Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TEXTILE FIBRES
By"
J. CORDON COOK
BSc. PhO. CCh€m. FRSC
LS.A. Building,HackworthIndustrialPark,
Shildon,Co. Durham,DL4 lLH, England
Firstpublished/,959
SecondEdition 1960
Third Edition 1964(November)
FourthEdition 1968
Reprinted1974
Fifih Editiott 1984
Reprintedl,993
I S B N 0 9 0 4 0 9 54 0 I
J.G.C.
vl
CONTENTS
page
MAN.MADD FII}RES
FuNrolrr4rNrrs. oF FrBnBSrnucrune tx
3. Pnorarx Frnnns l5
Casein Fibres t7
Groundnut Protein Fibres 35
Zein Fibres l4l
Soya Bean Protcin Fibres 144
Collagen Fibres t46
MiscellaneousProtcin Fibrcs t47
page
Nylon I I 292
Nylon 6.10 302
New Types of Polyamide Fibre 308
2. Polyr,srr,n Flnnes 328
PoiyethyleneTerephthalateFibres
(PET Polyester Fibres) 330
Poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene
TerephthalateFibres (PCDT polyester Fibres) 316
Other Types of Polyester Fibre 388
3. Por-yvlNyr" DEnrvrrrvr Flnnns 392
PolyacrylonitrileFibres 393
Polyvinyl chloride Fibres 444
Polyvinylidenechloride Fibres 484
Polyvinyl alcohol Fibres 493
Polytetrafluoroethylene (and related) Fibres 509
Polyvinylidenedinitrile Fibres 523
PolystyreneFibres s33
4. Polyolerrx FlnRrs 536
PolyethyleneFibres 541
PolypropyleneFibres 564
5. Polyunsnr,q,ne Frnnes 610
'
6. Mrscnlr"rNe,ousSyvnrr,nc FlnRrs 639
Glass Fibres 639
Aluminium silicate Fibres 666
Nfetallic Fibres 678
Polyurea Fibres 707
PolycarbonateFibres 7t4
C a r b o nF i b r e s 7t6
INoex 7t9
vlI
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTALS OF FIBRE STITUCTURE
D u r i n g t h e l a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y ,a l l t h e f a r n i l i a r
n r a t c r i a l st l r a t t h c
world.lras bee. using for triousancrs of ycars huvc co'c un<Jcr
t'e microscope'scie'ce.has opcncclup a
ircat cra of cxproratiori
which is_probing into rhe nature of matciiat
thi.gs. W" ,;^;;i;
know why differcnt forrns of nratter bchave
as il.rcydo: and to
{ind our answerswe have had to stucly ttte
atours and rnolcculcs
frorn which n.raterialsare nrade.
In this respect,natural-fibrcs havc proved
to bc onc of the
most
.interesting ficlds of nrodcrn scicntific ,"..nr"ti. nr- *i
rnaterialsof o'.e of tlrc worlcl'sgrcfltcsti'drrstrics,
ar;J';, ir;;,,1i;;;
I o r ' r s o I n r a t t c r i n t h c i r o w ' r ' l g l r t ,n t r . s ' i r a v c
r o r r gc x c i r c d t r r c
curiosity of scientisrs.Now, rJsearch
iirto thc .f";r[i;-;;,;
physics of fibres has provic.lecla
satisfying cxplanatiou of thc
runusualand invaluablc propertics that
itrey possess.
7'lucad-like Molecules
A l l f i b r e sh a v e b e c n f o u n c l t o s h a r c o n e
r h i n g i n c o n r n r o n ;l h c
f.undamentalparticles, nrolcculcr,ni" ,,t*"y, long ancl thrcad-
-the
like. That is to sav. thc'rolcculer;i
fib;;r, r'nttcr arc i. t'c
fo.n of hunclrecrs b. .u.., trrousancrs of incrividuar^tonrs strung
together one after the orher. rn. n.,ol..irlc
of celiiri;r;:"i;;
isbuiltup by theplantfronrtrr,,J..a,ol" n",or"
:Iilll.,
glucose-nrolecules, ;l-il;l
eacrr of which i' turn cont.i's six carbon
atoms.T'e cellulosernolecule,thcreforc,
is in t'c forni of ;-i;;;
thin chain of atoms.
T h e m o l e c u l c so f a f i b r e _ a r et h u s i n s h a p e
v e r y s i n r i l a rt o t h c
libre itself-And just as trre fibre uoto*s
itr'"rraractcristicson trrc
y a r ' o f w h i c h i t f o r ' r s a s i n g l cs t r a n d , . o . r o " ,
propcrties frorn the threacr-rikc'rorcculcs t r r cf i b r c d c r i v c i t s
of trrc ,,,trrru,.,".'rio,i..
which it is rnade.
One of the ntost outstanclingpropcrtiesof a
fibr.eis its strcrrgth.
R c l a t i v et o i t s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l . i r r e a , i f , " , t r . , i e i f r
of a silk nir;;-f",
c x a m l r l e i, s c x t r a o r c l i n a r i llyr i g h .A s i r r g l c
s t i a n c l ,s o l i n e , , , i l r r "
alnrosti'visible to the nakc. cye, w.ill ,_""ppoit
a wcig't o[ scvcral
ix
I NTRODUCTION
Orietlaliotr
'fhis
orientationof the fibre nroleculesis uot a precisegeonretrical
arrangement.Rather is it a tendency for the majority of the
molecules to lie in one direction. The effect on the libre is
analogousto the effect of the individual strands twisted into a
rope - each one plays its part in taking up the strain on the rope
as a whole.
Long nroleculesof this sort are a characteristicof the peculiar
fornrs bf mattcr wc call plastics ancl rubbcrs, as lvcll as fibrcs'
But it is only very special types of long n.roleculethat arc ablc
to form {ibres.'fhey must, for example,be fairly regular in shape
'repeating'pattern of atoms in the molecule.They must
with a
not have iarge pendant groups of atoms sticking out from the
sides,or the long moleculesare unable to pack together'
When the long molecules are able to pack closely together,
tlrey can exert strong forces of attraction betweeneach other' In
o fibr" the moleculesare able to develop these forces, and it is
this that is responsiblefor many of the fibre's characteristic
propcrties.
-
Insiclethe fibre the long moleculeslying alongsideeach othcr
pack tightly here and there into their little bundles. But the
inoleculesare so long that they can each be involved in many
diflerent close-packedbunclles.In betweenthese orderly regions,
the fibre moleiules run through regions in which the molecules
are aligned to some degree along the fibre, but are not aligned
rvith the precisiorrthat allows thcm to pack together into well-
olclcredbundles.
The eflect of this wandering of molecules in and out o[
r c g i o r r so f t i g h t - p a c k i n gi s t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l m o l e c u l ei s t i e d
firnrly to its neighboursat inlervals along its length. In between
'tiecl' region there is a sector of freedom and disordcr.It is
each
t h i s p e c u l i a r m o l e c u l a ra r r a n g e m e n t h a t g i v e s a l i b r e i t s c o n l -
bination of strength and flexibility.
I NTRODUCTI ON
1 ' h o u g h n a t u r e h c r s c l f p r o d u c c sn r a n y c l i f f c r c n ts o r t s o f l o n g
rnolecules,she has used few for nraking Iibres. 'I'lrc dillcrcnces
betweenthe natural fibres are the result of diflcrcnt charactcristics
in tl.reconstituentmolecules.
CI{YS'|ALLINI'fY
Cellulose
I n t l r e v e g e t a b l ef i b r e s ,c c l l u l o s ej s t h c m a l c r i a l t h a t p r o v i d e s
the
thread-like molecules.This molecule. built up by nature from
s n r a l l e rg l u c o s en r o l e c u l c si,s r e g u l a i i n a r r a n g e m e n tb, u t i t
is
fairly rigid in structure.The celluloscfibres,in consequence, are
s t r o n ga n d t o u g h .
A t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s a l o n g t h e c e l l u l o s em o l e c u l e t h e r e a r e
groups of atonrs which tend to att.ractwater. wherr cotton,
for
cxample,is steepedin water, thcsegroups encouragetrrerelatively
small water moleculesto penetratebetwee' the long thin celr;ro;;
molecules.As a result, the fibre structure is loo"se'eclu; u;J
softened.In a humid atmosprrere,therefore,cotton fibres aie not
so inclined to break - a factor that may have helpeclttre growtt.,
of the cotton tradein Lancashire.
This softeni'g eflect of water also explainshow mercerization
c.rn give
.its spccial propcrties to a cotion fabric. The e{Iect oi
t h c c a r s t i c t r e a t * c n t i s t o l o r c c w a t c r n r o l c c u l c si ' t o i l ; f i b ; ,
making il soft a'd plastic. The cellulose of the cotton ir ii"i,
able to 'Ilow' as it is stretched.
Ani.ral fibres are nrade from protei's, the classof substances
tuscdi' the animal world for so nrany builcling jobs. protein
rnoleculcsare, ol'lceagain, long, thread-likechainJ of atonrs.
plant world, celluloseholds a monopory i' fibre produc-
. In the
t i o n . w h e t h e r i t i s i n c o t t o n o r t r r et r u n k o f o i r . . , i ' f l a x o r i n
the fruit or leaves,the cellulosehas the sarle chemicalstructure.
Ilut thc proteins used in tl'reanirnal worrcldiffer widely one fro'r
another.
Proteins
The long moleculesof a protein are built up from sorne twenty
or so differenttypesof srnallamino acid moleiule.The proportio;
and arrangementof thesedifferent units cleterminethe structure
of the protein moleculeand the nature of the protein itself.
. By cornparison with proleins, the regular cillulose n.rolecule
built from its glucoseunits is sinrplea'cr straightforward.t'roteiri
nrolecules,with infinitc possibilitiesfor the arrangernentof their
n r a n y c o n s t i t u c na t m i n o a c i d u n i t s ,a r e e x c e e d i n g l cy o r l p l e x . B u t
chenristshave been probing steacrilyinto the myiteries oi protcirr
s l r u c t u r cd u r i n g r e c c n ty c a r s ,a n d w c a r c b e g i ' r i i n gt o u ' d e r s t a n c r
the intricaciesof thesecomplex molecules.
xil
INTRODUCO
T IN
lhc protein molcculcsin woot arc now
rcgardcclas bcing foldcd
r'olcculcs.T'c long, thr.cacl_likc "f*i", of ,,t?ntsc,o.ot lic straig^t
alongsideeach other: they bencl
uo"r.*ura', and forrvards like a
m e a n d e r i n gs t r e a m .
In the ordinary unstretchccl
are arra'ged alonqsideeach other .wool fibre, thescfolcicclmolcculcs
ancl lioiit.tte g.n"roi;i;;;;;;
of the fibre irselfl When the fibre
is ,i..i.tr..r, the fol<ls in thc
rnolecttlcsare partly straightenecl
""t-rriii they can.ot u'folcl
a ' y f u r r h c r .T r r e w o o l f i b r c i s t r r . n
oi ir,"'ii,"it or its crasticitv.r
Cross-links
fhere is anothcr fu'clanrentar criflcrencc
bctwccn thc ccrurose
moleculesi' cotton ancrflax,.anJ
iri"-p."t.r" nrorccuresof woor.
Wrereas the close-packedcellulor"-rnii."uf..
solely by elecrrostaiicforces."f ;rr;";i;;]'tn" are hcld togethcr
n r o l e c u l cas r e a c r u a , yj o i ' c c r t o g c i i ; ; ; ; ; ; ; "tor._packcd woot
""^ti.ir-,.rv a n c rt r r c r cb y c r r c r r r i c a r
lirrks' T'hcsc'cross-ririks'
molecules.Thev ensurctrrat .act as ,rrong tics bctrvccrrrrrc
whcn'th-e'ntl."ur., arc strctcrrccl
of their norn.,aifoldecl ,ho;., out
il;y';;;;;]; rhar shapc whcn rlrc
stretchingforce is renroved.
One of wool's most inrportant
charactcristicsis its thirst for
water. As in the casc of, cotton,
ilr; ;ilii w.rcr nlolcculcs ca'
penetrate betwcen thc long
*oot ,"ol."ut.r. U,.,.1;;-;;lrii;
conditions,wool can absorb Inf
f itr-o*n-*.igfl, o[ water.
Unlike ceilurose,however,the protein
of woor is attackedfairry
readity by warer, which cause.;;;i;;;;
l'rolecule.If wool is stretc.hea, changes in rhc wool
fo. ."n,rrjt", ancl t'c' hcatcd in
boiling water and atowed to'coor
* i r i r l i ' r , t t r s r r c t c r r c cirt, w i '
remain in its stretchedform.
The reason for this is founcl jn
the cross_linkswlrich join the
wool moleculestopether.Hot
watei oi'ri.nnl can dcstroy tlrcsc
links so that trre nioleculesor.
ri." to'ti^v'in thc ncw positions
they reachedrvhen the nUr. *r-rtr*f*i]
heating will actuallv causc new I\,Ioreovcr,prolongcd
links to for.nr '"' rvhich anclror thc
'rolecules firnrly iri rhcir new
;;;iir;;
I n l s l s w l r a t I t a n p c n sw. l r c n . l r a i r
i s g i v e n a p c n n a n e n tw a v e .
l ' h e h a i r i s b c n t a n i r r v i s t c ci nl t o - i i s
" r i i v l ' r o p . , w h i c r rs t r c t c h c s
* Strctchirrgof
^ wool bf"r^_o^,llI partly srr.liglttcnsorrt thc fokls.
u o r n p l e t ct r a r r s i t i o fnr o,,f
t o - k c r a t r nt e p - k c r a t i r o r n l y t : r k c sp i . ; ' ; ; ;
o e s t r o y r n tgh e c r o s s - l i n i i r .
xill
I NTRODUCTI ON
a n d d i s t o r t st l r ef i b r e s .I t i s t h e n s t c a m c dw h i l s t h c l d i n t h i s s h a p c :
the links between the clistortedmoleculesbreak down and tlten
r c b u i l d t h e m s e l v eisn t h e i r n e w p o s i t i o n sO . n c e t h i s h a sh a p p e n e d ,
the hair fibrcs arc lixed firnrly in their ncw shape.
Silk Protcitt
S i l k , l i k e w o o l , i s a n a n i m a l f i b r e ,a n d i t i s o n c ea g a i na p r o t c i n '
B u t t h e c h e m i c a sl t r u c t u r eo f t h e s i l k p r o t e i ni s d i f l e r e n tf r o m t h a t
of wool. This clillerenceis reflectedin the diflerencebetweenthe
two fibres.
Where wool ntoleculesare folded and capableof being stretched
out straight, the silk moleculesare in the extended position to
start witli. That is why silk possesses little 'returnable' elasticity
alter a substantialclegreeof stretching.when it is stretchedwitll
sulhcient force, the moleculeshave to slide over eacl'rother and
clo not return to their original positions when the stretching
forcc is releascrl.The nrolcculesoI silk are not joincd togcthcr
by chemical cross-linksas are the molecules of wool.
Research has shown that in silk the protein nroleculesare
h i g h l y o r i e n t a t e d- t h e y l i e i n t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e f i b r e a n d c a n
pnik tigtttty together.The forces of attraction bctwcctrthe molc-
cules are thus able to conre into play and give the nrolecular
b u n d l e sv e r y g r e a t s t r e n g t h .
The c{Iect of hcat on silk is similar to its eflect on wool' At a
high tenrperature,silk rvill burn. But silk is simpler than wool in
iti rnolecular structure. There are no cross-litrksbetween tlre
moleculesto break down or rebuild. silk will thus stand higher
t e n r p e r a t u r etsh a n w o o l w i t h o r r t t a k i n g a n y h a r m .
Scricin, the gum that holds the twin stranclsof silk together,
is a protein similar to that of silk. But the moleculesof sericin
protein are not alignccl,ancl the tnaterial is thus not fibrous'
This differencebetweensilk fibre atrd sericingum is an example
o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n tfso r f i b r e f o r n r a t i o n .I t i s n o t e n o u g ht h a t t h e
molecules of the material shotrld be long and thread-like. To
nrake a uselul fibrc, they nrust be of stlch a shapeand strttcturo
that they can bc alignecland packedtogetheralongsidecach other.
Eflcct of Oricrtlntion
D i l l c r c n c c si n t h c p r o P c r t i e so f n a t u r n l f i b r c so f s i n t i l a rc h c n r i c a l
c o n s t i t u t i o nc a t r b c e x p l a i n e di r t p a r t b y v a r i a t i o n si n t h e s t a t co f
xiv
I NTROD U CTI ON
a l i g n n r c n to f t h c n r o l c c u l e sF. I a x a n d c o t t o r r ,f o r c x n r r r p l cn, r c
chenricallyalmost identical;they are both celluloscfibrcs.llut flax
has tcnsilepropertiesquite diflcrent from those of cotton; it has
a _ t e n a c i t y - 9 fu p t o 5 5 . 6 c N / t e x ( 6 . 3 g . p . d . ) , c o n r p a r c cw l itlr
2 6 . 5 - 4 4 c N / t e x ( 3 - 5 g . p . d . )o f c o t t o n .
These differencesin the tensilepropcrtiesof cotton and flax arc
causedby differencesin the fine structureo[ thc two fibrcs. Most
irlportant of all arc the differcnccsin thc dcgrcc of alignnrcnt
of the cellulosemoleculesthemsclves.In flax, tlrc rnolcculcsarc
highly orientatedalong Lhe fibre; they lie alongsideone anothcr
in the same direction as the fibrc itsclf. ln cotton, this dcgrec of
alignment is not so high; there are more of thc moleculcslying
'out
of true'.
When the flax fibre is subjcctedto a stretchingforce, thc alignccl
tnoleculescombine to resistthe force. But in cotton, many more of
the moleculesare lying at an angle to the long fibre axis anclcon-
t r i b u t c l i t t l c t o t h c s t r c n g t ho f t h c f i b r c . I n n n t u r n l l i b r c s . l h c
'dcgrcc
oI orienl.ation'oI tlre long moleculcs is controllcd bv
nature, and there is little we can clo about it. Nnturc givcs flai
a n d r a m i e t h e i r u n u s u a l l yh i g h t e n s i l es t r e n g t h sb y a l i g n i n gt h c i r
moleculesto a high degrce.Wc havc no way o[ incrcasirrgthc
dcgree of orientation of thc celh.rloscmolcculcs in cotton in
order to make it compare in strcngth with flax or ranric.r
In natural fibres, also, the way in which thc molcculcs arc
alignedis complicatedby various factors.'fhe ccllulosemolcculcs
i n f l a x o r c o t t o na r e o r g a n i z e di n u n i t b u n c l l c so r f i b r i l s ,w h i c h a r e
in turn built up into largcr units in thc fibrc. 'flrcsc molccular
bundles are not laid down by the plant in a simple fore-and-aft
fashion along the fibre; they are in spiral form.
As would be expected,thc nature of the spiral in cclluloscfibrcs
has a great infiuence on the tensileproperties of thc librc. 'fhc
greaterthe angle of the spiral,the more the fibre can stretchbcfolc
the alignedmoleculeshavc to take up thc full strain of thc tcr)silc
force. Cotton, with an anglc o[ spirality of about 3l clcgrccs,has
a -ttruchgrcater clongntionat brcak tlran flax, with its spiral arrglc
of 5 degrces.
l - h c e f l e c t o f o r i e n t a t i o na n d s p i r a t i t yc a n t h u s b e s e c n q u i t c
clearly in the case of natural cellulosic librcs. Cclh"rloseis n
reasonablyun.ilorm straightforwarclrnolccule which consistsof
*
. Tlrs dcgrecof oricnl.ation of cclluloscmolcculcsin co(on cnn bc
r n c r c a s etdo s o t r r cc , r t c r rbt y n r e r c c r i z a l i o n .
xv
INTRODUCTION
COPOLYMERS
(A) nnruoovt coPoLYMER -x-x-Y-x-Y-Y-Y-x-
.t,
Linear moleculesmay be produced by polyrnerizationof a mixture of
'copolymers' in which the linear molecule con-
monomers, forming
tains trvo or more types of monomer unit. A nunrber of clillcrent typcs
of copolymer may be proclucedin this way, as shown abovc.
In i randont copolymcr, the mononrer units are linked together in
random fashion. ln a block copolymer, one or mote of tlre contponents
may be polymerized to form sectionsof nrolccule containing otrly one
type of nrononrer trnit. These'blocks'are linked togcther to form the
liriear molecule. In an altennling copolynrcr, the motromer units alter-
nate in sequencealong the linear molecule. In a grall copolynrer, a
block of third componcnt may be grafted on to the linear molecule,
forming part of the molecular chnin itself, or forming a side chain.
. ut the pro-
m a n y r e p c a t i n gu n i t s o f s m a l l e r g l u c o s es e c t i o n s B
teins from rvhich the animal fibres are tnade are much more
cornplex in their detailed chenricalarratrgetnent.fhe orierrtation
of protcin moleculcsstrchas those of wool, for exarnple,is conr-
p l i c a t c c l b y t h e c x i s t c n c eo f c h e m i c a l b r i d g c s b c t w e c n t h c
nrolccules,and by the lolded state in which the nrolectrlcslic.
