CULTURE OF INDIA

Culture is derived from Latin term cult or cultus meaning cultivating or refining and worship. The term Sanskriti has been derived from the root Kri (to do . prakriti (basic matter or condition ! Kri" Sanskriti (refined matter or condition vikriti (modified# deca$ed matter or condition %hen prakriti is refined it becomes Sanskriti and when broken#damaged it becomes vikriti. CULTURE Culture is a wa$ of life. Culture ma$ be defined as the wa$ an individual and especiall$ a group live! think! feel and organi&e themselves! celebrate and share life. Culture thus refers to a human'made environment which includes all the material and non'material products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the ne(t. )n deeper sense it is culture that produces the kind of literature! music! dance! sculpture! architecture and various other art forms as well as the man$ organi&ations and structures that make the functioning of the societ$ smooth and well'ordered. Culture is the e(pression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking. *aterial (dress! food! and household goods Culture +on'*aterial. (ideas! ideals! thoughts and belief Self restraint in conduct! consideration for the feelings of others! for the rights of others! are the highest marks of culture.

CIVILIZATION Civili&ation means having better wa$s of living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. ,n the other hand culture refers to the inner being! a refinement of head and heart. ,ne who ma$ be poor and wearing cheap clothes ma$ be considered uncivili&ed! but still he or she ma$ be the most cultured person. ,ne possessing huge wealth ma$ be considered as civlili&ed but he ma$ not be cultured Civili&ation is advanced state of culture.

HERITAGE The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our cultural heritage. -umanit$ as a whole has inherited a culture which ma$ be called human heritage. . nation also inherits a culture which ma$ be termed as national cultural heritage. Culture is liable to change! but our heritage does not. .rchitectural creations! material artifacts! the intellectual achievements! philosoph$! pleasure of knowledge! scientific inventions and discoveries are parts of heritage. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE Culture is learned and a !uired" Culture is s#ared $% a &r'up '( pe'ple" Culture is u)ulative" Culture #an&es" Culture is d%na)i " Culture &ives us a ran&e '( per)issi$le $e#avi'ur patterns" Culture is diverse" Culture is ideati'nal"

I*+ORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HU*AN LIFE Culture is closel$ linked with life. )t is what makes us human. Culture is made up of traditions! beliefs! wa$ of life! from the most spiritual to the most material. -uman beings are creators of culture and! at the same time! culture is what makes us human. The three eternal and universal values of Truth! /eaut$ and 0oodness are closel$ linked with culture. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE 1ue to its adaptabilit$ and comprehensiveness! )ndian culture has survived through the ages. 2nit$ in diversit$ is one of the ma3or characteristics of )ndian culture which makes it uni4ue. . s$nthesis of various cultures came about through the ages to give shape to what is recognised as )ndian culture toda$.

Spiritualit$ and value based life st$le is the core of )ndian culture but it has a scientific temperament too.

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
INDUS VALLE, CIVILIZATION traced as far back as third millennium /C. on the banks of the river )ndus particularl$ at the bends that provided water! eas$ means of transportation of produce and other goods and also some protection b$ wa$ of natural barriers of the river . consisted of walled cities which provided securit$ to the people. rectangular grid pattern of la$out with roads that cut each other at right angles. used standardised burnt mud'bricks as building material. evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings! administrative or business centres! pillared halls and court$ards. no evidence of temples. granaries which were used to store grains which give an idea of an organised collection and distribution s$stem. 0reat /ath ' public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture. )t is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the construction. most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms. dominant citadal ' treated as evidence of some kind of political authorit$ ruling over the cities. evidence also of fortifications with gatewa$s enclosing the walled cities which shows that there ma$ have been a fear of being attacked. 1holavira ! 5angpur! 5o3di! Lothal ! Sarkotada ! Kuntasi! 6adri (0u3arat Kalibangan (5a3asthan ! /hagwanpura! /anawali (-ar$ana ! 1iamabad (*aharashtra ! .lamgirpur (2.6. ! and *auda (7ammu .
THE *AUR,AN +ERIOD

.shoka! first *aur$an to 8think in stone8. most of the shapes and decorative forms emplo$ed were indigenous in origin! some e(otic forms show the influence of 0reek! 6ersian and 9g$ptian cultures. beginning of the /uddhist School of architecture in )ndia. monolithic .shokan pillars are marvels of architecture and sculpture. These were loft$ free standing monolithic columns erected on sacred sites. ,riginall$ there were about thirt$ pillars but now onl$ ten are in e(istence!
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of which onl$ two with lion capitals stand in situ in good condition at Kolhua and Laur$a +andangarh respectivel$. Sarnath pillar ' finest pieces of sculpture of the .shokan period. Two .shokan edicts ' found at Laghman! near 7alalabad ( .fghanistan . most important ones are located at /harhut! /odhga$a! Sanchi! .mravati and +agar3unakonda. Chinese traveller :a'hien stated that 8.shokas palace was made b$ spirits8 and that its carvings are so elegantl$ e(ecuted 8which no human hands of this world could accomplish8. )ts e(istence was pointed out during the e(cavations at Kumrahar! near 6atna! where its ashes have been found preserved for several thousand $ears. *egasthenes! the 0reek ambassador of Selucas +ikator who visited the *aur$an court described Chandragupta *aur$as palace as an e(cellent architectural achievement.
THE STU+AS

SANCHI STU+AS; hemispherical in shape with a low base. s$mboli&ed the cosmic mountain. inscription b$ the ivor$ carvers of <idisha on the southern gatewa$ throws light on the transference of building material from perishable wood and ivor$ to the more durable stone. A*ARAVATI STU+A; built in =nd or >st centur$ /C was probabl$ like the one at Sanchi but in later centuries it was transformed from a -ina$ana shrine to a *aha$ana shrine. GANDHARA STU+A; further development of stupas at Sanchi and /harhut. the base! dome and the hemisphere dome are sculpted. stupas of +agar3unakonda in Krishna valle$ were ver$ large. *aha Chait$a of +agar3unakonda has a base in the form of Swastika! which is a sun s$mbol. THE SCHOOLS OF ART GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART -./ 01C1 TO .// A1D12; region e(tending from 6un3ab to the borders of .fghanistan was an important centre of *aha$ana /uddhism up to the ?th centur$ ..1. imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like 6ersian! 0reek! 5oman! Saka and Kushan. origin can be traced to the 0reek rulers of /actria and +orthwest )ndia.

during the reign of Kanishka that the art received great patronage. also known as the 0raeco' /uddhist School of .rt since 0reek techni4ues of .rt were applied to /uddhist sub3ects. most important contribution' evolution of beautiful images of the /uddha and /odhisattavas! which were e(ecuted in black stone and modelled on identical characters of 0raeco'5oman pantheon. @0andhara artist had the hand of a 0reek but the heart of an )ndian.8 most characteristic trait ' depiction of Lord /uddha in the standing or seated positions. seated /uddha is alwa$s shown cross'legged in the traditional )ndian wa$. t$pical feature ' rich carving! elaborate ornamentation and comple( s$mbolism. tallest rock'cut statue of Lord /uddha ' /ami$an (.fghanistan ' A'B centur$ .1.

*ATHURA SCHOOL OF ART- ./ 01C1 3 .// A1D12" at the hol$ cit$ of *athura between >'A ..1. established tradition of transforming /uddhist s$mbols into human form. /uddhas first image can be traced to Kanishkas reign (about CD ..1. . earliest sculptures of /uddha were made keeping the $aksha protot$pe in mind. strongl$ built ' right hand raised in protection and left hand on the waist. The figures do not have moustaches and beards as in the 0andhara .rt. seated figures are in the padmasana posture. not onl$ produced beautiful images of the /uddha but also of the 7ain Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the -indu pantheon. although of indigenous origin! but greatl$ influenced b$ the 0andhara School of .rt. 0uptas adopted! further improvised E perfected *athura School of .rt. observed at ' Sarnath! Sravasti and even as far as 5a3gir in /ihar.

A*RAVATI SCHOOL OF ART-4// 01C1 3 4// A1D12" on the banks of the Krishna 5iver in modern .ndhra 6radesh. largest /uddhist stupa of South )ndia. construction began in =FF /.C. and was completed in =FF ..1. stupendous stupa could not withstand the ravages of time its ruins are preserved in the London *useum.

TE*+LE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

NAGARA ST,LE3 NORTH INDIA +agara temples have two distinct features ;

)n plan! the temple is a s4uare with a number of graduated pro3ections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re'entrant angles on each side. )n elevation! a Sikhara! i.e.! tower graduall$ inclines inwards in a conve( curve. +RATHIHARAS3 U55AIN -6TH 3 7TH CENTURIES AD2

*ahakaleshwar temple! one of the >= 7$otirlingas of )ndia! Kal /hairava temple! finds a mention in the Skanda 6urana! and *angalnath temple! regarded as the birthplace of *ars! according to the *ats$a 6urana.

+ALAS3 0ENGAL AND 0IHAR -6t# 389TH CENTURIES AD2 flourished in /engal and /ihar under the 6ala and the Sena rulers. +alanda was its most active centre! whose influence was spread to +epal! *$anmar and even )ndonesia. CHANDELAS3 0UNDEL:HAND -8/TH 388TH CEN AD2

Kha3uraho 3ustl$ famous for their graceful contours anderotic sculptures. These == temples (out of the original D? are regarded as one of worldGs greatest artistic wonders. Kha3uraho Temples were built within a short period of hundred $ears from H?F'>F?F ..1. Kendri$a *ahadev temple is the largest and most beautiful of the Kha3uraho Temples. Shiva Temple at <isvanath and <ishnu Temple at Chaturbhun3 are other important temples at Kha3uraho.

DRAVIDIAN ST,LE 3 SOUTH INDIA 1ravidian st$le temples consist almost invariabl$ of the four following parts; The principal part! the temple itself! is called the <imana (or <imanam . )t is alwa$s s4uare in plan and surmounted b$ a p$ramidal roof of one or more stories" it contains the cell where the image of the god is placed. The porches or *andapas! which alwa$s cover and precede the door leading to the cell. 0ate'p$ramids or 0opurams! which are the principal features in the 4uadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
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6illared halls or ChaultrisIproperl$ Chawadis '' used for various purposes! and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.

VESARA ST,LE 3 DECCAN <esara is a combination of +.0.5. E 15.<)1).+ temple st$les -o$sala temples at /elur! -alebidu and Somnathpura are supreme e(amples of this st$le

CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA34ND Cen 0C 3;TH Cen AD1 A5ANTA CAVES -4nd Cen 0C t' ;t# Cen AD2

were first mentioned b$ Chinese pilgrim -uen Tsang ' visited )ndia between J=H ' JB? .1. discovered b$ the /ritish officers while hunting a tiger in >D>H .1. thirt$ cave temples at .3anta are set into the rock$ sides of a crescent shaped gorge in the )nh$adri hills of the Sah$adri ranges. ? caves are Chait$a'grihas! E rest are <iharas(monasteries caves depict a large number of incidents from the life of the /uddha (7ataka Tales .

