Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Airport Development
Reference Manual
9th Edition
Effective January 2004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter A — Introduction
Section A1: lATA's Role................................................................................................................... 3
Section A2: Purpose of the Manual ................................................................................................. 5
Chapter B — Planning
Section B1: Major Planning Processes............................................................................................ 11
Section B2: The Planning Process .................................................................................................. 37
Page
Section F10: The Airport Scheduling Process ................................................................................. 213
Section F11: Computational Fluid Dynamics.................................................................................... 216
Page
Chapter L — Aircraft Parking Aprons
Section L1: Current and Future Aircraft Types ................................................................................ 407
Section L2: Physical and Functional Requirements ........................................................................ 409
Section L3: Gate Stands and Remote Stands.................................................................................. 419
Section L4: Ground Handling Equipment......................................................................................... 426
Section L5: Service Roads & Storage Areas.................................................................................... 433
Section L6: Distributed Electrical Power & Air.................................................................................. 438
Section L7: Aircraft De/Anti-lcing Facilities ...................................................................................... 445
Page
Chapter T — Airport Processes
Section T1: Terminal Processes ..................................................................................................... 557
Section T2: Apron Processes........................................................................................................... 560
Section T3: Support Processes........................................................................................................ 562
Chapter Y — Networks
Section Y1: Frontline Operational and Security................................................................................ 705
Section Y2: Building Services ......................................................................................................... 710
ilk
_________________________________________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IATA gratefully acknowledges the technical assistance and input provided by IATA
Members and the
IATA Members Document Review Panel:
Air France Ms. Catherine Lafond
American Airlines Mr. Eduardo Juranovic
British Airways Mr. John Conlon
FEDEX Mr. Jim Sartin
KLM Mr. Hans Smeets
LOT Polish Airlines Mr. Dariusz R.Sawicki
Northwest Airlines Mr. Bob Lamansky & Ms. Yasuko
Qantas Hashimoto
Swiss International Air Lines Ltd. Mr. Derek Sharp
Mr. Davor Frank
Text and Diagram Contributions:
Airbus Industries
Airport Design Associates (ADA) Mr. Sebastien Lavina
APS Aviation Inc. Mr. Rick Stevens & Mr. Alan Clayton
ARINC Mr. Jean Valiquette & Mr. John D'Avirro
Boeing Aircraft Corp. Mr. Edward King
Davis Langdon Everest Mr. Brad Bachtel
Fabricom Airport Systems Mr. Tony Potter
HDP Group Mr. David Reynolds & Mr. Chris Owens
International Air Rail Organisation Mr. David Langlois & Mr. Jeremy Hill
Mott MacDonald Consultancy Mr. Andrew Sharpe
Netherlands Airport Consultants B.V. Mr. Chris Chalk
(NACO) Mr. Huib Heukelom
Norman Shanks Associates International Mr. Norman Shanks
Ove Arup & Partners Mr. Graham Bolton & Mr. Tony Barker
SITA Mr. Graham McLachlan &
Mr. Peter Dalaway & Mr. Rene Azoulai
Swiss International Air Line Ltd. Mr. Davor Frank
Sypher Mueller Mr. Gordon Hamilton
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
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IATA
Chapter A — Introduction
Section A1: lATA's Role
A1.1 IATA......................................................................................................... 3
A1.2 IATA Airports Activities ............................................................................ 3
A1.3 Other IATA Airports Activities................................................................... 4
Section A2: Purpose of the Manual
A2.1 Scope of the Airport Development Reference Manual ............................ 5
A2.2 How to Use the Manual............................................................................. 6
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ÊATA Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
CHAPTER A — INTRODUCTION
A1.1 IATA
International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fastest-changing industries in the world. It
needs a responsive, forward-looking and universal trade association, operating at the highest
professional standards. IATA is that association.
Originally founded in 1919, IATA brings together approximately 280 airlines, including the world's
largest. Flights by these airlines comprise more than 98 percent of all international scheduled air
traffic.
Since these airlines face a rapidly changing world, they must cooperate in order to offer a seamless
service of the highest possible standard to passengers and cargo shippers. Much of that cooperation
is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to "represent, lead and serve the airline industry".
Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can move around the vast global airline
network as easily as if they were on a single airline in a single country. In addition, IATA helps to
ensure that Members' aircraft can operate safely, securely, efficiently and economically under clearly
defined and understood rules.
IATA is pro-active in supporting the joint industry action essential for the efficient development of the
air transport system. lATA's role isto identify issues, help establish industry positions and communicate
these to governments and other relevant authorities.
The Airports and Infrastructure Consultancy Services section of IATA, positioned in the SO&I Division,
works to put this theory into practice.
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iATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Airport economics.
• Contingency management.
• Airport commissioning.
• Future technology & miscellaneous items.
• Airport processes.
• IATA airport project process.
• Anti-terrorism and police facilities.
• Airport fire services.
• Networks.
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MTA Airport Development Reference Manual
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IATA Introduction
For general information regarding the standards defined within this manual please refer to:
Mike O'Brien
Director, Airport Development and Infrastructure Consultancy Services
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
800 Place Victoria, P.O. Box 113
Montreal Quebec Canada.
airportdev @ iata.org
Fax+1 (514) 874 2662
For consultancy assistance please refer inquiries to:
Chris Mirfin
Director, Infrastructure Consultancy Services
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
800 Place Victoria, P.O. Box 113
Montreal Quebec Canada.
airportdev@iata.org
Fax +1 (514) 874 2662
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
Chapter B — Planning
Section B1: Major Planning Processes
B1.1 Airline Participation................................................................................. 11
B1.2 Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) ..................................................... 11
B1.3 Key Planning Items .................................................................................. 15
B1.4 "World-Class" Airports .............................................................................. 23
B1.5 Typical Features of World-Class Hub Airport ............................................ 24
B1.6 IATA Global Airport Monitor ..................................................................... 31
B1.7 IATA Facilities Planning Questionnaire..................................................... 32
B1.8 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 36
Section B2: The Planning Process
B2.1 National Planning Considerations ........................................................... 37
B2.2 Regional Planning Considerations ........................................................... 38
B2.3 The Airport Master Plan ............................................................................ 38
B2.4 Local Community Issues .......................................................................... 39
B2.5 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 39
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
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CHAPTER B — PLANNING
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Aircraft Parking Apron — aircraft layout and related docking guidance systems.
• Passenger Terminal — planning and design of new terminals or major expansions of existing
terminals.
• Airside and Landside Infrastructure & Surface Access Systems.
• Cargo Terminal Developments — air freight and air express facilities.
• Airport Support Facilities — e.g. cargo terminals and flight kitchens.
ACCs will concentrate on achieving a rational balance between:
• The level of service provided for both passenger and cargo in their respective terminal areas and
fields of operation.
• The long term facility footprint and land area requirements for all parties operating at an airport.
• The need for efficient, cost-effective ground handling operations and the increased facility,
resource and equipment requirements to support multiple handlers.
• The impact and need to allocate global airline alliances within a single operating area or terminal.
• The proposed capital investment and the resultant operating cost to airlines over an agreed
period.
• The need to increase concession areas and resulting revenues, and the potential impact on
passenger flows and airline operations.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• The differing needs of international carriers compared with those of domestic carriers, charters
and emerging low-cost carriers (LCCs).
ACC activity will include an assessment of the capacity of existing facilities and a comparison against
current and projected demand. The ACC will seek as much financial information as possible to
facilitate an economic assessment of various planning options in terms of layout, space requirements,
labour, equipment, etc.
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IATA Planning
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
1. Meeter/Greeter Hall.
2. Apron Layout.
3. Aircraft Servicing Installations.
4. Location of Support Facilities.
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IATA Planning
High speed rail systems should be considered for airport access. The increasing use of rail systems
should be encouraged by making it as widely available and as attractive as possible in terms of
relative speed, reliability, price, convenience, safety and comfort. The airport rail station should be
above ground, if possible.
If the airport is located close to the city centre and the city already has a subway system, then
consideration should be given to extending it to connect the airport to the existing public transportation
system.
• Terminal design must meet all regulations for handling disabled persons.
Frontal type counters may be arranged in an uninterrupted, linear layout or be spaced so as to allow
passengers to pass between the counters after check-in (pass-through layout).
Island type counters are suitable for centralised check-in. Each island, the axis of which is orientated
parallel to the flow of passengers through the terminal concourse, may consist of up to 16-18 individual
check-in counters. The number of check-in counters per island can be doubled if two main baggage
conveyor belts are installed in parallel back to back. Normally 26m separation (face-to-face) between
adjacent islands is recommended.
The distance passengers must carry their baggage to the closest terminal check-in point should be
kept to a minimum.
Baggage trolleys should be available on the curbside, in the car park and at the railway station.
Departure flight information displays must be available within the check-in area as well as information
kiosks.
Consideration should be given to the latest automatic self-service check-in kiosks with a view to
maximising security, using biometrics, and minimising passenger check-in wait times.
B1.3.6 Signage
A well-conceived signposting system will contribute considerably to the efficient flow of passengers
and traffic at the airport. It is therefore essential to consider the signposting system in the early
planning and concept evaluation stages. The signage system may be a combination of fixed (boards,
panels) and dynamic (monitors) signage. The signage system should be clearly separate from
advertising.
Airline brand name and logos should be clearly visible, allowing passengers to easily find the airline
check-in or ticketing facilities.
Ideally, the passenger terminal building should incorporate self-evident passenger-flow routes through
the building, but where signs are required they must provide a continuous indication of direction.
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IATA Planning
The primary purpose of an airport signposting system is to move the travelling public through a myriad
of roadways and corridors using a concise and comprehensible system of directional, informational,
regulatory, and identification messages.
Consistent use of standard terminology in airports (including pictograms) will simplify the process of
making the transition from the ground mode to the air mode (and vice versa) for the travelling public.
It is important for signposting systems to adhere to a basic guideline of copy styles and sizes,
consistent terminology, recognisable and universally acceptable symbols, and uniform colours for
standard functions. Message content must be understandable by the unsophisticated as well as the
sophisticated traveller. Signposting should be in "mother tongue" and English.
B1.3.7 Security
Security requirements must be taken into account in all new development, re-development and
refurbishment of airports, as stated in ICAO Annex 17. To do this, it is necessary to have clear
government security standards which can be used by airport planners in such a way as to maintain
the integrity of the local security programme, yet allow sufficient flexibility for them to be matched to the
circumstances of each airport and its operations. Security requirements must be realistic, economically
viable and allow for a balance to be made between the needs of aviation security, safety, operational
requirements and passenger facilitation.
Airlines and airport authorities should take note of the latest information on this subject in the IATA
Security Manual and should ensure that due allowance for the related requirements, including costs,
is made in all airport terminal and apron development plans.
A centralized or semi-centralized passenger and carry-on baggage security check point design is
favoured. They must be properly sized, and manned, in order to avoid long queues.
The design of the outbound baggage handling system must account for 100% Hold Baggage Screening
(HBS).
• Baggage flow should be rapid, simple and involve a minimum number of handling operations.
• Baggage handling arrangements within the building should be consistent with apron arrangements
and with the type and volume of traffic expected.
• Baggage handling systems should incorporate the minimum number of turns and level changes
as is practicable within the terminal design.
• Baggage flow should not conflict with the flow of passengers, cargo, crews or vehicles.
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fATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Provision should be made for the forwarding of transfer baggage to the departure baggage sorting
areas.
Flow on the apron should not be impeded by any form of physical control or check.
Space for 100% HBS should be provided.
Facilities for oversized baggage must be provided.
Check-in take away conveyors should be provided at each counter.
Plans for fallback handling in case of failure should be provided with all baggage handling systems.
• The commercial revenue earned by the airport authority is used to reduce aeronautical charges.
• The accessibility and accommodation for these facilities must be arranged so that maximum
exposure to the passenger and visitor can be accomplished without interfering with the flow of
passenger traffic in the terminal. 70-80% of retail concessions should be located airside.
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IATA Planning
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
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IATA Planning
• Operation of the fixed installations should in no way impede other aircraft servicing functions.
• Pits, hydrants and other facilities connected with the fixed installations should not impede the
flow of apron traffic.
• Fixed service installations should, as far as possible, be located close to the corresponding outlets
on the aircraft and there must be close liaison between the airlines, the airport authority, the
fuelling companies and other suppliers concerning all aspects of design and installation.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Passenger Terminals
Sufficient airport and terminal facilities to allow airlines to meet their own airline service standards
at a reasonable cost (see Figure B2.1 for airline service standards that need to be converted into
physical airport facilities).
IATA Level of Service C or better should be attained (subject to acceptable capital cost and
resultant operational cost limitations) — Refer to Section F9.1.2
Apron configuration and capacity to not inhibit scheduling and to allow airline alliance proximity
parking for hubbing operations.
Apron services available — aircraft fuelling, ground power.
Competitive MCTs (Minimum Connecting Times). MCTs must be competitive with competing
regional airports. Adequate facilities to allow single airlines or alliance airlines to complex flights
within published MCT.
Sufficient aircraft stands to meet peak demands — buses to remote stands. 90-95% of passengers
(on an annual basis) should be served by a passenger boarding bridge.
Terminal facilities to accommodate complex peak demand.
Inter-terminal passenger and baggage transfer systems.
Intra-terminal walking distances minimized.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
34
Planning
B1.5.7 Conclusions
It is a challenge for an airport authority to meet all of the planning criteria required to become a 'world-
class' airport. Nevertheless, it is important that airport authorities and their airport planning consultants
are aware of the airline industry's views on airport service/planning excellence.
The following tables on Airport Passenger Terminal Planning Standards summarize airline
requirements for a 'world-class' passenger terminal:
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Planning Element
Planning Standard Recommended
for Typical Busy Day Practice
Departure Gate Lounges Space - 1.2m2 per passenger standing WB aircraft should be parked close to
& the
1.7 m2 per passenger seated main PTB to reduce the walking
Seating - 70% of passengers should distances
have for largest numbers of passengers.
access to seating, including seating at Gate lounge should include podium
F&B counter
(food & beverage) concessions. close entrance to PBB & include CUTE
Walking Distance Maximums of 250 - system with 2 boarding pass readers
300m unaided & 650m with moving for
walkways (of which not more than aircraft larger than type C, a document
200m printer & boarding pass printer.
unaided). Shared baggage facility (shutes/freight
APMs for travel over 500m. elevator to apron level) at the gate
Passenger Boarding Bridges 90 - 95% of passengers (on an Apron drive bridges with 400 Hz fixed
annual ground power, air conditioning &
basis) will be served by a passenger potable
boarding bridge. water attached.
PBB justified with minimum of 4-6 Glass-walled bridge preferred.
aircraft Code 'E' aircraft - one or two bridges
operations/day. 'NLA' aircraft - one bridge to upper
deck &
one bridge to main deck.
Aircraft docking guidance system.
Ramps (with slope not exceeding 1:12)
should be used to connect the PBB
with the
departures gate lounge (upper level)
and
Aircraft On-Time Performance Sufficient land for twin independent
(1,800-
2,000m separation) staggered parallel
runways (3500 - 4000m length x 60m
width) with space for 2 additional
close
parallel runways.
Inbound Passport Control Maximum Queuing Time of 10 min. Introduction of biometrics will
Space - for passengers waiting up to speed up
30 processing.
minutes. 1.0 m2 per passenger.
Refer to Section F9.10.2
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IATA Planning
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
FIG. B1.1 Continued: AIRPORT PASSENGER TERMINAL PLANNING STANDARDS
AIRPORT PASSENGER TERMINAL PLANNING STANDARDS
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IATA Planning
Each year IATA publishes the results of the Global Airport Monitor surveys conducted at major
airports
around the world. Figure B1-2 shows the rankings of the Top 10 Airports from 1998-2002.
40
Figure B1-3: IATA Facilities Planning Questionnaire
Estimates for planning purposes only — not a commitment to rent the required space
Airline:_________________________________ Planning Years_____________to ______________
Airport:_________________________________
1. HANDLING ARRANGEMENTS
2. SPACE/FACILITY REQUIREMENTS
State your existing facilities and requirements for the forecast years specified above. Airlines
intending
to be handled by third parties should only specify those requirements which would not be provided
by the handling agent.
Staff Desired Existing Requirements Requirements
Function Location Facilities Year Year
No. Check-in Counters
No. Self-Service
Counters
No. CUSS Kiosks
Check-in ___
Support Offices 7
No. Ticket/Sales
Counters
(not included above)
Administrative Offices m' m' m*
Operations Offices nf nf m'
VIP/CIP Lounge m^ nV m<
Communications nrr* m< m*
Facilities (specify)
Line Maintenance m< m< rtf
Offices/Stores
Ground Equipment m' m<
Parking
Other (specify)
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
B1.IR1
Experience has shown that the most effective and mutually beneficial course of action for the
airlines is to establish consultation with the aiiport authority and its consultants as early as
possible to explore alternative airport plans and terminal concepts. An ACC (Airport
Consultative
Committee) is the forum to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation
between the airlines and the airport authority concerning the planning of a major airport
expansion
or a nf;w airport, in order to input airline functional requirements. A successful ACC has major
benefits for both the airlines and the airport authority. Where formation of an ACC is not
practical
due to resource limitations, airports should still have a regular detailed dialogue with the
relevant
airlines and handling agents
B1.IR2
The Aiiport Passenger Terminal Planning Standards table summarizes airline requirements
for a "world-class" passenger terminal. An airport authority should ensure that its consultants
planning the airport terminal incorporate these planning standards and recommended practices
into the design of the airport passenger terminal.
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IATA Planning
An example whereby this holistic strategic approach has been well adopted can be cited by the British
government (Department for Transport), which created and developed The South East and East of
England Regional Consultation Document. This specific paper was based on the results of the South
East and East of England Regional Air Services (SERAS) Study. This document included proposals
for different amounts of new runway capacity as well as options that limit development in the South
East of England at a strategic level. While the SERAS document is specific to the region in question,
it does demonstrate the necessary level of governmental strategic thinking that is required and
represents an excellent benchmark in this regard for governments worldwide.
Generally the formal planning sequence which is followed is denoted by the following stages. It should
be noted that national government planning sequence variations are likely to occur:
The national plan should be developed in consultation with all airport operators, national and
international commercial interests, airlines and IATA, and should address the following issues for the
perceived 30 year development period:
• National commercial and political objectives where government and financial institutions seek to
expand regions within a nation for development or continued expansion.
• Ecological and environmental impact of airport and flight operations to new or expanded existing
airports.
• Commercial impact studies on existing airports, airlines and handling agents, including those
pertaining to cargo operations.
• Identification and impact on areas of natural beauty, historic sites and religious monuments.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Methods that may be employed to access the national airport planning document should be published
in appropriate press and government information sources. The document itself should be a realistic
interpretation of the facts developed by a wide cross section of the airport and airline industry, as
well as local community representatives. The document should include but should not be limited to
the following detailed sections:
• Statement of airport development needs for the nation.
• National and regional business development needs.
• Social needs and relevant impact statement.
• ATM national development plan.
• Airport to rail and road national development position statement.
• National airport development plan.
• High level funding options for national airport development alternatives.
• List of contributors to the text.
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IATA
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IATA
C1.1 INTRODUCTION
The airport master plan is created to guide the future development expectations of airports and to
establish their ability to expand and develop in a logical, sustainable and cost effective manner. Airline
market forces are discernibly linked to the master plan development proposal; i.e. as airport traffic
increases the facility's development and operations should be phased to provide the appropriate
airport processes and sized infrastructure. Should an airline's operations fluctuate, then the master
plan should also contain the flexibility to be able to respond accordingly.
Master plans can be created for new or existing airport locations and should be considered as active,
live documents which should be systematically reviewed at least every 5 years. This regular review
and update process should address variations in market forces and the operational requirements of the
facility's airline clients. Existing master plans can be revised to accommodate unforeseen commercial
variations to the airport's or airline's operations.
The master plan will provide a detailed and accurate assessment of how an airport should deliver its
services to its airline and ground handling clients in an effective and controlled manner, with due
consideration for safety, development costs and the resultant realistic cost and profit recovery
mechanisms.
In this section the major attributes and details of an airport master plan are discussed. The master
plan ten point staged sequence is also provided for planners who may find themselves faced with
'blank canvas' airport development proposals. This sequence has been compiled to help airport
planners systematically construct the master plan, giving due attention to the primary and secondary
facilities being proposed and their subsequent placement on the airport site.
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IATA Master Planning
All airports, regardless of their size, can no longer ignore their impact on surrounding communities,
who unfortunately in some instances may have been allowed (by the lack of land-use controls) to
encroach upon the airport's boundary. Sustainability now needs to be considered and a greater
emphasis needs to be placed on the airport as a junction for modal interchange.
A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop,
expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their business in a structured, balanced
and orderly fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent
to the airport. In so doing, the potential of the available land and the capacity of the airport's runway
system can be maximized.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Meteorological conditions.
• Geology and topography.
• Obstacles and terrain.
• Surrounding development & land use.
In this way, later stage evaluations can be carried out should existing facilities be considered for
refurbishment, expansion or demolition to make way for development as foreseen in the master plan.
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IATA Master Planning
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The minima herein are acceptable only when full facilities are installed and no objects penetrate
obstacle clearance surfaces. Category III requires much more sophisticated equipment, which is not
commonly installed at airports or in the aircraft using them. Given the small benefit that Category III
gives compared to its costs, it is usually not installed at most airports. Cat III is most prevalent in
Europe where it is a necessity for the airlines to maintain normal schedules in poor weather
conditions.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Single Fig C1-1 - Lesser impact on - Airport capacity restricted 36-55 Mvts/Hr
Runway environment due to reduced by
apron area and reduced single runway traffic
aircraft movements
movements per hour. capability.
- Runway utilization often - Runway emergencies and
high. maintenance more difficult to
- Recommended choice of manage.
IATA (subject to capacity - Cross wind take off and
Open "V" to Fig C1-2 - Increased runway Mvts/Hr - Not a recommended choice 85-90 Mvts/Hr
"L" Runways yields increased airport of
ultimate IATA.
capacity. - Open "V" to "L" has larger
- Varied runway impact on environment than a
orientations single runway and some
can overcome seasonal parallel
prevailing cross wind runway configurations.
problems. - Open "V" to "L" layout
- Runway emergencies and occupies larger apron plan
62 maintenance easier to area.
manage - Open 'V" layout does not
(subject to case). naturally lend itself to
- Both runways can be used efficient
simultaneously (subject to apron expansion.
ATC - One runway will always be
control limitations) more compromised to
prevailing
IATA Master Planning
Intersectin Fig C1-3 - Varied runway - Not a recommended choice 70-75 Mvts/Hr
g orientations of Qualification:
Runways can overcome seasonal IATA. Movements per
prevailing cross wind - Both runways cannot be hour based on
problems. used two
- Runway emergencies and simultaneously. intersecting
maintenance easier to - Intersecting runway layout runways
manage has
(subject to case). larger impact on environment
than parallel runway as apron
area increased.
- Intersecting runway layout
occupies larger apron plan
area
than single runway or parallel
runway configurations.
- Intersecting runway layout
does not naturally lend itself
to
efficient apron expansion.
- One runway will always be
more compromised to
Staggered Fig C1-4 - Runway utilization can be - Cross wind take off and 60 Mvts/Hr
Runways high. landing can present
- Runway emergencies and problems.
maintenance easier to
manage.
- Dedicated takeoff and
dedicated landing runway
operations promotes safer
multiple runway operations.
- Runway layout naturally
lends itself to efficient apron
expansion.
- Recommended choice of
IATA (subject to capacity
requirements).
Dual Parallel Fig C1-5 - Runway utilization can be - Cross wind take off and 84-105 Mvts/Hr
high. landing can present
- Runway emergencies and problems
maintenance easier to
manage.
- Dedicated takeoff and
dedicated landing runway
operations promotes safer
multiple runway operations.
- Runway layout naturally
lends itself to efficient apron
expansion.
- Recommended choice of
IATA (subject to capacity
requirements).
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Multiple Fig C1-6 - Runway utilization can be - Cross wind take off and 120-168 Mvts/Hr
Parallel high. landing can present
- Runway emergencies and problems
maintenance easier to
manage.
- Dedicated takeoff and
dedicated landing runway
operations promotes safer
multiple runway operations.
- Runway layout naturally
lends itself to efficient apron
expansion.
- Recommended choice of
IATA (subject to capacity
requirements).
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DIRECTION
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Master Planning
Figure C1-2: Typical Open "V" To "L" Shape Runway Zone Diagram
(i) Intersecting runways are necessary when relatively strong winds blow from more than one
direction, resulting in excessive crosswinds if only one runway is provided. When the winds are
strong, only one runway of a pair of intersecting runways can be used, reducing the capacity of
the airfield substantially. If the winds are relatively light, both runways can be used
simultaneously.
(ii) The capacity of two intersecting runways depends a great deal on the location of the intersection
(e.g. midway or near the ends) and on the way the runways are operated. The further the
intersection is from the takeoff end of the runway and the landing threshold, the lower is the
capacity.
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Master Planning
DENOTES PRIMARY
DEVELOPMENT ZONE
IM-v-va DENOTES
TAXIWAY SYSTEM
ESSSS DENOTES
SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT
ZONE
DENOTES TERMINAL OR
CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE
I *S DENOTES LIKELY
DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION
DIRECTION
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
70
H
mm
y
SYSTEM
B^H DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE
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CI5.17 STEP 3m — Runway Capacity
The following table can be used as a basis for comparing differing runway options. There are a
number of factors that can impact on an airport's ability to reach its theoretical maximum potential.
These can include operating restrictions (night curfews or environmental limits), infrastructure
deficiencies (insufficient or poorly positioned Rapid Exit Taxiway (RET) and/or holding bays) and
airport layout weaknesses (crossing of active runways).
Note:
(i) The above table excludes the areas required to support RESA, approach/departure & missed
approach surfaces, glide slope area & airside roads.
Runway Length Requirements
Notes:
(i) MTOW, ISA +20°C/Sea Level, no wind & a dry runway, FAA add 15% for a wet runway. **
MTOW, ISA
+15°C/Sea level. When considering new runways at existing airports, it is important to
consider the existing
and projected traffic mix. In this way the proposed runway length can be tailored to suit the
predominant
traffic type so that planned capacity enhancements suit the largest percentage of forecast
movements.
(ii) Boeing aircraft data courtesy of Boeing Aircraft Company Inc. Airbus data courtesy of Airbus
Industries
website, via published Airplane Characteristics Manuals.
(iii) The runway lengths listed do not consider the effects of aerodrome elevation, runway slope,
wind or obstacles.
Airport planners should refer to the document types listed below, which are provided by the
relevant aircraft
manufacturer(s), and which also details the recommended landing and departing runway
length data:
The layout in figure C1 -7 also provides an indication of the large areas taken up by the primary
infrastructure systems. Here the runway separation is 2,250m, the runway stagger is 1,500m and the
total site area is 1,297.5 ha. The cross-over taxiways are separated by 195m. This dimension allows
a further code F taxiway to be inserted between the two shown at some later date. In this example
the area required to support the movement of aircraft represents approximately 53% of the total area
available.
Cross-over Taxiways
The area required for a twin parallel cross-over taxiway system with associated clearance to object
(with code F separation) between parallel runways with varying separations is approximately:
• The apron should allow for clearances and separation distances as indicated in ICAO Annex 14.
• Aprons should provide maximum flexibility to accommodate varying aircraft types at differing
times of the same day.
• Aprons should be sized to allow for differing aircraft types on individual routes as a result of
seasonal variations in demand that require increases or decreases in capacity.
• Aprons should be planned such that the largest aircraft are positioned as close to the main
passenger processing complex as possible.
• Aprons should be laid out such that aircraft always have one route in and one separate route
out, thereby reducing the need to stop and hold to allow aircraft to enter or exit parking positions.
• Aprons should be capable of accommodating all associated ground equipment, aircraft servicing
vehicles and forward staging areas for baggage and cargo.
Master Planning
way Centreline
1 & Push Back
e For Satellite
ck Clearance
□ Aerodrome
S
IerenceCode
tand Depth
pan Criteria
Aircraft
í
Object
i
m
Taxiway.
&
*
if
1
■
to a .c
1 IN
II
I" l
S
HI || CD
S
Type Length Span a b c d e f g
B 15 m up to but CRJ 26.78 21.21 20.00 33.50 21.50 30.00 30.00 25 -35 3.00
not including
24 m
C 24 m up to but A319 33.84 34.10 20.00 44.00 26.00 45.00 30.00 25 -35 4.50
not including A320-200 37.57 34.10
36 m B737-800 39.50 34.30
D 36 m up to but A310-300 46.66 43.90 20.00 66.50 40.50 55.00 30.00 25 -35 7.50
not Including B757-200 47.33 38,06
52 m B767-300ER 54.94 47.57
E 52 m up to but A340-600 75.30 63.45 20.00 80.00 47.50 80,00 30.00 25 -35 7.50
not including B777-200 63.73 60.95
65m B747-400 70.67 64.94
F 65 m up to but A380 73.00 79.80 20.00 97.50 57.50 85.00 30.00 25 -35 7.50
not including
80 m
These areas are based on the recommended separation distances for taxiways/aprons as outlined
by ICAO, and head of stand dimensions as recommended by IATA. It should be noted that IATA
does not recommend that a rear of stand service access road be provided for either contact or
remote
stands. This aids in avoiding the potential for collisions between ground support equipment and
aircraft
is removed.
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i
e
a
I
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W "
P T
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'Green-field' or 'blue-sea' airports have emerged in the past few years and most have the ability to
become 'mega' airports. These new airports are sized in the 400,000 sq. m range and will generally
open with an initial capacity of approximately 30 MPPA. Each airport has been designed to be a hub
airport and to grow in a modular fashion, with some planned to eventually handle up to 100 MPPA.
The size and extent of the terminal/apron complex will be determined by demand and, in the later
stages, by the capacity of the airport's runway system. All facilities on site should be developed in
balance so that the capacity in one facility is not disproportionate to others within the overall airport
processing system. The airport will be capable of expansion until one of the primary facilities within
the system fails to satisfy the demands imposed upon it.
There are many differing types of passenger terminal/apron complex concepts. These are explained
in detail within Section J2.
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PHP as % of
Annual
SYD (Int.) 15.0 204,000 13,600 4,266 150,000 48
NRTT2 17.0 284,000 16,706 4,857 170,000 58
TPET2 17.0 308,000 18,118 4,857 170,000 63
PVG 20.0 280,000 14,000 5,714 200,000 49
N60 20.0 220,000 11,000 5,714 200,000 39
SINT3 20.0 350,000 17,500 5,714 200,000 61
PHP as % of
Annual
SINT1 21.0 276,100 13,148 7,000 245,000 39
SINT2 23.0 358,000 15,565 7,667 268,333 47
KIX 27.0 293,000 10,852 9,000 315,000 33
PEKT2 27.0 320,000 11,852 9,000 315,000 36
ICN 27.0 496,000 18,370 9,000 315,000 55
KUL 35.0 480,000 13,714 11,667 408,333 41
BKK 45.0 560,000 12,444 15,000 525,000 37
HKG 47.0 550,000 11,702 15,667 548,333 35
PEK(2010) 55.0 730,000 13,273 18,333 641,667 40
PEK(2013) 68.0 900,000 13,235 22,667 793,333 40
PEK(2016) 60.0 1,000,000 12,500 26,667 933,333 38
HKG (2020) 87.0 1,035,700 11,905 29,000 1,015,000 36
Average 13,462 45
Figs:
In practice the distances and the location of core terminal and pier functions can be 90% accurately
located within a master plan proposal without the need to perform simulations. It is however far more
effective to analyse the true dynamics and obtain the 100% confirmed best position of infrastructure
elements by using simulation tools at the earliest possible stage. While simulation activity has a cost,
the long term advantages of having the correct infrastructure placed in precisely the most effective
position can be very significant. The multiple parallel processes that interact within one another should
be dynamically understood and then the terminal buildings and piers should be aligned and sized to
achieve the optimum configuration, giving due consideration to the service standards that should be
observed.
The control tower and fire services provisions should be positioned to align with the recommendations
defined within ICAO Annex 14 and with Section C4 and Section X1 respectively.
The ground transportation processes need to be very carefully assessed within the master plan and
the facilities required will need to balanced against the requirements of locating the terminal building
and stands. The cost to provide links from national rail and road infrastructure should be of prime
concern to the airport planner, as these will have a dominant cost and environmental impact. With a
sound business behind it and the rail and road processes correctly matched to an efficient terminal
and apron layout, the result is likely to be an airport which is favoured by both passengers and airlines
alike, which should be the primary objective.
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The scale of the required maintenance operation is dependent on several factors. These can include:
• If the operation is restricted to a single carrier or open to others.
• The availability of certified engineering staff.
• Access to spare part holdings.
• If the facility is to offer a one-stop service including engine test and paint spraying.
• Fleet composition in busy hour, percentage assumed to be maintained, number of aircraft
maintained per maintenance bay, annual utilisation rate, level of maintenance check performed
(A, B, C or D).
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• Be open to question and scrutiny by clients, site owners and competing airport planners.
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• Non-aviation related property and land with the current status and use specified.
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Particular attention needs to be paid when new or alternate methods of operation are proposed. As
an example, when a new airport proposes to switch from a 100% remote stand operation to one
where 100% contact is possible, airlines, particularly if they operate within the charter or low-frills
markets, may have difficulty in accommodating the additional ground handling charges resulting from
the need to push back and perhaps use air-bridges. Airport operators must therefore be subject to
the discipline of assuring that user charges do not drive away carriers working on the margin of
profitability.
Should the review of proposed operating costs indicate that the proposed development has
substantially reduced the ability for users to make an adequate return, then the preferred concept
should be re-evaluated to determine if there is scope for CAPEX reductions and Operating Expenditure
(OPEX) savings.
In extreme cases, this may require base assumptions to be re-examined and alternative, more simple
and less expensive facility solutions to be brought forward.
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Runway Data
Runway 12 - 30
Existing Ultimate
Effective runway gradient (in %) 0.19 Same
% Wind Coverage 91.4 Same
Designated Instrument Runway(s) / /
Runway length (metres) 3,600 3,900
Pavement Strength (see note 1) 605, 80D. 145DT Same
Pavement type (sod, asphalt, concrete).
Approach Slopes & Clear Zones 50:1 Same
Lighting HIRL Same
Marking All Weather Same
Navigation & Visual Aids ILS, ALS, VASI Same
RETs (rapid exit taxiways) & RATs (rapid access taxiways).
Notes:
1. Values given are gross aircraft weight in 1,000' and type of main gear — Single (S) Dual (D) &
Dual Tandem (DT) Gear aircraft using the CAN-PCN system as appropriate.
Airport Data
Airport magnetic variation
Airport Elevation (highest point of the useable landing area) 850.0' Same
Airport Reference Point (ARP) Co-ordinates (WGS-84) 30* 40* 31' Same
Airport & Terminal NAV aids 111*20'3ff Same
SMR/SMGCS (surface movement radar/surface movement guidance &
control system)
Mean Max. Temperature of Hottest Month 80 F Same
Notes
:
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Airport traffic forecast studies use a combination of trend analysis, data extrapolation, expectation
surveys and professional statistical judgement. Extensive operational knowledge and a comprehensive
understanding of how the local environment in which the airport is situated is required. A close working
relationship with planning and forecasting experts of all major airlines operating at the subject airport
will also be necessary.
Particular attention is also given to comments and forecast inputs from other sectors of the travel
industry (e.g. tourist boards, tour operators, financial institutions, etc.) whenever possible to ensure
that the forecasts incorporate a wide range and broad base of views. As a result, any forecast
produced should reflect the views of the travel industry concerning future traffic development and
likely changes in operating patterns.
Air transport activity generates typical peak period demand that reflects user's characteristics and
volume for a normal busy period. Traffic forecasts often are presented using the following
recommended projection periods:
An important input to the capacity planning process is the airport traffic forecast. An accurate forecast
is essential since the sizing and the phasing of the airport project is dependant on its data. If the
forecast understates demand, the facilities will be built too small and the airport will experience a
capacity problem. If the forecast overstates the demand, the facilities will be over-sized and the
airlines will needlessly pay for under-utilised facilities. It is therefore critical to capture the correct data
from the airlines and trie IATA user groups at the earliest opportunity. Please refer to clause C2.6.2
Data Availability, which confirms some credible sources for this data.
Forecasts can also provide inputs for financial planning. At most airports, landing fees are determined
on the basis of a unit charge that is multiplied by the aircraft maximum take-off weight (MTOW)
tonnage of the aircraft. With an understanding of the likely aircraft movements it will be necessary to
compile a comprehensive financial and cost benefit study to support the forecast material.
The financial plan should include but should not be limited to the following data/factors:
96
• Landing Fee Projection.
• Local Community Benefits.
• Likely Airport Operational Costs.
• Alternative Transport Provision Costs.
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C2.3.3 Cargo
When forecasting the perceived cargo tonnage it will be important to distinguish between the categories
of cargo goods. Cargo is the combination of freight and mail and these in turn are comprised as
follows:
Freight Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger's checked baggage.
Mail Refers to correspondence and other objects tendered by and intended for delivery
to postal administrations.
In the forecast, the combined number of tonnes of freight and mail handled at the airport are taken into
consideration. Also, in general, scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are considered together, as
both are handled in the same cargo terminal area.
The forecast should differentiate between passenger and all-cargo operations, as each will have a
specific influence in respect of apron use. Express freight, for example, will have a dedicated facility
and apron area just as will perishable goods, and so it will be necessary to understand the split
between these categories of cargo volume.
Some of the key factors that influence the demand in cargo traffic are economic growth (both on a
regional and global level) as well as the costs associated with air cargo.
The GDP indicator has demonstrated a strong link to demand for aviation services, in cargo as well
as passenger transport. On a regional analysis there must be an assessment of the catchment area,
and what type of market segment can be captured if there is competition for the same service. As
the global marketplace expands, there is also a need to assess factors on the movement of goods
on a broader base, such as domestic trade policies, elimination of tariffs, etc., on a worldwide level.
Other factors, such as the 'Just in time' philosophy, increase the demand for a faster air cargo service.
The growth in e-commerce has also produced a new demand segment for the movement of products
and the dynamic tracking of goods. Forecasters should seek data from freight forwarding and freight
processing companies to understand market trends and cargo type distinctions.
For airport planning purposes, cargo forecasts must be broken down into sectors differentiating the
means by which the cargo is transported:
tonnes carried on trucks are included in air freight statistics due to this freight being covered by the
same airwaybill as pure air freight.
C2.4 SEGMENTATION
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peaks associated with special events such as religious festivals, trade fairs, conventions and sport
events are excluded. This single day analysis should assess:
• Operational suitability of an aircraft type for a given route structure.
• Aircraft rotations compatible with a high level of utilisation.
• Use of commercially feasible arrival and departure timings throughout the route structure.
• Airport curfews and other limitations.
The 'busy day' data for the base year is 'actual' and should come from the airport control tower (ATC)
log. It should cover each aircraft movement during the 'busy' day with indication of the following
attributes:
• Airline Name.
• Flight Number.
• Aircraft Type.
• Aircraft Registration.
• Seating Capacity.
• Origin Of Flight.
• Arrival Time.
• Terminal Used.
• Passengers Disembarked.
• Direct Transit Passengers (If Applicable).
• Departure Time.
• Destination Of Flight.
• Embarking Passengers.
The busy day should be more than just a single witnessed statistical hour or a day within an
operational
calendar. The busy day should be representative of a frequently occurring 'model' busy period,
representative of a realistic day within a weekly schedule.
Par Year 48,246,137 43.597,194 38,628,916 35,327,039 31.724,035 28,356.470 28,880,214 254,559,006
,00
Per Peak Month 4,887,000 3,877,000 3,487,000 3.057.000 2,798.000 2,778.807 24,940,807
0.
4.258
0 0
Peek Month to Year 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Per Peek Day* 179,519
.10 168,248
.10 151,461 137,809 128.951 114,283 108274 988,545
.04;
Peak Day to Peak Month 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 101
Per Peak Hour 16.791 16,474 12.927 12,699 12.085 8,915 9,148 89,039
10%
Peak Month to Yeat
Peak Day to Peak Month 4%
0.00038
Peak Hour to Peak Day 9%
0.00032
40th Peak Hour to Peak Day 8%
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Forecasters should evaluate the merits of each of the assessment techniques defined within
clauses C2.5 and C2.6 and select the philosophy and approaa •ich best fits the needs of
the project forecast brief and then should present forecasting data accordingly.
Because the distinction between freight carried on aircraft and freight carried on trucks is not
always clear, any analysis of cargo traffic must be made with great caution. There are cases
when freight tonnes earned on trucks are included in air freight statistics due to this freight being
covered by the same airwaybill as pure air freight.
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The need for control of development in the vicinity of airports has been recognised from the very
beginning of commercial aviation. Initially, concerns concentrated on controlling the height of
potential
hazards or obstacles. These centred on incompatible activities that could cause:
All of the above are still pertinent today. Noise did not enter into the equation until the introduction
of turbo-jet operations in the early 1960s, and there are various measures available to alleviate
noise
around airports, including: reduction in aircraft noise at source; land-use planning; development
control or management; operational noise abatement procedures (when permitted by air traffic
control
authorities); and local noise related operating restrictions.
Land-use planning is central to the overall process. Properly managed, it will effectively protect
public
health and safety by minimising exposure to emissions and excessive noise. These management
principles need to be coupled with supportive legislation. Legislative frameworks regulating
surrounding land-use outside of the airfield boundary should be provided by National Governments,
as they are ultimately responsible for ensuring that the airport is interwoven into the regional and
national socio-economic fabric. These should set the broad policy context within which local
authorities
can work, and ideally there should also be a consultation process by which the various stakeholder
groups (surrounding community, airport operators, and airline representatives) can comment on and
suggest changes to draft policies. The airport operator should also be consulted on monitoring the
effective application of the legislation.
The sustainability of air transport is heavily dependent on controlling environmental impact, with a/c
being noise the largest factor to be considered when undertaking land-use planning within and
around
C3.2 LONG TERM VISION
Many of the available solutions to mitigate against noise in the vicinity of airports, including those
obtainable from land-use planning, can often only be realised in the longer term. However this should
not be seen as a reason by those responsible for seeking reductions in noise levels to apply minimal
effort. This particularly holds true for existing airports where the ability to make immediate changes
in land-use is limited.
For existing airports it is also important that a/c source noise reductions and the resultant contraction
of noise contours and population numbers impacted do not allow local authorities to relax their guard
against encroachment upon the airport boundary. It should also be noted that in this regard airlines
have made significant contributions by requesting efficiency gains from a/c manufacturers. Jet aircraft
are now significantly quieter than when they first entered into service over 40 years ago.
Master Planning
Sensitivity to a/c noise will vary from one country or location to the next, and be dependent on
many factors. These can include land-use, building use, type of construction, distance from source,
background noise levels, sociological factors, the amount of diffraction/refraction/reflection due to
buildings and topography encountered on site, and the meteorological conditions prevalent at the
time of exposure.
All of the above can be modelled to determine anticipated noise exposure and community response.
Whatever approach is applied it is important that local authorities apply strict controls over proposed
development in the zones around the airport. It is important to stress that the zones should be
calculated and based on the ultimate achievable throughput of the airport, i.e. when the runway is
saturated, such that long term development flexibility is ensured.
• Zone 1 — Where most land uses and developments are not permitted.
Noise zoning serves two purposes: to protect the airport from encroachment and to protect
residents.
A single authority should have overall responsibility for developing land-use criteria. Zoning plans
should be created as a first step when establishing an airport, as retrospective steps are difficult if
not impossible to achieve.
In general terms noise sensitive development such as housing, schools, hospitals, offices and
banks
should not be permitted in the first zone. It should be noted that building construction can be utilised
as a means to reduce noise exposure.
Numerous strategies can be applied to control the use of land surrounding airports. Development
restrictions within pre-defined zones can secure the longer-term vision for new airports. Retrospective
noise insulation measures may go some way to redressing the balance for commercial and residential
properties of long standing at existing airports. However the means of control, regulation and finance
will vary from country to country and be dependent on national and local characteristics. There are
three differing forms of control, as outlined below.
C3.6.1 Planning
A comprehensive development or layout plan should be provided to local authorities and should be
used as a guide by authorities when establishing development restrictions and controls. For existing
airports this will assist in determining the compatibility of development proposals with Government
policy.
C3.6.2 Mitigation
Measures can be employed that will help to alleviate the problems of aircraft noise. For new
construction, building regulations can ensure that building type, structure and materials provide an
adequate level of sound insulation.
Noise insulation programmes can also assist properties of long standing that are adversely impacted
by the development of existing or new airports. However the cost of applying adequate sound insulation
packages to housing can in some instances exceed the resale value or possible benefit from increased
rent. Also, additional sound insulation measures produce increases in construction and operating
costs and reduce flexibility of use to within the controlled building environment.
In extreme cases, land acquisition and relocation is a policy that can be explored by airport authorities.
However it is expensive and used primarily when no alternative will provide a satisfactory solution.
It may also in some instances have negative social implications.
Barriers can also be used to mitigate noise generated by manoeuvring aircraft or by ground handling
equipment. Barriers can be in the form of earth mounds located adjacent to runway thresholds and
holding aprons. Alternatively building structures, particularly those of main terminal buildings and
finger piers or satellites can be used, and sound attenuation barriers can also be employed. A
particularly good example is the reinforced concrete panels bordering the apron area to the western
side of T4 at London Heathrow. These have been attractively landscaped and in parts are now totally
enveloped by climbing plants and shrubbery. Such barriers can also contribute by doubling as security
barriers, particularly as these often occur in critical operational areas.
C3.6.3 Financial
Construction of new development in the immediate surrounds to the airport can be encouraged by
108 the existence of support infrastructure such as roads, utilities and community based facilities and
services. Similarly the absence of such capital improvement programmes can have the reverse
effect.
Government tax incentives or reduction programmes can also direct development towards areas
where these are welcomed and away from those areas where it is not.
Noise related airport-charging systems could also be employed. For more information in this area
see section D.
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109
• Control tower placement within the airfield (line of sight requirements).
• IT systems provision and infrastructure.
• ATC access control provision.
• ATC staff car parking (if different to general staff car parks).
• Systems commissioning requirements.
ATC radar and airborne aircraft communications buildings are often provided away from the airport
and in dedicated facilities. Where this facility is to be integral to the control tower facility, airport
building and apron designers should consult national ATC legislative bodies for precise size and
facility performance requirements
FIG. C4-1 shows the internal detail of a modern control tower with views overlooking the apron.
• More controllers will have a better vision of specific areas of the apron.
Notts
(i) H1 - Denotes Primary Full Apron
Control Room Height
Dimension Is dependent on Terminal
(II)Building Design
H2 - Denotes Secondary ApronATC visual
Control Room Height requirements
Dimension Is dependent on Terminal Building Design ATC visual requirements
(III) All stand perimeters, runways and taxiways to be visible from apron
control
room(s)
pv) A single Apron Control Room solution is genertcally a preferred solution tnougn
this ATC dependent (Designer should consultnational ATC provider/operator)
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A
Chapter D — Airport Economics
Section D1: Airport Management
D1.1 General Airport Management — Economics ........................................... 109
D1.2 Meeting the Capacity Demand................................................................. 109
D1.3 Financing Airport Capacity Expansion ..................................................... 109
D1.4 The Privatization Trend ............................................................................ 110
D1.5 The Need for Economic Regulation .......................................................... 111
D1.6 Airport Performance and Efficiency .......................................................... 112
D1.7 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 113
Section D2: Airport Cost Structures and Revenue Sources
D2.1 Airport Cost Structures............................................................................ 114
D2.2 Airport Revenue Sources ......................................................................... 114
D2.3 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 115
Section D3: Airport Investment Decisions and Financing
D3.1 Airport Investment Decision-Making ....................................................... 116
D3.2 Airport Financing Options — Debt vs. Equity ........................................... 116
D3.3 Airport Financing Options — Pre-Funding Through Charges .................... 118
D3.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 119
Section D4: Aeronautical Charge Policies
D4.1 Aeronautical Charges.............................................................................. 120
D4.2 Determining the Cost Base for Aeronautical Charges.............................. 120
D4.3 Aeronautical Charging Policies ................................................................ 124
D4.4 Market-Based Options.............................................................................. 125
D4.5 Consultation with Users ........................................................................... 128
D4.6 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... 128
Section D5: International Cost Variations
D5.1 Airport Benchmarking Data .................................................................... 130
D5.2 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... 133
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the financial burden on governments, autonomous authorities have the advantage of creating a
business culture — improving financial performance and quality of service.
With professional management in place that is both financially accountable and able to undertake
and implement long-term development plans, the government-owned autonomous airport authority
has in a number of cases been a precursor to the privatized airport. Such was the case with the
British Airport Authority, established in 1966, which later became a limited company (BAA Pic) with
the Airports Act of 1986, owning seven airports. Shares in BAA Pic were subsequently floated on the
London Stock Exchange in 1987.
The airline industry generally favours the trend what is commonly referred to
as the privatisation of airport and air navigation entities in that the facilities and
services may be provided in a more cost efficient and effective manner. It is
concerned, however, that the process often leads to increases in the cost base
for charges, and thus, higher user charges. The requisites for industry support
for privatisation are: meaningful consultation with the user community prior to
and
during the privatisation process; appropriate legislation obligating observance by
the commercialised/privatised entity of the ICAO Policies on Charges; and the
designation of an effective and independent economic regulatory mechanism
providing oversight of charging practices.
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Private participation can also take the form of a transfer of minority ownership through the sale of
shares to a strategic partner or through a public issue. This has typically been the European model,
although we also find examples in Asia and South Africa. With the notable exception of BAA pic
and a few others, a fully privatized airport is a rarity. Governments have generally demonstrated
apprehension toward giving up full control of their airports to the private sector.
In summary, faced with budgetary constraints and the increasing financial resources required to fund
airport operations and development plans, governments have felt that airports could be better
operated
and managed as commercially autonomous entities, having access to private sector capital.
Moreover,
private participation and privatization in the provision of airport services has been seen as a source
of revenue.
Although the large majority of airports still remain under government or public ownership, either in
entirety or through a majority holding, indications are that private involvement in the ownership and
management will continue to increase. As the need for airport development funding continues to
grow, with governments being increasingly reluctant to contribute funds, the pressures to privatize
airports will continue. These pressures will not only come from governments, but also from the airport
management that desires full managerial and financial autonomy from government interference.
Typically, those airports already operating profitably as private companies are seen as mature
candidates for full privatization.
• It has to produce more detailed accounts consistent with the Companies Act.
• The CAA, working in conjunction with the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (MMC), can
investigate complaints of discrimination or abuse of monopoly position.
• Aeronautical charges, in terms of revenue per passenger, could increase by no more than the
retail price index (RPI) less an estimate of the expected increase in productivity, a negotiated X
per cent.