Control of Orientation
W c c a n d o l i t t l e t o n r o d i f y t h e d c g r c e o I o r i c r r t a l i o no f t l r c
m o l c c u l e si l r n a t u r a l f i b r c s . B u t i t t n t a k i n g s c t t t i - s y n l h c t i o
cr
s . v n t l r e t i fci b r e s t l r c a l i g n n r e n to f l o n g m o l c c u l e si s a n e s s e r r t i a l
step in manufaclure. We are able to control the alignntent in
such a way as to exert a major influenceon the propertiesof the
fibre itself.
xvl
I NTRODUCTION
l - h c f i r s t s t c p i n m a k i n g a s y n t h c t i co r s c n r i - s y n t l r c tfiicb r c i s t o
obtain a substanccwith the rcquisite long thrcad-likc nrolcculcs.
In the case of a syntheticfibre, this substanceis built up fronr
simpler chemicals;in the case of a semi-synthcticl.ibre,iuch as
a rayon, the substancehas been nrade bv naturc.
x\'ll
I NTRODUCTI ON
Spitrtting
T h e f i r s t s t a g eo f f i b r e - p r o d u c t i o ins c a r r j c d o u t b y r e n d e r i n gt h c
mass of fibre-forming material into a liquid or serni-liquiclitate.
This can be done either by dissolvirrgthe rnaterial in i solvent.
o r b y h e a t i n gi t u n t i l i t m e l t s .I n e i t h e rc a s e ,t h e l o n g m o l e c u l e s
are freed from closeentanglenrentwith each other, and can move
independently.
The liquid containing the fibre-forming material is then
eltqgde_dthrough very small holes so that it emergesas fine jets
of liquid. These jets are hardened,forming a solid rod which
possesscs all the superficialcharacteristicsof a long filament such
assilk.
In the production of nran-madefibres, the extrusion of liouicl
fibre-forming material, followed by hardening of the fine jeti to
f o r n r f i l a r n e n t s i, s d e s c r i b e da s ' s p i n n i n g ' .l t i s s i n r i l a r i o t h e
'spinning' process
uscclby the silkrvorm or the spider,resultingas
it docs in the production of continuouslilantents.
The hardening of the jets from the spinneretmay be carried
out in one of severaw l ays:
(l) Wet SpinningT . h e s o l u t i o n o f f i b r e - f o r n t i n gm a t e r i a ln r a y
.
b e e x t r u d e di n t o a n a q u e o u sc o a g u l a t i n gb a t h i n w h i c h t h e j e t s
are hardened as a result of chemical or physical change.
Viscose, for example, is wet spun, the solution of cellulose
x a n t l r a t eb e i n g e x t r u d e di n t o a n a q u e o u ss o l u t i o n o f a c i d s a n c l
s a l t s . c e l l u l o s c i s r e g c n c r a t e da, r r d t h i s i s i n s o l u b l ei n w a t c r .
forming solid filarnents.
xvlrl
:
.-L
_1
tr?t=iji*5s
z = 9= 9 !r
cr
:!3 t;
lrF
i7="-89. ! "Ei
q
;:lE;:::,ijii:i
= < d
s\ill:Iii=i;'E
;F € E :i : E €
3 E : > , = -
L
";€g
z
itrfi*i:g
ii;
- lr-!
r ' 7
d i E - " . ; e
) 7
=
<r
J F
. T 5E I E 1
t-
,:
H - 7 f,< ?=,6.^o .=
(r@
E, ' , '=i >"a.;i . E f go ' x r . \
F U ) -. P
,;i* i:igi#.ff!,i;i
z s o c c E -
=E"pIE;.= !
2 - u c ) ; 5 =
3s -
'*
- -
' U- X- - v . \;
L -
.r
- ' - b -
a, . =
- 2
=<
U_
g*i:Eii;;;
; :i;,;Ei: $:: i€ Y=
= = ; i : =.ii =
.:< H6 U
8; ii:
=
?!
- \
f,
!;:;:;i!:::ifiFii
19.? "i - ! >,
Q 6 : E E E o
a: I i = aE
.=9.=9 E
- - - r v - - Lr,
d
i:;:l!!#*t ::a:
;si€
r-\
qifjii ii,iii r: -\
j
+
l {
,.
t
tl
*l [ '
i:ii,iitii;i:
siru:€8,;ra ]|
+
+
+
*r
INTRODUCTI ON INTROD UCTION
xxi
INTRODUCTION
I NTRODUCTI ON
I ) u r i ' g t h c s t r e t c h i n go p c r a t i o ni n s y n t h c t i cf i b r c n r a u u f a c t u r c ,
i n b c t w c c r rt h c s c r c g i o n so f c r y s t a l l i n i t ya r c r c g i o n si n w l r i c l l the long moleculesslide ovcr o'e anothcr as thcy arc pullcd ilrto
the moleculeshave trot been able to line tltenrselves up with suclr alignment in the direction of the fibre's longiiudinal axis. As
precision.These arc the anrorphous regions of the fibre. drawing continues,more and morc of the moleculesare brought
In this tnodertr conceptiotl o[ fibre-structure we regard the long to a statewhcre they can pack alongsideone anothcr into crvslal-
threacl-liketnolcculesas passing through regionsof orderedcrYs.-
-embedclea line regions; in these regions, the molecules are able to hold
talline arrangementwhic'h are in amorphousmaterial tightly togetheras a result of their cohesiveforces.Thcy wiI the.
The molecuies in the amorphous regions are aligned to sotfle rcsistfurthcr movenlentwith respcctto one anothcr.
clegree,but have not been lined up with the precisiontltat enables whe. nylon is drawni' this way alter spinning,a filarnert may
them to pack togetherin a wcll-defiucdcrystallineforrr-r. stretch to as much as live times its original lerUth. Then, quitc
abruptly, the drawn filarnent wirl resist furthei strctchiirg. rts
molcculeshave aligned themselvesas effcctivelyas possiblJi.to
^t*
crystallineregionsand are holding tightly together.'l'he filanrcnt
..-*-d
_X-X_X-X_X-X_X- -x-x-'x-x-x(.1 u'ill now withstand much greater force without stretchi'g, and if
1 ^-x-.. tlre load increasesit will eventuallyrupture as the nrolcculcsare
I ^-x
u/n
-ya dragged apart.
(A) -x-x-x-x(i_"
' ^-x- Dlect ott Properties
(B)
The degreeof alignment of fibre moleculesaffcch thc propcrtics
of a fibre in severalways. The more closely the rnolcculcspack
-n-*'1'r-r-*al]*- together,the greater is the tenacity of the tibre. This incrcaie in
I ')x-""\x tenacityis accompaniedby a decreasein thc clongationat brcak;
I u'xt^ the moleculesare not able to slide over one anotrreras they coul<i
-i-x-x-x(i
^\v belore alignment took place.
"-x-
/al
A high degreeof oric'tation also tends to incrcascthe stiffncss
\ v ,
or rigidity of the fibre. The nroleculesno longcr have the freec.lorn
Cross Litrkitrpatrc!Clmitt Brcncltitrg.T1e productio. o[ loitg molecUle-s of movement that they had before alignment.
during polyrierization of a monorncr X may lake place in such a $u{
as to'fbrrn a linear molecule (A). It may, however, lortn brancnc; watcr is unable to penetratebetweentho moleculcsin a crvstal-
nrolecules(B), and tlteseutay evcnttrallylink logetlter to lorm networN line region of the fibre as readily as jt does in the amorphous
structures (C).
-'i'fr" regions.Increasedalignmcnt thereforetendsto lower the -oirtur"
fo.ri-iion of brancltestcnclsto reducc the ability of the linea! absorptionof the fibre. This resistanceto water-pcnctrationaffccts
nrolecules to pnck togcther irr such a way as to form {gsjons^:j
crystallinity, and branche<lmolecules do not as a rulc result ln g<lv" the dyeing properties in a highly orientatectfibre; moleculesof
Iibre properties. dyestuffcannot migrate frorn the dyebathinto the spaccsbetwccn
The formation o[ a netrvork structure, in which.the linear molectt.les the fibre motecules.
nr" iin[.1 iogether, prcvcnts moven]ent of tlre chains of aton'r.s rclatlv9 'fhis
. Clbsc'pncking of the chains is not possiblc, itrttt
resistanceto pcnctration by forcign moleculcsaflccts thc
i;-;;i;--;t;ifi
crystallizatiold t ocs not norrnnlly takc place. gc'cral chemical stability of a fibre; highly oricntatcd fibrcs nrc
Network structures m"y b" created aitcr the littenr-nro-lcculcsltllc nrore resistantto chemical attack.
been formed arrd aligned into libres.Tltis ltas the result.o[ blndlng.]': There is a markcd changc in the appearanceof fibrcs ns thcy
molectrles firnrly togethcr, and nr:ry intprove-certain libre properrt-; a r c d r a w n . I n t h c u n d r a w r rs t a t c ,n y l o n i s u s u a l l yc l u l la n < lo p a q u c ;
,srvcllincnrnv bc rctluced, for exantplc, ils solveltts(e'g' watcr) can'i"'
nenetralc scl'rcadilv belrvccn the long nrolccttlcs' Ccllulosc ffiolccttt'" as the filamc'ts are drawn, and orientation i'crcascs, tlie illa-
"Iopel' and 'Corval"
Ii.' "i"ii-iiitt cd in'nrodified rayons iuch as
I NTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
ments acquire a transparencyand lustre which are characteristic The great modern rayon industricshavc dcvclopcd frortr thcsc
of drawn nylon. natural long-chainmoleculeswhich nature has ncglccteclto turn
out in the form of ready-madetextile fibres.Cellulosefrottr woocl
MAN-MADE FIBRES is a raw material for rayon; it is separatedfrom its undcsirablc
gurns and then re-made into fibres suitablc for tcxtilcs. Cascin
Though nature has used long threadlike molecules for many from milk, and other proteins,are manipulated r.rntiltheir long
purpo-ses,it is only in a relatively few casesthat she has fulfilled
moleculesare lying side-by-sidein fibrous fornr.
ih.^t.quit..ents for a textile fibre. In wool and cotton, flax and F i n a l l y ,w e h a v e n o w l e a r n c dt o r c m a i n e n t i r c l yi n d c p c t t c l c tot t[
silk, nature has carricclout tlre entire job of fibre production. All nature for our fibre production. We can start from scratch and
we have to cto is to avail ourselvesof nature's bounty' actually make the long fibre-forming moleculesthcmsclvesfrotlt
In other cases,naturehas associatedher libre-formingsubstance sirnpler chemicals.This is what we have done in makirrg nylon
such as cellulosewith extraneousmaterials that make it useless and the other syntheticfibrcs. As a result,wc hirvc o1rcttcdtrp a
as a fibre. ln wooct, for exan.rple,thc cellulosefibres are bound great new field of scientilic industry which can provicleus with
togetherby lignin and other gummy sttbstances. fibres unlike any that we have been able to derivc frotn naturc's
1et again, nature may produce the necessarylibre-forming limited selectionof ready-madelong-chainmolecules.
n-roleculei,but ornit to alig' them in the necessaryway. Caseiu,
for exarnple,the protein of milk, will form a fibre if the nroleculcs
Chssificnliono[ Mln-Mndc Fibrcs
are arrangedalongsideeach other.
I\,[an-madefibres fall naturally into two broad groups,dcpcnding
on the origin of the fibre-fornringmatcrialsfrorn which thcy arc
POLYMERIZATION produced (seepage xxx ).
CH.=g1161+ cH2: cHCt + CH"-611a, Polymeriz-ation may take lvlan-madefibres arc considcrcdunder two nrain hcaclings:
vtNyl cHLoRtDE place in one or other of
I two ways: A. N,lrun,rt Polyut:n FtBnes (in which thc fibrc-forrning
t (l) Additiotr Polynterizatiott. material is o[ natural origin).
- cH2-cHct-
-cH2-cHcr cH2-cHCt- o;:ii:"i:l *'il;ll B. SyN'nrEl'tcFrlnes (in which thc fibrc-fornring nratcriaI is
CHLORIDE
POLYVINYL
lllf "11.1 nrade from sinrplersubstances).
togethcr without the elinrina-
(l ) tion of atoms to fornr
by-product molecules.'fhe These main sectionsare sub-dividcclas lollorvs:
r--------r nlonomer molecules literally
add together. PolVetfvlgnet
NHa(cHa)5NH',H_+_HQoc(cH.)ocooH
Natural Polymer Fibres
DTAMTNEotar''.nc'o :frili'1,?tt"j':i.3:"-#i'i:l?i The fibres in this group may be classifiedinto the following
JY potvmeiirnacte
nrrr"-roitt\iiig
h" "/liil;;" ioivnl"'lt"ti""' sub-groups:
NHe(cHe)ouH.oc (cx.). cooH+ H2o iir"ii,ononr.r nrolcculesli'k (l) CelluloseFibres; Rayons (in which thc fibre is wholly
I togcther via the double bond or mainly cellulose).
Y
(2) Cellulose Estcr Fibres.
(cx.).HH.oc(cn").co]oH
H[Hr'r * nl,o i\r\,ni]:;il;;, poryttrcriza-
(3) Protcin Fibrcs.
-
poLyAMtDE
"
tiorr'. This is a proccss itl
(4) MisccllaneousNatural Polymcr Fibres.
(s) l,:',"'ll,J["",]i::*lf':"Jf,ll3'i,",
chcmical action which results in the elimination of a by-prod.uct Synthe(icFibrcs
;i;G;ri;, comrnonly tvater. Polyatnidesare produced by copde.satio'
polynrerization (lJ)' Synthetic libres may be classil'iedwith rcfcrencc to thcir
xxiv xxv
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTI ON
chcnrical structure. The following synthctic materials have 92 pcrccntoI thc hyclroxyl
groupsarcacctylatc<1, thc lcrrn,trincc_
become the' basisof cotnmercially-irnportantfibres: tate'may bc uscdas a gcncricdcscription
of thc fibre.
(l) Polyamides.
(Z) Polyesters. Auylic. A manufactured fibre in which the fibrc-fornring sub_
(3) Polyvinyl Derivatives. sta.ceis any long chain synthcticpolymerconrposcd of ai lcast
(a) Polyacrylonitrile. 85 per cent by weightof acrylonitrileunirs (-CI-I,-CI-I(CN)_).
(t') Polyvinyl chloride.
Anidex. A rnanufacturedfibre in which thc fibre-lbrnring
(c) Polyvinylidene chloride.
substarrce
is any long chainsyntheticpolynrcrcornposcd oI it
@ Polyvinyl alcohol. least50 per cent by weightof one oi ntbre estersof a n.tono-
(e) Polytetrafluoroethylene.
hydricalcoholandacrylicacid(Cl12= ClI-COOII).
A Polyvinylidenedinitrile.
(e) Polystyrene.
Aranid. A manufacturedfibre in which thc libre-lbruring
(/r) MiscellaneousPolyvinyl Derivatives.
substance is a long chain syntheticpolyanricle
in wrrichat leasi
(4) Polyolefins.
95 p9r cent of the anridelinkages-(-CO-Nlf-)arc artachcd
(a) Polyethylene.
directlyto two aromaticrings.
(D) Polypropylene.
(5) P o l y u r e t h a n e s .
(6) MiscellaneousSyntheticFibres. Azlon.A manufacturcd
fibrc in which thc fibrc-forrrrirrg
sub-
stance is composedof any rcgencratcdltaturally occurrirrg
This is not by any means the only effectiveway in which man- proteins.
made Iibres may be classified,but it is a simple and straightfor-
G/ass. A manufactured libre in which the fibre-forming sub.
ward method of considering{ibres on the basis of their chemical
stanceis glass.
constitution.It is the classificationwhich has been followed in the
remaining section of the Handbook. Metallic. A manufacturcd fibre composcd o[ ntctal, plaslic-
It should be rememberedthat modern syntheticlibres are often coated metal, metal-coatedplastic, or a core cornpletclycoverecl
copolymersor modificationsof polymers, and they may on that by metal.
account be consideredas belongingto two or more chemicalsub-
groups. For the purposes of this book, libres are included in the Modacrylic. A manrrfacturedfibre in which the fibre-forrning
sub-grouprepresentedby the major constituentof the polymer. substanceis any long chain syntheticpolymer conrposeclof lesi
t h a n 8 5 p e r c e n t b u t a t l e a s t3 5 p e r c e n t b y w e i g l r to f a c r y l o n i t r i l c
Fedcral 'frade CourntissionFibre Idcntilication Act 1958
units (-CH_2-C-ll(CN)-), except fibres qualifying unclcr sub-
In recent years, the nunrber of synthetic libres appearing on the paragraph(2) of paragrapl.r
market has given rise to considerableconfusionregardingthe true fi) (rubber) of ihis sectiirnand fibrcs
qualifying under paragraph(q) (glass)of this section.
nature of textile products.In order to protect producersand con-
sumers from rnisbrandingand false advertising,the U'S. Federal N o v o l o i d .A n r a n u f a c t u r e df i b r e c o u t a i n i n ga t l c a s tB 5 p c r c e n t
Trade Commission established'l(ulcsand Regulationsfor Fibrc b y w e i g h to f a c r o s s - l i n k e nd o v o l a c .
Identificationwhich came into force on 3 March 1960.After that
date, the following generic names were obligatory for man-made N)'lort. A manulactured fibre irt rvhich thc [ibrc.firrrnirrg
t e x t i l ef i b r e s : s u b s t a n c ei s a l o n g - c h a i ns y n t h e t i cp o l y a n r i d ci n w h i c h l c s st h i r n
/lcetate (and Triacetate).A tnanulacturedfibre in which tlte Q5 pcr cent of the anridc (-CO-Nfl-) l i n k a g c sa r c a t t t c h e d
d i r e c t l yt o t w o a r o n r l t i cr i r r g s .
libre-forrning substanceis celluloseacetate.Where not less than
xxvi xxvll
l_ I r-f r_f
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
N y t r i l . A n r a n u f a c t u r e cl l lb r e
c o n t a i n i n ga t I e a s tg 5 p e r c e n t
a Iongchain poly'r.. uinlri.rii.'ii"iii,," (_{H,__c(cN),_) of Saran. A nranufa<
.or
where rhe vinylideneainitrile
unit in the polymer chain.
"""i;";l;';; ressrhan every orher :11::i:i;,i;il'"yiii,,,,,,9".:i"i:!tti"ii,ltf
per cent by weight Ti:li,j,J,t;
of vinylidene .nf.jii.f.
rlnrts (__CH,__CCI1_).
Olefin. A nranufacturedfib.re Spandex.A manufactured
in which the fibre-forming fibre in which thc fibrc_forrning
is a.ny Iong.chain synrhed; p;i;;;, sub_ stanceis a long chain
:?i.^: composedof at reast synrhert" ;;i;;;;;,orp's.o sub_
u-\ per cerrrby weigh_t-of .ihyr.n", ;."p;i;;" pcr cent of a scgmentecl . "" of at teast85
except amorphous (non-crysialli"Lj or ourer orefin unirs polyurcth;;;.
pJrv"i qualirvingunder
catesory(l);ip;;r;raph Vinal. A manufactured
0) (rubber)"ro"illl fibrc irr which thc
fibrc_formingsub-
;ii ffi :'",i"ilr'
il:nif iJoqir'".J'composecr
i I .:l-ltn'l or ar rcas
un;ts(-it{,--ciiriiriiji r
Polyester'A marufactureclfibre
substan_ce in wrric^ the fibre-fornring andrn wtrichrtrc,o,o,ol"ullvlalcohol
is any long .f,uii,,yntlirti;'o;i, ",1'
leas
t 85p.'..it t u'i".ier,,
oi;;;;;;;.;;'i'lTJ?ilff:.,i,,:1,# nroreor .rhe";;; ;;' ;:.11,',.]"",1j a;d any ; ; oi
acict,includ"f, ot thc fibre. ^'l';:j:?'
rt,f
) Pcr ccnt by wcight
:1rb?*.{li: ir,',ioi"^rlr,rt.,ecl to substituted
terephthalateunits p.(__{t"_O_9O_9._H. _CO_O_I and para- Vinyon.A manufacturf
substituted hy droxyberizoate u ni tsp (_"n]O_Cull4 _CO_O_). srarrcc 1p.".in which the fibcr_fornring
is any rongchainsy.rrtrrcti" sub_
dr por ccnt by weight pory,u.r'.onr'oscrt
Rayon. A nrunufl:l:,.1.q Iibre. of at ren.st
of vinyl .f,f.jrla,".r,,lt,(_CI.I,_CIlcl*).
cellulose, cornposed of regenerated
as rve' as ma'ufacturedhbres
cellulose "J,rpos.a of regeneratecr
i' whichsubsrituenisl;;;",;;iled
pcr ccnt of the hyctrogcns not more rhan t5
of rtr. try.t,oilil.oupr.
Rubber.A nranufacturcd
fibre in which the fibre_forntinc
naturat-or''v"
;illi:ffi:"i:r'::l:;'i:,1, ii'i,i";,t d;;;ffiffiii;
:r
l. A nranufac(uredfibre jn
which the fibre-fornringsubstance
is a hydrocarbon such as
nari;;;;';rrrU.r,-".;' potyisoprene,polv_
butadiene, copolymers..of
.li;;*; hydrocarbons, o.
a n r o r p h o u s( n o n _ c r y s t a l l i n e
p lo f v o i " n n s . ' -
. 2. A nranufacturecl fibre.itr.whichthe fibre_tornring
ls a copolymer of acrylonitrile substance
ani " Ji""" (such as butacliene)
conrposedof not more.
thSn.so per .!"i"rr."t ;r;;.j;
" o"it.i
r" u'iit' iJH,--cor(c.N)-).' "*
li, "o{.;:'qi::r:fi"l:ilt asa genciic
nures raiiingffi;'; ,illlt"i:r:[: 'rcs'iipiio'i'ro.
