng a wines on el prt {o conform with edaiohtive poli anus The proges ele inthe law eforcnent fd ot fel in recat ye, spt ote sen of tng and ehcaton, cont ston one span tceclevng some of te eens Sich efor, however, eae su tet or ak Of on sgt Seon of iecton nd pups The Peel tare inc pe need “hore propomt were te ened for he pote Yo evap ti tm conch fone tnd inant aw ‘sncenet pes Coven he ret er oe nae ee fc propa wit ne Kind of fom fr sich the oro ae ‘been apparent. we UL THE PATROL SYSTEM “rhe bulk of the existent Hiterature on patrol begins with patiudes tout i beg "the bueKbone of the police fore” Competent perform seem pe acot the hterature nfs, requires famaiiaity with tacts se mga largely related to cee, tempered with an intelligent tnd echariGgerton normaly translated ap "use your common sense.” he nersture would also lead one to conclude that good patrol supe ree aicarely feques adherence to the principles of organization and ‘Eat in using some tecaigues of supervision. “The description of patrol as the “backbone” Is fm stark contrast with he cuit sat of patrol within police department, In most depart te cece viewed as = function to be banded by reel, “aie SET ambiion or ability to advance and inlvidals who Dave Bee ised” back to pao from specialized wots, Patokmen eck t9 vee Pipe pel nit for what they pereeve ak greater prestige and financial reward. vevcompler cd of forces surrounds patrol. Patrol isa system within 1 ice feparement, Therefore bo inlvences and is inuened by a egunes and changes in other parts ofthe orpatation, Patrol is the are ra police organization, AS such it accounts for the bulk of ore rmensation’s contacts with the public. In that postions both ae ere directly influenced by is community. The commits inflenees en ie pote comes not oaly through political channels Bat inacr the publics choice or refusal to mobili pole Teoures ae ome. the law. Patrol also performs significant intake fonetions an enforaal josie, mental Health, and publie heath systems Here gain, i ‘Bependencies and conflicting. expectations tao police and ther systems with which they itertoce, These een is ad itracons whl rites! to an Understanding of pal, te generally ignore in most patrol tex “One has to apend lite time around a police agency wo become sware of te patter of contict and acommodaton between Farle, Set oft Paty minnratos, Mort pat texts asume a degree of control Wor eMisorauborinat.eatioshis that does not ext in realy. Sipeedaors may demand sit adherence on reporting and ther admini- Seesr etucedures, The geographically dspered nature of ptrl, how ae rete gid supervision of an office's most critical work, the te as Merton, Unimately, the performance of the supervisors itt seston heavy dependent upon the cooperation and support of Pechoordnate, Supervision is tetefore, healy dependent spon the ”Sophisticated use of mutual inter-personal influence, Overy rigid effort to" conrol may be met with covert sabotage of the supervisors’ work, Thoveased pressures fem administration to achieve administratively defined {goals may lead to aesommodations wth subordinates wich while appearing fo concur with administrative dicts, actully msy oppose thoe ends, ‘The following selections explore several dimensions of the rationsip between pateolmen and the patrol force, the commonity, the eimina juss sytem, and the police orpniation Albert Ress in “Ping Everyday Life” explores the mobilization of police resources and the sigfcantditcrstion execed bythe public in the enforcement cf tava. Ret questions the efficacy of an aggressive policing postre, His questions ander the research deserted fa the Prosetive-Resstive Patol Deployment Experiment presented in Chapter LV. His observations challenge crucial assumptions upon which present patrol systems are based Using observations of patrol activites, Jeste Robin, a pssst, con- sides the effects of personal idly resolution confits and the presen ato sytem on the sosislaation of the reer oie, Rubin's analysis ots inberet conflicts inthe pal system tat diminish the common Service rieatton ofthe enieant lice. In adion to considering cot fits with the organization andthe community, Rua hypotisiaes about the elects of boredom, subjet generally ignored in other discussions of patrol. It sa factor, he sugges, that may contribute 1o the develop ‘ment of negative stitudes by the flier toward the community. One ‘igh also conser whether or no! sanifeat levels of wnetrastred tie Teguced by "being nesiabe” on patol may, in log run, have destruc tie effets on the ably of peolmen to later assume stuctured admin- intrative die, Ta bis summary remarks to Verner of Police Bohovior, James Q. ‘ison comments on the police “caf” and is relatloship ta the organ tation andthe communi). He questions suggestions to "burencratize” or “professonallze” the poics, ‘The former, he belicrs, will be strongly ressed and the later lrgey gnored. Reviewing the nature of confit inthe urban community, Wilson presents views on the feaiiity of atin Iain detailed sdministntive guidelines to govern the excite of dsretion that diferfeom those presented eaclar by Coldstcin. Wilson urges that Aepartments reorganize their preseat structures to faite more elective ecsion-making by patvolnen and that