Professional Documents
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The following section summarizes the concepts, practices, and techniques that are covered in more
detail in later sections. It's the longest section for just that reason: because it introduces you to all
the material. As you read it, think about how attitude, aptitude, anticipation and attention all work
together to make for a safe, fun driving experience.
All good drivers have learned the rules of the road, and have acquired the skills to adapt quickly to
changing situations. They know how to use their common sense to anticipate problems. Their skills
and their common sense work together to make them the safest drivers on the road. The marriage of
learning and common sense to anticipate and avoid problems has a name: Defensive Driving.
Many of us think of driving as a solitary experience. We get in our vehicle and go, and feel wrapped
in the solitude of 3000 lbs. of steel and upholstery. In fact, when we drive, we are a part of a huge
community that includes other drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. As in any community, rules of
courtesy are the key to comfort and survival. Never underestimate the power of stupid people in
groups. First, courtesy means that you are aware of those around you...and awareness is the basis
for survival on crowded roadways filled with hurtling vehicles.
The other important fact is this: If you are courteous, you help create a more gentle and comfortable
driving environment. It makes driving more fun.
2. Right-of-way
A lot of heated driving disputes occur over the simple question: 'Who gets to go first?' 'Right-of-way'
rules help avoid these disputes by laying out the order that drivers can proceed through an
intersection that has no stop signs or traffic signals (called an 'uncontrolled intersection') when two
or more vehicles arrive at the intersection at the same time.
The right-of-way rule says that a driver that reaches an uncontrolled intersection first has the right-
of-way to go through the intersection after making certain that it is safe to proceed.
If two vehicles arrive at the intersection simultaneously, the vehicle to the right proceeds first.
• To pedestrians in a crosswalk
• At stop signs
• To pedestrian and vehicle when you are
emerging from an alley
• To emergency vehicles Vehicle #1 is to the right of vehicle #2 and
• At four-way stops proceeds first..
• When making a left turn
Stress, anger, and/or fatigue – if unchecked - impair your ability to think clearly and concentrate on
the job at hand. Learn to identify and control these conditions.
a. How to recognize it: Before you start your
vehicle, think about how you feel. Are you angry,
exhilarated, or depressed? Has something made
you edgy? If you do not feel relaxed, take time to
clear your head.
The driving environment changes constantly. Your job is to adjust and adapt to changes.
Driving during daylight hours, your biggest problem can be keeping your eye on the road rather than
rubbernecking at the scenery. At night, you tend to lose depth perception. You also tend to
unconsciously speed-up and 'overdrive' your headlights. Thus, driving in daylight tests your focus,
while driving at night is a bigger test of your driving technique.
a. Visibility: Always concentrate on seeing and being seen. During the day, avoid
being blinded by road glare. Make sure to keep your windshield clean. It is not a bad
idea to drive with your lights on during the day to increase your visibility to others. At
dawn and dusk you will find yourself driving through low-contrast 'white light.' This is an
especially dangerous time, because low contrast ensures that you see less than you
think you do. Avoid passing or driving too fast for conditions.
b. Speed: When the sun goes down, so should your speed, since your visibility is cut
to approximately 500 ft…the distance your headlights cast their beams. You must be
able to stop your vehicle within the range of your headlights.
c. Planning the route: If you are driving at
night, plan a route that takes you along well-
lighted streets. Business areas and urban
freeways are better lighted than secondary
roads and residential areas. Where do forest
rangers go to 'get away from it all?'
Nighttime reduces your vision to
the throw
of your headlights. It is also
primetime for intoxicated drivers.
2. Weather
In California, a leisurely day's drive can take you from hot, dry badlands to icy, snow-covered
mountains to rainy coastal plains. Each of these climatic zones presents its own challenges, and their
conditions can co-mingle to create wind, hail, rain, and fog…all within a few dozen miles.
a. Fog, Rain, and Snow: Driving in a fog is unlike any other driving condition. Fog
slicks up the road. It makes it difficult to see. It makes it difficult to judge distance. It
makes you lose sense of exactly where you are on the road, in which direction you are
driving, and at what speed you are driving. To make matters worse, fog reflects your
high-beam headlights back into your eyes turning the fog into a solid, impenetrable
wall. So, only use low-beams when driving in the fog – never high-beams.
In one recent year in the U.S. there were 1,387 deaths due to foggy conditions. In
November 2002 198 vehicles collided in a single chain reaction due to soupy fog on the
Long Beach Freeway. According to Ted Eichman of the California Highway Patrol, the
collision occurred because motorists badly misjudged their stopping distance in the fog,
continuing to drive too fast. In dense fog, drivers often steer their vehicles by following
the taillights of the vehicle ahead…which is blind reliance on a stranger.
Roads become especially slippery during the first 15 to 20 minutes of precipitation (fog,
rain, or snow), because moisture washes-up oil that has permeated the road surface.
This mixture of old oil and water can be lethal to an unaware driver.
The same slippery conditions that hold in fog apply to light dustings of snow. Also,
drifting snow obscures the road; high winds can blow your vehicle off a slippery road;
deep snow reduces traction; and vehicle problems such as vapor lock can leave you
stopped and stranded.