3. A manufactured fibrein which rhefibre-forming
is a polychloroprcne substance
or a colrolym..oi-"i,to.oprene
ar'lc.st 35 'er cc't by rvciglit in whiclr
r "r tli.lior"-1'orrrring
srbsl.'cc
s conrposect
o[ chIoroprc". t_Cll,_6 6l : Cli;ii,T
#;
a
, *El s
o
z = - l o f
F
e fi{l-s;-1
-
- o
;=
x= z=
fi-l Heae]I
iir
I i = l -
fr-l a=l. LiF
==-
a
o
MAN.MADE FIBRES
E <
d
I rE;_l
o z
! < tsrt
o - Fl
m o
n= ;==l
;=]@ I
z IE
rrl
>3
o
t- A: NATURAL POLYMEIT FIIIRES
9 < (t)
L *-u;J
A Z
U)
:ll :
t i
i l -
-l I gur
r m 9
T : I
=Jk
s=4 r D | - j
ll
r ' | Y
a\
sHA o z
s: >z co o
H
*ufi=-
aJ- a
=l |
o
Q < -l
= <
- z
= <
=-
z a | | 4 _ rl F
# l l = l l ,=
iHr l r j f i
z
3
{ I
v
Ir F= - r. l i
a
z @
v
=
6
z
o
c
a
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
I. CELLULOSE FII]RES; RAYoNS
2. CELLULOSE ESTER FIBRES
3. PROTEIN FIBRES
4. MISCELLANEOUSNATURAL POLYMER FIBRE.S
INTRODUCTION
ln 1664,the famousEngrishscientistRobertI{ooke pubrisrrcd
book calledMicrograp.iia.Amo'gst tt.,"-i.,.,ony a
subjcctsI-lookc
discusscd. was trrcpossibirity oI i'ritntingtrrciirkwoi' to iu.r..
a' rrtificialfibrc.I{cre wasar i'scct th''i 'racre
trrcrin.ri t,ro*n
lextile-fi.bre
sinrplyby forcinga liquiclthrougha tiny h;lc-;,;
hca_d. Why could not we do the iame thirigrncctrlnically,ii;
nrakean artificialsilk? and
It w^snca'ly two hu'crrccr yearsbcfore.Llookc's suggcsrio'was
strcccssfullytrieclout. onry the silkwormk'cw how i6 n.,,i["
liquidthat hardencd iii.
into iilk afterit traoL..n squirtccr i'to rhc
ai1.
\9!9aV couldsuggest arrything clseto do thc job.
In 1842,an Fnglishweaver,LouG Schwabe, dcviscda nrachinc
.
for makingartificialfilarnents by forcingtif,,fa tt.,rough
^oles.The rnaterialhe usecr- ;;;t;i;;;
*os gtnsi,-*lrri.rr
plasticwhen molte' to bc.forcecl-tt.,rougtrwis"su;l;i.;ii; 'ar;.i;;1
thc trolcs,
woLrlcl cool to a solid onceit canteinto "intu"t witlt
tlre air.
This was thc neares-t thing yet to arr artificialfibrc. Buf'giu*
fibrewasnot suitablcfor texliics,nna s"ii*"rre's
cntrcatics to trrc
scientiststo providesomethingbetterwereof no nvail.
At that time,science lradharcllybcgunto intcrcst
natureof fibrousmalerials.The txistenccof long itsclfi'the
tl r;"l-;;;i;:
culcs,suchas are neecjed for fibre_forn.,niior.,,
had not "u.,r-fr..,,
suspccted. But it was realizcdtrratin naturalcclrurosc
a potentialraw materiarfor nrakingfibrcs.Natur" ir,.i"-**
tr.rr"ti ir.'",t.
ccllulosefibresin cotton anclflax. lVhy sirould
not nran makc
useo[ lhe vaststoresof vcgetablc ccturoseior r,akingracritional
suppliesof textilelibres?
IIANDBOOK OF TEX'TILE FIBRES A: NATURAL POLY[{ER FII}RES
U n f o r t u n a t c l y ,t h c c c l l u l o s cf r o n r w o o d a u d s t r a w a n d s i n t i l a r N i t r o c c l l u l o s c ,u r r l i k c i t s p a r c n t n r a t c r i a l c c l l t r l o s c ,
dissolvctl
sourceswas associatedwith gumrny matcrialssuch as lignin. And r c a d i l y ; f o r e x a n r p l c ,i ' a ' r i x t u r c o [ c t h c r a ' c l
' l c o r r o r .r , r i a s J ,
though in sonre cases it was possible to separate the fibrous Gcorge Audemars discovercclthat if hc clippe<ln
'cecllc i;1" ,;
cellulosein usefulform - for example,flax - most of it was useless s o l u t i o ' o f n i t r o c c l r u l o sa e n d t t r e nd r c w i t a w a y , a I i r a l r r c n t
was
for tcxtile purposcs.What rvasncededwas some way of purifying forrrrcdwhich dricd a'<r rrarcrened i' the air anctcourd bc rvou'd
the celluloseand obtainiug it as a satisfactoryfibre. tupinto a reel. The modern rayon inclustryhad
bcgun.
D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e c n t hc e n t t t r y ,m a n y a t t c r n p t s Whcn cellulose is turncd iirto nitroccilulosc,
tic lrrolcculcs
wcre nrade to use crude celluloseas raw material lor a textile rc.rain i' thcir long trrrea<I-rike shapc;snrailgroups o[ ator's huvc
'I'he
Iibre. problem resolveditself into finding a way of dissolving becn attached to their sides, maiirg thc new
substaucc'rorc
cellulose, separating the liquid from the impurities and then soluble.when Audemars touchecrthc nitroccilulosc
rot,,rio,i-,ui,J
squirting it through tiny holes and hardcningit into a fibre. t h e ' d ' c w h i s n c c c t c a w a y , t r r e a r c o ' o r a n c rc t r r c r
" u n p o r n -lo,ig
t . , ii i i
C c l l u l o s c ,h o w e v e r ,w o u l d n o t d i s s o l v ei n a n y s u i t a b l cl i q u i d . t'c. air, Icaving tlrc solicl nitrocellulosc bchi.cl.
,tn.i ttr.
r ' o l c c u l e sw c r e a b l c t o h o l d l h c n i t r o c c r l u l o s c
t o g c t r r c ri ' i t s n c r v
Nitroccllulose il Dt'oussl)ape.
'l'hese
In 1846 a scientisttrriedrich Schtinbeindiscoveredthat ccllulose 'itrocellulose fibres wcrc a grcat adva'cc r.orvartrs
production of a comnrerciallyuscful fi-brc. trrc
could be turned into anothcr substance,nitrocellulose,when it Thcy ,u".. ,ufi, ;il;;
was treated with nitric acid. This nitrocellulosewas a highly a n d f l e x i b l e .B u t t h c i r I I a r ' r ' a b i l i t y p r c v c r r f c c l -
nrry grc^t ,,*. ui
f l a m n r a b l e n r a t e r i a l ; i t w a s , i n d e e d , e x p l o s i v e .I t s d i s c o v e r y thc for nraking tcxtilcs - no-uo,rywantcd [o wcar
,fibres crotrrcs
n r a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i u go f t h e n r o d e r n e x p l o s i v e si n d u s t r y ; a n d , n r a c l cf r o l n g u n c o t t o n .
rnixed rvith camphor, it gave us the lirst man-made plastic, t h i r t y y c a r s p a s s c cul n t i l , i n 1 g 8 3 ,S i r J o s c g r h
.t ^) cl ^g"a_n.rlof lo?K1r, n g Swan
celluloid. r o r s o r n ew a y o f ' a k i . g I i r a r ' c . t s f o r r r i i c r c c t r i c
light bulbs. He warrtccl sbnrctrring tirirt
wourtl givc hir) !;ri
c x t r e m e l yf i n e f i l a m e n t o f c a r b o n f a n d
he uscrl nitroccllulosc.
cHzoH ,Swan
f ?H f ?H fH'oH .pa.tenteda process foruqrirting .itroccllulos" ;1,;;;;;
c-c c-o c-c c-o through holes to forrn fila'rcnts,'follorvctl
by a chc.rila i;;;i_
AV* t./il H.1x
___.o,/6" \-o.-16H *\,H \r--- n r c n t o I t l r e f i l a n r e n t sw h i c r rc h a r r g c dt h c < l . n g c r o t r s
rritroccilurosc
H\ /-o-\H H/\ H\ /-o/\u r/.H b a c k i n t o h a r m l e s sc c l l u l o s e .
c-o c-c c-o c-c l ' I 8 8 5 , S w a n e x h i b i t e ctle x t i r c sn r a d ef r o m
t t l t l l
OH r r i s , a r t i f i c i a rs i r k ' ,
cH2oH H OH CH2OH H ,]:-l:T interestcct
in hisfitamcnrsasr wayor nrlking
^u,:,1
nnc carbonTlli]ly
nranrents for lanrps,
CELLULOSE anclhc fairccr
to fojrowup trri
I NrrnnrroN textilepossibilities.
Y
H oNoe ONo2 ClmrdonnetSilk
T
oy j[ut\." -
tHzoNo2fH.ONoa
-- - I\'[carrwhile,,in
1878,Count I-lilaircdc Charclortnct
___,.o.../i;[y,'
' 1z[- -o- - r,^rf;]\, tncntingi. Fra.ce.crrnrclonnct was a stucrcrrt
bcgarrcxpcri_
at trrci:.ot" ti,iiy-
n\ ,L-ro,'\lto.T,z"'H "\ 7L-'o"u19xo.fi\ tcc^niquc undcrLouis pastcurat thc timc of trrcpdbrir.,.
o
tcH2oNo2 g-9 9-o 9-9 gationi' thesilk industry. inv.rii-
H oNoz cHzoNo2 H ONOz I-Icbecar'cirrtcrc.stcd iri trrcsirkwor'rjs
ability^t-o
sril fibres,a'd crctcrnrincctto crirurrtcit ^rtificiliry.
CELLULOSE NITRATE rn 1884,chardonnctnracle rrisfirstartifiliarfibrcsfrom nitro-
( NT T R O C E L L U L O S E ) ccllulose
solutionwhichwassquirtcdt^rougiitiny rrorcs, rr;rrdcnccr
5
I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILB FIBRES NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
in rvarm air and then treated clrenricallyto convert it back to Acatotc Fibre
cellulose.Materials made front this arti{icial silk werc cxhibited
I t r v a sn o t u n t i l a f t e r w o r r d w a r I t h a t a n o t h c r t y p e
at the Paris Exposition in 1889and Chardonnetsecuredfinancial of artificial
fibre cane into successfur production.This rvas ,rc fibrc wc ,ow
backing for the industrial development of his libre. A factory
know as acetate.
was built in 1890at Besangonand began producing'Chardonnet
once again, the raw material is cellulose,which is
silk'. rcrctcrccl
solub.leby being convertedto a derivative,celiulose
This was the first artificial fibre to be produced commercially, n..torc, *trj.n
dissolvesin aceto'e ancl other solvenis. In this
and it marked the beginning of our modern man-made fibre ,.rp".t, it.,"
production of acetateresenrbresthat of chardo''ct
industry. But nitrocelluloseis a highly flamnrable material, and .iit, wtri.t,
was
the nranufacturingprocessproved dificult and dangerous.Large , n r a d e b y c o n v e r t i n g c e l l u l o s ei n t o c e l l u l o s . , r i t . i i t " o , , J
clissolvingit in solvent.
scale production of Chardonnetsilk was never realized,although
cellulose acetatesolution is extruded through finc rrorcs,
the fibre rvas manufacturedsporadicallyuntil 1949.In that year, as in
the caseof the other regeneratedfibres.But in-steacl
the only remainingChardonnetsilk factory, in Brazil, was burned "i.,rt"riiig'*
down. -coagulating
-l'he.solvent bath, the fine jets enrergeinto a stream o[ warm irir.
The Chardonnetprocessis no longer used commercially.It had evaporates,leavingfilamentsof soliclcellulosc"""t"i..
The lilamentsmade in this way ctifferfunctamenraLlti;;;til
the advantagesof simplicity, a stable spinning solution and a
rtadc by the c,pramnroniunr or viscoseproccsses,
m i n i m u m o f w a s t c d u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r c .l l u t i t w a s s t o w i n in ih^t tl*t ;;;
roI rccorvc.tccl to ccilurosc.1'hcy rcrrrni' ccilurosc
operation,potentially dangerousand cxpcnsive. .cctntc, ri,iti
thc propcrtiesof thc fibre are thus trirlcrcntfrou.rttror"
ot".ttuior.
I I DTCS.
Cupramrttoniunt Fibre; Cupro
In 1890,a new processfor making artificial fibres was invented, Pro!eitt Fibres
which made use of the discovcrythat cellulosecould be dissolved c c l l u l o s ei s b y f a r t r r c r n o s ti n r p o r t a n ts o u r c eo f n a t . r a l
in cuprammonium liquor, The solution was extruded through poryr'cr
fibres.made t o d a y .B u t n a t u r ep r o v i c l e so t h e r r n a t c r i a l sw h i c h
small holes into a coagulating bath, where the cellulose was arc
ca,pable^of fornri'g fibres,ancrio're of theserravelr..n
regeneratedto form continuouslilaments. r'0,t. iui.]
t l b r e so l c o t n r t r e r c i avla l u e .
The cuprammoniumprocesswas developedinto a commercially for example,.are useclby
._,Protcins., "Butnature in nraking natural
important process,and it continuesin operation today. Cupram- Iibres.suc'
monium fibre has never achievedreally large scale protluction, _as wool, hair ancl silk. th"r. o." nrany ot^cr
proteins which are not in fibrous fornr,
and marry of ttr;r;;;;..
but the fibre has special qualities which have enabled it to b e . , n r a n i p u l a t etdo c o n v e r t t h e m i n t o n U . . r . , t ,
establishimportant outlets in the textile trade. in thc caseof
cclltrlose,it is necessaryto dissolvethe protei'
nna .itr,iJ.-tri.
solution in the form of fine jets which can
be frnrd.n.J-inlo
Viscose Fibre fiIanrcnts.
In 1892, another method of making regeneratedcellulosellbre Casein (from milk), zein, (from maize) and
arachin (front
was cleviscd,in which thc cellulose is converted to cellulose groundnuts) havc becn made into uscful
fibrcs, but non" fi..,
xanthate and dissolvedto form the solution known as yiscosc. yct achicvcd rtrnjor successin thc tcxtilc ficlcl.
When fine jets of viscoseare extruded into an acid coagulating
bath, celluloseis regeneratedin the form of lilaments. illginate Fibrcs
In the years prior to World War I, the viscoselibre industry Alginic acid extractecrfrom seawcectis a crre.ricrl
rcrativc of
dcvelopcdrapidly, and viscoseis now the nrost inrportant rral.ural c c l l u l o s ea' . d i t h a s b e c o u r e ' r a w n r a t c r i a r
[ r o ' r w r r i c r r| i b r c s
polymer libre of all. lre spun. Alginate fibres have usefui specializedappticationr,
frut
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILB FIBRBS A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
a r e o f r e l a t i v e l ym i n o r i n r p o r t a n c eb y c o n r p a r i s o uw i t h o t h c r
natural polymcr fibres. l. CELLULOSE [tUIlES; RAYONS
N onrenclature
I?edcral 1'ratle Conunissiott Delinitiotr
In the early days of natural polymer libre production, the fibres
'artificial silk'. The reascittfor this lay in the Tlre ge.nericLerm rayon was aclopteclby thc U.S. Ircclcrall.racle
became knorvn as
fact that the fibres were produced in the form o[ continuous Conr'rission for fibres of the rcge'ciatccl cellulosc typc, thc
filarnents; in this respect, they resernbledsilk rather than the olllcial definition being as follows:
short staplefibres of cottolt or wool. Also, they often had a silk- Rayon. A manufactured fibre composcdof regcncratcdccllu_
like sheen. lose, as well as manufactureclfibres composeclof rcgencratccl
F t r n d a m e n l a l l y ,l r o r v e v e r ,t h e f i b r e s m a d e b y t h e c u p r a m - cellulosein which substituentshave repracecL.otmore'th;; itp;;
m o n i u n r a n d v i s c o s ep r o c e s s easr e r e l a t e dt o c o t t o n , i n t h a t t h e y ccnt of the hydrogensof the hyclroxyl groups.
arc all cellulosefibres. Silk, on the other hand, is a protein. The
'artificial silk' was obviously a ntisnomer' therefore, This definition includes three types of regcreratecrcelrulosc
nalnc
fibre in production today, i.e. viiiose Rayoir, cuprattrttrottiutrit
especiallyas it becameapparent that the ne* fibres were estab-
Royott (Cupro), and Saponiliecl Ccllulose Accrate.
lishing thcmselvesin their own right in the textile trade. They
r v c r c n o I n r c r e l y s u b s t i t u t c sf o r s i l k , b t r t h a d t t n i q u c p r o p e r t i e s
which made thcm unlike any othcr fibrcs. ln due cotlrse,the term VISCOSBI{AYON
'artificial silk' was abaudoncd,and the fibres became known as
INTRODUCTION
rayon.
l a t u r a lp o l y l n c rf i b r c s o f a l l t y p e s ,
A t l l r s t , t h i s t e r r n i n c l u d c cn Thc large-_scalc devcloplncrrtof rayon was nrlclc possiblcby C. F.
but it is now restrictedto those fibres consistingwholly or sub- Cross,E. J. I3cvan,and C. Beacllein Englanclin ig92, whofouncl
stantially of regeneratedcellulose.In practice, this means that it that they could dissolve cellulose witrrout first nrliring
refersto fibres made by the cupranlmoniunrand viscoseprocesses. it i.to
n i t r o c e l l u l o s eT.h e c e l l u r o s ew a s t r e a t e dw i t h c a u s t i ct J a n ,
Fibres nrade from cellulose acetate are called acela!e (or tri- ttt.n
vrith carbon disulphide, ancr the procruct <rissolvccl
acetate),and those from proteins are azlorr libres. (See U.S. . in clilutc
curstic soda.Tlris viscousliquid they callecl,viscosc'.
Federal Trade Commission de{initionson page xxvi).
.. A rnethod of producing textile liiaments [ror, tlrc viscoscrvas
Nalural Polynrer Fibres TodaY discoveredby C. H. StearnanclC. F. Tophant, thc l:rtter
o[ whonr
V i s c o s e ,c u p r a m m o n i u ma n d a c e t a t em'fhe ake up the btrlk of the invenlecl the 'ageing' of viscose (to iis corrcct conclition
for
natural polytncr fibres produced today. ccllulosc tlrat scrves spinning),the rnultiple hole spinning jct ancl the fanrous'l'oprrarrr
as raw material is availablc in virtually unlimited quantities,and s p i n n i n gb o x .
the manufacturing processeshave been developedand improved . In 1904,the British rights of trreviscoscprocessrvcrc purchnscd
u n t i l t h c p r o d u c t i o no f n a t u r a l p o l y m e r f i b r e si s n o w o n e o f t h e by courtaulds Ltd., who developcclit into trle most
succcssful
rlost cflicient and irnportant industricsin the worlcl. n r c t h o do f r a y o n n r a r r u l a c t u r e irr tlrc world.
The rapid rise of the natural polynler libre industry is reflected The viscose process is cornpurativcly lcngthy ancl sonrc
3(X)
s t a t i s t i c sA. t t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I , t h e a c c u r a t c l yc o n t r o l l c ds t c p sa r c i r r v o r v c cTt .h c r l w r r n t c r i a l s ,
in thc nranulacttrring how-
c.vcr'arc chcap.viscosc r.yo' c.' gc'crally be pro<rtrcccl
w o r l d o u t p u t o f r t r t u r a l p o l y n t c r f i b r c s a t r l o t t t r t e dt o - o n l y 9 0 0 0 crrcarrcr
than othcr rayons, ancl viscoscis irow 'ranufacturccl i' grciitcr
t o n n e s ( l e s s t h a n t h a t o f s i l k ) . I l y 1 9 5 7 o u t p u t . h a d s o a r e dt o
q u n n t i t y t h a n e i t h e r c u p r a l n n r o n i t u l tr a y o n o r
sonre2tli utilliort totrttesand in 197"1it was 3'l lnillion tortncs. ncclttc.
I.IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIRRES A: NATUNAL POLYMER FII}RES
g
Wateris needed itr grcatquantityandutanychcrrricals arcuscd
" .i
i! !
! :
irr viscose^rayonrranu.faclure. A kilogra.roi' ,uyu,,fiti. .rii.ir,
::. o:
1t tlreuseof more than 1,600kg of watir, nearlyi kc of sulDlniiic
. a " l I r .
Hi;
2 : a
;t b.i acid.,I ltk^gof caustic..soda., of woodpuli o, ;,ii;il;i;;r,
y'^ii .l.yikg
I tg of carbon disulphirtea"ndsr.alrera'rou'ts o| otrrer
chernicals.