they establish reward systems consistent with the order mintenance work of the pie Throughout his eiscourse, Wilson malasis that i ie uments to expect the police sve. Bven with giant change, te reader Soden oo muta cen he won maa bent ice ape. proens wil conve bec Sra tne sit manaanet ncn of a= Eling he ntp betel oe and dis we gens tha i qosrlitary ste of the poe Foon Bie miele to fons to voy methods fr the oles say be commerce Oy paucimes ia eine coutel sd pac esping seis, to sinifcanly prevent eiPolicing Everyday Life by Albert Rats ‘Local police forces in Ameren ave a broad legal mandate to enfree the eriminal hw and preserve pulle peace. Implicit in tls mandate is tn obligation to police everyday fe—matcrs that arisen the dally ves hd actives of eizensmithin' community. However, the duties ofthe plist involve far more than mates of everyday life. For example, the oie operate st a paramilitary organization in cootoling behavior in Sais dorders, Mny volatons of the commonweal transcend. loc] nd ate jurisdictions such a8 espionage, countefeling or iegal etry int the country, and are not police matters in everyday life. Th America there violations ‘are commonly delegated to specialized lnw-nforcement genie at the federal Ive Many citizens consider the fanetion of the police in everday ie to exon beyond thei law-enforcement and peacekeeping roles. The lower tess In paral, eal pn the police to perform a variety of services. ‘They depend upon police tatance in tines of woubl, crises, and inde- Cision To whom does one tor when a family member is mising?: Who newers the questions of angers, lizens, or businessmen in need of Information? "Who responds to ecient and emergencies? Often the folee, Such toles of asrtance ae a mach a police function as ate fercve role of authori. Service inextricably bound up with publ Stier and Taw enforcement, The poi n ft, recive moe cals eqpest= ftp assistance in moneriminal mates o reporting a exit that has already (ceed than alls reqting immediate intervention to save vitins eines, ‘Citizens usualy bring matters to pie ateation by telephoning, sinsl- ing a scout car or ofcer on fot, or appearing in person at a police ln. The police deparment deals with such requests as a reacve “rvonston. The departnent may respond t telephone reports by radio ‘Unpuch of offices. However, most other moblizations of the police Rented fo let Re The Pl nd the Pac (971, 2p 120, pe ee A ale BS Cc ob Makby elzens, when not lmored, quite fae-otace encounters with zens ‘The police ako ssquite information by itervening in the Lies of citinns on thir own initve. Tn this capacity, they seve a8 a prosctive ‘rzunizatin, pursuing matters through investigative activites, preventive pall, and tect intervention in the lives of eiens (including the tech igues of eopping, risking, searching, and questioning). Excluding Inotor vice moltions, proactive policing generally brings a substantially [lle proportion of inegen to pois attention than does citizen noblizaton. ‘Whether or not the polis ae matilzd by citzens has enormous con sequences forthe legiimacy of pole intervention. Citizens mobilize the police for what they sega as erses or important matters. What the Eien generally rearde a8 exls & aecesaiy routine to the police; ft becomes part of tie rerulor work and follows routines. Likewise, police intervention in the lives of cigens by such means as detaining tins for questions —reprded by police as routine preventive or investi= five work necetary to thet role oe agents of cine coatrol_ae een fegarded by cizens as harssment,iningement upon individual righ, for ontutboried intervention. Citizens and poice act within the Inw-enforcement system in a varity cof roles A comideration of thee roles and thei effet on laweenforc: ment organization sheds some light onthe policing ef everyday Me CCizens may be found as adversaries of one another when som, the victims oe complainants, charge others with vations and all the police. ‘Or eizens may cal the police when they Beeve n ere has octurel, though a violator Is as known. Tn these situations the chien be gen traly seen by the police. inthe col of complainant, suspect or offender, However etn may aio ft fll ther civie duty t call the police bout ceiminal matters, In theses, tans may be reared as enforcers fF aonenfores of the law and te moral order ‘They may aso behave 2 informants, providing well ifermatin tothe police, or ss adversaris, ‘aking complaints about police ‘Thus, the relationships butwsen citizens and the police are complex ‘Gizens who find themecves im antagonistic relationships wih eachother, tmay or may not eal the police. ‘They may have an antagonistic relation Ship with the police, Or, their relationships with one another and with the police ean be ones where they motel sstaia the Taw and support fone another, A ci society depends upon the Inte. ‘The nature of plicesizen relations in everyday hie has certain impli ‘Policing Everyday Life ‘ations for a civil society. The obligations involved in the policing of fveryday le are so numerous and varied precisely because the police tne lags an organization reacting to the demands of citizens. As svc, thizen can exerelse considerable contol ote Iw enforcement by diere- onary decisions a8 