(1) braking distance: 'Braking distance' refers to
the time it takes your brakes to stop your vehicle.
In wet weather, this often increases as road
moisture penetrates your tire-wells and makes
your brakes slick, causing loss of traction. Leave
plenty of braking distance. Avoid hard braking in
bad weather, which leads to skidding.
• Get the 'feel' of the road and adjust your speed accordingly.
• Be sure tires have plenty of tread and are properly inflated.
• When slowing or stopping, gently apply the breaks.
• Avoid braking.
• Reduce your speed by decelerating.
• Steer smoothly in a straight line.
• Follow in the tracks of the vehicle ahead of you.
• Open up extra space between you and the traffic.
• If conditions are ripe for hydroplaning, stay out of the fast
lane where, if you spin-out, you can strike the center divider.
b. See and Be Seen: Headlights are
required to be activated during darkness,
which is from 30 minutes after sunset to
30 minutes before sunrise. Darkness is
also defined as any other time when
visibility is not sufficient to render
discernible a person or vehicle at a
distance of 1000 feet. Turn on your low-
beam headlights in rain, fog or snow The
law (CVC 24400 a & b) now requires your
headlights to be activated whenever your
windshield wipers are in continuous
operation and whenever visibility is such
that you cannot clearly see another
vehicle or a person from a distance of
1000 feet. In special circumstances – you
are slowing down for safety, for instance -
tap your brakes, thus activating your
brake lights. Always keep your windshield, This is a lethal combination of snow and
headlights, and taillights clean. fog...not
uncommon in the mountains during
3. Road Conditions winter, spring, and
autumn. Drive with your lights on to see
a. Soft Shoulder: Often road shoulders and be seen.
are made of softer material and are lower
than the paved portion of the roadway.
Not only does this reduce your traction,
but you can become trapped on the wrong
side of an abrupt edge.
4. Intersections
a. Controlled and Uncontrolled: A controlled intersection is an intersection protected
by a signal light, traffic control officer or a stop or yield sign. Uncontrolled intersections
have no such safeguards, leaving you to proceed through the intersection at your
discretion. 'Discretion' can be defined here as your common sense about the rules of the
road, combined with your anticipation of trouble given the situation.
Red Stop
Red arrow Do not turn against this arrow
Flashing red Come to a full stop before proceeding with caution
Yellow Proceed with caution and prepare to stop
Flashing
Proceed cautiously through the intersection
yellow
Yellow arrow The 'protected' turning time is ending; prepare to stop
Green Go, after yielding to vehicles, pedestrians, or bicyclists in the intersection
Go in the direction of the arrow, after yielding to any vehicle, pedestrian, or bicyclist in
Green arrow
the intersection
Traffic signal
When there is an electrical power failure, treat the intersection as a four-way stop
blackout
d. Signaling
distance: The law
requires that
drivers signal at
least 100 feet
before turning. At
higher speeds,
signal sooner. For
example, on open
highways or at
freeway speeds,
signaling five
seconds prior to a
lane change is
recommended.
e. Traffic
conditions: In
larger cities,
traffic can be
congested during
most daytime
hours. Properly
prepared drivers
will listen to traffic
reports on radio
stations
throughout the
day to find
whether traffic
conditions on their
intended route are
good.
Never pass:
6. Driving distractions
Collisions often occur when the driver of one or more vehicles is distracted. This is
especially unfortunate, since most distractions are avoidable. Below are some
distractions you do not want to fall prey to.
a. Inside vehicle
• Talking to passengers
• Dialing, answering, and talking on cell phone
• Pets roaming in the vehicle
• Lighting a cigarette
• Eating and driving
• Insects such as bees
• Changing radio stations, audio tapes, or compact discs
Adults are required to use a hands-free set-up when talking on a mobile
phone, and may not use an electronic device to write, send, or read a
text-based communication (e.g., text message, instant message, e-
mail), when driving. Those under the age of 18 are prohibited at all
times from using any wireless telephone or other mobile service device
when driving. The law provides exemptions for using mobile
communications devices to place an emergency call to law
enforcement, the fire department, a health care provider, or other
emergency services.
b. Outside vehicle
C. Collision Causation
Driver error is the most common cause of traffic collisions. Below are some pitfalls to
avoid.
1. Mental
The best defensive driving techniques and attitudes are compromised by mental errors. If
you are unfocused, distracted, or unaware, you can't anticipate and respond effectively
to dangerous situations. These types of mistakes are caused by stress or fatigue, or just
plain sloppy mental habits.
2. Physical
Fatigue, physical disability, illness, and/or being medicated all qualify as physical
conditions that can compromise defensive driving. Aging is factor that sometimes affects
vision, hearing, and mental alertness.
3. Environment
4. Visual Habits
Bad visual habits will lull you into complacency and reduce attentiveness. Train yourself
to scan the driving environment...and then think about what you are seeing, so that you
actually understand the meaning of what you are looking at.