ConlinuousFilnnrcntanit Slaplc
Until 1914, viscoserayon was produceclalnrost entircly
in thc
form of continuousfila'rcnt yarn. During Worlct War
I,'C;;,rin;
and ItaUan firms began proclucingstapl,erayon fibre
by chop_
'ri
ping the filarnentsafter extrusion.
o 'fhe
o production of rayon staple macle rapid progress
during
:; !? the 1930s,and by 1940 there wis as much itaplc bJing
!; used a!
continuous filarnent. After worlcl war rI, filirnc.t pio.tr,.iioii
ti
e-rceeded
!: lhat of staple u'til 1954,when siaplc once ;dl,ii;;i;
, a t thc lcacl. I' 1961, somc 60 pcr ccnt of thc *orl,l
Z E
i : consistcdof staplc fibrc. ;;;;i;,.;;;;
TYPES OF VISCOSERAYON
A s t h e c o r e s h r i n k s ,t h c s k i n b c c o ' r c sw r i n k l c c la n d t h c f i l n r n c n t
fittcring stage,and then forccd through tiny holes bored in a cap
acquiresits lobed cross-scction.
of metal forming the spinneret.Spinneretsare made from gold,
platinurr, palladium, tantalutn and other corrosion-resisting . l n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f h i g h - t c n a c i t yf i b r c s o f a l l _ s k i nc o n s t r u c _
tion (sec page 43), regc'cration rttardants arc acldccrto
metals; platinurn alloys are comuronly used. thc
coagulating bath, slowing up the regencration or cclrurosc
The holes in the spinneret are usually between 0.005 and bv
the acid, a'd so allowi'g thc srowei route (b) to bri'g-aLoiri
0.0125 mm diameter, and each spinneretwill be pierced by up 'i, -tiv
rcgenerationthroughout the
to 20,000 o[ thent. .libre. This cltcci int.r.,.rincJ
u s i n g a h i g h c r c o . c c r r t r a t i o r r ' o zf i n c s a r t si n r t , . , t r i , r , . , i , i e - [ , , i i i .
As it emergeslrom the hole in the spinneret,thc jet of viscosc
entersa coagulatingbath containing a mixture of acids and salts, I'he slower rege'cration obtainccrin trris way ailows tiirc
for
stretchingand orientation to be carriccl out morc eflccrivclv.
typically of the following composition:
S u l p h u r i ca c i d 4-12 parts by weight
Sodium sulphate10-22 parts by weight
Zinc sulphate l-5 Parts bY weight There are three ways in rvrrich the firanrentsare trcatcd
aftcr
I e a v i n gt h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h ; t h e p r o c c s s easr c k n o w n
n, pof oi
b o x ,s p i n n i n g ,b o b b i n s p i n n i n ga n i c o n t i n t i o u ss p i n n i n g ,
I n t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , t h e s o d i u m c e l l u l o s ex a n t h a t ei s c o n - *rp..-
. h i s i s i n s o l u b l ei n t h e l i q r r i d o [ t h c tivcly.
v e r t e d b a c k i n t o c c l l u l o s cT
bath, so that the fine jet of viscosesolution is changedinto a solicl P o t S p i n n i n g ;I l o x S p i n t i n g
f i l a m e n to f c e l l u l o s e . 'fhe
sodium I n p o t s p i . n i n g t h e b u n c h o f f i r a r n e n t fsr o m
The action of the spinning bath is complex. 'r'his c a c- h s p i n r r c r cits l c t l
s u l p h a t e b r i n g s a b o u t t h e c o a g u l a t i o no f t h e s o d i u m c e l l u l o s c
outof rhebarhandarou'cra wrrccr. whcer "irr"J rli. e"i[i
-
whecl pulls the filame-ntrrom the jct at a co'trotcrr
xanthate to form a lilament. This is thcn ccinvertedto cellulose spcccr.It is
t h i s s p e e d ,t o g e t h e rw i t h t h e r a t e o f e x t r u s i o n ,
by one or othcr of two routes: which crctcrr'incs
(a) thc soclium cellulosexanthate is converted into celltrlose t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e r a y o n I i b r e . f h e f a s t e ri t p u l l e d
is ". it i."".,
t h e j e t , t h e t h i n n e rt h e f i b r e w i l l b e .
xanthic acid, which decomposesinto cellulose.
(b) the sodirrm cellulosexanthate is converted first irrto zinc leaving the gocretwhccl, the fibrcs pass arouncr
.on a sccorrcr
wheel which is movi.g fastcr than thc lirst. -fhe
cellulosexanthatc, which is then convertedinto cellulosexanthic fibrcs arc thcrc_
fore stretched bctween trre two wtreers-l-a proccss
acid and finally into cellulose. whicrr has a
profound elTecton the finar fibre.
The conversionof zinc cellulosexanthateinto cellulosexanthic This stictching or trr" siiti-
p l a s t i cr a y o n t e n d s t o o r i e n t a t et h ;
acid takes place more slowly than the conversion of sodium n r ; i ; " ; , | " s o f c c l l u l o s ca l o n g
the direction of trre libre. rhe tirng nrot.ctires
cellulose xanthate into cellulose xanthic acid, and route (b) is arc po.t". n.,oii
tightly together so that rheir nrutuit otiin"iion
slower than route (a). "",":;-i;,r; ;i;y.
Ihey hold strongly to each other, giving a sirongcr
I n t h e c o a g u l a t i o no f v i s c o s eu, s i n g a b a t h a s o u t l i n e da b o v c , tibrc.
The more. the rayo' is strctcirJd *i.,it" it
t h e z i n c s u l p h a t ei s i n l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o na, n d i t p e n e t r a t e so n l y . is still p!.stic, thc
s t r o n g e ri s t l r e f i b r e . I l u t a t . t h c s a n r et i n r e ,
a short distanceinto the lilament in the time that the acid pene- t l r i s t i g f r tp n " f l , i g ' o i
t'e molecules recluces..the,stretchabiiiat;'of
trates into the centre of the filament. The bulk of the filament, t^c fibrc, so thnt
excessive
inclucling,the core, is thus regeneratedvia the direct route (a). -stretchingw'r. achicve high strcngtrr usua'y rrt iii"
cxpenseof other desirabrepropertics.
Only the outer layer is regeneratedvia the slower route (b). 1'he treatrrent is trrcrcforc
The slower regenerationtaking place in the outer layer of the
rcgulated
to suit ilreco^dirlonitn" nu." *iit r.,"u"to ,riinrinn,i
filament results in a nrore uniforrrr deposition of cellulose,and . Afterstretching, thefibrep_assesinto a Tophal'box.Thisis :i
createsthe skin cffect that is typical of a regular viscosefibre. hollowcontaineri6out rB.*?7i;iilr Jir],i"t* rvrricrr wrrirrs
rikc
t4 I5
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER
FINRE,S
a sp.inningtop. The filanrent is lccl through a hole in thc top o[ ptrrification'
t h e b o x a ' d i s f l u n g a g a i n s tt h e s i d e b y c e n t r i f u g a lf o r c e . I n t h i s
brcachirrg,
waslring and crryi'gof trrcfirarrrcrt
lcavingrhc coacuraring a[tcr
rvay it. is pulled continuously through the hole ancl buil<Isup br,tt,.li'ii,"
';i";;, pri,i,'",iorrof rayorrby pot
spi'ning, for eiar'plc] ,il;
i'to a cake of filament inside the box. A n'rcchanicaldevice rnoreto complete. ijj.,, rakc J0 rrri'rrrcsor
ensuresthat the cake js built up evenly from top to bottom, ancl Ancr.intrristilne,*o.i'urnn a rnirc
nrightbe spun'If continuously-pr;;; of firanrcnt
the spin o[ the b_oxgivesa twist to tlie fibres, irsually about L.i
ti'e to process,, Iira'rc't took rhc sanrc
t u r n s t o t h e c m ( 3 t u r n st o t h e i n c h ) . n.-,,1:,1,-li:ii
i;,i;';;;il; arrcr drying cquiprrcnr
'lhe wouldhavclo accon)n_todatc
Topharn box rotates some 10,000 tinres per nrinute. The a conrparablc lcngtho[ filnlrrcnt.
The successfur
crevcronrr."toi;;1;ii;;us spirrning
sidesare perforated,so that most of the liquid ii ftung off from wasnradepossibrc of viscosc
to.a rargccxteni
t h c w e t f i b r c c a k e . U p t o 6 3 r n ( 7 0 y r t ) a t n i n u t e a r e f e c li n t o dcviccswrrichcourcrrtoralnrm"u;; bt'l;* dcsig'o[ rrrccrranic.r
t h e b o x ; i t t a k e s s e v e r a lh o u r s t o b u i l a u p a c o n t p l e t e , c a k e , , i;r;,ir-
tinuousmovementas they p"rr.,r jfrr*:,ill o[ firarncnri' co'-
which is tl'renwashed and may be treated wittr soaium sulphicle ,n. o.o..rsirrgtrain.
sol.tion to renrove residual sulphur conrpouncrs.The fibre is
bleachcd, IttdttstrialRayott Corporatiotr proce.rs
.Lrsuallywith sodiurn or calciirm hypochlorite or
peroxide,rinscd in dilute acid, washecland driecl.
the 1930s,many firnrs expcrinrcntecl
.?:,:lg
vrscose spinningtcchniques. with corrrinuous
Bobbin Spinning onc of tlr"-n"t t" ^"il;;;..;;,,,:
rrrcrcialsucccsswns il
In bobbin spinning, the filanrentsof rayon emerging front lhc .l)t.occsstlcvclopcrl
by lrrrlrrslrirrl
ltrryorr
c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h m a y b e w o u n d w i t h o u t t w i s t o n t o b o b b i n s . wtii.l'",,n,"-inio''or,..",io'
nr l.irrcsvlc,
bobbins,whicl'rhave perforateclbarrels,are purifieclancl bleachecl
Thc 3|'i3:ilt!;|r.u't'n.,
T^c probrcrnof harrclrirrg great
tunderpressure.The yarn is then dried and oiled, ancl after trvist- processingwas solveclty.",,ii,rf- rcngthso[ firrr.rcrrtrrurirrg
ing is wound up again ready for winding into skeinsor cones. rir..?,.r'aovil'c*g rccls of
ingeniousdesign.Each recl ""*irt.i""i"o
C o rr!i rttrous Spi nning axes set on thc skew, i.e. n_otparallcl pri,. of rorcrs rvitrr
filanrentis fed to one io caclr othcr. Whcrr
I n t h e p o t a n d b o b b i n s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s e sp,a c k a g e so f v i s c o s c .end "f " ;;;;";i n.,ouing rollcrsof t^is
sort, a'd passcdrounrl thc .o'eis--as'ttrougl,
filan.rent are collected rouncl n plir o[
1nd then subjected-to desurphurizing, pulleys,rhe fitanrentrcrcts
to f"r;; ;"rl;;;;l which nrovcs.torrc
bleaching,washing and drying before tire rayon is ready for usJ. thepair of rotersunril.it..n"n",
Thc processis thus an interrnittentone, in which batchesof Iila- ii.*oii,.. ..a. r.rrccrirccrion or
nrovement of the sniral,.the .istancct.i*..n thc coils,arcl thc
ment are handled separatelyas they become available. lcngth of filanrent"u.ii.,l,
J;;;;;
lJatchprocesses of this type are inevitably costly in labour aucl bctwecnthe axeso[ ttretwo rollcrs. trJ,, ,,," anglc o[ skcw
operati.g chargesa , n d t h e i n t e r m i t t e n to p e r a t i n g - t e n dtso i n t r o - A pair of skew_set rollers"un if,i,, bc rrscclfor carryirrg
d u c e v a r i a t i o n si n t h e q u a r i t yo f t h e p r o d t i c tf r o n i b a t c h t o b a t c h . lengt'sof filanrent grcat
in a.vcry.snrall space,
I'
.modern industry therc is a te'dincy to favour processesin betweenindivicrualcoits.df ni;,;;;;-i;i witlroutp^ysic^lcolrlilct
rvhich the procluct nloves from one stagc to the 'cit in a
con- strandsof filament"^n. b.: ,,,frj".i.J- i,,g pr,,"". r'<livictuat
t i . u o u s s t r e a n . rc. o n t i r r u o u s p r o c e s s e so f t r r i s s o r t a r e u s u a i l y cnviron're'ts irr a most dircct '*^r,-f,ro'pro""r.ingliquidsantl
c h e a p c rt o o p e r a t c ,a n d c a n b e c o n t r o l l e c tl o p r o c l r r c ea h i g h l i r v h i c ' a r ew o u ' < It o c c t h cirr r t o c,ontra.twith flla.lents
r u n i f o r r np r o d u c t . a c i ( . o r o t h c r ' : r c k a g e . . l . l irri rs ,
I t h a s l o n g b e e n r e a l i z e r tl h a t t h e p r o r l u c t i o no f v i s c o s er a y o n l,Ill: rhcpiocl:sring
i:d":.s uced^ ti,n"'-n..i..i'io.r^c trc*tr'crrr -ir;;..r_r o[
con t i nuously-prod fi lnnri. r, o, "oi"pn r.a wi rh t d;
could. be aclaptedto operate on a continuous basis. nut o f - f i l a r n c n ti n p a c k a g et o r n t . *
,"nnf
practical problcms hacl to be sorvecrbelorc contintror-rs
spirrrirri l n t h e I n d u s t r i a lR a y o n C o r p o r a l i o n
bccamea reality. The main difiiculty lay in the time requirecl c e s s t, h e t h r e a da d v a n c i n gr e c l s ' c o n r i r i c o n t i n u o u ss p i r r r r i n gp r o -
foi
" i p . i r c o [ s k c w _ s cht o l l o w
t6
t7
f__ | l_ -.1 L I L f
rollers wlrich rotate one inside the other. A sttccessionof thcse l i k c t h c r o l l c r si n a w r i n g c r ,w i t h t h c i r a . r c s . s co[n t h c s k c r v . ' t ' h c
reelscarriesthe filament from the coagulatingbath and stretching r o l l e r s ,a t l ' u t I n r ( 3 . 3 f t ) l o . g , c a r r y u l o r e t r r a ' 1 0 0 c . i r s
or'
equipment,through desulphurizing,blcaching,rvashing,oiling and t l r e f i l a r n c n ts l r i r a la s i t r n o v c sf r o m o n c c n c lt o t h c o t h c r .
cliying stages, until eventually a clean, d-ry lilarnent is delivered
-shipm"nt A s t h c f i l a m c n t se r r i e r g cf r o r n t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , t h c y a r c
,..ua' for to the textile manufacturer.The techrriqtre carried upwards to pass over thc uppcr roilcr and tlic. ,iorun-
has now been devcloped and refined, and Industrial Rayon r v a r d st o p a s s u . d e r t h e l o w c r r o l l c r , a n c l s o o ' . ' l ' h c f i r s t c o i l s
c o r p o r a t i o n c o n t i n u o u ss p i n n i n gn r a c h i n e.sa r ei u w i d e s p r c a du s e o f t h e s p i r a l a r c s p r a y e d w i t h u c i c r ,a n d c o r g u r i r t i o ^i s c o r r r -
throughout the worlcl. Worlcl rights to the process,cxcluding p l c t c d d u r i n g t h i s f i r s t s t a g c .' l - h c f i l a n r c n t i s t h c r r r v . s h c c l
bv
U.S.A-.ancl Scuth America, are held by Coultaulds Ltd', U'K' w a t e rs p r a y sa s i t ' r o v c s a l o r r gt l r . er o l l c r s ,p a s s i ' gI i ' a l l y o v c r
thc
A motlern continuous spinning machine of this type is 6 .rl'r e u d s e c t i o n so f t h e r o l l e r s ,r v h i c ha r e h c a t c d .o r y t i l a r n c n t tt . , i u .
(20 f0 high, and has threi operating levels.On the top are the t h e r o l l c r s ,h a v i ' g s p c n t s o m c 3 n r i n u t c st r a v c r s i i r gf r o ' r o n c c . t l
coagrriating b a t h a n d t h c s t r e t c h i n gt t r e c h a n i s nfrr,o l r t w h i c h t h e t o t h c o t h c r , n r o v i n g r h r o u g h r , o r c t r r a ' 1 0 0 c o i - i so f t l r c s p i r r l
filarirentmoves clownwardto pass throtrgh a train of ten process- o ' _ t h e w a y . 1 ' h c d r y f i l a r n c n t sa r c t r v i s t c car n t r c o l l c c t c do i r
to
ing stages.Each stage consistsof a thread advancing reel, and b o b b i n s ,u s u a l l y b y a c a p s p i n n i n gm c c h a n i s m .
cltiring its passagethrough the reel the filament is subjectedto D e s p i t e l h e o n r i s s i o ' o f t h e d c s u r p h u r i z i n gs r . x g c f, i r . r ' c . t s
the appropiiate processitrgliquids or environments.Finally, the p r o d u c e db y t h e N c l s o n P r o c e s sc o n t a i n o n l y b . I _ - 0 : j p c r
ccnt
tilanrcnt passcs through a drying rccl ctrclosccliu n hclrtctl s r r l p l r r r rI.f , a s i s r r s r r n lt,h c y ^ r n s r r t r s c q t r c r r tpI lyr s s c s
i r r i . u i , g l i, ,
chamber.Thc dry filament emergcslront this rccl ancl is twistcd r v c I p r o c c s s i r r tgr c u t ' r c ' t , s u c l r a s s c o r r r . i r rogi t i y c i r r g ,
tlrissirr'll
ontl woutrd on to bobbins which iarry up to 4.54 kg ( I 0 lb)' p r o p . o r t i o no f s u l p h u r i s r c n r o v c d .r f t h c s u b s c q u c i i t
' o p c r a tr ian' ,. rt t, i n !
The dofling of the bobbins is automatic,and there is no intcr- o f t h e y a r n d o c s n o t i n c l u c l ca w c t p r o c c s s i n g
itri
r u l t t i o n t o t l i e o p e r a t i o no f t h e m a c h i n e .T h e e n t i r c p r o c e s si s t r : r c eo f s u l p h . u . r . n r abyc r c r n o v c ccl a s i i y b y , v . i h i n g
thc fribric.
c o n t i n u o u st,h c f i l a n t e n tb c i n g w o u n d o n t o t h e b o b b i n l i t t l e m o r e r r r c u s e o t r r i g r rq u l r i t y w o o d p u r p r r a sr c . d c r c d t r r c
brcaching
t h a n 5 m i n u t e s a f t c r b e i n g p r o d u c e d i n t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h ' s l a g e u n n c c e s s a r fyo r m o s t a p p l i c a t i o n sb, u t b l c a c l r i n g
can nlsi
be carrieclout if nccessaryaf fabric stage.
Anrcricatt Visco.rcCorporotiotr Itroccs.r
Nelson Process T f i i s i s a ] ' i g h - s p c c dc o . t i n u o t r ss p i ' n i n g
l ) r o c c s si . r v r r i c r rt r r c
A c o n t i n u o u ss p i n n i n gp r o c e s sw a s d e v i s e di n t h e U ' K ' b y S ' W ' f i l a n r c n t sl c a v c t h e c o a g u r ' t i n g u i r t r v i i a j c t o f " o n g , , i u r i i i f
Barber anclJ. Nelson during the early 1930s.By 1934,the process l i q u i d , i n . w h i c h t h e l i l a u r e n t s' ' o v e f o r a d i s t . n c e o I a E . t r t l i
was in operation. It has since been developedby Lustrafil Ltd', c'r (6. irr). Irilar'cnts ther passround the rccls of a thrcaJ-
and has bcconreknown as the Nelson Process. a d v a n c r n gn r c c h a ' i s r ' a t s u c l ra s p c c dt h a t c x c c s sl i q u i t l
is rlrrorvrr
In the Nelson Process,a combination of two techniqtresis o ( r b y c e n t r i f u g a lf o r c c . c o a g t r l a t i o no f t h e c c l l u l o s c
co'tirrtrcs
useclto overcome the problem of carrying great lengtlrsof fila- a s t h c f i l a r n e n t st r a v c l a l o n g t h c i r s p i r a l p a t h , , , , r , t
,tr"t"iri,,f i,
rncnt during the processiugstages.Firstly, skew-sctrollers are carried out when lcss trrat 70 pcr ccnt icgc.cr-.tiorr
l r : r sr i r k c r r
u s e d t o c a r r y t h c f i l a m e u t ,a s i n t h e I n d u s t r i a l R a y o n P r o c e s s ; placc.
seconclly,the stages in processingare redttced,desulphurizing K uljian Proccss
a n d b l e a c h i n gb c i n g o n t i t t e d .
The thread advancingdevice,in the Nclson Process,is sinrilar I n t h i s p r o c e s sf' i l a ' r c n t s a r e c a r r i c d f r o n r t h c c o a g r r r a t i r g
bltrr
i n p r i n c i p l e t o t h a t u s e d i n t h e I n d u s t r i a l R a y o n P r o c e s s-,t r t t t by godct wheels,ancr prss on to a systenrof roflcis
*t,i"il ..ii
cliffirs in the details of its operation.The two rollers, instcaclof b e c o n t r o l l e dt o a p p l y a < l c s i r c c<lI c g r e co f s t r c t c h .- I ' h c
filarncnts
rotating insicle one another, are arranged one above the other are trcatedas they travcl tltrough tlrc rollcr systcnr,
a r r c ll h c r r
l8 l)
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIDRES A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}RDS
20 2t
rL -*J [*.,J
fiffi
able control of spinning conditions, pcrhaps.20G-700
glucose
u"l;. ;;, couon,rtreccllulose
:111j^:.?:Il
aremuchlonger,
viscose filarnents may be spun in andmaycontain2,000_1b,000
which the skin is thicker on one ;il[:",.r ;ii;;;;;
side of the filament than ort thc
other. Tbe swelling and othcr .^ The prop.ortionof crystatine rnaterialin a nornrarviscoscIibre
*o
ts conrnronlyin the re-gionof
characteristics of the two sides o[ 25_30p.. "*t, whcrcasin corton
the fibre are different, and the rvet it is as high as 70-75 c e n t . T h e c r y s t a l l i t c si n r a y o n
filament contractsmore on one sidc s t n a l l e rt h a n i n c o t t o n ; i.np er a
r
y o n , r f r . y - , , r . , ' o , ,t v c r a g c ,a b o u t
trc
than on thc othcr. This producesa t n g s t r o m sl o n g a n d 4 0 a n g s t r o n r , 100
crirnp (cf. the relationship betwecn *id.; iir cotton thcy lre sonrc
the twirr-corc structure of the wool 1 9 9 : : F s t r o m s . l o n g a n c l -6 0 n , r g r t i o i . r " '* t 0 . . N t o r c o v c r
o r r c n r a t i o .o f t r r c c r v s t ^ l r i t c sn t o , [ rhc
fibrc cot(cx and the crirttp o[ rvool) r t r " n b r c a x i s i s g r . c a r c ri n
- Alter Cottlartlds L!d. c o t t o nt h a n i n r a y o n .