ELLORA CAVES-.t# 389t# Cen AD2 representing A ma3or religion of india' -induism! /uddhism E 7ainism. Lies on ancient trade route' dakshinpatha. >= /uddhist caves(>'>= >C -indu Caves(>A'=H ? 7aina Caves(AF'AB /est e(ample of 5eligious -armon$

0HI*0ETA:A CAVES located in the 5aisen 1istrict '*adh$a discovered in >H?D b$ <.S. %akanker! is the biggest prehistoric art depositor$ in )ndia. .top the hill a large number of rock'shelters have been discovered! of which more than >AF contain paintings. 9(cavations revealed histor$ of continuous habitation from earl$ stone age (about >FFFF $ears to the end of stone age (c. >F!FFF to =!FFF $ears

ELE+HANTA CAVES Jth centur$ Shiva temple in the 9lephanta caves is one of the most e(4uisitel$ carved temples in )ndia. central attraction here is a twent$'foot high bust of the deit$ in three' headed form. The *aheshamurti is built deep into a recess and looms up from the darkness to fill the full height of the cave. image s$mboli&es the fierce! feminine and meditative aspects of the great ascetic and the three heads represent Lord Shiva as .ghori! .rdhanarishvara and *aha$ogi. .ghori is the aggressive form of Shiva where he is intent on destruction. .rdhanarishvara depicts Lord Shiva as half'man#half'woman signif$ing the essential unit$ of the se(es. *aha$ogi posture s$mbolises the meditative aspect of the 0od. ,ther sculptures in these caves depict ShivaGs cosmic dance of primordial creation and destruction and his marriage to 6arvati. *AHA:ALI CAVES rock'cut /uddhist caves situated in 2da$agiri hills! *umbai. e(cavated during =FF /C to JFF .1 and are now in ruins. comprise of B caves on the southeastern face and >? caves on the northwestern face. Cave H is the chief cave and is the oldest and consists of a stupa and figures of Lord /uddha. 5OGESH<AR AND :ANHERI CAVES second largest known cave after the Kailasa cave in 9llora houses a /rahmanical temple dating back to the Jth centur$ .1. 9(cavated between the >st and =nd centuries .1 Kanheri is a >FH'cave comple( located near /orivili +ational 6ark in /omba$. The Kanheri caves contain illustrations from -ina$ana and *aha$ana /uddhism and show carvings dating back to =FF /C. :ARLA AND 0HA5A CAVES .bout ?F'JF kms awa$ from 6une! these are rock'cut /uddhist caves dating back to the >st and =nd centuries /C. consist of several viharas and chait$as. RA5+UT ARCHITECTURE
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 5a3put palaces ' built as inner citadels surrounded b$ the cit$ and enclosed b$ a fortified wall as at Chittorgarh and 7aisalmer. Some forts! such as those at /haratpur and 1eeg! were protected b$ wide ditch filled with water surrounding the fort. *an *andir! the largest palace in 0walior! was built b$ 5a3a *an Singh Tomar (>BDJ'>?>J . *an *andir has two store$s above! and two below ground level overhanging a sandstone cliff. This gigantic cliff is punctuated b$ five massive round towers! crowned b$ domed cupolas and linked b$ delicatel$ carved parapets. palaces of 7aisalmer! /ikaner! 7odhpur! 2daipur and Kota represent the maturit$ of the 5a3put st$le. .ll of these palaces were built predominantl$ in the >C th and earl$ >Dth centuries. cit$ of /ikaner is encircled b$ ?.JA km long stone wall in rich pink sandstone. There are five gates and three sall$ ports. 7odhpur :ort dominates the cit$! which is surrounded b$ a huge wall with >F> bastions! nearl$ H.? km long. *eherangarh fort stands on a cliff with a sheer drop of over AJ metres. /uilt b$ 7ai Singh! 7aipur represents a fusion of 9astern and %estern ideas of town planning. The cit$ is enclosed b$ a wall and has bastions and towers at regular intervals. Cit$ 6alace is at the center of the walled cit$ and is a spectacular s$nthesis of 5a3put and *ughal architectural st$les. -awa *ahal! or 6alace of %inds! (>CHH has a five'store$ed s$mmetrical facade composed of H?A small casements in a huge curve each with a pro3ecting balcon$ and crowning arch. 7antar *antar! the largest of five observatories built b$ 7ai Singh )) in the earl$ >Dth centur$! others being 233ain! *athura! <aranasi E +ew 1elhi. 5AIN ARCHITECTURE The onl$ variation in these temples was in the form offre4uent chamukhs or four'faced temples. four Tirthankars are be placed back to back to face four cardinal points. 9ntr$ into this temple is also from four doors. Chamukh temple of .dinath (>J>D .1 is a characteristic e(ample of the four'door temple. most spectacular of all 7ain temples are found at 5anakpur and *ount .bu in 5a3asthan. 1eogarh (Lalitpur! 2.6. ! 9llora! /adami and .ihole also have some of the important specimens of 7ain .rt. THE INDO3ISLA*IC ARCHITECTURE
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 concept of arch or dome was not invented b$ the *uslims but was! in fact! borrowed and was further perfected b$ them from the architectural st$les of the post'5oman period. used e)entin& a&ent in the form of mortar for the first time. use of scientific principles helped not onl$ in obtaining greater stren&t# and sta$ilit% of the construction materials but also provided greater fle(ibilit$ to the architects and builders. )slamic elements of architecture had alread$ passed through different e(perimental phases in other countries like E&%pt= Iran and Ira! before these were introduced in )ndia. t$pical )'rtar3)as'nr% works formed of dressed st'nes1 *os4ues and Tombs ' religious architecture 6alaces and :orts ' secular )slamic architecture.

*OS>UES" basicall$ an open court$ard surrounded b$ a pillared verandah crowned off with a dome )i#ra$ indicates the direction of the 4ibla for pra$er. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the )i)$ar or pulpit from where the )mam presides over the proceedings. Large mos4ues where the faithful assemble for the :rida$ pra$ers are called the 7ama *as3ids.

DELHI ST,LE OF ARCHITECTURE The 1elhi or the )mperial St$le of )ndo')slamic architecture flourished between >>H>'>??C .1 and covered *uslim d$nasties vi&.! Slave -88783 847/2= :#il?i -847/3894/2= Tu&#la! -894/38@8@2= Sa%%id -8@8@38@@@2 and L'di -8@.838..A21 earliest construction work was began b$ Kutubuddin .ibak! who started erecting monumental buildings of stone on >ila Rai +it#'ra! the first of the seven historical cities of 1elhi associated with 6rithvira3 Chauhan. The Kutub *os4ue (>>H= .1 is one such building! whose arcaded aisles were composed of pillars carved in the -indu st$le. +amed as the Kuwwat'ul')slam *as3id! it is considered as the earliest mos4ue in )ndia. Kutub'ud'din .ibak also started the construction of Kutub *inar in >>H= (which was eventuall$ completed b$ )ltutmish in >=AF . The Kutub *inar! built to commemorate the entr$ of )slam! was essentiall$ a victor$ tower! decorated with several calligraphic inscriptions. .dhai'din'ka'7hopra= l' ated $e%'nd t#e A?)er darga in 5a3asthan. )t was constructed in >>?A .1 and converted into a mos4ue in >>HD .1.
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 .llauddin Khil3i established the second cit$ of 1elhi at Siri! built the .lai 1arwa&a near the Kutub *inar and dug a vast reservoir at -au& Khas around >A>>.1. 0hi$asuddin Tughla4 (>A=F'>A=? .1 built Tughla4abad! the third cit$ of 1elhi. Tomb of 0hi$asuddin Tughla4! built of red sandstone! is an irregular pentagon in its e(terior plan and its design is of the pointed or 8Tartar8 shape and is crowned b$ a finial resembling the kalasa and amla of a -indu temple. 1elhiGs fourth cit$ 7ahanpanah was built b$ *ohammad'bin'Tughla4 in mid'>Bth centur$. :iro& Shah Kotla ground is the onl$ remnant of its past glor$. -e is also credited with founding the fortified cities of 7aunpur! :athabad and -issar. Kali *as3id! Khirki *as3id and Kalan *as3id also belong to this period! the last two being raised on a tahkhana or substructure of arches. The Tombs of *ubarak Sa$$id (d. >BAB .1 ! *uhammad Sa$$id (d.>BBB .1 and Sikander Lodi (d.>?>C .1 are all of the octagonal t$pe. The s4uare tombs are represented b$ such monuments as the /ara Khan Ka 0umbad! Chota Khan Ka 0umbad! /ara 0umbad (>BHB .1 ! Shish 0umbad! 1adi Ka 0umbad and the 6oli ka 0umbad. The Tomb of )sa Khan (>?BC .1 ! the Tomb of .dham Khan (>?J> .1 ! *oth ki *as3id (c.>?F? .1 ! 7amala *as3id (>?AJ .1 and the Kila'i' Kuhna *as3id (c.>??F .1 belong to the final phase of the 1elhi st$le of architecture. +ROVINCIAL ST,LE OF ARCHITECTURE 5AUN+UR"3 2nder the Shar4i d$nast$ 7aunpur became a great centre of art! culture and architectural activit$. 1uring the rule of Shamsuddin )brahim (>BF='>BAJ .1 .tala *as3id was built in >ACD.

GU5ARAT "3 0u3arat witnessed significant architectural activit$ for over =?F $ears starting from *u&affar ShahGs declaration of independence from 1elhi and the formation of the Sultanate of 0u3arat in >AFC .1 until the con4uest of 0u3arat b$ the *ughal 9mperor .kbar in >?FF .1. .hmedabad is a cit$ full of architectural masterpieces which include Sa$$id .lamGs mos4ue (>B>= ! Teen 1arwa&a (>B>? ! Tomb of .hmed Shah (>BBF ! 5ani'ka'-u3ra (>BBF ! the 7ami *as3id (built b$ the cit$s founder Sultan .hmed Shah in >B=A ! KutubuddinGs mos4ue (>B?B ! 5ani Sipri *os4ue (>?F? ! Sidi /ashirGs *os4ue (>?>F ! which is famous for its
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@shaking minaretsL! 5ani 5upmati *as3id at *ir&apur (built between >BAF and >BBF and the Kankaria Lake! constructed in >B?> b$ Sultan Kutb'ud' 1in. DECCAN "3 earliest period of architectural development started in >ABC when .llauddin /ahman Shah constructed the 0ulbarga :ort and the 7ami *as3id at 0ulbarga. The second phase is represented b$ the architecture of /idar initiated b$ .hmed Shah (>B=='>BAJ ! which includes the /idar :ort! *ahmud 0awanGs *adrassa and the .li /aridGs Tomb.

H,DERA0AD"3 Kutub Shahi and +i&am Shahi d$nasties contributed greatl$ towards the development of the 1eccan st$le of architecture. Charminar (>?H> ' *ohammed Kuli Kutb Shah. *ecca *as3id' started in >J>B b$ .bdullah Kutub Shah and completed in >JDC b$ .urang&eb. 0olconda :ort (>?=? ' *ohammed Kuli Kutb Shah! was an impregnable fort of great strategic importance to most of the rulers. :alaknuma 6alace(>DCF b$ +awab <ikar'2l'2lmara! is a rare blend of )talian and Tudor architecture.

0I5A+UR"3 0ol 0umba& built b$ *ohammad .dil Shah! which is largest masonr$ dome in the world.

:ASH*IR"3 t$pified b$ use of woodwork. log construction using deodar trees for the construction of wooden bridges called kadals or the wooden shrines called &iarats mos4ue of Shah -amdan in Srinagar and the 7ami *as3id at Srinagar built b$ Sikandar /utshikan (>BFF .1 ' e(amples of the wooden architecture :ort of -ari 6arbat! the 6attar *as3id (>J=A and the .khun *ulla ShahGs mos4ue (>JBH are illustrations of art of stone building in Kashmir.

0IHAR"3 Sasaram in /ihar ' Sher ShahGs Tomb! tomb of his father! -asan Sur Khan built in >?A?! tomb of his son Salim Shah and tomb of .lwal Khan! the chief architect of Sher Shah.
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completion of the si(th cit$ of 1elhi called the Shergarh or 1illi Sher Shai around the 6urana Kila area in >?BFs. 6urana Kila has three main gates ' the -uma$un darwa&a! Tala4i darwa&a and /aradarwa&a. Kila'i'kuhna mas3id built b$ Sher Shah Suri in >?B> .1 in the 6urana Kila.

*UGHAL ST,LE OF ARCHITECTURE 0A0AR"3 mos4ue at Kabuli /agh at 6anipat and 7ami *as3id at Sambhal near 1elhi! both constructed in >?=J! are the surviving monuments of /abar. HU*A,UN"3 6ersian influence ' result of -uma$unGs observance at the court of Shah Tahmasp during the period of his e(ile. -uma$unGs Tomb at 1elhi! (>?JB b$ his widow -a3i /egum as a mark of devotion! eight $ears after his death. A:0AR"3 2se of red sandstone. Construction of a huge fort at .gra. *assive sandstone ramparts of the 5ed :ort! +ew 1elhi. /uildings at :atehpur Sikri blended both )slamic and -indu elements in their architectural st$le. /uland 1arwa&a! 6anch *ahal and 1argah of Saleem Chisti are the most imposing of all the buildings of :atehpur Sikri. 1iwan'e'Khas in the comple( which was designed for private audiences. 5EHANGIR"3 Shalimar /agh on the banks of Lake 1al in Kashmir. .kbarGs Tomb at Sikandra near .gra! which was completed in >J>A. 7ahangirGs Tomb at Shadera near Lahore! built b$ his wife +ur *ahal SHAH5AHAN"3 Substitution of marble for the red sandstone. *arbli&ed 1iwan'i'.m and 1iwan'i'Khas build b$ .kbar at 5ed :ort! 1elhi. Shah 7ahan built the 7ami *as3id at .gra in >JBD in honour of his daughter 7ahanara /egum E %a&ir KhanGs mos4ue in Lahore!>JAB. Ta3 *ahal ' a memorial to his beloved wife! *umta& *ahal. AURANGZE0"3

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/ibi'ki'*a4bara! tomb of .urang&ebGs wife /egum 5abia 1urani! a poor replica of the famous Ta3 *ahal a fine e(ample of *ughal architecture in the 1eccan region.