aonenforcers ofthe la. Discretionary Decsons of Ctzens to Mobile the Police ‘White zen reports control the input of ele information into pie kpurtments often ellene choose not to reprt even thei own vctin= inion tothe police, Of couse, ciize’s dein is sometimes influenced ty hs sats as victim a well a6 Voltor (2s in consensual crimes), Neverthe, ie curioas that even in any of che most serious sta tons, the vit fifo mobilize the pot. “There have been studies of the falure of citizens to report crimes to the polis in an attempt 10 understand the patterns of crime in society foul to ases the validy and rebabiity of plie statistics. These unre forled cates are commonly regarded as the “dark figure of crimes” [Recent studies show that mac evime in the United States goes unreported fo the police. The Natonal Opinion Reseach Center sample survey ‘of United States Bowseholds showed that, in 1965, more than half of all, Chines and 38 percent of al UCRIadex crimes against residents went, orcponed to the. polic, ‘Sample surveys Ja igh-erimevate teas of Bonen, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. genealy indicated even higher fates of undereporing of msjor crimes. For the eight higherimerate presincts lo thse ees combine, the survey estimates for Index offenses Ss fou times that ofthe rte known tothe palise* Other evidence trom Siies of the vakty and rely of surveys in estimating unreported ‘Sime indicates that these estimates ae conservative Much crime in American society is commited aginst business and other ortatantions, Embezlement, fraud, and forpery are the most fommon crimes commited against em, but the more stios crimes tvobbery, burglary, and larceny are ako often directed apnast them. Dice lee serious crimes tat fequenly occur within or against these faces incde vandelim, drunkenness, dserderiy conduct, and assault. fn these mes agamat businesees and other organizations, the owner, anager or tome employee of the establishment is wstaly te complainant (Our surveys forthe National ime Commision and the Small Bus- Alig D. Bicman, “Savers of Fopuion Sample for Bainaing Cine tne The Ann of te dnote Aes of Poll ad Sol Sans 374 (Seen 1565971638ness Administration on cimes aguas businesses and otber organizations Indicate tht many crimes aginst extablshment also go unreported. This ie particulary trie for shopitng fens, employee thet and pasing ‘bad checks. Often, even butlary goes unreported? "rhete facts moce than suggest thit offical police statistics on crime ray not be tue indicators of rime rates. They tel us tat the many ictmized itizens who—eitber as. private pessoas or as members of ‘orgaizaione fil to exerise thie evi responsiiity 10 report cezes to the police, realy lit the power ofthe pale in everyday lie. The desire to understand wy eitzens do aot exeese their power to mobilize the police leads us to inquire ito the conditions ender which they do and Go not cll the pote 'A majo factor in the floret report rimes agaiast property is property insurance. When a person isnot insured against losses, or hit Tower are not covered 8) pole (often the case forthe poor, he fis to report becaute he ses no personal fain in doing so, Een with lasr ance coverage, man businesses, and some citizens, fall to report because they fer thet policy may be canes or not renewed, or there willbe ‘fate rate Increase. These are the reasons mst ofen given By business ten who have aleady made chins or who operate busineses ia Bh- rimeate steas* Conversely, insurance covetage alo operates as an Incentive for eizene to make inputs into the law-enforcement sjtem, finee some people assume that 19 collet on thir insurance they must feport let tthe polls, ARhowph data are Icking, there is reason to believe that some of the inereate in eres known to the police may be a simple consequence ofthe advent ofthe Homeowners Plicy, which extends isurance coverage for many cies that formerly went unteperted, "These data on insurance coverage stonely suggest that one's civic ilgtion to: mobilize the police aasiat ormes of property i ften fubverted by questions of person gain. The importance of personal gin fe 8 fecor in mobzing victims to report crimes was ident inthe ‘Washingt, B,C study of vitinzation by crime The ratio was Tin 3 for citizens who std they id not reported a erime against them of theie puoperty because they fk nothing could be done about it by the TS Aker J. Rein Jy "Mamas of he Nan aod Ameute of Ci” fe ‘ean Conon oo Low Econ nd he Mme of nce, Sd (Cle wel em Boorse Mar evap dou Pa Suey ln 0 Gatien BE GRO, 19), Rea “agpentr Rl Sure Scone snot Sal Buses Rp of te Saal Bats Adeinoon US Sow Boctmar 9114, i Cong ot ns Ap 3 168 Baaun ie Gone abewe Sel Bea rr 13. Pating Breeyy Life polis, and they therefore stod to gun noting + Cleary vide ia many Feplies was the assumption tha rst eines remain unsolved by the pole. Another major cause of flue 0 report cvimes is negative atitude toward the police. Citzens may fear or dislike the plies the) may fave litle confidence in thee ability to handle criminal mites or in thee willingness to regard citizen complains as legitimate. OF thse who fal to repor eines against them, only a tlavely small proportion (3 percent) in the Washington stady, failed 19 do so