22
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES NATURAL POLYMER ITIBt(ES
These factors all contribute to the difiercncesin physical pro- thc r c g i o n so f t h c s k i n a r c r c s sr i r ' g r c d
perties betweenrayon and cottotr. In particular, they explain the -arnorp'ous a r r dl r * p h a z - l ' d
'r arrar)gement than_in rhc core. .t-hc skiri is
relative weaknessof rayon, especiallywhen wet. And they have uniform structure,and the o.i.niotion'oi ai;,;, ;i..;;;;.
,tr. "ryr,,r'itcs is 'igrrcr
pointed the way towards the developmentof viscoserayous o[ in the skin than in the core.
i n c r e a s e ds t r e n g t ha n d d i n r e n s i o n asl t a b i l i t y . I n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f h i g h _ t c n a c i t y
'I'he r a y o r ) s t, h c c o n g u l n t i o na n c l
successachievedin this field is demonstratedby the intro- slretchingof the fibre arc controllea
in suctra way Ji; i;;;;#;
duction of high-tenacityviscoscfibres (seepage 39). Since World tlre internar structure of the liranre"t.':rrtir
ircrcascin rne propor.rion is acconrparricdby .rr
War II, the usc of high-strength r a y o n i n t y r e s ,c o n v e y o rb e l t i n g , of ,kii;; ;;;j ;;;;'t,i']il;,;;;i
transnrissionbelting, hose pipes, etc., has become cornmonplace. tio'of
'fhe. core,to the poi't at wrrichirr..ori.(rsar)pcars coruprctcly.
These yarns are produced by applying a high degree of stretch fibre is coagulared i" " ,r-;;'i;"i;;;"., way, an<Irtrc
c l u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r e ,w h e n t h c i n d i v i d u a l f i l a n . r e n t sa r e i n a section beconrcslcss scrralcclas cross-
'lhe thc corc_shrinkagc ellcct is
pseudo-plasticstate. stretchingis eflectedby suitable choice dinrinisrrcd' In trrecaseoI a 'wt.,ot.-s[ini .'l-errasco
a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e c h e m i c a l si n t h e s p i n n i n gs o l u t i o na n d i n t h e Suder105',the crosssectionis alnrost {ib." sr.r, as
circular.
s p i n n i n gb a t h . l'he increasedunilormitynri,rorr.,rt,,iion
The acicl bath coagulatesthe cellulosexanthate solution ancl an all-skinfibre of this iype ;.;;l;';,;'"n or thc nrorccurcs irr
'I'hc ircreaseirr rensite
p c r m i t ss t r c t c h t o b e a p p l i c d i n o n e o r n l o r e s t a g e s . process s t r e n g t ' 'I f t h e n r o. r c c u r c s -n. l n
nr,in-..iit
r u s c di n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f ' T c n a s c o '
y r r n s b y M c s s r s .C o u r t a u l c l s l,r"u: poor rrcgrccor oricntriiioii," a r c , o t ' r i g r r c a n r r t l
:].
crystallirrity "r"ir trrc oricrrr^tio'^rrtl
L t d . i s o f t h i s t y p e , p r o v i d i n gy a r u s w h i c h a r e t h r e e t i m e s a s vary grcatly
_throug'oui
a te.silesrresswilt be iakcn b;;;iy';-r;"alt ti,. iitrr., t,c rcsistn'ccto
s t r o n ga s n o r n r a lv i s c o s er a y o n .
The aclditionalstretch given to viscosefilaments in producing availablemoleculcsat a.time. proporrionof rhc
rf, in" if." i, strctclrcd, thcse
h i g h t e n a c i t y r a y o n s i n c r e a s e st h e d c g r e e o f a l i g n n r e n to f t h e nrotecutes will break,anciorhers*iii'i";i;
cellulosemolecules.This has the effect of increasingthe propor- too will break,anclso on. up ttrc strain.f.hcsc
t i o n o f c r y s t a l l i n em a t e r i a l , a n d o r i c n t a t e st h e m o l e c u l e sa n d lf the degreeof oricnlationof
the nrolcculcs arrdcrystallitcs
c r y s t a l l i t e sn r o r e h i g h l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f i b r e a x i s . T h e is high, anclthe structureof the
nbr. is-rinifornt,a grcatcrpro-
physical structure of the fibre changes,resulting in increased portionof nrorecules
s t r c n g t ha n d d i m i n i s h c dc x t e n s i b i l i t y . libre is pulrccf. 'rrre wi' co-operai" i" i"r.irg trrcstrai. rvrrc,trre
fibre *irii"i;;-;';;;','il. rcrsircsrr'rgrrr.
Skin ElJect
W h e n v i s c o s es o l u t i o n i s e x t r u c l e di n t o t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , a IIigh lVet Morlultrs Royons;polytrosic
Fibrcs(secpagc 47)
skin of celluloseforms on thc outsideof the filanient.As coagttla- I\'lanynew typesof ui::-:r_:l]"y..cnrcrgccl
tcxtilescientists cturingrcccntycars,ns
t i o n c o n t i n u e s ,t h e c o r e o f t h e f i l a m e n t h a r d e n s a n d s h r i n k s , haveincreascd trreirinacrstandirrg
c a u s i n ga w r i n k l i n g o f t h e o u t c r s k i n o f t h e f i l a m c n t .T h e r c s u l t of spin'ing ancrproccssing ancrcontror
t"Jrriiqi,.r."anron,trrc nrostinrpor-
of this can be seen in the serrated cross-sectionof the norrnal tant are the hieh wet modulusrnodal anclpolynosic
-creverop.a
v i s c o s cf i l a n r e n tT. h e s k i n i t s e l fc a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h ebdy e x a n r i n i r r g T'ese rravebeen fibrcs.
i,i u uu,ri'rrJiirJ,run trics i rr ll ri rair.
a d y c d a n d l e a c h c df i b r e . ' I ' h e c o r e d y e s m o r e r e a d i l y t h a n t h e rrr.odal.fi
bre is r'anuftrciup.a y c"" rir,irar'r-ta.u,der ; a
'Vincel'; ^t Irrc'arirc
s k i n , a n d i t l i k e w i s el o s e si t s d y e m o r e r e a d i l yo n l e a c h i n gl,e a v i n g in thc U.S..rn.ocr..rfi6res*.'r"rir.rrr. as ,Avrir'
t"ibers (Avtcx
""^
a darkcr shadewhich can be secn quite easily through the nticro- Inc.)and'Mov*cr' (c* iirrri;
- r'i;;iil'i,;,;;i.n'iui.;)"
scope. Modal arrd polv.osic'fibresare"iiigi,.t.,,r.ity,
T h c s k i n a n t l c o r c a r c b o t h c c l l u l o s e ,b u t t h e y d i f l c r i n t h e rr,dulusrayo'sin wrricrr 'ig, wcr
rrrocri{1".ti""
oi'il,. ,,,,,t..rr.rstrrrcturc
n a t u r e a n d o r i c n t a t i o n o f t h c c r y s t a l l i t e s .I n t h c s k i n , t h e hasrcsultedin a fibrewirhnranv"iijr;';;;;."rivc
c r y s t a l l i t e sa r e s m a l l c r t h a n i n t h e c o r e , a n d t h e m o l c c u l c si n crraracrcris(ics
25
.FNFFFFFNFFFTFTETNF
T I A N D B O O KO F T I ] X T I L E F I B R E S N A T U I I A L P O L Y M E , I T F TB R [ , S
o f c o t t o n .T h e h i g h s t r e n g t h e , s p c c i a l l yw h e n w e t , r c s u l t si n g o o d
'0t
m;
Xtdt
d i r r e n s i o n a sl t a b i l i t ya n d f i r m u e s s .
)Vt
{sl
S(aplc
){s
}\/
The nranu[acttrrcof viscosestaple libre has assttrnedincreasing
s fi
i n r p o r t a n c cs i n c e t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r l l . ' S t a p l e i s n r a c l eb y
chopping filanrents,which may havc been crimped nre^chanically
(lth-8 in),
l y ,i n t o s h o r t u n i f o r t u l e t t g t h sc, o t n t t t o n l y3 B - 2 0 0 n t r n
p r c l e n r i c a l-after
they etnergelrom tl're coagu.lating.bath.The
e3% [p {
i t a p l e f i b r i i s t h e n w a s h e da n d d r i e d ,a n d p a c k e di n b a l e s .
in proclucingstaple,it is not llecessaryto control the trniformity
of the fibre to sttch a fine clegreeas in the case of continuous
f i l a r n e n tp r o c l u c t i o n(.U n i f o r r n i t y i s n e v e r t h e l e svse r y g o o d , a n d
i r r t r i n s i c a l l yb e t t e r t h a n t b a t o b t a i n e dw i t h n a t u r a l f i b r e s . )A l s o '
' Ssl, &) 9
1
2
€'
t h e f i l a m e n t sc a t t b c s p u n l r o m s p i n t t e r c t w s l t i c h p r o v i d ea t h i c k
,sur#ot010 c
)0 b:
r o p c o r t o w c o n s i s t i n go [ t h o u s a n d so f f i l a m e n t s .T h e s e t w o
factors tencl to lower thc cost o[ producing staplc as conrlrarcd
d
w i t h c o n t i n u o u sf i l a t n e n ty a r n s .
tw
'st
Viscoscstaple nray be blendcd with wool, cottoll or other
{\OXn@
$fi
fibrcs, and spun into yarn by the various systenrstrsedfor staple
Io
f i b r e s .Y a r n s t u a d e f r o m v i s c o s es t a p l ea r e n a t u r a l l y f t r l l e r a n d
r o u g h c ri n h a n c l l ct h a t t t h o s ct u a d ef r o t n f i l a m c n ty a r n s ( c f . w o o l
and silk).
Totv !o Top Conversiotr
-I'hc
c o n v e r s i o no f s t a l l l ef i b r e t o y a r n i n v o l v c st h e r e a l i g n n r e n t
of thc nrassof short fibres which have resultcclfrorn thc ctrtting
ZyAenae$: .{I
3 4
i-{
ffi
oI the filanretrts,bringing thcm back, in elTect,towards the state
o f a l i g n m c n tt h a t t h e y h a d w h e n t h e y w e r e i n t h e f o r m o f u n c u t
1 . S T A N D A R Dt . . I O R O
t o w . I - no r d c r t o a v o i c la n a p p a r c n t l yu l l l l c c c s s a rdyi s o r g a n i z a t i o n
ancl rcalignrnent,tow to top conversiotrtechniqucshave been 2. TENASCO
developeclin which the filaments in thc tow are cut or broken 3 . T E N A S C O3 5
i n t o s t a p l ea n d d r a f t e d i n t o s l i v c r a s a c o n t i n u o t l sp r o c e s s '
ffi:
Z Y ^ W
7^vf,w - 4 . T E N A S C O S U P E R7 0
" I ' ( t t u s c oO' .p p o s i t cl:' l i g ht c n n c i t yv i s c o srca y o l l so f t h c " l ' c n n s c ot y' .p c
5 . T E N A S C O S U P E R1 O 5
a r c u r o c l u c c d ' bcvr t r u s i o no f t h e v i s c o s e into an acicb l a t l tc o n t a i n i r r g
z.in.'atr,l socliunisulphates, follorvedby stretchingof tlrene_rvly-fortlrcd
f i l a n r c n t isn h o t n q u c o u sa c i d . T h i s r c s u l t si n i n' cs rkei na's c d molecular
o- r i . i i t i t i o n ,a n c la n ' i t r c r e a si en t h e p r o p o r t i o no f to 'core''
y n i i t n t o a ci n t h i s w : I y a r e s t r o l l g e trl r n nt t o r n r avl i s c o s ea,n d t h i s
< ii t h o n l y s l i g h t_ r e t l u c t i oi nr r e x t e n s i o a
nt 5
" r , t i n . t t r . r r g t ti rs : r c h i c v c w
Lie:rk.'l'lris"nteans that the fibreshlvc n high rvorkoI ruptute'-Aller
CourtauldsLtd,
1l) 27
I
Mercerizittg IJlaslicllccovcry
R a y o n i s a l u s t r o u sf i b r e , a n d t h e r c i s r a r e l y a n y c a l l f o r l u s t r e c o t t o u a n d o t h e r n a t u r a l c c l l u l o s cf i b r c s h t v c l i t t l c i ' h c r c n t
t o L c i n c r c a s e c el ,. g . b y r u c t ' c c r i z i n gI .t n r a y b e d c s i r a b l e h , ow- c l a s t i c i t yv' i s c o s cr ^ y o , , l r o r v c v c rh, . s c v c ' l c s s . r t I r . s i r s a r i r i l
e v c r ,f o r b l e n t l s o f c o t t o n a r r d r a y o n t o b e t t t c r c c t i z c t
c o
l i m l rrovc c l a s l i c s t r c t c h o I a b o u t 2 1 r c r c c r r t f ' o . r r v r r i c hi t r v i l l r j c c . u . . r i
t h e i u s ( r e o f t l r e c o t t o n , a n c l b r i n g i t s d y e i n g q u a l i t i e sm o r e i n t o w h c n r e l a x c c l .I l u t . r o r e p c r s i s t c ' t s t r c t c h i n gw i l l t c n d t o c a r r s c
l i n e w i t h t h o s eo f t h e r a Y o n . P e r n r a t r c ndtc f o r n r a t i o na s t h c l o n g c c l l u l o s cr r r c l l c c u l cssl i d c < l v c r .
V i s c o s ef i b r e w i l t w i t h s t a n c tl h c c a u s t i cs o d a s o l t r t i o nu s c d i n oncanother.
n r c r c c r i z igr r, b u t c l i s i n t e g r n t ecsl t t r i n gs u b s e q t r c ur tv a s h i n gS. p e c i a l E l a s t i cr c c o v e r y( 6 0 p e r c c n t r . h . ) :
t c c h r r i q u eas r c u s c c lt o o v c r c o t l l ct h i s p r o b l c m , i u c l u d i n gt h e t t s c I p c r c c r r tc x t c n s i o n :6 7 p c r c c l l t
o I c a u i t i c p o t a s h ,o r n r i x t u r e so [ c a u s t i cp o t a s ha u d c a u s t i cs o c l a , 2 pcr ccnt cxtcnsion: 60 pcr ccnt
i n p l a c e o [ c a u s t i cs o d a . 3 per centcxtcrrsion3 : g ncr ccnt
5 1 > c cr c n t c x l c r r s i o n 3: 2 j r c r c c l ' lt
l0 lter ccnt cxtcnsion: 2J ncr ccnt
S'fl{UCI'Ul{Il n ND PI{OPIIR'flES (l{cgular Viscose)
5L 3l
r--T
K I - T E X T I L EF I D R g S
I I A N D I ] O OO NATUI{AL I'O LYN,lI]II I.I D IT!,S
Lr.sccls V I S C O S ER A Y O N I N U S E
V i s c o s ci s r e s i s t a n t o i n s e c ta t t a c k b u t i s a t t a c k e db y s i l v e r - f i s h . I n t h e m a n - r n a d cf i b r e f i e r d ,r a y o n p r a y sa r o l c
s i n r i r a rt o t r r n to I
c o t t o n i n t h e f i e l d o f n a t u r a l f i b r c s .I t
M icro-organisnrs i s p r o d u c c di , , g r l n t . ,
quantity t'an any other nran_r',oa,
" 'U
n ' - r' . ; " i t ' i s r e l a i i v e l y; i l ; ;
Nlilclewsdo not reaclilyattack the celluloseof the nbre itself, but a n d h a s a w i c l er a n g eo f o p p t i . n i i r i r .
wili feed on the size that is left on the fibres after processing' A l t h o u g h v i s c o s er a y o n i s s i m i l a r t o c o t t o n
in its cclrulosic
Milclervswill cause discoloration,and weaken the libre if the structure,it provides a range of yarns ancl
fabrics wltfi tf,.lr o*n
attack is severc. characteristicpropertics.Tlie cclrulosc
oi ioyon has bcen nrocrificd
to some degrce during. manufacture, ancl
thc alignr'enf ;i ih;
McctricalI'ropcr(ies molecules is not ideniical with thai
oi-naturat fibres such as
T h c h i g h m o i s t u r ea b s o r p t i o no f r a y o n t e n d st o d e t r a c tf r o m i t s cottol, Also, the fact that rayon is
a nranulacturcd rnatcrial
v a l u e f o r i n s u l a t i o n p u r p o s e s 'T h c d i e l e c t r i cs t r e n g t h o f d r y cnables us to control the physical
charricteristicsoI the Iinal
fabrics is fair. Undei orclinary conditions, viscose rayon does
product. We can nrakcthe ,iyon .on.s" -.oiorr.
oi-fi,r., ^ii.;ih:i;.;r;ii;
i r o t c l c v e l o ps t a t i cc h a r g e sb u t a n t i s t a t i ca g e n t sa r e u s u a l l ya d d c d and e-lasticity, modify its lustre un,i
nranufactured Moreovcr,as u
i f t h e r e l a t i v eh u m i d i t y i s l e s s t h a n a b o u t 3 0 p e r c e t r t ' materiai,viscoserayo. is irol subjcctt; ;i.,;;;i,.,;
cconomicand cli.raticcircunrstaiccs srrchns tiroscttrnt nircci
thc,propcrtics anclpriccof a naturalfibre.
vlscoserayo' conducts heatmore rcadilythansilk clocs,and
therayonhasa cooler.feel against trt. Jln.-vrrcoscis arsohirhrv
absorbent, and thisenhances irs uoru"nr-o'.i;ili,;;
-uira.rgo., ;;;;;;,,i."','t
Ihe of strcngthwhich rayon
.loss
probablyits rnostseriousshortcoming, whcn wet is
biri mo.tcrnresinfinishcs
have done rnuch to overcontethis
rayongarments lroblenr. properly finishccl ---"--
havehigh dimensionar stabilitywtren;.;:
The introductionof. iayon staplehas ciiaf:fcA
manufacturcrs
to blendrayonwith othernatural-ancl synitretic staptent;;;, ;;.i
rayonstapleis usedvery largclyin this way.
Rayoncontributcs
its moistureabsorption and-other.cellulosic' characteristics to
blenclsof strongeranctlessabsorte;a-h1;;;,
TENACITY incluclingnrosroI
the synthetics.Blendswith polycsterstaplc
are of prrti.ufni
irnportance.
Blendsof rayonwith otlrerfibresrnaybe -nr" proccssccl
lo 20 30 .40
Ihe by arryof
s r R A r N( 2 e l o N c n r t o r u T .farniliartechniquc.s. staple rcngtrir 'roviaccr to suit
p a r t i c u l abrl e n d as n ds y s t e n r s5; a0 r n r n( 2 i -ibol'i;6;;;r;(;;,i;;
n ) s t a p l ef ,u r . * u , , , p 1 . .
ca' be ha'dledon cotio' r'achi'ery0,,)-n
staple nraybeusedwith wool.
lVashing
In,.general, viscose rayon fabrics rvaslr l i k c
cotton; tltcy nro
< ; e l l u l o s ifci b r e s . I l u t v i s c o s cg o o c l s . a r e
l r r r r c hl c s s s t r o n g t h a r r
(:ottone , s p e c i a l l yw h e n w c t ,
a n c lt h i s n r u s ta l w a y sb e r c r n c r n b c r c c l
3_5
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILD FIDRBS A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M A RI I I O I T I I S
i t' 1,.i,:,"
-"^r,,:,^,rlf::
F j'[ ^TiS;,; .bc ,sccn in thc rlngc oi
I tlrefc rs a prosrcs-
high tenacity rayon yarns, such as Tenasco',
''l;l'
sive i'crease in
. - I . c l r a s c o ' . . T e n a s c ^ ifr;,;";;il;j";;:'
""# :illll;
i'.'.^'.^^^......
C J r c l u r a ' a n c t ' s u p r c r l k a " M a n u f a c t u r e r so f t h o s u p e r h i g h
H'l'I;r ::,l' :^:{:::iq"
J
;i;il -';;i "l"!l'-.?
"',1;;
t e n a c i t y y a n l s c o o p e r a t e di n t l t e t r t a r k e t i n go f t h e i r t y r e c o r d s
lJ.l.
;ll':,,:l?,'1.t"'
"i1"1'::Tf ^'i,,i^"
?:ll
nra
m.n:i ;i: ; ;.',; :;ff:
jl"ll,
througir the Tyrex Inc. organization.