+OST3*UGHAL ST,LE OF ARCHITECTURE AVADH -OUDH2 ST,LE"3 Safdar 7ungGs tomb! built in the honour of Safdar 7ung (>CAH'>C?A ! who was the nephew of the first +awab of ,udh. /ara )mambara built b$ the +awab in >CDB. .bsence of pillars in the main hall and simplicit$ of st$le and s$mmetr$ are its uni4ue features. Chattar *an&il ' main attractions are the underground rooms and a beautiful dome surrounded b$ a gilt umbrella. Kaiser /agh is a 4uadrangular park with a baradari (pavilion and $ellow' coloured buildings on three sides. 5oshanwali Koti and /egum Koti at -a&ratgun3 ' )talian st$le is more prominent. +UN5A0 ST,LE"3 developed under the influence of the *ughal st$le. characterised b$ certain indigenous features like the multiplicit$ of chattris #kiosks! use of fluted dome generall$ covered with copper or brass'gilt and enrichment of arches b$ numerous foliations. 0olden Temple at .mritsar(>CJB built b$ the fourth Sikh 0uru 5amdas. COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE +ORTUGUESE"3 6ortuguese adapted to )ndia the climaticall$ appropriate )berian galleried patio house and the /aro4ue churches of 0oa. Se Cathedral and .rch of Conception of 0oa were built in the t$pical 6ortuguese'0othic st$le. St. :rancis Church at Cochin( >?>F is believed to be the first church built b$ the 9uropeans in )ndia. fort of Castella de .guanda near *umbai and added fortifications to the /assein fort built b$ /ahadur Shah! the Sultan of 0u3arat! in >?A= .1. /assein fort is famous for the *atri& (Cathedral of St 7oseph ! the Corinthian pillared hall and the 6orte da *er (sea gate . FRENCH"3 :rench gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in 6ondicherr$ b$ appl$ing the Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural patterns.

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Church of Sacred -eart of 7esus (9glise 1e Sacre Coeur 1e 7esus ! 9glise de +otre 1ame de .ngesand! 9glise de +otre 1ame de Lourdes at 6ondicherr$ have a distinct :rench influence.

0RITISH"3

/ritish followed various architectural st$les M 0othic! )mperial! Christian! 9nglish 5enaissance and <ictorian being the essentials. Church of St. 7ohn at Calcutta (>CDC inspired b$ St. Stephens Church at %albrooks. St. *ar$Gs Church in :ort St. 0eorge in Chennai. Law Courts! 6residenc$ College and Senate -ouse of Chennai. <ictoria *emorial -all'Calcutta(>H=> !designed b$ Sir %illiam 9merson. 0atewa$ of )ndia in *umbai! *ahara3aGs 6alace at *$sore and *.S.2niversit$ and Lakshmi <illas 6alace at /aroda. +ew 1elhi ' s$stematicall$ planned cit$ after made capital in >H>> Sir EdBard Lut%ens made responsible for the overall plan of 1elhi and constructed )ndia 0ate and 5ashtrapati /hawan. Her$ert 0aker added South /lock and +orth /lock! which flank the 5ashtrapati /hawan. 9nglishman called 5obert Tor Tussell built the Connaught 6lace.

+AINTINGS OF INDIA
A2 <ALL +AINTINGS OF INDIA
6ainting ' e(presses human thoughts and feelings through the media of line and colour. *et#'d O( +aintin&s True Fres ' *et#'d' the paintings are done when the surface wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface. Te)p'ra 'r Fres '3Se '' method of painting on the lime plastered surface which has been allowed to dr$ first and then drenched with fresh lime water.

Cave dBeller painted rock shelters to satisf$ his aesthetic sensitivit$ and creative urge primitive records of wild animals! war processions! birds E marine creatures human images! dancing images and hunting scenes. /himbetka caves in the Kaimur 5ange! *6. A5ANTA CAVE +AINTING"3
15

 e(clusivel$ /uddhist! e(cepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars. associated with the 7atakas! recording the previous births of the Lord /uddha. 6rincipal characters in most of the designs are in heroic proportions. ELLORA CAVE +AINTING"3 out in rectangular panels with thick borders. most important characteristic features sharp twist of the head! painted angular bents of the arms! concave curve of the close limbs! sharp pro3ected nose and long drawn open e$es <ALL +AINTINGS IN SOUTH INDIA Tan3ore! Tamil +adu wide open e$es of all the figures as compared to .3anta tradition of half closed drooping e$es dancing girl from /rihadeshwara temple of Tan3ore

02 *INIATURE +AINTING
MUGHAL SCHOOL (1560-1800 A.D.) s$nthesis of the indigenous )ndian st$le of painting and the Safavid school of 6ersian painting. marked b$ supple naturalism based on close observation of nature and fine and delicate drawing. high aesthetic merit. primaril$ aristocratic and secular. Tuti-nama - first work of the *ughal School. Hamza-nama( illustrations on cloth ' more developed and refined than Tuti-nama. 2nder 7ahangir! painting ac4uired greater charm! refinement and dignit$. 2nder Shah 7ahan ' painting maintained its fine 4ualit$. 2nder .urang&eb' 6ainting declined and lost much of its earlier 4ualit$. DECCANI SCHOOLS (CIRCA 1560-1800 A.D.)
1. AH*EDNAGAR

female appearing in the painting belongs to the northern tradition of *alwa. Choli (bodice and long pigtails braided and ending in a tassel are the northern costume.
16

 colours used are rich and brilliant 6ersian influence ' high hori&on! gold sk$ and the landscape.
2. 0I5A+UR

ladies ' tall and slender and are wearing the South )ndian dress. rich colour scheme! the palm trees! animals and men and women all belongs to the 1eccani tradition. profuse use of gold colour some flowering plants and arabes4ues on the top of the throne are derived from the 6ersian tradition.
3. GOLCONDA

8Lad$ with the *$na bird8! about >JF? ..1 colours are rich and brilliant continued long after the e(tinction of the 1eccan Sultanates of .hmednagar! /i3apur and 0olconda.

@1 H,DERA0AD belongs to the third 4uarter of the >Dth centur$. introduced b$ several *ughal painters who migrated to the 1eccan during the period of .urang&eb and sought patronage there. 1istinctive features ' treatment of the ethnic t$pes! costumes! 3eweller$! flora! fauna! landscape and colours. st$le of the painting is decorative. t$pical characteristics ' rich colours! the 1eccani facial t$pes and costumes .1 TAN5ORE works on cloth stretched over wood. st$le of painting ' bold drawing! techni4ues of shading and the use of pure and brilliant colours flourished during the late >Dth and >Hth centuries. st$le is decorative and is marked b$ the use of bright colours and ornamental details. conical crown ' a t$pical feature of the Tan3ore painting.
6. *,SORE

more subtle and done on paper! while the Tan3ore works on cloth stretched over wood. deal mostl$ with sacred icons painted for devotional purposes. theatrical framing of the iconic paintings should be particularl$ noted. RAJASTHANI & CENTRAL INDIAN SCHOOLS (17t -1!t CENTURIES) deepl$ rooted in the )ndian traditions! taking inspiration from )ndian epics! 6uranas! love poems E )ndian folk'lore.

17

 *ughal artists of inferior merit who were no longer re4uired b$ the *ughal 9mperors! migrated to 5a3asthan 5a3asthani st$le ' bold drawing! strong and contrasting colours. treatment of figures is flat without an$ attempt to show perspective in a naturalistic manner. surface of the painting is divided into several compartments of different colours in order to separate one scene from another. each school of painting has its distinct facial t$pe! costume! landscape and colour scheme.
1.

*AL<A use of contrasting colours! refinement of drawing due to the influence of the *ughal painting ornaments and costumes consisting of black tassels and striped skirts. *E<AR drawing is bold and the colours are bright and contrasting. te(t of the painting is written in black on the top against the $ellow ground.

2.

A.

0UNDI ver$ close to the *ewar st$le rich and glowing colours! the rising sun in golden colour! crimson'red hori&on! overlapping and semi'naturalistic trees *ughal influence is visible in the refined drawing of the faces :OTAH ver$ much akin to the /undi st$le Themes of tiger and bear hunt were ver$ popular at Kotah. most of the space is occupied b$ the hill$ 3ungle which has been rendered with a uni4ue charm.

B.

5.

A*0ER C 5AI+UR this school of painting originated at .mber but later shifted to 7aipur! the new capital. There is a fairl$ large number of portraits of the 7aipur rulers

J.

*AR<AR e(ecuted in a primitive and vigorous folk st$le

18

completel$ uninfluenced b$ the *ughal st$le. . large number of miniatures comprising portraits! court scenes! series of the 5agamala and the /aramasa! etc. were e(ecuted from the >Cth to >Hth centuries at several centres of painting like 6ali! 7odhpur and +agour etc. in *arwar.

C.

0I:ANER /ikaner had close relations with the *ughals. Some of the *ughal artists were given patronage b$ the /ikaner court responsible for the introduction of a new st$le of painting having much similarit$ with the *ughal and the 1eccani st$les.

D.

:ISHENGARH developed under the patronage of 5a3a Savant Singh (>CBD'>C?C ..1. ! who wrote devotional poetr$ in praise of Krishna master painter +ihal Chand who! in his works! has been able to create visual images of his masterGs l$rical compositions

"AHARI SCHOOL (17t - 1!t CENTURIES) comprises the present State of -imachal 6radesh! some ad3oining areas of the 6un3ab! 7ammu and 0arhwal in 26. this area was ruled b$ the 5a3put princes and were often engaged in welfare. centres of great artistic activit$ from the latter half of the >Cth to nearl$ the middle of the >Hth centur$. 810ASOHLI characterised b$ vigorous and bold line and strong glowing colours. There is a change in the facial t$pe which becomes a little heavier and also in the tree forms which assume a somewhat naturalistic character! which ma$ be due to the influence of the *ughal painting.
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 general features ' use of strong and contrasting colours! monochrome background! large e$es! bold drawing! use of beetles wings for showing diamonds in ornaments! narrow sk$ and the red

41GULER -5a))u2 consisting of portraits of 5a3a /alwant Singh of 7asrota (a small place near 7ammu b$ *aster +ainsukh. -e worked both at 7asrota and at 0uler. paintings are in a new naturalistic and delicate st$le marking a change from the earlier traditions of the /asohli art. colours used are soft and cool. inspired b$ the naturalistic st$le of the *ughal painting.

91:ANGRA third phase of the 6ahari painting in the last 4uarter of the >Dth centur$. developed out of the 0uler st$le. the faces of women in profile have the nose almost in line with the forehead! the e$es are long and narrow and the chin is sharp. There is! however! no modelling of figures and hair is treated as a flat mass.

@1:ULU C *ANDl a folk st$le of painting! mainl$ inspired b$ the local tradition. st$le is marked b$ bold drawing and the use of dark and dull colours. Though influence of the Kangra st$le is observed in certain cases $et the st$le maintains its distinct folkish character. INDE"ENDENT "AINTINGS 81:ALIGHAT +AINTINGS3 :OL:ATA Kalighat painting was a product of the changing urban societ$ of the >H th centur$ Calcutta.