5. Other Drivers
You can never really predict what other drivers will do. Protect yourself by anticipation
and awareness.
6. Collision Types
Collision types tend to differ with road-type and terrain. Collisions on city streets often
happen at intersections, whereas freeway collisions tend to be more varied and
unpredictable.
a. Intersections
(3) space cushion: Think of the space around your vehicle (front,
rear, and both sides) as a cushion that protects you from contact
with other vehicles. Obviously, - depending on the speeds you are
traveling, as well as other factors – that cushion may need to
change form or expand.
c. Lane Changes: Inattentive or sudden lane changes are a major cause of
collisions on the freeway. Often these are caused by 'blind spot errors.' Stay
out of the blind spot of other drivers, and do not let other drivers cruise in
your blind spot. Before making a lane change, be sure to glance quickly in the
corresponding blind spot to be sure there is no conflict.
e. Head-on: Head-on collisions usually occur late at night when traffic is light.
An intoxicated or disoriented driver enters the freeway on an exit ramp
thinking it is an on-ramp. Watch for wrong-way drivers on one-way streets
and anticipate the possibility of a vehicle crossing the centerline on a curved
roadway.
i. Vehicle Failure:
(1) brakes: Brakes tend to fail when overused to slow or stop the
vehicle on long, downhill stretches or in stop-and-go traffic. In
stop-and-go traffic, this can be avoided by driving more slowly in a
lower gear. On long, downhill stretches, drive in a lower gear.
(2) tires: Tires with worn tread tend to blow out and skid easily.
D. Collision Avoidance
There are two defensive driving techniques that are especially helpful to know: The Smith
System of Accident-free Driving; and the SIPDE process. Each is enumerated below.
SIPDE process
a. Be alert - don't assume: As you drive along, envision a plan for escaping
trouble as you drive, and be committed to that plan. Although each situation
is different, you are only going to get a few cues before you must commit to a
maneuver. Many times, there are no advance cues at all. If a vehicle crosses
the centerline, are you going to swerve left? Swerve right? If you know what
you will do beforehand, and you commit early, you stand a better chance of
avoiding trouble.
e. Think ahead: Pay attention at all times to the driving task and drive within
your ability to handle your vehicle.
• Do not drive in another's blind spot, and do not let others drive in yours'
(speed up or slow down). If you have to be in a blind spot, make certain the
driver sees you in his/her mirrors (if you can see the driver's face in the
mirror, s/he can see you).
• Increase your following distance when following a larger vehicle.
• Momentary Distractions: If a distraction is serious, pull off the roadway to
address it.
b. How to establish a three-second gap: When the vehicle ahead of you passes
a stationary reference point such as a sign, count, "one-thousand-one, one-
thousand-two, and one-thousand-three." If you pass that pre-established
reference point before you are finished counting, then you are following too
closely.
c. When to increase the following distance to four (or more) seconds:
e. Look ahead for trouble: When you're driving in the city, look at least 12 to
15 seconds (about one block) ahead of your vehicle. On the freeway, extend
the time/distance to 15 to 20 seconds ahead.
• Look over and around the car around the car ahead.
• Check ahead for speed on hilltops and curves:
Remember that your line of sight is significantly
shortened as you near the crest of a hill. Similarly,
on a curved road, your vision will be blocked.
• Watch for brake lights ahead or in adjacent lanes: If
you see brake lights ahead of you or to your side,
that usually means that something needs your
attention.
• Start braking early: Immediately check your mirrors
and apply light brake pressure. This slows you down
and warns drivers behind you that you might have to
suddenly stop. If you're looking for trouble, pick on a truck.
A defensive driver is always looking for an escape route especially on a narrow curvy
road.
• A long line of cars approaching from the opposite direction: Move to the
right. Being the first driver facing a long line of approaching vehicles requires
you to be prepared to slow, stop, or move to the shoulder.
• An approaching vehicle drifts into the lane of travel: Sometimes an
inattentive or distracted driver coming at you from the opposite direction will
drift over the line into your lane of travel. Be prepared to:
• Slow down;
• Pull to the right;
• Sound your horn and flash your lights.
• On a curve: Going into a curve, remember to slow down on the way into it
and stay toward the right of the lane.
a. Being hit from the rear: There are things you can do to reduce the impacts.
Leave enough space when following another vehicle so that you can pump
your brakes (to alert a driver approaching from your rear) or swerve into an
empty lane if you see an inattentive driver approaching you from behind.
• When to apply the brakes: Try to release the brake at impact to reduce the
force; then, brake hard to avoid being pushed into vehicles stopped or slowed
in front of you.
• Use of head restraints: Brace your head against the head restraint to
minimize whiplash.
b. Being hit from the side: If you see
a vehicle approaching from the side,
speed up or slow down if possible to
protect the driver's-side door. Being
stuck in the front wheel or rear trunk
will reduce your chances of injury.
6. Emergency Situations
Again, your most trusted resource should be your ability to anticipate hazards.
a. Maintenance and construction areas
: If you are in a construction zone, it will be
well-marked with orange cones and/or signs.
Watch for construction machinery and
construction workers.