The significance of this latter condition — the "RPI minus X" formula that would be revised every
five
years — is that it would force BAA to become more efficient and diversify into other revenue
generating
activities that are not subject to price controls. Thus, through the 'single till' rate-setting
methodology,
aeronautical charges could be kept within a targeted range. However, this so-called 'single117till'
regulatory mechanism has come under increased criticism and is not seen as shareholder friendly
as airport charges at Heathrow — one of the world's most congested facilities — were expected to
fall 30% in real terms by March 2003 (the end of the regulatory review period).
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
efficiently in the first place). Other regulatory schemes are contractual, whereby the airport comes to
an agreement with the user community to cap charges at a certain level for a fixed term. Such is the
case at Copenhagen.
In other States a regulator may have been appointed to monitor the behavior of the concessionaire
of an autonomous airport authority, but is largely ineffective in carrying out its mandate. The main
reason for this is that the regulatory authority may not be sufficiently independent and entrusted with
the necessary enforcement powers. In many such situations the concessionaire has the lobbying
power to sway government officials and politicians, rendering the CAA virtually powerless. However
in the vast majority of cases of private participation or privatization of airports, examples of effective
and truly independent regulatory mechanisms do not really exist.
As airports are increasingly operated on a commercial basis, and the trend toward airport
privatization
continues, the need for and interest in information on financial performance will grow. Since airports
enjoy a quasi-monopolistic position, demand for airport services is relatively inelastic and the
potential
exists for abuse in extracting high revenues from airport customers. Airport profitability, therefore,
does not necessarily equate to airport efficiency. Aside from measuring airport quality of service
standards, airport managers will therefore have to measure an airport's economic efficiency by
assessing the relationship between inputs (labour, capital, etc.) and outputs (passengers, aircraft
movements, work-load units, etc.) Not only are airport performance indicators useful to airport
managers for making decisions on the best use of resources, users will insist on them and
regulatory
authorities may well impose them as a means to gauge whether the commercialization process is
delivering on the efficiency promise.
While performance indicators can be used to analyze and monitor past and current performance,
they can also be used to give an indication of the overall quality of performance when compared to
a standard that reflects industry best practice. However data comparability problems make inter-
airport comparisons difficult to calculate and interpret. Every airport has its own method for charging
for its facilities and services, making it difficult to assess the relevant charge and its underlying cost
base. Aside from currency differences, accounting practices differ from airport to airport; some
airports
are recipients of government subsidies, while others have to arrange for their own financing.
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revenues as its main source of revenue. However, if such an airport is to attract, retain and develop
traffic, it will have to set charges at reasonable levels. It is likely that these domestically-oriented
airports will not achieve full cost recovery and typically will rely on some form of subsidization.
However,
as discussed in the section dealing with privatization, government subsidies are running dry and
airports have been pressured to become financially viable through the development of other revenue
sources.
ICAO has therefore recommended for some time that airports fully develop their non-aeronautical
revenue sources. Lesser reliance on aeronautical revenues is also one of the reasons why IATA has
supported airport commercialization. However the development of additional revenue sources
through
concessions that are directly associated with the operation of air transport services; e.g. fuel through-
put fees, catering concession fees, aircraft handling concession fees, etc., should not be considered
as opportunities for revenue enhancement since this only increases the cost to operate at an airport
and is therefore considered no different from increasing aeronautical charges.
The development of commercial activities has proven to be particularly profitable for certain airports,
leading some to take on more risky ventures or to get involved in non-airport-related activities. Aside
from offering consulting services, some airports have been making investments in other airports or
airport development projects, or getting involved in the provision of discotheques, casinos, or other
real estate projects.
The concern here is the potential for management distraction away from the core business of
running
efficient and cost effective airport facilities and services. An equally significant concern is the
potential
that users of the airport are exposed to the financial risk related to such ventures. Nevertheless, the
development of revenues from non-aeronautical activities has become the principle means by which
a growing number of airports have been able to recover their total costs in the case where losses
are made on the aeronautical side of the business. Under a 'single-till' rate-setting methodology,
charges can therefore be moderated and kept at reasonable levels. Further discussion on this topic
is included in the sections dealing with airport cost allocation and rate-setting methodologies.
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1
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital is defined as the weighted average of the cost of debt, r B, and the cost of equity,
rs. Taking
corporate taxes into account, the appropriate cost of debt is the after-tax cost of debt since interest is tax deductible.
The formula for
122
determining the WACC is:
S B ,.
Twacc- g^g- rs + g-Tfg- rB U - sIc)
T
For regulated industries like gas, power, telephone, or railways, the cost of capital has been used to set prices so that
the utility earns
this rate of return. If the cost of capital is set too low, then the company will not be able to attract sufficient capital to
IATA Airport Economics
Nevertheless, there appear to be some compelling reasons for airports to take on more debt vs.
equity. Profitable enterprises with stable, predictable cash flows and safe, tangible assets can afford
to take on more debt; unprofitable, risky firms with intangible assets less so. Utilities, such as airports,
typically can afford much greater leverage.
There is also a certain order in which firms go about seeking financing. New capital will first come
from retained earnings. Only after this option is exhausted or becomes difficult due to imposed
limitations on the build up of reserves, will a firm turn to lenders — whether the banks for loans or
lines of credit and/or the bond market. Only as a last resort does the firm turn to the equity market.
This being said, it has been observed that airports have surprisingly low levels of financial leverage
and, more importantly, they have significantly less debt than their peers; i.e. utility companies.
General obligation bonds — General obligation bonds are backed by the issuing government and
secured and serviced out of general tax receipts. They are sold at relatively low interest rates.
Total general obligation indebtedness of the relevant government may be a limiting factor in the
use of general obligation bonds.
Self-liquidating general obligation bonds — A variation of general obligation bonds are self-
liquidating general obligation bonds, which are secured by the good faith and credit of the issuing
government, but are serviced from airport revenues. They have the advantage of the low interest
cost, but are not subjected to debt restrictions and do not compete with other public works projects
for capital funding.
Airport revenue bonds — Airport revenue bonds, for which debt service is paid out of airport
revenue, have been the major financing mechanism at large and medium size airports in the US.
They are sold at slightly higher rates of interest due to greater perceived risk. Essentially, the
airport pledges that its future income will be sufficient to cover the interest and capital repayment
over the period of the bond issue. The coverage ratio typically ranges between 1.2-1.5 and level
of risk will be dependent on this coverage ratio.
Lease or special facility bonds — These bonds are guaranteed by the future rental or lease
payments of the airline or group of airlines that are going to use the facility, and are secured by
way of long-term lease/use agreements.
Since bond rating agencies determine how bonds are priced, it is important to understand how airport
bonds are perceived. In general, bond rating agencies have historically rated airport revenue bonds
quite highly. A 1990 ACI survey of 31 airports found that 8 of the airports surveyed had the best
possible rating (Aaa on Moody's Credit Rating Scale), and 12 had high ratings (Aa). It is an airport's
status as a critical public utility generally lacking significant competition for local traffic, as well as its
ability to recover its costs, that have lifted airport ratings up to investment-grade levels.
Growth of the airport sector in the bond and bank debt markets will depend heavily on the extent to
which borrowers and lenders can identify and control credit risk. Credit analysis is important and will
be a key element in the long-term growth of airport debt. An evaluation of an airport's credit position
involves a fundamental analysis of its business and competitive position and its operations. As such,
the perceived credit quality of an airport is the product of its performance in a number of analytical
areas:
• Competitive position — O&D airports tend to carry less risk than do hub airports that rely heavily
on transfer traffic.
• Finances — operational comparables, benchmarks and financial ratios are used to assess an
airport's strengths and weaknesses.
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• Rate-setting methodology employed — a key consideration since it fundamentally determines
who assumes the risk for the airport's financial operations and who has control over airport capital
decisions.
• Debt profile — the amount, type and structure of the debt being issued are reviewed when
assessing an airport's credit position.
• Ownership structure — generally speaking, direct government ownership that provides for a
guarantee against default improves an airport's ability to access capital markets.
• Management — aside from an assessment of the strength and quality of the airport management,
the nature of its relations with the airlines is also considered.
• Environmental issues — noise restrictions on runway usage have become a significant issue,
particularly for western European airports, as this can hamper growth and expansion. From a
credit perspective, the extent to which operational restrictions and opposition to expansion will
affect an airport's position and impact its financial and strategic position needs to be assessed.
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For most airports, aeronautical charges continue to generate well over half of their total revenues.
On the part of the airlines, airport charges are critical because they have a direct impact on operating
costs. However, due to a variety of factors, airport charges impact different airlines differently.
For a short-haul carrier with a high frequency hub feeder operation, airport charges can be significant
— as much as 20-25% as a proportion of total operating costs. For a long-haul carrier operating large
aircraft, airport charges can account for about 5% of total operating costs. Depending on the region
of the world, this figure can increase to 10-12% or be as little as 2-3%. In absolute terms airport
charges have more than doubled, and as new airport facilities and services become operational in
some regions of the world higher user charges can be expected.
In summary, since airport charges are an uncontrollable cost as compared to other costs, and have
been escalating faster than any other airline cost over the last decade, they will continue to be a
major cause of concern for airline management. It is for this reason that the topic of User Charges
has been among the top three priorities for IATA in recent time.
2001 vs.
^ATA Operating Cost 11 2JD m 1991
IATA International Scheduled services US cents US cents
per % of per % of % change
Cockpit Crew 3.3 8.4% 2.8 7.1% -15.2%
Fuel & Oil 6.1 15.4% 6.1 15.4% 0.0%
'The cost to be shared is the full cost of providing the airport and its essential ancillary
services, including appropriate amounts for cost of capital and depreciation of assets, as
well
as the cost of maintenance and operation, and management and administration expenses,
but allowing for all aeronautical revenues plus contributions from non-aeronautical revenues
accruing from the operation of the airport to its operators."
IATA Airport Economics
The paragraph captures two important concepts for determining the cost base for airport charges.
First, the meaning ascribed to the terms 'full cost' emanates from the 1991 ICAO Conference on
Airport and Route Facility Management (CARFM) during which it was agreed to delete the word
'economic' between the words full' and 'cost' from previous version Doc 9082/4, '...to emphasize the
principle that only the costs actually incurred by the providers of airport and air traffic control facilities
and services should be charged...'
This recommendation was meantto reflect the growing trend toward airport autonomy and privatization,
and to indicate that the ICAO Statements by the Council on Airport Charges (Doc 9082/4) was only
to provide guidance on the cost recovery of the facilities and services provided to air traffic.
Rate-setting methodologies
The second concept is the application of the 'single-till' principle, in that the cost base for charges
should be based on the cost of the airport facilities and services provided, net of contributions from
non-aeronautical revenue sources.
How much of a contribution should be considered has been the subject of much debate and contention
between airports and airlines. The airline industry has historically been of the opinion that airports
exist to facilitate air transportation services and that revenue from all commercial activities within the
airport perimeter should therefore contribute to the 'single-till' in the determination of the cost base
for charging purposes.
Further, considering that airports are increasingly developing their commercial potential through
involvement in non-core activities, it is also felt that the airline community should be consulted prior
to such initiatives in regards to what extent users should be exposed to the risk involved under a
'single-till' rate-setting methodology.
In the US, this trade-off between risk exposure and user-say has been captured in airline airport use
agreements. The residual approach1 to setting airport charges guarantees the airport will break-
even, although some airports will ensure that an adequate surplus is made. In this case, the airlines
take the financial risk, but usually have veto power over airport investment decisions by way of a
'majority-in-interest' (MM) clause, which gives airlines veto power over airport-development plans.
The other rate-setting methodology is the compensatory approach 2, which on a total airport basis is
not set to necessarily break-even. A profit or loss can be made depending on the level of traffic and
commercial activity that is generated. In this case, the airport assumes the financial risk, but receives
the benefits of the concession revenues, usually during periods of traffic growth.
Airports employing this methodology have tended to produce larger surpluses and would also be in
a better position to use retained earnings for investment purposes. However, US legislation limits the
level of profit allowed and there have been cases when airlines have sued airports for the accumulated
surpluses. Nevertheless there has been a tendency for airports to move away from the residual
approach to adopt the compensatory or hybrid approach, which employs a mix of the two
methodologies, usually airside residual and landside compensatory.
Under the 'single till' or 'global residual' approach to rate setting, which IATA favours, big income
streams from areas like parking and retail have,the effect of lowering airport charges to airlines, while
the airlines, in turn, assume the financial risk and ensure the airport is kept whole. However, the
'single till' has become a topic of heated debate, with the airports arguing that it is an economic
perversity since it subsidizes the airlines, especially so during times of capacity constraint, and creates
a disincentive to develop new sources of non-aeronautical revenue.
1
Residual Methodology — under this approach, which can be applied on a cost centre or total airport basis, non-airline
revenues
127are
credited against costs to determine the net revenue required, which is then apportioned back to the airlines.
2
Compensatory Methodology — under this approach, rates and charges are calculated to fully recover the airlines' share of
operating and
capital costs without any credit for non-airline revenues. The airlines' share of costs exclude concession and public areas,
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Another paragraph of importance is 22(vii) which states that:
"Airports may produce sufficient revenues to exceed all direct and indirect operating costs
(including general administration, etc.) and so provide for a reasonable return on assets at
a sufficient level to secure financing on favorable terms in capital markets for the purpose of
investing in new or expanded airport infrastructure and, where relevant, to remunerate
adequately holders of airport equity."
In the context of airport privatization, airlines are of the opinion that they should not be made to pay
for the (at times) speculative returns sought by equity holders. Airport management will be tempted
to take on more risky ventures (e.g. international expansion through equity holdings) in order to attract
and retain investors. Further, the temptation would be to reduce the contributions of non-aeronautical
revenues to the cost base for aeronautical charges or abandon the 'single till' concept altogether.
This is therefore yet another reason for the need of an independent and effective economic regulatory
mechanism to help mitigate user exposure to such risk.
Given the debate surrounding the 'single till' principle to rate-setting and its link to the regulated return
an airport can generate, ACI and IATA developed a joint interpretation of sub-paragraphs 22(i) and
22(vii) which is reproduced below:
ACI/IATA JOINT INTERPRETATION OF
SUB-PARAGRAPHS 22(i) AND 22(vii) IN
ICAO'S POLICIES ON CHARGES FOR AIRPORTS AND
AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES (DOC 9082/6)
In interpreting these two sub-paragraphs, the following should apply:
1. The existence of air traffic activity is a necessary precondition for the generation of airport non-
aeronautical revenues. Such revenues are then generated through management initiatives in
offering suitable products and prices. All aeronautical and non-aeronautical revenues from the
operation of an airport accrue, in the first instance, to the airport. Reaching a common
understanding on the contributions of non-aeronautical revenues to defray the cost base for
charges is an acknowledgement of the partnership between airports and users.
2. The non-aeronautical revenues in question do not normally include revenues earned by airport
operators from activities undertaken off-airport, or those undertaken by the airport in full
competition with other suppliers.
3. Given the different local circumstances and fast changing conditions, with respect to airport
ownership and management, as well as regulatory regimes, there are likely to be a range of
different appropriate treatments of non-aeronautical income by airports.
4. When determining the contributions from non-aeronautical revenues, high priority should be given
to the investment needs of airports, taking into account paragraph 24 of Doc 9082/6, which
addresses pre-funding of projects, while recognizing that there may be many alternatives to
finance infrastructure development.
5. The appropriate return on aeronautical activities should reflect differences in the level of risk from
non-aeronautical activities. Further, iniorder to provide incentives to the airport operator, high
levels of service and efficiency in aeronautical activities may be rewarded with higher returns and
vice versa.
6. When defining the contributions from non-aeronautical revenues, an accounting system should
be in place to identify the relationship between costs and revenues of non-aeronautical and
aeronautical activities (Doc 9082/6, sub-paragraph 17(vi) refers).
7. As stated in point 4 above, it may he appropriate for airports to retain non-aeronautical revenues
rather than use such revenues to defray charges. However, there is no requirement for airports
to do so and, in appropriate circumstances, there may be solid grounds for charges to be lower,
consistent with Doc 9082/6, sub-paragraph 22(viii).
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IATA Airport Economics
As a final point, in the event that aeronautical charges are determined without any contributions from
non-aeronautical revenue sources, then the cost allocation between aeronautical and non-aeronautical
functions and among landing (runways and taxi ways), parking/apron and terminal facilities should
be based on an accurate and appropriate methodology that is deemed to be reasonable and equitable
to users.
Cost accounting
It should be evident from the foregoing that a proper cost accounting system is an essential tool,
both in providing the basis for determining the cost base for charges, but also for providing information
to airport management in its assessment of operating performance from a financial perspective. The
cost accounting system should help achieve the following objectives:
• Understand the composition of these costs and what the cost drivers are.
• Determine the efforts and accomplishments associated with programmes and delivery of services
and their changes over time in relation to costs.
• Measure the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization's management of services,
programmes, and assets.
In the determination of the cost base for charges, special attention needs to be given to the issue of
cost allocation, because so many of an airport's costs are joint costs. First, the total costs by major
cost item (operating & maintenance, marketing, administrative, capital charges, etc.) have to be
determined. The second step involves allocating these functional costs to the various airport areas
or services and this will involve allocating certain costs that are attributable to two or more areas or
services by employing a sound cost allocation methodology such as activity based costing (ABC).
For example, there are many areas and facilities that are used both for passenger handling and
commercial purposes, and care must be taken to allocate costs fairly and equitably between
aeronautical and non-aeronautical activities. Likewise, in the case of airport networks, appropriate
amounts of overhead costs need to be allocated among the relevant airports. The principles of cost-
related and site-specific charges must be maintained.
Finally, arriving at an equitable cost base for charges will require an allocation of costs among
different
user groups or categories, i.e. general aviation, military, and international and domestic civil traffic.
Once the costs attributable to civil air traffic have been established, the cost base for individual
charges can be estimated by determining the costs of the facilities and/or services the charge is to
cover. The relevant rate for a given charge (landing fee, parking fee, passenger service charge, etc.)
is then determined by dividing the relevant cost base by the estimated number of charging units. The
129
number of charging units in the case of a landing fee is generally the aggregate aircraft MTOW that
is estimated to take-off from the airport in the relevant year, or the number of departing passengers
in the case of a passenger service charge.
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IAT Airport Economics
A
applied. Airline start-up costs for a new route can be significant, and therefore airport assistance
through incentives for a limited time is acceptable and appreciated by the airline industry. IATA,
however, only supports rebates or discounts that are non-discriminatory and do not contravene Article
15 of the Chicago Convention. The non-discriminatory element should include the requirement for
such incentives to be published.
IATA publishes the Airport & Air Navigation Charges Manual, which is a complete compilation of up-
to-date information on airport and air navigation charges world-wide and is available for sale in print
and CD-ROM format.
In light of the more commercially oriented environment in which airports now operate, there has been
some debate in recent years as to whether the traditional airport charging schemes result in the
efficient allocation of resources, and generate sufficient revenues to provide for an adequate return
on investment.
The traditional airport charging systems, that have developed under the auspices of ICAO guidance,
aim solely to recover the cost of providing the facilities or services through a combination of average
cost pricing and ability to pay, and do not provide adequate signaling mechanisms about the costs
airlines impose on an airport. This debate has become particularly acute in the case of congested
airports and environmental mitigation.
It is argued that average cost pricing offers little inducement to operators of new aircraft types to
minimize the cost they impose on the airport in terms of new facilities that are required. All users end
up contributing to the cost for accommodating the new aircraft type. It has been further argued that
average cost pricing offers no incentive for operators to move from peak to off-peak periods. Finally,
under an average cost pricing regime, the more congested an airport gets, the cheaper it gets to
operate.
These arguments have lead airport managers and regulators alike to explore the introduction of
economic pricing principles and marginal cost pricing — the cost that would be incurred to produce
one additional unit of output. Economists have long argued that the pricing policy that leads to the
most efficient allocation of resources is one where the price of a good or service is set to the marginal
cost of providing that good or service.
However, can such pricing policies be implemented in the airport environment and will they have the
desired effect? So called market-based options have been promoted as having a possible role to
131
play in relieving airline flight delays and congestion at busy airports, thereby improving airport capacity
management, enhancing competition and promoting the efficiency of the overall aviation system.
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Market-based options would therefore include all market pricing regimes that could encourage air
carriers to use limited capacity in a more efficient manner, potentially bringing into balance current
supply (airport capacity) and demand (number of flight operations) while longer-term capacity
expansion is pursued. Such market-based options could include:
• Auctions, which would allocate a fixed number of operations for some particular period of time.
• Congestion pricing, which contemplates charging air carriers not only for the costs they impose
on an airport, but also the delay costs they impose on other airport users.
• Peak period pricing, which contemplates imposing fees based on the higher costs an airport
incurs to accommodate demand during peak hours, or the cost an airport does not incur because
flights are shifted from busy periods of the day to less busy periods.
• Flat fees, which would restructure existing weight-based landing fees so that total airfield costs
are recovered through a higher average fee, thereby affecting the mix of aircraft that operate at
an airport.
IATA has held the view that in order to relieve airport congestion and delay, the primary objective
should be to improve the utilization of existing capacity and make available additional capacity, rather
than ration demand through market-based options that have not proven to be effective. In regards
to the specific options mentioned, lATA's views are as follows:
Auctions — Auctions, which would allocate a fixed number of operations for some particular
period of time, would result in significantly higher costs for airlines and would not be practicable
in an international context, due to issues relating to reciprocity. The current process of allocating
limited capacity is done by way of slot allocation programmes in place at certain congested
airports. The processes to deal with congestion problems at airports need to be fair and equitable
for all air operators. Therefore, the current process of applying for and assigning international
slots is being done on similar terms at all airports. Slot applications are typically assigned as
requested. Auctions, on the other hand, entail a degree of uncertainty as to whether or not a slot
will become available, aside from the inflated price that will have to be paid. However, neither a
system of auctions or a slot allocation programme would do anything to reduce congestion, unless
the number of operations are effectively capped.
Congestion pricing — Congestion pricing, which contemplates charging air carriers not only for
the costs they impose on an airport, but also the delay costs they impose on other airport users,
relies on the correct and accurate identification of externalities. These are difficult if not impossible
to assess with any degree of accuracy, or to impose based on general agreement among
stakeholders. It would be difficult to demonstrate that congestion prices are cost-based, a
fundamental principle any airport charging scheme should adhere to as per ICAO guidance (refer
to Doc 9082/6). Further, what this concept appears to assume is that air carriers do not incur
delay costs. The fact is that air carriers incur significant delay costs, including the cost of extra
fuel burn, catering, hotel accommodation for inconvenienced passengers, etc.
Peak period pricing — Peak period pricing schemes contemplate imposing fees based on the
higher costs an airport incurs to accommodate peak hour demand, and lower fees based on the
cost an airport does not incur during less busy periods. Such a charging scheme should inherently
be revenue-neutral, however this has not been demonstrated where such schemes have been
in place. Due to difficulties associated with cost identification and allocation, airports have not
been able to identify with any great level of accuracy what their costs are at different times of
the day.
These supposed 'demand-altering' pricing schemes could only have an effect if operators had full
control over their demand patterns. This is not the case. An airline's scheduling and fleet allocation
decisions are based in large part on the demand for air travel at particular times of the day. An airline
has therefore limited ability to adjust, in an efficient way, to a system of peak/off-peak charging due
to the complex task of scheduling its operations. Scheduling is one of the most difficult tasks an
airline has — trying to optimize aircraft utilization within the constraints of airport curfews, increasing
environmental restrictions, crew availability, and many other factors.
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IATA Airport Economics
Peak charges have therefore only increased the cost for those air carriers operating during the peak
periods and raises concerns of equity and discrimination. Furthermore, at most (congested) airports
it has become impossible to differentiate between peak and off-peak hours of the day — peak hours
could well constitute the entire operating day making it impossible to implement a peak period pricing
scheme. Experience has shown that where peak/off-peak charges have existed, it has not had a
significant effect on the distribution of traffic from peak periods to off-peak periods. The result has
been that, while a few airports around the world have introduced peak/off-peak charging schemes,
others have abandoned them. ICAO has similarly concluded, on the basis of a survey it conducted
in preparation for the Conference on the Economics of Airports and Air Navigation Services (ANSConf
2000), that "...peak pricing has proved to be of limited effectiveness for capacity management." It is
for these reasons that IATA has strongly opposed any such system of peak/off-peak charging.
IATA objects to any system of peak period pricing, a scheme that arbitrarily
redistributes costs between different users. An airline faced with peak period
charges has no real opportunity to adjust to such a pricing scheme in an efficient
way due mainly to the limited flexibility it has in the scheduling of its operations.
It is clear that the three previously mentioned market-based options will have the effect of increasing
air carrier operating costs. Since air carrier demand for airport capacity is in fact derived demand,
the question is whether air carriers operating in a competitive market can effectively pass on the
increased operating cost to the ultimate consumer of air transportation services, and thus, influence
his/her behavior.
While the demand profile of a business passenger is relatively inelastic to that of a leisure passenger,
the air travel market has also demonstrated that it has a voracious appetite for cheaper fares. This
has been the basis for success of the low cost carrier and any attempt by certain carriers to raise
fares is not met with similar fare increases by other carriers. It is a known fact that airfares reflect
what an individual passenger is willing to pay and not a certain margin over an airline's costs —
effective market segmentation and the law of supply and demand dictates airfares. Thus, what
these market-based approaches would accomplish is an increase in airline operating cost, with little
opportunity of recovering this cost through the fare structure.
Flat fees —A flat fee that would recover total airfield costs through a higher average fee, or alternatively,
a high minimum charge, has proven to be more effective in moving aircraft of a certain lower weight-
class from congested airports to secondary, reliever airports. This was confirmed as a result of the
same ICAO survey noted above. However, such a pricing scheme obviously results in limiting airport
access to a certain group of users and raises concerns of equal access.
Attempts to alter current average cost charging schemes with the introduction of market-based options
should consider capacity costs as joint costs to all airport users. All airport users benefit jointly from
the availability of an airport — it has not been developed for any single user group. All users contribute
their fair share of the joint costs. An average cost pricing regime, as employed in general practice,
is therefore considered to be the most fair, transparent and equitable charging regime. Market-based
options and any other demand-management mechanisms will distort the equity principle, inevitably
treating airport users differently, while not really addressing what is essentially a supply-side capacity
problem. Strategic, long-term airport development planning is therefore key to solving the capacity
problem.
133
-9>-
IATA Airport Development Reference
Month 4
Mon Mont Mont
I60-day consttation period
th 1 h2 h3
The benefit to the airlines of a meaningful consultation process is that they get to know what they
are paying for and have their opinions heard. The benefit to the airport is that it will implement
changes
to their charging scheme based on a well-informed decision.
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IATA Airport Economics
Notes:
• These cost ranges relate to construction work in the South East of England in 4th Quarter 2003;
• The costs relate to new-build construction work in an environment which is not excessively
affected
by operational restrictions and logistical constraints;
Asia Brunei 40
Asia China 56
Asia Hong Kong 72
Asia India 19
Asia Indonesia 47
Asia Japan 110
Asia Malaysia 29
Asia Philippines 37
Asia Singapore 59
Asia South Korea 66
Asia Sri Lanka 21
Asia Taiwan 62
Asia Thailand 43
Asia Vietnam 47
137
Ar
Europe Austria 80
Europe Belgium 84
Europe Cyprus 46
Europe Czech Rep 51
Europe Finland 80
Europe France 80
Europe Germany 72
Europe Greece 51
Europe Ireland 96
Europe Italy 73
Europe Netherlands 79
Europe Poland 56
Europe Portugal 52
Europe Romania 30
Europe Slovak Rep 33
Europe Spain 60
Europe Switzerland 89
N America Canada 56
N America USA 65
Oceania Australia 54
Oceania New Zealand 51
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140
IAT
A
Chapter E — Environmental Issues
Section E1: Main Issues
E1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 137
E1.2 Environmental Management Plan ............................................................ 138
E1.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 140
Section E2: Social and Political Considerations
E2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 141
E2.2 The Importance of Partnerships................................................................. 141
E2.3 Sustainable Development......................................................................... 142
E2.4 Airport Stakeholder Partnerships and Initiatives ....................................... 143
E2.5 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 144
Section E3: Noise
E3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 146
E3.2 Aircraft Noise ........................................................................................... 146
E3.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 151
Section E4: Emissions
E4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 152
E4.2 Airport Emissions from Aircraft.................................................................. 152
E4.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 154
Section E5: Waste Management
E5.1 General ................................................................................................... 155
E5.2 Waste Treatment ..................................................................................... 156
E5.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 156
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CHAPTER E — ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
E1.1 INTRODUCTION
Since the second World War, air transport has grown into one of the world's most important and
innovative industries, driving economic and social progress. It has brought employment and
prosperity
to millions of people while expanding world trade and increasing opportunities for travel and tourism.
The air transport industry is committed to meeting its customers' growing demands in a sustainable
manner, thereby maintaining an optimal balance between economic progress, social development
and environmental responsibility. This means balancing the needs of passengers, society, the
economy and the environment, as well as making the best use of existing facilities while addressing
the challenge of new developments.
In delivering these benefits, air transport has had less of an impact on the world's environment than
most people realise. Indeed, by continually improving its fuel efficiency, reducing noise and
introducing
new, more sustainable technologies, airtransport has been able to reduce or contain its
environmental
impact:
• Carbon dioxide (C02) emissions: Continuous improvements in aircraft engine technology have
reduced C02 emissions per passenger-kilometre (pkm) by 70% since the advent of the first jets
in the 1960s, to the extent that the fuel consumption of most modern aircraft does not exceed
3.5 litres per 100 pkm. Industry research efforts are aiming to achieve a further 50% reduction
in C02 emissions for equipment entering service in 2020.
• Nitrogen oxide (NOx) and other emissions: Improved fuel efficiency has also meant that other
emissions (such as carbon monoxide, hydro-carbons and smoke) have come down by some
90% or more. The higher temperatures required to achieve these improvements have, however,
prevented similar progress from being achieved in the reduction of NO x emissions, which have
implications for both local air quality and climate change. Ambitious research goals in the
European
Union and elsewhere are targeting a reduction of NO x emissions of future aircraft by 70% within
10 years, and by 80% within 25 years.
• Noise: Today's aircraft are typically 75% quieter at take-off or landing than the first jets in the
1960s. Research efforts are targeting a further 30% reduction within 10 years and a 50%
reduction
by 2020.
• Land use: Air transport generally uses less land than other transport modes. For example, per
passenger-kilometre, air transport uses less than 1 % of the land required for the entire
transport
network in the European Union.
In spite of these achievements, and the technological progress that lays ahead, the continuous and
growing demand for air travel tends to increase air transport's absolute contribution to climate
change.
Aviation emissions presently account for some 3.5% of man's contribution to global warming and
could grow to 5% in 2050, according to the most probable scenario as identified by the IPCC 1.
1
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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• Discouraging private vehicle use through the construction of remote or centralised car
parks.
• Encouraging greater use of public transport, providing electric charging stations for
vehicles,
etc.
Energy consumption: Energy reductions within airports can be achieved in a variety of ways,
including technical improvements and raising staff and business partner awareness through
environmental campaigns. The former can include:
• The removal of older, outdated equipment in buildings and its replacement with new
energy-
efficient technology.
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Waste management: Solutions to waste management must generally involve the airport's
business partners, since many airports handle waste on behalf of airlines, retailers and tenants.
These partners need to be encouraged to reduce waste generation and to recycle where it is
operationally practical. Other measures for consideration are how the recycled material and
waste
is disposed of after collection — as well as specialised training and awareness programmes to
minimise the risk of air, ground and water contamination from fuel, chemical waste, dangerous
materials and oil spills.
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E2.1 INTRODUCTION
Airports worldwide must be ready to handle current and future demand. However, many are
increasingly operating at full capacity. As a result, traffic must be transferred to neighbouring
secondary
airports to free up capacity, new runways and terminals must be built, or brand new airport sites must
be found.
When a new airport is planned or a major expansion envisaged, it is important to consider not only
what effect the change will have on the airport within its boundaries, but also to consider what the
impact will be on the surrounding community. Airports can satisfactorily be integrated into the local
community fabric if due care is taken. For example, studies into private and public road traffic
generated
by airport activities (e.g. passengers, cargo, staff, etc.) must be undertaken and the surrounding road
network designed to minimise negative effects on residential areas. Indeed, it is recognised that the
negative effects (noise and pollution) of airport road traffic are often worse than the more known
adverse effects of aircraft traffic.
The implementation of new airport projects is becoming more and more difficult despite the fact that
the lack of airport capacity is now identified as the main obstacle to future air transport growth. This
is mainly because of growing opposition from local residents surrounding airports, as well as
pressure
groups that force governments to introduce complex approval procedures. As a result, air transport
capacity lags behind demand, thereby increasing congestion and delays, energy use, costs and
emissions, as well as undermining consumer satisfaction.
Conflicting situations when developing an airport are quite often the consequence of a lack of proper
land-use planning and management. Governments and local municipalities have the responsibility to
prevent residential areas from being built around airports to avoid future problem — despite the
attraction to new residents of good communications and other facilities. A delicate balance must
therefore be found between the interests of those affected by increased air traffic, the related effects
on the environment, and the recognised and quantifiable benefits that an airport brings to a region
in terms of economic wealth and employment.
Long-term planning, management and careful advocacy are required by airports to ensure that they
are able to secure capacity and meet demand through safe and sustainable growth. Furthermore,
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• Regional partnerships with other transport modes in order to develop seamless
intermodal
solutions, in particular between rail and air. Dedicated rail links can greatly facilitate ground
access
to airports and also reduce road traffic emissions, while the complementary and coordinated
operations of short haul flights and high speed trains leads to the most rational use of existing
facilities.
• Global partnerships with other industries in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions on
a
global scale. Open emissions trading schemes among industries have been identified by ICAO
as a potential long-term solution for aviation, subject to further assessment.
• Universal partnerships for development in order to improve transport accessibility and
mobility
in the developing world. Air transport is indispensable for the development of tourism and trade,
which play a fundamental role in eradicating poverty.
By combining the complementary skills of different stakeholders and eliminating duplication of effort
through partnerships, substantial results can be achieved that will enable aviation to grow in a
sustainable manner.
1
Definition of sustainable development according to the World Commission on Environment and Development, Brundtland Report, 1987.
• Promotes greater access and choice: Air transport should provide people with a reasonable
means of access to other places, goods and services — which implies the promotion of
improved
and diversified air services, including additional frequencies and routes, improved services,
more
diversified air carriers, etc.
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E2.IR1 Business Partnering Programs — Shared Airport Capacity and
Resources
By combining complemented skills and services and eliminating duplication of effort through
partnerships, substantial results can be achieved that will enable aviation to grow in a
sustainable
manner.
Airport operators arid their direct business partners should work together to share airport
services
in an effort to ensure that airport equipment usage, space and efficiency is maximised. A good
example is the use of airport ground transport vehicies é These vehicles can often be shared,
and initiatives and business relationships should be developed to allow airiines and ground
handling agents to do so.
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E2.IR2 Sustainable Development
Airports must plan for their future using a sustainable development strategy. Airports should not
just be expanded to meet year-on-year growth forecasts. Before airports embark on increasing
the size and ultimate complexity of their operation they should be looking to rationalise
processes
and common tasks. Efficiencies in the undertaking of airport processes tasks should be refined
and streamlined on an ongoing basis before the last option (to build more infrastructure) is
chosen.
Airports and their primary business partners should be looking to work in partnership to optimise
the airport operation, in order that when true capacity expansion is required it can be provided.
It should be noted that this course of action is also good commercial sense for the airport and
v.. all of its users.
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E3.1 INTRODUCTION
Noise annoyance is a subjective matter and can be considered to have only a local impact on the
community surrounding an airport. Aircraft movements such as landings, takeoffs and taxiing, as
well
as ground handling activities, contribute to the airport's environmental noise impact. Efforts to
reduce
and mitigate the airport's overall noise impact should be managed and implemented in a balanced
way by considering and evaluating all available measures.
1
ICAO Assembly Resolution A33-7, Appendix C, Paragraph 2(b)
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Aircraft mass is normally the maximum take-off weight (MTOW) for the aircraft however there are occasions where the
maximum landing
weight (MLW) could be used
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Noise abatement operational procedures, both in-flight and on the ground, authorities should aim
to minimise the number of people affected by noise by reducing the level of perceived noise at
particular locations around an airport. These procedures can be used to optimize the noise contour
(according to the population distribution around the airport) by changing the shape and size of the
contours.
Safety remains the highest priority in aviation, and besides the use of approved noise abatement
operational procedures, airports must ensure that the necessary safety of flight is maintained by
considering all factors that might affect a particular operation. These include, but are not limited to,
weather, topography, runway conditions, available navigation aids, etc.
Where a noise problem has been confirmed, the available noise abatement operational procedures
can include, but are not limited to, the use of the following, provided it is consistent with the advice
provided in ICAO PANS OPS1:
(a) Preferential runways.
IATA Airport Development
(b) Displaced thresholds. Reference Manual
(c) Noise preferential routes.
(d) Noise abatement take-off and approach procedures.
(e) Descent profiles such as Continuous Descent Approach (CDA).
(f) Minimising the use of reverse thrust on landing.
When selecting procedures it should be noted that environmental benefits may vary due to the
potential variation in noise distribution as a result of the type of procedure used. This may result in
generating new problems elsewhere, especially if complementary measures are not taken to
safeguard
environmental gains. It is essential therefore that the stakeholders — airports, airlines, air navigation
service providers and local communities — are in agreement with the noise objectives and resulting
procedures.
Operating restrictions are defined as any noise-related action that limits or reduces an aircraft's
access to an airport. On assessing the identified noise problem at the airport, operating restrictions
may be part of a set of measures to be implemented to mitigate the noise problem. However, before
implementing or updating operating restrictions, the possible benefits to be gained from other
measures
should be fully considered. The competent authority should ensure that any operating restrictions be
adopted only where such action is supported by a prior assessment of anticipated benefits and of
possible adverse impacts.
It is recognised that operating restrictions can improve the noise climate in the short term as they
lead to the limitation or prohibition of movements of the noisiest aircraft at an airport. However, in
order not to offset the benefits gained through operating restrictions, additional preventive measures,
such as land-use management measures, should be taken at the same time. This combination of
measures is the condition to durably improve the noise climate around an airport. Indeed, these
measures will be ineffective if lack of land-use planning and management measures enable urban
encroachment to continue as operating restrictions improve the noise climate.
As for other measures, operating restrictions should be assessed in a coherent and objective manner
with respect to the basic principles of transparency, cost-effectiveness, non-discrimination, and
avoidance of competitive distortion. Particular attention should be given to the potential impact on
current and future airline fleets. International policies and guidelines must be respected; i.e. ICAO
Assembly Resolution A33-7, which contains the unanimous agreement by States not to introduce
any operating restrictions aimed at the withdrawal of aircraft that comply with the noise standards in
Volume I, Chapter 4 of Annex 16.
1
See ICAO document titled, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Aircraft Operations, Volume 1, Part V (ICAO Doc 8168)
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Operating restrictions can be partial, global or progressive and may be classified in two categories:
(a) Restrictions of traffic such as night curfews, or a cap on movements or noise energy.
(b) Restrictions on the use of aircraft with a particular noise, technical, or performance
characteristic.
Ground Measures, although covered under the principal elements of the Balanced Approach, are
generally considered and implemented separately. They can include, but are not limited to, the
following measures:
(a) Limitation of engine ground running.
(b) Designated areas for engine ground running.
(c) Minimised APU operation.
(d) Minimised taxi times and routing.
(e) Noise barriers.
! ICAO Circular 2054, "Recommended Method for Computing Noise Contours Around Airports," other useful documents for
reference on
contours are ECAC Document 29 and SAE A21 Document AIR1845
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Noise Monitoring: Although noise annoyance generally is a subjective matter, it is recognized that
the noise surrounding an airport should be assessed based on objective, measurable criteria and
other relevant factors.
The noise at points on the ground, caused by aircraft flying into and out of a nearby airport, depends
on a number of factors. These include the types of aircraft using the airport, the overall number of
takeoffs and landings, the time of day the aircraft operations occur, the runways that are used,
weather
conditions, and airport-specific flight procedures that affect the noise produced. Single, point-in-time
noise measurements cannot be expected to represent the overall noise situation at an airport.
Instead,
noise monitoring and/or noise modelling may be necessary.
To the extent noise monitoring is used, it should be undertaken over time to reflect noise at the
airport
under different conditions. A one-year monitoring period would be expected to provide noise data
that is representative of the periodicity of the traffic schedule, operational characteristics such as
payload changes, and meteorological data. The noise monitoring equipment should be capable of
capturing noise from aircraft alone, or a method should be employed for screening out non-aircraft
noise. Placement of noise monitors at different distances can identify noise energy in different areas
around the airport. However their placement should not be nearer to the airport than as defined for
noise certification in order to ensure at least proper measurement at the three-certification points.
Identification and Assessment of Measures: When identifying the noise problem at an airport and
analyzing the various measures available to reduce noise through the exploration of the four principal
elements of the Balanced Approach (noise reduction at source, land-use planning and management,
noise abatement operational procedures and operating restrictions), the goal is to address the noise
problem using objective criteria in the most cost-effective manner.
On implementing the concept of the balanced approach to noise management, particular attention
shall be given to the principal elements and the analytical and methodological tools that might be
needed to assess and compare those elements. Steps taken by airports to address local noise
issues
should be consistent with the principal elements and ensure that the relationship between them —
in particular in the area of noise and emission trade-offs, the impact of short term versus long term
solutions, as well as local versus regional solutions — are fully addressed.
Environmental benefits (in terms of reduction of numbers of inhabitants severely affected by noise)
associated to the measures considered should then be compared to their respective cost of
implementation through the use of the cost-effectiveness analysis methodology. The measures will
be ranked both by potential environmental benefits and cost of implementation. For each measure
this will enable the definition of a unit cost per inhabitant that will not be further affected by noise in
the future.
This process will provide stakeholders with an assessment of benefits and costs associated with
each of the measures being considered. The appropriate measure, or a combination of appropriate
measures, should then be chosen from among the measures assessed, in consideration of the
objectives set forth at the beginning of the process.
Transparent Process: When developing or updating a noise mitigation program there is a need for
a transparent process which will include, but is not necessarily limited to, the following:
(a) Assessment of the noise situation including the evolution of the problem and expected
improvements resulting from current measures and fleet renewal.
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E4.1 INTRODUCTION
Airport emissions affect the environment in a variety of ways, most of them on a local scale. Aircraft
landings and takeoffs, taxiing, ground handling, maintenance, power generation, office buildings
and
road traffic at and around the airport all contribute to the airport's environmental footprint. Efforts to
reduce the airport's overall impact should, therefore, ideally address all sources in a balanced way.
In the immediate vicinity of airports, aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x) unburned
hydrocarbons
(HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM, including visible smoke) contribute to local
air quality concerns. The effects on local air quality of other minor trace species such as sulphur
dioxide (S02), hydroxyl radicals (OH), nitrous and nitric acids, and chemi-ions are negligible and
mostly poorly understood. In spite of the relatively low levels, airport emissions are increasingly
linked
to respiratory health problems among the local population.
As with noise, ICAO's international certification regime for aircraft emissions has brought about
significant improvements in the emissions performance of aircraft through the progressive tightening
of standards. Since the 1960s, emissions of HC, CO and smoke from aircraft have come down by
at least 90%, to the extent that further mitigating efforts are no longer seen as a priority by
regulators.
The combustion conditions required to achieve these reductions as well as noise reductions have,
however, led to a simultaneous increase in NOx emissions.
International emission standards for the certification of turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines were first
introduced by ICAO in June 1981, and published as Volume II of Annex 16 to the Chicago
Convention.
The ICAO standard-setting process is important to the industry because it maintains consistency in
manufacturers' and carriers' requirements around the world. In 1993 ICAO subsequently increased
the NO, stringency limit by 20% (effective 1995) and by another 16% in 1999 (effective 2004).
ICAO's
Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) is currently evaluating the potential for a
further increase in NOx stringency for new engines.
Additional reductions in aircraft NO x emissions require careful development and deployment of more
complex and more expensive combustor designs. Major industry research programmes focus on
NOx
reductions of 70% for future aircraft within 10 years, and 80% within 25 years. These efforts will help
to meet new NOx standards in the future, such as the European Union limits regarding NO x
emissions
around Community airports, expected to come into force in 2010.
Besides the continuous introduction of new engine technologies in their fleets (like, for example,
the DAC engine), airlines further minimise ground level emissions through a variety of operational
techniques, such as one-engine taxiing, being towed instead of taxiing, minimal APU-use, pilot shut-
down of engines during ground delays, and delayed engine start.
As a consequence of the steadily growing number of aircraft movements at airports around the
world,
authorities are, however, increasingly obliged to respond to local public and political pressures to
curb airport activities. For this reason, local NO x emissions are quickly emerging as a potential
constraint for airport capacity expansion.
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E5.1 GENERAL
The volume of waste in many industrialised countries has considerably increased in recent years,
accompanied by an increase in the volume of materials harmful to the environment. In light of these
developments, airlines and airports regard better waste management as a major concern.
Waste can be classified into 2 categories, namely:
Category 1 — Toxins
Toxins cannot be degraded by the environment naturally and should be treated before release
to ensure that no harmful particulates are retained. Treatment of toxins should be in accordance
with national regulations. Examples of a category 1 waste are aircraft fuel spills which must be
chemically treated before controlled release into the environment, so complying with national
and
best practice legislation.
Category 2 — Biodegradable
Biodegradable chemicals and produces can be naturally broken down by the environment and
do not represent a hazard to the environment upon their controlled release. Again, national
regulations on the volume and rate of release should be observed.
Major sources of Category 1 airline and airport waste at an airport include but are not limited to
the following:
Aircraft spent fuels and lubricants.
• Fuel farm and apron fuel dispensing equipment.
•
Maintenance hangers and workshops.
•
Apron vehicles.
•
Air-bridge lubricants.
•
Refrigeration plants.
•
Flight kitchens.
•
Airport power plants.
•
Aircraft lubricant dispensing vehicles.
•
Airport development materials.
•
Major sources of Category 2 airline and airport waste at an airport include but are not limited to
the following:
• Food waste.
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Staff and organisations should be made aware of how their individual contributions will aid the plan
to reduce waste, and should be given the necessary tools to achieve the reduction targets. In the
context of staff within the office, paper recycling initiatives should be carried out. Drivers of apron
vehicles should plan their routes to ensure that travel distances and dwell periods on the apron with
engines or electric motors running will be minimised.
Designers should seek in the preliminary stages to produce energy efficient facility designs which
are less dependant on fossil fuel sources for seasonal heating and cooling. Buildings should be
commissioned with thermal imaging cameras to confirm areas of undesirable heat loss giving rise to
excessive consumption of heating fuels or electricity.
Airport operators should seek to reduce energy consumption by employing smart systems on
devices
such as escalators, conveyor motors and lighting systems, where power down cycles should be
employed in times of low or non usage.
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E5.IR2 Collection of Reusable Waste
Airport operators and airlines should train staff and employ initiatives to collect waste materials
that can be reused. A target figure of at least 20% of office waste should be collected, sorted,
managed and declared suitable for recycling. This waste should then be subsequently
reprocessed.
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Chapter F — Airport Capacity
Section F1: Capacity and Level of Service
F1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 159
F1.2 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... 160
Section F2: Capacity Definitions
F2.1 Capacity Measurement Overview.......................................................... 161
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CHAPTER F — AIRPORT CAPACITY
F1.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of traffic peaking at airports has been the subject of increasing concern by airlines and
airport operators around the world. This problem is a complex one and has tended to defy easy or
widespread solution. Extreme traffic peaking at airports generates congestion and severe economic
penalties, or delays to aircraft and passengers.
These problems may become even more acute if the timely expansion of airport facilities to
accommodate increasing levels of traffic cannot be undertaken, for whatever reason, but especially
due to environmentally imposed runway/airport curfews. Curfews do not directly affect hourly
capacity
computations, but they do affect the total airport capacity. While a principal objective should be to
increase airport capacity to meet increasing demand, in the interim the need to maximize the
utilization
of existing airport and airline resources is becoming more critical than ever before. Effectively
managing
available airport capacity/demand in such an environment presents a major challenge to airport
operators and airlines alike.
Every reasonable effort should be made by the airlines, airport operators, and involved government
agencies to identify airport capacity limitations and potential congestion problems well before these
problems actually occur. Co-ordinated efforts can then be undertaken to avoid such problems to the
benefit of all concerned, and will require continuing and open communications and cooperation
between all parties involved. Demand/capacity and level-of-service investigations at airports where
congestion exists or is anticipated can be arranged in this type of co-operative climate in order to:
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• Airports should be designed to offer a balanced flow through the interface points of the system.
• Each system should be flexible enough to accommodate future requirements in order to
maintain
the balance of the overall airport system.
An airport can be subdivided into several main, interrelated systems. The airside network has a
larger
space requirement, while the terminal building represents the transfer portion of the overall system
through which passengers move from their ground access modes to the apron, vice versa, or
alternately
between flights.
The ground access/terminal building transition point is at the curb, while the apron/terminal building
transition point occurs at the bridge/gate. These transition or interface points between the systems
mark the points where the nature of the flow changes. In the deplaning process, for example,
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I
Arriving Vehicles Occupants Aircraft
Deplaning
I
_L
Departing Vehicles Occupants Aircraft Deplaning
J J
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Passenger Flow Routes
A general aircraft baggage and passenger flow chart should be established. It is usually essential
to show originating, terminating, transfer and transit passengers, split by domestic and
international
passenger flow, in order to properly analyse passenger terminals. The passenger flow routes
should be flexible and should:
• Be as short and straight as possible, unimpeded by obstructions from cross-flows or
Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to individual aircraft loads.
Govern control positions in order to avoid bottlenecks.
Be sufficiently flexible to permit the establishment of temporary channels which can be used
as by-pass routes by other passengers (e.g., for individual health control processing of a
particular arriving aircraft passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution.
Permit processing of passengers individually or in groups.
Introduce a minimum number of level changes.
Allow flow separations for government regulations or security reasons.
Provide one flow route for departing domestic passengers and one for international
passengers.
One flow route for arriving domestic passengers and one for international passengers.
Separate departing passengers from those arriving after security check-points.
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3
0
♦ Landings
■ Departures
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Figure F5.2 shows the excessive queuing associated with peak departure demand exceeding
departure capacity. The number of aircraft queuing increases rapidly when runway capacity is
reached
and typically takes a long time to dissipate.