20

 group of artists evolved a 4uick method of painting on mill'made paper. 2sing brush and ink from the lampblack! these artists defined figures of deities! gentr$ and ordinar$ people with deft and vigorousl$ flowing lines. romantic depictions of women. satirical paintings lampooning the h$pocrisies of the newl$ rich and the changing roles of men and women after the introduction of education for women. 41*ADHU0ANI +AINTINGS3 *ITHILA=0IHAR %omen (*ithila region!/ihar have painted colorful auspicious images on the interior walls of their homes on the occasion of domestic rituals since at least the >Bth centur$. This ancient tradition! especiall$ elaborated for marriages! continues toda$. used to paint the walls of room! known as :OH0AR GHAR in which the newl$ wedded couple meet for the first time. 91+HAD" SCROLL +AINTINGS -0HIL<ADA= RA5ASTHAN2 6had is a painted scroll! which depicts stories of epic dimensions about local deities and legendar$ heroes. /hopas(local priests carr$ these scrolls on their shoulders from village to village for a performance represents the moving shrine of the deit$ and is an ob3ect of worship. most popular E largest 6had ' local deities 1evnara$an3i and 6abu3i. @1:ALA*:ARI +AINTINGS -ANDHRA +RADESH2 Kalamkari (lit. pen'work is primaril$ used for the temple festivals or as wall hangings. stories from the epics 5ama$ana! *ahabharata and the 6uranas are painted as continuous narratives relevant Telugu verses e(plaining the theme are also carried below the artwork. colors are obtained from vegetable and mineral sources. gods are painted blue! the demons and evil characters in red and green. Nellow is used for female figures and ornaments. 5ed is mostl$ used as a background. .1:OLA* a ritualistic design drawn at the threshold of households and temples. drawn ever$da$ at dawn and dusk b$ women in South )ndia Kolam marks festivals! seasons and important events in a womanGs life such as birth! first menstruation and marriage. Kolam is a free'hand drawing with s$mmetrical and neat geometrical patterns.

+ERFOR*ING ART C DRA*AD FOL: DANCE

21

1. 0HAND +ATHER-5ASHIN2 3 :ASH*IR

uni4ue combination of dance! music and acting. Satire! wit and parod$ are preferred for inducing laughter. music is provided with surnai! nagaara and dhol. Since the actors are mainl$ from the farming communit$! the impact of their wa$ of living! ideals and sensitivit$ is noticable.

2. S<ANG ' HAR,ANA

mainl$ music'based. 0raduall$! prose too! pla$ed its role in the dialogues. softness of emotions! accomplishment of rasa along with the development of character can be seen two important st$les are from 5ohtak and -aathras. )n the st$le belonging to 5ohtak! the language used is -ar$anvi (/angru and in -aathras! it is /ra3bhasha.
3. NAUTAN:I ' UTTAR +RADESH

most popular centres ' Kanpur! Lucknow and -aathras. The meters used in the verses are; 1oha! Chaubola! Chhappai! /ehar'e'tabeel. nowada$s! women have also started taking part

@1 RAASLEELA based e(clusivel$ on Lord Krishna legends believed that +and 1as wrote the initial pla$s based on the life of Krishna. dialogues in prose combined beautifull$ with songs and scenes from KrishnaGs pranks.
5. 0HAVAI 3 GU5ARAT

*ain centers of ' Kutch and Kathiawar. instruments used are; bhungal! tabla! flute! pakhaawa3! rabaab! sarangi! man3eera! etc. there is a rare s$nthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.

A1 5ATRA ' 0ENGAL :airs in honour of gods! or religious rituals and ceremonies have within their framework musical pla$s are known as 5atra. Krishna 7atra became popular due to Chaitan$a prabhuGs influence. earlier form of 7atra has been musical E dialogues were added at later stage. The actors themselves describe the change of scene! the place of action! etc. ;1 0HAONA(AN:IA NAAT2 3 ASSA*1
22

 cultural glimpses of .ssam! /engal ,rissa! *athura and /rindavan can be seen. The Sutradhaar! or narrator begins the stor$! first in Sanskrit and then in either /ra3boli or .ssamese.
8. *AACH 3 *ADH,A +RADESH

*aach is used for the stage itself as also for the pla$. songs are given prominence in between the dialogues. The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rh$me in narration is termed vanag. The tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat.

!. TA*AASHA ' *AHARASHTRA

evolved from the folk forms such as 0ondhal! 7agran and Kirtan. female actress is the chief e(ponent of dance movements in the pla$. She is known as *urki. Classical music! footwork at lightning'speed! and vivid gestures make it possible to portra$ all the emotions through dance. personif$ the ten incarnations of Lord <ishnu'the god of preservation and creativit$. The ten incarnations are *ats$a (fish ! Kurma (tortoise ! <araha (boar ! +arsimha (lion'man ! <aman (dwarf ! 6arashuram! 5ama! Krishna (or /alram ! /uddha and Kalki. .part from st$li&ed make'up! the 1ashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier mache.

10. DASHAVATAR ' :ON:AN AND GOA

11. :RISHNATTA* 3 :ERALA

came into e(istence in the middle of >Cth centur$ ..1. under the patronage of King *anavada of Calicut. Krishnattam is a c$cle of eight pla$s performed for eight consecutive da$s. The pla$s are .vataram! Kaliamandana! 5asa krida! kamasavadha! Swa$amvaram! /ana Nudham! <ivida <adham! and Swargarohana. episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna ' his birth! childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victor$ of good over evil. 841 *UDI,ETTU ' :ERALA celebrated in the month of <rischikam (+ovember'1ecember . performed onl$ in the Kali temples of Kerala! as an oblation to the 0oddess. depicts the triumph of goddess /hadrakali over the asura 1arika. seven characters in *udi$ettu'Shiva! +arada! 1arika! 1anavendra! /hadrakali! Kooli and Koimbidar (+andikeshvara are all heavil$ made'up.
23

891 THE,,A* ' :ERALA GThe$$amG derived from the Sanskrit word G1aivamG meaning 0od. -ence it is called 0odGs dance. performed b$ various castes to appease and worship spirits. distinguishing features ' colourful costume and awe'inspiring headgears (mudi nearl$ ? to J feet high made of arecanut splices! bamboos! leaf sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks and d$ed into different strong colours using turmeric! wa( and arac. 8@1 :OODI,AATTA* ' :ERALA based on Sanskrit theatre traditions. characters of this theatre form are; Chak$aar or actor! +aambi$aar! the instrumentalists and +aang$aar! those taking on womenGs roles. The Sutradhar or narrator and the <idushak or 3esters are the protagonists. <idushak alone delivers the dialogues. 9mphasis on hand gestures and e$e movements makes this dance and theatre form uni4ue.
15. ,A:SHAGAANA ' :ARNATA:A

based on m$thological stories and 6uranas. most popular episodes are from the *ahabharata i.e. 1raupadi swa$amvar! Subhadra vivah! .bhiman$u vadh! Karna'.r3un $uddh and from 5ama$ana i.e. 5aa3$aabhishek! Lav'kush Nuddh! /aali' Sugreeva $uddha and 6anchavati. 8A1 THERU:OOTHU ' TA*IL NADU literall$ means 8street pla$8. mostl$ performed at the time of annual temple festivals of *ariamman (5ain goddess to achieve rich harvest. there is a c$cle of eight pla$s based on the life of 1raupadi. Kattiakaran! the Sutradhara gives the gist of the pla$ to the audience Komali entertains the audience with his buffooner$.
17. :AR,ALA3 HI*ACHAL +RADESH

deals with serious 4uestion of life E death briefl$ and with simplicit$ of e(pression E diction! all enveloped in humour. )ndeed! audience is given essence of our cultural heritage of viewing the world as a stage and as an unsubstantial pageant which is to be negotiated and lived b$ rising above it. There is often st$listic diversit$! which strengthens their identit$ from Swang! +autanki! /hagat! etc..
24

+U++ET FOR*S OF INDIA

puppet has to be more than his live counterpart .ncient -indu philosophers have likened 0od .lmight$ to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage. themes are mostl$ based on epics and legends.

STRING +U++ETS *arionettes having 3ointed limbs controlled b$ strings allow far greater fle(ibilit$

:at#putli= Ra?ast#an Carved from a single piece of wood large dolls ' colourfull$ dressed. costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval 5a3asthani st$le of dress! which is prevalent even toda$. accompanied b$ a highl$ dramatised version of the regional music. ,val faces! large e$es! arched e$ebrows and large lips ' distinct facial features. wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs. 6uppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normall$ tied to their fingers and not to a prop or a support. :und#ei= Orissa *ade of light wood! have no legs but wear long flowing skirts. have more 3oints and are! therefore! more versatile! articulate and eas$ to manipulate. 2se a triangle shape wooden prop! to which strings are attached for manipulation. costumes resemble those worn b$ actors of the 7atra traditional theatre. music M regional music E ,dissi dances music. G')$e%atta= :arnataka 6uppets ' st$led and designed like the characters of Nakshagana highl$ st$li&ed and have 3oints at the legs! shoulders! elbows! hips and knees. manipulated b$ five to seven strings tied to a prop. complicated movements are manipulated b$ two to three puppeteers at a time.
25

music ' beautifull$ blends folk and classical elements.

0'))alatta)= Ta)il Nadu combine the techni4ues of both rod and string puppets. made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head. few puppets have 3ointed arms and hands! which are manipulated b$ rods. This puppets are the largest! heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional )ndian marionettes. SHADO< +U++ETS Shadow puppets are flat figures. cut out of leather! which has been treated to make it translucent. pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it. manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows found in ,rissa! Kerala! .ndhra 6radesh! Karnataka! *aharashtra and Tamil +adu. T'&alu G')$e%atta= :arnataka puppets are mostl$ small in si&e. puppets however differ in si&e according to their social status! for instance! large si&e for kings and religious characters and smaller si&e for common people or servants. T#'lu 0'))alata= And#ra +rades# puppets are large in si&e and have 3ointed waist! shoulders! elbows and knees. coloured on both sides! throwing coloured shadows on the screen. music ' influenced b$ the classical regional music theme are drawn from the 5ama$ana! *ahabharata and 6uranas. Ravana ##a%a= Orissa puppets are in one piece and have no 3oints. not coloured! hence throw opa4ue shadows on the screen. manipulation re4uires great de(terit$! since there are no 3oints. puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses. .part from human and animal characters! man$ props such as trees! mountains! chariots! etc. are also used. puppets are smaller in si&e create ver$ sensitive and l$rical shadows.
26

ROD +U++ETS an e(tension of glove'puppets! but often much larger and supported and manipulated b$ rods from below. found mostl$ in %est /engal and ,rissa. +utul Naut #= <est 0en&al carved from wood costumed like the actors of 7atra! a traditional theatre puppets have mostl$ three 3oints. heads! supported b$ the main rod! is 3oined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are 3oined at the shoulders. bamboo'made hub is tied firml$ to the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod holding the puppet is placed. puppeteers each holding one puppet! stand behind a head'high curtain and while manipulating the rods also move and dance imparting corresponding movements to the puppets. puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the st$li&ed prose dialogues E a group of musicians provide the accompan$ing music with a drum! harmonium and c$mbals. music and verbal te(t have close similarit$ with the 7atra theatre. Orissa R'd puppets mostl$ three 3oints! but the hands are tied to strings instead of rods. elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of puppetr$. *ost of the dialogues are sung. music blends folk tunes with classical ,dissi tunes. puppets of ,rissa are smaller than those from /engal or .ndhra 6radesh. more operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used. ,a)puri= 0i#ar made of wood. puppets are in one piece and have no 3oints. re4uires greater de(terit$. GLOVE +U++ETS also known as sleeve! hand or palm puppets. head is made of either papier mache! cloth or wood!
27

hands emerges from 3ust below the neck. rest of the figure consists of a long flowing skirt. controlled b$ the human hand ' first finger inserted in the head and middle finger and thumb are the two arms of the puppet. )n ,rissa! the puppeteer pla$s on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. deliver$ of the dialogues! the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well s$nchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere.

+avak''t#u= :erala head and the arms are carved of wood and 3oined together with thick cloth! cut and stitched into a small bag. face of the puppets are decorated with paints! small and thin pieces of gilded tin! the feathers of the peacock! etc. manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet. musical instruments ' C#enda= C#en&il'a= Ilat#ala) and S#ank#a the conch. theme ' based on the episodes from either the 5ama$ana or the *ahabharata.