,l -t a
- .g
6ev2
L ,7, , n
t as ";,,";
?.1,* ; ;fi;,ii1,,
IiiL, -si,
r ubrlvy jmn tuht ee o rurtl l li l e
, uor t. a
of the filanrcttts ancl irt
unilormity of iriternal srructure. thc
Molcculur Struc!ure
' f h e p h y s i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i cos[ r a y o n d e p e n du p o n t h e m o l e c u l a r
IIIIODUCTION
structure of tlre tjlaluents. All rayons consist of regeneratecl
c e l l u l o s eb, u t t h e c e l l u l o s er n o l e c u l e sm a y b e o f v a r y i n g l e n g t h s , I n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f . l r i g l r . t c l a c i l y .
r a y o n s ,s u c h a s t h c . . l . c r r a s c o ,
a n c l t h e y n r a y b e p o s i t i o n e di n a l l m a n n e r o f w a y s w i t h r e s p e c t anclstretcliir,r'J'ii,"fibrcarc
t o e a c h o t h e i a n d t o t h e f i l a m e n t i t s e l f .T h e u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e Ili].i:.,|" :"agularion coprrolcct
f i l a m c n t m a y v a r y w i t h r e s p e c tt o t h e n a t u r e a n d p o s i t i o n i n go f X,?"':1".:?:';l':,,1"ri:;"1::i:'lUliJ,J
iil+'ffi
t h e c c l l t t l o s em o l e c u l e s .
'fhe iLi. .; ffi J'ifflf-:fill;:
",,,ri'"T
I :ff?JT:"lii :ti:ft,ln,T
,i*
I
length of the cellulosenrolectrlcsis controllcd largcly
the conditions under which the viscosesolution is made'
by
'fhcse
Tlese changcsjn tne ,tru.ti,?. i
may be such as to bring about severebreakdown of the cellulose
n.roicculcs into shorter oues.Or they may be such that breakdowtt
i s k e p t t o a m i n i m u n t , a n c ll i t t l e d e p o l y m e r i z a t i o tna k e sp l a c e '
;:ff
,T,,:
:filfl;nrilil j:ll;Iitiikff
nih;i:fi#,
(.T"ily, 'Tenasco
Supcr I05,.
;i';;;;
The positioning of the ccllulose nroleculesin the filament is Orclinaryviscose riyon hasa thin skin,and is
controllcclprimarily by the conditions under which regeneration In^'Tenasco' higlrlyscrratcrl,
.higrr teriac]tynr"r"."i,"irr"' ii.,i"t,,.ssof skin
a n c l c o a g u l a t i o nt a k e p l a c e i n t h e s p i n n i n gb a t h . T h e m o l e c u l e s rncreasecl,and [hc serrario.sLn;. ;;.;;;;" lrns
nray be procluceclin such a way that the formation of crystallites trenclis 'raintai'eclin 'renasco-:si-i"'*i,i"rri"r, ,r.ono'rcca..],^is
',ir" '.or. t'c tcrracityrr.s
i s a t a m i n i m u m , i . e . t h e d e g r e eo f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o nis low. Condi- rncreased. In ,'lenascoSup"r ZOI
tions of spinning and stretchingwill also inlluencethe size of the cntirely,and theserrations has <lisappcarcrl
with respect fin".-nf,"ort'iiriprr.nr..f, lcavingonly
crystallites,and the way in which they are orientatcd 'Ihese a bea'-shapecl cross_secri";r.
i.i,l;ll;,'il"':.1cr0sco Strpcr
to each other ancl to the long axis of the libre. conditions thc-cross-section 105,,
is alnost rouncl.
rnay also be used to control the uniformity of the lilament Thereare now many techniques
ancladclitivcs whichnray bc
s t r u c t u r e ;s o m e f i l a m e n t sm a y b e o f t h e s a m es t r u c t u r et h r o u g h - tuscdin producingther
out, rvhereasothers may have a structure in the centre that is recrucin
g "*t.n,i6i
rify'.":T.:lil3l',::l;l
-n.s.a -iii'r il,J"ix:,#ffil:il ri
d i f f e r e n tf r o m t h a t o f t h e o u t c r l a y e r s . rr'acceprabreaegrce. rcti
These factors all have a major influence on the tenacity and ts as active
r,t"i.i,i' "r rayo^productiorr
today as it has ever frl.,r,^.,"f
o t h e r p r o p e r t i e so f f i l a m e n t s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d w h e n r a y o n r v es h a l ls e en r a n y n e w t y p c s o f i t s c e m sl i k c l y t ^ n t
r a y o n; ; , l ; ; ; , , g i n t h e I l t u r c .
i s s p u n . B y u n d e r s t a n d i n ga n d c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t c c h n i q u e o f
regenerating,coagulating ancl stretching rayon' therefore, it is
poisible to produce rayons to meet particular specifications.It S1'ItUCTURE AND pROpElt.l.ll).S
( H i g h - f c r r a c i r yI l l y o r r s )
is in this way that modern high tenacity rayons havc bcen
developed. Iligh tenacityrayonsarc crrcr'icalry
si'rilar to r.cgtrr.r.
viscosc;
42 . 4 3
iF t h l'':h h h F-|'':TT-F-F}-F}
I { A N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBR[,S
Thcrnral Properlics includingthe mammolh.. crir tyre markct, high tenacityrayon
High tenacity rayons have an improved performance at elevated retainsits hold.The abilityto lustainhigh tcnacityuna .rini.n-
tenrperatures; tensile strength and other mechanical properties sionalstabilityat the temperatures geneiatcrli" ;"; it.;,"iil.
are affected less than in the case of regular viscose. excellentresistance to farigue,and the price adva'tng"'oi r.,igr,
tenacity rayonshaveenabledtrresefibresto-*iiririo,iJ
I.IIGIJ TENACITY VISCOSE RAYON IN USE .viscose
conrpetition from nylonandothersynthetics
-which in thisfield.
The combinationof properties serveshigh tenacity
The highly orientedmoleculesof cellulosein high tenacityviscose rayonsin tyres has been equally eflectivein oth;; in-,;;;tn;ri
rayons presenta barrier to water moleculesand to moleculesof industrialapplications. Flexi6lerlbb.r beltingis uscd for con-
dyestuflsin solution or suspension.High tenacity viscoserayons veyingall manncrof materials,from coal anJ iron oie
do not, as a rule, dye casily or eflcctively,and the rnajority of to p*i,
and productsmoving down innumerableassernblylines. .lhe
their applicationsare in lields where colour is of minor impor- rubberin theseconveyorbeltsrequiresreinforcem*t,
o;'ii
tance.They are predominantly industrial fibres, more often than doesin a car.tyre.And again,riigii t.nu.iff vis.ose,^vfi;;i
not being buried out of sight in a mass of rubber or similar ", ii^*
como into widespread use for tiis purpose.They proviclethe
material. hig.hstrength,dimensional stability,iatigue
- resistance and llexi-
High strength, and the ability to retain high strength under bility that are needcd,
and at moaesicost]
s e v e r ee n v i r o n m e n t acl o n d i t i o n s ,a r e t h e m o s t v a l u a b l ef e a t u r e s Power transnrission bclts form anothcrirrrportnnt
of high tcnacity viscoserayons. They are uscd, for example, iu scctorof
this field,requiringthe samecombination of propcrtie,in tfio
applications where elevated temperaturesare encountered,or yarnsthat are usedto reinforcethem.Nylon,,
where there is repeatedflexing. ,up.iio, ..ririonl.
to shockloadinggives,it.ausefuladvaniog.ou.r
Tyre cords provide by far the largest outlet for these fibres. high tenacity
rayonsin somepower.beltapplications, bui f,igt t.ni'.itv invoil
1 ' h c p h c n o m e n a lg r o w t h o f t h e c a r a n d t r u c k i n d u s t r y d u r i n g remainscompetitivewheretliii is not a vitar rJquirc,.,r.ni. "-'-"
the present ccntury has created a huge market for tyres, arld I{igh tenacityviscoserayons
for the tyre cords that are used in reinforcing the rubber-in the industry,includingthe pro<Iuction.havclnany othei applications in
of tarpaulinsancl protcctive
t y r e s . T o d a y , h i g h t e n a c i t y r a y o n s s u p p l y a l a r g ep a r t o f t h e s e fabrics,sewingthrcaclsand umbrellafabiics,
tyre cords,and seemlikely to continue doing so in the forseeable -andthe rcinforcernent
of hosesa'd of plasticsusedfor bearings ot'cr h";"t_J;i;
future. purposes.
Tyre cords are called upon to provide great tensilestrength,and
to retain high strengthat the considerabletemperaturesgenerated HrcH wET MODULUS (polyNostc)
inside the tyre during use. They must withstand repeatedflexing, RAyoN.S
and resist deformation. High tenacity viscoserayons have rnuch INTRODUCTION
to offer in theserespects,and they have ousted cotton from this
important market during recent years.The arrival of nylon has Viscoserayon has now been in production for
diminishedthe hold that high -tenacityrayons had established, but more than half a
c e n t u r y . . W . h e nf i r s t p r o d u c e d ,i t w a s a f i l a m e n t y a r n
r a y o n r e t a i n sa l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e t y r e c o r d m a r k e t , a n d i t i s o[ hiqh
lusrre wlrch borc a superficialresc'blancc i'
u n l i k e l y t l t a t n y l o n w i l l c h a n g et h i s s i t u a t i o n ' trreserespectsio
Its properriesctid.not,.howcver, bcar comparisonwirh
Nylon competes witlt greatcst effect in the reinforcement of lfjij"l.u]|,<;
those
ururs of ur silk,
s'K' and
anq rt it cornpcted
cornpcted iniiiattyi'i the continuousfiramcnt
initiaily
h e a v y d u t y t y r e s f o r a i r c r a f t , e a r t h - m o v i n ge q u i p m e n ta n d t h e field on the basis of relative cheapnessancl a n d noveltv
n o v e l t y value.
value.
like. In these applicatiotrs,its phenomenal resistanceto sltock
l o a d sg i r r e sn y l o n t h e e d g eo n h i g h t e n a c i t yr a y o n , a n d i t a l s o h a s . In due course,viscoserayon settleclao*n- ona-i.g^"-i" nra
its propernichein the textilefield.It wasacccptccl
as a cellulosic
a higher strength/weightratio. But in tyres for lighter purposes, fibre,in this respcctrcsembling cottonrwhichtoulcl bc proctuccJ
46
47
{lil
I
I
I
f-l rl r-I r r
rF F F F F F l. f-}.-}.-F}}:l} l_f_li H-r
HANDROOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
,.,1
.-r-r--------
ffil-f-l-_-HHl
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
llwlvt MODAL FIBRES- COMPARATIVEPROPERTIES . .(.3) ltiglt ElongatiotrHIrM l;ibres. r'rrcsc arc crraractcriz.cd by
llieh
9 l o l q a t i o n s ,d r y a n d w e t , c . g . i n t h e r a n g c 1 2 _ 1 4p e r c c r r t
dry; 16-20 per cent wer.
III|M Modals
-Fibres belongingto each o[ thesethrce groups,and thc rangcs
I I i g l rS t r e n g t h S t a n d a t ' d E l o n g ' n Cotton Rayon of properries-they clisplay.are shown in itr.
_High 'fhe i^frf" o,i-pre"'3a.
Uppcrs Staple table also i.cludes corresponclin j propcrties oi
SuperPoly- 254 Superfaser ;;;i,,.-,;
rayon staple and of a reprcsentitivecotton (uppcrs).
flox Vincel Fiber 40
Junlon Polyflox ( A v r i l )
w6l Koplon PI{ODUCTION
(Lirelle) Polyno
Hipolan 'fhe
pri.ciples Iollowccr in the procruction
Polycot of high wct nrocrurus 'itiJ
rayon by the Tacrrikawa technique are (a)
Tenacity(cN/tex) .Jar"tio,r--in
amount of cellulosebreakdown whlch takespln""
dry 4l-46 28-35 a a
JJ-+L
A ^
JL 22 iu if,.'p;;.;;:
12 tion of t^e viscosesolution ancl(b) sto*lng .fbw,,
wet 30-35 tB-27 2t-30 35 of tfr" ,ig"'n;r;_
t i o n . a n d c o a g u l a t i o no f t h e f i l a m e n t ,p " . i r i t t i u g
,tr.rcl'iiilo'fr.
c a r r i e do u t g e n t l y a n c li n s t a g e s .
(%)
I:xtensibility
dry 6-10 8-t2 12-14 9 l8 .,."|,f,.r^:.|lt...1.-in productiori of a IMM rrrotllI nryr.rn
by tlrc
8- l4 9-t6 16-20 l0 22 l a c l ) l K a w ap r o c e s sa r c a s f o l l o w s : _
rvet
W e tl v l o d u l u s( c N / t e x ) . ( l ) S o d a c c l l u l o s c( a r k a r ic e l r u r o - sics) p r o c J u c cbt ly s t c c ' i r r gt r r c
c e l l u l o s ei n c a u s r i cs o d a , . f o l l o w . ar i y p i " r r i n g
p e r l 0 0 d / oe x t ' n a,<l ,irrJ;1ft';;
i ' t h e p r o d u c t i o . o f r c g u l a rv i s c o s er.d e c o n a i t i o n s
at2Vo exl'rt 98-r s9 53-80 i Ut) 35 are cnrcfulrv
IJL-LLI controlled to ensure that the temperature
159 44 .lo; n;;'l;";il;l
a t ) 7 oe x t n 221-353 r24-247 109-il5 2 0 ' C . , a n d t h e p r o c e s si s c o m p l e t c cw i ithin 2 horrrs.
65-75 55 - 7 0 6 s - 75 50 90-100 ( 2 ) f h e t h e o r c t i c a lq u a n t i t y o f c a r b o '
d i s u l p h i d ei s u s c c li n
xanthation(lessthan trre theorcticar
.quantity is tiscdi'.t p."J".i,.,g
r e g u l a r v i s c o s e )a, n c l t h e a d c l i t i o ni , n r " a l
o v c r 2 [ h o u r s ,T l r c
tcn)peratureis held below 20.C., a'cl the.
in propertiesover a wide range' Air-dry tenacities,for example, raiscclto ZS"C- f", i
hour,
n l o y U t 2 8 . 3 - 4 ' l . ' 7c N / t e x ( 3 : ? . 5 . 4 g / d e n ) ;w e t e l o n g a t i o n m
s ay
r a n s ef r o n r 8 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t .w i t h i n t h i s w i d e r a n g eo f p r o p e r t i e s , ( 3 ) S o d i u m c e . l l u l o sxea n t h a t ei s d i s s o l v c .
i' watcr to proviac
horicver, it is possiblc to classify the polynosic librcs into three a c o n t a i n i n gt r r c e q u i v a r c ' t o f 6
^solution l i e r c c n t c c i l u r o s ca r r t l
rnain groups, as proposed by J. D. Grifliths of Courtaulds Ltd' 2.8 per cent sodium hydroxidc. (ln the regular
"ir;;;; ;;;;;;;
( l ' e x l . I n s l . I n d u s t r . ,1 9 6 5 ,3 , N o . 3 , p . 5 4 ) : x a n t h a t ci s d i s s o l v e ci ln c a u s t i ci o d a s o l u t t n . ) ' . ---'
Elongatiort
c e n tw e t ' 2 3
l l i g hS t r e n g t h6:- 1 0 p e rc € t r t : t t y , ; , S - l , 4 . l e r PERMANENT
sEr (1")
l 6 p c rc c t t wct'
t
b l , i , r d a r c5l-: t z p . t c ' c ndt r y ; 9 - lllvA'l Modal Iribres. 'I'rrc relationsrrip
rz-14 pei cent drv; l6-20 percetrtwet' between rvork do'c in strctcrrinc
;itdfti;;s;tioni r fibre when wet and the set' 1he srrperiorityot llwilt rnoJai
l-ibreswith respecrto or;,|:.T1Lent
ElasticRecoverY
,noaor
rot'ii.,"51"'rJL;{l^._"il:
treatnrents tlf"fill?,l,i';ii:l,l',x:l,y|l
ill,.,il:l,i
thaneithercottonor "i.ti,i"iy i"y* iiirr,", _
than for cottou or
Elasticrecoveryis higherior IIWM ntodals'Ihe followingdiagrant Court csy J.D. Grifl'it hr
in tlte wet state'
t.V"tt-ti"pf.,eipeciall"y
58 59
I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NA.TURAL POLYMER FISRN,S
r .,
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
NATURAL I'OLYMBII ITII]II.ES
_ I{WMMODALFIBRES
DIAGITAMS
STRESS-STRAIN
H STRENGTH 5
--: }]rcHsrRErucrH
o
IIIGFI ELONGATION
o t4 1
bJ
0 t STANDARD
U
CT
J 6z
a
4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4
srRAtN(% elorucarroru)
2. llet. Tltis diagrarrr
shorvscorrcspondlng
curvcslor thcsofibrcsln tho
wct stfttc.
o 2 4 6 'o 16 18 c o t t o t r 'T ' e b r e a k i n st e . n a c i toyI. c o t t o r f i b r e s . r r a s
(r l?or"Jrlo*)
.roo?,* l r r c r c a s csdr g r r t l y ,
9.,:ql!t.tC hasbeena si-gniticanr it,op iiifiiitirr',n'oii,,,,r.
llllM Modal Fibrcs.-'f|rcsc all sli.w ioiu.i'r]i*iti,rg tc'ircrtrosand rrr_
l. Air-Dry. This diagrant, b:rsed on air-dry conditions, compares the creased brcakingextensions,
three types of l{WM rnodal fibre rvith cottons, flax and rayon staple. which are .ui.i.,ii tiu,u"trr.iu*iirii,g'ii ti,.
slopes of thecurves.
Cotlon. The region covered by the curves for various cotton fibrei is
indicatedby the shadedarea.
'I'he
upper marginof the arer representsthe . Higll strengthand standard ItwM modarfibresrenralnrrrgerywithin
tle. regionof the cottoncurves.-r-ligh .ro,rjotioiiilrvMnrodalfibresnorv
stress-strain curve of a Sea lsland cotton (St. Vincent); the lorver ntargin lie betweenthecottoncurves
r e p r e s e n t st h e c u r v e so f t y p i c a l A s i a t i c c o t t o n s( O o n r r a sa n d B e n g a l s ) .
ancl.thitioi rifon itopfc.
. Irr tensilepropcrties,the HwM ,n"it.i''r'iurrrrcscrrrbrc
The breakingtenacitiesofvariousIigyptian,Americanand Peruviancottons closelythandoesiny otliertypC"f r.ge".i,,t.aciilutosic cottorrrr'rc
a r e i n d i c a t e db y p o i n t s . fibrc.
Hlltl[ lr[odal Fibres. Curves typical of the tlrree groups of HWM modal Court esyJ.D. Griflit tts.
fibres are shorvn.It will be seen that (a) the curve of the high strength
tlWI'l modal group closely resenrblesthat of Sea Island cotton, (b) the
curve of the standard HWM modal group resemblesthose of uppers,
American lvliddling and Peruvian cottons, (c) the curve of the high Blettds
e l o n g a t i o nI I W M n t o d a lg r o u p l i e s w i t h i n t h e a r e ao f t h e c o t t o n c u r v e sf o r T h e e n d u s e sd e s c r i b c r l . a b o vree l a t el a r g c l y
about the first 5 per cent of exterrsion,but beyond this point its high t o y a n l s r n a d cl i o n r
100percentFIWM'rorial
fibrcs.lut UWfi-iiroari,
e x t e n s i o nt a k e si t r v e l lo u t s i d et h e a r e a .
rapidheadwayasconstituerts "r;;i;;;;;k;;;;
Flax; Rayon Staple.Thecurvesfor flax and rayon staplerepresetrtapprox- of yor,r,,pr,,i-i-;r;ilir;^;i.;;;;."'"
irnately the trvo extrerrlesof the total rangeof cellulosicfibre curves.
Seediagrantoppositcfor fibres in the wet state. Cotlott Blcnds
The resenrblance
of HWMrnoclal
lrbresto cott'' i.cricatcs
t h e s u r f a c e t a k e s o n a f e l t e d a p p e a r a n c ew , h e n s u b j e c t e dt o trrat
repeatedrvashingand turlble drying. llWM modal interlock suffers ll*rg_tygtypesof {tbrewouldlr. .onipoiille
i, ble'Js.M;;ii;i
the HWM modalfibre 'ow producedir'u.ing uscd
n o n e o f t h e s e d c f e c t s ,a n d r e t a i n s i t s i n i t i a l a p p e a r a n c ea n d ir ble'crswith
cottor,and manyexcellentfabricsare nraclc-
in this*ny, in"ir'iJ_
h n n d l ct h r o t r g h o t rntr o s to f i t s l i f c . ing drcssnratcrials,
shcetings,
Iurnishingsctc.
62
63
I.IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES ^: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES
l - l W M n r o d a l f i b r e s c o n t r i b u t c i t t c r e a s c dr e g u l a r i t y a n d u n i -
lorrnity to the blendcd yarrt.
cuPRo (CUPRAMMONtUM)
Flax Blcnds
INTIIODUCI'ION
l-lWM modal llbres ltave higher bending and torsiottalrigidities
t h a n e i t h e r c o t t o n o r r a y o n s t a p l e ,a n d i n h b a v i e rd e n i e r st h e y cellulosewill crissolve
provide fabrics with a linen-like handle. This is especiallytrue in a mixecrsorutio'o[ c<lppcr sartsancl
anrnronia,calledcuprarnm oniumliquor,on,t..g.,r.il i..r *ir,,i"ri
in the caseof the high strengthand standardl{WM modal fibres. fibresare producecl by extrusionof ttri, solutio]ri,rto o "*g;;;
-procluced
Blended rvith flax, HWM modal fibres of this type provide fabrics ing bath. yarn
of full linen handle which is retaitredafter repeatedwashings. -The by tlte "up.ornn.,oniunr process
consists of regeneratccl ccllulose;it ir no*'*irt.ty tnoivn'-dil;
lVool Blends nameof cupro.