Figure F5.2 — Example of Departure
Bottleneck
(Location and Degree of Congestion)
The simulation of runway movements is recommended as defined within the ADRiV C' use
F5.4 ^SEÉilC^Éil
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Access to Cargo
Main Parallel and G.A., etc. Area
Taxiways \
/I Passenger Terminal Area \
R.E.T.s (Heavy,
Medium and Light) Multiple Queuing
for Aircraft Sequencing
at Departure
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F6.3 SIMULATION
Runways and taxiways are inter-related systems. The runway simulations described in section F5
should include the taxiways to get from/to the gate or aircraft stand in the model. Figure F6.2 shows
an example of 'where' departing taxiing aircraft are delayed from an aircraft flow simulation. Taxiing
distance and delays should be carefully studied considering their significant impact on operation
costs
and performance.
Figure F6.2 — Example of Identification of
Potential Bottlenecks from Simulation
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SECTION Airport Capacity
(I) The aircraft stand taxilane, intended to provide access to the aircraft stand only.
(II) Apron taxiways, intended to provide a through route across the apron.
Apron and gate design should reflect the various characteristics and volume of traffic to be handled.
Significant ground delays can be experienced on aprons as they are an aircraft flow merging point
and provide an entry/exit point to aircraft for pushing back and powering up engines. The traffic
volume and characteristics can also change over time.
Single aircraft stand taxilanes giving access to more than 6-8 high-turnover cul-de-sac gates should
be avoided. Apron taxiways providing through taxi routes should be included in the ground aircraft
flow simulation for runway capacity studies in order to avoid displacing a bottleneck to the next link.
An apron aircraft flow simulation, including realistic gate assignment and push-back procedures, is
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(*) IATA Recommends two doors wherever possible for Code F aircraft. (**) A third door reduces the
turnaround time by only 10-15 minutes to a total of approximately 115 minutes. The boarding and
deboarding processing times are no longer in the critical path. The catering process is on the critical
path because of the high number of trolleys to be loaded and off-loaded.
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F8.4 GATE AND STAND ASSESMENTS
While there is a physical limit on the number of aircraft which can be simultaneously accommodated
at the airport, operational factors such as gate assignment policy, exclusive/preferential use,
sectorization, and operational parameters impact the practical capacity of the system. The inputs
required to conduct a gate assignment study include:
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F8.5 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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f
Contact Gates
F8.IR.2
Gafes (contact) should be considered to improve the quality of service to users and to provide
for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoiding the need for buses.
r
F8.IR.4 Gate Percentage
A high percentage of contact gates is required when an airline's strategy
requiresW§§tumaround
times, good quality of service, short and reliable MCTs and dealing with frequent adverse
weather
conditions. Designers should keep in mind an airport is part of airline network and therefore is
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
A — An Excellent level of service. Conditions of free flow, no delays and excellent levels of
comfort.
B — High level of service. Conditions of stable flow, very few delays and high levels of comfort.
C — Good level of service. Conditions of stable flow, acceptable delays and good levels of
comfort.
D — Adequate level of service. Conditions of unstable flow, acceptable delays for short periods
of time and adequate levels of comfort.
E — Inadequate level of service. Conditions of unstable flow, unacceptable delays and
inadequate levels of comfort.
F — Unacceptable level of service. Conditions of cross-flows, system breakdowns and
unacceptable delays; an unacceptable level of comfort.
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Since the traffic demand at each airport is dynamic and varies according to such factors as
schedule,
flight sector, and aircraft size and load factor, the level of service measures must reflect these
dynamic
aspects. In this sense, the nature of the traffic demand plays an important role in affecting the level
of service experienced by a passenger.
On the supply side there are various systems and services which comprise the airport complex.
Level
of service space can be considered as a range of values, or as an assessment of the ability of
supply
to meet demand, and combines both qualitative and quantitative measures of relative comfort and
convenience.
The framework of level of service measures permits comparison between often unrelated
subsystems
within the airport complex. This aids management in the evaluation of airport components through
the use of common terminology. It is much easier to describe level of service in this manner and to
achieve capacity balance.
Level of Service C is recommended as the minimum design objective, as it denotes good service at
a reasonable cost. Level of service A is seen as having no upper bound. The total number of
passengers in an area provided for queuing tends to be fairly constant for any given flight. The
space
per occupant when the queue overflows is seen by IATA as the frontier between level of service C
and D. Passengers manage to avoid experiencing a level of service lower than C unless forced to.
Passengers queuing in corridors that are sharing space with passengers walking through can
however
experience a lower level of service.
CQ
3
ft
50
In their attempt to maintain a comfort zone, passengers do not use all the space available for
queuing.
The number of passengers divided by the total area for queuing may represent a level of service
better than C but in reality passengers occupy the space for a good level of comfort and experience
a space level of service C.
185
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Figure F9.2 (below) shows the situation when the system is congested. The passengers waiting in
the queuing space area do not squeeze in, thereby lowering their level of service, to make space for
the passengers waiting behind in the corridor. Instead, the queue tends to overflow. This behaviour
is consistent with research showing that humans tend to maintain a buffer zone to prevent the
chance
of intimate contact.
Figure F9.2: Queuing System Exceeding Capacity
C
cos ~ccg C
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3
186
The peak demand load and the level of service C standards are translated into recommended
planning
dimensions. As shown in figure F9.5, IATA recommends a 24 to 26 meter separation between
adjacent
islands (32 — 34 meters per module) to provide 2.5 meters for processing and circulating in front of
the desk, 7.5 to 8.5 meters for queuing and 4 meters for circulation and passenger queue overflow.
Twenty-four (24) meters provides enough space for a maximum queuing time of roughly 30 to 35
minutes for the case 1,2 and 3 of table F9.2. Twenty-six (26) meters provides the flexibility to process
heavy flights, or is required when the maximum queuing time exceeds 30 — 35 minutes on a regular
basis. More than 26 meters may be considered after a comprehensive demand/capacity study is
conducted to reflect site-specific particularities. Twenty-two (22) meters is sufficient at airports with
maximum queuing time of 30 minutes or less and for case 1 and 2 (see Table F9.2).
Queuing
E
E in
CD
3 CM CM
Corridor and Queue overflow
■
CO CM
E
IS
\jE5E
F9.2.1 Frontal Type Check-in Counters
in
Building facade
f
4.0 m
F9.2.2 Wait/Circulation Area
Walking distances for passengers should be as short as possible. In determining the distance
between
major functions in the terminal, the planner must consider whether baggage is to be carried or not,
the availability of baggage trolleys, changes in levels, and the accessibility of the aircraft without
resorting to ground transport.
The suggested maximum walking distance between the major functions (i.e., car park to check-in/
baggage claim; check-in/baggage claim to gate lounge) is 300m.
Greater distances can be accepted provided a form of mechanical assistance is made readily
available
to passengers. Such systems are costly and therefore a full cost/benefit analysis is necessary
before
installation. In all terminals where progressive expansion must incorporate a people-mover system,
due provision for the necessary right-of-way and other related factors must be included in the
original
planning.
If passengers are required to change levels when walking, escalators or moving ramps should be
provided, at least in the upward direction. Passengers should not be required to move baggage
other
than hand baggage between levels. Experience has shown that the use of elevators to enable
passengers, other than disabled passengers, to change levels is not satisfactory from a capacity
point of view.
Pedestrians adapt their walking speed to the environment based on the following variables:
• The occupancy or flow in the corridor.
• The proportion of passengers with baggage and carts.
0 0 0 -w-
0
IBIBIBI BI ÉBIBIBIBIB
BIB
L=MAX*Qx0.9/#PCD L = Max#Q x LOS Standard / W
Where: Where:
MAX#Q is the maximum number of pax MAX#Q is the maximum number of pax
queuing queuing
#PCD is the number of passport control desks LOS Standard: see table F9.4
staffed (see sections F9.9.2 and F9.9.5 for details)
The main criterion for determining the queue length for multiple queue systems is the average
distance
between two individuals waiting in the same line (inter-person spacing). The comfort distance varies
from person to person and from culture to culture. IATA recommends using 0.8 to 0.9 metres if site-
specific standards are not available. Less than 0.8 metres is possible, but could conflict with other
passengers or carry-on luggage.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Space requirements for a single queue at passport control is based on the space standards shown
in table F9.4.
190
IATA Airport Capacity
The retrieval and peripheral area is a roughly 3.5 meter wide band around the unit. This area is used
to measure the level of service for the passengers waiting around the carrousel and the static
capacity
(accumulation) of the unit. The capacity is determined by dividing the total area by the level of service
C space standard shown in table F9.6. An 11 to 13 meter separation is recommended to process
passengers, to circulate, and to store carts.
Table F9.6: Level of Service (A to E) for Baggage Claim
Unit
A B C D E
Space standard (nf/occupant) 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.0
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
F9.7 LEVEL OF SERVICE BALANCE
Passenger departure and arrival facilities are often on different levels of the same building. The
building grid/structural design may become a constraint when selecting the module's dimensions to
achieve level of service C at check-in counters and baggage claim. It is recommended to select the
module's width or grid to achieve level of service balance with the objective of providing level of
service C at the critical sub-systems. The impact of the building grid on a module's width is shown
in figure F9.9.
Check-in
1 I" H I—
.1 I*'
h h
-
)
m
Baggage Claim
11.0 m 12.0 m
■- 18.0
i- 17.0 m
192
F9.8 MAXIMUM QUEUING TIME
The occupancy patterns in various subsystems change rapidly and thereby affect the space
available
to occupants. In addition, the occupancy time for a subsystem can vary, resulting in a change in
comfort. For this reason, time is a significant factor in determining the quality of service and must be
considered as a primary variable in level of service measures. It is very difficult to establish a
precise,
quantified relationship between available space, time, and level of service. This may explain why
time is often neglected as a factor of level of service and standards are sometimes set purely to
space requirements.
ICAO has set a goal of 45 minutes for the clearance of arriving passengers, from disembarkation to
exit from the airport, for all passengers requiring not more than normal inspection at international
airports (ICAO Annex 9, ninth edition, recommended practice 6.28). Although this includes time
taken
by government inspection services, it provides an indication of an acceptable time framework.
Table F9.7 shows maximum queuing time guidelines. It is however recommended to use site- and
airline-specific standards when available.
F9.9.2 Simulation
When a flight arrives or departs at the terminal building, there is a surge of occupants into the
subsystems. As long as the arrival rate of passengers does not exceed the dynamic capacity of the
various components, there will be minimal delay and queuing. However congestion will occur when
demand is systematically greater than the sustainable capacity, and only simulation can properly
reflect the complex dynamic overflow/saturation interaction.
Airport capacity and level of service problems are usually simple to comprehend but may be difficult
to solve because of the inter-related systems and flows considered. Many tools are available,
including
lATA's Total AirportSim aircraft and passenger flow model, to predict the impact of an airline
schedule
on the various airport facilities. The model was developed to reflect lATA's worldwide experience
and
expertise.
Simulation is used to analyse passenger flow throughout the selected planning period to determine
the performance, bottlenecks, level of service, Mean Connection Time (MCTs), total time in the
terminal, etc. Flights are assigned to facilities and the passenger demand pushed or pulled through
the inbound and outbound steps in the terminal according to the planning schedules. Information
regarding passenger arrival patterns, processing rates, discretionary time use, passenger/bag ratio,
rules for system operation such as the level of common check-in, rules for allocation of flights to
chutes/make up belts, and information regarding terminal area allocations are considered.
The first and often the most valuable benefit of conducting a simulation study is that it forces
specialists
and management to closely look into the functional and physical passenger flows, into the rules and
procedures to define the causal problems, and to assess the impact on both upstream and
downstream
processes to avoid displacing the problem. The maximum reliable throughput, level of service,
limiting
factors and requirements of the major processors, reservoirs and links in the passenger paths can
thus be identified.
The terminal arrival and departure systems should be reviewed qualitatively to identify any areas in
which the layout could be negatively impacted by the configuration of facilities, and through
simulation
to quantify the capacity of the various elements as well as the system as a whole. Where
necessary,
the base year busy schedule can be augmented to represent future demand volumes to push a
concept or design to its limit and to optimise existing facilities.
It is natural to make the basic assumption in the calculations that flow between individual elements
is natural and unobstructed. However, the integrity of the capacity assessment can be compromised
and result usefulness diminished if the assumption is not realistic. Good simulation models, unlike
rules of thumb, do not require the making of such assumptions. Simulation should be able to
consider
if the pattern is disrupted by the introduction of any obstruction in the flow, such as ill-conceived
concession locations and passenger cross-flows.
The information usually required to conduct a passenger flow simulation study is:
• Typical busy day schedule including arriving, departing and transfer passenger volumes per
sector of flights.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
A graphic interface providing real time editing, simulation, and animation (including speed control) is
an asset. Reports and graphs on time, accumulation, flow, etc., should be built into the model to
provide instant results and an easy way to identify problems and bottlenecks, as well as reducing
the time to develop new 'what if scenarios.
Using simulation tools to design or improve facilities requires expertise knowledge. A multi-
disciplinary
team including demand/capacity experts, operations personnel and users is recommended.
IATA Airport Capacity
197
F9.10.1 Check-in Counter Requirement
The departure flight schedule generates originating passengers arriving at the terminal from several
minutes to several hours before departure time. The originating passengers are first processed at
the check-in counters or at electronic check-in servers. The passenger outflow from the check-in
sub-
system regulates the demand on the subsequent sub-system (i.e. the maximum throughput from
check-in is 10 pax/min, therefore the 10pax/min is the peak demand at the next sub-system).
Check-in counters are key facilities with huge footprints and significant impact on level of service,
terminal development costs and operations. The following rule of thumb determines the
requirements
for common use check-in counters.
Step A Calculate the peak 30 minute demand at check-in.
Step B Determine the intermediate result using the chart provided.
Step C Calculate the number of economy class (common use) check-in counters.
Step D Calculate the total number of check-in counters (including business class).
Step E Make adjustment for dedicated facilities.
1
Peak 30-minute at check-in = PHP economy class x F1 x F2
Where:
PHP = Peak hour originating passengers — economy class.
F1 = % of the PHP in the peak 30-minute from table 1.
F2 = Additional demand generated by the flights departing before and after the peak hour
period from table 2.
Step B: Determine intermediate result, S, which takes into account the MQT using
the following charts:
Where:
X = Peak-30 minute at check-in.
S = Intermediate result.
MQT = Maximum Queuing Time (minutes).
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Step C: Calculate the number of check-in servers: economy class, common use
during peak period.
Where:
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
iata Airport Capacity
#CIJ = #CIYx20%
Where:
#CI = Number of check-in servers including business class counters assuming common use.
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
#CIJ = Number of business class check-in servers.
201
•
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
150
I
140
130
120 MQT10
110
100 ^MQT 20
90
80 ^MQT 30
70 ^MQT 40
60
50 r
40
^
30 —
20 _ I
—
—----1-----
10 L
0
c
,I
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
1100
1300
1500
1700
1900
2100
2300
2500
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
#c,v = s x ( ^ )
#C ,Y = 31 x (150^C0°ndS)
#CIY = 38.7 = 39
202
IATA Airport Capacity
#CI = 39 + 8 = 47
203
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Where:
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
%J = % of business class passengers.
Where:
#PCD = Number of passport control desks.
PTpcd = Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
204
Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passenger queuing (Max # Q)
assuming a single (bank) queue:
Where:
MQT = Maximum queuing time in minutes.
#PCD = Number of passport control desks.
PTpcd = Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
Example
#PCD = 175 x (e
ol)
#PCD = 4.5 = 5 desks
Ma x# Q = ÍMQTx#PCDxA0)
PTpc
d
Max # Q =
15
(5 x 5 x 60)
Max # Q = 100 passengers
F9.10.3 Centralized security check
The centralized security check system is also designed to process the check-in maximum
throughput
to ensure overall capacity balance.
The rule of thumb is used to determine the number of security servers required. The following
procedure is used:
Step A: Calculate the peak 10-minute check-in counters throughput.
Step B: Calculate the number of security check servers.
Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passengers queuing (Max # Q) assuming a single
(bank)
Where:
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
%J = % of business class passengers.
Where:
#SC = Number of security servers.
PTsc = Average processing time at security check in seconds.
Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passenger queuing (Max # Q)
assuming a single queue:
Where:
Example
/PTsc\
#SC = Peak 10-minute demand from A) x l"õõõ~)
#SC = 180 x
\600)
„ _ (MQT x# S Cx 60)
Max # Q =----------==------------
PTsc
.. u r s (3 x 4 x 60)
Max # Q =-------Y 2-
Max # Q = 60 passengers
F9.10.4 Gate Hold Room
The Gate hold room space requirement is based on passenger load, the percentage of passengers
seated, and the percentage of passengers standing. The rule of thumb calculates the area required
based on aircraft capacity.
Example
Assuming an aircraft capacity of 420 passengers, 80% of the passengers seated and 20% standing.
Note: IATA does not recommend enclosed single flight holdrooms. IATA recommends open spaces
allowing shared space between multiple gates. The 80% aircraft capacity expressed within the
equation
above should be replaced by the peak accumulation for an open hold room.
IATA Airport Capacity
Where:
S = Intermediate result.
PHP = Terminating peak hour passengers.
MQT = Maximum queuing time.
0 -f^
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
#PCD = S x
Where:
#PCD = Number of passport control desks.
Ptpca = Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
210
IATA Airport Capacity
Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passenger queuing (Max#Q) assuming
a single (bank) queue is:
Where:
MQT Maximum queuing time in minutes.
#PCD Number of passport control desks.
PTpca Average processing time at passport control arrival in seconds.
Example
Determine the number of passport control desks for 2400 terminating passengers (PHP) on 12 flights
for a maximum queuing time of 10 minutes. The average processing time (PTpca) is 30 seconds.
One flight is a wide-body aircraft with two exiting doors. The total number of exiting door is thereforel
3.
Step A: Determine S.
X = 312
S = 13 (see chart)
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
.PCD = Sx(^)
#PCD = 13 x
„_ (1 0 x2 0 x60 )
- ^----30- - - -
212
IATA Airport Capacity
Wide-body aircraft
Narrow-body aircraft
Where:
PHP = Peak hour number of terminating passengers, international/domestic transfer
passengers, where applicable.
PWB = Proportion of passengers arriving by wide-body aircraft.
PNB = Proportion of passengers arriving by narrow-body aircraft.
CDW = Average claim device occupancy time per wide-body aircraft (minutes) or assume
45 minutes.
CDN = Average claim device occupancy time per narrow-body aircraft (minutes) or assume
20 minutes.
NWB = Number of passengers per wide-body aircraft at 80% load factor or assume 320
passengers.
NNB = Number of passengers per narrow-body aircraft at 80% load factor or assume 100
passengers.
"Please refer to Chapter U — Baggage Handling Systems — Clause U5.3 for confirmation of
baggage reclaim sizes for wide body and narrow body aircraft."
213
Example
Assume 2375 terminating passengers, 80% of these passengers on wide-body aircraft and 20% on
narrow body aircraft.
Wide-body aircraft
Narrow-body aircraft
Where:
PHP = Peak hour number of terminating passengers.
AOP = Average occupancy time per passenger (minutes) or assume 5 minutes.
AOV = Average occupancy time per visitor (minutes) or assume 30 minutes.
SPP = Space required per person (m2) for level of service C or assume 2.0 m2.
VPP = Number of visitors per passenger.
Example
A = 2080
m2
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
F9.IR. I
Due consideration for passenger expectations, needs, characteristics and behaviour should be
taken into account when planning facilities and determining level of service.
F9.IR.2
L ■:■■-■■:< of sen/ica C should be used as the lower limit to design facilities and to determine
the
sustainable capacity for the end of the design year.
F9.IÍ.3
The level of service A to E framework should be used to balance capacity between unrelated
sub-systems.
F9.ÍR.4
IATA s space and time standards should be used when site-specific standards are not available.
F9.IR.5
Facilities should be designed with full copsideration of the dimensions stipulated in clauses 9.2
to 9.5, unless a site-specific comprehensive study shows they can be modified to provide the
required level of service.
F .IR.6
Passei' ffow simulation as stipulated in clause 9.8.2 should be used to optimise existing
facilities, to validate concepts, '§0, when saturation or interaction between subsystems and
overflow conditions are expected.
F9.IR.7
The passenger formulae defined in Clause F9.10 should be used as preliminary calculation
reference.
216
IATA Airport Capacity
217
F10.2 LEVELS OF AIRPORT ACTIVITY
218
IATA Airport Capacity
Level 2 to Level 3
if elements of the airport infrastructure come under pressure from increase 'affic ievels. or if
the schedules facilitator is unable to persuade t airlines to adjust their schedules in order to
cope with capacity limitations, the question ofch jf/ng the activity level of the airport to Level 3
may arise.
In such a situation, the following will apply:
(a) when incumbem airlines representing more than half of the operations at an airport,
and/or
the airport managing body, consider that the capacity is insufficient for actual or planned
operations at certain opriods or
(b) when airlines wishing to operate through the airport for the first time encounter serious
problems in securing acceptable timings at the airport in question or
(c) when the government responsible for the airport considers it necessary,
then the government concerned should ure that a thorough capacity analysis is carried
em out
as soon as possible, organised by the
airp\
methods for capacity assessment.
The analysis should examine the critical sub-systems and consider the practicalities of
removing
capacity constraints through infrastructure or operational changes, with estimates of time and
cost required to resolve the problems.
In the process of this analysis, the government concerned should ensure that z Mines, ground
handling agents, immigration, customs and the airport authority are consulted on the
219
capacity situation. If there is no possibility of resolving the problems in the short-term, either
through removal of capacity constraints or by voluntary adjustment of airline schedules, then
the airport concerned should be designated as a fully co-ordinated airport.
It is imperative that every opportunity is explored to avoid this situation.
However, once the decision has been made to change the status of the airport, the government
concerned should notify the airport authority, the Co-ordination Committee, the airlines using
the airport and the IATA Manager Scheduling Services. In any event, thai notification shouldJ
SECTION F11: COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
AIRSIDE
VE
PASSENGERNT
SMOKE MOVEMENT DATA
PROPAGATI OVERLAY
ON FROM
CFDSEPARATE
TYPICAL
PROFILE SIMULATION
STATISTICSAT
SAME
OBTAINABLE
FIRE TIME INTERVAL
SPOT TEMPERATUES
SOUR T1 ,T2,T3 ETC
CE TIME SET AT 4
MINUTES POST FIRE
START
VOLUME OF GASES AT
POINTS V1.V2 V3 ETC
GAS TYPE AND
DENSITY
F11.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
224
IATA
Figure G1-1: Typical MARS Arrangement Figure G1-2: Comparable Single Stand
It is essential that the airport can provide the necessary number of stand centerlines, and of the
correct type, to accommodate the perceived business forecast and need. To this extent the use of
future flight schedules to assess the 'on ground, within stand' times and aircraft types is a necessity.
The mix of parked aircraft on the ground and the perceived forecasted growth all then attribute to
layout requirements. These requirements are then mapped to the technical limitations of the location,
both from an availability of stand area, and to the more technically demanding assessment of soil
mechanics. Community environmental issues will need to be addressed and the impact envelope of
exhaust and noise emissions from aircraft approaching and parking on the stands will all need to
accounted for. Only when all of this information has been analysed can the decision to accommodate
a specific stand geometry be concluded.
1
Ramping refers to the centerline of the stand where the nose wheels are driven and ultimately parked.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
The aircraft apron is part of the terminal complex and is greatly influenced by the choice of terminal
concept. However it must also be considered in relation to the taxiway and runway system. The
apron
can be divided into the following aircraft movement areas:
• Aircraft Contact Stands (Terminal gate or remote positions) — The area on the apron
designated
for parking of aircraft.
• Apron Taxiways — A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide
a through taxi route across the apron.
• Aircraft Stand Taxilanes — A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to
provide access to aircraft stands only.
• Apron Service Roads — Routes designated for the movement of service vehicles within the
apron area.
The apron must be planned in relation to the taxiway and runway system, as well as the terminal
buildings, to ensure maximum efficiency, operational safety and allow operational users to provide
cost effective standards of service.
G1.1.1 General
The airport apron and airside concourse designer should review the following items and factor them
in when embarking on the design of future stand layouts:
• Required aircraft stand combinations.
• Available stand area.
• Aircraft clearance criteria.
• Aircraft manoeuvring capabilities.
• Airports future master plan development strategy.
• The requirement to serve aircraft via airbridges.
• Capital costs.
• Airline operating schedules.
• Airport geology/soil mechanics.
226
• Control tower line of sight requirements.
• Pilots line of sight for all aircraft considered.
• Design standards recommended by ICAO Annex 14, Part 1.
• Position of runway, taxiway and service road locations.
• Type of push back equipment available.
• Position of sub soil ground fuel pipelines and hydrants.
• Local community environmental issues (impact, planning and noise considerations).
• International and state safety regulations governing airline and airport operations (e.g. FAA, DfT
and ACI publications).
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
228
Airport Flight Operations Issues
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
The IATA Ramp Services and Equipment Group has developed the above table of dimensions of
typical aircraft ground handling equipment for use in producing the layout of airport terminal aprons.
Numerous models of each type of ground handling equipment are produced by many manufacturers
in at least a dozen countries. The dimensions provided should be considered as typical of each type
of equipment and should be used as a 'rule of thumb' for general airport planning purposes.
Airport Planning Documents published by the aircraft manufacturers give for each model typical
servicing arrangements (in composite drawings) identifying each service vehicle. See FIG. G1-5
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
232
IATA Airport Flight Operations Issues
STEERING R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
ANGLE INNER OUTER NOSE WING NOSE TAIL
GEAR GEAR GEAR TIP
(DEG) FT M FT M FT M FT M FT M FT M
30 122.4 37.3 164.8 50.2 168.8 51.5 253.0 77.1 177.4 54.1 207.4 63.2
35 97.2 29.6 139.6 42.5 147.7 45.0 228.1 69.5 157.7 48.1 186.1 56.7
40 77.6 23.7 120.0 36.6 132.3 40.3 208.8 63.7 143.6 43.8 170.3 51.9
45 61.7 18.8 104.1 31.7 120.7 36.8 193.3 58.9 133.2 40.6 158.0 48.2
50 48.4 14.7 90.8 27.7 111.8 34.1 180.2 54.9 125.3 38.2 148.3 45.2
55 36.8 11.2 79.2 24.2 104.8 32.0 169.0 51.5 119.3 36.4 140.4 42.8
60 26.7 8.1 69.1 21.0 99.5 30.3 169.1 48.5 114.7 35.0 133.9 40.8
65 17.5 5.3 59.9 18.2 95.3 29.0 150.2 45.8 111.1 33.9 128.3 39.1
70 (MAX) 9.0 2.7 51.4 15.7 92.1 28.1 142.0 43.3 108.5 33.1 123.7 37.7
233
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
235
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
The following table is replicated from ICAO Annex 14, Table 3.1, and defines the taxiway minimum
separation distances for the various code letters.
C - - 168 - 93 44 26 24.5
Note /. - The separation distances shown in columns (2) to (9) represent ordinary
combinations of runways and taxiways. The
basis for development of these distances is given in the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2.
Note 2. - The distances in columns (2) to (9) do not guarantee sufficient clearance
behind a holding aeroplane to permit the
236
iata
237
SECTION G2: VISUAL AIDS
• Approach lighting and threshold lighting and markings provide a roll reference.
• Touchdown zone (TDZ) lighting and markings indicate the plane of the runway surface and
show
the touchdown area providing vertical and longitudinal reference.
The visual guidance derived from runway lights and/or markings should be sufficient to ensure
adequate take-off alignment and directional control for take-off and stopping, whether after landing
or in an emergency. Although additional instruments, such as head-up displays, may enhance the
safety of the operation, reference to visual aids is a primary requirement even when some form of
ground run monitor and displays based on the use of external non-visual guidance are being used.
The criteria for approach lighting, runway lighting and runway markings are contained in Annex 14,
Volume I.
Visual aids are also important for the safe and expeditious guidance and control of taxiing
aeroplanes.
Special attention is required for taxiway lighting, stop bars and signs. Annex 14, Volume I, contains
specifications for markings, lights, mandatory- and information- signs (see Annex 14 Figure 5-6
Taxiway marking, Figure 5-7 Runway Hold Position Markings) and markers. Requirements may
vary,
but they consist of markings and signs supplemented by taxi holding position lights to denote
holding
positions, taxiing guidance signs and markings on the centre lines and edges of taxiways.
(b) Lights:
• Approach slope indicator system (PAPI, VASIS).
• Simple approach lighting system.
• Runway edge lights, where the runway is intended for use at night.
• Stopway lights, where a stopway is provided.
239
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
240
IATA Airport Flight Operations Issues
G2.5 VISUAL DOCKING GUIDANCE SYSTEMS
With the adoption of nose-in parking and use of aircraft loading bridges, it is necessary to provide a
guidance system to assist the pilot in positioning his aircraft accurately. The Civil Aviation
Publication
(CAP) 637 entitled Visual Aids Handbook, produced by the Civil Aviation Authority in the United
Kingdom, should be referred to as current best industry practice on AGNIS/PAPA installations and
their subsequent usefulness.
The following are topics which must be addressed during the planning and development of visual
docking guidance systems:
Pilot Responsibility
The pilot should be provided with a system which guides him accurately to the final parking
position for his aircraft without ambiguity, and indicates to him his rate of closure with the
desired
stopping position.
Accuracy
The system must provide the accuracy of parking which is required on the particular airport or
apron, and this should be established by airport authorities and airlines jointly. Points to be
considered include:
• The clearances involved. For some aircraft this includes distances between the pitot tube
probes and the forward edge of the passenger door when open (i.e. B737).
• The performance of the loading bridges.
• The positions of fuelling hydrants and dispenser hose lengths available.
• The space required for all apron servicing activities including ULD loading/unloading.
When fixed loading bridges are installed, the docking guidance system must be particularly
reliable
as the accuracy of this system must match the tolerance of the proposed fixed bridge. On
aprons
serviced by apron-drive loading bridges, parking accuracy requirements may be less stringent.
Multi-Aircraft Type Capability
The system must accommodate as many different aircraft types as are likely to operate and this
factor should be established by airport authorities and airlines in joint consultation. In a multi-
aircraft system the problem of providing stopping guidance is more difficult and it is important
that the correct stopping position for the specific aircraft type using the stand should be clearly
identifiable by the pilot, irrespective of his height above apron level.
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G2.IR2 Precision Approach Path Indicators
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) installations should supersede or replace other visual
approach síêPg indicator systems as soon as practically possible. Where a visual approach
slope indicator system is installed on an ILS runway, it is recognised that the signals received
from the (non-precision) visual system may conflict with the ILS signals in such a manner as to
cast doubt on the safety or validity of the precision approach guidance being provided by the
ILS
.
IATA endorses the visual approach slope indicator systems specified in Annex 14, as follows:
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) — As the ICAO International Standard, replacing
the present VASIS Standard after January 1, 1995.
VASIS and 3-bar VASIS — Specified in Annex 14 as the International Standard until
January 1, 1995.
Regardless of the protection date of January 1, 1995, for VASIS and 3-bar VASIS, IATA
advocates the immediate installation of PAPI.
V___________________________________ . ___________________________>
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It is essential that all ILS/MLS installations be ground- and flight-checked at the time of
commissioning
and at regular intervals in accordance with the requirements of Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, to ensure
an adequate and uniform standard of non-visual guidance. In the event that a facility fails to meet
the requirements for which it was commissioned, or if a routine flight test cannot be completed within
the appropriate time interval, its status must be reviewed and the facility downgraded as necessary.
Users should be advised of changes in ILS/MLS status through the AIS. Guidance material on flight
testing is contained in the Manual on Testing of Radio Navigation Aids.
To ensure that the integrity of the guidance signal radiated by the ILS/MLS is maintained during
aircraft approaches, all vehicles and aircraft on the ground must remain outside the ILS/MLS critical
areas as described in Annex 10, Volume I, Attachment C to Part I. If a vehicle or aircraft is within
the critical area it will cause reflection and/or diffraction of the ILS/MLS signals which may result in
significant disturbances to the guidance signals on the approach path.
Diffraction and/or reflection may also be caused by one or more large aircraft or vehicles in the
vicinity
of the runway. This may affect both the glide path elevation and localizer azimuth signals. This
additional area, outside the critical area, is called the sensitive area\ The extent of the sensitive
areas will vary with the characteristics of the ILS/MLS and the category of operations. It is essential
to establish the level of interference caused by aircraft and vehicles at various positions on the
airport
so that the boundaries of the sensitive areas may be determined.
Critical areas must be protected if the weather conditions are less than 800 ft (250 m) cloud base or
3000 m visibility when instrument approach operations are being carried out.
Various ILS ground installations of suitable quality are routinely used to gain automatic approach and
landing experience in visibility conditions permitting visual monitoring of the operation by the pilot.
They should therefore be protected by interlocks from interference due to the simultaneous radiation
of opposite direction localizer beams (Annex 10, Volume I, Part I). Where this is impracticable for
technical or operational reasons, and both localizers radiate simultaneously, pilots should be notified
by the appropriate ATS unit, by ATIS broadcast, by NOTAM, or in the relevant part of the AIP.
Similar harmful interference can occur if aircraft in the final phase of approach or roll-out pass closely
in front of the ILS localizer antenna serving another runway. The provisions listed above should
therefore be applied to any such installations where experience shows this to be necessary. The
interim policy for MLS protection should be the same as that outlined for ILS mentioned above, until
such time as more definite information is available and has been operationally validated.
It is possible for ILS signals in space to be affected by the presence of signals from radio and
television
transmitters, citizen band radios, industrial plasma welders, spark erosion equipment, etc. The MLS
system design and signal spectrum protection have been selected to protect against interference.
Periodic measurements should be made, the level of any signals detected, and then these can be
compared with an accepted maximum. Such measurements can be made by positioning a wide
frequency band receiver in the vicinity of the middle marker.
Complaints by flight crews of signal disturbances should be investigated, and special flight checks
1
Terminology and protection criteria for ILS/MLS critical and sensitive areas may vary between States. For example, some
States use the
term 'critical area' to refer to both ICAO critical and sensitive areas as specified in Annex 10. Thus, when terms used or
protection provided
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Some States do not distinguish between critical and sensitive areas as defined in Annex 10. These States define instead an area, larger
than that defined in Annex 10, but still called the critical area. In addition, this area is protected when an arriving aircraft is within the
middle marker, or when cloud and visibility conditions are below specified values. This affords protection equivalent to that described
above.
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The reliability of the ILS ground equipment is a measure of the frequency of unscheduled outages
which may be experienced. Reliability will be increased by providing on-line standby equipment and
by duplication or triplication of key functions, including power supplies. The lowest value of
operating
minima can only be achieved with ILS that have high standards of reliability. The specifications in
Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, indicate the total maximum periods of time allowed outside the specified
performance limits for each ILS facility performance requirement.
For Category III operations it is requested to publish the classification of the ILS ground equipment
in the Aeronautical Information Publication
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Chapter H — Airport Security
Section H1: General Principles
H1.1 Airport Security: Introduction................................................................ 245
H1.2 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ 245
Section H2: Passenger Operations
H2.1 Introduction and General Principles...................................................... 246
H2.2 Site Evaluation and Layout of Facilities.................................................. 246
H2.3 Isolated Aircraft Parking Positions ......................................................... 247
H2.4 Support Operations ............................................................................... 248
H2.5 General Aviation .................................................................................... 248
H2.6 Minimising the Effects of an Explosion .................................................. 248
H2.7 Minimising the Effect of an Attack Upon People .................................... 251
H2.8 Passenger Terminal Building ................................................................. 251
H2.9 Access Control ....................................................................................... 254
H2.10 Passenger Security Screening Areas ..................................................... 255
H2.11 VIP Facilities.......................................................................................... 255
H2.12 Perimeter Security................................................................................. 256
H2.13 Vulnerable Points ................................................................................... 257
H2.14 Security Lighting.................................................................................... 257
H2.15 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) ........................................................... 257
H2.16 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ 258
Section H3: Cargo Operations
H3.1 Cargo Security Overview ...................................................................... 260
H3.2 Regulated Agent Status ........................................................................ 260
H3.3 Known Shipper/Consignor ..................................................................... 261
H3.4 Valuable Cargo........................................................................................ 262
H3.5 Post Office Mail ...................................................................................... 262
H3.6 Courier and Express Parcel Consignments............................................. 263
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CHAPTER H — AIRPORT SECURITY
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• Detection.
• Ensuring the security of channels by which passengers, baggage, personnel, cargo, mail
and
other goods and vehicles access aircraft.
• Ensuring the segregation of passengers who have been screened from those who have not.
• Controlling access to and movement within the airside and security restricted areas.
(b) Facilitating implementation of the airport emergency plan during a crisis such as a
bomb alert,
act of unlawful seizure or an aircraft disaster.
(c) Minimising the effect of an explosion or incendiary device on persons or facilities by
incorporating
design features to limit casualties and damage.
• Physical security measures for the airport perimeter and restricted security areas.
• Perimeter and security area vehicle and pedestrian access points, including automatic access
control systems.
• Isolated aircraft parking positions for searching aircraft subject to a specific threat or an act of
unlawful seizure.
• Facilities for the kenneling and training of explosive detecting patrol dogs.
• A simulation chamber.
If the installation of an automatic access control system is envisaged at a later stage of airport
development, provision should be made at the earliest stages of runway and taxiway construction
for an automatic access control system power supply, as well as data transmission trenches and
conduits. Similar provisions for the future installation of intrusion detection systems, electronic
alarms,
and video and data transmission networks should also be made in terminal buildings and at
vulnerable
point locations.
An isolated aircraft parking position should be located at the maximum distance possible from other
aircraft parking positions, buildings or public areas, and the airport perimeter. Planners should keep
in mind that the isolated aircraft parking position can also be used in the event of an aircraft
hijacking
or bomb threat. If taxiways or runways pass within this area, they may have to be closed to normal
operations when a 'suspect' aircraft is in the area. Planners should seek input on ideal locations for
these positions from the security or law enforcement agencies which would respond to such
incidents.
The isolated aircraft parking position may also serve as a 'security parking area', where an aircraft
threatened with unlawful interference may be parked as long as necessary, or else positioned for
the
loading or unloading of passengers. It may also be necessary to remove and examine cargo, mail
and stores from an aircraft during bomb threat conditions.
Care should be taken to ensure that the position is not located over underground utilities such as
gasoline or aviation fuel networks, water mains, or electrical or communications cables. Such
parking
areas would ideally be located so as to eliminate the possibility of unauthorized persons physically
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• Ensuring that roofing, cladding, false ceilings, etc., are securely fixed, as large panels or
items
which become detached can cause considerable injury and damage.
• Employing materials used in the internal fitting-out of the public and retail areas of the
terminal
that will minimise casualties and damage following an explosion, or fail in such a way which will
minimise the formation of secondary fragments.
• Ensuring that items such as waste receptacles are portable, so that they can be removed in
the
event of an increase in threat, or be of a type which will facilitate inspection to ensure that
nothing
dangerous has been concealed inside. Alternatively, litter receptacles may be constructed into
walls in a manner which would allow garbage to be deposited into an external container.
• Ensuring that materials used within terminal buildings, for example as upholstery on seating
and
for false ceilings, are fire resistant and do not give off toxic fumes or smoke.
A vehicle bomb is likely to contain large amounts of explosive. It is difficult to prescribe practical
measures to strengthen a structure to withstand totally the force of such an explosive device. Some
Distance of Effect on a building Effect on load-
explosive using bearing
device from modern framed masonry
building construction
up to 5 Severe damage to facade, Total collapse
possible local collapse in some
buildings
5 — 10 Severe damage to facade, in Major collapse
some buildings local to bomb
10 — 15 Moderate damage to facade Damaged beyond repair
15 — 20 Minor damage to facade Serious damage (but
repairable)
20 — 30 Superficial damage Moderate damage
It is apparent that a building of modern framed construction will experience less damage. The key
elements of modern frame construction are:
(a) The building is of frame construction, having reinforced concrete or structural steel and
concrete
floor slabs (precast concrete frames and floor slabs should be avoided).
(b) The frame is designed to be sufficiently robust whatever the building height. The horizontal
shear
forces at a given floor level should be calculated as an equivalent of a minimum of five storeys
above.
(c) In the case of steel frame construction, beam/column connections should be designed for
load
reversals).
(d) Additional robustness for steel frame construction can be achieved by encasing the
perimeter
beams and columns in concrete.
(e) Generally, the construction of the roof should be similar to that of the floor slabs.
Architectural
Windows may be broken at distances of up to 120 metres, although glass may fall from a building
at a distance of 60 metres. Unprotected normal annealed glass can break at a distance of up to 50
metres from ground zero. This distance can be reduced to 30 metres by the application of anti-
shatter
film, which has the further advantage of reducing the time required to clean up, since large quantities
of the glass remain glued to the film.
While some terminal designs minimize the use of glazing on their outer skin, most normally
incorporate
the maximum use of such materials and so it is essential to understand the failure mechanism of
glass types. While it is not practical to undertake substantial re-glazing of existing facilities, there are
a variety of steps which can be taken to reduce the risk of injury caused by flying glass.
It is preferable that the external landside aspect of the terminal building be as low as possible and
have as little glazing and cladding as possible. This may be achieved by having offices or similar
facilities backing onto this aspect. It is recognized that such an arrangement is unlikely to be practical
for many locations, and that many such aspects will continue to contain a great deal of cladding and
glazing. Where forecourt areas are covered by canopies it is recommended that they be so
constructed
that structural components will remain in place in the event of an explosion, but that the
All vehicles should be kept at least 50 metres away from the frontage of the terminal. Ideally, the
forecourt roads should be at a lower level, creating a sloping ramp which would act as a blast
deflector
should a car bomb be detonated. However, this solution usually conflicts with facilitation and design
and is therefore unlikely to be adopted in most locations. An alternative is to ensure that no short-
or long-term vehicle parking is allowed within 50 metres of the terminal and that the forecourt roads
are sufficiently policed to ensure that no unattended or unauthorized vehicle is allowed to be left on
them. Efficient response and rapid vehicle removal are required, especially when short-term vehicle
parking is permitted at the passenger terminal curbs. The pavement area of the forecourt should
have solid posts placed at intervals or some form of barrier system to prevent any vehicle from
mounting the pavement or entering the terminal.
H2.6.1 Materials
When fitting out the public areas of the terminal, materials should be used that will fail following an
explosion in such a way as to minimise the formation of secondary fragments and thus casualties
and damage. The following actions should be taken:
• Avoid brittle materials such as glass or rigid plastics which can break into sharp fragments.
• Use materials which are flexible and strong (e.g. polycarbonate, metal sheet and possibly
toughened glass), ductile (metal sheet, laminated glass), or weak and soft (plasterboard,
hardboard wood wool, foam-filled sandwiches).
• Provide appropriately strong fixings, ideally with the same resistance capacity as the material
being secured. This may mean recommending that inner sheets (away from a blast) be
screwed
rather than nailed or screwed through additional surface plates or battens to prevent screws
being
torn out.
• Minimise opportunity for collapse of light structures. This may mean that booths, concessionary
accommodation, etc., should be designed to resist blast loads even though they will be within
the sheltered concourse.
H2.7 MINIMISING THE EFFECT OF AN ATTACK UPON PEOPLE
The concern addressed here is that of an attack against a specific group of passengers or staff,
either
because of their nationality or the nationality of the carrier with which they intend travelling. Such an
attack would probably use automatic weapons and grenades. It is also possible for such an attack
to be indiscriminate.
Within multi-storey terminal buildings, the likelihood of having landside balconies overlooking check-
in areas is high. It is equally likely that the public has access to them and that commercial
exploitation
demands that the facilities available on the first floor or balcony area be readily seen from the
ground
floor or check-in area. Unrestricted access to areas overlooking a check-in zone should therefore
not
provide a line of fire or the ability to throw grenades. As it is an unrestricted public area, the
considerations already discussed in relation to glazing and building materials also apply.
To allow natural light to enter the building, and so as not to diminish unnecessarily the visual impact
of the balcony facilities, screening should normally be of glass, the choice being between toughened
or laminated toughened. Ideally, the glazing should reach from floor to ceiling but, where this is not
possible, the minimum height of such screening should be 2.3 metres. The space between the top
of the screen and ceiling should be filled so as to prevent the lobbing of explosives. The manner in
which this can be achieved will depend upon environmental and ventilation needs, weight
constraints,
aesthetics and cost. Access to the first floor or balcony from the ground floor or check-in area
should
be similarly protected from the balcony level down to a height above the lower floor at which line of
sight and fire is no longer possible. A suitably designed 'glazed cage' can achieve the required
results
if the glazing is of the necessary standard.
At major airports and those handling certain high-risk flights, there is a need to protect designated
check-in operations against attack, by means of either a permanent, protected facility or temporary/
portable screening which can be moved into place. The screening of high-risk flights should have
protective qualities capable of minimizing the effects of an attack which may involve the use of
firearms
and grenades as well as suitcase bombs. A normal check-in area can be converted into a protected
check-in area by means of ceiling-hung bullet/blast resistant screens, which can be pulled into place
when needed.
The check-in screening should be opaque, lightweight, durable and easy to store, and should where
possible be of specifications that would limit the possible use of lobbed explosives (at least 2.3
metres
high with netting suspended from the ceiling down to the top of the screens). With advances in
materials, it may be that adequate protection can be afforded by ballistic screens or curtains made
H2.8 PASSENGER TERMINAL BUILDING
To attain the general objectives of security planning, as well as those of over-all airport planning, the
key to success is the simplicity resulting from the following principles:
• Transit and transfer passenger and cargo flows, preferably in both domestic and international
operations, should be physically separated.
• The number of security checkpoints should be minimized (this can be achieved by centralizing
the screening points at a spot where the passenger and baggage flow routes converge).
• The number of points where pedestrians can have access to the airside area and, particularly,
the security restricted areas should be minimized (this can be done after a rigorous analysis of
ground personnel flow routes and by applying the basic principle of developing the over-all plan
for the permit system).
• All passenger departure areas between the screening checkpoint and the aircraft are to be
considered a security restricted area into which access must be controlled.
The following considerations should be given to any landside public spectator terraces or areas
which
overlook aircraft parked on the apron or passenger handling operations:
• The areas should be enclosed, or contain barriers to prevent unauthorized access or the
throwing
of objects at parked aircraft or into security restricted areas.
• Access control features should enable them to be secured and closed to the public when
required.
Each baggage storage facility to which passengers and the public have access should be
constructed
in such a way as to minimize the effects of an explosion occurring in an item being handled or stored,
and should be capable of being secured when not manned. Provision should be made for the hand
search or screening of all items by X-ray by trained staff before they are accepted for storage.
The airside and security restricted areas should be designed and constructed to prevent the passage
of articles from non-sterile areas. For example, links or connections between plumbing, air vents,
drains, utility tunnels or other fixtures in restricted security area restrooms and restrooms in non-
sterile areas should be avoided to limit the possibility of articles being passed from one area to the
other. When planning the construction of non-restricted or public access suspended walkways or
balconies over or adjacent to sterile areas, it is critical to ensure that they not facilitate the passing
of items into those areas.
The maintenance of the security integrity of passenger areas can be enhanced by designing built-in
fixtures such as railings, pillars, benches, ashtrays, etc., to prevent concealment of weapons or
dangerous devices. This could help reduce the difficulties and costs associated with monitoring such
areas, which also includes closets, utility rooms, restrooms, lockers, storage areas, stairwells,
recesses
housing fire extinguishers, and fire hose storage cabinets. Closets and utility rooms should be
capable
of being locked when not in use.
The objectives of fire safety and crowd control provisions and those of security provisions may
appear
contradictory. Optimum safety aims at enabling people to be evacuated in the event of danger,
while security aims at controlling people's movements and limiting their access to certain areas.
Reconciliation of these objectives should be based on a search for a preferred airside to landside
evacuation direction. Each airport area should be the subject of specific evacuation planning to
ensure
security is not compromised.
In evacuating the landside area, including those areas not freely accessible to the public, evacuation
should be done towards the landside curb. If architectural constraints require evacuation in the
opposite direction, the emergency exits to the airside should be secured when not in use.
Evacuation from the airside area to the landside area is preferred, but an effort should be made to
keep the number of emergency exits and points of passage to the minimum required for safety
reasons. Evacuation should only be done towards the airside area if architectural constraints or the
Signs should be installed along the curb indicating that parking is limited to the time needed to
offload
passengers. It is recommended that the positions reserved for private vehicles be separated from
those reserved for buses and taxis. Bus and taxi parking positions should be placed away from the
manoeuvring lanes to permit them to load and offload their passengers along the curb.
If the airport is served by rail, outdoor or underground stations should preferably be located away
from the passenger building and be connected with it by pedestrian walkways.
In planning and designing passenger buildings, provision should be made for the installation of the
following airport security features:
• Hold baggage screening points.
• Passenger and cabin baggage screening points.
• Flight crew screening points.
• Staff screening points.
• Central security control centre.
• Emergency operations centre (EOC) and isolated aircraft parking position.
• Hold baggage control system centralized control room(s).
• Space required to question passengers before they reach the check-in counters.
• Hold baggage search room(s).
• The security service's offices and premises.
All security posts, offices or premises should be located so as to minimize response time to an
incident
and thus ensure maximum security service efficiency.
Wherever possible, maintenance areas, service areas, miscellaneous activities areas, and buildings
or controlled areas should be located landside with controlled access to airside.
To prevent unauthorized access, doors or gates leading from landside to airside security restricted
areas and to controlled areas which are not under surveillance should be equipped with locks and/
or alarms.
Buildings and other fixed structures may be used as a part of the physical barrier and be
incorporated
into the fence line, as long as measures are taken to restrict unauthorized passage through them.
Care should also be taken to ensure that roofs or other structures do not provide an easily accessible
route for unauthorized access to the airside.
In the selection of suitable locations for passenger security screening areas at which walk-through
metal detectors and X-ray equipment are to be used, it is essential that sufficient reliable power
outlets be provided. It is also necessary to consider the possible effects of electrical fields generated
by other types of equipment such as elevators, conveyor belts, etc. The mass of structural steel in
terminal buildings may also have an adverse effect. It is not possible to recommend minimum
distances
from sources of such interference because of the variables of each location. Further guidance is
best
obtained from the manufacturer of the equipment to be used.
The location and size of passenger security screening areas will be dictated primarily by passenger
volume. Careful attention should be given to the number, type, configuration and positioning of
screening areas so as to facilitate the flow of passengers through the terminal. Consideration will
need to be given to the issues of queuing, physical search, and passengers requiring additional
processing.
Generally, international and domestic passenger flows are kept separate. However, this is not
always
possible, particularly at small and medium-sized airports. In such situations, passenger screening
areas may be combined and the passenger flows controlled by either a door or a partitioning system
to direct passengers to their boarding lounges. The international boarding lounge may be preceded
H2.11 VIP FACILITIES
VIP facilities require careful consideration as the individuals using them may be subject to a high
level of personal threat. Facilities should allow for control of the VIPs and those involved with their
reception and departure procedures. The facilities should incorporate a dedicated screening area
for
check-in and processing passengers, and for keeping cabin baggage and hold baggage separate
from the normal passenger operations.