*USICAL INSTRU*ENTS OF INDIA

+at$a Shastra! compiled b$ /harat *uni! divides musical instruments into four main categories on the basis of how sound is produced. 81 41 91 @1 Tata Vad%a D C#'rd'p#'nes3 Strin&ed instru)ents Sus#ira Vad%a D Aer'p#'nes3 <ind instru)ents Avanadd#a Vad%a D *e)$ran'p#'nes3 +er ussi'n instru)ents G#ana Vad%a D Idi'p#'nes3 S'lid instru)ents

-82 TATA VAD,A 3 STRINGED INSTRU*ENTS sound is produced b$ the vibration of a string or chord. vibrations are caused b$ plucking or b$ bowing on the string which has been pulled taut. Length of string#wire! degree to which it has been tightened! determines the pitch of the note and also to some e(tent the duration of the sound. Two *ain T$pes' 6lucked E /owed Subdivided into the fretted and non'fretted variet$. oldest evidence ' harps in the shape of the hunters bow. Veena was the generic term for stringed instruments referred to in te(ts

28

.nother class is of the dul i)er t%pe! where a number of strings are stretched on a bo( of wood! e.g sata'tantri veena'the hundred stringed veena. Santoor! a similar to sata tantric veena instrument . later development are the fingerboard variet$! great advantage ' the richness of tone production and continuit$ of sound. increase or decrease in the length of the vibrator wire is responsible for the changes in pitches of notes'swaras. /owed instruments ' the upright(Sarangi and the inverted(<iolin .

Di((erent parts '( a strin&ed instru)ent 5esonator(Toomba ' either made of wood or from a speciall$ grown gourd. Tabli ' the plate of wood over this Toomba 1anda ' resonator is attached to the fingerboard'the 1anda! at the top end of which are inserted the pegs'the Khoontis! for tuning the instrument. /ridge' ,n the Tabli there is a bridge made of ivor$ or bone. Tarab ' main strings pass over the bridge. %hen these strings vibrate! the$ add resonance to the sound. -42 SUSHIRA VAD,A3 <IND INSTRU*ENTS sound is produced b$ blowing air into an hollow column. pitch of the note is determined b$ controlling the air passage and the melod$ is pla$ed b$ using the fingers to open and close the in the instrument. The simplest of these instruments is the flute. 0enerall$ flutes are made of bamboo or wood and the )ndian musician prefers these due to the tonal and musical attributes of these materials. 9(cavations of the )ndus civili&ations have shown bird whistles of cla$! and seals which show wind and percussion instruments. There is reference in the <edas to an instrument'the <enu which was used as an accompaniment to chanting and recitation. There is also mention of a kind of a flute called the +adi.

%ind instruments are roughl$ divided into two categories on the basis of how sound is produced. The$ are; Flutes double flutes are mostl$ pla$ed b$ musicians of the tribal and rural areas The$ resemble beak flutes which have a narrow aperture at one end. ,ne finds references to these t$pes of instruments in the sculptures of the first centur$ in the Sanchi Stupa which shows a musician pla$ing on a double flute.
29

Reed instru)ents 5eed instruments like the Shehnai! +adaswaram! etc.! have one or two reeds inserted in the hollow beak or tube of the instrument! these vibrate when air is blown into them. reeds are bound together with a gap between them before inserting into the bod$ of the instrument. The bod$ of the tube is conical in shape narrow at the blowing end and opening out graduall$ with a metallic bell at the farther end to enhance the volume of the sound. . set of spare reeds! an ivor$ or silver needle for ad3usting and cleaning the reeds are also hung from the mouth piece of the instrument. -92 AVANADDHA VAD,A 3 +ERCUSSION INSTRU*ENTS sound is produced b$ striking the animal skin which has been stretched across an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame. The earliest references to such instruments have been found in the <edas where there is mention of /humi 1undhubhi" this was a hollow pit dug in the ground and covered with the hide of a buffalo or o( which was stretched across the pit. The tail of the animal was used for striking the animal hide and thus sound was produced.

The main categories are',ordhwaka! .nk$a! .ling$a and the waisted or the 1amaru famil$ of drums. Ta$la Ank%a
30

Tabla pair is a set of two vertical ,ordhwaka drums. right side is called the Tabla and the left! the /a$an or 1agga. Tabla has a wooden bod$ with a covering of animal skin! this is held together with leather straps. /etween the straps and the wooden bod$! oblong wooden blocks are placed for tuning the drums. s$ahi(ink paste applied in the centre of the animal skin! the tabla can be tuned accuratel$ b$ striking the rims with a hammer. bod$ of the ba$an is made of cla$ or metal and is covered with animal skin which also has s$ahi paste applied on it. Some musicians do not tune this drum to an accurate pitch. tabla pair is used as accompaniment to vocal and instrumental -industani music and with man$ dance forms of northern )ndia. complicated talas of the -industani music are pla$ed with great virtuosit$ on the tabla. 6rominent musicians pla$ing the tabla toda$ are'2stad .lla 5akha Khan and his son Oakir -ussain! Shafat .hmed and Samata 6rasad

.nk$a drums are held hori&ontall$ before the musician and usuall$ both sides are covered with animal hide. Sound is produced b$ striking both sides with sticks or fingers. *ridangam! 6akhawa3! Khol! etc. are prominent. musician ma$ sit on the floor and pla$ the instrument or hang it from the neck while dancing or standing. Seals which have been e(cavated of the )ndus Civili&ation show figures of men pla$ing the hori&ontal drums hung from the neck.

O'rd#Baka ,ordhwaka drums are placed verticall$ before the musician and sound is produced b$ striking them with sticks or the fingers. 6rominent among these are the Tabla pair and Chenda.

Alin&%a drums have the animal hide fi(ed to a wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the bod$ with one hand while the other hand is used for pla$ing on the instrument. 1uff! 1ufflies! etc. are ver$ popular.

Da)aru t%pes instruments in this categor$ range from! the small -uddaka of -imachal 6radesh to the larger instrument known as Timila of the southern region. -uddaka is struck with the hands while Timila is hung from the shoulders and pla$ed with sticks and fingers. also known as the hourglass variet$ of drums as their shape resembles an hourglass.

-@2 GHANA VAD,A 3 SOLID INSTRU*ENTS earliest instruments invented b$ man are said to be the 0hana <ad$a. ,nce constructed! this variet$ of instrument do not need special tuning prior to pla$ing. principall$ rh$thmic in function and are best suited as accompaniment to folk and tribal music and dance.

5#an? +la%er= :'narak= Orissa )n the Sun temple of Konarak! ,rissa! we see this large sculpture of a lad$ pla$ing the 7han3.

G#ata)= Carnati )usi '( S'ut# India1

ghata) is an eart#enBare p'tE t#e artist uses t#e (in&ers= t#u)$s= pal)s= and #eels '( t#e #ands t' strike its 'uter sur(a e1 .n air$ low'pitch bass sound! called gumki! is created b$ hitting the mouth of the pot with an open hand.
31

artist sometimes presses the mouth of the pot against their bare bell$! which deepens the tone of the bass stroke! and is another wa$ to produce the gumki sound. 1ifferent tones can be produced b$ hitting different areas of the pot with different parts of the hands. The ghata) usuall% a ')panies a )ridan&a)1

CLASSICAL DANCE OF INDIA

810HARATNAT,A* 3 TA*IL NADU /haratnat$am dance ' where one dancer takes on man$ roles in a single performance. st$le was kept alive b$ the devadasis! who were $oung girls GgiftedG b$ their parents to the temples and who were married to the gods. devadasis performed music and dance as offerings to the deities! in the temple court$ards. .s a solo dance! /haratnat$am leans heavil$ on the abhina$a or mime aspect of dance ' the nrit$a! where the dancer e(presses the sahit$a through movement and mime. varnam ' most important composition of the /haratnat$am repertoire! encompasses both nritta and nrit$a and epitomises the essence of this classical dance form. 1ancer here performs complicated well graded rh$thmic patterns in two speeds showing the control over rh$thm! and then goes on to depict in a variet$ of wa$s! through abhina$a the lines of the sahit$a. .fter the strenuous varnam! the dancer performs a number of abhina$a items e(pressing a variet$ of moods. bhava or rasa is woven into the sahit$a and then e(pressed b$ the dancer. /haratnat$am performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of -industani music. The finale of the piece is a series of well designed rh$thmic lines reaching a clima(. The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the 0ods. The accompan$ing orchestra consists of a vocalist! a mridangam pla$er! violinist or veena pla$er! a flautist and a c$mbal pla$er. The person who conducts the dance recitation is the +attuvanar. 41:ATHA:3 UTTAR +RADESH
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Kathakars or stor$'tellers! are people who narrate stories largel$ based on episodes from the epics! m$ths and legends. )t probabl$ started as an oral tradition. *ime and gestures were perhaps added later on to make the recitation more effective. <aishnavite cult which swept +orth )ndia in the >?th centur$. and the resultant bhakti movement contributed to a whole new range of l$rics and musical forms. 1ance in 5aslila! however! was mainl$ an e(tension of the basic mime and gestures of the Kathakars or stor$'tellers which blended easil$ with the e(isting traditional dance. )n both -indu and *uslim courts! Kathak became highl$ st$lised and came to be regarded as a sophisticated form of entertainment. 2nder the *uslims there was a greater stress on nrit$a and bhava giving the dance graceful! e(pressive and sensuous dimensions. The weight of the bod$ is e4uall$ distributed along the hori&ontal and vertical a(is. full foot contact is of prime importance where onl$ the toe or the ball of the foot are used! their function is limited. no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the bod$. Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the manipulations of the backbone or upper chest and lower waist muscles. /oth the drummer (here the drum is either a pakhawa3! a t$pe of mridangam! or a pair of tabla and the dancer weave endless combinations on a repetitive melodic line. . poetic line set to music is interpreted with gestures in other numbers! such as the tumri! bha3an! dadra ' all l$rical musical compositions. /oth in nritta (pure dance and the abhina$a (mime there is immense scope for improvisation of presenting variations on a theme. /eing the onl$ classical dance of )ndia having links with *uslim culture! it represents a uni4ue s$nthesis of -indu and *uslim genius in art. :urther! Kathak is the onl$ form of classical dance wedded to -industani or the +orth )ndian music.

91:UCHI+UDI3 ANDHRA +RADESH G.t times! even though the dramatic situation did not demand! solo dancing was being presented to punctuate the presentation and to enhance the appeal. ,ne such number is tarangam inspired b$ the Krishna'leela tarangini of Teerthanara$ana Nogi. To show the de(terit$ of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies! techni4ues like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was introduced.
33

.crobatic dancing became part of the repertoire. there are now two forms of Kuchipudi" the traditional musical dance' drama and the solo dance. . recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocator$ number! as is done in some other classical dance st$les. 9arlier the invocation was limited to 0anesha <andana. +ow other gods are also invoked. )t is followed b$ nritta! that is! non'narrative and abstract dancing. . Kuchipudi recital is usuall$ concluded with tarangam. music that accompanies the dance is according to the classical school of Carnatic music and is delightfull$ s$ncopatic. ,rchestra' mridangam! violin#veena E c$mbal

@1:ATHA:ALI3 :ERALA comparativel$ recent origin. Chakiarkoothu! Koodi$attam! Krishnattam and 5amanattam are few of the ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form and techni4ue. Kathakali is a blend of dance! music and acting and dramati&es stories! which are mostl$ adapted from the )ndian epics. Kathakali is a visual art where ahar$a! costume and make'up are suited to the characters! as per the tenets laid down in the +at$a Shastra. The face of the artist is painted over to appear as though a mask is worn. The lips! the e$elashes and the e$ebrows are made to look prominent. . mi(ture of rice paste and lime is applied to make the chutti on the face which highlights the facial make'up. The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadl$ divided into satvika! ra3asika and tamasika t$pes. Satvika characters are noble! heroic! generous and refined. . large oil'fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain called Tirasseela on the stage! the main dancers stand behind it before the performance. The technical details cover ever$ part of the bod$ from facial muscles to fingers! e$es! hands and wrists. The facial muscles pla$ an important part. The movement of the e$ebrows! the e$e'balls and the lower e$e'lids as described in the +at$a Shastra are not used to such an e(tent in an$ other dance st$le. The weight of the bod$ is on the outer edges of the feet which are slightl$ bent and curved. .1ODISSI3 ODISHA
34

.rchaeological evidence of this dance form dating back to the =nd centur$ /.C. is found in the caves of 2da$agiri and Khandagiri near /hubaneshwar. %ith -induism taking roots in ,rissa b$ about the Cth centur$ ..1.! man$ imposing temples were erected. The Sun Temple at Konarak! built in the >Ath centur$! with its +at$a mandap or -all of dance! marks the culmination of the temple building activit$ in ,rissa. These dance movements! fro&en in stone! continue to inspire ,dissi dancers even toda$. The maharis! who were originall$ temple dancers came to be emplo$ed in ro$al courts which resulted in the degeneration of the art form. .round this time! a class of bo$s called gotipuas were trained in the art! the$ danced in the temples and also for general entertainment. *an$ of toda$Gs gurus of this st$le belong to the gotipua tradition. :acial e(pressions! hand gestures and bod$ movements are used to suggest a certain feeling! an emotion or one of the nine rasas. The techni4ues of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk(above and the Tribhanga(left . The chowk is a position imitating a s4uare ' a ver$ masculine stance with the weight of the bod$ e4uall$ balanced. The tribhanga is a ver$ feminine stance where the bod$ is deflected at the neck! torso and the knees. %ith the lower half of the bod$ remaining static! the torso moves from one side to the other along the a(is passing through the centre of the upper half of the bod$. 0reat training is re4uired for this control so as to avoid an$ shoulder or hip movement. There are certain foot positions with flat! toe or heel contact. These are used in a variet$ of intricate combinations. .lmost all leg movements are spiral#circular -and gestures pla$ an important role both in nritta where the$ are used onl$ as decorative embellishments and in nrit$a where the$ are used for communication. orchestra ' pakhawa3 ! flute! sitar # violin and man3ira )n each performance! even a modern ,dissi dancer still reaffirms the faith of the devadasis or maharis where the$ sought liberation or moksha through the medium of dance.