because af lear of FRprial, Another small proportion, including busnesmen, ci not report crimes to the police because they were waving to get involved in te frimiaal justice system, which they perceived as being time-consuming tnd offering no personal sin, “There are then signifeantfector influencing iient fire to fli thei hie obligation to participate in the law-enforcement system. Hos- "vr, primary insttional and organizational elatioship within America hip to explain this behavior Those relationships are bused on con- ception of personal gain, generally monetary gui or the avoiance of lets in te and effort. The effort isnot wort the eos. The institution fof insurance Tooms large in these relationships, since it promises pr Sonal ain ‘Thos, when ciizens call tbe polis, they often ate seeking persoal fin, The pole are expected 10 proiet them, to resolve conics in {hei interest, of to fender asstance with a problem. Only a minority of falls request police estance fr others o report eximes where the alles flo not personally regard themsclhcs st victimized, Given the absence ‘ofa sont of cnc esponsibility to mobilize the police, andthe eseatilly Teactve character of much poling of everday Ie, the czenry bas fnormous power fo subver the stem by is decisions to call the pole of nt Parentbetially, it shouldbe emphasized that cizens possess the capacity to subvert the sytem of criminal janice in yet oer ways. Mach depends thon their willingness t0 cooperate with the police and other agent of ‘minal justice. How real that subversive capaciy is forthe sstem of ‘rina jstoe can be sen in our recent studies of the charting proces From the stndpoia of the public proseeator, the decson to make Charges “EAD. Bian, Rips on Plt Sid nth Dis of Clan Vihar tn ditid tee! ta ulti rents Cassone te tnoranea sod he Adie af Je Fall Save 1 Wang, BC Weero. ten pp 354depends primarily oo the nature of evidence, Given the fact that evidence, ‘more often than not, is verbal testimony of what ocurred in social situs: tion, the ole ofthe witness i central to the charging proses, When the poze serve as the principal witnesses forthe se, the subversive capac les with them.” But with reactive poling, arrest & often by ‘wtran, and the bordsa of testimony ress withthe citizens. Henve, the prsecuio’s decision to pres charts ercily depende on producing a able witness, one who will tes forthe presteition and stand up under ‘This leads us to ou fst major coaclsion: Citizens exercise coasier- able contol over the policing of everyday Ife through tet discretionary ecsions to cll or not to all the police, ‘That eich dacstion fe also A sake in the potcing of coectie dnorders is clear trom the exercbe of discretionary” authority by prevntday college aminsrator about Whether or not 1 call the ple for campas ditrbances. At sue the question of when is one obligated to call the police, and what are the consequences of etzen diction for moral order Citizen Mobilization of the Police Because the ptol divion of any police department is organized to react to ction rquests, it must deal with numerous matters eens define a police matters. Differences in cizens and police defnions of these mater, and expectations concerning enforcement behavior, often ive tse to confit. Citizens tequenty request pace intervention in mates ‘which they consider to be of « criminal nate, iter because. they Detecive thumselves as vtims or they regard the moral order as breached ‘The police, however, may define thee same matters as noneinina, Even when sitzes eequestasitance both they and the police regard ws serves (ooneriminal maters), there may be disagreement as to what f actually the duty of the police, Police reged sas their day to find criminals and prevent or solve cvimes. The public conden it the duty of the police to respond 10s cals and eres: ‘The police should render ast. nce when elizens request Jest how numerous are the soncriminsl matters for which citizens ‘mobilize the police canbe seen by examining their calls for police asst nce. Table 2.1 describes the 6172 cll recived one day i Api 1966 St the Cental Communications Ceter of the Chicago Plise Department CCompluints about what ciens zegard ae eimiaal matters make up $8 preent ofall calls to the police. ‘The peace-keeping role of the police {at stake in a substantial proportion of these eal, since 26 pero! of calls report disputes or breaches of the peace, where poise soe expected * Poting Berry Ute Tee 21 ricenage Disibtion of » Day's Telephone Communications tothe rst spe'Paice Deprct,Api 21, 1966 (a= 6172) Taper of communication Percentane of ened byes) comonaniions| Request om eriminl mates Dispute or breach of peace * ‘eme seat property s ‘Ottense aginst persons ‘ ‘to lation 3 ‘Semicon pesca 3 one 2 ‘subtotal equ for etisance: “nication Pesonal oily Media {raf acident or baad Suto Complain aout police sere: ‘Stow pote sevice Uatatacery police procedure suber {Give police tnfrmation ising perm (Other poi mates Subtotal Teal ee Soucy: Tope eA 2,196 mil se Cs Fees Drown, Ont eit FOsitE we ee le tite antes ‘ements ira telpone en) weTart Tn Pon Pato to estore order, Among dispute, complaints about jaenites fighting or dstarbing the peace account for $ in 10 calls, disorderly bekuvior ia ble