Where for ease of use the facilities straddle the landside/airside boundary, the standard of access
control should be no less than at other access points and arrangements for the use of these
facilities
should ensure the integrity of the boundary between the landside and the airside. VIP facilities must
be secured when not in use.
-M&ãr
IATA Airport Development Reference
H2.12 PERIMETER SECURITY
In deciding what form of perimeter or restricted area security is required, many factors need to be
taken into account. These might include national and local threat assessment, vulnerabilities and
asset values. The topography of the site should be one of the foremost considerations, together with
general location, areas to be protected and the life expectancy of any materials used. It is important
to note also that the physical components of perimeter security (fences, perimeter intruder detection
systems, closed circuit television, etc.) should not be viewed in isolation but rather as an integrated
whole.
The following perimeter detection technologies should be considered and their merits evaluated as
a minimum:
• Infra-red Systems.
• Microwave System.
• CCTV Systems.
• Chain Link.
• Welded Mesh.
Where airport perimeters are close to public walkways, roads or rivers, the perimeter should be
under
surveillance either by patrol or by automated detection system. Signs should be placed at 50m
intervals which clearly advise the public that perimeters are under surveillance. Airport perimeters
should be complete and to a consistent standard throughout the whole perimeter. Areas within the
terminal complex which border with vulnerable areas such as vehicle and staff gate posts should be
monitored with CCTV systems with data recorded on 24hour 365 days a year digital recordings.
Other vulnerable areas recommended for CCTV surveillance which may bridge the perimeter
include
but are not limited to:
• Power plants.
• Fuel farms.
• Control tower.
• Drinking water reservoirs (within the perimeter and serving the airport terminal and
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IAT
A When designing security systems for airport perimeters the detection systems should have full
redundancy capability. If a single component fails within a system the systems overall integrity
should
remain intact. Field devices such as fence detectors should provide indication to the central control
room that failure has occurred and where the failed field device resides.
Waterways which intersect the perimeter boundary should be protected and it should not be
possible
for unauthorised access beneath runway or terminal complexes without prior detection.
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H2.IR6 Perimeter Detection Systems
The perimeter of international airports should be fitted with intruder detection equipment and
surveillance equipment. All vulnerable areas (see clause H2.12) should be monitored 24 hours
a day 365 days a year by CCTV systems. To limit false alarms CCTV systems should be used
in parallel to perimeter intruder detection systems.
V_____________________________________________________________________________ J
• Another airline.
• A regulated agent.
• Postal service.
A freight forwarder.
• A direct shipper.
Whatever source tenders the cargo for carriage, action needs to be taken to prevent the introduction
of explosives or incendiary devices into air cargo. Airlines reserve the right to examine, or cause to
be examined, the packaging and contents of all cargo, courier and express parcel consignments and
to enquire into the correctness or sufficiency of information or documentation tendered in respect of
any consignment. The right to examine the contents of consignments does not extend to post office
mail.
ICAO Annex 17 requires (Standards 4.5.2 and 4.5.3) Member States to secure the operations of
regulated agents concept, freight forwarders and airlines. This is achieved through the provision of
the Airline Security Programme and the Regulated Agent Security Programme.
Reference is made throughout this Section to regulated agents, freight forwarders, courier service
companies and airlines. Although that is the case, airline operations that are away from the home
base are generally handled by agents or contractors. The airline is responsible for the cargo
operation
regardless of what the handling arrangements might be.
(2) Manuscript Security Programme, published by the appropriate authority for acceptance by the
freight forwarder, courier service company, etc.
The programme details methods of meeting the provisions of Annex 17. Arising from the programme,
freight forwarders, courier service companies, airlines, etc., when meeting set standards, may be
registered/listed by the appropriate authority as 'regulated agents'.
Airport Security
Although reference is made to cargo, it should be understood that cargo also includes within its
definition unaccompanied baggage, mail, courier and express parcels. Cargo consigned directly to
an airline and not via a freight forwarder needs to be dealt with by virtue of the provisions of the
Airline's Freight Forwarder Security Programme. In the case of airlines, they will also be bound by
the provisions of the National Aviation Security Programme.
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Partially cleared cargo may be accepted from other regulated agents or forwarded to airlines for
security clearance. Details of the partial clearance shall accompany the air waybill. The screening
process may include X-ray, other approved technology or procedures including physical inspection.
It is usual for an appropriate authority to introduce an audit programme for the purpose of examining
compliance with the Regulated Agent's Security Programme. This should include the physical
inspection of the agent's premises and an examination of the known shipper/consignor client list and
other documentation.
Valuable cargo is defined in IATA Cargo Services Conference Resolution 012. Generally it includes
gold bullion and other precious metals, precious stones, bank notes, valuable securities, works of
art, etc. Blank airline documents, such as miscellaneous charges orders (MCOs), air waybills
(AWBs)
and ticket stock, should also be dealt with as valuable cargo.
Valuable cargo, by the nature of its contents, should be subject to a close inspection on the part of
the airline and checked against the details on the air waybill. The airline should adopt security
measures for handling valuable cargo in cargo terminals, during aircraft loading, unloading and
ground
transportation.
Local security regulations should be instituted as the result of a review carried out by the chief
security
officer of the airline and the cargo terminal management. This review should be ongoing and take
into consideration various levels of threat in and around the airport. As a general rule, valuable
cargo
must be booked with the airline and any special arrangements made for it prior to its acceptance.
Details of value, contents, routing and storage must be kept confidential.
Mail carried on passenger aircraft shall be subjected to security controls by airlines and/or regulated
postal authorities before being placed on board an aircraft. Global postal services are members of
the Universal Postal Union, which, in turn, is a sub-committee of the United Nations (same status as
that of ICAO).
The Universal Postal Union Convention (UPU Convention) sets security standards for the protection
of mail services and specifies the standard of forms to be used for the purpose of forwarding the
mail. Such forms will be completed by the post office.
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Airlines should take certain actions to ensure the integrity of the mail delivered to an airport mail
centre before loading onto a flight. Those actions are:
(a) Ensure the number of bags stated in the delivery bill coincides with the number bags received
from the postal authority.
(a) Make a visual inspection of the mail bags to ensure they have not been subjected to tampering.
(b) Assure that the integrity of the mail bags and seals should be verified upon the receipt of the
mail.
Documents handed to airlines by post offices or handed over at the point of transfer should be
stowed
in the flight portfolio or where flight documents are kept. They should be extracted immediately upon
arrival of the aircraft at its destination.
Although the airline or its agent does not normally have the right to examine the mail, the airline
may
refuse uplift during times of increased threat. The mail, which also incorporates 'registered parcels
and registered letters', is attractive to a person intent on dishonesty and should be subject to special
security handling from the point of acceptance to the point of delivery.
Those involved in the movement of time definite mail should not provide booking details to shippers
unless they are known shippers/consignors or regulated agents.
Although airlines may have IATA Recommended Security Standards within their programmes, it
should be understood that Member States of ICAO can impose more stringent standards. Individual
H3.7 UNKNOWN CARGO
The uncontrolled acceptance of cargo from persons unknown to the regulated agent, and its
subsequent carriage on an international passenger carrying aircraft, is a security risk. Although it is
not feasible that all cargo can originate from known shippers, there is a need to control the risk
factors
when considering the carriage of the cargo of unknown shippers.
• A valid passport.
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Screening of cargo includes:
(a) Screening by X-ray, such that:
• The equipment used must be of a type approved by the responsible authority.
• The equipment should be regularly maintained and meet manufacturer and other
regulatory
specifications.
• The screeners must be competent in screening techniques and be trained to a
standard
required by the responsible authority.
• The regulated agent will keep a record of the operatives and their training in
screening
techniques.
(b) Hand searching:
• Those involved in the hand search of cargo are experienced in identifying dangerous
items
and explosive materials.
• It is preferred that the shipper/consignor or their representative should be present at
the time
of hand search if possible.
(c) By other means:
• The use of X-ray, enhanced X-ray and other detection bio-sensory technologies; i.e.
centrifugal
spectrum analysis.
• Trace detection.
• The use of simulation or pressure chamber.
• The use of trained 'sniffer' dogs.
• And in some cases hold for a specified period of time (e.g. 24 hrs or flight time plus 2
hours,
etc.).
(d) The multiple use of the above means of search may be best to achieve the necessary
degree
of satisfaction that the cargo is not a danger for carriage on passenger aircraft.
(e) The search shall be as thorough as possible to verify the consignment is consistent with the
description in the accompanying documents.
(f) Cargo shall be protected against unauthorised interference during preparation, storage and
transportation.
Once the consignment of an unknown shipper is screened to the satisfaction of the Regulated
Agent's
Security Programme, a declaration should accompany the airway bill, which contains all relevant
information. Cargo from unknown shippers may be exempt from screening under special
circumstances. These circumstances will need to be ascribed to by the responsible authority and
should be contained in the Regulated Agent's Aviation Security Programme. Those circumstances
may include:
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• Vaccines and other perishable medical use items.
• A diplomatic bag.
• The baggage will be subjected to the same security checks as that of an unknown shipper.
• The shipper/consignor must be the holder of a valid airline ticket to the destination to which
the
baggage is directed.
• The baggage will be handled by a regulated agent or directly checked into the cargo terminal
of
the airline on which the passenger will travel.
In some cases States may exempt unaccompanied baggage from additional security screening if the
passenger had no control over being separated from their baggage. This is provided the baggage
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Chapter I — Airport Access
Section 11: Roads
11.1 General Airport Road Considerations: Introduction.................................. 269
11.2 Environmental and Security Factors Associated with Traffic ................... 270
11.3 Traffic Data .............................................................................................. 270
11.4 Road System Planning Requirements....................................................... 271
11.5 Commercial Landside Vehicles ................................................................ 274
11.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 275
Section 12: Rail
12.1 General Considerations ........................................................................... 277
12.2 Typology................................................................................................... 277
12.3 Geography and Economics ...................................................................... 278
12.4 System Characteristics ............................................................................ 279
12.5 Good Practice .......................................................................................... 280
12.6 Cargo and Rail ......................................................................................... 280
12.7 Objectives and Benefits ........................................................................... 280
12.8 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 281
Section 13: Intermodality and Airport Access
13.1 Principle of Intermodal Travel................................................................... 282
13.2 Ferry and Jetfoil Services ......................................................................... 283
13.3 Interfaces ................................................................................................ 285
13.4 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 285
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CHAPTER I — AIRPORT ACCESS
At the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport access system is required, with the capacity of
the system needing to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport
planners, local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary to ensure that
proper and timely provision for the requirements, current and projected, is in the local or regional
transportation plan and in the appropriate capital expenditure programmes.
The demand for ground transportation between the airport and the metropolitan area it serves is
generated by: originating and terminating passengers; meeters and greeters and other visitors
(including those shopping or on business at the airport); airport and airline industry employees;
cargo,
express services and mail; and airport support and supply services.
Advance planning is highly important. Surface access development plans should be part of the
airport
masterplans and development plans for the surrounding area. The forecast modal split — between
rail-based access and road-based access (private car, taxi, bus and other) — can either be an input
to or an output from these plans. If the airport or local planning authority have a specific target split
for a specific reason, it will be an input: if it emerges from constraints on transport infrastructure
elements, it is more in the nature of an output.
Planning for the road network will need a traffic model to forecast vehicle trips by vehicle type and
their origins and destinations, as well as the peak volumes. From this will come the need for
highway
capacity — on access roads, airport roads and on key junctions outside the airport.
11.1.1 Responsibilities
Responsibilities for access provision can be divided, and can rest with organisations other than the
airport authority. Hence there is the potential for a clash of priorities on the timing of capacity
provision.
This needs to be taken into account, and appropriate steps should be taken to ensure that
construction
11.1.2 Objectives
The objective of surface improvements needs to be accepted and understood. It can be to
encourage
a particular modal split (and therefore the use of public transport rather than the car), improved links
to terminals (enhancing the attractiveness of the airport for passenger or cargo traffic), or merely
accommodating growth in demand. The objective, especially if it is the first, needs to be an integral
part of the masterplan.
Surface access links are best improved in an integrated way, and in a way which furthers the
objective.
The most successful plans are those which improve access for both public and private modes, both
road and non-road. The design of all of the facilities needs to recognise the alternatives of
minimising
capital expenditure, minimising running costs, or minimising construction time. An appropriate
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As surface access is upgraded, increased use of public transport should be encouraged by making
it as widely available and as attractive as possible in terms of speed, image, reliability, convenience,
safety, comfort and cost. The transportation network provided for access will also be attractive to
non
airport users. In the planning stage, this needs full consideration, namely: will all demands be met,
or will the design and the pricing structure be geared to discouraging non-airport traffic?
Within the airport boundary, traffic is generated by the airport itself. The amount will vary in nature
and volume with the size and type of airport. It will include transfer passengers where there is more
than one terminal, and adequate transfer systems (moving walkways, buses and shuttles,
automated
people movers) need to be evaluated and developed.
Electric or low emission vehicles should be considered for on-airport traffic and for aircraft servicing.
Off-airport consolidation of deliveries has also been successfully used to reduce traffic. Road design
can reduce noise, severance and congestion impacts, and pedestrian routes which are designed in
a way which encourages their use are more beneficial than those merely designed to minimise the
interaction between foot and wheeled traffic.
Security concerns may restrict vehicular access. A general rule of thumb is that unexamined
vehicles
should not be allowed to park within 300 feet (100 metres) of a terminal building, although this may
be modified according to the specific design of the terminal (would it be screened from a blast from
a bomb in a car park, or conversely are there large exposed areas of highly lethal glass?). Such
considerations are less relevant with public transport access: passengers on public transport are far
more likely to be under surveillance than car drivers, and have a far lower capacity for bringing in
bombs. The movement of public transport vehicles is also far less predictable and far less
controllable
11.3 TRAFFIC DATA
A significant proportion of airport ground transport demand is from originating and terminating
passengers. However as a rule of thumb, there are about 1000 employees for each million
passengers
through the airport each year, and each employee makes around 10 trips a week. So a million
passengers equates to approximately 4000 passenger trips and 2000 employee trips a day.
Employee
traffic volumes and peaks will reflect on-airport employment situations; for instance, is it only related
to day to day operations, or is there, for example, a major maintenance facility? Is it strongly peaked
by time of day, days of the week, or season of the year? Is there a curfew or is it a 24 hour airport?
Delivery traffic can be significant especially if the airport has a large retail and catering operation.
Cargo traffic will vary with the amount of cargo through the airport, and much air cargo, especially
short haul, travels by surface mode anyway.
IATA Airport Access
Meeters and greeters may create a significant amount of traffic, according to local custom: shoppers,
spotters, sightseers and business partners all contribute too. On-airport traffic — hotel and car rental
courtesy vehicles, transfer passengers — can also be significant. If the airport is a public transport
interchange point, or a convenient park and ride point, there can also be large volumes of non-airport
traffic.
For calculations of passenger-related vehicular traffic and the resulting facilities and capacity
needed,
the design year average day and peak hour forecasts will provide figures for volumes of originating
and terminating passengers, as well as for transfer passengers for inter- and intra-terminal traffic.
To
estimate volumes of vehicular passenger traffic entering or leaving the airport, there is a need for
forecasts of:
• Arrival rates for arriving and departing passengers for the average day of the peak month. Peak
hour and peak minute information may also be required. Factors can be applied to each
vehicular
mode if necessary: for example the number of goods vehicles or buses, which take up more
space than cars, may need to be weighted more than cars and taxis.
• The percentage of passengers by type of vehicle (park and ride, kiss and ride, taxi, bus, rail,
water) to determine the transport mix.
• Meeters and greeters — which can be significant according to the local culture and customs.
• Occupancy of each vehicle (occupants: car) relevant for vehicle numbers and curb
requirements.
Total passenger related vehicle trips by mode can be estimated and added to other trips to
determine
11.3.2 Stationary Traffic
Additional data are required for specific requirements like parking and curb space. Average dwell
times at the curb — which will vary depending on whether or not there is curb check in, for example
— and the number of vehicles parked by meeters and greeters and kiss and ride (compared with
park and ride) visitors is needed for this.
In general, short term parking (less than 8 hours) should be reasonably close to the terminals Long
term (over 8 hours) can be remote, with shuttle bus or people mover access. Pricing policies can
have interesting and sometimes unintended effects: increasing car park charges to improve the use
of public transport and decrease car trips, for instance, can backfire by encouraging kiss and ride
(4 trips) rather than park and ride (2 trips).
Incentives are needed. For example, ensuring that passengers leaving terminals see the train
station
before they see car parking and taxi/car hire areas is a valuable indicator of the priority the airport
ascribes to the rail mode. Much of the necessary information can only be obtained from surveys —
of passengers, employees, cargo handlers and support services.
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At large airports, it is preferable to separate service-related traffic long before arriving at the
passenger
terminal curbside area. This results in a double network of roads: those for passengers, visitors and
probably employees; and those for delivery of goods, services, cargo, kitchen supplies and so on.
• Passengers.
• Private cars.
• Taxis.
• Shuttle and courtesy vehicles for hotels, car rental and car parks.
• Limousine services.
• Crew buses and staff vehicles (who can, of course, constitute a significant blockage at airside
entry points because of the need to screen their baggage).
• They should be designed to accommodate peak traffic volumes and have adequate expansion
capacity (unless the airport takes the conscious decision not to cater for peak flows).
• All public roads should be clearly signposted. Clearly visible signs should be positioned on the
roads and on the terminal curbside areas well in advance of desired destinations to allow
drivers
to make any necessary changes without abrupt changes of lane and direction. Signs should be
properly lighted for night use, and lettering and background colours should enhance clarity and
visibility. Messages should be concise, quickly identifiable and easily understood. Colour coding
for multiple terminals, for specific airlines, or for major facilities like car parks, is recommended.
• Links between the external public road system and the non-public or service road system
should
be planned carefully in order to avoid either congestion or reductions in the potential for future
expansion.
• Main through roads should bypass the road along the face of the terminal building.
• Roads running along the face of the terminal building should be wide enough to permit passing
of stopped vehicles and should have a minimum of three lanes. These should be wide enough
to allow space for loading and unloading bags.
• There should be no access to the apron, taxiways or runways from public roads.
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Where the public road system accommodates service vehicles, it should connect with terminals
for delivery of goods at designated locations only.
Roads connected to cargo areas must have sufficient height and clearances to accommodate
existing and projected cargo carrying vehicles.
At large airports, special lanes may be reserved for high-occupancy vehicles, and the curbside
area should segregate buses and taxis (inner lanes) from private vehicles (outer lanes).
Provision should be made for a future people mover system (note that such systems can be
elevated above highways).
Adequate facilities for two-wheeled vehicles should be provided: secure parking spaces should
be available near work areas and public transport stops. Safety can be improved by the provision
of a segregated network for two wheeled or un-powered vehicles.
Specialist vehicles like tow tractors or main deck loaders are not normally operated on public
roads but are used extensively airside. Occasionally they are required to operate on landside
roads
and therefore proper consideration should be given to their non-standard physical dimensions.
• Access to the non-public road network must be effectively restricted to service vehicles directly
linked with aircraft handling activities.
• The service roads must be capable of accepting ULD transporter equipment between the
cargo
terminal and the aircraft.
• Adequate bearing strength, height clearances and turning radii must be provided to
accommodate
existing and projected service and ground support equipment, including tow tractors, where
applicable.
• Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, preferably 12m, and a clearance
height of 4.2m, but preferably 4.6m. The latter is of particular concern with regard to service
roads directly located in front of parking positions which pass under sections of the terminal
building and/or passenger loading bridges. It should be noted that the figures provided are
design
guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport
concerned.
Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn
radius of at least 8m.
• Adequate separation in accordance with ICAO Annex 14 must be provided from runways,
taxiways
or other areas where aircraft manoeuvre.
In planning for airside road systems it must be recognized that many restrictions exist especially in
those areas where aircraft ground handling activities are in progress. Safety and security aspects
together with the special needs of slow traffic (e.g. tugs and dollies), wide and very high vehicles, all
need to be taken into account. Exclusive use of part of the system by some categories may be
necessary. Special attention should be given to:
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• The use of private cars airside should be restricted.
• Aircraft tow tractors may have to operate at right angles to service roads. Special provisions
may
be necessary.
• Between the front of the aircraft stand and the terminal building.
Each location has its advantages and disadvantages. Since a lot of operational activity tends to occur
around the forward portion of the aircraft, a frontal service road is sometimes preferred. However the
disadvantage with this type of service road is that the clearance height necessary to allow certain
types of service vehicles, i.e. aircraft catering, to pass underneath may create a major problem with
the height or slope of the passenger boardng bridge or the elevation of the departure gate lounge.
When the service road is located in front of the terminal building adequate room must be provided
for the aircraft push-back tractor to manoeuvre, i.e. the tractor which is at 90° must not encroach into
the service road. However this often occurs and traffic congestion on the service road follows.
Though not a recommended solution by IATA, it may therefore be in certain instances more
advantageous to locate the service road to the rear of the aircraft stands. In this case the service
road should be very clearly marked and must not be allowed to infringe on apron taxiway operations.
Proper clearance must be defined and maintained from the rear of the aircraft to the service road to
the apron taxiway. Rear service roads will involve traffic coming off the service road past the aircraft
wings and engines when approaching the front of the aircraft. Movement around aircraft wings, etc.,
11.5.1 Taxis
The requirement to provide a continual supply of taxis to the arrivals curbside loading area can be
accommodated by creating a taxi pool staging area. This needs to be reasonably close to the
terminal
area, and provision for orderly staging and sequential dispatch of taxis to the curb is necessary. A
means of alerting drivers to the need for taxis at the curb (and, in multi-terminal airports, which
curb),
is also needed.
11.5.2 Buses & Coaches
There are various types of buses and coaches, all of which have different needs to be catered for,
namely:
• Charter and tour buses need dedicated curb space. This is often provided at the end of the
terminals or in a dedicated transportation centre. There is also a need for waiting and parking
space, ideally with some form of communication for drivers meeting inbound passengers.
• Hotel shuttles. These also need dedicated curb space for loading and unloading, and facilities
for waiting passengers (including phones for communications with hotels). In order to reduce
on-
airport traffic, some airports have consolidated hotel shuttles into a number of fixed route
services,
each one serving a number of local hotels.
• Long distance buses and coaches. These are usually accommodated at a dedicated
transportation
centre. This can be a valuable facility for local residents, who generally are more likely to need
a bus than a plane. A dedicated transportation centre needs a good walking route or a people
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IATA• Local buses. These are particularly valuable for employees. A number of Airport Access
airports have provided
a direct subsidy, start-up funding, or assistance with marketing for buses on core routes,
especially
those operating 24 hours a day. Some are demand-responsive, deviating from a fixed route if
pre-booked — a useful answer to personal security concerns. Some airports have introduced
free or discounted travel schemes for employees to reduce car traffic and to increase their pool
of labour. The reputation of the airport depends in part on the quality of (often low paid) retail
and cleaning staff, and increasing the ability of all shifts to get to work at an acceptable price is
useful. A few large airports have negotiated free-fare zones around the airport to encourage
employees to use the bus for travel between on-airport sites (for example to meetings) rather
than to use a car.
11. IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
"A
11 jil Public Transpôs t Provisions
For existing airports wanting to expand, studies or surveys should be undertaken to establish
the percentage of passengers using public transport to get to the airport and the reasons for
their choice. If enhancements to tfie existing public transport infrastructure were made, ii ten the
usage by passengers should also be evaluated via passenger surveys. The passenger growth
iates should then be factored into the expectations of the usage of facilities, it is important that
computer simulation and forecasting models realistically represent the capabilities of expensive
non-airport-owned rail infrastructure.
r
11 .IR4 Reducing Vehicular Airport Emissions
Electric or low emission vehicles should be considered for on-airport traffic and for aircraft
servicing.
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In the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport rail access system is required: the capacity of the
system needs to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport
planners,
local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary to ensure that proper and
timely provision for the requirements, current and projected, is in the local or regional transportation
plan and in the appropriate capital expenditure programmes.
The demand for rail ground transportation between the airport and the metropolitan area it serves is
generated by: originating and terminating passengers; meeters and greeters and other visitors
(including those shopping or on business at the airport); airport and airline industry employees;
cargo,
express services and mail; and airport support and supply services.
Advance planning is highly important. Surface rail access development plans should be part of the
airport masterplans and development plans for the surrounding area. The forecast modal split —
between rail based access and road based access (private car, taxi, bus and other), can either be
I2.2 TYPOLOGY
• Metro rail.
• Light rail.
The characteristics of each type should be reviewed to decide which is best for the transfer
processes
in hand. Each type has evolved to meet local requirements.
The most common types of metro rail system are the subway, metro extension or station on a local
commuter network. These are particularly good for employee access (because they are usually part
of a network serving residential areas, and because the fare structure is geared to frequent
travellers).
An advantage to the railway operator is that many employees — and air passengers — travel out of
or against the local peaks and therefore make good use of the spare capacity inherent in a
commuter
operation.
However some North American variants of commuter rail only have a few peak trips in the peak
direction only. Clearly this is unsuited to airport traffic and an expansion of service (to both
directions,
reverse commute, and trips throughout the day) would be required.
This type is less good for air passengers — especially those travelling long haul, with much
baggage.
There may not be appropriate accommodation on the trains, and the airport needs to be alert for
problems and to be ready to liaise if necessary with the transport provider. There is a need for
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The most popular type among passengers is the high quality dedicated airport express. There are
about a dozen of these around the world, characterised by high speed limited stop services, and
trains with a business class ambience and purpose built luggage accommodation. In some cases
these provide in-town check-in. Many make a commitment to punctuality and reliability, with a
scheme
offering compensation for delays. In a number of cases, the timetable is such that there is always a
train waiting for passengers — they can wait for departure in the train rather than on the platform.
12.2.3 Regional
A regional rail service is valuable for increasing the airport catchment area as it can feed in traffic
from nearby towns and cities. Frequency may be an issue, especially at hub airports; because trains
serve a larger market than the airport, timings may not suit the classic hub and spoke operation with
waves of inbound and outbound connecting flights.
-
Light rail is increasingly becoming a solution to the airport access problem, although as with
suburban
and metro systems it is more suited to employees than air passengers due to the types of rail
carriages
provided and their ability to deal with cumbersome baggage. However those passengers with only
hand baggage especially may find its penetration into the conurbation valuable.
12.3 GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMICS
All types of rail access require investment plus the correct geography. If a rail line runs nearby, how
easy would it be to connect it to the airport? If there is not an existing railway nearby, how can rail
best be used to access the conurbation centre? New construction is costly and significant new build
would require either a large airport or long distances from the centre (where the speed advantage is
most beneficial) to justify the outlay. But when built, it can be highly attractive — rail has a better
image than bus and is therefore more efficient in changing modal share. A key lesson is that it
needs
to go where people want to go — although if the airport is big enough and the service good enough,
commercial development will be attracted to the city terminal area, making it a destination in its own
right.
The economic viability of different types of public transport — bus, light and heavy rail — will vary
with the size of the market, local transportation policy and the nature of the market:
• If the majority of users live locally, for example, they will be more likely to know about the
public
transport alternatives but are more likely to have a car available.
• If the majority are inbound tourists they will not have a car available.
• If the majority are on inclusive tours, they are more likely to have buses pre-arranged for
onward
travel.
The potential market share for public transport can be as high as 50%, although this needs
dedication
and excellence — not least in marketing. Travel time on a dedicated high speed link can be
significantly
Airport Access
When planning the station, there is a need to consider the capacity of the access system. Provision
for change of level needs to be appropriate for the numbers likely to be using them — the likely
volumes of passengers and baggage from peak trains.
Facilities include:
• Baggage trolleys. This can be an issue between the railway and airport. For understandable
safety reasons, train companies prefer those where the brake is on unless released by a user.
Many airports prefer those where the user is actually required to apply the brake when
necessary.
• Accommodation for change of level can include moving walkways, although here and on
escalators
trolley policy needs to be considered. Convenience and safety need to be balanced.
Lifts/elevators
are valuable especially for those with reduced mobility: they need to be designed to carry a
stretcher if necessary. Ideally a choice should be provided — some people are claustrophobic
in lifts.
• Check-in, away from the platforms but on the natural route from the platforms to the
terminals,
is valuable. It will facilitate passenger circulation and relieve stress by disencumbering them of
their bags as early as possible. It reduces the need for trolleys and for circulation space on the
route to the terminals, and may even reduce the need for check-in space in the terminals.
• ln-town check-in — and in-town check-out — needs to be considered for the downtown
terminal
or at major interchanges. The facilities can range from self-service machines for those with just
hand baggage via baggage drop systems, to full hold baggage check-in. Although these
alternatives are popular among passengers, so far the economic case for them has been difficult
to make. Everyone benefits, but matching the flow of costs and the flow of benefits can be
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12.5 GOOD PRACTICE
Good examples are in Madrid and Stuttgart (subway/metro); Heathrow, Oslo, Stockholm, Hong
Kong
and Kuala Lumpur (high speed dedicated); Frankfurt and Paris Roissy-Charles de Gaulle (high
speed
network); Zurich, Geneve and Southampton (regional); and Portland (Oregon), Baltimore-
Washington
International and Bremen (light rail).
Many high speed dedicated services charge a premium fare to reflect the premium product they are
providing. There is little significant customer resistance to this, especially if there is a choice of rail
service and especially if the airport has a high proportion of business users (who value their time
highly). A premium fare for a non-premium service — cashing in on a captive market — does lead
to customer resentment and resistance.
Except in special cases (code-sharing, and airports with limited numbers of flights) it is not generally
worthwhile attempting to co-ordinate flight times with train times. There is an unpredictable amount
of time between the scheduled flight arrival time and arriving passengers finding the train — flights
can arrive early or late, and the need to reclaim baggage and complete arrival formalities are key
factors. It is better to provide good information and a frequent service — at least hourly for regional
and high speed network, every 1 0 — 1 5 minutes for high speed dedicated and more frequent still
for metro, suburban and light rail.
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• Staff traveling at peak times could be offered discounted rail travel as an incentive.
• Staff which sign up to airport managed car sharing schemes could be given priority parking
positions closer to the airport. Care is needed with these schemes to ensure that vehicles have
the correct level of maintenance and insurance coverage.
• Passengers could be offered total door to door services with the use of integrated taxi and train
ticket packages.
• Staff APM car parking facilities can be offered to staff, but only with a payment.
• Other bonus schemes can be developed providing staff with a financial incentive to leave the
APM car at home.
The key attributes of well developed intermodal airport strategies can include:
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13.3 INTERFACES
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Chapter J — Passenger Terminal
Section J1: Outline of Principle Functions
J1.1 General Introduction............................................................................... 289
J 1.2 Terminal Concept..................................................................................... 290
J 1.3 Major Functional Areas ........................................................................... 293
J 1.4 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... 300
Section J2: Categories of Passenger Terminal
J2.1 Centralized vs. Decentralised Facilities .................................................. 301
J2.2 Description of Terminal Concepts............................................................ 304
J2.3 Processing Levels .................................................................................... 315
J2.4 Design and Construction.......................................................................... 316
J2.5 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 317
Section J3: Small Airport Terminals
J3.1 Small Airport Terminals Overview .......................................................... 318
J3.2 Terminal Space & Functionality............................................................... 319
J3.3 Development of Small Airports ............................................................... 319
J3.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 319
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A
CHAPTER J — PASSENGER TERMINAL
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J1.2 TERMINAL CONCEPT
IATABasic
J1.2.1 Airport Development
Considerations Reference Manual
The design of passenger terminals must be related closely to the runway/taxiway system, apron
configuration and the airport access system. The requirements of the major airline users should be
fully understood. The base carrier and/or airline alliance group strategies should be equally
evaluated
and considered. This will play an important role in the layout and flexibility of the airport terminal
building. The types and category of aircraft that can be accommodated by the runway system will
dictate the permissible terminal concept layouts. The terminal concept will also relate closely to the
type of airline and passenger business markets proposing to use the facility.
The overall extent and location of the terminal building will be governed by the ultimate
development
potential of the airport, as contained within the airport's master plan. The size of the individual
phases
leading up to the ultimate development stage is determined through an analysis of the schedules of
all
the airlines serving the airport, their annual movements, the average passenger per aircraft
movement
measurement and the resultant total peak hour flows for departing, transfer and arriving
passengers.
As developed further in this chapter, certain basic criteria should be observed in the planning of
passenger terminals and the selection of a terminal concept. The criteria include those
considerations
outlined below.
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J1.2.1.11 Centralisation
In the process of planning a terminal concept, airport authorities and/or their consultants must
determine the degree of centralisation of the processing activity required, or the degree that can be
accommodated by the base carrier, alliance partnerships and other carriers.
In centralised concepts all the major components — including surface access systems, passenger
processing and baggage handling systems — are all located in a single passenger terminal
complex,
independent of any particular traffic segment. In this type of configuration airlines and alliances can
avoid unnecessary duplication of activities, common facilities can be shared and associated CAPEX
and level-of-user charges can therefore be reduced.
As the degree of centralisation decreases the individual components become more dispersed, with
functions spread out over a number of self-contained centres. In a completely decentralised
J1.3 MAJOR FUNCTIONAL AREAS
J1.3.1 Curb
(See Chapter Q for details).
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J1.3.2.2 Public Facilities
Public facilities include the concessions, telephones, airport information desks, toilets, etc. Such
facilities should be located in areas which are not contiguous to the check-in facilities, in order to
IATA Airport
promote Development
the most Reference
efficient and uniform Manual
utilisation of the concourse areas. This policy will also assist
planners in expanding the check-in hall by adding further modules to either side of the check-in
area.
In countries with high visitor-to-passenger ratios, appropriate arrangements should be provided to
prevent the non-travelling public from approaching the check-in facilities. Directional and information
signage should be prominently located in the public areas.
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• Visitor-to-passenger ratio.
J1.3.6.1 General
Common departure lounges, gate lounges and transit lounges may occur in terminals as three
separate
areas, in combination, or as one. The design layout depends greatly on the traffic characteristics,
government controls and airline procedures, as they apply to the three main categories of
passengers
who use departure lounge facilities, namely:
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J1.3.6.2 Common Departure Lounge
At most international airports, a common departure lounge should be provided to accommodate
originating passengers who have checked-in early and have cleared government controls, but who
still await their boarding gate details. Transit and transfer passengers with long connecting times
also
tend to dwell in this area.
At small-scale airports it may not be cost-effective to provide separate departure lounge and gate
IATA lounge facilities.
Airport At these airportsReference
Development it will, however,Manual
be necessary to delineate parts of the common
lounge as boarding areas for specific flights (i.e. gate lounges within the common departure
lounge).
The following functions should be considered for inclusion in the common departure lounge:
• Adequate seating to accommodate the forecast passenger loads; this requirement varies with
the boarding procedures to be used by individual airlines.
• Flight information displays to indicate the departure time, gate, and boarding status of each
flight.
• Airline information desks to provide assistance to passengers; these may include processing
counters for transfer passengers.
• Concessions; including restaurants, bars, shops and duty-free.
• Toilet facilities.
• Public address systems to announce gate variations and/or delays.
In order to determine the size requirements of the departure lounge, it is recommended that a
passenger flow model be developed which takes into account flow rates, transit and transfer
passenger
requirements, availability of gate lounges, average load factors, etc. Using the passenger figures
derived from the model, the space calculation for the departure lounge area (excluding concessions
except bar/restaurant/snack bar) should be based on the passenger space provisions referred to in
Section F9, Fig. F9.3.
At airports with a large percentage of transfer and/or transit passengers, the required space
allocation
will be considerable.
Requirements for government controls, as well as the location of these controls (landside/airside)
and their effect on passenger flow must also be considered.
It will be important for the main individual airport processes (check-in/immigration/passport control/
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J1.3.6.3 Passenger Terminal
Gate lounges and their associated circulation space are the main components of both finger piers
and satellites. The maximum size of aircraft handled, the maximum number of gates proposed and
the maximum assumed peak hour flows of arriving, departing, transfer and transit passengers in the
ultimate stage will determine the width required to support assumed flows.
The gate lounge is provided as an assembly area for passengers in transition between the main
processor and the aircraft, and under certain conditions for passengers in transit. Usually,
concessions
are not located in the individual lounges, but may be located within the pier or satellite. Where a
gate
lounge is designed to serve high capacity aircraft which will be boarded through more than one
door,
access to the lounge should be arranged so as to allow passenger a direct and simple flow through
to the appropriate door.
Passengers usually have access to the passenger loading bridge through a security door, after
having
their boarding pass checked and automatically recorded by an airline agent as part of a passenger/
baggage reconciliation process. Because of the requirement to separate departing and arriving
international passengers, a ramp is often used to move passengers from the gate lounge level down
to a bridge node at a lower level before entering the loading bridge. The use of escalators to move
passengers from the gate lounge on one level, to the entrance, to the passenger boarding bridge on
a lower level is not acceptable for safety reasons. Passenger queues will form at the entrance to the
passenger boarding bridge and passengers coming down the escalator may be injured due to
congestion problems at the foot of the escalator.
The gate lounge may serve multiple aircraft positions and be divisible into separate areas for
passengers (separation according to airline boarding procedures). In such cases, some
concessions
may be located in the combined lounge area.
When required, the gate lounge may include those facilities necessary for the operation of a gate
check-in system; e.g. communications, check-in desks, baggage acceptance, etc.
Toilets are not normally required in each gate lounge but should be in a general area, conveniently
located with respect to each lounge. If, however, a decentralised gate security check is to be
implemented, it will be necessary to construct toilets in each gate lounge.
The following table is offered as guidance in assessing the space requirements for individual
departure
gate lounges. The following assumptions are made:
• Only 70% of passengers will be accommodated in the gate lounge simultaneously (column 2).
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Figure J1-1: Table Defining Pier/Gate Lounge Widths
aircraft No. % Max. Level of Floor Max. Clearance Max. % Width Depth
of no of service area aircr between width available of gate
code PAX PAX scrnPAX req. aft aircraft of gate req.
& type span
(D (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
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J1.3.8 Airside Circulation
The airside corridor, if any, is the walkway by which passengers move between aircraft, between
aircraft and the baggage reclaim area on arrival, or between the lounges and aircraft on departure.
The corridor should be large enough to accommodate forecast volumes of departing and/or arriving
passengers and should be unencumbered with distractions, such as displays or advertising that
detract from pertinent information regarding departure or arrival areas. The design of an appropriate
number of exits from the departure lounge, as well as entrances to the government control and
other
arrival areas, must be part of the airside corridor analysis.
At airports with a large percentage of transfer traffic, provision must be made to permit the direct
transfer of passengers between two international flights without a requirement to clear government
controls.
Circulation areas may narrow as the extremity of the pier/satellite is reached. Pier/satellite
circulation
areas should allow for moving walkways (one in each direction when distances exceed 300m) and
sufficient space to accommodate walking passengers with baggage trolleys, wheelchairs and
vehicular
traffic on either side. 8 — 10m is an assumed maximum width for this circulation zone. In piers and
satellites, moving walkway lengths should be determined with convenient gate access points in
mind.
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J2.1.1 Introduction
The primary question to be answered at the beginning of the conceptual design process is whether
to have a single centralised passenger processing area, or a series of multiple terminal units. The
decision is influenced by many factors, including the need:
• To provide and maintain facilities that allow comparable levels of service to be provided;
• Of the dominant base carrier(s) and of competing alliance partnerships;
• Of the market and the passenger types to be served;
• To be flexible to accommodate the changing needs of the primary user; i.e. the airlines;
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Description
The Pier/Finger Terminal Concept consists of a main centralised passenger processor and a series
of piers (airside concourses). In large examples of this type, such as Amsterdam Schiphol (shown
above) with approx. 39.6 mppa in the year 2000, the main processor may consist of several semi-
centralised check-in/baggage reclaim areas fed by a common departures/arrivals curb.
All Originating & Departing passengers and baggage are directed through the central processing
area to and from the aircraft parking positions, which are connected to the central building by piers
(airside concourses).
Departing passengers are processed at centralised check-in facilities and walk to the respective
gates, assisted by moving sidewalks installed in the piers.
Baggage of all departing passengers is collected at the central check-in counters and conveyed to
the baggage sorting areas from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment or
fixed conveying systems.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in the reverse flow.
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Pier/Finger Terminal Possible Advantages
A high percentage of passengers can be accommodated under one roof.
Permits low Mean Connecting Time (MCT) if flight pairs are properly co-ordinated.
Allows variable expansion possibilities of the piers, independent of the main processor.
Expansion can be undertaken in small incremental steps as demand requires.
Centralisation of airline and government inspection services staff.
Permits centralisation of major concession outlets (i.e. restaurants, duty-free, etc.).
Permits use of relatively simple flight information display systems.
Facilitates control of passengers, if required.
Ease of movement for transfer passengers.
Pier/Finger Terminal Possible Disadvantages
Long walking distances, especially for transfer passengers.
May require airlines to have secondary CIP facilities in piers to accommodate individual traffic
segments.
May require secondary concession outlets in piers.
Curbside congestion in peak periods.
Long taxiway routes to/from runways.
If insufficient space is allowed between piers, resulting taxiway cul-de-sacs may restrict the free-
flow of aircraft.
Requirement to segregate arriving/departing passengers may result in need to build a secondary
passenger circulation level in some piers. This in turn may increase walking distances for
transfer
passengers.
Early check-in and close-out times.
High capital, operating and maintenance costs for passenger conveyance and baggage handling
systems.
Potential for baggage mishandling.
Clear signage systems required to overcome passenger way-finding and orientation difficulties.
Unless independent development of supporting airside and landside infrastructure is possible
and pre-planned, expansion of this operating system beyond a 55 mppa level will be difficult to
achieve.
• The area of land required to support pier/gate development is large due to the need to incorporate
dual taxi-lanes between sets of piers that can accommodate in excess of 10 — 12 aircraft total.
Other examples: Bangkok, London Heathrow T3 and Zurich.
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Notes: The site for T4 is constrained on all sides by one of the primary runways, the cross-wind
runway and by the primary road access system. As such, expansion of the terminal has only been
possible by the addition of a remote single sided pier at some considerable distance from the main
processor.
Description
The Linear Terminal Concept consists of a main centralised passenger processor with expansion
capability to either side. On the front or airside face of the processor is a finger type concourse which
may be straight or in another geometrical form. Aircraft are parked at the face and in some instances
the rear of the concourse. An airside corridor may be located parallel to the terminal face with access
to the terminal and gate positions.
Departing passenger and baggage processing can take place either in a central area or at semi-
centralised groups of check-in counters.
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Depending on the internal layout, the walking distance between the car park and the aircraft can be
reasonably short, but in the case of a centralised processing system the distance may become
unacceptably long.
The size of baggage conveying and sorting systems depends on the internal layout of the building.
This concept is mainly used if there is only confined space available between the landside road
system and the runway.
Possible Advantages
• Minimum walking distances if check-in facilities are semi-centralised.
• Easy passenger orientation.
• Simple construction of the main terminal with relatively easy incremental expansion.
• If required, separation of arriving and departing passengers is relatively easy using two levels.
• Adequate curb length.
• Reasonable check-in and close-out times.
• Compact baggage conveying/sorting systems if remote drop points are not utilised in
concourses.
Possible Disadvantages
• If system is decentralised, will require duplication of terminal facilities/amenities (i.e.
restaurant,
duty free, etc.) and staff.
• Long walking distances especially for passengers transferring between extreme ends of
concourses.
• Long walking distances if passenger processing is centralised and the pier system (airside
corridor)
is extended.
• High capital, operating and maintenance cost if centralised passenger/baggage processing
facilities are employed.
• Special logistics may be required for handling of transfer baggage depending upon size of
building;
i.e. remote baggage drop-off points required.
• May require airlines to have secondary CIP facilities in concourses to accommodate
dispersed
traffic segments.
• Aircraft movements to the rear of the concourse may be restricted due to the need to reduce
engine noise levels.
IATA Passenger Terminal
Wore; Mirabel (YMX) is predicted to cease commerical passenger operations from Autumn 2004.
Description
The Open Apron Terminal Concept consists of a main passenger processor with expansion
capability
on either side. Passenger transfers between the main processor and remote aircraft positions are
accommodated by the use of apron drive busses or mobile lounges. There is no direct connection
between the processor and aircraft parking positions.
Departing passengers are processed at the central processing area and proceed through
Government
Inspection Services to a common departure lounge. From this point passengers can be handled in
one of two ways:
• They can be called to remote gate hold rooms, usually located at apron level, and then
transported
to the aircraft by bus.
• Or they can be called into mobile lounges which double as gate hold rooms and as
transporters
between the building and the aircraft parked at remote apron positions. The mobile lounges work
with a scissor lift system that enables the lounge to operate at varying floor and aircraft sill levels.
Baggage for all departing passengers is accepted at central check-in counters and conveyed to the
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Possible Advantages
• Constant compatibility of terminal/apron geometry to accommodate new generation large aircraft.
• Ease of aircraft manoeuvrability (i.e. power-in, power-out operation).
• Simplified passenger movement/orientation.
• Reduced walking distances.
• Ease of expansion capability for aircraft stands.
• Low cost expansion capability.
• Operations can be expanded without significantly impacting on the existing main processor.
• A simpler, smaller and more efficient central processor.
• Separation of arriving and departing passengers can easily be achieved.
• Could be used as a low cost first phase option prior to constructing remote satellites in order
to
increase percentage of contact stands served.
Possible Disadvantages
• Very low percentage of contact stands.
• Increased loading/unloading processing times.
• Very early close-out times required.
• Very limited last minute boarding capability.
• High capital, maintenance and operating costs of busses and transporters.
• Requires right of way/control of transporters due to high collision potential of transporters &
aircraft.
• Curbside congestion in peak hours.
• Additional cost for larger number of ground vehicles for crew and baggage transport.
• Increased minimum connecting times.
• Additional airline staff required.
• Creates demand surges at arrival Government Inspection Services control positions.
Other examples: Washington Dulles & Paris Charles de Gaulle (CDG). Note CDG no longer mobile
lounges.
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Description
The Satellite Terminal Concept consists of a central processing building for passengers and baggage
and remote concourses around which aircraft are parked. The remote concourses or satellites are
connected to the main terminal by above- or below-ground links to facilitate the movement of
passengers between the satellites and the main terminal. These links can be formed by either APM
(Automated People Mover) systems or by underground walkways with travelators.
Baggage from departing passengers is collected at the central check-in counters and conveyed to
the baggage sorting area from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment or
mechanical systems.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in a reciprocal flow.
Possible Advantages
• Normally provides for the centralisation of airline and government inspection services staff.
• Permits short minimum connecting times within individual satellites.
• Variety of incremental expansion possibilities to both the main processor and piers.
• Permits centralisation of major concession outlets (i.e. restaurants, duty-free, etc).
• Permits relatively simple flight information display system.
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• Linear satellites permit direct aircraft routing between stands & runways.
• Separation of arriving & departing passengers within satellites can be easily achieved if required.
• Facilitates control of passengers, if required.
• Short walking distances (to/from APM).
• Additional satellites can be designed to accommodate future aircraft design developments.
Possible Disadvantages
• High.capital, operating and maintenance costs of the APM system between the main terminal
and satellites, especially if these are below ground.
• High capital, operating and maintenance costs of baggage conveying/sorting systems with
potential for baggage mishandling.
• May require airlines to have secondary or multiple CIP facilities in satellites to accommodate
individual traffic segments.
• Requires secondary concession outlets in satellites.
• Curbside congestion in peak hours if percentage of Originating Departures traffic is high.
• Expansion capability of the main processor is limited to either side.
• Due to distance and need to locate, wait and use APM system, minimum connecting times
between flights in different satellites are increased.
Description
The Compact Module Unit Terminal Concept is a system witnessed in the past at small, medium and
large airports. In the USA it has proved popular at airports where individual modules could be owned,
occupied, dedicated or assigned to individual carriers. Within Europe it has sometimes been utilised
to differentiate between individual traffic segments, i.e. Schengen or Non-Schengen. However, the
hubbing needs of base carriers and/or the major airline alliances has resulted in this type of solution
becoming increasingly unpopular or obsolete with partnerships preferring collocation under one roof.
Expansion is demand driven and carried out through construction of additional modules. The
transition
of passenger and baggage from landside to airside and vice versa is directed through a compact
facility which provides the shortest possible distance from the car park to the aircraft.
Departing passengers and their baggage are processed either at a gate check-in or a semi-
centralized
flight check-in facility. Passenger moving equipment and outbound baggage sorting devices are
usually not required within each module. The gate check-in procedure allows a very late check-in
and close-out time.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in the vicinity of the gate in the reverse flow
on the lower level.
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Possible Advantages
• Short walking distances from check-in to aircraft.
• Late check-in and close-out times (last minute baggage/passenger acceptance capability).
• Greater curb lengths are provided than for centralised processing terminal units.
• Capital investment is commensurate with demand.
• Construction of additional units in medium and large airports can be tailored to suit demand.
• Construction may not impact on existing airline operations.
• Moving walkways to assist passenger movement within each module are not required.
• Only simple baggage handling systems are required within each module. As a consequence the
percentage of mishandled bags is low.
• Within the terminal, only a simple flight information display system is required.
Possible Disadvantages
These occur when there is more than one terminal and include:
• Low percentage of contact stands.
• Difficulties in accommodating large volumes of passengers.
• Individual terminal units are inflexible & incapable of major expansion.
• A requirement for comprehensive flight information display and sign-posting systems, including
signage along the airport access routes to orient departing passengers and/or meeters &
greeters
to the correct terminal.
• A complicated system is required to transfer passengers and baggage between terminals.
Depending upon volumes & the number of terminals, the high costs of such a system may also
be an adverse factor.
• Higher manpower requirement — airline and government staff members will increase in order to
operate multiple terminals. This also requires more careful allocation of all manpower.
• Reduced ability to offer industry competitive minimum connecting times due to high number of
transfer (terminal) variables & the distance between modules.
• An adverse impact on any high speed rail access system (local or international) due to the
inability
or need to serve multiple stations, the varied and complex transfer routings and the increased
transfer times from/to and between inter-modal access points and terminals.
• The complexity of land-side road access systems.
Other examples: Budapest, Dallas Forth Worth & Hanover.
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r
J2.IR3 Passenger Transfer from Piers/Satellites to Aircraft
Rather than relying on mechanical systems (lifts and escalators) to transfer passenger between
levels a series of ramps should be used. In this way installation, operation and maintenance
costs can kept to an absolute minimum.
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Small airports often deal with higher volumes of propeller driven commercial and privately owned
aircraft. As commercial propeller (turboprop) aircraft require less automated passenger docking
equipment than commercial jet aircraft, support infrastructure such as push back tugs are
infrequently
used since the aircraft are generally less connected to the terminal infrastructure and utilize more
'remote' stand philosophies (see Section L3). Passengers are often bused or even walk between
the
gate room areas and the aircraft and vice versa, using dedicated apron walk routes and staff
supervised
protocols.