A1SATTRI,A3 ASSA* introduced in the >?th centur$ ..1 b$ the great <aishnava saint and reformer of .ssam! *ahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful medium for propagation of the <aishnava faith. This neo'<aishnava treasure of .ssamese dance and drama has been! for centuries! nurtured and preserved with great commitment b$ the Sattras ( <aishnava maths#monasteries . /ecause of its religious character E association with the Sattras! it has been aptl$ named Sattri$a.

35

There were two dance forms prevalent in .ssam before the neo'<aishnava movement such as ,3apali and 1evadasi with man$ classical elements. Two varieties of ,3apali dances are still prevalent in .ssam i.e. Sukananni or *aroi 0oa ,3ah and <$ah 0oa ,3ah. Sukananni ,3a paali is of Shakti cult and <$ah 0oa ,3a paali is of <aishnava cult. Sankaradeva included <$ah 0oa ,3ah into his dail$ rituals in Sattra. Till now <$ah 0oa ,3ah is a part of rituals of the Sattras of .ssam. The dancers in a ,3a paali chorus not onl$ sing and dance but also e(plain the narration b$ gestures and st$li&ed movements. .s far as 1evadasi dance is concerned! resemblance of a good number of rh$thmic s$llables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattri$a dance is a clear indication of the influence of the former on the latter. ,ther visible influences on Sattri$a dance are those from .ssamese folk dances namel$ /ihu! /odos etc. Sattri$a dance tradition is governed b$ strictl$ laid down principles in respect of hastamudras! footworks! ahar$as! music etc. ;1*ANI+URI3 *ANI+UR /ecause of its geographical location! the people of *anipur have been protected from outside influences! and this region has been able to retain its uni4ue traditional culture. Lai -araoba(merr$making of the gods is one of the main festivals still performed in *anipur which has its roots in the pre'<aishnavite period. The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses who re'enact the theme of the creation of the world. %ith the arrival of <aishnavism in the >?th centur$ ..1.! new compositions based on episodes from the life of 5adha and Krishna were graduall$ introduced. *anipur dance has a large repertoire! however! the most popular forms are the 5as! the Sankirtana and the Thang'Ta. There are five principal 5as dances of which four are linked with specific seasons! while the fifth can be presented at an$ time of the $ear. )n *anipuri 5as! the main characters are 5adha! Krishna and the gopis. . short fine white muslin skirt is worn over it. . dark coloured velvet blouse covers the upper part of the bod$ and a traditional white veil is worn over a special hair'do which falls gracefull$ over the face. Krishna wears a $ellow dhoti! a dark velvet 3acket and a crown of peacock feathers. The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as Sankirtana in *anipur. The male dancers pla$ the 6ung and Kartal while dancing. The masculine aspect of dance ' the Choloms are a part of the Sankirtana tradition. The 6ung and Kartal choloms are performed at all social and religious festivals.

36

The martial dancers of *anipur ' the Thang'ta ' have their origins in the da$s when manGs survival depended on his abilit$ to defend himself from wild animals. The *anipuri classical st$le of singing is called +at ' ver$ different from both north and south )ndian music! this st$le is immediatel$ recogni&able with its high pitched open throated rendering with particular t$pe of trills and modulations. The main musical instrument is the 6ung or the *anipuri classical drum. /esides the 5as and other leelas! each stage in oneGs life is celebrated with Sankirtana performances ' child birth! upana$anam! wedding and shradha are all occasions for singing and dancing in *anipur. The whole communit$ participates as song and dance form part of dail$ life e(pressions.

SE*I CLASSICAL DANCE OF INDIA

*OHINI,ATTA*3 :ERALA The swa$ing coconut trees in the gentle bree&e is reminiscent of the soft and languorous movements of *ohini$attam ' the feminine classical dance form of Kerala. Literall$ meaning the 1ance of the 9nchantress! it is deepl$ rooted in femininit$! 05.C9 (Las$a and /9.2TN (Sringara forming the 4uintessence of this dance form. ,f all the classical South )ndian st$les! *ohini$attam can be singled out with admirable distinction! for itGs characteristic bod$ movements! marked b$ the graceful swa$ of the torso. %hat is uni4ue is the eas$ going rise and fall of the bod$! with emphasis mainl$ on the torso. The movements are never abrupt! but dignified! eas$! natural! restrained and $et subtle. The glances! postures! gait emplo$ed are so subtle and graceful that the$ conve$ the infinite suggestiveness of radiant love. The traditional costume worn in *ohini$attam is white with a gold border! and gold ornaments are worn. The uni4ue coiffure with hair gathered on the left side of the head reflect itGs aesthetic appeal! making it distinct from the other dance forms of )ndia. The regional s$stem of music that *ohini$attam follows is the S,6.+. st$le which in itGs l$ricism is evocative of the spiritual element.

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REGIONAL D FOL: DANCE

81 *ATHURI -:O++U2= ANDHRA +RADESH This dance is performed b$ the inhabitants of the 2m3i and )ndravelli forest areas of 2tnoor Tehsil in .dilabad district of .ndhra 6radesh. )t is traditionall$ performed during Krishna 7anmashtami celebrations and the themes are taken from the *ahabharata. Though both men and women perform this dance! the pace is different. %omen dance in slow rh$thmic movements! while the men dance at a more vigorous pace. The +agara is the main instrument used. 41 0IHU= ASSA* /ihu is one of the most colourful folk dances of )ndia. The dance is an integral part of the /ihu :estival celebrated to mark the advent of Spring and the .ssamese +ew Near. /ihu ushers in the sowing time and also the season of marriage. he dance has been noted for maintaining authenticit$ and at the same time displa$ing the traditional .ssamese handlooms and handicrafts in their glor$ and beaut$ b$ the dancers.
3. 5HI5HIA= 0IHAR

7hi3hia is usuall$ performed b$ a group of $oung women dancers and portra$s the offering of pra$ers to please the King of 0ods'Lord )ndra'for a good monsoon and a rich harvest.
4. GAUR *ADIA= CHHATTISGARH

/asicall$ performed on the occasion of marriage b$ 0aur *adia of .bhu3mar plateau of /astar in Chhattisgarh and is called 0aur after /ison. )t ma$ appear to be a hunt'dance with onl$ the imitation of the frisking! 3erking movements of the animals. -owever! a sense of ritual and deep sanctit$ underlies the perfect s$nchroni&ation of the dance. ?. :A:SAR= CHHATTISGARH Kaksar is performed b$ the .bhu3 *aria tribes of /astar in Chhattisgarh to seek the blessings of the village deit$ Kaksar for a good harvest. 6erformed b$ a group of $oung bo$s and girls dressed in their best! this dance also provides a platform to $oung people for choosing their life partners. J. CHHOLI,A= UTTARA:HAND 6revalent in the Kumaun region of 2ttarakhand! the Chholi$a dance has elements of martial craft and is associated with the Kir3i Kumbh celebrations" Kir3i Kumbh is a poisonous flower which blossoms ever$ >= $ears. <illagers march in a procession to destro$ the flower before it sheds its poison into the mountain streams.

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C. SA*AI= GOA The metal lamps are traditional handicrafts of 0oa and the Samai dance is performed with these traditional metallic lamps or deepaks. The men and women balance the samai on their heads and perform various movements. 1uring religious gatherings the dance is performed to the accompaniment of slow singing. 61 GAR0A= GU5ARAT 0arba is one of the most popular dance form of 0u3arat! which is linked with the worship of @ShaktiL. The word @0arboL has originated from Sanskrit word @0arbhdeepL! an earthen pot with circular holes is popularl$ known as @0arboL. The pot is the s$mbol of the bod$ and the lighted lamp inside the pot signifies the divine soul. 0arba is performed during +avratri and during weddings. )t is essentiall$ performed b$ women! dancing in circular motion clapping their hands to the beats of the 1hol.

H. DANDI,A RAS= GU5ARAT 5as is one of the ancient and $et most popular dance form of 0u3arat. )ts origin has been traced to Lord Krishna. The graceful dance of Lord Krishna with 0opis in <rindavan is known to all as Krishnaleela. 5as is a uni4ue s$nthesis of folk dance! folk art! colour and folk music. Circular movements with speed and grace are the main features of 5as. The roar of the 1hol! the colourful gorgeous costumes! speed together with vigour and gusto of dancers leaves audience spell bound.
10. DAANG= GU5ARAT

1aangis hail from South 0u3arat on the border of *aharashtra. This dance is usuall$ performed during -oli and other festivals. 1aang dance centers around the social life! feasts! fairs! festivals! ceremonies and rituals connected to worship. )t is vigorous! as most tribal dances are! and highl$ rh$thmic. )nteresting circular formation is created centering around the accompanists who stand in the middle of an open space. The men hold their arms round the womens shoulders and women clasp the men b$ their waists. The dance builds up graduall$ and ac4uires a fast tempo in the end. The women climb on the shoulders of men and form a human p$ramid. The two and three tier formation moves clockwise and anti clockwise. 881 SIDDHI DHA*AL= GU5ARAT The Siddhies migrated to )ndia from .frica about C?F $ears ago. The$ settled in the coastal parts of 0u3arat like /haruch! /havnagar! 7unagarh and Surat. The$ follow *uslim religion and dance to the beat of drum on the eve of the 2rs of their 6rophet /aba 0aur. The dancers graduall$ pick up tempo and get
39

into trance breaking tossed coconut on their heads. 7ust like their ancestors from .frica! Siddhies are master of rh$thm dancing to the tune of huge drums. 841 GHOO*AR= HAR,ANA 0hoomar is a dance performed b$ the girls of border areas of 5a3asthan and -ar$ana at various festivals like -oli! 0angaur 6u3a and Tee3. The girls form semi'circles and start singing and clapping.The dancers then form a circle and the tempo of the dance is accelerated. The movements are made b$ holding bod$ weight on one foot and moving forward. as the tempo increases towards the end! the dancers whirl around in pairs. The accompan$ing songs are full of satire and humour and refer to contemporar$ events. 891 :INNAURI NATTI= HI*ACHAL +RADESH This dance is in the veins of the Kinnauris. Their movements of the natural world around them and their music echoes the sound of the bree&e blowing through forests. )mportant amongst the dances of the Kinauris is L,S.5 S-,+. C-2KS.*. )t takes its name from L,S.) meaning new $ear. The dancers recreate movements of all the agricultural operations of sowing and reaping ogla (barle$ and phaphar (a local grain . Slow movements with soft knee dips with accentuation of torso is the ke$ step of this dance. 8@1 +AI:A= 5HAR:HAND 6aika is a t$pical dance of the *unda communit$ of 7harkhand! and thematicall$ represents rituals connected with preparations for war. %ith chest blades! multi'coloured headgear! anklets! bows! arrows! spears! swords and shields the dancers enact battle scenes! s$mboli&ing the great war of the *undas against the /ritish. The fast beat of the madal! along with the use of other musical instruments like dhol! nagara! shehnai! and ranbheri make 6aika dance performaces trul$ captivating. Though performed on various occasions! the 6aika dance is most readil$ associated with the 1ussehra celebrations. 8.1 ROUFF= 5A**U F :ASH*IR 5auff is the most popular dance in the Kashmir <alle$ and is performed b$ the women folk. The dance is performed during harvesting season but the most essential occasion is the month of 5am&an when ever$ street and corner in Kashmir resounds with the 5ouff songs and dance. The girls wear colourful 6hirans'Kashmir cloaks and Kasaba'the head gear. The girls form two rows facing each other and putting their arms around the waist of the ne(t dancer. The$ start with rh$thmic movements of the feet and weave a few patterns swa$ing and swinging backward. Traditionall$! no musical accompaniment is used with 5ouff songs as the$ are sung while doing the dail$ chores. The folk instruments like noot! tumbaknari! rabab etc are used when it is performed on the stage or in some gathering. 8A1 5A0RO= 5A**U F :ASH*IR 7abro is a communit$ dance of the nomadic people of Tibetan origin living in Ladakh. 7abro is performed b$ both men and women during Losar' the Tibetan
40

new $ear celebrations' and also on other festive occasions. /ecause of the e(treme cold! the dancers wear heav$ gowns made of sheep skin! lamb skin caps and long leather shoes. 6erformers stand in two facing rows! holding each others hands! and dance gracefull$ with slow! gentle movements as 7abro songs are sung to the accompaniment of the 1amien'a stringed guitar'like instrument and flute.