places 2 in 10, and domestic maters 1 in 10, Reports of offenses aganst property arcounted for 16 percent of ll cally and’ olenses aginst persons, 6 percent. Police regard most of these cates ivoltng eiminal mater. The remainder of complaints ‘oosered criminal mater inches complsints about auto Vilaons (S pereent) and reports of suspicious persons (3 percent), with & sealers gl compli aoa ex gosesin of gos weapons and oer ‘ottions of criminal statues. Cisse sequested sistance op nonscninal matters in 34 peecent oftheir ealy to the police. Their largest demand was fr information. Eleven percent of al cll requested information about asia petsons, the Tow court procedures or appearances, pesonal of pub matters fof importance tothe caer, a6 for instance, where to get an automobile lnspeted. Requests for assistance om personal, family, of community probleme accounted for 9 percent of all cal These eal cluded Fequess for asistane in finding ising persons, bop with animal, and fequests to climinate poble havands, Medial astance to The sick, injced or dend accounted for § perceeat of al als Reports of ttle hazirds and accident, which were dicted to the walle or accident investigation division veto the Deparment of Stets and Pubic Works, ccounted for all other demands for assistance and constituted 6 percent all al Five percett ofall cizen cals of infomation tothe ple vie evry Sof toes al rms ea Et revo epred ty te cles (ether inematon oo 4 ing Peo o¢# cia apt i adr props cf omy 8s Eicmason soo srl pvt ster cen taupe polce sou inves sch ieorofcater"Theeae atr Shee the publican csc the ples to bt on thom inte, {nflowing« prowsive poking pales Citizen Preferences and Police Ditretion Otten, what czens regard as criminal mates are processed by the police as noneriminl matiers ‘The discrepancy between citzen mobil ton requests on criminal matters and their dapostion by the patrol Avision can be estimated by compuriag the April 21 cen requests for assitunce in Tuble 21 with th report of incidents handled by the patrol ” ollag Brerpay Tite Avision in Chicago during the 28-day reporting period in April 1966 io ‘Tone 2.2, Citzens defined 58 percent of ll thei complaint as criminal Thaters, ‘The police deperiment dapatched a patrol ear in response © ‘Guat all of theve requests, accounting for 84 percent ofall dispatches ‘ine gato. Yet, during the April reporting period the patrol division ‘iets proceed only 17 percent ofall dispatches as eriminal incidents Crimes against persons such as rape, assault, and robbery made op ‘nly peatnt ofl incidents habled by pavol aktboogh they comprised Creede ofall eizen calle and 9 percent of all dispatches. Burglary Sol'tett made up only 9 perent of all incidents handed by patrol, But thoy represented 16 percent ofall ella and 23 percent ofall patches, {AU Sale crimes tted$ percent of Sncidents banded by parol, yet ‘yates up to 10 perce of al eas and 18 percent ofall ispatees, ‘More than & of every 10 incidents handled by police patrol were reputed by police a aoncrimieal mates. ‘The police usualy weated Topute and sturtonces as noncriniaal matters wile cizens wsally midered them evil matters, 1 is intresting to note that disturbances or disputes were present in bout equal proportion in ctr requests and police classification, repre ‘Rating tapetely 26 percent of al als and 25 percent of all incidents ern) represemed 38 percent of ll dspatches. Assuming these statis 1 epeenetative of police dispatches, there is an almost 2 in $ chance that alice officer wil have to restore otder when they are cispatched edale complaints trom silzens Since only 6 percent of all dit’ ‘Ge in Table 22 led to sre police intervention depends primarily upon {er ways of eolvng confles,Ahough the police ue physi restraint ee Seating with some disturbances (ote than in sustaining an arrest, vet olution must rely primaniy on verbal intervention. Verbal fRementioninclades ofcourse, thea 10 use the coerive authority of rece "Our potce cbyervation stds in high-rime-ate areas showed {hat in Fondling disputes, the plie tended fo rely on negotiated sete- Then abd “cooling out” the paricipanis rather than using coercive suthorty? “Among nonerainl inedents, emergencies occasioned by trafic sec. deme and ak and injured cals made up 13 pereeat ofall inedeas jn ‘Tab 22, upoo which police ated, and 14 percent of al citizen calls for wa) Bk nd Aer, Ro Je, “Poe of eho a Cine ST cnt Bales wt te Adina Fan ete ge aw fone io Nay aroplten dre Belk HR, See aay’ DCs USGEO, 867). aPoting verry Te pomamog Ce 28 ee en ee for te ml 96 use ot se a Sst ue te wo @ or ft 6 #0 ee wo & no we o6 Ss wor wD oo eto 8 5 oom He ote om on roo ot oo om ree i te mo 99) 90 a ” oo eS i é & or ta me i eb 6 om sot i ope foe p61“ wey oF 1¢ wary oansndog se ete ‘ues joie 2 10H SUSU Ag SY poe SUSU 3} SENNA HENNA re aLservice in Table 2.1 although they constituted 20 percent of all dispatches. ‘Reports of suspicious persons and stuaons compased only 3 percent ofall incidents and of allel, For the Chicago police, 41 percent ofall cals were categories as miscellaneous incidents, rquiing only bref report. These inlude lvl and private mates which lead to dsputs such as those between Tnndlords and tenants or eaters and businesmen, requests to loste