While commercial propeller driven aircraft will require tarmac runways, there is the possibility of
adjacent grass runways that can be made use of, predominantly for non-commercial light aircraft.
Small jet powered aircraft will also use small airports, provided that the runway specifications and
support infrastructure is adequately in place. Runway management protocols and equipment should
be developed and provided respectively in accordance with the requirements at larger airports,
befitting
the code category of aircraft being accommodated.
All smaller airports will require effective and well-placed control tower facilities, which should enable
them to function safely and in a commercially viable manner for the ground movement of aircraft
and
aircraft approach guidance.
Baggage handling facilities can be limited and geared around the processing of a specific flight
rather
than the processing of multiple outbound and inbound flights baggage simultaneously, as is the
situation in larger airports. The processes and protocols for these smaller installations will still
require
to be modeled on the recommendations defined within Chapter U, Airport Baggage Handling,
including
the same level of integrity for hand and hold baggage security screening hardware and operational
practices.
Ground transportation at small-scale airports can be scaled down to the requirements of the airport
flight traffic requirements, which can mean less equipment redundancy in the event of transportation
failure. This needs to be carefully balanced to ensure that correct service standards are maintained.
Information displays may be less frequent and located at critical areas only, as passenger way
finding
should theoretically be less arduous given the smaller infrastructure. The flight information display
signage standard should be aligned with the requirements defined within Section J12. Able and
disabled passenger processing will also be required in the facility.
The small airport will likely need to provide limited retail, restaurant and passenger and staff public
rest areas and public toilets. Limited retail will be useful for passengers and will enable small
airports
to create parallel revenue streams to support and help grow their airport operation.
Emergency response and emergency management should be completely aligned with the
IATA Passenger Terminal
Aircraft fueling at smaller airports will likely be accommodated by fuel container and dispensing
vehicles. Please refer to Chapter M, Aviation Fuel Systems, for clarification of physical requirements
and protocols to adopt.
Automation implies installation of computers, printers (document printers and specific printers for
tickets, boarding passes, baggage tags) at many points along a passenger's route. These may
include:
• Ticket/sales counters.
• Check-in counters.
• Boarding gates.
• Transfer counters.
• Information desks.
Each airline needs to connect this equipment to its own central reservations system.
The requirements for self-handled airlines to use check-in counters only a few hours a day can lead
to a requirement for extra check-in counters. To avoid over supply of check-in desks, the concept of
CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment) was established. CUTE does not eliminate dedicated
airline check-in counters but does enable the sharing of counters when airline schedules permit.
Rental rates for the check-in area are very expensive so the airlines need to ensure this area is
optimally utlized.
J4.2 CUTE
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE) is a generic airline industry term (not to be related to
vendors' products and services) for a facility which allows individual users to access their host
computers). CUTE undertakes all airline EDP functions, using the same entries and getting the
same
responses as they would through their own terminal equipment.
The basic idea of the CUTE concept is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal
handling facilities. This includes such areas as check-in and gate counters on a common use basis,
enabling airlines to use their own host computer EDP applications for departure control, reservations,
ticketing, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc.
CUTE provides potential savings to the airlines and airport authorities by increased utilization of
check-in counters and gate space, thus lessening the need for airports to build additional counters
and gates. It may also permit an airline to automate its check-in and departure control functions
when
the costs of installing its own equipment would be: too high; precluded by another system or
equipment
already installed; not permitted by the airport authority.
• Airlines access their own applications systems from CUTE work stations.
• Possibility for agents to use the transaction formats of the system they are accessing.
• Optimum use of airport facilities with no need to dedicate special areas for different airlines.
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• Security of access.
• Permits airlines to control their own reservations, check-in and departure control functions, thus
not requiring them to use systems provided by airport authorities or handling agents which might
not be compatible with their host computer systems.
The Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) and the Airport Operating Committee (AOC) will define
the exact problem areas as early as possible using the following questions as guidelines:
e Is there a need or desire for users to share EDP equipment now? In the future?
Once the particular local automation issues have been defined, the possible technical solutions
which
would best solve these problems for the carriers concerned must then be evaluated, both
functionally
and economically.
Because of the highly technical nature of each of these solutions, and also to ensure consideration
of carriers' longer term planning not known to local airline managers, it is imperative that this
evaluation
is carried out by head office specialists in data processing, communications, terminal planning and
handling procedures.
Therefore the members of the ACC or AOC must refer the local automation problems which they
have defined to the respective department(s) in their head office as early as possible. In turn, the
head offices of these carriers will then instruct their local managers on the course of action they
J4.2.2 CUTE Local User Board (CUTE Club)
Based on the instructions which the local managers have received from their head offices, a CUTE
Local User Board should be established at the airport by the AOC. The board shall be comprised of
all carriers engaged in the definition of local automation issues, and must include head office
specialists
in terminal and handling facilities planning, data processing, communications, costs/charges and
handling procedures. This CUTE Local User Board shall then undertake the following steps:
• Decide if the airport authority, in its capacity as landlord and/or handling agent, should be
invited
to become a full member, or alternatively an observer of the working group.
• Inform the airport authority officially about the intention of the group.
• Specify short-term and long-term requirements of the system by written documentation, giving
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• Consider and agree on potential general contractors/administrators for the total local CUTE
system.
J4.2.3 Equipment
The nature of the CUTE workstation equipment at an airport will depend on the specific total system
specifications agreed for a local CUTE system. The type and manufacturers of such equipment may
vary from airport to airport, subject to agreement between the users and the
contractor/administrator.
Equipment configuration requirements may vary at different airport locations. Typical CUTE
workstation equipment types can be (but are not limited to):
• VDU/CRT.
• Ticket printer.
• Readers.
A proposal shall include a quotation on the price of the provision, operation and administration of
the
total system, broken down as follows;
(a) Investments:
• Terminal equipment.
• Telecommunications equipment.
• Depreciation.
• Financing charges.
• Contingency.
IATA Passenger
The basic idea of the CUSS concept is to enable airlines to share self-service facilitiesTerminal
(e.g. kiosks),
without having to install and run proprietary hardware. Certified IATA CUSS compliant applications
can be run on any IATA CUSS certified platform. The platforms can be equipped with a variety of
hardware devices, including biometrics, according to local requirements.
CUSS provides potential savings to the airlines by increasing the availability of self-service
applications
throughout their network. It also permits an airline to provide self-service functions when the costs
of installing its own equipment would be either too high or not permitted by the airport authority.
CUSS reduces the need for airports to provide space for individual airline kiosks in common use
areas. As the kiosks can be located anywhere (e.g. car parks, railway stations, etc.) the check-in
process can be de-centralised.
The major benefits of CUSS are:
• Passengers can access the airline's own applications from CUSS platforms.
• Decentralisation of check-in is possible.
• Optimum use of airport facilities with no need to dedicate special areas for different airline
kiosks.
• Certified CUSS applications can be run on any CUSS platform, anywhere.
• Use of airline system software.
• Little preliminary investment for the airlines — CUSS certified application required.
• Shared running costs.
• Improved passenger service.
• Supports any CUSS certified application (e.g. car hire, hotel reservations, etc.).
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— VPN Integration: Provides a VPN termination point so that devices on the campus network
can join and leave tenants wide area virtual private networks (VPN) securely. Both
dedicated
(VLAN) or shared (VPN) connected devices can access the WAN VPN and data, voice and
video is supported.
— Internet Access: Can be secure managed internet access for all airport tenants and VAS
providers. Services are available for both operational, non operational and consumer
access,
providing a single, resilient access to the internet for all fixed and wireless Internet access
needs. For smaller applications, services for operational data can also be made available
via
the Internet using secure access VPNs from a single workstations where no LAN exists.
LAN Services
• Provision of LAN connections to support multiple quality of service (QOS). Using QOS supports
data, voice and video applications and provides usage feeds to enable capacity management
and billing, which can be down to the device level.
• Support for VLAN and VPN security segmentation, supporting applications in tenant dedicated
and shared environments.
Voice Services
• PBX access: Provides basic airport PABX access and facilities with options to access tenants
own PABX systems.
• Handsets: Provision of a variety of handsets to support internal and external applications with a
choice of analogue, digital or VoIP phones.
• Integrated VoIP: Provide VoIP solutions which, when the phone is positioned with a shared
workstation, are tied into the user id used to logon. Supports download of dial plans associated
with logon and access to legacy PABX as well as CISCO call manager.
• Voicemail: Provision of voice mail systems for digital and VoIP phones.
• Broadcast: Broadcast voice systems for general and targeted announcements and paging,
including automated messaging.
Video Services
• Surveillance: Provision of surveillance infrastructure including cameras and control rooms
based
on video over IP technology. Provide integration facilities for existing CCTV technology.
• Broadcast: Video broadcast facilities for use with intelligent signage including information and
advertising material. Management and billing for broadcast content.
Wireless Services
• Provision of a single, managed wireless infrastructure for the airport including providing
segmented
capacity for operational data, operational voice (2 way radio and wireless VoIP) and consumer
data.
• Provision of the operational network management element for public wireless services at the
airport.
• Provision of spectrum management and policing of usage policies within the airport
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Security Services
• Access control — Integration of access control systems and management of the central server
complexes. Access control systems can be installed with biometric support that will also be
integrated. Single Sign On (SSO) can also be supported.
• Government control authority interfaces can be provided over this infrastructure allowing airport
planners to design for convergence of passenger and staff security processing.
• Managed Firewall — The service provider, can provide a managed firewall service as part as
the managed Internet access. This can be supplemented with a managed firewall service within
the LAN environment to segregate various parts of the LAN.
• Security: Includes intrusion detection, firewalls, authentication, logging, and other needs.
• Neutral Host: Most Airports require a neutral host environment where tenants and the public can
have equal access into the network within a given priority level of access. For example each
wireless ISP (WISP) doing business at the airport would be able to provide service at the airport
for their subscribers.
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J5.IR4 CUTE
CUTE type systems are an ideal solution for an airport implementing a workstation environment
in a shared enyifçnment (an environmmt different airlines share the same check-in desks
and gates). These check-in desks can either be shared over a short space of time (i.e. multiple
users in 24 hours) or give the airport the flexibility to move airlines around over longer time
irames.
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The following is a step by step guide which should be used when establishing passenger profiles
IATAresulting
Airport Development
from departing flights: Reference Manual
Step 1:
Establish typical flight check-in pattern(s) for the terminal in question. Note that different check-in
patterns may apply to different periods of the day, and different type of flights (long-haul, short-haul,
charter or no-frills). It must also take into account grouped originating passengers arriving by rail or
bus.
10:00-18:00 0 1 3 8 11 15 17 18 15 10 2 0
18:00 - 3 4 6 9 11 14 15 15 15 7 1 0
24:00
Step 2:
Apply appropriate check-in patterns to the design day forecast passenger load per flight.
Time 06:00 06:30 07:00 07:30 08:00 08:30 09:00 09 30
I | I
AB 111 280 CD 222 320 Passenger
Passenger
3 6 17 28 56 73 56 33 8 0 3 6 19 32 64 83 64 39 10 0
"__L
EF333 180 AB444 94
Passenger Passenger
2 4 11 18 36 47 36 21 5 0 1 2 7 11 22 29 22
GH555 90
Passenger
1 2 5 9 18 24 18 11 2 0
EF666 130
Passenger
1 3 8 13 26 34 26 15 4 0
Total 0 3 6 19 32 67 92 94 85 54 42 37 34 43 55 59 81 94 75 61 39 22 0
336
Figure J6-1: Annual Flow Rates
Dom.
) EC N N EC
(8.88)
ÍEC I N EC S/M.H.
t.1Q 2.01
Loaend tjotfj
Dom. Domestic Transfers & Transit counted twice.
EC European Community Annual Passenger Movements (x 1,000,000).
NEC Non European Community Transfers from same segment to same segment counted
S/M. H. Short-Medium Haul once.
L.H. Long-Haul Figures derived from Passenger Forecast.
Traffic Split & Figures are given for illustration purposes only.
337
Figure J6-2: Peak Hour Flow Rates
Dom. N EC LH
a a 1_J 1_ s s 1 a I a
3 9.
S
a N J a as a aa
Land side
Lgflind
Dom. Domestic Transfers & Transit counted twice.
EC European Community
NEC Non European Community
S/M.H. Short-Medium Haul Figures derived from Passenger Forecast.
L.H. Long-Haul
Traffic Split & Figures are given for illustration purposes only.
J6.2.1 General
In accordance with the outline philosophy defined within Chapter K (Sections K1 to K6 inclusive)
passenger flow routes should:
• Be as shod, straight and direct as possible, unimpeded by obstructions from passenger cross-
flows or concession facilities.
• Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to individual aircraft loads.
• Permit multiple routings and be designed to give passengers a choice of government control
positions in order to avoid bottlenecks.
• Be sufficiently flexible to permit establishment of temporary channels which can be by-passed
by other passengers (e.g., for individual health control processing of a particular arriving aircraft
passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution.
• Permit processing of passengers individually or in groups.
• Introduce a minimum number of level changes.
Government regulations or security reasons should require flow separations; i.e.:
• One flow route for departing domestic passengers and one for international passengers.
• One flow route for arriving domestic passengers and one for international passengers.
• Departing passengers after security check-points must be physically separated from arriving
passengers.
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J6.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
Flow routes should allow for the separation of international and domestic passengers and/or
arriving and departing international passengers as required by ICAO and/or individual
government regulations. Please also refer to Section K3 and in particular K3.IR1 for further
clarification.
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• The commercial revenue earned by the airport authority is used to reduce airline user charges.
• Airports should operate a 'single till policy' for all revenue sales from airport and subsidiary
companies. This form of trading should be fully open book to enable airlines to readily evaluate
revenues from all forms of airport operator trading activities.
• The accessibility and accommodation for these facilities must be arranged so that maximum
exposure to the passenger and visitor can be accomplished without interfering with the flow of
passenger traffic in the terminal. See Clause J7.2.1.
For planning purposes, concessions are typically categorized in six groups:
• Duty Free.
• Specialty, duty paid retail.
• Convenience retail.
• Food & beverage.
• Services.
SERVICESCONVENIENCE — news standsBanks, ATM's*FOOD &
BEVERAGEInsurance SalesCoffee bars, snack shops*Post
OfficeRestaurants*Barber shop/beauty salonCocktail
LoungeMassageCafeteriaNurseryFood courts*Day RoomsDUTY FREEFitness
centre, pool, saunaSPECIALTY RETAILCurrency Exchange*GiftsObservation
areaClothingPay phones*ShoesBaggage wrapping, storage*Personal care
products*Medical services*BooksShoe ShineWine/liquor (duty paid)Business
centre*Greeting cardsCommon use CIP lounges*ADVERTISINGVideo arcades,
casinosWall mounted advertisingGeneral information, tourism
information*Displays, event areas
*Denotes
recommended.
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Concession sales are governed heavily by the principle of passing trade and advertising. Successful
concession programs are employed primarily on enplaning passenger flows, but without impeding
these flows or causing complex routings. Passenger dwell times tend to be longer than they were in
the past, leaving many passengers ample time for shopping and dining.
PIER/SATÉLITE
1
RETAIL RETAIL RETAIL FOOD
FOOD RETAIL
SEATING
PRIMARY PASSENGER
T
DEPARTURES ROUTE RETAIL RETAIL
X
RETAIL SEATING SEATING
RETAIL RETAIL/
SEATING
FOOD
RETAIL RETAIL RETAIL FOOD
PASSPORT CONTROL
NOTES
DENOTES EMERGENCY
EXIST (Observe National
DEPARTURES CHECK-IN Mandatory Requirement)
It is fairly common for enplaning passengers to locate their gate and then return to
concession lounges
once they have a clear understanding of the time that they have available.
•• Have clusters
Have flightofinformation
concessions in areas
displays differentiated
at frequent frominthe
intervals theremainder of areas
concession
the so
terminal.
that passengers
can judge their timelines appropriately.
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During concession planning, the convenience retail (news stands) are separated from other duty paid
retail, because these units tend to be repeated throughout the terminal, often are located near gates,
and are viewed as both a concession and an important passenger service. In larger terminals, there
is often a core area of food, including restaurants and a food court, but also satellite food and
beverage
units in gate areas. Concessions to serve arriving passengers and greeters tend to be more limited.
Arriving passengers are focused on leaving the terminal as quickly as possible.
Use of airside concessions by passengers reduces space demands on hold rooms, and 25-40% of
the seating provided in airside restaurants and food courts can be counted as contributing to
available
airside seating.
Concession rents are typically calculated on the basis of percentage of gross sales. Where
concessions
are appropriately sized and competitively tendered, these rents will typically deliver 3 to 5 times the
annualized floorspace cost of the terminal (considering terminal capital and operations) and provide
an excellent source of revenue to the airport.
J7.4 CONCESSION SERVICING & STORAGE
Terminal planners should consider concessions servicing and storage during terminal planning and
design, including:
• Secure truck bays for the delivery of supplies and stock to concessions and the removal of
waste.
• Security screening points at the truck bays to screen concession goods.
• Waste storage and compaction facilities at or near the truck bays.
• Storage areas for concession goods within the terminal.
• Back of house service corridors and service elevators so that food, food waste and retail stock
J7.5 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
• Building of infrastructure usage (baggage hall vs passenger hall vs airfield lighting systems).
• Age of the building or infrastructure asset (older assets usually require more frequent
maintenance).
The following assets should, as a minimum, be included within airport active maintenance
programmes
(where applicable). Other airport assets may need to be assessed and maintained and included.
Airport designers should design airport assets which allow airport operators to maintain assets
easily.
Airport designers are recommended to liaise with airport operators at project handover to provide
suitable inventories of assets and maintenance schedules for the assets listed below:
Terminal Buildings
• Building structure
• Heating and ventilation systems.
• Lighting systems.
Roads and tunnels infrastructure.
• Staff and passenger fire escapes.
•
Passenger boarding bridges.
•
IT infrastructure systems.
•
Baggage systems.
•
Fire escapes.
•
Road/Aircraft bridges.
•
Etc.
•
Apron Systems
Taxiway lighting and control.
•
Runway lighting and control.
•
Perimeter fencing and security detection.
•
Access control systems.
•
Fire services systems.
•
Sewage treatment and disbursal systems.
•
Fuel farm and fuel delivery systems.
•
Etc.
•
J8.2 PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES
Preventative maintenance is used as a tool to retain service levels of equipment and infrastructure
while minimizing the operational impact of system downtime on the airport. This is achieved by
conducting servicing in planned non-operational periods for the airport and its clients. While all
airports should develop preventative maintenance strategies, the precise details of aiiport
maintenance
strategies will vary from airport to airport, according to the size and complexity and the operational
duty of the airport.
Preventative maintenance strategies should learn from historical data on items such as Mean Time
Before Failure (MTBF) for equipment and infrastructure. Equipment should be replaced or
maintained
before the next MTBF occurs. There are maintenance scheduling software packages available
which
are able to predict and list actions and trends on equipment which can reduce long term operational
maintenance costs in parallel to improving performance of airports and availability and safety
The table below is a sample of a typical maintenance scheduling
report output:
Asset Code/
NameLast Repair
Date/Duration
of FixPredicted
remaining time
before failure
Date/TimeStaff Skills and
Maintenance CostMaintenance
Kit/
Documentation
RequiredID 3014
Passenger
Boarding
Bridge
GOLF 2215th July 2002
(2 hours)31st January
The maintenance fixes
2003Passenger are prioritized according to commercial and safety risk, and by asset MTBF
Boarding
date/time
Bridge which is managed by the computer and the maintenance software.
1x Certified Service
J8.3 Technician
TYPICAL STRUCTURAL / INFRASTRUCTURE FAULTS
GBP 950Kit3014-B1
Rotunda
There Hinge
is a wide range of faults that can occur within an operational airport that can be avoided by
Pivots applied
correctly GreasingID 1077 maintenance. Some faults are predictable, some are not, and certain
preventative
Baggage
faults will be Hall
associated with poor design, poor installation or poor historical maintenance. Often
Column
internal building systems (HVAC, etc.) are properly maintained, while the actual building structure is
Protectors1st
overlooked (most steelJuneand
2002concrete structures require regular maintenance).
4 Hours1st February
2003General
One of the most Structural
common and most serious structural maintenance faults is associated with the
Technicians
damage of building internal or external columns which are hit by airside vehicles. Concrete column
X3
protection footings and/or steel column protectors can often be frequently hit by airside vehicles,
GBP 5750Kit 1077-D1
such
asBuilding
baggageColumn
tugs, aircraft towing tractors, airside passenger buses, etc. While the occasional lighter
Protective
contact (though Barrier
not recommended) can be usually accommodated by good structural design, where
Repair
this type of contact is frequently occurring and protection systems are degraded over time, serious
structural problems can result. Airports operators should consult a qualified structural engineer in
areas of any doubt.
Concrete degradation is common, particularly where climates necessitate the use of road salts for
negative weather temperatures. Delaminating steel beams and columns are frequently observed in
wetter climates where water dispersal within the structure is poorly designed. Expert structural
evaluation is required on a case by case basis to ensure that structures can withstand the intended
design loads and usage requirements. It is recommended that designers should produce structures
which promote ease of maintenance inspections and adequate water drainage systems.
J8.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
J9.1 GENERAL
The layout of the check-in hall in the passenger terminal is largely influenced by the check-in
concept
planned by the airport authority. It is essential therefore that the airlines and handling agents are
consulted early in the terminal planning process to ensure optimal operational effectiveness.
The allocation of check-in counters to the various airlines and alliances should be considered early
in the planning process. There should be a logical flow for all passengers, and particularly alliance
passengers, between check-in, CIP lounge and the departure gate lounge.
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• If equipment is to be located within the counter, printers should be on a shelf which pulls out for
easy refilling and maintenance. The pull-out shelf should be lockable.
• Good cabling management should provide easy access from the back side of the counter for
repair/replacement of computer equipment.
• Adequate space/drawers should be provided so that the desk looks neat and organized at all
times.
• For security reasons all drawers and pigeon hole arrangements containing baggage tags, ticket
stock, boarding passes, etc. should be lockable.
• Where possible, the desks should be based on a modular system of basic units.
SECTION C-C
SECTION B-B
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SECTI
ON A-A Agent Position
Combined Standing/Seated
Table of Dimensions
Element Dimensions (cm)
A Counter Height 122-128
B Desk Working Height 92-100
C Counter Depth 80-90
D Depth of Counter Top 25-30
E Tagging Belt Height 40-45
F Weigh Belt Height at Passenger Side 30-35
G Shelf Depth 10-15
H Shelf Height 70-80
J Height of Waste Basket (optional) approx. 15
K Protrusion of Weighing Belt in Front of Counter 25-35
L Length Tagging Belt 80-90
M Front of Belt to Back of Counter 15-20
N Counter Width 120-130
0 Net Conveyor/Scale Width 50-60
P Space Between Counters 58-68
Q Clear Space Below Work Surface 87-95
R Width Agent Knee Space min. 60
S Depth of Cut-out for Agents Knees approx. 30
T Clear Space Above Work Surface 25-30
U Storage/Equipment Space According to Local Airline Requirements
V Depth of Free Area for Inst. & Cabling approx. 15
Notes:
1. Dimensions based upon an average passenger eye level of 1.60 m.
2. Dimensions C + G should be max. 1.00 m.
3. Provision of shelf at passenger side of desk is optional.
4. Provision of feeder belt system is optional. If scale/platform used, dimensions E, F, K, L and M are not applicable.
5. Careful attention should be paid to slope of weighing belt (max. 10%).
6. Optional waste basket shown at bottom of agent knee well. This only valid for combined standing/seated agent position.
7. Where double counters are proposed which will be used by a single airline, and that carrier chooses to share equipment, counter
storage/
equipment space can be less than twice the requirement for a single counter.
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SECTION J10: PEOPLE MOVER SYSTEMS
Automated People Mover (APM) equipment has become more and more commonplace, particularly
within the confines of the airport perimeter. APM systems are a transportation alternative often used
to transport passengers travelling greater distances within airports. An APM system is basically an
automated driver-less train, in which individual vehicles or trains operate at frequent intervals on
dedicated guideways. APM systems are designed to carry large numbers of passengers within high
density activity areas such as airports.
08
As new airports are developed and existing airports are expanded to accommodate these
requirements, the distances which passengers must travel within the airport increase. Conventional
pedestrian modes such as moving walkways are acceptable for short distances, but do not provide
a sufficient level of service to passengers when greater distances are involved.
APMs offer lower cost alternatives to traditional rail provision as drivers are rarely if at all needed
(APMs can be operated often in manual mode with a driver on-board). Track infrastructure is both
cheaper and easier to install with fewer track-placed signals.
CCTV systems.
The reasons that APMs are used extensively on the airport complex include:
• The volume of people being moved is relatively small: typically 150 people at a time though up-
to 500 passengers is possible.
• Often the travel distances are relatively short, with distances below 1km being common.
• The destinations or the drop-off and loading points for passengers are limited, often less than 5
destinations on a single track and commonly only 2 destinations are provided.
These combined factors steer the designer away from manned services, such as full gauge rail and
buses, and lean them toward APM technology. Planners of almost all large airports envision the
implementation of an APM system at some point in its development. Even at airports which do not
initially anticipate an APM system, space and rights-of-way should be reserved so that APM
systems
can be accommodated if needed in the future.
APM systems can be planned to satisfy several different transportation requirements at airports.
The
principal applications for APM systems can be classified in the following groups:
• Terminal to gate connections — APM systems connecting main terminal processing areas to
aircraft gates in satellites or piers.
• Landside connections — APM systems connecting unit terminals and landside airport functions
such as remote parking and car rental facilities.
• Satellites or piers and a main terminal, in the case of terminal to gate connections.
• Unit terminals, parking areas, car rental facilities or other landside functions, in the case of
landside
connections.
The potential station locations within each element can be developed later, based on the physical
configuration of the elements, level of service criteria, and the demographics of the potential APM
car occupancy .
Goals should be established for the level of service to be provided to passengers. The key criteria
affecting APM system planning are maximum walk distance, minimum connection times, and
passenger waiting time for trains. Many other airport level of service criteria also apply to the
planning
of APM systems, including criteria such as minimizing passenger level changes, minimizing
transfers
between trains, and maximizing the visibility of the system to passengers.
• Passengers:
• Arriving international.
• Departing international.
• Flight Crews
• Employees
• Airline.
• Other.
Passenger Terminal
• Visitors
• Meeters/Greeters.
• Well Wishes.
• Other.
The APM car occupancy demand numbers can later be applied to alternative system configurations
to determine the capacity requirements of the APM system.
• The need for separation between types of APM car occupants, such as sterile and non-sterile,
or secure and non-secure passengers must be defined.
• The space requirements for each APM car occupant category can vary greatly depending upon
the amount of baggage present. Landside systems, in which passengers have baggage which
will be checked or has been claimed, have a much higher space requirement than passengers
with APM carry-on baggage only. International passengers generally have higher space
requirements than domestic passengers. Employees typically have a lower space requirement
than passengers.
These key APM planning considerations, together with the unique requirements of each application,
can be used to develop and evaluate alternative APM system configurations.
In early planning, alternative APM configurations and operational modes should be developed,
analyzed, and evaluated. These early planning analyses will assure that adequate rights-of-way and
space provisions are made for the APM system, and that the selected airport and APM
configurations
are compatible.
Numerous variations and combinations of APM configurations can be developed. Some systems
use
multiple overlapping routes with off-line stations, or switching and crossovers between shuttle
systems.
The best APM system is usually the simplest system which will satisfy the planning criteria. Added
complexity can increase the cost and reduce the reliability and availability of an APM system.
The APM configurations and operational modes can be different for each airport layout. The most
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SECTION J11: PASSENGER BOARDING BRIDGES
The passenger boarding bridge is used by large and smaller airports worldwide. It can be used to
assist the airport operation by:
The passenger boarding bridge can significantly reduce disembarkation and embarkation times
when
compared to conventional steps and vehicle lifts. Passengers typically move nearly 25% faster
through
passenger boarding bridges than compared to other alternative processes, since the process does
not incorporate movement of buses with corresponding passenger dwell periods.
Passenger and staff are also less likely to injure themselves using a passenger boarding bridge
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Passenger boarding bridges improve the passenger experience particularly in more extreme
climates,
since the passenger can be transferred to and from the aircraft in controlled climates and away from
adverse weather such as rain, snow and extreme humidity and sunshine.
Passenger boarding bridges offer improved access for disabled passengers and reduce injuries to
staff handling disabled passengers that would normally use alternative, non-automated means of
access.
• Axis 1 — Vertically up and down about the pivot point on the rotunda.
It is typically possible to serve smaller or lower aircraft such as the Fokker 28/100 series, through to
the large higher aircraft such as the Boeing 747 series and Airbus A380 aircraft using the apron
drive
unit. The apron drive unit usually comprises two or three telescopic tunnel sections attached to the
rotunda unit. It is affixed close to the terminal link bridge and has a rotating cab at the aircraft end.
Three section tunnel apron drive units are recommended to be used where the range of aircraft
height
differential varies the most. It is a common fact that, the greater the slope length, then the shallower
the resultant slope gradient will be on all passenger boarding bridges.
The cab which docks with the aircraft comes in two variants: non-leveling and self-leveling. Self
leveling cab units are recommended, even though they produce the less effective slope length, as
they are safer for passengers and staff particularly when the telescopic sections are on a maximum
gradient.
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The apron drive passenger boarding bridge is more flexible, in that misaligned aircraft can be more
easily accommodated because the cab can be moved to account for the parking error (rather than
having to move the aircraft, which is the requirement with nose loader passenger boarding bridges).
• Axis 1 — Vertically up and down about the pivot point on the rotunda.
It is common and recommended for the nose loader passenger boarding bridge to be used in
situations
where the aircraft to be served are: small only, small to medium, medium only, medium to large, or
large only, as the rotunda height can be set accordingly. It is possible to serve small to large aircraft
ranges using the nose loader passenger boarding bridge, but the usual result is that the telescopic
tunnel gradient becomes excessively steep or multiple parallel stand center lines are required.
The nose loader passenger boarding bridge requires that the aircraft need to be stopped very
accurately since the cab cannot be moved down the length of the stand centre-line.
The cantilever airbridge is rarer than most passenger boarding bridges and used mainly to expedite
passengers more quickly from large aircraft such as the Boeing 747 series or the Airbus A380 using
the aircraft's aft port door positions. The cantilever passenger boarding bridge is usually used
alongside
a conventional apron drive unit serving the forward door positions. A nose loader combination is
possible, though this is a very rare as it is also very restrictive.
The cantilever passenger boarding bridge extends over the port wing and engine(s) to reach the aft
port door on the aircraft. The cantilever structure is used since the weight of the telescopic sections
cannot in this extension be supported by ground driven powered wheel assemblies. The load is
instead transferred across the upper bracing structure which is predominately in tension, where the
main weight and dynamic moments of the assembly are transferred to the upper sections of the
rotunda.
The use of the cantilever passenger boarding bridge is not a preferred or a recommended solution.
Where two passenger boarding bridges are required the alternative recommended solution is to
provide dual conventional apron drive passenger boarding bridges to expedite passengers serving
the forward lower first door, lower second door, or the upper deck doors.
The rotunda is the main support mechanism for all passenger boarding bridges and is a fixed entity
on the stand. The location of the rotunda is the single most critical unit on the stand as every other
component including the aircraft will be positioned around the location chosen for the rotunda. It is
important to select a position for the rotunda which will permit the Passenger boarding bridges to:
• Be parked such that they do not clash with building structures or other aircraft.
• Create a link bridge clearance which permits vehicles to pass beneath them.
When setting the rotunda height it is good practice and recommended to initially set the finished floor
level of the rotunda in accordance with the levels defined within the table seen in Fig J11-3. It will
be necessary to use a computer program to calculate the optimum rotunda height and plan position
taking into account the parked position of all aircraft, the permissible bridge slope, the number of
telescopic tunnel sections, and the apron slope characteristics.
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The link bridge connects the fixed rotunda to the terminal building. It is good practice and
recommended
to be able to separate the flows of arriving passengers and departing passengers, by provision of
alternative passenger routes, starting at the point where the rotunda connects to the link bridge. It is
also good practice and recommended to provide means of escape for passengers and staff at the
point where the rotunda meets the link bridge.
As a result, if an individual were standing where the rotunda meets with the link bridge, that
individual
should be able to follow any of the following potentially available routes:
369
1. Access to the aircraft.
2. Access to the terminal — Departing Passenger Route.
3. Access to the Terminal — Arriving Passenger Route.
4. Access to the Apron — Emergency Evacuation or Staff Access.
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Figure J11-5: Typical Link Bridge Connection
— Preferred Ramps Configuration
------ 7 71 / / 1 1
s
/ m 1 Í_____
^1 AÉÀ
— (or
-S T
4
1
At any one time, only three of the four routes possible should be available to passengers at the
rotunda — link bridge merge position, depending on whether that passenger is departing or arriving
on the aircraft.
In the common situation where passenger boarding bridge emergency escape stairs are fitted it is
recommended that they do not move with the rotation of the cab, and instead they remain parallel
at all times within the length of the telescopic sections.
Consideration must be given to the fire protection properties of the loading bridges. Where the
relevant
authority agrees that such protection is necessary, the passenger boarding bridges must maintain
their integrity and provide a means of escape from the aircraft in the event of a fuel spillage fire
commensurate with the requirements of NFPA 415 Standard of Airport terminal Buildings, Fuelling
Ramp Drainage and Loading Walkways.
All floor finishes within the loading bridge must be non-slip, with means provided to minimise any
tripping or slipping hazards.
A means of communicating with passengers queuing between the gate and aircraft must be
provided
to direct passengers back to the gate in the event of an emergency at the aircraft or an incident
within
J11.4 THE TELESCOPIC TUNNEL SLOPE
It is recommended that a slope of 1:10 (1 unit up or down for every 10 units parallel to the apron) is
used for all types of passenger boarding bridge. The slope should be measured from the rotunda
pivot point in all instances to:
(i) The cab to aircraft interface for non-leveling apron drive cabs.
(ii) The end of the telescopic sections of the self-leveling apron drive variant.
(iii) The cab to aircraft interface for nose loader and cantilever variants.
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• Bridge parking locations should be designed to aid the movement of aircraft support vehicles.
• The positioning of fixed or mobile auxiliary aircraft ground power provision should be assessed
and accounted for.
• Terminal gate room evacuation routes via the rotunda and link bridge emergency stairs should
be accounted for, as should the space needed to accommodate passengers.
• The potential provision for automated arrival baggage system conveyors should be considered
for selected operations.
• Aircraft misalignment (badly parked) tolerances should considered.
• PAPA Boards and AGNIS equipment space should be safeguarded.
• Equipment area zones should be identified and likely space requirements accounted for.
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J11.IR6 Access and Passenger Route Separation
The link bridge connects the fixed rotunda to the terminal building. It is good practice and
recommended to be able to separate the flows of arriving passengers and departing
passengers
by provision of alternative passenger routes, starting at the point where the rotunda connects
to the link bridge. It is also good practice and recommended to provide means of escape for
passengers ánâ staff at the point where the rotunda meets with the link bridge, as fully defined
within clause 11.3 of this section.
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A well-conceived signage system can contribute considerably to the efficient flow of passengers and
traffic at the airport. It is therefore essential to consider the signage system in the early planning and
concept evaluation stages, and to endeavour to design a system which is easy to understand,
concise,
and logically placed in the various facilities within the passenger terminal buildings and surrounding
areas.
The primary purpose of an airport signage system is to move the travelling public through a myriad
of roadways and corridors using a concise and comprehensible system of directional, informational,
regulatory, and identification messages. Ideally, the passenger terminal building will incorporate
wayfinding elements into its basic design, including self-evident passenger-flow routes, memorable
landmarks at key junctions and information points, floor and wall finishes that are consistent in
different
waiting area or corridor types, etc. It should be recognized that a given terminal concept can have a
significant impact upon the eventual signage system, particularly at large airports where several
Passenger signage should be clearly segregated and should include:
It is important for signage systems to adhere to a basic guideline of copy styles and sizes, consistent
terminology, recognizable and universally acceptable symbols, and uniform colours for standard
functions. Message content must be in layman's language, understandable by the unsophisticated
as well as the sophisticated traveller, and should be designed to accommodate the needs of disabled
passengers. Use of standard terminology can help to simplify the process of making the transition
from the ground mode to the air mode ( and vice versa) for the travelling public.
Even though no signage system can satisfy everyone's needs and questions, signs must be
designed
with the objective of developing a concise and informative series of non-verbal messages which will
aid the majority of passengers. The basic criteria for an effective communications system includes
the thorough programming of all aspects of vehicular and pedestrian traffic flow, and the appropriate
delivery of all pertinent information to the traveller, visitor, or employee. It is important for the
following
three categories of messages to be communicated through signing and graphics.
J12.1.1 Directional Signage
Directional signage is of greatest importance in an airport terminal complex. All other designs are
subordinate. Proper directional signs are necessary because the rapid movement of vehicles,
people
and particularly passengers is essential for maximum utilization for the airport. At any transition
point
between air and ground transportation, success or failure of the terminal operations and its signage
is largely measured by the ease, speed, and comfort of access to and from the various destinations
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In addition to traditional signage considerations for the conventional passenger, directional signage
is paramount to those persons arriving late for a flight, persons with disabilities, foreign visitors, non-
English speaking passengers, and those passengers experiencing the disorientation which can be
common after entering larger passenger terminals or transportation centres.
J12.2 PRINCIPLES
There is a need to establish a uniform hierarchy of messages and information throughout the airport
terminal complex. Clear and concise information, presented by either 'primary' or 'secondary' sign
systems greatly improves the efficient passenger flow, both on the roadway and within the terminal.
Care in developing a system for organizing information is critical to the success of any sign
programme.
Two successful methods for determining a hierarchy of information are:
• A total separation of the type or classification of information from one sign panel to the next.
Both techniques are successful in airports that consistently implement and maintain either one of
these methods.
J12.2.1 Simplicity
• The layout and wording of signs should be as simple as possible.
• The emphasis should be placed on the reduction of signs and sign content where possible.
J12.2.2 Grouping of Information 375
A uniform standard of terminal message and information hierarchy should be established to assist
the travelling public. The need for visual continuity among messages and information is critical to
the
smooth flow of passengers, helping to eliminate any elements which may interrupt the scheme or
cause possible confusion.
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J12.2.3 Visibility
The importance of an effective typography style for airport signage cannot be overemphasized. The
ultimate presentation of all other aspects of signing is embodied in the message itself and the letter
style (typeface) which is used. The use of a well chosen airport typeface can communicate 'the
image
of the airport' to the passenger and promote efficient traffic flow.
A conservative ratio to use as a minimum would be 3m of viewing distance for each 1cm of capital
or upper case letter height. Thus a 15cm upper case letter and its associated lower case would be
recognized easily by most passengers at a distance of 45m. Experience indicates that other
requirements, such as message dominance, often dictate that the actual size be larger than
minimum
viewing standards.
It is also recommended that 1.6cm be considered the minimum size for letter-types, regardless of
the viewing distance. Tests of the various type sizes being considered by an airport, under actual or
simulated field conditions, are recommended. The interior design, vertical clearances, clear
horizontal
viewing distances and basic message requirements have a significant impact on the copy height.
The airport planner is still left with the task of deciding what might be considered an appropriate
viewing distance based on circulation and passenger flow. In certain instances this will be
determined
by the architectural space in which the sign is located. In other situations, such as an airport
concourse
or a long corridor, viewing distance can be difficult to determine because of other tenant
obstructions.
In such a situation, where space is otherwise unrestricted, the design community would recommend
23m (7.6cm cap height) as a minimum.
Choice of a type style should take into account legibility and compatibility with the symbols and the
environment. Lettering and word spacing affect the legibility and appearance of different lettering
styles in varying ways at different distance. Colour and lighting also affect spacing needs. Generally
the following rules of thumb are useful:
• White lettering on a dark background requires more letter spacing than does black on white.
• Internally lighted letters may require greater letter spacing depending upon the intensity of light.
• Open letter spacing increases legibility from great distance.
• Many type styles suffer aesthetically when open letter spacing is used.
• Well executed optical letter spacing is better than mechanical letter spacing.
J12.2.4 Colour
The three specific colour groups that are highly recommended are:
• Group 1: Black Text — Yellow Background
• Group 2: Dark Blue Text — White Background
• Group 3: Red Text — White Background
Colour definitions are classified as:
Colour Hue: Saturation: Luminance:
Yellow 41 255 122
Dark Blue 170 255 84
Red 8 255 122
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J12.2.6 Siting
One of the most important aspects of good signage is siting. The closer to one's natural line of sight,
the better. A useful rule of thumb is to avoid exceeding a 10° angle from the natural line of vision. If
conditions require that the viewing angle exceeds 10°, the size and distance relationship may have
to be adjusted. Legibility varies greatly from one symbol to another, or from one type style to
another.
Colour relationships, lighting, spacing and viewing angle may also affect legibility. Pragmatic testing
of symbols and lettering on-site, or in simulated on-site conditions, is required.
Local Considerations
• Local terminology will govern the text of certain signs e.g. petrol/gasoline, left-
luggage/baggage
lockers, etc.
• Airport road signs should be the same as those used on roads outside the airport in the
country
concerned.
Language
Signs at international airports should be displayed in:
• The language of the country concerned.
• English (the international aviation language).
• Additional languages (only where justified by the volume of such passengers).
J12.3 WAYFINDING
The ability to orient yourself and navigate through places is fundamental to a sense of security and
confidence. An effective information system for wayfinding provides for:
• The ability to effectively locate and orient oneself in the airport or terminal.
• The ability to determine possible destinations and opportunities around you.
• The ability to confidently determine the route to a desired destination.
An airport needs to provide sufficient information for passengers in order to give them a quick
working
knowledge of the facility. Signage is used to provide information about the facility when it is too
complex to be conveyed by the architecture, or when other sources of information in the space are
insufficient or unreliable. Sources of wayfinding information include:
377
• Terminology and graphics.
• Architecture.
• Directories ("You are here" signs).
IATA • Airport
Maps andDevelopment
brochures. Reference Manual
• Facility operations and maintenance.
• Directions given by staff.
The primary objective of directories in airports is to provide the passenger with an overall orientation
with respect to the terminal and its facilities. Another objective of a directory is to help the movement
of passengers to and from their destination with ease and efficiency (thus reducing dependence on
airline and airport staff as information sources). In most cases the directory is a supplement to the
existing sign system. It is important that the individual needs of each specific airport be considered
in the planning of directory information units.
A major problem with some directory map layout designs is the improper orientation of the maps for
the person needing the information. When an individual is standing in front of a directory, the map
should be oriented according to the actual building layout and the traffic flow as experienced in that
location.
It should also be noted that passengers are becoming increasingly reliant on electronic visual media
for information, direction and communication in airport and other facilities. Efficiently moving,
informing
and managing the travelling public, as well as preventing unnecessary delays or misdirection of
passengers through the airport terminal can generally be assisted by effective Electronic Visual
Information Systems (EVIDS) utilizing dynamic displays.
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ANDS provide the identity of the occupant airline and its particular flight information at any one of
the assigned ticket or check-in counter positions. The minimum includes one airline total flight
information per counter position, one airline logo per counter position and optional flight information
for the airline daily schedule. Information displayed is activated by airline personnel tending the
counter positions using either CUTE 2 or the ANDS input device.
The BCD provides the arriving passenger with the airline flight number under the corresponding
header to the assigned baggage claim device. Minimum capacity should include up to two flights
per
baggage claim device. Information displayed should be inputted by airport/airline personnel
responsible for baggage claim assignment; this can be a real-time system with advanced
BIDS provides specific baggage related information to arriving passengers and airline personnel
within the assigned baggage claim facility. Information displayed is based on scheduled baggage
information with an override operation by airport and airline personnel.
The BLD provides specific baggage belt assignments for each corresponding flight to the baggage
tractor driver. Minimum capacity should include one flight per loading belt. System input is by the
airport/airline personnel responsible for the baggage belt assignment.
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• The phosphor on the inside of the tube display can become burnt over longer periods and
stained
by the repetition of the same or similar images.
• CRT monitors are traditionally quite bulky units, though this has improved.
J12.6.2 Electro Luminescent (EL)
EL is a less popular display technology, available from only a few manufacturers. Applicable for all
systems requiring large character messages in an indoor environment.
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J12.6.10 In-Floor Emergency Route Lighting
Although not commonplace, the safety advantages of this simple technology are very apparent.
Basically the floor of departures and arrivals areas including the pier and satellite buildings are fitted
with flush, durable lighting along clear paths which lead to emergency exits. The lighting system is
activated only when the building needs to be evacuated and directional lighting is required. This
technology can be used where ceilings are low and where signage could become obstructed in the
event of a fire by smoke. In-floor emergency lighting, where used, should be fitted with a 2 hour local
battery standby.
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K2.3 GOVERNMENTS
National standards vary from country to country, with the main exception being those pertaining to
European Union (EU) Member States, whereby each Member State enacts national legislation in
order to implement EU Directives and Regulations. The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) founded by
the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) represents the civil aviation regulatory authorities of
a number of European States who have agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing
common
regulatory standards and procedures. These are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR). The
JARs should be consulted for common EU safety and regulatory procedures.
Non-EU governments set policy for security and general passenger facilitation issues on a national
basis while attempting to harmonize standards for international travel.
In the context of passenger facilitation, governments employ trained staff at border control points
within the airport terminal building
390 — Immigration (Arrivals and/or Departures) and Customs
(Arrivals).
391
SECTION K3: IMMIGRATION PROCESSES
Option 1 - Preferred
Permanent Barrier
Interlocked Doors
As Appropriate
Where necessary
Departing d£ _d$
Originating Departing Passengers
Passengers 0% r (j§r- -
Arriving / § _
Passengers \ • w Arriving & Transfer Passengers _^a" I
Aside note: The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) founded by the European Civil Aviation Conference
(ECAC) represents the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who have
agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common safety regulatory standards and
procedures. These are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs). The JARs should be consulted
for common EU safety and regulatory procedures.
The airline/operator/known shipper must provide: (i) customs checking facilities (ii) check goods and
(iii) provide appropriate Customs documents at the checkpoints. Customs facilities maybe located at
the following airport passenger and cargo processing checkpoint areas:
• Customs control kiosks/checkpoints in airside passenger arrival facilities (See Section F9 for
sizing requirements).
• Cargo processing buildings, operated by the customs administration, by individual airlines and,
in certain instances, customs brokers or freight forwarder operators.
All cargo handling and/or clearance procedures occurring within the cargo facility or elsewhere in
controlled areas of the airport facility must comply with specific national customs regulations. These
include, but are not limited to requirements for the safeguarding of goods in operator's custody, the
keeping of transport records, transfer of goods to other airlines, and delivery to consignees.
The airport developer should work with the local government customs representative to establish an
inventory of necessary infrastructure to be provided by the airport developer, operator or freight
handling entities (airlines, brokers, forwarders, etc.) that are resident at the airport. The following
should
be used as checklist for designers to verify the requirements with the local customs representative:
• Customs & excise duty payment facilities and IT LAN/WAN interface specifications.
• Kennels for K9's used for detecting drugs and general contraband in passenger luggage and
cargo consignments.
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Designers should liaise with airlines and cargo freight processors to establish the extent of such
storage
facilities that maybe required. Designers should also liaise with government customs
representatives to
establish any special customs clearance infrastructure considerations and/or requirements.
Bonded warehouse facilities must be secure and provide environments that are appropriate for the
goods they are intended to hold. Bonded warehouse facilities intended to hold goods to be sold
within
the terminal should ideally be located as close as practicable to that terminal; bearing in mind any
future potential terminal expansion areas.
Multi-Channel Customs: The random sampling concept is usually applied within multi-channel
customs facility layouts. The typical passenger customs clearance area is normally situated
adjacent
to and immediately after terminating passengers (and transferring passengers where required under
national customs regulation) have reclaimed their checked or hold baggage.
The dual-channel (red/green) system is, in some regions of the world, expanded to provide a third
channel which maybe used for special regulations.
RED CHANNEL: Passengers with articles to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a red
sign in the form of a square, where their baggage is inspected and appropriate duties assessed.
GREEN CHANNEL: Passengers with nothing to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a
green sign in the form of an octagon where they are generally not inspected, although customs
authorities normally reserve the right to make a spot check of passengers proceeding though this
IATA Passenger Facilitation
BLUE CHANNEL: A separate customs channel is used in certain circumstances, and where national
regulations allow, to further segregate arriving passenger clearance processes. As an example, the
blue lane process has been used to facilitate the clearance of persons travelling between two
airports
located within the European Union, and for which customs inspections are not required. In other
situations, special customs regulations are applicable for this channel, when used. The provision of
this channel is optional and dependent on the local national government legislation requirements
and/or international agreements in place. Airport designers should liaise with their local customs
representative for clarification.
The number of processing lanes in each of the coloured categories shall vary in accordance with
the
type and volume of passenger traffic being handled, and local governmental regulatory
requirements.
Aside Operational Consideration Note: Government agencies (Health, Immigration, Customs,
Agriculture) should be urged to consider the possibility of using one official to carry out inspections
on behalf of several agencies. This not only results in cost savings, but can also expedite the
passenger's journey through the inspection facility. Such combined inspection processes are
already
in effect in Canada and Australia, and since the inception of the Department of Homeland Security,
this will eventually be the case in the United States as well.
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SECTION K5: SIMPLIFYING PASSENGER TRAVEL
Making passenger flows in airports more user-friendly benefits not only passengers, but also
airlines,
airports, government authorities and travel agents. Automated technologies are available which can
be cost-efficiently implemented, and the primary concern of the Simplifying Passenger Travel (SPT)
Program is that these technologies and their related processes and procedures are implemented
with
global interoperability to ensure maximised security and efficiency for all concerned.
Various trials have and are taking place world-wide in these areas, and related-standards are
emerging.
Certainly some attention in airport planning needs to be given to current and up-coming
developments
in implementing new technologies, for example: common-use self-service (CUSS) check-in; real-
time
communications of passenger information between the service partners; biometrics for automated
identification of passengers; and radio frequency identification (RFID) of check-in baggage.
The aim of the SPT Program is to improve the passenger travel experience by replacing repetitive
checks of passengers and their documents with a newer, more streamlined system. The new
system
will collect the information once, and then share it electronically with subsequent service providers.
A one-stop check prior to departure will clear the passenger through their entire journey.
When founded in 1998, the SPT Program's prime driver was capacity limitations, and this continues
to be an important incentive to work towards the SPT vision. SPT represents the industry's best
attempt to cope with the increased projected number of passengers by utlising airport space more
efficiently. It is felt that this goal should be achieved without the need to resort to large capital
expenditures.