Blends of I-lWM modal fibres with wool provide fabricswhich Thecuprammoniurn process haclits beginnings
yearsof cellulosic[ibre manufacture. in thc vcrvcarlv
d i s p l a yr e d u c e ds h r i n k a g ee, v e nw i t h t h e H W M m o d a l c o n s t i t u e n t In lg9O," i+.],.f, .il#;i
i n c o r n p a r a t i v e l y5 m a l l a m o u n t s .T h e h a n d l e a n d a p p e a r a n c o
ef Despeissis,<liscovcredthat he couict.issotvc;ii;i;;;
l",li:
rn lt llrt
cuprammonium
the fabrics remain substantially unchanged,resemblingthe all- liquor,anclspin a fine Iilaurcntor ,nrtiii"-i,i
wool fabric. silk' from the solution.- Dcspeisiiscticcl,nowcvcr,alrd for two
ycarshis invcntionwasforgoitcn.
Sytttlrctic Fibre Blends ^ln 1892,Max FrerneryancrJohannUrban at oberbructrin
Cermanymade use of the cuprarnmonir,r., pro..r, for rnaking
l-lWM rnodalshave reolacedcotton to a considerableextent in
carbonfilanrentsusedin carly elcctriclight bulbs.
lrlenclswith polyester fi-bres;thc fabric retains ail thc clesirable r' rgca.-'*Jifi
thc lrclp of others,they bcganrnanufactu"ring ccilurosic
characteristicsof the cotton blend, but is clearcr ancl morc ' librcsi<rr
tcxtilo p_u-rposes;this was the bcgin'ing o[ thc Vcrcinicic
r e g u l a r .A l s o , s u c l rb l e n d so f l t W M r n o d a la n d p o l y e s t e rr n a y b e
Gla.zstoff-Fabrike'
A.G.,wrricrr
u..i,i,. ui. oi tii.-rrrl.r;';,i;;
cheaper, as it is not necessaryto comb the l-lWM rnodal fibre; r'adefibreproducing
c o t t o n i s c o n r n r o n l yc o n r b e db e f o r eb l e n d i n g . orgarrizations
in the*"iia icir"r;;8ii;:C:j.
'l'he
s t a n d a r dl l W M r n o d a l s h a v ca l o a d - e x t e n s i o l l c u r vwch i c h i s
very similar to that of polyestersfor the first few percentage . A f t e r a b o u t l 0 y c a r s , . t h ec u p r a m r n o n i u npr r o c c s sw a s a b a n _
doned in favour of-thc viscos"p;";;;r;;;J
e x t c n s i o n ;t h i s p a r t o f t h e c u r v e i s o f g r e a t e s ti r n p o r t a n c ei n ir rc.raineclneglcctecl
until aftcr World War I In 19ll, a tectrniquc
fabric perfonuance.The highelougatioul-lWMmodalshave air-dry of stretch ,p'l;i;i;;
dcvclopedby J. p. BernbergA.G. rcvivcJ ini"."rt
curves wlrich resenrble the polyester curves over almost the i' thc cuprnr'-
r'onium process,ancrsincJ then thc proau"tiou
rvholc of their range. Blend yarns of diflerent ratios show a of the nui, iins
c.ontinucd..The cupro fibre has b..o*.
m o r e n e a r l y l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i pt h a n d o s i r n i l a rb l e n d sw i t h o t h e r 'lJcntberg' wictcly f no*i, o,
yarn.
types of I-IWMmodal libre, and for this reasorlthe high-elongation
type of l{WM rnodal is favouredfor polyesterblends. NOMENCLATUITE
Bleuds of llWM modal fibre with a relativelysnrallproportiorr
of lorv density fibre, e.g. polypropylene, provide fabrics with Fedcral Trade Conunissiotr Dcfinitiotr
handleand shearpropertiesvery similar to those of cotton fabrics. Fibre produ.cgdbV thc
The additiou o[ the low dcnsity fibre increasesthe bulk of the ccllulosewhich falls within .cupramrnoniunrproccss is rcgcncratcd
the class cJescribecl
,,, ,rryl,, ,riia.i
l l W l v l n r o d a l y a r n , w h i c h t e n d s t o b e l e s sb u l k y a n d n l o r e c o r n - llte U.S. Fecleral Trade Comrnission <.lcfinitions,
p a c t t h a n c o t t o n , l a r g e l y o w i n g t o t h e c i r c u l a rc r o s s - s c c t i oon[ thc oflicial
d c s c r i p t i o nb e i n g a s f o l l o w s :
the IlWlvl nrodal Ilbre.
r.
Itl}}]-H
IIANDBOOK OF TEXl'ILE FIDRES A : N A T U I T A LP O L Y M I ] I IF, I D R I I S
h a s b e e nm o d i f i c dt o o p e r a t eo n a c o n t i n u o u sb a s i s A . continuous 1 - h c s cm a y b e _n r a d e , [ o r c x a r n p l c ,
b y c x t r u c l i r r gt h c s l l i r r n i r r g
s p i n n i n g p r o c e s sw a s i n t r o d u c e df i r s t i n G c r n r a n y a n d i n 1 9 4 4 s p i . n c r c t sw i r h t w o s c r so f f r i f i c c s . . I . h c
in the U.S.A. The following dcscription refers essentiallyto the :*o'r
: l : l : i "one
^ r l t hset
rough filar'c'rs
of orifices arc alrowecrto cotcct on a
to fornr bundles which adhere together; flat surfacc
U.S. process. t]r.r, o.. carriecl away
Up to the point at which the filamentsemergefrorn tbe funnel, a t . i . t c r v a l s t o j o i n t h e f i l a m e n t sJ i t i " J . , L - i . o n r
trrcot.cr sct of
the continuous processis virtually identical with the batchwise orifices,forming a compositeyn.n
*itt, tir. buncilcscrcating slubs
process. The thread of filaments from the funnel is passed at intervals.
through an enclosedbath of hot dilute acid called the pretreat-
nlerlt pan. This continues the coagulationof the cellulose, PI{OCESSING
reducing the filamcnts to about one third of their original
Scnuringand Dcsizing
c l i a n r e t e rT. h e o r i e n t e d f i l a m e n t so f c e l l u l o s ea r e s h e a t h e di n a
f i l n r o f u n a l i g n e dc e l l u l o s e a, n d t h i s i s w a s h e da w a y i n t h e p r e - W a t e r s o l u b l e s i z e s ,s u c h a s t l r e p o l y v i n y l
alcolrol typcs oftcn
t r e a t n l e n tp a n . I f l e f t , t h e u n a l i g n e dc e l l u l o s ew o u l d a c t a s a tuscd,may be removeclbv s o a k i n g ,
followcd by a ncutralscour
g l u e , h o l d i n g t h e f i l a m e n t st o g e t h e r . at the boil.
After leaving the pretreatrnentpan, the thread of filaments
BlcncLing
p a s s e st h r o u g h a n a c i d t r o u g h w h e r e r e m a i n i n g c o p p e r i s
removed as copper sulphate. Thc acid is washcd away as the C u p r o i s an unusually whitcfibrc,and blcnclrirrg
is not gcrrcrully
t h r e a d n r o v e st h r o u g h a w a t e r t r o u g h , a n d l u b r i c a n t s ,s i z e se t c . r c q u i r c d .If.it shouldprovencccssary,
the usuirltcclrniqucs
for
a r e a d d e d a s r e q u i r e db y p a s s i n gt h e t h r e a d o v e r a p r e p a r a t i o n c e l l u l o s i cfibresnray bc uscd,
c.g. Irypocltloritc
or hydrogcrr
roll, pcroxide.
T h e t h r e a d p a s s e st h r o u g h a s u c c e s s i o n of driers and over a
r o l l w h i c h a p p l i e sc o n i n g o i l b e f o r e b e i n gw o u n d o n t o f l a n g e l e s s D5'cing
s p o o l s .U n t w i s t e dt h r e a d sm a y a l s o b e w o u n d o n t o b e a m sw h i c h
C u p r o i s a c c l l u l o s i cf i b r e o f r c l a t i v e l y
aio used directly in warp knitting, or combined to provide a l o w - c r y s t a l l i n i t y( c . g . b y
c o n r p a r i s o nw i t h c o t t o n ) ,a n c l i t
w e a v e r ' sb e a m , ; , p . o O r " . . r u s u a l l yi n t ' c f o r ' r
o f I i n e f i l a n r e n t s .W a t c r p c n c t . " t . ,
T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n t i n t r o u sp r o c e s s t, h e t h r e a d o f f i l a m e n t i s d y c i n g t a k e sp l a c e r a p i d l y n , r a
qrltiy into thc {ibrc ancl
never ltandled, and irnperfectionsare thtrs held at a nrinimunr. used
.ft..tii.ir.'f^" typcsof dycstufl
T h e l l l a m e n t sa r e o f h i g h l y u n i l o r m s t r u c t u r ea n d d i r n e n s i o n s , 'l',c for cotton a.rl otrrcr ccrurosic nu"., n.. usca for cupro.
s^ades obrainecrwirrr cupro a;;i;;;;;
a n d t h e p r o p e r t i e sa r e e x c c l l e n t .A f t e r c o n d i t i o n i n gf o r a f e w t u n d c rc o r n p a r a b l cc o n c l i t i o n s ' w i t t i rrra. trroseobrairc<r
d a y s a t c o n t r o l l e dh u m i c l i t y ,t h e c u p r o i s r e a d y f o r d e s p a t c h . o t t r J i ' . - " t r r l o r i .n U r . r .
Cupro filamcnts adhcre to eaclt other, and are separatedonly
by a comparativelystrong force. Unlike viscoseyarns, they may STI{UC'I'UREAND PROPERTIES
b e u s c d f o r m a n y p u r p o s c si n a n u n t w i s t e dc o n d i t i o n .
I;incS(rucrur"
n',unn[illl-
A r v i d ev a r i c t y o l ' c u p r o y a r n si s p r o d u c e d ,r a n g i n gl r o r n l 7 t o
t o 3 3 0 d t e x ( 1 5 - 3 0 0 d e n ) a n d n t o r e .W e a v i n ga n d k n i t t i n g y a r n s C u p r oi s t h e m o s t . s i l k - l i k c ' oa[l l c e l l u l o s i c
y a r r r sI .t i s s n t o o t h _
a r e c o r n n l o n l yi n t h e r a n g e5 6 t o I l 0 d t e x ( 5 0 - 1 0 0 d e n ) . surfaccd and shows'o rnarkings or rtii,,tilnr.l. cross_scctio' it
is almostround.
Novelly Yarns The filarnents are extrelnely-fine, usually1.4tltcx (1.3 dcn),
Cupro manufacturershave been particularly successfulin their andhavebeennranufacturecl i,i o.+i hi.*?ol+ ,r.,,1.
p r o c t u c t i o no I n o v e l t y y a r n s , s u c h a s s l u b a n d n u b b y y a r n s .
68
69
::,-'F
I
^: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES
TIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
I'cnsilc Strenglh
The tenacityo[ cupro is l5-20 cN/tex ( 1 . 7 - 2 3 g / d e n )d r y ;
9 . 7 - 1 1 . 9c N it e x( l . l - 1 . 3 5 g / d e n w
) ei.
The terrsilestrengthof Jupro'is about2 1 0 0 - 31 5 0 k g l c r n 2
(30,000-40,000 lb/in2)
C O T T O NL I N T E R S
(oR wooD PULP) EIongnIion
Cupro has.an elongation of l0-17 per
c e n t when dry and 17-33
per cent when wet.
Ulstic Properlies
Cupro has an elastic recovcry of
2 0 _ 75 p c r c c n t a t d i f l e r e n t
clongations.
Spccillc Gravity
1.54conditioned
at I I per centrnoisture.
[lfcct of Moislurc
c u p r o s w c l l si ' w a t e r a n d l o s e ss t r e n g t h T . h e r n o i s t u r cr e g a i r i s
1 2 . 5p e r c e n t u n d e rs t a n d a r dc o n d i t i o n sT. h e c o r n n r c r c i aslt a ' c l a r d
is 1l per cent.
[lfcct of l.Icnt
Deco-mpositionbegins at about 250.C. without ntelting. yarns
a n d f a b r i c s b u r n r e a d i l y , l e a v i n gl i t t l e a s h .
COAGULATING S K E I NS P I N N I N G ,
LIQUOR FILAMENTYARN
Iilfcct of Agc
S i n r i l a rt o v i s c o s e .
CONTINUOUS SPINNING.
F I L A M E N TY A R N
EIIectof Sunlight
P r o l o n g e de x p o s u r ec a u s e ss o t n ed e g r a d a t i o na n d l o s so f s t r c n g t l r .
S P I N N I N GF O R S T A P L E
FIBRE
ChernicnlI'ropertics
Acids
l'he fibres are disintegratedby h o t d i l u t e o r c o l d c o n c c n t r a t e d
acids.
Cupro Florv Chart
NA
,U 1l
I{ANDNOOK OF TEXTILE FIT]RES A: NATURAP
L OLYMNR
F I BR I i S
I rrse
cls
Alkalis C u p r o i s r n o d e r a t c l ya t t a c k c cbl y s o n r c i n s e c t s .
D i l u t e s o l u t i o n s d o n o t h a v e a n y a p p r e c i a b l ee f i e c t . S t r o n g
s o l u t i o n sc a u s es r v e l l i n ga n d d e g r a d a t i o n . l\ Iicro.organisrns
W e t f i b r e i s a t t a c k e db y n r i l d c w s .
Generul
C u p r o b e h a v e sg e n e r a l l y l i k e o t h e r c c l l u l o s i cf i b r e s . I t i s n o t DlcctricalItropcrtics
aflected by rveak oxidiziug agents or by bleachessuch as hypo- It,loderatedielectric strcngth when dry.
chlorite or pcroxide solutions. Strong oxidizing agents cattse
degradation.
Olhcr Propcrlics
Eflect of OrganicSolvents T h e f i b r e h a s a s o f t s i r k - r i k eh a n d l e a n d
a c h a r a c t e r i s t i rcu s t r c .
L i k e o t h c r c e l l u l o s i cf i b r e s ,g e n e r a l l yi n s o l u b l e .
C U P R OI N U S E
c r r p r o i s i n g c n c r a ln l o r e e x p c n s i v et h a n o t h e r
cellrr- nrnn-nrnrtc
losicyarns.Its cxrrafinc'cis.nn,t;i;;i,;tn,
subdued 'ttrrictiv;';r;l;:
lustreand goodtlrapingprop.rfi., cnableit
rhisexrracostin th-crnanufactul"'oi to carrv
iiieii q;;l;;; nooir.',,t
lVashing, Ironing, Dry Clcaning
cupro is similar to other cellulosics
i n i t s g e n e r a rb e r r a v i o u r
-E laundering ancl ctry cleaning p.o..rr.r.
fowarrfs. It should bc
t r c a t e di n t l r e s a m e w a y a s v i s c o s e .
cir
IJ
?.' r l
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES ^: NA-I.URAL I'OLYl!{E,II IrII}I(DS
t l . r ec a r l y 1 9 3 0 s , s t r e t c h i n go I s o l v e n t _ p l a s t i c i s c c l
,During
SAPONIFIED CELLULOSE ES'|ER c c l l u l o s ea c e t a t er e s u l t e ci 'r. t r-rteh'er o c r u c t i o no f
v a r r r sw i t l i , . , , i i " i i i . . . ,
i' tne regio. of 44-53 cN/tex (5-6 g/dc'). 'l ii.i. y;;;;;;i;i,;;ii
INTRODUCTION t l r c e s s e n t i acl h a r a c t e r i s t i cosi c c l l u l o s ca c c t ^ t c ,
but thcy courcr
b c c o n v e r t e di n t o c e l l u l o s eb y s a p o ' i f i c a t i o r w i t r r
D u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s e, v e r y e f f o r t w a s b e i n g n - r a d et o d e v e l o p c a u s t i cs o d a
s o l u t i o n , p r o v i d i n g h i g h l y - o i i e n t e c lf i l a u r c r r t s
t e c h n i q u e sf o r i n c r e a s i n gt h e t e n a c i t yo f v i s c o s er a y o n f i l a m e n t s oI rcgcncratccl
c c l l u l o s e . ' f h c r n o l e c ' r e s i ' t h c s e s a p o ' i f i c c rc c i l u l o s c
by motlification of the spinning and stretching techniques.The acctrtc
f i l a r ' c n t sw e r c i n a r l o r e h i g r r l y o r i e ' i c c ra ' c r c r y s t a i l i r c
h e a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m l a y i n t h e d i f l i c u l t y o f m a i n t a i n i n gt h e co'di-
t i o n t , a . c o u l d b e o b t a i n e c lt y s t r e t c h i ' g I i l a r i c ' t s
extruded filament in a plastic condition after it enteredthe proAii..A
during coagulat.ioo n f v i s c o s e, o y o n .
c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , a n d s o p r o v i d i n g a n o p p o r t u n i t yo f s t r e t c h i n g
1 - l ] r re l e g a ' t t c c h . i q u c o f c r c a t i r r gl r i g r r l y - o r i c r r t c d
t h c f i l a r n e n tt o o r i e n t a t et h e c e l l u l o s en r o l e c u l e s( s c e p a g e 4 0 ) . cllul'sefira-
'e'ts lbrrnsrhe basisof
D u r i n g t h i s s a n r e p e r i o c l ,a t t e r n p t sw e r e a l s o b e i n g m a d e t o
groupof cornpa'ies .trrcpruc.r"tusccrby tl,. b,,iiitr"ii,
produce high tenacity cellttloseacetate yarlls by stretching in proirucirghigrrtcrLacity'rryo,,r-,i,iaii
iri.
t r a d en a r n e ' F o r t i s a n ' .
f i l a n r e n t so f c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e .I n t h i s c a s e ,h o w e v c r ,t h e p r o j e c t
w a s s i m p l i { i c db y t h e r e a d i n e s w s i t h w h i c h c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t ec o u l d
bc brought i n t o a p l a s t i cc o n d i t i o t ta l t e r i t h a d b c e u n . r a d c . NOMI]NCLATUITE
'l'he
h a r u l c n i n go I a c c l l u l o s ca c c t a t cf i l a r n c n ti s a c h i c v c t lb y
llul,on
e v a p o r a t i n gs o l v e n tf r o m t h e j e t o f s o l u t i o n c t n e r g i t t gf r o m t h c
I r i b r e sp r o d u c e db y t h e s a p o n i f i c a t i o n
s p i n n e r e t .A n d t h e l i l a m e n t m a y b e r e u d e r e dp l a s t i c a g a i n b y o f c c i l u l o s ca c c t . t c fi brcs
t r e a t r n c n tw i t h a s o l v e l t t ,w h i c h w i l l f i r s t s w e l l a n d t h e n d i s s o l v e a r e r c g e n e r a t e dc e l I u l o s ea, n < l a r e p r o p e r l y
d c s c r i b e cal s rayotl
undcr the rules of thc U.S. Fccleraltl.r,r.l"
t h c c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t c .C e l l u l o s ea c e t a t ei s a l s o a t h e r m o p l a s t i c Co,ll,trissiou(scc p i r S c
xxvi).
n r a t e r i a l ,a n c l m a y b e s o f t c r t e db y h c a t i n g .
These diflereucesin the behaviour of celluloseand cellulosc
a c e t a t e t o w a r d s s o l v e n t sa n d h e a t a r e a c o n s e q u e n c eo f t h e I'I{ODUCTION
c l i f f e r e n c ei sn t h e i r m o l c c u l a rs t r t l c t u r e T . h e h y c l r o x y lg r o u p s o f
cellr.rlosc
accrittcfibres arc nraclcby hcatirrgccllulosc
c c l l u l o s cc l o n o t e n c o t l r a g es o l u t i o n o f t h e m o l e c u l ei n o r g a n i c l::::ltt:.cJ
s o l v e n t s ,w h e r e a s t h e a c e t y l g f o t l p s o f t h e c c l l u l o s e a c e t a t e liil'i;i,'ll,']?'
l,I^..:r:,'l:.