mising persons, and many miner violations such as motor vehicle stand- lag viotsuons, juveniles playing ballin the stet, and sleeping dunks Less than percent of thc mipeelaneous incidents led to police ciation ‘rarer Moe ofthese were simple citations ‘The large proportion of nonsriminal maces, and particularly, mates ‘which ctsen comnidered of criminal nature while the police dd ot, Sugeest the police exercise enormous discretion in handing citzen calls, Ic alu see the question of whsther the police are arbitrary in Ibelne thas matters, thereby subverting the gous of eitzns ia mebiiing the pulls Whle there ie och evidence thatthe police do exereieecrtion, Fis fa eo elear whether tele processing an labsing of these mater is arbitrary and conralled solely by them, sace there ae several easons Why so many citizen cll To the poe end up as other than ermal mates. ‘To begin with saany ckizens have ony » vague understanding of the idlorence beoween cil, private, and ceiminal matters. They fal 10 ‘omprchend te legal grounds for police intervention in the aflals of lizeas. Much of their ignorance stems from the belief that they are ‘orally sights therefore, the lw i on their side and the poice should fide with them es complainants, dsciplning any erant pars, Whea 2 cites, for instance, gets into an argument with Tandloed over the payment of rent and the police are called, oth the tenant and the lane lord may sew the acon of the other 46 crimigal; each may demand the police ake action against the other. A complainant may fail 10 understand or believe police when he is told the dispute i a cv mater, ‘rive legal counsel saved, fea mite forthe el courte to resolve, fra poraly private matter. Further confusion results when people ae {rear tat te police intervene i some lndwd-enant matters a8 Ia he {retion of renters. How can mot eitzens know when an offer i ctng ‘on court orders or on his own, and in the later case, whether or ot ‘be has the authority todo so? Many incidents ctvens regid ap criminal mast, by lw, be handled there, siace they do fall tothe categry of el or private mates, ‘The polite supericlly may appear 10 exercise discretion in ei Poting Bveryy Lite private mater, which cans and poze actualy ave very tle com oe the pace can Go ite more fr cars who cll abot {fe ars ho nar the eet) muy £0 or wits forma SSE. The atere of poe (o ean tei lack of ter {ison my ony one and fstate cen fre. Tr wold te oe mane tat he ple Ane may mae sinay by Sanorng tem of arbating io opts and disarans Fae eres area tempor. Ths for of deren fen sees amen for eiuesto ener thse maters ito the te ‘Pawar bing then to oer apne to ane pete Sinan, cagot be aszumed tat cinns are without cont ia wn en The egal stem defines mates a, cil or pete en elias, teh mtg coy Ta seeming greater conta ae ae Toned of the vase” pore these mas in the Se smite tien empowered fo pune oF defends as Gurdon, however, thik “aN B ubveed byte or ee ah efecivey preldcs many cams fom pia ton, Re can depends upon cr aby to range and ford es Soha tree “anotir ramon police rece #0 may cls of nonrinins! sre 1p QUE pts ha pte sein sve not edly aces ro ens, ee Tar hae tack norton to know where, det see cat priclry when he problem fegures arent “nw carr ber te polos sy peel Beate the poe ae eae ea he izes yee a al te, and ober appropat ae ree puice ono th sonctininal maters develop ot ee ions maces ning rely ey fr ens cba beonarn with demands for sete nua, oeed ret om sh ct atthe pole have come toms Hae sme dels or serie toni mae singe to cre an emerges. Tnderdy hy fen ae eget Taae demanih ate tune when the no sve my cox the request fo ober serce age aan Department poly to depth te pote in respons tal eer nko icene ctzn Somand fo" other kinds of sree GRR ternal preston for mesing the ineressed demand, ovr Atha Apood iain of Dow rp cretion) can develop set rahe, ye eperiteof he Devo Pole Depatnent some i showman serie forthe poor mas inadeuate i Dt REE AMponnbliy for mesing ts demand for emeraecyservice was sited tothe poi department which brovght station wagoos for beat cars, equipping them for emersency tansporltion to. medial Service. Within Tess than two year, the persttage of "sick funy™—as they came to be known-—cose (rom about # percent to 17 percent of all police dispatches. Demand soon outrn sippy. Many lacon determined {his large demand for service. What cits and police regarded. at ‘emerpeny situations soon expanded to cover transportation of the poor to a medical setting for any hind of teaiment, This cimnated” the Aependence of the poor and the aged on publle transportation oF tens to take them to medial centers in favor of faster, move tellble form of transportation by the police. ‘A third reason why many incdeats originally regarded a erimiaat by ‘itzens are tated as noneriminal or prtate matters by the police is thatthe elizen, not the policeman. contol ow the ineene wl be abel “Thi fect is easily orgoten by those labeling theorists, who grant enormous dicrtiomry power to the police to clay mates Stizens bring to thet attention. The leal doctrine of probable case ‘he police shall make an are ony when they have seasons grounds to believe that a rine has been commited—makes the police very dependent upon the ciizen in making an ares ten, the only grounds for concluding cme his been commited it ‘oral testimony. Mach ofthe time, only cizens possess that information, singe the crime was commited before the plice wived. Hea, forthe police to mk an arre:t or regard am event as criminal mater, efeah "must agree to cooperate in swearing compli. Moreovet, many Sater that could be vested as crimes against persons occur simone persons Known to one another. 