With recent increases in security concerns, the SPT Interest Group (a self-funded membership)
recognised that the concept of collecting all passenger information prior to departure and enabling
its live exchange between service providers would also facilitate security enhancements in
airtransport.
For further details please refer to:
www.simplifying-travel.org
K5.2 INDUSTRY STANDARDS AS COMPONENTS TO REACH THE SPT
VISION
There are several standard-setting groups working in unison with the SPT interest Group to develop
an international structure enabling interoperability of Simplified Passenger Travel. These are areas
to explore when investigating the future uses of airport terminals.
The IATA CUSS Manual contains the standard specification for the CUSS kiosk. The business
model
for implementation will likely be that airports will own the kiosks and lease them by time or usage to
airlines.
This sharing of infrastructure by airlines is essential to ensuring that departure halls do not become
congested with airline-owned kiosks. In addition, this business model will enable airlines that operate
limited flights into an airport to also benefit from using self-service check-in. The brand-ability of the
kiosks will be imperative in attracting airlines to their use. For further details please refer to:
www.iata.org/CUSS
In parallel, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has developed standards for the
machine-readable zone (MRZ) in travel documents (passports, visas and identity cards). ICAO has
also endorsed a global, harmonized 'blueprint' for the integration of biometric identification
information
into passports and other machine readable travel documents (MRTDs). Facial recognition has been
selected as the biometric to be used world wide for machine-assisted identity confirmation and
States
have the option of using one or two secondardy biometrics if they so wish. Four technical papers
have also been published which guide States on how to implement biometrics in MRTDs.
Specifically
the papers include:
• Biometrics Deployment,
http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_atb.pl7icao/en/atb/fal/mrtd/overview.htm
The result will improve the risk in conducting preliminary immigration checks remotely and front line
checks on arrival automatically. For further details please refer to:
www.icao.int/cgi/goto_atb.pl?icao/en/atb/fal/mrtd/overview.htm
Many projects are being conducted by government authorities which are building support for the
K5.2.3 Opportunity for Security Check
Security professionals are provided on a local basis to screen passengers prior to boarding. It would
therefore be possible with the information collected prior to boarding pass issuance for pertinent
data
to be transmitted to the security check for pre-assessment of the degree of screening necessary.
This would assist with the resourcing of both equipment and staff at security checkpoints.
K5.2.4 Baggage Handling
Having established a process for passengers to speed through traditional airport checks, it is
important
that the baggage does not then delay them. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology can
be applied to baggage handling to increase the accuracy of identifying check-in baggage and
reconciliation with passengers. Alternatively, an overnight courier concept can be built into the
passenger journey such that the passenger's bags are collected and delivered to the passenger's
doorstep.
Whichever business model is used, a modified IATA Recommended Practice 1740c (RP 1740c)
defines the radio frequency wave length. For further details please refer to:
The main categories of disabled persons for airports designers to account for can include but may
not be limited to:
As well as Braille indicators, signs may also include a secondary typeface that repeats the text
message carried by the standard sign, but in letters that are 'raised out' of the surface of the panel.
This lettering should appear on the same panel as the adjoining Braille impregnations, be of the
same
colour as the background (so as not to clutter the information seen by sighted passengers), and
should generally consist of lettering that is somewhat spaced apart and light, as opposed to bold, in
appearance.
Arrival and Departing flight information normally displayed on FIDS should be repeated in certain
locations by digital voice messaging or provision should be made at the information desks to cater
for disabled passengers needing up to the minute arrival and departure information.
At least one flight information display within each respective zone of the airport should have
doubled
font sized text compared to normal FID's, in order to permit visually impaired (not blind) passengers
to read the messages more easily.
Lifts, should be fitted with digital speech messaging systems to advise passengers of lift level and
door opening and door closing status. They should also be fitted with buttons that have Braille either
on the buttons themselves or alongside the floor level and emergency buttons.
Travelators (moving walkways) and escalators should be fitted with audible warning or digital
speech
messaging to warn of entry and exit points for these units.
Transit systems should be fitted with digital speech messaging systems to advise passengers of
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Chapter L — Aircraft Parking Aprons
Section L1: Current and Future Aircraft Types
L1.1 Current and Future Aircraft Types Overview............................................ 407
L1.2 Boeing 25 Year Vision Statement ............................................................. 407
L1.3 Airbus 25 Year Vision Statement .............................................................. 408
Section L2: Physical and Functional Requirements
L2.1 Introduction and General Considerations ................................................ 409
L2.2 Basic Apron Layouts................................................................................. 409
L2.3 Blast Fences and Barriers ........................................................................ 412
L2.4 Apron Perimeter......................................................................................... 416
L2.5 The Cargo Apron ...................................................................................... 417
L2.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 418
Section L3: Gate Stands and Remote Stands
L3.1 Gate and Remote Stands: Introduction ................................................... 419
L3.2 Gate Stands ............................................................................................. 419
L3.3 Remote Stands ........................................................................................ 420
L3.4 Equipment Parking and Maintenance....................................................... 422
L3.5 Expansion Capabilities.............................................................................. 422
L3.6 Parking Clearances................................................................................... 423
L3.7 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 425
Section L4: Ground Handling Equipment
L4.1 Ground Handling Vehicles ....................................................................... 426
L4.2 Passenger Loading Step Vehicles............................................................. 428
L4.3 Potable Water Supply Vehicles ................................................................ 429
L4.4 Catering Vehicles...................................................................................... 429
L4.5 Aircraft Push Back Tugs ............................................................................ 430
L4.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 432
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CHAPTER L — AIRCRAFT PARKING APRONS
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• Aircraft Stands (terminal gate or remote positions) — The area on the apron designated
for
parking of aircraft.
• Apron Service Roads — Routes designated for the movement of service vehicles within the
apron area.
The apron must be planned in relation to the taxiway and runway system as well as the terminal
In addition to the physical constraints summarized in Section G1 of this manual, the apron design
must also make due allowance for:
• Applicable International and State Safety Regulations governing airline and airport
operations;
particular reference should be made to ICAO Annex 14, Aerodromes, which stipulates clearance
distances associated with all categories of airport operations.
• Expansion capability.
L2.2 BASIC APRON LAYOUTS
L2.2.1 General
Figure L2-1 illustrates two basic aircraft parking layout principles, namely taxi-in/push-out and taxi-
in/taxi-out. Figure L2-2 shows typical apron elevations for a selected aircraft range. The variations
observed will be part of the analysis, leading to the decision as to the preferred method of
operations.
• Blast affects from turning aircraft can be a limiting factor when planning aprons.
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The trend is clearly in favour of push-out configurations at high volume airports utilising larger
aircraft,
and taxi-out configurations at lower volume airports using the smaller regional type of aircraft (where
manoeuvring space is less restricted). In all cases a study must be conducted considering present
and foreseeable conditions which may influence aircraft parking configurations.
The main advantages of the taxi-in/push-out configuration are:
• Reduction in apron congestion due to the ability to position ground equipment immediately
adjacent
to the aircraft parking position prior to aircraft arrival. Additionally, at aircraft departure there is a
reduced requirement to remove equipment from the apron area.
• Ability to load passengers or baggage, almost up to the scheduled time of departure.
• Clearances between adjacent aircraft, ground equipment and fixed obstacles are less critical.
• Aircraft parking guidance systems can be relatively simple.
• The effects of jet blast on equipment, personnel and terminal facilities is substantially lessened
and the requirement for blast fences are reduced or eliminated.
• The effect of fumes and noise are similarly reduced.
• Simple and correspondingly less costly passenger loading bridges can be employed.
• The total area of the apron pavement area and related costs is kept to the minimum.
A disadvantage with the taxi-in/push-out configuration is that it requires additional aircraft tow tractors
and associated personnel to effect the push-out. Aircraft tow tractors are costly, especially those
designed to handle wide-body aircraft. Provision and operating costs plus frequency of usage must
L2.2.3 Power-back
At certain locations, some airlines have elected to power-back their aircraft using reverse thrust.
This
operation has been authorized for certain aircraft operated by a very limited number of airlines,
under
strict operating conditions and at selected airports. This practice should not be considered as part of
normal operations; if adopted it could have an adverse noise impact on the communities close to
L2.2.4 Flexibility
To achieve the optimum utilization of facilities it is desirable to match, as closely as possible, the
capacity of the apron with the forecast aircraft mix. The use of MARS stands provides this flexibility
when stands are required to accommodate both wide-bodied and narrow-bodied aircraft in varying
mixes.
Where feasible, the apron should be designed to accommodate the appropriate number of large
aircraft expected during the peak period. At other times, smaller aircraft can use the same stand
centrelines. This solution makes possible the implementation of simple aircraft guidance systems,
loading bridges, hydrant fuelling systems, etc.
414
Figure L2-1: Basic Aircraft Parking Layout Principles
Taxi-In -
Taxi Out
415
Figure L2-2: Typical Stand Elevations for Selected Aircraft
Example of Passenger
Boarding Bridge
Service Levels B747-
400/B777-200/MD87 Range
When the aircraft mix varies throughout the day (i.e. when a majority of small aircraft alternate with
a majority of large aircraft and space is limited), consideration should be given to a more flexible
utilization of the apron. Examples of flexible parking layouts are illustrated in Section L3 — Figure
L3.1 and Figure L3.2; however it should be noted that other combinations are possible.
It is imperative that the degree of flexibility remains compatible with efficient and safe stand
utilization.
Identification of each aircraft stand by the pilot should present no ambiguity, while access should be
facilitated by the provision of appropriate apron markings and guidance systems. Loading bridges
and hydrant systems are likely to be more complicated and the extra costs involved should be
compared with the savings realized by providing a smaller number of stands overall.
Engine exhaust velocity and temperature characteristics are generally published by manufacturers
in the form of constant value contours plotted in the horizontal and vertical planes (see Fig. L2-3).
The engine thrust required for taxiing is proportional to the aircraft weight; aircraft design, airline
operating practices and apron slope conditions. Airlines should be consulted when the jet blast
implications of specific apron layouts are being evaluated.
Jet blast levels are likely to be greater than normal minimum values due to:
• Upward sloping apron.
• Wind, altitude and temperature effects.
• Aircraft making turns (particularly where asymmetric power is used or one or more engines
shut
down).
• Human factors.
The experience of airlines and airport authorities has indicated that blast velocities should not
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
N0TF5:
* TNeiNr THRUST AT TAKrW SITTING (11 OK -
115K RATING)
* CONTOURS CALCULATFD FROM CDUPUTrR
DATA
» STANDARD DAY
* srA irvrL - 777- 1IH> MPH (161 KUPH)
' rrrr 30 * NO WIND TO SB5 IT (709 U)
=-
unrrs 300fR
100 -70 TAIL 50 UPU (M> KUPH)
- 4 TO 1S50 IT (503 U )
IB °-- to 3b MPH (£>B KUPH)
§
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.
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Ao
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rt —I—i----------------!— n*"--------------------------
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BOTH rNGIMrS RUNNING
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418
Figure L2-4: Example of a Typical Blast Fence Installations
: Ií ■sI Shown
! WIW '-----------------
L2.4 APRON PERIMETER
The airport perimeter will often encompass both natural and human-engineered features. The
perimeter may weave in and out of fixed features, cross rivers, and provide vehicle and staff access
points. It is essential that the perimeter is engineered to provide security and ease of access for
emergency and permitted vehicles and staff only.
Where airport perimeters run parallel to public roads, the actual perimeters should be fitted on the
inner face of the fencing system with vision obstruction barriers. Vision obstruction barriers have two
major benefits: they will deter both legitimate plane spotters and would-be terrorists using plane
spotting groups as a cover; they will reduce vehicle accidents on the adjacent public roads due to
casual plane spotting by vehicle drivers. For more comprehensive information on security and
fencing
systems please refer to Section H Clause H2.12 Perimeter Security.
When developing the apron perimeter it is useful to consider using the natural features of the
landscape
to benefit the sound insulation properties of the environment. Where the environment has no natural
sound insulating properties it is of benefit to consider creating man made contours and developing
a terrain to aid sound insulation and reduce local visual impact of the apron. Figure L2-6 defines the
ICAO Document 9184 AN/902 Airport Planning Manual recommendation for the use of such man
made terrain.
Figure L2-6: Cross Section of Sound Insulating Forest
Sound
Insulation
Forest
Runwa
y
40m 30m
2001
Japanese EvôJyraen
Japanese
Cypress |^ Broetl leaved tree
Cedar
• Fixed aircraft servicing equipment, such as hydrant refuelling and power, are only
appropriate to
aircraft stands with high utilization.
• Lighting on the apron should provide sufficient illumination to permit the reading of cargo
documents and labels at the aircraft parking stand. However, such lighting should not be allowed
to adversely affect crew visibility when taxiing aircraft.
• On the apron, cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway.
• An analysis of the peak hour stand requirements and the related volume of air cargo to be
transported and processed is necessary in order to determine the size of the apron and adjacent
Where necessary, however, remote stands can offer facilities an effective and economical alternative
to terminal expansion when capacity demand begins to exceed expectations on an occasional or
permanent basis. It should be noted that any remote stand expansion or construction needs to
incorporate contingencies for general apron operations (including but not limited to taxilanes and
runway clearance requirements), remote transportation vehicles, the expansion of related passenger
The gate stand is usually an integral part of the pier, satellite or main terminal departure lounge. The
gate stand is comprised of the following interconnected components:
1. Link bridge from terminal or pier structure to rotunda (Departures + Arrivals Dedicated Routes).
Or
1a. Link bridge from terminal or pier structure to rotunda (Departures + Arrivals SINGLE MIXED
Route).
Having established the mix of aircraft required to meet the flight schedule criteria, it will then be
necessary to accommodate those aircraft types physically on the available apron area. It is essential
that correct volume and type of aircraft are understood with contingency consideration for late aircraft
turnaround. The gate stands should be considered prime real estate on the apron and gate served
apron stands should be allocated accordingly.
Gate stands should be used to serve the major volume of aircraft traffic which should be determined
from the flight schedule. This is not necessarily the larger aircraft, as a domestic traffic biased airport
could require the serving of small to medium sized jets predominantly with only the occasional large
jets such as the Boeing 747-series and A380 aircraft being served.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Gate stands should be as flexible as possible and should serve a wide a range of aircraft ranging
typically from, in order of preference (i) large to small aircraft; (ii) large to medium aircraft; (iii)
medium
to small aircraft; (iv) large aircraft; (v) medium aircraft only or (vi) small aircraft only, though much
depends on the operational requirements of the terminal and the flight schedule.
The use of a single passenger boarding bridge per gate stand should be used wherever possible for
all aircraft of size smaller than the full double deck A380 series, except when especially rapid aircraft
turnarounds may be required.
Where the A380 series aircraft are to be served it is recommended that the gate should be provided
with the dual passenger boarding bridges to facilitate the more rapid disembarkation of passengers
serving the forward first lower port door and the forward second upper port door. Occasionally a third
bridge may also be used for this aircraft only (see Figure L3-1 below).
• Aircraft manoeuvring considerations for terminal gate stands also apply to remote stands.
• Since remote stands are often located in close proximity to active taxiways, careful
consideration
must be given to entrance and exiting procedures and the effects of jet blast.
• Apron drainage must be in conformity with the local building codes as well as environmental
regulations. For example, special treatment may be required for spills of aircraft fuel or de-icing
fluid See ICAO Annex 14 Clauses 3.14.10 and 3.14.11.
• The economic viability of providing remote stands as opposed to gate stands must be
established.
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IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
• Remote stands give more flexibility in assigning an aircraft stand, especially for flights with
long
turnaround times, over night stays, technical delays, or flights having special security
requirements.
• At the outset it must be clearly established what aircraft types will operate on the remote
stands
so they may be appropriately sized.
• Since, by definition, these stands are remote from the main terminal area, consideration
must be
given to the most effective utilization of ground equipment. Consideration should be given to
staging ground servicing equipment nearby. Consideration should also be given to requirements
for aircraft hydrant fuelling, ground power, air conditioning and de-icing.
• For a safe operation it is important to have good apron lighting and lampposts should be
appropriately placed.
B737-400/500 MARS
Configuration
All Aircraft Passenger
Boarding Bridge Served
425
Figure L3-2: Example of Flexible Parking Configurations
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IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
L3.6.1 General
The application of adequate clearance margins in the development of apron layouts is essential to
ensure acceptability by airport authorities.
The apron with associated fixed equipment, as well as aircraft which are parked on the apron, is part
of the total airport system which in operational terms is subject to the requirements for the safe
conduct
of flight operations. These requirements (in the form of Standards and Recommended Practices) are
contained in ICAO Annex 14 — Aerodromes, and associated publications, particular attention should
be made to Chapter 3 of ICAO Annex 14, clauses, 3.8.3, 3.8.4 and 3.8.5 (Table 3.1).
Clearances recommended by the airlines for planning use have achieved universal acceptance as
good aircraft operating practice. They recognize the need to conduct operations in a broad field of
circumstances while achieving an acceptable level of performance and safety.
Clearances in the following categories must be taken into account in the planning and design of
apron
layouts:
• Flight Operations.
Ground service equipment operation.
• Other items of equipment, either individually or collectively, are exceptionally large or unwieldy.
• Large exchanges of baggage, cargo or mail are required during short turnaround or transit
operations (this is particularly relevant with the operation of combi-aircraft).
• The cargo terminal is located a long distance from the passenger terminal apron.
"X- X/2
------fr.--------0---------&-------Or
Width of Taxiway
Code Letter Dimension X PimY
A 7.5m 1.5m
B 10.5m 2.25m
C 15m-18m*1 3m-4.5m *
D 18m-23m *1 4.5m
E 23m 4.5m
25m 4.5m
433
L4.5 AIRCRAFT PUSH BACK TUGS
There are 2 types of push back tugs:
• Type 1 (see Figure L4.7) those which require the use of tow bars.
• Type 2 (see Figure L4.8) those which latch to the aircraft nose wheel assembly directly and
encase the wheel whilst coupled.
Type 2 push back tugs are cheaper to operate as they do not generally need two operators to use
them, whereas Type 1 push back tugs generally do require 2 operators.
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Type 1 Push back tugs are generally used for smaller aircraft since the clearances beneath the
aircraft
are more restricted. Medium and Large aircraft also commonly use tow bars and Type 1 push back
tugs to maneuver. Both Type 1 and Type 2 tugs are generally able, subject to tug manufacturers
specifications, to maneuver all types of aircraft over long distances at reasonable speeds. Type 2
tugs are generally able to taxi aircraft at higher speeds. No technical preference exists between Type
1 and Type 2 push back tugs.
AHM 900 ~
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IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
• Access to the non-public road network must be effectively restricted to service vehicles directly
linked with aircraft handling activities.
• The service roads must be capable of accepting ULD transporter equipment between the
cargo
terminal and the aircraft.
• Adequate bearing strength, height clearances and turning radii must be provided to
accommodate
existing and projected service and ground support equipment, including tow tractors, when
applicable.
• To comply with the requirements stated within the joint IATA/ACI publication entitled: Apron
Markings and Signs Handbook.
• Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, preferably 12m, and a clearance
height of 4.2m, but preferably 4.6m. The latter is of particular concern with regard to service
roads directly located in front of parking positions which pass under sections of the terminal
building and/or passenger loading bridges. It should be noted that the figures provided are
design
guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport
concerned.
Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn
radius of at least 8m.
• Adequate separation in accordance with ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 3, and in particular clauses
3.8 (Table 3-1) and Fig 3-2, must be provided from runways, taxiways or other areas where
aircraft manoeuvre.
In planning for airside road systems it must be recognized that many restrictions exist, especially in
those areas where aircraft ground handling activities are in progress. Safety and security aspects,
together with the special needs of slow traffic (e.g. tug and dollies), as well as wide and very high
vehicles, all need to be taken into account. Exclusive use of part of the system by some categories
may be necessary. Special attention should be given to:
• Ground handling equipment should be moved via service roads and not across aprons.
Designated
handling and parking areas should be properly marked. The size of aircraft loaders, passenger
buses, mobile lounges, fire fighting equipment and fuel tankers may require special
arrangements
for manoeuvring and storage.
• Aircraft tow tractors may have to operate at right angles to service roads. Special provisions
may
be necessary.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Each location has its advantages and disadvantages. Since a lot of operational activity tends to
occur
around the forward portion of the aircraft, a frontal service road is sometimes preferred. However
the
disadvantage with this type of service road is that the clearance height necessary to allow certain
types of service vehicles (i.e. aircraft catering vehicles) to pass underneath may create a major
problem with the height or slope of the passenger loading bridge or the elevation of the departure
gate lounge.
When the service road is located in front of the terminal building, adequate room must be provided
for the aircraft push-back tractor to manoeuvre; i.e. the tractor which is at 90° must not encroach
into
the service road. This often occurs however, and traffic congestion on the service road follows.
In situations where a service road can only be located behind the aircraft and outside of the stand
perimeter, the service road should then be very clearly marked and must not be allowed to infringe
on apron taxiway operations. Proper clearance must be defined and maintained, from the rear of
the
aircraft to the service road and to the apron taxiway. Rear service roads will involve traffic coming
off the service road and past the aircraft wings and engines when approaching the front of the
aircraft.
Movement around aircraft wings, etc., must be done with extreme caution.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
440
L5.6 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Nose-in stands without a passenger bridge: a general feeder cable should run in a trench along
the front line of the stands and should include a series of connection points where service posts
can be installed according to any changes in aircraft layout. This is in order to provide flexibility
in future airport developments.
• Taxi-in/power-out stands without a passenger bridge: installation of a fixed 400 Hz distribution
system is generally not recommended, since such stand arrangements are generally used for
low or relatively low frequencies of stand utilization.
L6.2.1 General
An alternate solution to providing 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power outlets, which frequently offers
more flexibility and a lower mean operating cost, is to provide multi-purpose 50/60 Hz industrial
power
outlets on each stand. The same outlets, or a set of outlets on the same distribution system, may be
used for a variety of requirements, such as:
• Supplying 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft by means of mobile plug-in electric
converters.
Such units are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and require less maintenance than
conventional GPUs with a diesel engine.
• Heating the aircraft in cold weather by means of mobile, plug-in electric heaters. Such units,
again, are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and more free from maintenance problems than
diesel powered heating units. They present the additional advantage that they can be safely left
operating (e.g. during night stops to avoid the risk of water circuits freezing) without staff
supervision, which is necessary for diesel units. Note: this also depends upon the local cost of
diesel fuel versus electrical power.
• Cooling the aircraft in hot weather by means of mobile, plug-in, electrical air conditioning units
(ACUs). Similarly, electric ACUs are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and more
maintenance-
free than diesel operating units.
• For possible future applications, supplying power to plug-in type electric loading equipment
such
as container/pallet loaders, ULD transport vehicles, roller beds, etc. (Refer to paragraph (d)
below
regarding standard connectors).
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Care should be taken to reduce the distance power cables run on the ground between the
fixed
outlets and mobile plug-in units, and to minimize potential interference with aircraft servicing
and
loading vehicles.
• When a 50/60 Hz industrial power plug-in facility is used for aircraft air conditioning or heating,
preference should be given to mobile units in order to minimize the length of hose, with the
advantages of increased system efficiency, reduced ramp congestion and less hose wear.
• In addition, in order to benefit fully from the system's flexibility, care should be taken to
standardize
the connectors used in order to allow any mobile unit to plug in.
• Standard connectors, such as described in the IATA Airport Handling Manual AHM 960
Appendices C (for use on the North American continent, 230 V/3 phase/60 Hz AC) or D (for use
on the European continent, 380 V/3 phase/50 Hz AC. Also refer to The Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) Aerospace Recommended Practice ARP 1372A, and International Standard
ISO 7715 which are equivalent), should be used whenever compatible with the maximum kVA
• Centralized systems distributing low pressure pre-conditioned air to a number of stands from
a
heating or cooling plant located in a central technical room. The heating plant may be
independent
(e.g. electrical, ice storage, peak shaving, etc., technologies) or based on heat exchangers fed
by the terminal building's own hot or chilled water distribution system.
• Decentralized systems including a fixed air conditioning/heating unit at each stand, with a heat
exchanger fed by the hot or chilled water distribution system of the terminal building or an
independent system (e.g. electrical, ice storage, peak shaving, etc. technologies).
IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
• Decentralized systems including an independent fixed air conditioning/heating unit at each stand,
operating from electric power distribution.
Also, pre-conditioned air supply to aircraft can be accomplished by means of mobile, plug-in, electric
ACUs or heaters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet of sufficient capacity, when provided at each
stand.
Usually, the economic justification needs to be assessed together with a fixed 400 Hz power
system,
since obviously the main purpose of a pre-conditioned air installation is to eliminate or reduce the
use of aircraft APUs.
• The hose should run perpendicular to the aircraft fuselage rather than parallel to it, and should
not be located in the way of, or constitute an obstacle to, aircraft servicing or loading vehicles.
If this arrangement is made impossible by the stand layout for a given type of aircraft, the hose
should run on the ground as close as possible to the aircraft centreline, and side transfer
loading
equipment and methods should be eliminated for this type of aircraft.
• The hose length should be minimized in all circumstances in order to reduce the loss of
pressure
and improve air conditioning efficiency. When a stand serves aircraft types with either a forward
or aft located air conditioning inlet, the hose length should be determined for those aircraft types
with a forward inlet location, and an extension hose should be used for the types with an aft inlet
location. It should be noted that many systems are experiencing significant wear and tear on the
hose resulting in frequent replacement, which adds to operating and maintenance costs.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
For stands without a passenger bridge, however, fixed preconditioned air installations are generally
not recommended. In these cases consideration should be given to the use of mobile electric ACUs
or heaters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet, since the connecting power cable creates much
less interference with servicing vehicles than an air conditioning hose of comparable length.
L6.4.1 General
Pneumatic generation and distribution systems for high pressure air supply to aircraft are primarily
intended to provide the compressed air necessary to start jet engines on the stands. This is a short
duration requirement at each stand, since all the engines of an aircraft can be started within a
period
of between 1 and 5 minutes depending on the aircraft type.
In addition, such systems are sometimes used or considered as a means of continuously running a
flow of high pressure air into the aircraft in order to operate the aircraft on-board air conditioning
packs to either heat or cool the cabin. In this case, the system would be used in place of low
pressure
pre-conditioned air systems.
However, doubts have been expressed by a number of engineering specialists regarding the effect
of this type of operation on the technical condition of on-board air conditioning packs, and
experience
has not yet allowed determination with certainty as to whether it may result in a significant reduction
of mean time between failure (MTBF) of the packs, which would adversely affect both aircraft in-
flight
reliability and maintenance costs.
Therefore it is necessary, before considering the use of a high pressure pneumatic system for
aircraft
air conditioning, to make sure that the principle and characteristics (flow, pressure, temperature,
moisture amount, etc.) of the system have been fully approved by all airframe manufacturers as well
as the aircraft engineering departments of the airlines involved.
Technically, pneumatic generation systems are always based on a number of high performance
compressor units (several types of compressor design are available) located in a central technical
plant. The size, length and layout of the distribution ducts are critical for system performance and
potential loss of pressure, and must therefore be carefully engineered.
Due to the high peak of power consumption (flow + pressure) required, no decentralized alternative
(except conventional mobile ASUs of either the diesel or the turbine powered type) has up to now
been made available.
446
It should be noted that:
• The decision to use a pneumatic system for engine start should not be based upon
environmental
considerations, since the starting of aircraft engines creates much more noise and air pollution
than the APU or ASU.
• On the contrary, economic evaluation should take into account the fact that a fixed
compressed
air supply results in starting the engines on the stand before push back, where as most airlines
today in fact start the aircraft engines from the APU during (or even partially after) push back.
Using a fixed installation, therefore, may result in increased fuel consumption and noise due to
IATA jet engines running before and during push back, as well Aircraft Parking
as additional aircraft Aprons
and engine
running
time — which may also affect crew salaries. Such factors of increased expense for the airline
should be taken into account in the economic evaluation.
• When the use of a compressed air supply installation is contemplated for both air start and
cabin
conditioning purposes, assessment by airline engineering departments as to the use of this
system
for cabin conditioning is necessary in order to evaluate the economic viability of the system.
447
L6.5 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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iata
Aircraft Parking Aprons
L7.1 INTRODUCTION
Safe and efficient aircraft operations are of primary importance in the development of any aircraft de-
icing facility, and the requirements for a de-icing operation will differ greatly for each airport. While
remote primary de-icing may be desirable at one airport, gate de-icing with or without remote
secondary
facilities is appropriate at others. Operational and Air Traffic Control (ATC) matters may be
paramount
at one airport, while environmental concerns may predominate at another. These are just some of
the many options to be chosen between where de-icing operations are concerned, but in an overall
sense it is important to keep in mind that each airport will have varying priorities, and that many
factors will need to be weighed before responsible, safe and efficient decisions can be arrived at.
The manner in which the ATC system operates during icing conditions is critical. If the ATC system
imposes significant delays before take-off, the de-icing problem is increased, not only because of the
need to de-ice again, but also because of the extra taxiing required. In addition to the concerns for
safety, the airlines and the airport authorities must work with ATC to minimize delays.
The first and most important task for designers contemplating the development of de-icing facilities
is to evaluate the type of facility best suited to the airport needs. This evaluation will entail an
assessment of the actual physical layout, the operational requirements and the environmental
sensitivity of the airport. This means aircraft movement flows, frequency and severity of icing events,
realistic capacity need in snow/ice conditions, the physical space available, the length of routes to
the departure points, the available and potential drainage, the kinds of fluid (Type 1, 2, 3 or 4, see
definition below within clause L.7.1.1) in use, and fluid collection/retention/recycling possibilities, etc.,
must be considered.
It is important to recognize that the requirements for and economics of recycling and reuse vary
widely. The environmental circumstances, ranging from the proximity of the airport to rivers and water
sources, the runoff patterns to be expected, the types of receiving water and the movement rates of
water bodies all impact the problem. Another variable is the type of soil and the potential for soil
contamination.
L7.1.1 The Types of De-icing Operations
(1) At passenger terminal gates, where aircraft are de-iced just before departure after
passengers
and baggage/cargo are loaded.
Historically, the principal method of de-icing has involved the application of heated freeze depressant
fluids. In recent years, new thickened fluids have been implemented which offer extended protection
times (fluid holdover times). Other new developments need to be considered, including the
application
of infra-red heat.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and mobile de-icing vehicles.
Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and de-icing gantry or mobile de-icing
vehicles.
• Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and mobile de-icing vehicles.
Considerable reference on the various considerations that must be examined regardless of the level
of sophistication of the proposed de-icing facility can be found in Reference 1, SAE ARP4902. An
overview of those considerations follows.
IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
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Figure L7-1: Ground De-Icing Operation at Central De-Icing
Facility
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
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ÊATA
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Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
M1.3 GROUNDING
Grounding of aircraft is not recommended. However, where authorities require grounding the
fuelling
equipment and aircraft should be grounded by means of a 'V grounding cable and NOT through the
fuelling vehicle. Hydrant pits or hydrant pit internals shall NOT be used as grounding connections.
Where used, the grounding provision should be designed specifically for the task of earth
connection
and should not be used for any other duty. The center of the 'Y' earth connection should be such
that it is located on the stand, forward of the engines, and away from the engine intake danger
zones.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
(c) Operational problems can be caused by unsuitable positioning of the aircraft, caused primarily
by misalignment of the aircraft in the parking bay, or by inappropriately located hydrant pits.
Where possible, the location of hydrant pits should account for potentially misaligned aircraft.
Hydrants should not be located beneath any of the served aircraft, and preferably aft of all
engine
positions by a minimum clearance 1.5m.
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IATA Aviation Fuel Systems
M1.ÍR3 Grounding
Where deemed appropriate and used locally, the grounding provision should be designed
specifically for the task of earth connection and should not be used for any other duty and
should be regularly maintained. The cegtre of the 'Y' earth connection should be located such
that it is mounted forward of the engines and away from the engine intake danger zones.
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IATA Aviation Fuel Systems
M2JR2
The position of fuel vehicle stop boxes should be clearly marked and should be in accordance
with clause M2.1. h
461
SECTION M3: STORAGE DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES & PROCESSES
M3.2 TANKAGE
The number and size of tanks should be sufficient to provide adequate working capacity, taking into
account peak period airport requirements, supply replenishment arrangements and emergency
stock
coverage. Allowance must also be made for settling, testing and tank cleaning requirements.
Aviation fuels should be stored in horizontal or fixed-roof vertical tanks. New tanks shall be
constructed
and installed to avoid ingress of water and dirt, and to provide a positive low point to collect water
and sediment for ease of removal. To achieve this, horizontal tanks should be installed with a
minimum
slope of 1:50, and vertical tanks should have a cone-down bottom with a minimum slope of 1:30 to
a centre sump.
New tanks should be located away from main public roads by a distance of at least 100m. Roads
within this 100m radius should be secure and classified as airside.
Where new or existing above ground tanks are closer than 100m to public roads, solid physical
barriers made from brick or steel should surround tank facilities on the side of the public road.
Tanks
will also be required to provide for the following functional characteristics:
(a) Provision for a running sample to be taken from the drain line that runs between the tank and
the sample's receiving vessel. The running sample may be collected into an open container or
a closed system, made of a suitable glass, as agreed by the participants.
(b) Manholes to facilitate entry for gas freeing and cleaning.
(c) Gauge hatches to provide means of sampling and tank dipping.
(d) Prominently numbering and 'grade stored' demarcations (API designation).
(e) A physical design such that their profile will not impair or effect ground radar operations.
M3.3 PIPEWORK
Each grade of aviation fuel must be handled in a completely segregated system. There shall be no
M3.4 CATHODIC PROTECTION
Hydrant pipelinesstorage tanks, and distributor systems should be protected from corrosion by a
cathodic system. Cathodic protection essentially reduces or eliminates corrosion on a metal surface
by forcing the metal to become a cathode. The two general types of cathodic protection systems that
can be considered are:
1. Impressed current.
2. Sacrificial cathodic.
Both types of systems can effectively transfer the corrosion reaction (oxidation) from the metal
surface
to an external anode. If all exposed parts of a structure become cathodic with respect to the
electrolyte,
corrosion of the structure is eliminated.
Special care is required with the design of impressed current cathodic fuel corrosion protection
systems, but it should be noted that they are only required under specific circumstances. The
following
requirements represent a starting point in the installation of a proper impressed current cathodic
system:
• Sacrificial metal should be affixed to the fuel system pipe work and pumping equipment
securely
at suitable intervals.
• The pipe-cathode should be insulated from all other steel structures or pipelines in the
vicinity
which are not protected by the same system. There should be no possibility of sparking between
dissimilar metals at any time whatsoever.
• The size, material selection for sacrificial metals and the frequency of their placement should
be
designed by the fuel system supply designer.
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• Determine robust joint-operating protocols with airline and other bu*(r*&$& partners
• Plan and exercise airport risk mitigation strategies — the best possible preparation is to
practice averting a crisis.
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A
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• A cargo apron design should also provide, at each aircraft stand, adjacent staging areas for
equipment needed for loading and transportation of arriving and departing ULDs.
• Parking of handling equipment should be possible between the airside cargo road and apron
and/or along the outer edges of the apron, without impeding aircraft manoeuvring on or off
the apron. Power-in/power-out aircraft parking requires more space for each stand, and extra
precautions against blast.
• Several factors must be considered when fixed loading bridges are planned to connect all-
cargo/
freighter aircraft to ETV storage systems within the cargo facility. Justification for loading bridges
will depend on utilization potential, impact on staffing requirements, processing/turnaround time,
and frequency of extreme weather conditions. As with passenger loading bridges, cross-
utilization
between wide-body and narrow-body aircraft as well as within certain types of narrow-body
aircraft
may be limited. In addition, aircraft cargo door configurations (nose, side forward, side aft) will
impact utilization potential.
• The cargo carrier's fleet mix, type of cargo and operational factors will weigh heavily in the
decision
as to whether specialised loading bridges or flexible mobile loading systems are preferred.
Based
on airline experience, fewer carriers are using fixed loading bridges.
• Fixed aircraft servicing equipment, such as hydrant refuelling and power, are only appropriate
to
aircraft stands with high utilization.
• Lighting on the apron should be sufficient to permit the reading of cargo documents and labels
at the aircraft parking stand. However, such lighting should not be allowed to adversely affect
crew visibility when taxiing and parking the aircraft.
• On the apron, cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway.
-—,—. .
01.IR1 Cargo Facility Development Documentation
When embarking on the expansion of a new or revised cargo development project it is
recommended that the documentation as defined within clause 01.1 should be produced.
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• Planeside volumes should be further categorized to reflect how much is carried in containers
versus how much is carried as bulk (narrow-body and wide-body bulk holds).
• It is necessary to ensure volumes for all third party handling arrangements are quantified.
• The planeside cargo forecasting methodology technique relies on determining the average
historical cargo carried by an aircraft equipment type (e.g. A300, B747, B767, DC-10, A320,
B757, etc.) and by market (Atlantic, Pacific, Latin America, North America, etc.). These averages
are then applied to future aircraft schedules. When new aircraft types are included in future
schedules, estimates based on available cargo capacity and range will need to be determined.
Figures 02-1 and 02-2 provide survey format forms to quantify planeside volumes and describe a
growth rate approach to forecasting.
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Figure 02-2: Typical Survey Form to Quantify Planeside Volumes
Monthly Departing Flight Cargo Volume
Day 1 to 7 of Peak Month
Month:__________________________________ Year:_________
IATA
Legend: ETA — Estimated Time of Arrival Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal
ULD — Unit Load Devices
LD — Lower Deck
MD — Main Deck
Volume (Tonnes)
Fit. No. ETA (a) Direct Delivery (b) Cargo Requiring Storage (c) Transhipment (d) Total No. of ULDs
for breakdown
LD MD
477
1
02.5 OPERATIONAL CARGO FORECASTS
Operational cargo forecasts are intended to translate the previously developed planeside forecast
into volumes that correspond with each function or operation in the material handling process.
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The level of statistical detail for each airline cargo operation may vary significantly. As a result, the
source and availability of data to define each cargo operation may differ. However, the need to
quantify
each function remains the same.
A critical element of the cargo terminal is the location and width of the airside access doors. The
basic module elevation has a span of 18 metres, is commonly used and provides 3 airside doors
(without column interference). Each door should typically have a width of 5m and can accommodate
side-loaded pallets and dollies (4.05m), as well as the wider self powered transport dollies. Modules
built with 15-16 metre spans can accommodate 3 airside doors that provide clearance for 2.45m wide
dollies.
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22 m ^
57 m
35 m
11NiO O A O i O O O I O O
Two other important factors in facility sizing are the hours of operation, as well as the average
turnaround time per aircraft. All cargo facilities typically operate no less than 20 hours a day, with a
typical turnaround time of 4 to 7 hours per aircraft. Facility planners should seek operational
confirmation of the turnaround time expectation and plan accordingly.
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Figure 02-4:Typical All Cargo Apron/Building Plan
Cargo Terminal
02.6.3 Dwell Time
Dwell time is a term used to reflect how much time import and export shipments reside in the
warehouse. Dwell time will need to be quantified for each of the operational staging and storage
functions. Remember, the volumes developed earlier generally represent those processed during
the
peak design day. If international import shipments reside for three days, the facility will need to be
sized to manage three days of storage.
02.7.2 Siting
In choosing a site for the cargo facilities/terminal and support facilities, the following should be
taken
into account:
• The site should be in accordance with the long range masterplan for the entire airport, which
should be reviewed and updated at periodic intervals keeping in mind both passenger and
cargo
facilities expansion.
• Sufficient land area should be provided for the planned initial facilities, and for future expansion
for the specified planning period.
• A high quality airside road is required for transportation of cargo directly between aircraft on the
passenger terminal apron and the cargo facility.
• The site should include adequate space for a cargo apron adjacent to the main cargo facility for
The area adjacent to the cargo apron should be designated only for cargo processing facilities,
with each facility having its own expansion capability.
Other cargo related facilities, such as agents/forwarders facilities, bonded stores, customs offices
and other office blocks, as well as free-trade zone facilities, should be accommodated on the
landside areas of the terminal complex, without impeding cargo flow, traffic and parking.
When insufficient area is available in the cargo terminal complex for these functions, space
should
be reserved on a conveniently located site, with direct access to the cargo terminal, thus
facilitating
transfer operations.
When a cargo terminal area is separated from the passenger area by a taxiway or runway, or
otherwise located at such a distance that the average duration of airside transportation for a
typical train of ULD dollies would exceed 15 minutes, or a maximum 20 minutes, consideration
should be given to:
Providing an adequate tunnel in order to shorten the airside distance. Should this solution
be adopted, the ramps in the tunnel should at no point exceed a 4% slope, and the clear
height at any point in the tunnel should be in excess of 4.6m in order to allow the use of
trucks to carry ULDs up to 3m in height. If a tunnel is considered, restrictions for use must
be reviewed by all cargo airlines that will use the tunnel, as several operating restrictions
may apply (such as for the transportation of dangerous goods through the tunnel).
• The cargo buildings and apron must be sited so as to avoid infringement of flight operations
clearance standards, and they must not cause interference with navigational aids. Taxi distances
to and from the cargo apron should be as short as possible.
• Adequate services, involving power and other utilities, as well as telecommunications and data
connections will be required for the cargo terminal complex and related facilities, and should be
capable of future expansion.
• Where possible, the prevailing wind and rain or snow directions in inclement weather should be
considered in relation to the general orientation of the cargo facilities in the master plan. This is
to avoid potential hindrance and damage to cargo and equipment, particularly on the airside.
Site restrictions may force planners to reduce their requirements, but this should never
compromise
flow or the primary cargo facility, as well as provision for their subsequent expansion along the
airside and cargo aircraft apron. Off-airport space should be developed for secondary functions
and facilities when site restrictions dictate.
It should be recognised that off-airport space may be viewed as a more economical alternative
as long as customer service objectives can be maintained from the off-site location.
02.7.3 Infrastructure/Roads
The infrastructure (roads, loading area, parking) should be designed for the planned capacity and
allow for future expansion. The airside and landside road systems should accommodate vehicle
sizes
both for individual facilities and the total cargo area, with particular consideration for large vehicle
access.
The roads in the cargo terminal complex must be integrated with public road systems and other
airport road systems and include adequate (possibly separate) access to the existing and future
road
network.
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Although moving cargo to and from the passenger terminal(s) should in all circumstances remain a
basic consideration, it should be only a secondary objective when selecting the cargo terminal
location.
Experience indicates that ground transportation of cargo is much more sensitive to the quality of the
roadway used (in terms of duration, potential damage to pallet contours and economics) than to its
length.
Airside Roads
At least one airside, (fully customs-bonded), two-lane roadway must be provided between the cargo
terminal(s) area and any of the passenger terminals. This road should meet the following criteria:
• Strong vehicle-grade pavement, designed to stand up to 1,500 kPa (15 bar) local footprint
pressure
with a typical load up to 10,000 kg per axle, to withstand the worst cases encountered with
transportation of air cargo pallets on dollies.
• Up and down gradients should be avoided if possible, and should never exceed 4% at any
location, including any necessary tunnels or underpasses.
• The number of turns should be minimized, and ample turn radii, in excess of 20m at any
location,
should be provided where a turn is necessary.
• Insofar as is practicable, crossings which include a STOP signal, and particularly any
crossings
of an aircraft taxiway, should be avoided.
• A paved shoulder, 3m wide and of sufficient bearing strength, should be provided on each
side
to allow for an emergency stop by unserviceable transportation vehicles without impeding other
traffic.
Landside Roads
• At least one landside, two-lane public roadway of 10 m minimum width must be provided to
give
access to each part of the cargo terminal complex landside (truck docking area).
• It is also recommended that, in order to accommodate the frequent occurrence of standby
trucks
• The fact that a cargo terminal is essentially a physical transitory sorting facility, between airside
and landside, where a large number of vehicles need to have free access as close as possible
to the essential warehouse portion.
• The requirement for any cargo terminal to be capable of later (phased) development/extension
which should not necessitate destruction or significant change of the parts already built.
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It should also be noted that offices, technical service areas, and special storage facilities should be
positioned without detriment to normal cargo flow and future expansion.
In order to provide each user airline with the required possibility of conducting its own commercial
cargo activity (i.e. customer contact, document handling and processing, etc.), it is essential that the
cargo terminal complex design provides proportional office space in each individual section
(module)
allocated, including, in the event of later expansion or reassignment of the modules to other
operators,
a re-arrangement capability.
The easiest way to provide this flexibility, without detriment to normal cargo flow and future
expansion,
is to design continuous office space at a mezzanine level above the landside dock area (import
delivery and export acceptance) over the whole terminal transverse width.
Transverse Layout
A cargo terminal complex building should be designed so the module proportions, width and depth,
provide sufficient linear facades and doorways for trucks and vehicles to dock, and sufficient area to
perform all other cargo processing and storage functions.
The space allotment to the various operators and handling agents should be via modules which are
as flexible in dimensions as possible; defined, for example, by the pitch of columns in the
construction.
Each allotted module should have access to both airside and landside. Permanent dividing walls
should be avoided in favour of a system of demountable partitions which can be relocated, when
the
need arises, thus facilitating changes in space allotments within the terminal complex. The partitions
should provide adequate security between airlines.
Where customs regulations make it mandatory for each warehouse to have separate import and
export storage, this requirement should be taken into account to define modules, space allotment
and partition systems for each operator's warehouse.
Depth Layout
The building depth should be established only once the operational requirements of all tenants are
defined. In general, the building depth should be as short as practicable, but the dimensions should
be large enough to accommodate all areas and processing functions in a natural and direct flow
between the landside and airside faces. Points to be noted include:
02.7.5 Facilities
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• Proper locking mechanisms on all doors are required for security purposes.
• Canopies are typical for weather protection, but special curtains or high speed folding doors in
open doorways may also be required under severe inclement weather conditions. The design
should include such provisions without imposing undue constraints on cargo flow.
• In the case of two-way traffic through one door, a one-way flow route or traffic light may be
required.
• Appropriate door signs or numbers, clearly visible and similar both inside and out, will facilitate
efficient customer and cargo handling.
• Manual operation of large doors is both slow and cumbersome. Mechanical or electrical drives
improve the operation, but should always incorporate required manual override and safety
provisions.
• Normal and emergency exists for personnel by man doors should meet local requirements.
• A direct interface between airside transport equipment or landside shipper vehicles and a
container
handling system may be included in the design.
• Airside doors should not be located so that traffic entering/exiting the building would impede or
interfere with aircraft parking or aircraft interface.
Fixed obstructions such as utilities, special facilities and offices should not impede cargo flow and
processing. For the same reason the building column grid should be as large as possible without
exceeding economical levels.
A freespan for cargo handling would be ideal. However, this is only possible occasionally and in
special cases. Construction costs and beam considerations generally make columns necessary. In
such cases the widest column spacing achievable is most desirable; generally the spacing can be
in excess of 15m. The planned operational and storage systems, and the main aisles and entrance
doors should be considered when designing the column grid. Another basic consideration is future
flexibility.
When a 6m ULD depth is used, with related storage and transfer vehicles in a ULD storage system
on airside, the freespan should be a minimum of 22m from the outside wall containing the storage
system.
To protect columns from damage by vehicles and cargo, strong surrounding protection is required in
the operational manoeuvring areas.
02.7.5.3 Free-Height Requirements
Depending upon the layout, and future storage area size, provision for the various heights must be
incorporated in the terminal design. Utilities, lighting, beams, fire protection, etc., must be installed
and constructed so as to clear calculated free heights.
In order to arrive at the most acceptable design decisions, it is essential that 'trade-off' studies,
which
evaluate various storage systems versus required facility size and efficiency, are carried out, in
conjunction with the airlines and handling operators.
In the basic cargo operation, bulk shipments are normally moved from place to place with forklifts.
The minimum clear height where forklifts operate should be 5m to allow for normal lift capacities. As
forklift extension depends on the model and manufacturer, the cargo facility planner should verify
equipment utilization with the airline or cargo operator.
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As most cargo is delivered or received to/from clients in bulk, to be consolidated into, or broken
down
from aircraft load units at another time, interim storage by shipment or destination is required in the
cargo facility along the planned lines of flow.
Floor storage will require more space than vertical storage systems if comparable circulation is
provided. Whereas storage systems provide an adequate constant space between racks for lift
vehicle
manoeuvrability, the tendency with floor storage is for aisles to decrease in size and number as
cargo
volumes increase. As a consequence, multiple handling of shipments increase and inventory control
becomes more difficult. At this point, vertical storage may not significantly enhance space utilization
but it will improve productivity and customer service.
When storage systems are utilised, the clear height will be defined by the number of storage levels,
the distance between each level, and the clearance requirement above cargo stored on the top
rack.
Use of high storage systems can reduce the required storage floor space, but investment in
equipment
and systems is necessary in both the primary and subsequent development phases. When
designing
the cargo terminal facility, either floor space should be planned to permit later expansion, or the
facility must be constructed with the correct height, floor strength, etc., in the appropriate areas in
which these installations will be located.
Bulk Freight Storage
Bulk freight is often placed on industrial wooden skids or equivalent. The skids provide an effective
way to transport and store bulk shipments within the warehouse. Typical stacking height on a skid
is approximately 1.5m, allowing a shipment on a skid to be placed directly into lower deck
containers.
Stacking height may exceed this for shipments placed in main deck and high stack ULDs. If the
preponderance of cargo is received in lower deck containers, then a reasonable distance between
bulk freight storage racks would be 1.5m.
Typical storage racking for a forklift operation is three levels. Mechanized lift equipment may permit
additional levels. The actual mix of freight stored should be evaluated and racking systems should
be developed to accommodate the specific height requirements. If the racking system can only
provide
for storage of the smallest shipment received, it will be necessary for cargo personnel to reduce the
shipments heights or use floor space.
ULD Storage
When an ETV and pallet/container storage system is planned, the distance between stacking levels
will depend on ULD height. ULDs generally fall into three categories; lower deck 1.7m, main deck
2.4m and full-contour 3m. Overall clear height will depend on the mix of 1.7, 2.4 and 3m storage
requirements. Three tiers of 3m storage will require a clear height of 12m.
Building height should be considered as an economical method of achieving future expansion.
Initial
construction of a tall warehouse may allow a tenant to expand vertically to meet storage expansion
requirements before it is necessary to expand transversely.
Long-Term Storage
On occasion, lengthy storage times for cargo may occur as a result of slow clearance or handling
and/or lack of aircraft capacity. Such storage is detrimental to fast and efficient space utilization. To
combat this problem, higher storage charges for longer periods can be implemented, together with
mandatory transfer of the cargo to secondary storage spaces. Reserve capacity in the terminal
facility,
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• Lighting at dock areas and entrances should allow normal reading of marks or labels on cargo
and units handled. It should also be adequate for security surveillance requirements.
• Inside the terminal, general lighting should be adequate for normal handling operations and
traffic
flow.
• Extra lighting is required at work stations and storage areas to facilitate document and label
reading.