8;1 VEER0HADRA= :ARNATA:A The e(otic cultural tradition of <eerbhadra was brought to Karnataka b$ the South )ndian rulers. This ritual is e4uall$ popular in some parts of Karnataka. <eerbhadra is performed on Chaitra 6urnima and the 1halo festival. The person enacting the role of <eerbhadra is dressed in a warriors costume. -e wields swords as he dances. .ccording to legend! <eerbhadra is supposed to get possessed b$ a divine spirit. The invocation of <eerbhadra is recited in Kannada even toda$. 861 DHOLU :UNITHA= :ARNATA:A 1holu Kunitha is a drum dance performed b$ the men folk of the shepherd communit$ known as Kurubas. This dance is noted for its powerful drumming and vigorous dancing which is replete with acrobatic elements. The dancers during the course of performance make attractive formations of all sorts. )t provides both spectacular variet$ and comple(it$ of skills in the process of demonstration. The high pitch of tala! tappadi! trumpets! gong and flute reinforce the rich vibrations of dholu. This dance is popular in some parts of north and south Karnataka. 871 O++ANA= :ERALA This is a bridal dance performed b$ *uslim girls of +orth Kerala and Lakshadweep on wedding occasions. There are separate dancers for the bride and bridegroom. /rides and grooms are mentall$ prepared for marriage and the nuptial night b$ their close friend through a se4uence of dance and music. This is an occasion of great celebration and merriment and all arrive attired in gorgeous costumes. 4/1 +URULIA CHHAU= <EST 0ENGAL Chhau dance of 6urulia in %est /engal is one of the most vibrant and colourful folk art forms. 9manating from martial practice! 6urulia Chhau is a vigorous form of dance'drama drawing its themes from the two great )ndian epics! 5ama$ana and *ahabharata. *asks and elaborate head gears are the ornamental apparels of the Chhau dancers. The dance commences with an invocation of Lord 0anesha before movements begin as per the stor$. )n Chhau dance! the fight between good and evil alwa$s culminates in the triumph of good over destructive evil. 6owerful movements! immense concentration! the da&&ling costumes! the rh$thmic drum beating and the shehnai characteri&e the Chhau dance form. This dance is popular in 7harkhand also.

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481 0ADHAI= *ADH,A +RADESH . t$pical folk dance of *adh$a 6radesh! /adhai is performed to thank 0oddess Sheetala for safeguarding people from natural calamities and ailments and to seek her blessings on happ$ occasions like weddings and childbirth. .ccompanied b$ folk musical instruments! the performers dance gracefull$ to a rh$thm! creating a livel$ and a colourful spectacle. This particular rh$thm is known as /adhai from which this folk dance has ac4uired its name. .nimals also take part in /adhai +rit$a and in man$ villages! mares (female horses are seen at such performances. 441 0AREDI= *ADH,A +RADESH )t is closel$ related to the cattle'farm culture of the countr$! especiall$ of the /undelkhand region(*6 . The /aredi folk songs and folk dances are presented during the fortnight commencing from 1eepawali (Kartik .mawas$a to Kartik 6oornima. The$ wear a t$pical attractive dress speciall$ meant for this occasion. ,ne of the performers with a rh$thm sings two lines from the poem called /aredi and the other participants present a vigorous and sprightl$ performance! the /aredi dance. This dance is presented with a worship of 0ovardhan 6arvat. )t is believed that the Lord Krishna himself participated in these /aredi dances alongwith his gwal mates. 491 RAEE= *ADH,A +RADESH 5aee dance is popular in /undelkhand regions of *adh$a 6radesh and 2ttar 6radesh. This dance originated during ancient times for celebrations when the armed forces returned victorious after war. This dance was performed in merriment celebrating victor$. 1anced throughout the $ear! it conve$s the spirit of 3o$ and e(uberance of the people of /undelkhand. )t is primaril$! a female dance! where the dancers with veils on their faces! move their feet and whirl bod$ in rh$thm to the accompaniment of vocal and instrumental music. .lgo&a! mridanga and dhapali are the main musical instruments used in this dance. 4@1 LAVANI= *AHARASHTRA Traditionall$ an integral part of the Tamasha folk theatre of *aharashtra! Lavani is the most popular and best known folk dance form of the state. .lthough! there is no restriction regarding the choice of themes for a Lavani performance! this art form is at its best when dealing with themes of braver$! pathos! love and devotion! *usic! poetr$! dance and drama intermingle with such perfection in the rendering of Lavani! that it is almost impossible to separate their various components. 4.1 DHOL CHOLO*= *ANI+UR 1hol Cholom! traditional folk dance of *anipur! is performed usuall$ on religious occasions to the accompaniment of songs and dhol (large drum 'the most important component of this dance form. 2suall$ performed during the Naoshand festival (or the festival of colours ! the dance e(presses love and

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creativit$! with an intricate interpla$ of dhols and firepla$. 1hol Cholom belongs to the *anipur sankirtan traditions. 4A1 LEZI*= *AHARASHTRA The traditional Le&im dance is performed b$ the artistes on religious and social events. Speciall$ it is having base in a .khada (*artial .rt tradition of *aharashtra. )t is performed in ever$ corner of *aharashtra. This Le&im 1ance includes 0huti Le&im! 0hoongroo Le&im! 1akhani Le&im and 6alita Le&im. This dance is occasionall$ performed in *adh$a 6radesh and 0u3arat also. The instruments used in this dance are dhol! tasha and 3han3 etc. 4;1 LE<ATANA= *EGHALA,A Lewatana is a folk song and dance of -a3ong tribe of *eghala$a. -a3ongs observe various festivities of the -indus. The Lewatana is usuall$ performed b$ the -a3ong during the 1iwali festival. )n this dance! the $oung men and women form a group and while dancing and singing various folk songs! the$ compare man with nature.

461 CHERA<= *IZORA* Cheraw is a livel$ and a uni4uel$ attractive traditional dance of *i&oram. 6erformed on all festive occasions! it is also known as the /amboo 1ance! as bamboo forms an integral part of this folk form. Two long bamboo staves are kept crosswise and hori&ontall$! parallel to ground and the male dancers clap the staves! resultantl$ producing a sharp sound setting the rh$thm for the dance. The female dancers! on the other hand! attired in colourful traditional costumes' puanchei! kawrchei! vakira and thinna'step in and out from between bamboo beats with tremendous skill and precise timing! maintaining all the while their elegant poise. )n addition to the musical pattern created b$ the clapping of bamboo staves! drums and gongs are also used for effect. 471 GOTI+UA= ODISHA 0otipuas! the $oung bo$s dressed up as girls sing devotional love songs of 5adha'Krishna and perform 0otipua dance. )n the present form! the 0otipua dance is more precise and s$stematic in its conception. The repertoire of the dance includes vandana'pra$er to 0od or 0uru! sarigama'a pure dance number! abhina$a'enactment of a song! and /andh$a +rit$a'rh$thms of acrobatic postures! a uni4ue presentation where 0otipuas dance and compose themselves in different acrobatic $ogic postures creating the images of 5adha'Krishna. *usical accompaniment is provided b$ mardala'a pakhawa3! gini'small c$mbals! harmonium! violin and flute. 9/1 RANA++A CHADDHAI,A= ODISHA

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5anappa dance is popular in the coastal areas of 0an3am district of ,disha. This is a martial art form of dance where the dancers walk and dance on sticks (5anappa with special gestures on rh$thms of drums. This is an imitation of mock fight. This is something uni4ue! the dancers e(hibit their skills in balance on sticks. Chaddai$a is a part of the famous 1anda +ata of ,disha. 6erformed in the month of Chaitra! it is associated with the worship of Shiva and akin to the *a$urbhan3 Chhau. The dedicated worshipers participate in the dance holding a 1anda (6ole and a 6asa (Knot s$mbolic of a devout Shaivite! the$ dance vigorousl$ to the accompaniment of drums and *ohri displa$ing various elements of martial practices. 981 0HANGRA= +UN5A0 /hangra is the most popular folk dance of 6un3ab! performed b$ men on festive occasions! at weddings and fairs and to celebrate /aisakhi or the harvest festival. 1ressed in brightl$ coloured plumed turbans! traditional tehmats! kurtas and waistcoats! the dancers perform to the robust rh$thms of dhols! bolis't$picall$ rustic 6un3abi folk songs and other traditional instruments. 9nergetic and infectiousl$ livel$! /hangra is a spectacular dance! the popularit$ of which has crossed the borders of 6un3ab.

941 GIDDHA= +UN5A0 0iddha is the favourite dance of 6un3ab in which women dance at weddings! at the time of birth of a child! the Tee3 festival and other happ$ occasions. The dance consists of singing! clapping! enacting the /oli as well as pure dance. The dancers form a circle and participating in pairs! take turns to come centre stage and perform a /oli. Towards the end of the /oli the$ dance vigorousl$ in sheer abandon! while those in the circle sing and clap in unison. The refrain is sung A'B times! then the performers withdraw to be replaced b$ another pair and a new /oli. The /oli deals with the da$MtoMda$ life situations of rural folk. 0iddha is accompanied b$ the dholak (drum or gharah (earthen pot . 991 :AL0ELIA= RA5ASTHAN This fascinating dance is performed b$ the women of the nomadic Kalbelia communit$ whose primar$ occupation is rearing snakes and trading in snake venom. ,n festive occasions! as traditional songs are sung to the plaintive notes of the been and the daf! the dancers belonging to the +ath sect dressed in their traditional black swirling skirts perform this dance. The dance highlights the unparalleled virtuosit$ of the dancers often reminiscent of the graceful and supple movements of the snake. 9@1 CHA:RI= RA5ASTHAN The Chakri dance is performed b$ the women of the Kan3ar communit$ of 5a3asthan. The dancers whirl around in circles in colourful skirts appearing like
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spinning tops thus deriving its name Chakri! which means moving in circles! or spinning. 2suall$ performed at weddings and on festive occasions! Chakri is accompanied b$ the rh$thm of daph! man3ira and nagara. *ost famous Chakari dancers come from /aran Kola district in -adauti area of 5a3asthan but is popular in district of Kota and /undi also. 9.1 TA*ANG SELO= SI::I* Tamang Selo is a Sikkimese folk dance of the Tamang communit$. )t is also known as 1amphu as it is performed to the accompaniment of a native musical instrument called damphu. 2suall$ performed during 1asain or 1ussehra! it depicts the colourful lifest$le of the hill people! ampl$ reflected through their lavish festive celebration and dances full of fun and vigour. Tamang Selo is performed b$ traditionall$ attired $oung men and women. 9A1 :AVADI= TA*IL NADU This dance was supposed to be performed b$ a giant named )dumban ' with a pole slung across his shoulder. .t the two ends of the pole he was supposed to carr$ the favourite hills of *uruga! the popular deit$ of Tamil +adu. The carr$ing of Kavadi b$ pilgrims is s$mbolic of )dumban with the hillocks poised on the pole. There are several kinds of Kavadis. 2nder the spell of the h$pnotic music provided b$ the drums! nadaswaram and thavil! the devotees proceed to the shrine b$ singing the song 8Kavadi Chindu8 with 4uick and vigorous movements. The Kavadi is never touched b$ the dancer while dancing. 9;1 :ADAGA*= TA*IL NADU . folk dance of Tamil +adu! Kadagam originated as a ritual dedicated to the worship of *ariamman! the 0oddess of rain and health. The ritual is performed during the month of .ugust when the idol of *ariamman is carried in procession. . ritual pot filled with water is adorned with beautiful decorations! several feet high! and is carried b$ the priest. The colourfull$ attired performers carr$ decorated vessels verticall$ on their heads and dance to the tune of nagaswaram! thavil! muni! udukkai and pambai and also perform acrobatic feats as the$ follow the procession. The Kadagam dance is ver$ popular in Tamil +adu! 6uducherr$! Karnataka and .ndhra 6radesh. 961 HOZAGIRI= TRI+URA -o&agiri dance is the most popular and spectacular dance of the 5eang communit$ of Tripura. The occasions in which 5eang women perform -o&agiri are known as *ailuma and *aiktah! signif$ing the festival of new harvest and worship of Lakshmi! the goddess of wealth and prosperit$. The 5eangs believe that when the goddess is pleased b$ entertaining with dance and songs! she blesses them with bumper crops. Thus! the theme of this dance is mostl$ connected with cultivation. Standing on the pitcher! the$ move the metal plates while dancing on it while keeping the bottle on the head atop which is a oil lamp alight or pick up a flower from the ground bowing their bod$ back. .ll along the dance the$ twist their waist with much finesse.