1960 FBI survey in cites with over 25000 Inbitant disclosed that in 22 percent ofall sparavated eau caer reported by the police, the assailant were members of the sume fay and In 3 percent they were neiehbors or aesaitances® Sila evidence is avaiabe for rapes” Just how important elizen discretion cam be in such mates s shown when we examine the clesance rates for Todex srimes. Aa offense may be cleared by an arrest ot by exception Cleat ‘nce by exception usually means tht the police have ented the offender, bu elements beyond the conel ofthe police, sucha he it's job US Dist el Ju FL, Unlrm Cine Repo fy te Ute Sue, 1980 (abingon b, €: Washo, hay 20 Tei ee TiS Rete the Print Commi ow Cite iri of Clea (ubingent 8 Echo, 86-798 a Manche Pre Re Rape (HD, din, Unter ol nanan 96. Be « Poting Berry Tito ci, pede a9 as Cleanse, by eset ts SME Ei ne bore serge Ccagy for ely mo mar Te oer rape adage atm pty resting ha a sent of all aggravated assaults were cleared by arrest, rae Pee ch ty ecenton, adage unwillingness of zat Fea as omy for sch arse. THs be only mae Tex te mame aPempere denreae by cxeplon ceeds that of earnce ares. Frege, refusal to prosec sete tees seins aginst pens o property wi te Ee th compan, he poe Meron ae 1 oe Fe Te, Mame hi nl pee the sal te ffl, te te uamncis” Sld te pace wont make aa aed sey ue Nonte Dagrtins ebay 90 Mach 2, 166 "Number of Percentage of iow fener fens inv te Few” Cleredt Charedt Not ime foreleg Aen Ct OS led Foatindee se Type of conplan om a as. BoiS oh “4 1 5 a 2 32 o Ho ae bog isc nog Beer on Loe ‘ae rt pee soEo¢ pia ‘Ching Pie Depa, Feb Aah 2. 1956 Seen ee eee ne US, Depron af aie, FB, Uniform Ge eri tae i Seo’ sero, Fee, 8. ee ee rn by ae cube ey have Hested eh fender, ar uit ce i ed suai tno cy” (Unform Crime Ree 1 Bias sae dimen bern oe cml a vy rvense oe Stlender, uch as the vicia’s refusal sn i el ee ee rel Sp oe td i tabs Bo "po 9, Bio "(Umer Or ”witnesses and complioans “cop out” because of thet investments in these small systems. wife, for example, assumes the risky in becoming 4 complainant aguns her husband, that if arrest and ncaseraton follow, he wil be lst a5 a breadwinner. The willngnese totes oF shear & warrant depends, therelore, upon the cost of jeopardies, personal Felaions. The arsval of the polce often serves to tatsorm an alversary Feltonship among cizeas to one of accamiolation. Indeed, at tines the probiem for the poke i to avid Becoming an adverecy in such uations Setlmentfecomes more an fare of shal the ndverate ca gree upon and what complainants wont, than of what thy police can ‘do. When faced with the responsibility to. purses mates st eimina, itis frequently the etizen, not the policeman, who "cope out” Some criminal mates, particularly those aking between bosnesmien and cikizens or employes and employees ae resolved nonetiminl mates, because the complainants have investinate in such matters other than in seing that jasc is done. ‘The businessmen, for example, are willing 19 accept, indeot offen want, nothing more than festlation of thei financial Toss. Just How substan unofficial handing of ete for businessmen can be seen fFom the rests of study fr the Smal Business Adminstration on crimes agaist all United Sates businesses When businessmen, who were victins of shoplifing, were atked "Ifthe police or proseeutcr recommends i, mould you press charges aginst a Person caught shoplting in your place of basines™” exactly 20 percent ‘hid they probably would ot Sine evidence exists for employee thet fand customer faud, asin the passing of bad checks. The tain reason businessmen fal to press lus chaess for these Woatons i that business Interests depend primarily on financial thr than moral tai. Resthuton of the loss is more profitable an protcuton, Morevsr ty monetary less most be balanced against the cor insured in prosecuting, ned time spent presing charges and in court. Otlen the compinante cal late thatthe dolar less fom crime is ot worth the cot of dang fast, pacticulny i the fos small ‘The amount ciizens can control the outsame of transaction, which they have reported to the police, 2 apparent from ou ebservaionl lies of potce and eiizen encounters in high-rime-rate ares of thee ‘ites. Examining all such encounters where @ complainant indted a preference for police acton in the sition, Donald Black discovered TE EER Heron ey Res a rine Asia Sal Bs Pig Everday ie thatthe poe tended oat according ote preferences of comp {erp acon? Preferences fr anol anding of fly cr mi ean wes expres a aout 14 poet of al counts. The pole Por tic en afi repr ina sng stance were the complainant Serena prerence of otc hang ot lly misdemeanor ‘When he complainant expened a pcference for olla sco by te Jobs often waded to Tolow tht ptereace. The condions most webserver comple, with = complainant petra. for ‘tical sevon occured when