• 200-300 lux at floor level should be available.
• All lighting shall allow true colour reading.
• Offices and control areas require the applicable standard light intensity.
• The layout of the lighting system should allow for the special requirements of PC/CRT operation.
• Offices should have windows which admit daylight. Where possible, work areas in the terminal
should also have access to daylight through windows, along the tops of walls or in the roof. This
will reduce energy costs and improve working conditions.
02.7.5.8 Bypass
Large and special shipments of valuables, perishables and livestock should bypass the cargo
facility,
and be transferred directly between aircraft and road vehicle on the apron or between the ground
handling equipment and road vehicle. Access to the bypass must be restricted and meet all airport
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PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT
EXPORTOUTPUT
""■jf CARGO
AIRCRAFT
EXPORTOUTPUT
Airside
CARGO
IMPORTINPUT
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">JÍ K
SPECT
COUNT
IDENTIF
YoAORIG
INATING
FLIGHT ASSEMBLY
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CARGO
RECEIVI
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D D D
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-
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DELIVERY
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INTERUNE"f*
DELIVERY O
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Landside
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* According toINP
local circumstances, this may apply to airside, landside or both.
UT
Note: With respect to the figure above it should be remembered that there are other airside direct
cargo transfer combinations also possible (i.e. passenger aircraft to passenger aircraft, passenger
aircraft to cargo aircraft and cargo aircraft to passenger aircraft).
KEY TO SYMBOLS
OPERATION An Operation occurs when a unit of cargo is lifted up or put down or
^ moved during a process. Marking and labelling is considered an
0 operation. An operation also occurs when information is given or
received or when planning or calculating takes place (e.g. input or
extraction of information from/to EDP Systems).
TRANSPORTATION N A Transportation occurs when a unit of cargo is moved from one place
L/to another beyond the limited movements which occur during some
operations and inspections.
DELAY r~\ A Delay occurs to a unit of cargo when it is prevented form progressing
'—^ to its next planned activity.
STORAGE T- J
Storage occurs when a unit of cargo is staged, prior to assembly,
V assembled, pending dispatch to aircraft, or held pending breakdown
and/or Customs examination and/or delivery.
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03.3 CARGO CONTROL REGULATIONS
Compliance with all government (particularly customs), safety and security regulations must be
included in the terminal design, layout and cargo terminal operations to ensure an approved basis
of cargo handling in all facilities. This compliance should be without detriment to the facilitation of
cargo handling procedures.
In the planning phase, approvals must be obtained from all authorities concerned, particularly from
customs officials with respect to cargo processing and combined control and checkpoints on the
established customs boundary.
In the wake of advances in technology and integrated databases, customs clearance is becoming
more automated. A few governmental agencies have developed automated customs clearance
programmes. Connection or integration with systems for airlines/handling operators and agents will
significantly improve processing and clearance of cargo.
04.1.1 Introduction
Express processing facilities are in many ways closer to a passenger terminal in function than they
are to a cargo building. The concept presented within this section should provide guidance for the
planning and design of future express cargo processing facilities.
It is important to keep in mind that the express company is directly responsible to the customer and
is held responsible for any failures. It's therefore important that the express company be able to
exercise 'custodial control'.
• Slot Co-ordinators.
• Data Collection.
One aspect of data collection that differentiates express from other operations is that volume figures
for express operations are not considered as single source per airport. Critical in the consideration
of the scope and impact of an express operation on an airport is the regulatory flexibility by both the
airport and relevant government agencies.
There are many kinds of specific operations within the express industry, and in some cases within
the same company. It is generally divided into four types of operations:
1. Ramps or Origination & Destination (O&D) points: serves a metropolitan area and its
immediate
surrounding.
2. Gateways: a service point serving a larger area. Arriving express is transloaded into other
feeder
aircraft or commercial line haul, or into trucks for shipment to other cities.
3. Hubs: Major facilities where the bulk of the express is not destined for the local area. These are
major sort facilities with heavy aircraft activity. Tracking and sorting are major activities. Custom
clearance cannot be an issue.
4. Co-locations: It is common to find a ramp located adjacent to a gateway or hub. These would
04.4 TYPICAL EXPRESS CARGO PRODUCT FLOW AT EXPRESS
CARGO FACILITIES
Each express company will take the minimal requirements described below and add onto them
more
scans involving greater detail, additional channels, special clearance and handling enhancements,
etc. The processing facility has to be able to accommodate redesigns and changes as they will
happen over time.
When the aircraft arrives the shipments are separated into their respective channels for processing.
Those that need to be cleared are identified, scanned and sent to the inspection area. Customs will
insist on having the right to inspect any shipment, even those that were previously pre-cleared.
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Some ULDs will come off an airplane and be loaded immediately onto another. This transfer needs
to be done quickly, therefore there is no need to brings these ULDs inside the facility. A canopy
would
be desirable in rainy and snowy climates.
Other ULDs will be off-loaded from the aircraft and loaded onto large trucks. This practice is
especially
popular in the Americas. The trucks are allowed on the ramp and receive the ULD directly off the
aircraft. In other airports ULDs have to travel through the facility to be loaded on a truck waiting at
the dock.
For a hub, most ULDs must be brought into the facility, broken down, sorted and rebuilt before
being
sent to their next destination. The time this takes is known as the sort window. It is vital to the
express
companies' operation to have Customs procedures in place that allow through shipments destined
for another country to proceed without impediment. In airports that restrict the express companies'
rights to self-handle or require common clearance, it can be very difficult to do adequate tracking.
Three further items need to be considered when designing a ramp: tether pits, drainage and
lighting:
1. Tether pits are now being used in most cargo terminals to avoid having aircraft sitting on their
tail. Most modern cargo planes have their main loading door in front of the wing, which means
that the rear of the plane is loaded first. Tail stands used to be the norm for this situation,
however
they've been known to cause structural damage to aircraft, and require inspections to be
performed
which can delay aircraft departure. Airports are encouraged to install a tether pit at each cargo
aircraft parking position. Specs have to be followed exactly, otherwise the pit will be rendered
useless.
If tether pits are refused an alternative is a weight cart. Usually a reinforced dolly stacked with
steel, it can be a good substitute provided it does not have to be moved. If an aircraft needs a
pushback, the weight cart will have to be moved. Its very small wheel and large weight will
damage the ramp in no time.
2. When considering drainage two factors have to be kept in mind. The slope for drainage cannot
exceed one degree, otherwise it might impede on the loading and unloading of the containers
on the aircraft's roller deck floor. Secondly, provisions need to be made for the containment and
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Length of critical
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04.6.4 Project Management — Sort System
The sort system will typically belong to the express company and should usually be managed solely
by the express company. The airport needs to allow the express company the freedom of choice of
supplier when it comes to building the sort system.
"I
04.IR2 Design Approval
The following organisations and persons should be consulted through the design process when
embarking on the design of a new or extended express processing facility.
• Airport Operator.
§ Government agencies concerned with bi-lateral and self-handling rights.
• Customs.
• Security agencies.
• Government agencies concerned with commercial trucking and delivery.
« Government agencies concerned with business and operating licenses.
• Slot Co-oidinators.
J
04.IR3 Expansion Capability
The express sort system designer should ensure that, upon opening, the provided space and
systems within the facility can cope with the following conditions:
• Meet the operational protocols defined within the agreed building user requirement
specification.
• Meet the throughput expected for the forecasted and agreed final design year for the
facility,
plus provide a further 25% contingency express processing hall space to account for any
abnonval growth in traffic forecast potential. Future ramp expansion requirements must also
be factored in.
• Operational express cargo infrastructure IT systems should have a redundancy
capability as
agreed in the building user requirement specification.
Definition
A transit facility can be defined as a processing centre with established infrastructure and
operational
units that: facilitate the loading and unloading of perishable shipments to and from the aircraft;
enable
swift connections within the airport handling facilities; and interface with surface transport. The
process
may also include import formalities such as health inspection and customs control. The primary
function of a transit facility is to move perishable goods quickly and efficiently with the coordination
of all parties involved and supported by modern technologies and tracking systems.
A total distribution facility provides the same services as a transit centre and in addition it offers
other
value-added services, such as: repackaging; pre-cooling; cold storage; quarantine; quality control;
customer and information services; as well as the logistics and movements of goods from origin to
the final destination.
The ideal working temperature for these products is from 4 to 6°C with a humidity of about 85%.
Considering that the products may stay inside in a working area for a couple of hours, special
attention
should be made to minimize condensation on the products. It is a known factor that any load that is
exposed to near zero temperatures is susceptible to condensation on its surface. Condensation
causes irreversible damage to products such as berries. A well contained working area can prevent
the condensation problem. Short exposure to low temperatures does not affect products such as
tropical fruits.
There is increasing concern about ethylene contamination on products. New technologies, such as
the use of potassium permanganate or ozone in the ventilation system to help prevent ethylene are
being evaluated for commercial application.
Seafood and Fish Working Areas
A suitable working area for seafood and fish should have high humidity (near 100%) but a very low
temperature (near 0°C). This type of controlled environment ensures no dehydration of the product
and keeps pathogen growth as low as possible. Repackaging and re-icing should be handled in
separate working areas to ensure sanitary control. In some cases, using ozone in the ventilation
system may be considered to remove bad odors.
Meat Working Areas
Meat must be handled in accordance with the health regulations of the country of origin and
destination.
There are also other requirements that are more stringent than those for general perishable
products.
It is strongly recommended that the national health authority and the local government be consulted
prior to the planning of a perishable centre, and especially the meat working areas therein.
05.3.2 Pre-coolers
Maintaining the appropriate temperature for fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers can be difficult
during
transportation, primarily because they produce their own heat. In many cases, even with appropriate
packaging and handling, these products raise their own temperatures significantly. Since higher
temperatures can shorten the shelf life of these products, it is imperative to cool down the products
immediately upon their arrival at the perishable centre.
Fruit and Vegetable Pre-coolers
Many facilities use vacuum pre-coolers to cool products. The technique is to drop the pressure until
the water inside the product starts to boil at a near zero temperature. This technique is only suitable
for products with large surface and in small volume such as lettuce. The disadvantage of this
technique
is too much water being evaporated from the product while it is cooled. For a long journey and
exposure to various weather conditions, further loss of water from the product can significantly
reduce
its marketability. A method which is broadly used by the growers is to shower the product prior to
vacuum cooling. But this technique can hardly be applied within a perishable centre.
Another technique which has been commonly used is forced air cooling. This technique employs a
forced air system to send cool air through to penetrate the boxes. This technique is affordable and
works for any kind of fruit or vegetable.
Flower Pre-coolers
The technique used to cool flowers is similar to the forced air cooling method. Vacuum cooling
should
never be used for flowers since it decreases their shelf life significantly.
PERISHABLES HANDLING
CHECK BY PERISHABLEf
HANDLING AGENT CENTRE
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL
FLOW OF DATA
PIECEt DATA
CONTROL CUSTOMS OFFICE
STORAGE BY CATEGORYf
OF GOODS
INSPECTION
INSPECTION OF GOODS
SORTING OF GOODS
INSPECTION CLEARANCE
LOADING
DELIVERY
The illustrations above shows the typical flow of a product in a perishable handling centre. Variations
in the process may occur and are subject to local legislation.
05.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
• Efficient sorting by destination, flight and category, with bypasses for special and pre-sorted
mail.
• Checking and recording weight for aircraft safety and charging for outgoing mail.
• Optimal use of pre-information regarding shipments between airports, and also with related
community mail centres.
• Implementation of automation involving national postal communication and documentation to
improve handling speed.
14TA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Maximum security in view of the valuable nature of most airmail. Vaults should be provided for
high risk mail, such as gold bullion, precious stones, etc.
High risk locations will provide facilities for the screening of explosives and toxic materials to aid
security. All facilities will take into consideration the protection of the mail from prevailing weather
conditions.
512
IATA Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal
• In the cargo complex, adjacent to a cargo terminal which normally provides adequate space for
processing inside and around the facility. In this solution, special airside transportation of mail to
the passenger apron is then required in view of the last-minute delivery requirement. If a large
volume of transfer mail is to be handled in a short period, a secondary mail section in the
passenger
area may be required.
• A separate mail facility with its own infrastructure situated between the passenger and cargo
areas, with optimum distances to both. This will mainly apply to the handling of large volumes of
airmail. However, integration with other surface mail handling should be discouraged in view of
extra landside traffic not related to the airport. With a separate location, special airside
transportation is required between the aircraft and the mail terminal.
06.7 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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IATA
516
iata
*
/\ "t A
\'^_^_^7_)j_t_ Vehicle Maneuvering
NOTES
------- DENOTES GROWTH
EXPANSION CAPABILITY
CATERING PLANT SHOULD NOT BE
LOCATED IN TERMINAL OR
APRON MASTER PLAN FUTURE
DEVELOPMENT ZONES
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IAT& Airport Development Reference Manual
The typical in-flight aircraft catering facility will, as a minimum, contain the following functional
facilities:
Vehicle maneuvering space for catering trucks and supply trucks.
Multiple catering vehicle loading and un-loading bays.
Fully fitted industrial quality food and drink kitchens with stoves and ovens.
Food preparation areas.
Utensil cleaning units.
Certified bonded store areas.
Drainage.
Heating, ventilation/cooling systems (particular care is needed with respect to the type of
ventilation
system used — ensuring proper ventilation and/or air conditioning of catering units to avoid food
contamination by fumes from the apron).
Garbage disposal (including foreign garbage, according to local health requirements).
Storage and disposal of empty bottles, containers and waste material.
Washing facilities for catering personnel.
Refrigeration units.
Fire protection and alarm system.
Adequate parking facilities for catering and clerical staff.
Figure P1-2: Example of Modern Catering Facility (Truck Dock
518
IATA Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Hangar doors.
• APU exhaust ventilation systems.
• Servicing crew/staff mess facilities.
• Specialist lifting equipment.
• Paint Removal and Spraying Booths.
Fig P2-1 shows a typical major aircraft servicing hangar, with elevated service platforms to allow
maintenance staff to reach all areas of the various aircraft, whilst within safe working conditions.
r
P2.IR2 Size of Hangars
Hangars should be sized to accommodate the maintenance scheduling requirements of the
aircraft fleet(s) to be serviced. Where it is required to service multiple aircraft simultaneously,
the provision of multiple aircraft hangar bays should be considered with adequate provision for
aircraft maneuvering outside of the hangar.
522
iata
Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities
Although hotels can be located close to airports, rarely do airports operate hotels with airport
operator
staff. Instead, the land is leased or sold to specialist airport hotel chains. It is therefore essential that
the functional objectives of providing hotel space and facilities close to the airport is both understood
and planned appropriately.
Hotels residing on the airport complex should normally only be provided where the client base and
demand has been clearly defined through extensive market research carried out at the airport. Well
designed, appropriately sized and strategically placed airport hotels actually can provide advantages
to airport operators by providing convenient facilities and attracting increased business passengers
to the airport.
P3.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF AIRPORT BASED HOTELS
Most airport hotel facilities will include the following functional provisions:
• Sleeping accommodations.
• Bars and restaurants with comprehensive kitchens.
• Valet and laundry services.
• Staff and client car parking (though maybe shared short-term airport parking).
• Courtesy buses, transport provision and hotel holding area.
• Swimming pools and gymnasiums.
• Business suits.
• Pre-check-in facilities.
The client base for airport hotels differs slightly from typical downtown hotels, where the clients are
more likely to reside in the airport hotel for shorter periods. This is due to the fact that a high
proportion
of hotel residents will be business passengers or passengers who have connections (often the
following day and usually within 36 hours or arrival). The airport hotel client base is typically
confined
to the following groups, though will obviously include other minority groups of passengers at any
time:
• Passengers in transit.
• Business travelers working within the region.
• Persons on holiday visiting within the region.
523
P3.3 LOCATION OF HOTELS AT THE AIRPORT COMPLEX
The location of hotels at the airport complex will be dictated by the availability of real estate. It is
essential that airport hotels are placed outside of the terminal building, runway and apron areas
defined within the masterplan aspirations for future development.
Airport hotels should be provided with appropriately designed road infrastructure, which should
minimize the volume of traffic to and from the airport. Where practically possible, passenger
demand
dictates, and where airports are less than 1km from the departures concourse, walkways with
passenger conveyors should be provided to connect the airport hotel to the terminal concourse.
Walkways should be covered and provide appropriate protection from the local weather conditions,
with air conditioning if appropriate.
Figure P3-1: Typical Airport Hotel Placement
LINK BRIDGE/
TUNNEL
Max. Length
1km
CAR HIRE-PROCESSING
DEPARTURES AND
ARRIVALS FORECOURTS
EXPANSION EXPANSION
DEPARTURES AND ARRIVALS CONCOURSE
AREA AREA
EXPANSION EXPANSION
AREA AREA
IATA Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities
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■-
526
IATA
527
TATT Airport Development Reference Manual
528
IATA
Terminal
r
Road
Short Term Parking Reservoir
Terminal
Rental Long Term Parking
Approach
Car
Road
Employee
Parking
Recirculation Road
Service Road
Rental Car
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Q1.2 ROADS
The landside road system serves different categories of traffic. These categories include:
• Passenger vehicles, including:
— Private cars.
— Taxis.
— Shuttle/courtesy bus services for hotel, car rentals and long-term car parks.
— Shuttle buses between terminals at multi-terminal airports.
— Public transport buses, including mini-buses carrying passengers to and from individual
home
addresses.
— Charter/tour buses.
— Limousine services.
— Delivery trucks.
• Cargo or Mail vehicles, including:
— Light vans.
— Pick-up trucks.
— Trailer trucks.
• Airline/airport personnel vehicles, including:
— Crew buses.
— Staff vehicles.
• Airport Service Vehicles.
At large airports it is preferable to separate service-related traffic from passenger-related traffic long
before arriving at the passenger terminal curb area. This results in a double network of public roads
using five types of roads as described within clauses Q1.2.1 to Q1.2.5 inclusively.
Q1.2.1 Main Access Road
The main access road provides a connection between the external road network system and the
terminal complex area. It serves a 'line-haul' function and should be designed for uninterrupted flow
conditions with intersecting roads and access control to adjacent land use developments.
530
IATA Landside Facilities
Building
i min. 4 to 6
Load/unload + taxis, buses and m
shuttles 4.2 m
min. 18-20
- 7.4 m
Manoeuveringlane
E
Through traffic lane J min. 2
531
The terminal curb can serve both departing and arriving passengers, and these two simultaneous
activities may produce vehicular and pedestrian conflicts. Safe crosswalks, with appropriate traffic
protection and traffic management equipment and systems should be provided.
In some respects, the arrival curb area is similar to the departure curb. However, because larger
volumes of passengers will peak over shorter periods of time and will arrive at the curb in greater
numbers, a wider sidewalk may be required. Additional area is needed for baggage service,
(personnel
and hand trucks) and for concessions handling ground-transportation services.
The effective curb capacity is related to the number of vehicles which can be processed in the load/
unload lane, rather than the number of vehicles going through. Congestion therefore often results
from an inadequate number of load/unload positions, or curb length, rather than an inadequate
number
of traffic lanes. Parallel public and professional vehicle curbs are an effective way to provide
Figure Q1.3: Example of Curbside Layout for a Single Level Terminal
or
for Arrivals/Departures at a Multi-Level Terminal
Building facade
min. 4 to 6 m
Lcâo7undoacl ^J^s,_bjjse^_ajrid
'^6j 4 .2
sJiutHes m
• Origin/destination passengers.
• Visitors.
• Employees.
• Availability of a competitive mass transit alternative (cost, door-to-door travel time and
accessibility).
As an example, a business passenger pressed for time has a greater tendency to use the taxi
instead
of a local bus service to go downtown than a family traveling for pleasure. High-income passengers
generally value the time savings and convenience of the private car. Landside facilities should
therefore
be planned to reflect the specific requirements of the passenger segments; i.e. resident business,
resident non-business, non-resident non-business and non-resident business. Transport user
variations will be evident across different countries and continents. Airport road and parking
infrastructure planners should design facilities following market research to determine the likely
home-
to-airport travel tendencies of the airport user community.
The following modes of access for passengers should be included in the landside planning at most
airports worldwide:
• Rental car.
• Taxi/limousine.
• Courtesy van.
As airports operate close to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many airport employees do not work
the typical 9 to 5, Monday to Friday schedule. Therefore they value private cars (self-driven or
shared-
ride), especially if the mass transit service is not suited to their specific needs. Parking supply,
parking
Air cargo generates employee trips but also very significant delivery trips by trucks and vans for the
originating and terminating air-cargo. Experience shows there is no correlation between tonnage
and
air-cargo trips generated when comparing statistics from airport to airport. Site-specific research/
forecast information should be used by the airport planner.
Q2.5 PARKING
Public, employee and rental-car parking lots are used by originating and terminating users of the
road network. Airport car parks will usually occupy important and valuable airport real estate areas.
They can be single-level parking or parking garage with several levels facilities.
The proximity of parking facilities should align with the security recommendations defined within
Section H2 in general, and in particular clause H2.6.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
R1.2 TIMING
The checklist should be used on a regular basis during the final 18 months of the airport project.
The
timing should be agreed to by the Checklist Working Group (W/G) and the airport authority, and will
vary with each airport project. The W/G meetings may be held monthly, every two months or
quarterly.
The date for the next meeting will depend on the number of outstanding issues to be reviewed at
the
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
A Checklist W/G should be established for each major airport project. The W/G should use the
checklist, modified to suit the needs of the airport project The W/G should meet on a regular
monthly basis during the last 18 months of the airport project.
542
Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport
2(f
IATA
Status Legend ■ OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G
I I On Track Airport Opening Date
1X1 Problem with Completing On-Time Date
IATA ?
Status Legend
□
OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G ■
□
On Track
Problem with
Airport
Opening Date
o
o
Completing On- Date 3.
ID#Facility
Time Element
^ see Checklist Sub ElementsRecommended
Completion DateStatus%
CompletedCompletion
DateRecovery / or
Contingency
PlansCommentsPassenger Terminal cont'd018Security Screening□019Outbound Passport
Control□020Facilities for Disabled Passengers□021Departure Lounge Seating□022Restaurants□023Retail
Shopping□024Public Toilets□025Gate Counters/Podium□026 >*■Gate Lounge□027Passenger Boarding
Bridges□028Inbound Passport Control□029Inbound Baggage System□030Baggage Claim
Area□031Baggage Trolley Handling□032Left Luggage Office□033 +CIQ (Customs, Immigration,
Quarantine)□034Connection/Transfer Counters□035Meeter/Greeter Hall□
3/7
IATA
Status Legend OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G
On Track Airport Opening Date
IXI Problem with Completing On-Time Data
4
2f
/7
IATA
Status Legend OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G ■
I I On Track Aiiport Opening o
1X1 Problem with Completing On- Date o
Time Date
ID# Facility Element Recommende
d
Status %
Complete
Completion
Date
Recovery /
or
Comments
o
•¥ see Checklist Sub
Completion d Contingency <
Elements
Date Plans D
Terminal Systems cont'd <
2.
053 TV Signal
□ o
■
054 Automated People Mover
□ o
3
055 Elevators
□ (
056 Escalators
□ D
3
057 Moving sidewalks
□ z
a
Apron o
—K
058 Apron Markings
□ (
IATA
Status Legend OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G
I On Track Airport Opening
1X1 Problem with Completing On- Date
Date
Recovery /or
ID# Recommende Status % Completion Comments
Facility Element Contingency
d Complete Date
+ see Checklist Sub Elements Plans
d
Completion
Airfield
070 + Runways
□
071 + Taxiways
□
072 + Instrumentation
□
073 + Control Tower
□
074 Security Fencing/Gates
□
075 Drainage
□
Cargo/Express Terminals
076 + Cargo Terminal
□
077 + Express Terminal
□
078 + Cargo/Express Aprons
□
Support Facilities
079 Flight Kitchen
□
080 Aircraft Maintenance Facility
□
081 De-Icing Facilities
□
082 Fuel Farm
□
083 Central Utility Plant
□
084 + Petrol Facilities
□
6/7
áSSk
Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport 8f
IATA
Status Legend OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G
I On Track Airport Opening o
fXl Problem with Completing On-Time Date a.
Date D
ID# Facility Element Recommende Status % Completion Recovery / Comment (
+ see Checklist Sub Elements d Complete Date or D
Completion d Contingency <
Date Plans (
Support Facilities cont'd D
085 + Fire/Police Facilities
□ 3
086 Waste Treatment Plant
□ (
D
087 Aircraft Lavatory Dump
□ 3
002 Departure Curbside 065 Apron Staging Areas 077 Express Termlnals(s)
Curbside Layout Ground Equipment Staging Areas Access Roads
Signage Ground Equipment Storage Areas Truck Queuing Area
Baggage Container Staging Areas Building Structure
003 Arrival Curbside Cargo Staging Areas Airline Offices
Curbside Layout Empty Container Storage Areas CIQ Offices
Signage Sort System Tenant Access
070 Runways Sort System Completion
004 Taxi Availability Pavement Security
Taxi Molding Area Striping Telecom (Operator)
Departure Curbside Layout Signage Telecom (FIS)
Lighting Aircraft/GSE Mx
Bonded Storage
006 Bus
Local 071 Taxiways
National RETs (Rapid Exit Taxiways) 078 Cargo/Express Aprons
Car Rental Holding Bays Pavement
Hotel Striping
Pavement
Employee Lighting
Striping
Signage
Signage
Tether Pits
007 Rail Lighting
Fueling Pits (if applicable)
Express to City Center
Ground Equipment Storage
Local 072 Instrumentation
ULD Storage
National Precision Approach Certified
Backup Approach Certified
084 Petrol Facilities
008 Parking Facilities Approach Plates Pub/Dist
Ramp Vehicle Fueling
Private Car Ground Radar
Public Gas Station
Taxi
Bus 073 Control Tower
085 Fire/Police Facilities
Rental Car Equipment Installed
Fire Training Pit
Employees HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Con)
Fire Slabon(s)
Break Rooms/Cafeteria
Security Checkpoints/Gates
026 Gate Lounge Parking
Seating Layout
089 Rental Leases Signed
Baggage Acceptance at the Gate 076 Cargo Terminals
Landing and Parking Fees
Remote Aircraft Lounges Access Roads
Rentals
Airline Offices
033 CIQ (Customs, Immigration, Quarantine) Building Structures
091 Other Agreements Executed
Customs CIQ Offices
Land Leases
Immigration Cold Storage/Hazmat Area
Franchise Agreements
Agriculture/Quarantine ETV (Elevating Transfer Vehicle)
Use Agreements
Security Forwarders
Others HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air
092 Permits and Licenses
Con)
Building Occupancy Permits
Mail
039 Staff Amenities Vehicle Licenses
Security
Canteen Security Badging
Staff Canteen
Toilets Business Licenses
Storage Racks
Rules and Regulations
Telecommunications
040 VIP Facilities/Terminal Parking Permits
Toilets
Vehicle Parking/Staging
Truck Queuing Areas
CIQ Facilities 100 Employee Transportation Plan
Food/Beverage Arrangements Fees and Charges Determined
Furnishings Billing Systems Established
Toilets
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
MISCELLANEOUS
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554
IATA Future Technologies & Miscellaneous
Step 3a — Repeat Step 3 test but at a separate airport operation, again with limited exposure/risk.
Step 4 — Obtain independent verification of the test results collated from the tests in steps 3 and 3a
from IATA, verifying that the technology meets the operational objectives and the criteria defined
within clause S2.2.
Step 5 — If applicable. IATA could produce a directive publication, which could effectively define the
proposed standard to be adopted. This would be reviewed/refined and potentially endorsed by its
members as agreed best practice if the results and application are deemed to be favourable to the
industry.
Once step 5 has been achieved, the industry should accept that this technology is current best
practice
and can where appropriate be incorporated into airports and airline operations.
IAT Future Technologies & Miscellaneous
A
SECTION S3: INTERFACES — PEOPLE & CULTURAL ISSUES
557
S3.2 CULTURAL ISSUES
In a business where specialist Airport developers, Architects and Engineers work in many different
regions of the world to design and construct airports, it will be important for these groups of
professionals to appreciate that certain cultures have often subtle cultural do's and don'ts. From an
airport design and construction point of view the list below should be used as a starting point for
airport developers so that they fully appreciate the sensitivities that can exist.
In all instances it will be essential for Architects in particular to consult the various user groups,
following the principles defined within clause S3 .1. This will ensure that cultural sensitivities are
understood and accounted for appropriately using informed guidance from the relevant groups.
IATA
560
IATA
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
562
Airport Processes
Refer To Section: Refer To Sections: Refer To Section: Refer To Sections Refer To Sections:
J9/J12/U2 J12/K6 J12/K1/K2/K3/K4/K5 J7/J12 J10/J11/J12/K6
ifr
Airport designers, planners and operational staff should develop contingency plans such that if
or when a function block within an airport process map becomes inoperable, then the airport
retains the ability to function within the tolerances defined within /s manual.
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IATA Airport Processes
Refer To Section: Refer To Sections: Refer To Sections: Refer To Sections: Refer To Section:
F5/F6/F7 J3/F6/F7 F67L3/L4 J11/L6/M1/M2/M3 J3/F6
565
SECTION T3: SUPPORT PROCESSES
BMS
Controll
er Heating and
Sets Ventilation Field Sensors
Environ
ment
Paramet
ers) / %* Hot Water
Commu
BMS
nication
ControllerReviews
/ > Lighting
Assesses_\Enviro
nmentn Para Smoke
Detection
mete r(s)
BMS Maintenance Fire
Teams Field Actuators
Suppression
Preve
ntativ
e Emergency
Asset
Maint Messaging
Maintenance
enanc
Management
System
e Airport
Network
Refer To Sections:
J8 / Y1 / Y2
T3.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
569
1
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Definition of availability.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Down time is measured from the instant that the system capacity falls below
an agreed processing X%. For example, the baggage handling systems may have two or more
independent faults but still be capable of processing X% of all baggage successfully. The instant the
baggage system falls below this agreed target threshold then the down time begins. It is usual to set
the X% the same as the redundancy capability % (see clause U2.1).
The maximum time required to bring a baggage handling system to full operational use should not
exceed:
(a) 15 minutes from a non-operational, serviceable state.
(b) 5 minutes from a stand-by state.
(c) 60 minutes from a preventive/scheduled maintenance state.
The probability that the system will be available to handle 100 per cent design capacity at any instant
during the operating duty cycle should be typically greater than 99%.
The probability that the system will be available to handle >75% design capacity at any instant during
the operating duty cycle shall be typically greater than 99.9%.
The probability that the system will survive an operational year, at the stated usage, without inducing
a critical failure, shall be greater than 99.99 per cent.
A critical failure is defined to be any fault(s) which render the baggage handling unable to process
the agreed service level standard X%.
The Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) target for on-line equipment using specified procedures and
resources shall not be greater than 30 minutes.
Preventive maintenance activities shall not allow the system to fall below 75% design capacity.
The total time due to all preventive maintenance activities per month for new equipment should not
exceed 40 hours.
574
U1.2. Baggage Make Up Lengths And Class Separation
The baggage make-up lengths and class separations for the various carriers should be defined so
that the sortation system is sufficiently flexible. The tables in clause U2.12.5 define the generic
requirements for make lengths. The baggage handling designer should seek to confirm the precise
airline requirements, which might vary from these requirements slightly. Issues relating to the
ergonomics of this equipment should be provided.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
The clauses within U2.2 to U2.10 inclusive define the component parts that normally make up a
departures baggage handling system. Hold Baggage Screening is discussed within Section U11.
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
U2.2.1 Functionality
Acceleration conveyors have 2 main uses.
Type 1 Acceleration Conveyor
Used to gradually or relatively rapidly increase the pace of baggage flow through a baggage
system.
Acceleration conveyors, when used to increase the pace of baggage flow, should have a minimum
length of 3 times the typical baggage length from tail roller to head roller. This permits a bag to be
accelerated then stabilized on the belt before proceeding to the next conveyor. Bags with wheels or
bags which are cylindrical in profile tend to roll if the acceleration rate is too high, so it is essential
to have adequate conveyor belt length to limit the effects of bag inertia resulting in rolling baggage.
The belt speed is constant and only accelerates to normal running speed during routine startup
sequences. It is classified as an acceleration conveyor because it runs at a preferred speed
increase
of 0.25m/s maximum differential. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected and conveyors are
preferred to be with no incline or decline.
Technical Summary
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m (no cascade).
• Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45m (no cascade).
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s.
• Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Belt type: high grip.
• Tracking: not desirable — optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function.
Type 2 Acceleration Conveyor
Used to increase the trailing and leading edge gap between consecutive bags.
Acceleration conveyors used to space baggage should be shorter in length, no less than a minimum
of 1.5 times the typical baggage length from tail roller to head roller. The belt is often used with a
strong braking system which limits belt inertia problems. The conveyor is frequently started and
stopped every minute to induce the desired baggage spacing from the proceeding conveyor. The
acceleration conveyor obviously accelerates from stop to normal running speed, but the motor and
gearbox is not usually a variable speed drive in that it accelerates to a fixed speed when inducing a
baggage gap. It runs at a preferred speed increase of 0.25m/s maximum differential from the
proceeding conveyor. Large baggage gaps are produced by delaying the proceeding conveyors
bag.
It is not recommended to have multiple short baggage acceleration conveyors adjacent to one
another
as baggage stability must not be compromised. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected and
conveyors are essentially with no incline or decline.
Technical Summary
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: stop/start characteristics.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Motes
Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor
Conveyor B and C are Acceleration Conveyors and must be 3 x Typical Baggage Length
Conveyor
Velocity
E
M/S
VelC =
Vel B + 0.25M/S
Vel B =
Vel A +0.25M/S
Vel A = X M/S
Conveyor Length
M
580
Figure U2-2: Type 2 Acceleration Conveyor
Notes
Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor
Conveyor B and C are Acceleration Conveyors and must be 1.5 x Typical
Baggage Length
Conveyor B can be stopped to induce larger bag gaps.
Conveyor C is the pull away conveyor.
VelC =
VeJ B +
0.25M/S
VelA =VelB
= X M/S
âl.5 a 1.5
Any Length x Bag x Bag Conveyor Length
Length Length M
U2.3.1 Functionality
The de-acceleration conveyor is used to slow the pace of baggage flow. As a bag is transferred
from
a higher speed conveyor onto a de-acceleration conveyor the speed is reduced ideally by a
maximum
of 0.25m/s per transfer. The speed of the de-acceleration conveyor is kept constant outside of
normal routine shutdown and power save modes. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected
and conveyors are essentially free from declines. In some instances inclines of no more than 8
degrees to the horizontal maybe permitted as this more rapidly reduces the inertia of baggage and
baggage momentum/kinetic energy is better absorbed.
Technical Summary:
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s.
• Belt width 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Belt type: higher grip than normal.
• Tracking: not desirable — or optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function.
U2.3.2 Layout: De-acceleration Conveyors
Notes
Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor
Conveyor B and C are De-acceleration Conveyors and must be 3 x Typical Baggage Length
Conveyo
r
Velocity
M/S
Vel A = XM/S
Ve)B =
Vel A -0.25M/S
VelC =
Vel B
-0.25M/S
Conveyor Length
M
U2.4.1 Functionality
The main purpose of incline and decline conveyors is to permit baggage to flow from one level to
another in a controlled and safe manner within a baggage system complex. Incline and decline
conveyors must have appropriate slopes of no more than 18 degrees to the horizontal, though this
is an absolute maximum. It is preferred and recommended that incline and decline conveyors should
have a slope of no more than 16 degrees. Baggage is retained statically on the belt purely due to
the down force exerted by the mass of the bag and its contents, coupled with its often unique
frictional
characteristics.
Baggage types must not be permitted to roll down declines or fall back on incline conveyors. Incline
and decline conveyors should be fitted with high grip belts. Raised profile grooves designed not to
damage baggage labels or bags should be considered. Incline conveyors can be fitted with a mid
position apex roller. These conveyors are kept at a constant running speed unless in shut down,
power save or in a worst case die-back mode of operation.
Technical Summary:
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller incline (no apex): > 1.5 x maximum bag length.
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller incline (with apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller decline (no apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller decline (with apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s.
• Belt width 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Belt type: higher grip than normal. Raised profile grip faces optional and subject to location
requirements.
• Tracking: not desirable — or optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function.
Head
End
Head
End
Tail End
0.45m
+/-
0.075
Tail End
0.45m
+/-
0.075
U2.5.1 Functionality
Queuing conveyors should be used to smooth flows and act as controlling buffer. The precise
number
to select in a system is often a task for simulation as their use is heavily reliant on the baggage
delivery profile. Typical uses include:
(i) Prior to line merges or junctions.
(ii) Prior to and during Hold Baggage Screening (HBS).
(Hi) Prior to line diverts — verti-sorters, ploughs, pushers.
(iv) Prior to Bar code reader bag separation conveyors.
(v) Prior to sorter injection points.
(vi) Prior to bag removal points.
(vii) Used as flight make-up lateral components.
Clearly this type of conveyor can be used in many locations, and thus the number of queuing
conveyors
in a system can easily become a major contributor to the total cost of the system. It is therefore
essential to balance the advantages and disadvantages of using queuing conveyors.
The typical advantages include:
• Ability to be more resilient to fluctuations in baggage arrival profile.
• Line flow profiles (peaks) can be managed out.
• Check-in rates can be maximized.
• Line flows can be synchronized at merge points.
• HBS input can be controlled though acceleration/bag separation conveyors as required.
• HBS inspection times can be dramatically improved giving rise to manpower savings.
• Divert flows can be synchronized.
• Bar code flows can be managed more effectively.
• Injection of baggage onto tilt tray or DCV sorters can be synchronized.
The typical disadvantages include:
• Capital expenditure of extensive mechanical, electrical and controls.
• Higher power consumption year on year.
• Higher and more frequent maintenance.
• Reduction in system reliability.
• More space requirement.
Technical Summary:
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 1.5 x maximum bag length.
• Maximum length tail roller to head roller: < 2.5 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: stop/ start characteristics.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.0m/s.
• Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Belt type: higher grip than normal (dependent on application/function).
• Tracking: must be present. Though usually only through photocell bag detection.
ÈATA Airport Baggage Handling
Queuing Conveyors
PE PEC PEC
C
B c
A Conveyor B
^ Conveyor A Conveyor C
<-------------------
Logic
Event I
Step 11st Bag Breaks PEC A beam & Holds 1st BAG
Step la CS confirms if Conveyor B Clear then
releases
Event II
Step 2 2nd Bag Breaks PEC A beam & Holds 2nd BAG 1st BAG
Step 2a CS confirms if Conveyor B Clear then
releases
Event HI
Step 3 3rd Bag wants to load onto 3rd BAG 2nd BAG 1st BAG
Conveyor A
Step 3a CS confirms if Conveyor A Clear
Step 3b 3rd Bag proceeds onto Conveyor
NOTE 'CS'Denotes Control System
NOTE 'PEC Denotes Photo Electric
Cell
U2.6.1 Functionality
Verti-sortation devices are used to separate or combine baggage flows, though the latter function is
a less commonplace usage. Baggage can be dynamically separated such that 2 bags travelling in
succession can have 2 separate output destinations following routing through a verti-sorter used in
separation mode. Similarly a verti-sorter used in merge mode can take 2 separate inputs and merge
to a single output route following routing through a verti-sorter conveyor.
Verti-sorter conveyors are particularly useful where vertical space is more available than lateral
space.
The verti-sorter is also very useful in HBS installations because it imparts smaller forces on the
bags
than other comparable diversion equipment, particularly useful if you are using the device within an
HBS zone where bags are being subjected to screening for potential explosives. The cycle time for
verti-sorters is comparable to a high speed pusher. Equipment typically uses 3 conveyors within an
assembly.
587
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Technical Summary:
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller single unit within device: > 1.5 x maximum bag length
• Sort rate: 40-50 bags/minute.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 0.75m/s.
• Belt type: normal.
• Tracking: must be present.
• Guarding: must be present and interlocked to conveyor operation.
Elevation on Verti-
Sorter
through A-A
Lower Route
Selected
■ -
Flow
Maybe
Denotes Safe Guarded
Direction
588
U2.7 HIGH SPEED PUSHER
U2.7.1 Functionality
The high speed pusher is designed to permit baggage to be diverted horizontally to one of two
directions. The forces upon baggage can be considerable and this is where damage on baggage or
labels, if any, usually occurs. It is good practice to limit the number of these units to a minimum and
to have them located downstream from bar code reader devices and Hold Baggage Screening
(HBS)
cleared baggage output flows. The reasons for this are: (i) label damage can be inflicted by high
speed pushers and resultant read rates can become compromised; and (ii) Baggage which has not
been cleared by HBS processes potentially could contain explosives with sensitive electronics that
could be activated.
High speed pushers should be used to divert baggage which has cleared HBS and which has had
(if used) automatic flight information from the bar code labels read already. Pushers are fitted
across
baggage conveyors with varying degrees of baggage tracking sophistication. Bag tracking is
essential
to activate the pusher at a time which ensures that the centroid point of the bag is established with
varying bag lengths and weights. High speed pushers are useful in applications where alternate
bags
in a stream on a single conveyor need to be separated without stopping the flow of baggage in any
way. Bag pushers should be the second technical choice to the designer (the first choice should be
the verti-sorter device, as they generally inflict less damage to baggage). Verti-sorter devices are
more flexible in that it is possible to site a verti-sorter anywhere within a baggage system.
There are essentially 2 types of high speed pusher:
Type 1 — Four bar link.
Type 2 — The spiral cam.
Both units perform with similar speed and efficiency, though the spiral cam tends to inflict less
damage
on baggage and be more reliable due to its mechanical configuration. Both units are sources of
baggage snagging. It is important to have realistic expectations of these units in terms of their
sorting
capacity.
Technical summary — high speed pusher:
• Sort rate: maximum 60 bags/minute (factory conditions) 40 bags/minute (operationally
commonplace).
• Function: can sort alternative bags or can batch process by constant cycle repetition.
U2.7.2 Layout Pusher Arrangements
U2.8.1 Functionality
The slow speed plough has 2 main operational functions:
(i) To permit redundancy route selection.
(ii) To permit batch processed baggage to be redirected.
It can also be used as an intermittent route divert mechanism, in much the same manner as a high
speed pusher, though if used in this mode the line flow rate must be significantly restricted as the
cycle time on a slow speed plough can become an issue. It is not recommended to use the slow
speed plough as a device to intermittently dived baggage, since line flow rates usually increase and
replacement of the slow plough by a high speed pusher occurs well before the design expectancy
of the equipment.
Slow speed ploughs vary in precise design depending on the manufacturer, but the main difference
is that some models have powered belts on the contact surface which is mounted perpendicular to
the normal delivery line belt.
When used as batch process route selection device it is essential to have the adequate number of
queuing conveyors located upstream of the slow speed plough. This ensures that the plough is
permitted adequate time to perform its cycle of activities before the next batch of baggage is
presented
to its path.
Technical summary — slow speed plough:
• Activation rate: single vertical mounted plough conveyor, typically 5 alternate route selections/
minute.
• Activation rate: dual split vertical mounted plough conveyors, typically 30 alternate route
selections/
minute.
• Function: can sort alternative bags with low flow rates or usually batch process by single cycle
operation.
• Tracking: not necessary in all applications.
• Guarding: must be present and interlocked to conveyor operation.
Afofe: High speed ploughs can typically produce a rate of 25 alternate route selections per minute.
U2.8.2 Layout — Slow Speed Plough
■-<s£ Baggag
e
Batch B
Route
Optional Vertical Selectio
Conveyor
Some Units are Just
Steel '
U2.9.1 Functionality
Powered belt conveyor bends provide a useful means for smoothly changing the direction of
baggage.
The 45 and 90 degree conveyor bends are most common, though it is possible to have custom-bent
conveyors provided (at a premium price). The mechanisms for belt removal should be carefully
observed to ensure that the correct device is selected and that its maintenance characteristics meet
with the requirements of the baggage system designer and operational team. Powered belt bends
should be the first choice for the baggage system designer with respect to T and V junction belt-
to-belt perpendicular transfers. The reason for this is that the belt-to-belt T and 'L' junctions tend to
snatch baggage as it dramatically changes its direction through 90 degrees. Baggage, and more
significantly bag bar code labels, can become torn or damaged — affecting automatic read rates. It
is possible to obtain powered belt incline and decline (spiral) conveyors, though with these
conveyors
it is often very difficult to replace the belts.
Technical summary:
• Minimum recommended radius of centerline (1.5m width belt) = 1.775m.
• Minimum recommended radius of centerline (1.0m width belt) = 1.525m.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s.
iata
Airport Baggage Handling
U2.10.1 Functionality
Accumulation roller conveyors can be a very effective way of managing baggage flow, most
commonly
at the output of a baggage system alongside baggage handling staff. It is possible to use
accumulation
roller conveyors at a mid-point location in a baggage system, typically within an early baggage store.
Accumulation conveyors are used mainly within manned locations. It is possible to have
accumulation
roller conveyors with powered sections throughout which are engaged by the control system to
ensure
that baggage does not stagnate on sections of rollers for too long. Accumulation roller conveyors are
not particularly good at processing soft baggage.
Most commonly accumulation roller conveyors have sections with the ability to induce power to
selective rollers when a weight is placed onto the rollers.
It should be noted that powered and free conveyors are more hazardous than totally free rolling roller
conveyors because entrapment risk is more likely. Powered and free accumulation roller conveyors
consequently are not preferred, because to safeguard against entrapment is both difficult and costly
due to multiple entrapment points. In all cases, particularly with powered and free conveyors,
adequate
hand-safe guarding should be provided as an integral part of the design.
The major advantage with powered accumulation conveyors is that, over long accumulation lengths,
baggage handling staff do not need to walk up and down the length of the roller conveyor to enable
them to reach the bag and then deposit it within the correct parked container. Accumulation
593
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Technical summary:
• Minimum length of roller length > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Minimum pitch between powered and free section rollers 1.5x maximum bag length.
• Powered roller motion: power engaged when bag present on powered roller section.
• Powered roller velocity: 0.1 — 0.3m/s.
• Head end floor to top of roller: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Tail end floor to top of roller: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Roller width 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Roller surface: aluminum or stainless steel.
• Tracking: optional.
V
^3 DOollll¥«OOOOOn
>
• Rollers With Power
Availability
594
U2.11 CHECK-IN SYSTEMS
The following types of domestic and International check-in desks are commonly found for the
processing of hold baggage only.
To determine the number of check-in desk conveyors that are required to process busy hour
demand,
the following calculation should be undertaken:
To calculate: Units:
CD = Baggage Design Flow Rate Bags/Min,^,,
When
(D = Pax Rate During Peak Hour Pax/Hour
®= Bags Per Pax Ratio Ratio N/A
(Refer to Chapter C Clause C2.3.1)
Recommend: Ask Airline Users
Bags/Min
© = 0 x (D Bags/Min
Then
Bags/Mina,,,^
To calculate \w)
—.
*
BagS/MIn check-
In principle ® > © . If it is not then you must change one or more of the variables
or(D such that this condition is met
Red
Searc
VIP Position h
Area
597
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
598
Step 6a Confirmation of number of pieces of luggage. If 0-1 items of luggage per passenger step
7 else step 5.
Step 7 Process end for baggage.
Control System Common Logic
Links are made to the DCS system and the bar code label printer. Links are optionally made to
immigration and security databases in the event that biometric and passport data is to be verified.
0) Check-in counter.
Step 2 Passenger asked to provide flight ticket and passports — Passenger provides documents.
Staff update DCS system.
Process duration 5-10 sees.
Step 3 Passenger asked security baggage questions — Passenger asked how many pieces of
luggage to check-in. Label(s) are printed and DCS updated. Jump to step 8 if passenger
has no baggage to check-in.
Process duration 30 sees.
Step 4 Passenger asked to load one bag onto weigh conveyor or scale — check-in staff weigh
bag.
Process duration 10-15 sees.
Step 5 Check-in staff press the weigh conveyor MOVE LOAD button on the control console. Bag
on weigh conveyor gets conveyed to label conveyor assuming label conveyor is empty.
Process duration 5-10
sees.
Step 6 Passenger asked to load next bag of their belongings then repeat step 4 as necessary —
Jump to next step if only one bag per passenger evident.
Process duration 5-10 sees.
Step 7 Check-in staff label the bag and press the label conveyor MOVE LOAD button on the
control console. Bag on label conveyor gets conveyed to dispatch conveyor.
Process duration 10-15 sees.
Step 8 Process end.
x x
Standard Check-in Process Action
Denotes
XX | Communicati
on
x
||
x|
/
x
x I
XX
J
XX1 11
Control
___ System
Takes Over
Probability
of
Obtaining
Dispatch
Window
Desk Position j
Relative to CED'
Window
Allocation
Option 2 — Collector Belt Window Allocation 1/2 to 1/ÍX/2)
This operates with the same principle as Option 1, except in that as the windows are generated from
the tail end of the collector conveyor in the control system, every other window is left clear. These
clear, free windows or slots are then allocated to the second half of the collector belt. The advantage
of this mode of operation is that the check-in desk wait times as you progress down the length of the
collector belt from tail to head end are reduced considerably — See Figure U2-19.
603
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
1/7
Probabilit
y
of
Obtainin
-------N— — tt- Dispatch
g
Window
Desk
Position!
Option 3 I
Relative
This to
CEDis; where there is no controlled event discharge, and baggage injection from the dispatch
conveyors
Window
to collector conveyors is controlled on a random basis rather than by calculating free space.
Allocation
Commonly,
the collector belt is fitted with photocells before each check-in desk injection point so as to avoid
baggage jams. When this cheaper solution of dispatch-to-collection-belt-injection is adopted, the
check desks closest to the head end of the collector belt have unreasonable processing times when
operating in busy periods. This is not a recommended solution.
604
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Primary sortation is optional, though recommended to provide greater flexibility of both equipment
and operational resources — particularly in larger airport operations. The primary sorter in smaller
airports may be a conventional conveyor fitted with high speed pushers or high speed verti-sorters.
It is possible to use certain DCV equipment even in small airports as part of a larger, longer term
development strategy to use DCVs as airport traffic grows.
The primary sorter in larger airports (See Fig U2-20) maybe a linear drive sorter or DCV. DCV
equipment should be used in larger airports to take full advantage of the high speed connection times
they provide. Fig U2-20 below incorporates a DCV terminal-wide system to both deliver departing
baggage to aircraft and retrieve arriving and transferring baggage.
The advantages of conveying baggage to and from the apron area using DCV technology directly
are:
• Airline costs for moving baggage to and from the aircraft would be considerably reduced.
• Airside traffic and management costs are dramatically reduced.
• Apron safety is dramatically improved.
• Baggage connection times are much more predictable.