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971 D0O0IA= UTTAR +RADESH The 1hobia dance is performed on the occasion of birth! marriages and festivals like 1usshehra and -oli! The dance is popular among the dhobi (%ashermen communit$ of eastern 2ttar 6radesh in which onl$ male dancers participate. The dance is basicall$ in the form of a dance'drama. )t usuall$ begins with the recital of a couplet in praise of the .lmight$. .mongst the dancers! one person wearing a ro$al costume enters the arena riding a dumm$ horse followed b$ other dancers. The group of musicians also stand behind the dancers pla$ing their instruments. The dance begins with the music provided b$ drums! c$mbals and ghunghroos which are tied on waist and ankles. . traditional wind instrument! called ransingha! which is the centre of attraction pla$s a significant role in boosting up the tempo of the dancers. -ori! Ka3ri! Chaiti! Kaharwa! Lachari! Thumari! 1adra and +irgun songs are adopted in 1hobia dance. The dance is accompanied b$ /ho3puri and .wadhi folk songs.

*USIC
The two distinct st$les! -industani and Carnatic came into vogue after the advent of the *uslims! particularl$ during the reign of the *ughal 9mperors of 1elhi. /oth the s$stems of music received their nourishment from the same original source. %hereas the )ndian music of the +orthern part of )ndia assimilated some features of the music of the 6ersian and .rabic musicians who adorned the courts of the *ughal rulers of 1elhi! the music of the South continued to develop along its own original lines.

HINDUSTANI *USIC
There are >F main forms of st$les of singing and compositions; 1hrupad! 1hamar! -ori! Kha$al! Tappa! Chaturang! 5agasagar! Tarana! Sargam and Thumri. +owada$s 0ha&als have become ver$ popular as the Glight classicalG form of music. DHRU+AD

1hrupad is the oldest and perhaps the grandest form of -industani vocal music. 1hrupad is essentiall$ a poetic form incorporated into an e(tended presentation st$le marked b$ precise and orderl$ elaboration of a raga. The

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e(position preceding the composed verses is called alap! and is usuall$ the longest portion of the performance. 1hrupad is in decline since the >Dth centur$. :HA,AL Kha$al literall$ means a stra$ thought! a l$ric and Gan imaginationG. This is the most prominent genre of -industani vocal music depicting a romantic st$le of singing. Kha$al is dependent to a large e(tent on the imagination of the performer and the improvisations he is able to incorporate. . Kha$al is also composed in a particular raga and tala and has a brief te(t. The Kha$al te(ts range from praise of kings or seasons! description of seasons to the pranks of Lord Krishna! divine love and sorrow of separation. There are si( main gharanas in kha$al; 1elhi! 6atiala! .gra! 0walior! Kirana and .trauli'7aipur. 0walior 0harana is the oldest and is also considered the mother of all other gharanas. THU*RI

Thumri originated in the 9astern part of 2ttar 6radesh! mainl$ in Lucknow and /enares! around the >Dth centur$ .1 )t is believed to have been influenced b$ hori, kajri and dadra. Thumri is supposed to be a romantic and erotic st$le of singing and is also called @the l$ric of )ndian classical musicL. The song compositions are mostl$ of love! separation and devotion. )ts most distinct feature is the erotic sub3ect matter pictures4uel$ portra$ing the various episodes from the lives of Lord Krishna and 5adha. . Thumri is usuall$ performed as the last item of a Kha$al concert. There are three main gharanas of thumri '' /enaras! Lucknow and 6atiala. DADRA

1adra bears a close resemblance to the Thumri. The te(ts are as amorous as those of Thumris. The ma3or difference is that dadras have more than one antara and are in dadra tala. Singers usuall$ sing a dadra after a thumri. DHA*AR3HORI

These compositions are similar to 1hrupad but are chiefl$ associated with the festival of -oli. -ere the compositions are specificall$ in praise of Lord Krishna. This music! sung in the dhamar tala, is chiefl$ used in festivals like 7anmashthami! 5amnavami and -oli. The compositions here describe the spring season. These compositions are mainl$ based on the love pranks of 5adha' Krishna. TA++A

The tappa is said to have developed in the late >Dth Centur$ .1 from the folk songs of camel drivers. Tappa literall$ means G3umpG in 6ersian. The$ are essentiall$ folklore of love and passion and are written in 6un3abi. RAGASAGAR
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5agasagar consists of different parts of musical passages in different ragas as one song composition. These compositions have D to >= different ragas and the l$rics indicate the change of the ragas. The peculiarit$ of this st$le depends on how smoothl$ the musical passages change along with the change of ragas. TARANA

Tarana is a st$le consisting of peculiar s$llables woven into rh$thmical patterns as a song. )t is usuall$ sung in faster tempo. CHATURANG

Chaturang denotes four colours or a composition of a song in four parts; :ast Kha$al! Tarana! Sargam and a 86aran8 of Tabla or 6akhwa3. GHAZAL

The ghazal is mainl$ a poetic form than a musical form! but it is more song'like than the thumri. The ghazal is described as the 8pride of 2rdu poetr$8. The ghazal originated in )ran in the >Fth Centur$ .1. The ghazal never e(ceeds >= shers (couplets and on an average! ghazals usuall$ have about C shers. The ghazal found an opportunit$ to grow and develop in )ndia around >=th Centur$ .1 when the *ughal influences came to )ndia! and 6ersian gave wa$ to 2rdu as the language of poetr$ and literature. )t developed and evolved in the courts of 0olconda and /i3apur under the patronage of *uslim rulers. The >Dth and >Hth centuries are regarded as the golden period of the ghazal with 1elhi and Lucknow being its main centres.

CARNATIC *USIC
The Tamil classic of the =nd centur$ ..1. titled the Silappadhikaram contains a vivid description of the music of that period. The Tolkappi$am! Kalladam and the contributions of the Saivite and <aishnavite saints of the Cth and Dth centuries ..1. also serve as resource material for stud$ing musical histor$. )t is said! that South )ndian *usic! as known toda$! flourished in 1eogiri the capital cit$ of the Nadavas in the middle ages! and that after the invasion and plunder of the cit$ b$ the *uslims! the entire cultural life of the cit$ took shelter in the Carnatic 9mpire of <i3a$anagar under the reign of Krishnadevara$a. Thereafter! the music of South )ndia came to be known as Carnatic *usic. )n the field of practical music! South )ndia had a succession of brilliant and prolific composers who enriched the art with thousands of compositions. .fter 6urandaradasa! Tallapakam .nnamachar$a +ara$ana Tirtha! /hadra' chalam 5amdasa and Kshetran3a made contributions to the wealth of compositions

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The birth of the *usical Trinit$ ' T$agara3a! *uthuswami 1ikshitar and S$ama Sastri ' at Tiruvarur between the $ears >C?F to >D?F ..1. ushered in an era of d$namic development in Carnatic music. ,utstanding feature of Carnatic music is its raga s$stem E highl$ developed and intricate tala s$stem. Though clear cut demarcations in the st$le of musical presentation! similar to the gharanas of -industani music are not seen in Carnatic music! $et! we do come across different st$les in rendering compositions. The ancient musical forms like 6rabandhas! etc. graduall$ gave awa$ to the different musicals forms that are in use in present da$ music! though the basic elements of the ancient 6rabandhas are still retained in the modern forms. The following musical forms offer interesting stud$; GITA*

0itam is the simplest t$pe of composition. Taught to beginners of music! the gitam is ver$ simple in construction! with an eas$ and melodious flow of music.

SULADI

<er$ much like the gitam in musical structure and arrangement! the Suladis are of a higher standard than the gitam. VARNA*

The <arnam is a beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order! combining in itself all the characteristic features of the raga in which it is composed. 6ractice in <arnam singing helps a musician to attain master$ in presentation and command over raga! tala and bhava. SVARA5ATI

This is learnt after a course in gitams. *ore complicated than the gitas! the Svara3ati paves the wa$ for the learning of the <arnams. The theme is either devotional! heroic or amorous. 5ATISVARA*

<er$ similar to the svara3ati in musical structure! this form' 7atisvaram'has no sahit$a or words. The piece is sung with solfa s$llables onl$. :IRTANA*

The Kirtanam had its birth about the latter half of the >Bth centur$. )t is valued for the devotional content of the sahit$a. Clothed in simple music! the kirtanam abounds in /hakti bhava. )t is suited for congregational singing as well as individual presentation. :RITI
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The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana. )t is an highl$ evolved musical form. The highest limit of aesthetic e(cellence is reached in the Kriti composition. The raga bhava is brought out in all the rich and varied colours in this form. +ADA

6adas are scholarl$ compositions in Telegu and Tamil. Though the$ are composed mainl$ as dance forms! the$ are also sung in concerts! on account of their musical e(cellence and aesthetic appeal. The music is slow'moving and dignified. 5AVALI

. 3avali is a composition belonging to the sphere of light classical music. Sung both in concert programmes and dance concerts! the 3avalis are popular because of the attractive melodies in which the$ are composed. )n contrast to the padas which portra$ divine love! 3avalis are songs which are sensuous in concept and spirit. TILLANA

The Tillana! corresponding to the Tarana of -industani music! is a short and crisp form. )t is mainl$ a dance form! but on account of its brisk and attractive music! it sometimes finds a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece. +ALLAVI

This is the most important branch of creative music. )t is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta! that the musician has ample opportunities of displa$ing his or her creative talents! imaginative skill! and musical intelligence. TANA*

This is a branch of raga alapana. )t is raga alapana in *adh$amakala or medium speed. There is perceptible rh$thm in this. The rh$thmical flow of music! flowing in fascinating patterns! makes tanam singing the most captivating part of raga e(position.

LANGUAGES
EIGHTH SCHEDULE -ARTICLE 9@@-82 F 9.82 Arti le 9@939.8
.ssamese /engali /odo(H= C. 1ogri(H= C. 0u3arati -indi Kannada Kashmiri *anipuri *arathi +epali ,dia(>>A C. Sindhi Tamil Telugu 2rdu

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*aithali(H= C. Santhali(H= C.

Konkani *ala$alam

6un3abi Sanskrit

SAHIT,A A:ADE*I IndiaGs Nati'nal A ade)% O( Letters' 5ecognised =B including 9nglish Language .ssamese /engali /odo(H= 1ogri(H= *aithali(H= Santhali(H= 0u3arati -indi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani *ala$alam *anipuri *arathi +epali ,dia(>>A 6un3abi Sanskrit Sindhi Tamil Telugu 2rdu 5a3asthani(e(tra 9nglish(e(tra

b$ Sandeep Nadav Sources:http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/SecICHCour/En !ish/CH.01.pd" http://ccrtindia. o#.in/ $HE %&'(E) $H*$ %*S I'(I*- * + ,*SH*http://!awmin.nic.in/coi/EI.H$H-SCHE(/+E.pd" http://sahit0a-a1ademi. o#.in/sahit0a-a1ademi/a2outus/a2out.3sp

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