a felony wan charged andthe sspest wat Singer tthe vin, 91 pacet of thse cles felted in an of LeT Efoe The pole wee ln ily to adhere to compliant preter sees atic aston when the incest as 4 misdemeanor and the “Spee fami my mero ssh, TH nt Sicha sce he poles anette tat any of thse composts APOE Spseeus when mor! indignation pins An ial eine ce cat itty when an icemaker Bowen farily members cr core key when i ossrs Pewcen ends, neighbors, oF ‘Spulnaney smo ly hen ee among eae i oe Sn Coane pce copay for seton. Black to Raitt more dtr he compan the pole offer, te Sore ely he office war to comply wih is equs in handing the re fare neato that te eit of een and poe exec Ton sad behav controls pols Sexo Gtzen and Police Enforcement of Law “Te wy ta whch chess mobic the pole t> enforce the ew cps upon the oar enfecets of om. For cramp, 2 tien sem ae pote nthe rl sii evn or swt of sine renee He maya complin sur cnn epparonics and 2ERiat ite panting win be community. And tal, be may SRISST oun qui and quoi of tw enforcement He ay SESE comput and ifomsnt for the pce the msi of el ecied by the Chicago Pace Depart ne eer he etn oa member ef Ms hosel eed SORSCE’ gprs a thd ot the en the cen who called BS wes no vin the cme Cis may pei them- SSE line en he pole pace bch evn they st mt 5 Fos Dia J. Bak, Taig acuerdo seg eed Une of Nasi, 1580, 7. BEDE 8. tsp. 19898Tssues Tn Plice Patrol personally vistmized. Our staies of police contacts with resents 0 Tigherimerate areas, who called the police te reper some incident it their neigbochond, showed 56 pescent saw themselves as victims, evee ‘though, im more than Alf thee situation, they were no day and personally vetimized, Rather, they reported disturbances in the neigh orhood that were annoying sd Wherefore, a some way was ducted guint them, "The extent to which citizens do ot feel obligated to report when they ‘observe another person victimized by a erime i indicative ofthe degree fof anomie in an area. Unfrtately, we lick information on the oppor tunes iizens Rave Jn thee dally lives to observe crimes being com milled sgunst others, and Their dscreuon to repre them to he pollce ‘wea they do. Tt alo cannot be asceriined when eins know that Criminal operations, sich a6 organizod crime, exist. Thus, tis difficult to catnate whether clizen more olen complain tothe police st itis fof erime or in quai:poie roles, ax enforcer ofthe law. We do Know ‘hat almoat 1 in every 10 eesiiens of high-rime-ate areas reported talling the poe to report a rime he observed being commited, oF some minor violation ofthe municipal code, or a disturbance in the neighbor- hood. Moceover, when all cals fom people in these neighbechoods are onsidered, more than 4 in 10 concerned mater where the cient were not dicty involved as vite At lest, in these cases, cleat fre filing & civic obligation fo help oters and eall the police. Citizen compaits about the quality of police serviee may account for significant input into a polce depatmest. Surpesingly, 3 percent of Ail April 21 ells tothe Chicago Police in Table 21 registered comple hoot police servic, a mater we shal torn to late, ‘There is some difculy distinguishing the ciizen sole a iafermant ftom that of complainant. Of all cen calls 19 the Chiesgo Police in ‘Table 21,4 percent give the peice information about ime stations of opportunites, ‘The fequency of soch calls by cizens—es ANY at 250 ina single day in Chicago's undoubiely 2 fonction of department polly. ‘The Chieago police encourage citaens to be “tipsters” Ciiens therefore call and vite to the police deparimest about mates they ‘consider criminal” Although some cess may Sent) themselves fa such ‘communiations to the department, many choos to remain enenymous. Superintendent 0. W. Wilon of the Chicago Police Department per mitted me to examin tele anonymous complainant fe for the est three $ieday reporting periods of 1964, Titi the only retord of infermation fn anoaymous tips and complaints to the police of which Tam aware sing Bvorydny A ‘ere were only 106 writen Gps compred ith an ete 7,000 iMeplone pe drag te sae Ped rom apoyo eters to Supe Accoring to xe ips cio! ous et tbe 2a), mmprang tat almost 3 of ery sae ner ty etry asst wih rain cine: ook ‘abe 24 percentage Diaitin of Citi's Complain i 106 Atonymons “REE ise Spread of Poe othe Cleo Pose ‘Dare any To March 16 1964 eae Ct Type of coma E 2 sor ly 0 ior Viton of uae as ¢ reluny pete ges aed q Nicos aad dope ttc 3 Fedmensl bars or atv ToUEGE pel Tblnon, Chae Pe Den, 1964 eB, marcos and er dr making and gambling proton and Bi ‘ AEE een Wotns of goo avs esounted fr 18 prea Sr Gn mls wo minor the more feet complaint. Two Fe eRe Me ere aout pay tars ox omosnul acti. Mere 1 SUED [Pitan ote eit of pice compan aout bases 2S Uauen who sel gods and sve where oral males ae ort or te bo enon complsins about few cts 2 cen mach mor vutiony, no, for that ater, i 0) wees crime 7 ‘ont anonmens eter to theca weit by women. They em penny the ae fended. vite ce concerned mote, At a a gens tht thet eile te being vtmized by sy jee gang se being sold Tigoe when eras, ot af ay te mctca At ie, they compa aot bbs Sep hte yen pte Pon hk oem, ree he plc sem rom hel tes of wile or mothe, Tremere clone to them fo know they have complain’ an