X
Zone 2
HBS
DCV —I
Zone 7 Zone 4
South West South East
Apron Make Up Apron Make Up
605
U2.12.2 The Linear Drive Sorter
This unit can be used for primary HBS of secondary flight sortation purposes. The linear drive sorter
should be the preferred option over chain driven variants. Due to their increased reliability and
quieter
operation. The availability of a single linear drive sorter should at least be 99.98% available with a
MTBF of 2000 hours and a corresponding MTTR of no greater than 30 Minutes. These figures can
be achieved by using modular components on a linear sorter which can be rapidly removed and
replaced. The linear drive power inducement provides energy efficient movement of trays with low
noise and reduced mechanical moving parts.
Operational Process
Linear drives and even chain driven variants should be provided with load detection monitoring
software. This will ensure that operating current is provided at the correct level to ensure that the
speed of the sorter is maintained at the same speed irrespective of how many actual bags (varying
loads) are residing on the sorter. The benefit of this system is that when baggage flows are low the
energy consumption of the sorter is reduced (as the load is reduced). The control logic should
continually learn to improve its performance automatically by detecting load variations and
recommending maintenance intervals to counter monitored negative variance in performance of the
DCV equipment.
The induction process should be designed to permit maximum throughput onto the sorter. It is
important
to place the induction units at the correct pitch as recommended by the manufacturer. This distance
between consecutive induction units can vary from 3m to 7m according to manufacturer and type of
placement. It is important to understand the perceived flow through each induction so as to ensure
that all induction units have a realistic chance of injecting baggage onto the sorter.
Do not expect too much from a sorter in terms of its ability to process multiple types of baggage.
While it is possible to use a single sorter to process departures baggage and transfers baggage and
even arrival baggage, this will push the sorter to the operational limits of its capabilities. Small
variations
in flow with a sorter with multiple induction units may restrict induction input considerably. It is better
to have smaller separate sorters rather than one very larger sorter.
There are three types of title tray sorter induction: (I) Side 30 degree; (ii) Side 45 Degree; and (iii)
Overhead. The most common is the 30 degree side induction and this is preferred technically since
the dynamic forces of the bag on the induction conveyors more closely matches that of the sorter it
is trying to merge with.
Settings to remember when designing a tilt tray sorter system are:
• Keep the distance between induction units aligned with manufactures recommendations.
• Use the minimum possible number of induction assemblies whilst still achieving the desired
level
of system redundancy.
• Be realistic in terms of mixing flows of baggage and allocate a separate departures and
transfer
sorter rather than a single very large sorter for all flows.
• Where an Early Baggage Store is required try to provide a separate sorter for managing this
flow.
• Keep inclines and declines as shallow as possible as this can induce premature mechanical
wear.
Injection Conveyor
Synchronisation Conveyor
Queue
Conveyor #1
Queue
Typical technical summary (variation according to manufacturer will occur):
• Tray pitch 750mm=>1200mm. Conveyor #2
• Bend radii min 2.3 metres.
• Totally enclosed track.
• Cable routing built into track design.
• Linear motor drive.
• Maximum single tray load 60kg.
• Maximum single tray size 900x750x900mm.
• Minimum baggage size 75x75x25.
• Maximum linear speed 2m/sec.
• Maximum incline angle 150°.
• Noise level 70dba measured from 3m from sorter.
• Induction angles 30° and 45°
• The control system places DCV carts into the track on a 'Need Cart' and 'Just In Time' basis.
• The control system can increase or decrease DCV speeds to meet different flight connecting
times.
• Certain DCV cart maintenance can be completed in dedicated off-line tracks specifically designed
for maintenance, while the rest of the system continues in operation.
The BHS should be able to process the allocation of narrow body aircraft proposed to be resident
within the weekly flight schedules. Baggage from narrow body aircraft shall be accommodated on no
less than three discrete make-up positions potentially configured thus (IMPORTANT NOTE User
variations will occur):
Single Scheduled
Narrow Body Outbound No of Make-up Length of Make-up
1 st/Business Class 1 Make-up 7 Meters
Economy Class 2 Make-ups 21 Meters
Single Charter
Narrow Body Outbound No of Make-up Length of Make-up
Single Class 3 Make-ups 28 Meters
Ergonomics:
Where it is envisaged that excessively heavy baggage will be transferred from the BHS to awaiting
containers, there should be the provision of heavy baggage lifting equipment at the correct locations.
Baggage system interfaces with staff in the baggage hall should be ergonomically designed.
Baggage
off-load levels within the baggage halls should be designed to be ergonomically suited to the local
workforce and should adopt best international working practices, such that the risk of off loading
injuries should be minimised.
Baggage which has been sorted by the baggage handling system may be sent to a variety of make
up devices. The following devices and their locations are viable:
Type Location Comments
Lateral Baggage Hall Laterals are usually conveyors.
Chute Baggage Hall/Apron Can be used with free rollers.
Inclined Racetrack Baggage Hall Used where secondary sort needed.
Free roller Baggage Hall/Apron Bag speed control required.
Powered & Free Roller Baggage Hall Not preferred due to entrapment possibility.
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
FULL
CHUTE
PHOTOCE
LL
LOCATION
MAKE-UP
LENGTH =
X1 +X2
NOTEX2>1S
m<3m
613
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
X1
-4- 4-
MAKE-UP LENGTH = X 1 + X2 + X3 + X4
MAKE-UP
LENGTH
614
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
615
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Containerized
Single
Make-up
Connecting Flight Flight Containerize
Early Bag
-► De-contalnerize Same Airline Bags to
Store
--------- As Inbound
\
Containerized Multj Aircraft
w
Connecting Flights
Non-
containerized
Single
y
. iH
Connecting Flight Automati
c
Make-up
Sortation
Non- Flight
Loose Load
containerized Different
w Airline Bags to
Multi Connecting
Aircraft
Flights To Inbound
rti
Manual
Sortatio
Hold n
Bagga
ge Denotes option to rescreen bags which have excessively
Scree dwelled
Arrivals Reclaim Check-in Denotes option for Pax to collect bag from transfer reclaim and
re-check-ln (Mandatory in some countries)
617
U3.2 TRANSFER BAGGAGE RECONCILIATION
Airport baggage handling systems and operational protocols should be designed to ensure that hold
baggage should only be loaded into the hold if all of the following conditions are met:
(i) Passengers have provided acceptable passport identification at the boarding gate checkpoint.
(ii) Passenger hold baggage (if any) has been screened through a screening system which is in
accordance with the principles and recommendations defined within Section U11.
(iii) Passengers have provided a valid boarding pass.
(iv) Optional: Passenger Risk Assessment status dictates passenger and his or her hold and hand
baggage is suitable to be loaded onto the aircraft.
FIG. U3-2 defines the high level data links and operational checks used in the processing of
transfer
passenger hold baggage.
Figure U3-2: Transfer Baggage Data and Operational
Processing
INBOUND TRANSFE AT GATE - PAX OUTBOUND
R ACCEPTANCE POINT AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT
CHECK-
PAX. NAMES
IN
[ PAX. NAME j PAX. NAME
PAX. NAMES
PASSPOR
DESTINATION ID PAX. FLIGHT NO. T DESTINATION ID
OR CONNECTING CHECK OR CONNECTING
BOARDING PASS PAX. FLIGHT NO.S
PAX. FLIGHT NO.S
NO. OF BAGS VALIDATION
I
Departures
Control
3E
BAGGAGE PAX. PICKS UP System
HALL TRANSFER
MANUAL BAGS FROM
CODING RECLAIM TAKES
POINT TO CHECK-IN Messaging
BAGS INJECTED INTO BAGS INJECTED System
BAGGAGE SYSTEM INTO
BAGGAGE SYSTEM
2. Ensure that their non-Member handling agents follow the methods developed above."
The specific airlines Departures Control Systems (DCS) should be configured to communicate as
appropriate and as necessary between connecting airlines to promote the intent of IATA Resolution
739. The DCS should be used where possible with the baggage handling control system as a tool
to determine if a passenger's baggage is authorized to be loaded and has been adequately
screened.
Where permitted, transfer passenger hold baggage may be processed entirely in the baggage hall
or may be deposited onto a transfer baggage reclaim unit (where in some geographical locations it
should then be reunited with the passenger). In this latter variant the passenger is then required to
check-in their hold baggage again. All transfer baggage (international and domestic) should be
processed through hold baggage screening equipment. Baggage is then sorted either manually or
automatically to an early baggage store or to the flight chutes, laterals, or departures racetracks.
Baggage is often loaded into the aircraft while passengers are being checked at the gate. It is
therefore
only at the point at which the flight is closed to passengers and baggage that full reconciliation of
621
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
622
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
ST
On-load
Flight \
HBS \ Bags to
Early Transfer In-bound Bags Tag )
Process/ Open Flights
Reader/
Coded
I
No Reads
Early Bags from Check-in Early
J Manual
• Coding
Notes:-
Denotes a Pusher Unit
manual!/ operated via Push Button Sort (Manual)
push button
A B C
Number of flight make-^p loading lanes
may vary according to flight schedule
RightA
Iff
^I n
PLC
System
FLIGHT
r------
SORT
4I —^
Out-bound Bag Tugs and Dollies
I Secure
c) Flight Make-up" (Flight 'B'|-^- Storage/
I
Holding
623
U4.4 TYPICAL AUTOMATIC EARLY BAGGAGE STORE LAYOUT
Figure U4-2 is typical (redundancy not shown) of an automatically operated early baggage storage
linked to a large sortation system.
The early baggage sorter can be either a linear drive unit (See Fig U2-21) or a Type 1 DCV (See
Fig U2-23). DCV units are particularly useful as they can have on-board cart intelligence which
permits
them to be more easily tracked and sort by flight and time sector simultaneously.
Figure U4-2: Typical Automated Early Baggage Store
'L
DCV Type 1
'F Or
DCV Type 2
Flight '?}■
V
U4.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
The vehicular movement of arriving final destination and transfer baggage produces a high
percentage
of the total of airside traffic. Since this arriving and transfer baggage traffic is often completely funded
and managed by the airlines, it is in their interests to seek either efficient vehicle routes and/or be
provided with effective baggage handling equipment (which as an alternative can remove the need
for the majority of these baggage movement vehicles). With reference to Fig U5 -1 and Fig U5-2, Mid
Field Pier baggage injection points can, where economically justified, present a useful mechanism
which ultimately can reduce the flow of baggage movement vehicles on the apron. The most
common
and simplistic approach is for arriving baggage to be transferred from Point A to Point C entirely by
baggage tugs and dollies, though this not necessarily the best solution.
Figure U5-1: Arriving Final Destination Baggage Processing
TERMI Processing
NAL Point 'C
BUILDI Location
NG Option:
ARRIV Main Arrivals Terminal
ALS Aircraft to
HALL Processing Point
Movement
Technologies Aircraft Point A to
(i) Baggage Tugs and Dollies Processing Point B
OR Movement
(ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2; Technologies:
OR (i) Baggage
Processing PointTug
'B' and
DolliesOption:
Location
...4__
B Mid Field Pier
CODED Baggage Injection
PIER Conveyors TO
(ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2
(iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors
PIER
MULTIP
LE
A/C
STANDS
It is recommended that where a DCV system has been selected for the departures baggage handling
systems, in accordance with Section U2, that the baggage handling designer should also consider
the merits of the use of the same DCV hardware for the processing of arriving final destination or
arriving transfer baggage between Points B to C.
Alternatively tilt tray sorters leading to conveyors can be used between Points B and C where the
case can be financially justified.
The diagram in Fig. U5-2 defines the routes and processing options available for arriving transfer
baggage. Refer to Section U3 for further details on the processing of transfer baggage within
international airports.
Figure U5-2: Arriving Transfer Baggage Processing
PIER
MULTIPLE
A/C STANDS
Airport Baggage Handling
The costs associated with providing baggage handling staff, often on shift 20 hours a day, 365 days
a year (airport specific observation), for 15 years can be substantial, as can the cost to provide and
maintain DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter equipment for the same period. It will be essential to assess the
true full costs taking into account not only the capital expenditure and running cost but also the
operational costs of both manual and automatic solutions.
The two main operational advantages with the automatic solution are that the baggage connection
times are usually improved and the airside traffic volume is significantly reduced.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
PASSENGER RECLAIM
UNIT
(INCLINED OR FLAT)
The required presentation length of the reclaim will be dependent on the following variables:
• Passenger arrival profile from piers (function of stand distance and passenger travel speeds).
• Baggage delivery profile from aircraft (function of stand distance and baggage movement
technology and speed employed).
• Bags to passenger ratio witnessed.
• Reclaim velocity (recommend speed >0.15 <0.3m/sec).
• Ability of passengers to identify and retrieve passenger baggage.
In situations where more than two reclaim units are proposed, it is recommended that the arrivals
reclaim area be simulated using passenger movement simulation software (See Section F9.10.6.
Number of Baggage Claim Units). This will allow the presentation length to be fine tuned to the
precise
characteristics of the arriving passengers profile and the arriving baggage profile, which all have a
part to play in the effective dynamics of the arrivals area. The number of reclaim units required at
any one time will be a function of the arriving flight schedule and will likely vary according to the time
of day and season.
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Main
Panel
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
In this approach a PLC is selected to control a part of the system consistent with the control
requirements, the PLC's capabilities, and the system availability. Local control panels containing
motor controls, local operator controls and an I/O module are located adjacent to each piece of
equipment. Vendor independent networking standards such as the Profibus Field Bus support this
approach, with high speed robust communication supported by many vendors of PLC and I/O alike.
This modular approach can be adapted to fit most standard control requirements, with a selection of
as few as five different standard designs for a local control panel (all based on the same concept).
One variant is illustrated in Fig. U6-2, below.
PLC
System
Area Contrai
Panel
□___E Field
DevinQe
Motor Profibu Field
Contro s Devices i cannery
l I/O Con"-
Profibus Scan tea Scanner fca| Scanner]
To Controlle
RS232 r Scanner [a| Scanner]
DC
Sce Scanner pa|
Scanner |
Scanner [~|
This approach delivers advantages in terms of reduced installation time, since pre-assembly and
wiring can be carried out before arriving at site (with site based activity only requiring network, power
and a limited number of interlock connections). This approach also delivers a superior maintenance
regime in that all required controls for maintenance purposes are located adjacent to the item of
equipment. Finally, the approach is very modular in that the addition of new equipment requires only
a new local control panel and limited interconnections. It also simplifies the addition of further control
devices such as photo electric cells that may be required after the initial installation is completed.
Due to vendor independence this emerging standard is also likely to facilitate vendor independence
at the baggage equipment supplier level, providing a few standards are set such as the selected field
bus.
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U6.2.3 Software Approach
For similar reasons to the initiatives for a standardised concept in controls hardware, there is a
similar
drive towards standardisation of control software. Firstly, the IEC 1131 standard has emerged as a
recognised standard for the way in which PLC software is written. Adhering to this standard means
the PLC software follows more uniform concepts and becomes generally simpler to maintain for
those
other than the original developer.
In addition, the best practice software approach has been to modularise software such that a re-
usable set of libraries is generated. This allows a new baggage control system software requirement
to be generated primarily using standard, proven software modules. In this way only small amounts
of software, necessary to link the individual functional modules as required by the particular system,
need to written. This minimises implementation risk and again significantly aids the maintainability of
the delivered system.
U6.3 COMMUNICATIONS
Although the primary purpose of a control system is obviously to control the equipment, in doing so
significant amounts of data regarding the operation of the equipment or system is also generated.
Such data may be instantaneous status or fault information, but may also be longer term data such
as throughputs.
These types of data needs to be communicated to systems other than the PLC systems, where it
can be used effectively for operational support and decision making purposes. This requires support
of communications standards to allow the data to be used elsewhere. The de facto standard across
most industries is the TCP/IP protocol, which forms the backbone of the internet. Because of its
very
large vendor independent uptake it has come to form a standard supported by the vast majority of
manufacturers. This is also true of PLC systems.
Current best practice is clearly that the PLC systems which form a control system are networked
together using TCP/IP over an ethernet network. Although it is still necessary to have
implementations
of vendor specific protocols to allow full communication, TCP/IP on ethernet commonly forms the
interconnection basis for control systems and their supervisory IT systems.
U7.1 INTRODUCTION
Management Information Systems or MIS for short is used to describe many widely and varied
functions pertaining to baggage handling systems. This article aims to cover the specific functions
which reside under the umbrella term MIS, together with some recommendations.
It is often a requirement at larger airports, where there may be more than one distinct baggage
facility,
that the MDS systems can be linked together to provide the advantages of an overall supervision
opportunity. This type of integration is generally far more easily achieved when the software package
used for each area is the same, and should therefore be a significant factor in software selection.
A strategy for enhanced system availability should also be considered. This would typically consist
of a hot standby system which remains in operation, and which is capable of taking over
automatically
from a failed master system. There are however a number of means to achieve enhanced availability
— a number of which are package specific. All of this suggests that the requirement for back up in
the event of failure needs to be considered and measured against the provisions of any selected
software package.
Many SCADA packages provide the means of adding additional user workstations to allow multiple
personnel to access the MDS functions. These might range from additional full network workstations
to some additional software to allow any computer to be used over a dial up or internet connection.
Again, the requirements in this respect will give additional guidance in the selection of an optimum
approach.
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
641
SECTION U8: OVERSIZED BAGGAGE
U8.1 OVERVIEW
The quantity of oversized baggage at airports can be substantial, and therefore the systems that
process them needs to be proportionally sized and correctly positioned. It is important to note that
all baggage, including oversized baggage, should be screened in accordance with the requirements
of Section U11. Oversized baggage comes in two distinct categories: (i) conveyable and (ii) Non
conveyable. Refer to section U1 for terminal-specific baggage size clarification in this regard.
The proportions of conveyable and non conveyable baggage will vary, and each airport operation
will have its own profile which should be established before proceeding to design the oversized
baggage facility. It is important to design flexibility and operational convenience into the oversized
baggage system for the airlines and their passengers.
A passenger will, in most cases, present themselves at the standard gauge check-in facility, even if
there is clear signage close to the passenger queue to direct them to the oversized baggage check-
in facility. The reality is that passengers with oversized baggage will likely queue in standard gauge
passenger lines until directed to oversized baggage processing areas.
Oversized baggage needs to be weighed and baggage tags (Bar-code/RFID) need to be affixed to
oversized bag. It will be important for the oversized check-in desks to be fitted with computer
peripherals
which will allow each participating airline user to access their respective Departures Control System
(DCS) software.
• Inclines and declines should be < 16 Degrees for Oversized Baggage Routes.
Hardware requirements: Check-in Desks with DCS Access / Bag Weigh Scales/ Delivery
Conveyors
Between Check-in and Baggage Hall / Oversized Hold Baggage Screening Area/Flight make-up
Area.
U9.1 INTRODUCTION
Sort allocation (SAC) system is a generic term describing the various baggage IT systems
associated
with bag routing and tracking. It is based on the IATA baggage license plate and baggage
messages.
IATA recommended practices (RPs) 740 and 1745 respectively apply. This article provides some
general operational description of such systems together with general good practice
recommendations.
IIIIIHIII Mill BP
Screening Sorter J
Remote
IfllllllllllllMIII Bag
Manage
ment/
Reconci
liation
The SAC system process starts when a passenger checks in. Through this process the check-in
operator makes entries to the airline's departure control system (DCS). The DCS deals with many
aspects of the check-in process, one of which is to produce a license plate code. The license plate
code is a 10 digit number which is printed onto the baggage tag in the form of a human readable
number and a bar code. This code is detailed in IATA recommended practice number 740. The DCS
also generates a message known as the baggage source message (BSM), in accordance with IATA
RP1745.
645
The BSM is passed onto the SAC system (among other systems). The BSM contains a selection of
information, part of which is the flight number and the license plate code, which enable the SAC
system to match a bag to a flight. The SAC system also requires some means of acquiring the flight
schedule, such that it has details of all departing flights. In addition it needs a means to acquire or
define an allocation of make up chutes or laterals within the baggage system to the departing flights.
This mechanism allows the SAC system to translate the flight number which is gains from the BSM
into a make up destination for the bag.
The sorting process is therefore as shown above. A bag's license plate is read from the bag within
the baggage system via a bar code reader (BCR). Generally the bar code reader would be
connected
to a PLC control system, which is responsible for conveyor control and bag tracking on the
conveyors.
The bag's license plate is therefore passed to the PLC. The PLC is in turn connected to the SAC
system (the PLC therefore provides a license plate code to the SAC system). The SAC system,
using
the mechanisms described above, can then determine which make up the bag should go to and
replies to the PLC with this destination. The PLC system can then route the bag accordingly.
SAC systems are also often called upon to manage early bag stores with management methods
determined to suit the form of store. As a minimum the SAC system is usually required to track bags
within the early bag store (EBS) and determine when they should be retrieved from the store to go
U9.2.2 Message Distribution
BSM messages are generated by the airline DCS. In a terminal or airport it is usual to have many
airlines operating. This will typically require that the SAC system interfaces with each airline's DCS
in order for it to receive BSMs for the airlines bags and sort them on this basis. This situation can
be further complicated by the variety of destinations that BPM messages may need to go to. A
solution
to this problem taken up by many airports is to use a message distribution system.
Figure U9-3: Message Distribution
The diagram above illustrates how the message distribution system can significantly simplify the
required connectivity between SAC DCS and other systems. This situation gets more complicated
when other baggage systems, at the same airport and with their own SAC, are considered.
Message distribution systems simplify the interconnectivity between these systems. They also
provide
algorithms for filtering messages based on their contents to ensure that only the right messages get
to the right place. When transfer systems are considered, the issue of filtering becomes even more
important. If message filtering and routing is not implemented then each system is likely to need to
handle significantly more messages than it actually needs. This is due to it receiving messages for
bags that will never pass through the given facility.
Message distribution is generally a function provided by another computer system outside the
scope
of the SAC system.
• Magnitude of the typical baggage loads being moved per baggage loader/un-loader.
L2 Cleared
L3
L1 Rejected
Baggage
Cle
are
d
Ba
Den gga
otes ge
W/Stn lil/Xl
Verti A"
Denotes
[DPI)-Sorte 2LR
L3
Decision X-
Pointr
RedundancyDynamic eje
cte Ra
switching dB y
L2 Redundancy■■ Stan
agg
age dby
L3
ETD
±
L1
Reject
ed
Bagga
ge
From
Check-in L11
1L' ClturJX-
Ray1Sagrjarje
L1
Load
Share
Verti-
Sorter
L2 L2
Denotes
Verti-Sorter W/Stn W/Stn
#1 #2
Denotes
Decision L2 L2
Rej Stan
Point W/Stn W/Stn dby
#3 #N ect L3
Potentially Remote Networked L3 ETD
Level 2 Workstations
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Level 1
Presorter
Load
□istrlbulion
L1
From
Optimisation
X-
Check-in
l»IV-||| k Ra
y
#3
L1 L1
Clea
X- red
L1
Ray
#N
Reje
cted
Bagg
age
Mix
L2L2W/Stn•
W/Stn#1#2L2L2
Denotes
Verti-Sorter W/Stn,.
Standb
Denotes (..W/Stn#3#NPot y
Decision
Point entially Remote L3 ETD
NetworkedLevel
2 Workstations
657
U11.3.3 Useful HBS Equipment Types
The following table highlights the specific recommended uses for HBS equipment categorized by
Detection, Sortation and Tracking usage. In each case, and where applicable, the usage location
and corresponding design rates for the various types of equipment is given as a guide to HBS
designers. Variations in technology and performance will be evident between manufacturers of HBS
and conveyor sorting equipment.
• Departures Passengers.
It can be seen in figure U12-1 and figure U12-2 that the grey diamond denotes the position of
potential
passenger risk assessment points which are optional. At these junctions the airport security staff
can
ask selected questions to all passengers which will be designed to ascertain the level of risk of the
passenger. The security staff can then direct the passenger and any hand baggage to appropriate
passenger and hand baggage screening.
Figure U12-2 shows a typical departures and transfer passenger screening process map at a low,
much more detailed level, where all of the inter-relationships between the process steps are clearly
shown. It can also be seen that once the passenger and their hand baggage has been screened,
the task of reunification becomes quite complex. It is very important that staff and passengers have
adequate space and passengers have clear instructions on where they should go. It is recommended
that the security operation is covered by high resolution, digital closed-circuit television (CCTV)
cameras. Security staff should be able to review the last 24 hours of media on demand in the security
screening control room. This ability to review historic passenger movements within the security area
is particularly useful when trying to resolve situations where a passenger has picked up a wrong bag
by genuine mistake or when a theft has occurred. One practical and simple solution to aid the correct
connection between passenger and their corresponding bag is to give the passenger a numbered
token which relates to a correspondingly numbered goods tray. It is also extremely useful for ongoing
security training purposes.
LANDSIDE |
AIRSIDE ^ CCTV Coverage Recommended
>
Needed With Restrained
Hand Held
Detector
PAX - No BAG
> PAX Cleared AMD
Exits Central
PAX Boarding Security Search
Pass & Flight Cleared Baggage
Ticket Verification' Pick-up Rollers
Optional: Recommend:
PAX. Risk Automated
Assessment Separation Rejected Baggage'
Position Conveyor Reunited with PAX.
& Searched PAX & Bag ExistsistsV
0 Central Security
Search
Mechanized
Clear / Reject
Separation
Conveyor
"Knife Edge-
Design
Reject hand
baggage search Glazed screen to protect
table area. passenger from conveyors
though
Optional to have allow visibility of bag
reject image routes and
replicated at permit correct level of
search point. passenger
access to various baggage
status.
Photo courtesy of Fabricom Airport Systems UK
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Photo courtesy of L3
COMMUNICATIONS
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
667
U12.IR3 Passenger Screening Process
Passengers should be screened using the process steps defined within clause U12.5 inclusive.
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CHAPTER V — IATA AIRPORT PROJECT PROCESS
SECTION CONCEPT/FEASIBILITY/DETAIL DESIGN/COMMISSIONING/
IATA
V1:
HANDOVER
V1.1 INTRODUCTION
Joint participation by the airport authority and the airlines in the initial stages of the planning process
is indispensable to the development of a successful design programme. Early evaluations of airport
projects will reduce the number of changes to the final programme and thereby minimize increased
design costs. Such action will also contribute to the probability of meeting scheduled completion
dates.
The ultimate cost of any new or expanded facility, both in terms of capital expenditure and resulting
annual user charges, will depend to a large extent on the size of the facility and the complexity of
the project to deliver it; it is important that an accurate assessment of the required dimensions is
made in the early planning stages, and suggested that planners should review the IATA APEM
document methodology which defines detailed recommended project management activities for
airport
development projects.
Figure V1-1: Typical Airport Project Planning Process
Problem
Identificatio
n
Assess
existing
conditions
Forecast Concept Dplion
traffic development
demand
YES / Can \NO Value /Cost
y^xiflting facilities functions
N. to forecast with a new
examine estimate/
N^perstjonal process?. Concept
-Mm—
\ level "D" \
Create
Identity Feasibility
Implement
issues/ designs
corrective —Mutm--
operational process requirements Value examine ''cost
Compile Feasibility estimate/
C project options
~~ãt_%—
\ level "C" \
End brief Consu
nations/
review
New Facility Redevelopment
Select
/Redevelopment
existing facility or build
Feasibility
\ new facility? option
Role in Internal Invite lenders
airport consultations
system
Review
Strategic Plan historic Evaluation of ? Cost
master plan tender returns estimate/
—t\__V—
\ level "B" \
Consultations/
review
Review/redefin
e
project brief Award tender f Cost
estimate/
\ level "A" \
Detail design
solutions -
contractor
mis-
construction
Commissioning
671
V1.2 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
An existing and diligent airport operation will continuously be looking closely at the capabilities of its
infrastructure and its ability to process passengers, freight and mail. Due to the nature of flight
schedules it is quite straightforward to foresee if a capacity problem is going to manifest itself at
some
point in the future. Once identified, these problems could result in expansion projects, new terminal
builds, or as a first choice the improvement of an operational process which resolves the problem
without the need to build a new facility.
It will be essential for airport operators to examine the true origins of any identified operational or
capacity problem and then solve the underlying problem, assessing the perceived longevity of the
problem and ensuring that best practice is adhered to at all times.
V1.3.3 Constraints
A preliminary listing of the constraints on the system should be identified at this stage. Constraints
are to be investigated on two levels: the first being restrictions that may limit the extent of any
future development and the second being issues that are currently constraining the airport capacity.
Identifying these issues will allow a more focused concept development programme, as limits will
have already been set by this constraint investigation exercise.
V1.3.4 Simulation
When assessing operational 'dynamic' systems/airport processes, simulation tools such as lATA's
Total AirportSim should be used to optimise existing facilities, evaluating saturation conditions when
interaction between subsystems and overflow conditions are likely. With simulation packages and
studies the 'What if scenarios can be effectively simulated and subsequently assessed, the results
IATA IATA Airport Project Process
• A statement of needs.
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• How long would a process or equipment improvement last using the existing infrastructure
before
the facility becomes in need of redesign or processing review again?
• Does the new build option fit the master plan objectives for the airport?
In addition to these, many other similar questions will need to be raised and answered before a
decision can be ultimately made.
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IATA IATA Airport Project Process
V1.21 CONSTRUCTION
It will be necessary to have a quality monitoring system in place while the design and (very
importantly)
the construction phases are in progress. Active and effective project design and construction control
methods are essential to completion within the designated time and within the set budget.
A reporting and documentation system should be in place to allow progress and any variations to be
monitored and assessed. Routine meetings with stakeholders should be held at milestones to
review
V1.22 COMMISSIONING
Most airport projects involve numerous systems working simultaneously to be fully operational. As a
consequence, a review and operational readiness check of each system must be conducted prior to
opening the new facility through formal commissioning initiatives. The contractor and the design
consultants will be required to produce a commissioning proposal which will need to be submitted to
the client for approval.
See Section R1, Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport.
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"
V1 .IR2 Master Planning g
Master Planning clauses as stipulated in Chapter C: Master Planning should be followed.
V1.IR3 Simulation
Simulations should be used to optimize existing facilities, when saturation, interaction between
subsystems and overílow conditions are expected. The use of simulations is also
recommended
to validate design concept for new or expanded facilities.
V2.1 INTRODUCTION/GUIDELINES
Joint participation by the airport authority and the airlines in the initial stages of the planning process
will greatly assist the development of a successful cost management programme. Early evaluations
reduce the number of changes to the final programme and minimise increased design costs. Such
actions also contribute to the meeting of scheduled completion dates.
The ultimate cost of any facility, both in terms of capital expenditure and annual user charges, will
depend to a large extent on its size; it is important that an accurate assessment of the required
dimensions is made in the early planning stages.
With respect to IATA and the airlines, any cost evaluation must be carried out in two separate and
distinct phases, related directly to the quality and quantity of the information and the data that has
to be obtained. The first phase should consist of a broad cost evaluation to be carried out almost
immediately after the ACC technical assessment on demand and facility requirements has been
carried out. The second phase should be completed immediately after plans and cost details
become
available to the airlines for analysis and comment. It is hoped that early assessments will establish
the level of costs to the airlines.
Business Plan
Concept cost
estimate
< Uoi1 «ahTiata
/
level -D" \
Expert Feasibility
/ COBI esUrrale /
estimates cost \ level 'C \
input eslimales
Review
Cons
ultatio
ns/
Revie
w
( CoalesUrrale /
level -A- \
Cons
Lrxictl
on
Cost
Monito
ring.
Oisgnostic
of
Process
Capi
tal
Expe
nditure
Plan
Note: Level A, B, C & D are cost estimates stages only and are not related to Level of Service
requirements.
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The aggregate cost of an airport development process is derived by totalling the project
construction,
development and implementation budgets. Airlines and handling agents often inherit the project
results
once they have been delivered and run the systems that get developed. It is important that the
processes and systems provided by the project are assessed by the facility users prior to delivery,
and at the relevant consultation stages described. This will help determine if the processes and
systems provide a solution which is commercially viable from an operational standpoint.
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The detail design cost should be a very accurate cost assessment that should be in the range
of {+/-) 5%, and is referred to as a 'Level B' cost estimate.
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iata
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Inside the terminal building the threats might include the use of smaller Improvised Explosive
Devices
(IEDs)/hand weapons (assault rifles/machine guns/hand guns/hand grenades) and biological
warfare
agents. The delivery of such weapons could vary depending on the intent of the individual(s) and
their resultant ability to escape the scene once they have completed their attack.
Although very rare in most parts of the world, suicide attack activity does occur as well as guerillas
style attacks on airports.
It is important that airports and their users appreciate that threats can change over time and that
threat assessments need to be regularly reviewed. Changes in national or international political
policies can give rise to a need to review threats. It is recommended that airports and the airport
users review the risks posed by terrorism at least every 3 months and that special risk evaluations
are carried out more regularly during periods of local, national or international heightened threat.
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IATA Anti-Terrorism and Police Facilities
693
SECTION W4: AIRPORT POLICE FACILITIES
(vi) Physical fitness area in conjunction with lockers, showers, and restrooms.
(vii) General storage areas.
(viii) Secured arms storage.
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IATA
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698
. ff, r
IATA
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Having established fire requirement and corresponding category of airport it is then necessary to
establish the fundamental equipment requirements. This can be done in accordance with ICAO
Annex 14, Table 9-1, where the minimum number of rescue and fire fighting vehicles provided
should
be in accordance with the following tabulation:
Figure X1-2: ICAO Annex 14, Tabulation In clause 9.2.33
Airport Category Number of Vehicles
1 1
2 1
3 1
4 1
5 1
6 2
7 2
8 3
9 3
10 3
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IATA Airport Fire Services
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X2.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
IATA X2.2 IR2 Planning The Provision Of Fire Services Equipment Airport Fire Services
Airport Planners should refer to ICAO Annex 14 and work with local fire brigades and with
specialist fire services advisors to establish the precise equipment requirements for the specific
airport.
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IATA
Chapter Y — Networks
Section Y1: Frontline Operational and Security
Y1.1 General Use of Networks ........................................................................ 705
Y1.2 Airport Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems......... 707
Y1.3 Security Networks..................................................................................... 708
Y1.4 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 709
Section Y2: Building Services
Y2.1 Heating and Cooling Systems: Introduction............................................. 710
Y2.2 Building Fabrics and Design ..................................................................... 711
Y2.3 Airconditioning and Ventilation ................................................................. 711
Y2.4 Lighting Systems ..................................................................................... 713
Y2.5 Fire Alarm and Fire Suppression Systems ................................................ 713
Y2.6 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 714
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
CHAPTER Y — NETWORKS
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IATA Networks
• Fault reporting.
The true usefulness of a SCADA system is its ability, through custom programming, to link the
numerous system software languages and protocols through a common backbone network
architecture, coupled to easy-to-use graphics tailored for the airport user environment.
SCADA systems are a well-proven technology and application which lend themselves to medium
and
large airport operations. New smaller airports should consider the use of SCADA systems only if the
passenger traffic exceeds 1 MPPA during the first 5 years of operation.
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Y1.3 SECURITY NETWORKS
The use of security networks has become more commonplace. Centralized security networks can
IATA be
Airport Development Reference Manual
used by numerous users within the airport in an effort to provide up-to the minute knowledge on
passenger status and movement within the airport building. These security systems are in addition
to the national security systems provided by the Police, Customs and Immigration services but can
be linked often by SCADA systems.
The following independent systems would typically be included and attached to a security network:-
■ • Check-in profiling questioning result logging.
• Biometric systems.
• Access control systems.
• Id pass production systems.
• Baggage screening (hold and hand luggage) passenger / baggage status records and
reconciliation data provision.
• Intruder detection systems.
• CCTV — infra-red — security thermal imaging airport wide.
• Car park number plate recognition systems.
• Passenger and staff security displays.
The use of biometric readers and databases allows the airport security network to link passenger
biometric data to that of any of the data listed above. For instance it's possible to link facial data
captured at check-in or in car parks, along with license plate details, to the bar code data allocated
to checked-in baggage. Then if a bag is screened and found to be suspect and in need of
reconciliation
with the passenger, the security network can relay the biometric data of the owner of the suspect
bag to the passenger and staff security displays throughout the terminal.
The use of fully integrated security networks is promoted by IATA for medium to large airport
applications as a minimum.
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Y1.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
In the case of large and medium sized airports the use of centralized heating and cooling systems
is the favored choice, as monitoring is easier and small changes to the operational conditions often
yield large cost savings to the airport operation.
Y2.2 BUILDING FABRICS AND DESIGN
Building fabrics do not necessarily need to be passive in their ability to aid the performance of the
building. The properties of the material and their ability to both better retain heat in colder climates
IATA and lose or reflect heat gains in hotter climates should be explored.
Networks
The roof space of terminals can be extensive, and use of active materials to generate energy should
be explored. The running costs of terminals can be dramatically reduced in some locations of the
world if reusable energy from the sun is explored and utilized.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Internal Design Criteria
Facility
[2] Ventilation rates may be increased if this results in a reduction in energy consumption.
[3] Computer rooms for specific purposes should be designed to comply with equipment
manufacturers
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IATA LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Y2.4 Networks
The lighting systems within terminals should be designed to provide appropriate levels of light
according to the function and use of the building space. Architectural considerations should be
balanced against the functional requirements of the passengers and staff using the facility. It is
essential that operators are able to work and function in a pleasant environment and that LUX levels
and UV levels for high intensity lighting systems are both balanced and safe. The airport designer
should call upon the services of lighting systems specialists to advise in this complex area. Their
services will ensure that the effects of proposed lighting schemes can be understood and developed
before the terminal development opens.
The table below outlines the necessary parameters to consider with respect to lux levels and
permissible glare indices. National standards may vary and should be adhered to in the first
instance.
Area Within the Lux Level — Range Reference Plane Limiting Glare
Terminal Index
Check-in 100-300 Floor 22
Retail 100-200 Floor 22
Escalators/Stairs 200 Treads/Steps 22
Departures Entrance 200 Floor 22
Immigration Desks 500 Desk 19
Piers 200 Floor 22
Reclaim Units 500 Belt 19
Arrivals Channel 200 Floor 22
Airbridges 150 Floor 22
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Y2.6 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
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IATA
GLOSSARY
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
azimuth In surveying, the horizontal angle of the observer's bearing, measured clockwise from a referenced
direction (usually north), or from a referenced celestial body (usually Polaris).
baggage, cabin (CBBG) Baggage which the aircraft passenger retains custody of (IATA RP 1008). This
covers
personal belongings, such as briefcases, handbags and other non-bulky baggage conforming to specified
dimensions, to permit stowage aboard the aircraft. Synonymous with carry-on baggage.
baggage check Those portions of a ticket which provide for the carriage of a passenger's checked baggage
and which are issued by the carrier as a receipt for same (IATA RP 1008).
baggage, checked Baggage of which the carrier takes sole custody and for which the carrier has issued a
baggage check (IATA RP 1724).
biometrics The systems and ideologies associated with a form of passenger identification which utilises the
measurement of exclusively self-identifying physical attributes. Examples of biometric devices and systems
include but are not limited to facial recognition devices, fingerprint scanners, iris scanners, and the software
programs developed for same. Any one of these types of systems may be used alone or in conjunction with
other forms of biometric, electronic or documentary identification for purposes of passenger security and
customs
screening and/or passenger facilitation.
bluesea See Greenfield/bluesea airports.
Board of Airline Representatives (BAR) IATA recommends that a Board of Airline Representatives be
established in every country where civil aviation is an important part of the nation's social and especially
economic
viability. These boards represent the interests of their countries' main servicing carriers and keep their member
airlines up-to-date on emerging industrial, technological and regulatory developments pertinent to their national
situation.
busy day (Forecasting measure) A typical 'busy day' is the second busiest day in an average week during the
peak month. An average weekly pattern of passenger traffic is calculated for that month, and peaks associated
with special events such as religious festivals, trade fairs, conventions and sport events are excluded. The
busy
day should be representative of a frequently occurring 'model' busy period, indicative of a realistic day within a
weekly schedule.
capacity The variable measurement of a specific airport system or subsystem's throughput, or the system's
capability to accommodate a designated level of demand. Comprehensive capacity assessments are based on
five fundamental measurements: Dynamic Capacity; Static Capacity; Sustained Capacity; Maximum Capacity;
and Declared Capacity. See Section F2 for comprehensive definitions of these specific terms.
Capital Expenditure Plan The long-term financing and expenditure plan pertaining to the acquisition,
construction, or improvement of fixed assets such as land and buildings.
charter services Flights performed for remuneration on an irregular basis, including empty flight stages
related
thereto and inclusive tours other than those reported under scheduled services.
combi aircraft See aircraft, combi
common use terminal equipment (CUTE) CUTE is a generic term (not to be related to certain vendors'
products and services) for a system of shared or common IT infrastructure which allows individual airlines to
access their host computer(s), undertake all their data processing functions, make the same entries and obtain
the same responses as they otherwise would through a proprietary terminal network. The basic CUTE concept
is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities, including such areas as check-
in and boarding gate counters, on a common-use basis, and thus eliminate the need for individual airlines to
install their own equipment. CUTE facilities also enable airlines to use their own host applications for departure
control, reservations, ticketing, seat allocation, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc., at such
counters,
as well as in their on-site administrative offices.
curbside That area of an airport terminal facility dedicated to the safe and efficient transfer of passengers and
meeters/greeters to and from road-based surface transport systems (cars, buses and taxis).
de/anti-icing De-icing is the process which removes ice, snow, slush or frost from airplane surfaces for flight
safety purposes. Anti-icing is a precautionary measure which prevents frost, ice or snow from forming or
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IAT Glossary
A
facilitation (FAL) A general term reflecting the action being taken by governments, airlines, airports and other
organizations involved in civil aviation to standardize, simplify and reduce government-imposed formalities and
procedures at airports. The main objectives are to improve efficiencies and services to passengers and users
of cargo services, and to reduce relevant waiting times and costs.
Flight Information Display System (FIDS) A computerized airport, airline and baggage claim information
display.
freight Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger's checked baggage.
gate The point where an aircraft is parked for passengers enplaning or deplaning and for loading and
unloading
baggage, cargo, mail, galley units and other supplies. Synonymous with arrival gate and departure gate.
Global Airport Monitor An IATA information product which provides comparative airport service performance
indicators for major international airports from Europe, North America and Asia Pacific.
greenfield/bluesea airports 'Greenfield' or 'bluesea' are terms used to describe what most planners would
consider to be 'ideal' airports or (alternately) airport locations. In general, greenfield or bluesea airports are
mega facilities that have benefited from planning decisions whereby designers and ACCs have opted to create
large, modern facilities incorporating many of the latest 'best-practice' airport planning guidelines. Current
greenfield/bluesea airports include facilities such as CLK in Hong Kong, Denver International Airport, Kuala
Lumpur KLIA, and Seoul NSIA, which all became operational between 1995 and 2000. These new airports are
generally sized in the 400,000 sqm range and have operating capacities upwards of 30 mppa. They're usually
designed to be hub facilities, are capable of adapting to service currently-envisioned larger aircraft, and
incorporate
a detailed master plan that will allow them to grow in a modular fashion to capacities up to 100 mppa.
hub Any airport having numerous inbound and outbound flights and a high percentage of connecting traffic. In
the context of scheduling and marketing from a hub-operating carrier's perspective, hub denotes an airport
where many of its inbound and outbound schedules are coordinated with the aim of producing the most
convenient
connections and/or trans-shipment for passengers, freight and/or mail. The same airport may serve as a hub
for more than one air carrier although this is exceptional. Currently, most hubs have been designed for
passenger
traffic but the concept is also used for the development of cargo and mail traffic.
Hub Definitions
The following specialized terms and their definitions, commonly used to describe the different types of hub
airports, are contained in the ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport (Doc 9626):
• cargo hub — An airport where facilities are provided for easy and fast connections and transshipment of air
cargo traffic.
• interline hub — An airport at which connections or transferring of traffic are chiefly made between flights of
different carriers.
• intermodel or multimodel hub — An airport that enables convenient connections or transshipment of traffic
from one mode of transport to another, for example, surface to air on a sea-air routing.
• ma/7 or postal hub — An airport which serves as a transit center for mail or postal shipments.
• major hub — An airport with a large volume of connecting traffic, usually a centrally located airport served
by more than one airline with long-haul connections.
• mega- or super-hub — A very large airport.
• mini-hub — A secondary airport set up by a carrier.
• online hub — An airport at which connections or transferring of traffic are mostly made between different
flights of the same airline.
• regional hub — An airport that serves a region of a State or a region comprising more than one State.
• second country hub—An airport set up by an air carrier in a foreign country, typically to allow it to
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International Industry Working Group (IIWG) IIWGs bring together IATA, Airports Council International (ACI)
and the International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG was
founded
in 1970 and its main goal is to review airport/aircraft compatibility issues which might improve the development
of the air transport system.
landside Those areas of an airport to which the non-travelling public has free access. Sometimes referred to
as the public side.
load factor, passenger Passenger-kilometers/miles expressed as a percentage of available seat-kilometers/
miles. Alternatively, the number of passenger seats occupied expressed as a percentage of the total seat
capacity of an aircraft.
long-haul Operating distances of >5,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal
cruising
conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
mail Refers to correspondence and other objects tendered by and intended for delivery to postal
administrations.
master plan, airport A presentation of the airport planner's conception of the ultimate development capacity
of a specific airport, created so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop, expand and
improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their businesses in a structured, balanced and orderly
fashion
without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent to an airport site. Master plans
are applied to the modernization and expansion of existing airports and to the construction of new airports,
regardless of their size or functional role. See Section C-1.
medium-haul Operating distances of >1,000 km and <5,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full
payload at normal cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
noise zones Areas surrounding an airport which are established to protect nearby residents from excess
noise
and which also protect the airport from community encroachment. The establishment of noise zones is an
important step when determining future land-use, and the factors used to ascertain them will vary depending
upon local/national standards. Noise zones should be calculated and based on the ultimate achievable
throughput
of the airport; i.e. when the. runway is saturated, such that long term development flexibility is ensured.
operations area The designation given to the area occupied by airlines and ground handling, catering, etc.,
personnel who handle the aircraft while it is on the ground. It is usually located near the apron and includes the
area required for the flight crew and flight attendants as well as airline and ground handling personnel
assigned
to ground service operations. Certain amenities for personnel; e.g. wash rooms, lunchrooms, locker rooms,
together with support areas for stores, are also located in this area.
passenger, connecting See passenger, transfer
passenger, destination With respect to a specific airport, a destination passenger is one who's final section
of carriage, including aircraft disembarkation, baggage claim, etc., takes place at said facility. Synonymous
with
terminating or arrivals passenger.
passenger, originating With respect to a specific airport, an originating passenger is one who's first section
of carriage, including check-in, aircraft embarkation, etc, takes place at said facility. Synonymous with
departures
passengers
passenger, terminating See passenger, destination.
passenger, transfer A passenger making a direct connection between two flights (i.e., using different aircraft
and flight numbers operated by the same or another airline), or a passenger arriving at an airport of a State
and whose journey continues on another flight at the same or another airport of that State (ICAO Airport
Economics Manual Doc 9562). Synonymous with connecting passenger.
IAT Glossary
A
peak day The second busiest day in the busiest or second busiest week of normal airport traffic.
peak period, typical The typical peak is the maximum level of traffic, lower than the absolute peak, reached
in busy periods of a typical busy day (see busy day).
ramp See apron.
Regional Airports Steering Groups (RASGs) Multi-disciplinary IATA bodies of airline representatives
established in Europe and Asia/Pacific. They meet twice a year to review airport developments within their
regions.
Schengen/non-Schengen The name Schengen refers to a treaty signed in March 1995 by seven European
Union countries. The purpose of the treaty was to end internal border checkpoints and controls, and an
additional
eight European countries have signed the treaty since it came into effect. The 15 Schengen countries are:
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands,
Norway,
Portugal, Spain and Sweden. All these countries except Norway and Iceland are European Union members.
short-haul Operating distances of <1,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal
cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
stand, aircraft A designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft (ICAO Annex 4, 14,
Vol. I).
stopway (SWY) A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of takeoff run available prepared as a
suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned takeoff (ICAO Annex 4, 14 Vol.
I, PANS-ABC, PANS-ATM).
taxilane a route bounded on either one or both sides by aircraft parking positions, and by which aircraft can
only gain access to these parking positions.
taxiway A defined path on an airfield established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link
between
one part of the airport and another, including:
• aircraft stand taxilane — A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to
aircraft stands only.
• apron taxiway— A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a through taxi
route across the apron.
• rapid exit taxiway (RET) — A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow
landing airplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby
minimizing
runway occupancy times (ICAO Annex 2,4,14 Vol. I, PANS-ATM). Synonymous with high-speed exit
taxiway.
traffic, direct transit Traffic which both arrives and departs the point (transits the point) as part of a
continuous
movement under a single air ticket or waybill, without a stopover, on the same or different aircraft identified by
the same airline designator and flight number (ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport
Doc 9626).
traffic, true origin and destination Traffic with the origin being the first point named on the transportation
document and the destination being the last point on a one-way movement or the point located furthest from
the point of origin on a return (round trip) movement (ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air
Transport Doc 9626).
User Charges Panel (UCP) The User Charges Panel is responsible for representing IATA airlines in
negotiations
with airport authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport, including but not limited to landing fees,
terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and monopoly-type
user charges.
ACRONYMS
a/c Aircraft
ACFT Aircraft
ACC Airport Consultative Committee
ACI Airports Council International
AMD Archway metal detector (pax and hand baggage screening)
AOC Airline Operators Committees
AODB IATA Airport and Obstacle Database or Airport Operational Database
APASG Asia Pacific Airports Steering Group
AHM Airport Handling Manual
APM Automated people mover
ARP Airport reference point, with latitude and longitude to the nearest second based on the WGS-
84
API (world geodetic system).
APU Advance passenger information
A-SMGS Auxiliary power units
ATA Advanced surface movement guidance and control system
ATB Air Transport Association (American)
ATC Automated ticket and boarding pass
ATFM Air traffic control
ATM Air traffic flow management
BAR Air traffic movement
BHS Board of Airline Representatives
BMS Baggage handling system
BOT Building management system
BOOT build-operate-transfer (leasing term)
BRS build-own-operate-transfer (leasing term)
BTO Baggage reconciliation system
CAA build-transfer-operate (leasing term)
CAPEX Civil Aviation Authority
CCTV Capital expenditure(s)
CDA Closed-circuit television
CFC Continuous descent approach
CHP Chlorofluorocarbon
CIP Combined heat and power
CT Commercially important passenger or Capital investment programme
CTA Computed tomography imaging
CUTE Cargo terminal area or Central terminal area
DCS Common use terminal equipment
DCV Departures control system
ECAC Destination Coded Vehicle
EDS European Civil Aviation Conference
EDTS Explosive detection system
EIS Explosive detection tomography system
ETD Environmental impact statement
ETV Electronic trace detection
EU Elevating transfer vehicle
FAA European Union
FBO Federal Aviation Administration
Fixed base operator
IATA