: r,b",i tr.k;[;;;
::'ii'l
sofrcne<l.-i "iiiu.,i :0i;);;:),
nrolecule do. Also, cellulosemoleculesare able to pack closely ;::1,;,..llli'lq
llT vnr,, rry.-+'t"
lo iir"l?iiil,,ii
length.Tho stretchect
yarn ii wouni on roili;;;,;,i
togctherand developporverfulforces of attractionassociated with
a n d .s a p o n i f i e db y t r e a t r n e nw
;;t1;;;
h i g h c r y s t a l l i n i t y ;c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t eI n o l e c t t l e sw, ith their large t i t r r c a u s t i cs o-c r *s o l u t i o . . I ' t r c y a r '
is thcn washed,oitccl,driccl nn.t ,"*oi,n.i.
penclang t r o u p s ,d o n o t p c r n t i t o I t h e c l o s e p a c k i l r gt h a t r e s u l t s
V c r y f i n e f i l a n r c n t s . o f r c g e n c r a t c chl i g h l y _ o r i c n t c d
i n h i g h c r y s t a l l i n i t y ,a n c l c c l l t r l o s ea c c t i r t ei s s o f t e n c db y h c a t ' c c lI u lo s c
'I'his n r a y b e p r o d u c c di n t h r s w a y .
r c a d i n e s sw i t h w h i c h c e l l u l o s ca c c t l t e c a n b e r e n d c r e d
p l a s t i c ,e i t l i e r b y s o l v e t t to r b y h e a t , p r o v i d c s a n e i r s ys o l u t i o n
PIIOCESSING
t o t h c p r o b l c m o f s t r c t c h i n gl i l a r n c n t st o c r e a t ea h i g h d e g r c eo [
o r i c n t a t i o n . F i l a r n e n t so f c e l l u l o s e a c c t a t e w h i c h b a v e b e e n l)yeing
s o f t e n c db y s o l v e n to r b y h c a t t n a y b e s t r e t c h e dt o m a n y t i n . r c s
S a p o ' i f i e dc c l l u l o s ca c e t a t cy a r , s r r a v ca y c i r r gp r o p c r t i c s
t h c i r o r i g i n a l l e n g t h , t h c l o n g t n o l c c t l l e so f c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e si'rilur
t o t h o s e o f c o t t o n o r v i s c o s cr a y o n , t h c i r i g h , i . g . . c
s l i c l i n gr e a d i l y o v c r o n c a n o t l t e r a s t h c y a r e d r a w n i n t o a l i g n - of oricnta-
t i o n r e n d c r i n gd y e i n g s l o w c r a n d l c s s c f f c c ' i i v c .
I n c nt .
74 75
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE F I BRES
NATURAL POLYME,R FII}RBS
S'TRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
Ma.sticIlecovery
60-80per cent at 2 per cent extension.
I r r i ( i a lM o d u l u s
1 500-2207 cN/tex ( I 70-250 e/clen).
AvcragcStillness
1 0 3 3 - l 1 9 2 c N / t e x( l l 7 - 1 3 5 g / d e n ) .
SpecificGravity
1.5.
76
77
*'lJ',l_r
|}}}}
78 79
h,
',
1
-t
,!
I
'lt..l L
t
t'
-.----------.-----_---.---------
b e e n e s t a b l i s h e db y t h e U . S ' D e p a r t m e u t o f A g r i c u l t u r e , u s i n g PROCESSING
e i t h c r a b a t c h w i s eo r c o n t i u u o t r st e c h n i q u e .
Scouring
Batchwise Proccss.Cotton fibrc, yartr or fabric is purificd by
c e l l u l o s e a c e t a t ei s s e n s i t i v ct o c a u s t i c a r k a l i , w h i c r r r c n c r s
b o i l i n g i n d i l u t e c a u s t i cs o d a , w a s h e da_n d d : i e d . l t i s t h e n a l l o w e d to
to soik in acetic acid for at least I hour. Excessacid is squeezed b.ringabout hydrolysis of the acetategroups. yarns anct fabrics
-o,ra
from the cotton, which is then treated with a mixture of acetic should not be scoured undcr alkalinc ionditions.
Sorp
a c i d a n c l a c e t i ca n h y c l r i d ei n t h e p r e s e n c eo f a s n r a l l a m o u n t o f sulphatedfatty acid at 60.C., ammonia, or tetrasodiu,npyrfplos-
perclrloric acicl catalyst. After treatment for I hour at 20"C'' p h a t e a n d s u r f a c ea c t i v ea g e n ta r e e f f c c t i v e .D e t c r g e n G - n r ., , o r u
t h e c o t t o n i s w a s h e da n d d r i e d . widelyused.
Continuous Process,Tltis process,rvhich is designedfor ttse Illeaching
with fabr.ic,is essentiallythe satne as the above, but presoaking c e l l u l o s e a c e t a t e i s a w h i t e f i b r e , a n c r b r c a c h i n gi s s c l c r o ' r
i s s h o r t e n e cb l y c a r r y i n g i t o u t a t 8 2 ' C ' f o r 2 m i n u t e s .T h e n e c e s s a r yI.f b l e a c h i ' g i s r e q u i r e d , a l k a r i n e c o n d i ' [ i o n ss h o u r d
fabric is coolecl an<l passed coutinuously through a bath of
*"1::1,1.3:.t:i9 or a soctium
chlorite
orhydrogcrr
perchloric acicl in acetic acid, followed by treatment with acetic p e r o x l c t e b a t , hs h ofrltgrtrlorite,
uld be used.
i n h y d r i d e i n a n a c e t y l a t i o nv e s s e lf o r 3 m i n u t e s a t 2 0 " C ' T h e
c o t t o n i s t h e n w a s h e da n d d r i e d .
Dyclng
P a r t i a l t y a c e t y l a t c dc o t t o n p r o c l u c e di n t h i s w a y h a s g r e a t l y
improveclrot- and lteat-resistttnce (seePA cotton, Vol. l). cellulose acetate dirlcrs in its che'rical structurc froln
the
ce_llulosic fibres, such as cotton, viscoseancl cupro. All but a fcw
Viscose of the reactive hydroxyl groups of the ccliulose havc
bccn
acetylated,and acetate will not, as a rule, acccpt
D u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 sJ, a p a n e s es c i c t t t i s t d s e v e l o p e da s i m i l a r p r o c e s s thc dycs that
are normally used for ccllulosicfibres.
for the direct a c e t y l a t i o no f v i s c o s ef i b r e w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n gi t s
When acetate fibre came on the nrarket, its succcssful
fibrous form. This technique has uow become the basis of a com_
mercial development was prejucliccclby thc fact
conrmercial process rvhich produces a cellulose acetate fibre that availablc
t y l a t i o no f t h e dyestuffs were unsarisfactoryfor the riew fibrc. N.;
r l i r c c t f r o n r a p o l y n o s i c - t y p cv i s c o s eb y d i r e c"tla' oclct a loll"
iy;;;f;-;i
'Alott' or dycstull wcre discovercdfor dycing acctate,notably
i i b r c . l " i b r c sc a r r i c dt l r c t r a d c r l a t n c s thc ilispcrsc
dyes, and acctatecan now be cryedsatisfacforilyrn'a
T h e a c e t y l a t i o ni s c a r r i e d o u t b y s o a k i n g p o l y n o s i c r a y o n wia" ritirtc
o f s h a d e s .A c e t a t e w o v e n f a b r i i s a r e n o r r n a l l y l l g
s t a p l e i n a s o l u t i o n o f a c a t a l y s t ( e . g . s o d i u m a c e t a t e ,z i n c d y e A fr.t*..n
l gi t t h r o u g h a 60 and g8oc at pFI 6.0 to 6.5 clepenai,igoii'tr,i ;ffi;;;;;;;;;;;
s u l p h a t e )p, a r t i a l l yd r y i n g t h c f i b r e a n d t h e n p a s s 'i ft h e
c h a n r b e rc o n t a i n i n ga c c t i c a c i d v a p o u r a t I l 0 ' C . fibre then dyeing.equipnrent can also be used to dyc *uu.,,
1I-r.1.n:a,t".
passcs through an acetylating chamber containing acetic a c e t a t et a b r i c s ,b u t i s n o r m a l l y u s e dt o d y e a c e t a t ct r i c o t .
a n h y d r i d eY a p o u ra t 1 3 0 " C . B o i l i n gw a t e r t e n d st o d e l u s t r ea c e t a t ef i b r e , a ' c r c r y e i n g s h o u t c r
-thari
Acetylatiott takcs place,to a slightly lcss dcgreethan in normal b e c a r r i e d o u t i f p o s s i b l e a t t e m p e r a t u r e sr o w c r g5oc.
seconclaryacetatc. The fibrc is washed in water, lubricant is I I o w e v e r ,a c e t a t eo f 5 5 a c e t y rv a l u e i s r c s i s t a n tt o < l c r u s t r i nag' t l
acldecl,arrcl it is dried in warm air. The crintp of the libre is d o e sn o t r e q u i r ed y e i n ga t t e m p e r a t u r elso w e r t h a n g 5 o C .
retained throughout the process.
A c e t y l a t i o n b y t h i s t e c h n i q u ed o e s n o t c a u s ed e g r a d a t i o no f
the cellulose to the extent that normal acetylation in solution . Spttrt-DyeclAcctate. A wide rangc of spun_clyccl
acctatc libres
<locs.'flte acctylatcd viscosc fibrc is strongcr tltan norrnal is now produced.
s c c o n d a r ya c c t a t e d , ry or wet, with lower clongation.
90 9l
H A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES
"l r r
T I A N D I } O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}ITES
organic
Eflect of Moisture ^ . a c i d s ,i n c l u . d i n g- a c e t i c a n c l f o r n r i c a c i d s , w i l l n r a k e
a c e t a t ef i b r e s s w e l l . A t s u f f i c i e n t r yh i g h c o . c e n t r a t i o . s .
as a result of the attraction a.rcous
Watcr is hclcl by ordinrry ccllulose solutionsof forrnic and acetic aciis w'ilr,rirroru. ..iiui;;.-;;;;;.
hy6roxyl- groups on the cellulose
betwcen ttre woter-tovini Alkalis
groups h^Y:.it"^1
rrrolecule.ln accrare,t";;y ;i these hyaroxyl
attraction of acetatelor Alkalis have little effectup to pH 9.5, brrt strong
replacedby acetateg,oupi; the inherent a l k a l i sc a u s e
less than that of viscose or cupram- saponification; the acetate g.oups arc rcplaccd"
*it , .ot..ules is therefore ty fryar"_yj
groups and the cellulosc acetate is grirlually
moniunr rayons' Jf,^,i'e.i-"-i"
water as the rayons' The regcncratedccllulose.
Acetate cloes not absorb as much
about per cent' Immersed in
stanclarclmoisture t.g-uin is -6-5
p e r c e ' t . ( V i s c o s eo, .n t h e Cetrcral
w a t c r , a c c t a t c* i t f s w i i i b y a b o u t 6 - 1 4
o t l . r c rh a n d , s r v c l l sb y 3 5 1 6 6 p e r c e u t , a t t c l c u p r a n r n r o n i u n br y A c e t a t ei s a t t a c k e db y s t r o n g o x i c r i z i n ga g c n t s ,b u t
is not aflcctcd
40-62 Per ccnt.) by normal bleaching soluiions of iyiochiorirc
or p";";1.il
(Peroxide degradesacetate on long stancting.)
'l'hcrnralProPcrtics
The chemical propertics of an lcetatc libre <Jepcnd
. on thc
material' lt becomessticky degreeto which acetategl9up,
Cellulose acetate is a thertnoplastic -Thc have rcplaccd hydroiyl groupr'Jn
is sofi enotrghto deform under pressure' the cellulose moleculc..
ri iso;C. ancl at zos;c. moro tryCroxyt gruup, iir.,;';;;
It nrcltsat about 232"C' rcr'aining, thcgrcatcris thc fibrc's 'ccirulosic'
"i,tru.Lr. r"ru.r.rn
c o m m e r cai acle t a h
t ea sa na c e t yvla l u e
of54_55.
E,|ect ol lTigh TentPerature
high temPeratureswithout EIIect of OrganicSolvents
The fibre will rvithstand prolonged
tiO'C., it retains nruch of
s e r i o u sc l e t e r i o r a t i o uA. f t e r a w e e k a t Acetate swells or dissolvcs,in many solvents,
including accl.one
its original tensilestrengtlt' and other kctones, u".tut., ethyi acctatc," ;i";;;;
. . .mcthyl _
dichloroethylene,cres.ol,p'enol, cntoroform,
FlannrobilitY methylene"ii;;;;;:
ethylenechloride. It '.qinsorublein petroleum
Exposed to a naked che'ricals such as
Cellulose acetate is not readily flammable' white. spirit or petrol. (gasoline),"thyl .tl.,cr,
bcnzene, toluenc,
flamc it will melt a n d b u r n ' rrichlorocrhylcne,carbon rcrrachlorictc,cyclo-
f e:"^|t:I":lllylene,
n x a n o l ,x y l e n e .
l,flect of Age
over prolonged periods'
T h e r e i s a s l i g h t f a l l i n tensile strength Insects
good.
The colour of the fibre renrains M o t h s a n d o t h e r i n s r c l . sd o n o t n o r n r a l l y a t t a c k
a c c t a t e ;g r u b s
Efiect of Sunlight w i l l . b i t e t h r o u g h t h e f i b r e si n a n e f f o r t t o g c t
after 'lii:i-r:"',;
0,"',".'l?:fJ-J"""'l:'h';','.X'li:fi
beterioration food.
at'rore attractivc
-p ii
I'i' .::J:'i'.oro,,.aigme'
i,\li:l3l,l,' titaniurn
ts' "J'tigt'i-ro't Micro-orgauisms
grades.
dioxicle Fungi and bacteriamay causosurfacc cranragc
ancrtriscoloration,
ChcrnicalI'roPcrties b u t r e s i s t a n c ei s g c n e r a l l yh i g h .
Acids
not affect acetate, but the Elcctrical Propcrlies
D i l u t e s o l u t i o n so f w e a k acicls do solutions'
in concentrated Excellentinsulator.
fibres are dccomPosedbY s t r o n g a c i d s
94 l:
95
!i, I t: .ll . t..i;. :
Drying
givena cold rinse
Acetategarmentsdry reaclily'They shoulclbe
ioiro*'J bv a (15
short.spin seconds)'-Tumbler
;;j;;;;:;i;;l;s, is run cold before
Ityi"g-it t"tisfictory prouiO"athat.the drier
Drying temftraturesshould not exceed 105'C'
tf,ippi"ttg.
Ironing
with a warm iron (HI-CC
Acetate fabrics should be ironecl
pressurecloth' and^to
s"rii"g zi. ii it pr"r.inule to use a damp
ii trieir.t
t"rnp.ratur"s. than about 120"C.
;;;^;"" iii"l.u.rr, ,i;;.
tne cettuiJse-""ti"it may beg-in to soften and the
are used,
pressure.of tho iron' The surface
ilt;;-y -i;;;; be Oeformedby the plastic lilaments
;i';; raurtc.w't b""o*l glazed as the
CELLULOSE,TRIACETA]-E FTBRES(TRTACETATE)
are flattened.
4.5 kg/cnrz
ln commerciallaundering,coveredpressesat INTI{ODUCTION
(65 lb) steanlpressure aresatisfactory'
'l'hc
Dry Cleaning
early attemptsto creverop
textilcfibresfronr ccturoscacctatc
wcrcconcernedvery largelywith the material
Acetatefibre is sensitive to many typesof solvent(seeStructure
-n'tuit obtaincclbt .;;rr:
u" taken in bringingany plcteacetylatio'of ceiluiose.
Trrisis cerruiose
unJ lrop.rti.s),
';l".ni "ni great care triacctatc,iir'*lii"i,
thc threeavailablehycl.roxylgroupsof
"rst"f. into contact with acetatefabrics' Perchloro- cellulosc
rnolccule
"' -"-"
cacirglucoseunit of thc
anclpetroleurn' arc'ailicetyi;i;j.
"irivi.ii., lri.hloroctliylencor carbontctrachloride
(".g. solvent)
Sioctctarcl may be used in dry cleaning'
iypi,-r"f"""ts
98 99.
ITANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
A: N A 1 . UR A L I ' O L Y M I l l l . I r t B l t E s
Cellulose triacetate is not soluble in acetone, which dissolves arrdnorv produce a singlc triacetatcfibre, the traclcnrark ,-I'riccl,
cellulose acetate,and few solvents were known for it during the bcing retained, with British Celanescas thc produccr.
early years oI the present century. At that time, when attempts 1954, Cel,aneseCorporation o[ Americi began
rverc being made to produce acetate fibres by dry spinning -ln -anclproduction
of a triacetatefibre under the Lradenarnc .Arncl', production
solutions of cellulose acetate,the most satisfactory solvent avail- of triacetate fibres is now proceeclirrgin sevcraf countrics.
able for the triacetate was chloroform. And lilament yarns were
produced experimentally by dry spinning solutions of cellulose
NOMENCLATURE
triacetatein chloroform.
This experimental work continued up to the outbreak of Worl<l Sce page 83.
War I. In 1914,the I ustron Company, in the U.S.A., began to
produce triacetate yarns in quantities of up to 300 lb. per day
Notc
by dry spinning chloroform solutions. This production continuetl 'fhe
on a very modest basis until 1927, when it was discontinued. infornration in the section which follows rclatcsparticularly
Trvo factors contributed to failure of this early triacetatefibre to the British fibre 'Tricel,, which rnay be taken as a typical
project, (l) the use of chloroform as solvent was expensiveand cxamplc of a modern triacetatc fibre.
dangerous,and (2) the triacetate lilaments could not be dyed
satisfactorilyrvith thc dycstufls thcn availablc. PI{ODUCl-ION
Despite this setback, interest in cellulose triacetate was kept
alive by the succcss of the closely related secondary cellulose Experiencegained in the rnarrufactuleoI scconcllrryccllulosc
'I'he acctatewas put to good.use in tlrc cotnrncLcialdcvcioplrrcnt
acctate process. development of special dyestuffs for o[
secondary acetate fibres went a long way towards solving that ccllulosetriacetate.Thc production of triacetateis, iri cflect,
a
difliculty for triacetate, and eventually methylene chloride was stagein the production of the scconclaryacctate.
found to be a satisfactory solvent for triacetate.This solvent was
more suitablc than chloroform as the basis for a commercial llarv Mnterials
dry sp.inningprocess.
Cellulosein the fornr oI purified cotton lintcrs or wood pulp.
With this successagainst the two biggest barriers to triacetate
Iibre production, it became apparent that the libre might have
very significant practical advantages over secondary acetate. Prclrcalmcnt
Cellulose tr.iacetatefibres were found to have a relatively low The celluloseis pretreatedin aceticacicl/watervapout.
watcr inrbibition and moisture rcgain, plus a high degree of
chernicalinertness.They had a high mclting point, below which Acclylalion
heating produced irreversible physical changes which improved
This may be carricd out in such a way that thc cellulosctrjacctntc
the chemical and physical stabilty of the fibre. These changes
cither goes into solution as it is formcd, or rc(ains thc structurc
enablcd triacetatcfibres to be heat set.
of thc original cellulosc.
Alter scveral years' rescarch work, Courtaulds Ltd., U.K.,
began the commercial developmentof cellulosetriacctatefibrcs
'JPS', was (a) Solution Proccss
in 1950. fhe rcsultant fibre, first referred to as
announced undcr the trade mark 'Courplcta' in 1954. In that Prctreated ccllulose is acctylatcd by trcatnrcrrt rvith
ycar, British CelancseLtd. announccd that they werc to intro- acctic
anhydride and sulphuric acid in thc prc..n." of acetic
ircitl. As
ducc ''friccl' triacetatc fibre. Later, Courtaulds and British tlc acctylation procceds,ccllulose triacctatc js fornrccl,
an<.1 it
Celancsc linkcd their research eflort and production experience dissolvcs.Thc solutiorris ripcncd, nragnesiunracctatc and
wiltcr
100
l0l
_I : I - I r l
IFFFFffiF
IIANDI}OOK OF TEX-I-ILE FII]RES A: NATUITALPOLYMER FIBRES
being addcd to replace any sulphate groups on the cellulose lYct Spinning
molecule by acetategroups, and the cellulosetriacetateis pre- As in the case of secondarycellulose
c i p i t a t e d b y d i l u t i n g t h e s o l u t i o n r v i t h r v a t e r .T h e c e l l u l o s e acetate,solutionsof thc
triacetatemay be spun into coagulating
triacetateis washed until free of acid, and dried. The triacetate baths which contain
water or other liquids which bring
produced in this way has an acetyl value of 61.5 per cent. about precipitationof the
lllaments.
A modificationof this solutionprocessmakebuseof methylene
chloride as solvent instead of acctic acid. Smaller amounts of l\lelt Spinning
sulphuric acid catalyst arc necded,and a mild hydrolysis pro-
Cellulose triacetate is a thermoplastic nraterial,
duces a triacetateof 62 per cent acetyl content and higher, up triacetatemay be spun into nta-ents Uy
and molten
to the maximum. mclt spinningprocesscs.
PITOCESSING
(b) N on-solutiort Proccss
.^._loittwirh orher fibres,anclrhe techuiques
I::,".;::" jt:.19: ar.,.in g.n".al,
Pretreated cellulose is steeped in benzene or other liquid
capable of swellingcellulosetriacetatewithout dissolvingit, and
l:'.9,._T'i::11t. suitable i;; i;;;",*"i;;:
is then treated with acetic anhydride and perchloric acid (or g, spinn
inf r,,,1,l;bi'i;;-co,"i
r,.'rrri.o uut.
fl:u'j:r^,.^::l
loin
aragof triacetate
othcr acid) catalyst. Acetylation procceds, but the ccllulosc ,'l::,.:il:':1r:u rnakesil ,il"irotl.
ro re(lucc
triacetatedocs nol. dissolveas it is fornrcd. lt rctains thc shape toa nriniriru'r i. wi'Ci'g.o,,ir,,,iL,ir'
nri;;;,i;,,1fi;;;
of the or'iginalcellulose.
l.lltl."''r
yafl]s.
The triacetateis washed until acid-freeand tlien dricd. High Triacetate
r r r.rLcL.rLiiyarns
yarns are
are a little
lltt.le more diflicult to size owing
thc lower moisture take-up as comp , to
rnolecularweight triacetatenray be obtained more easily by this parcd
arcd wwith
ith acelrin Siznc h,,c^,1 acetiltc.Sizes
rncthod. ort polyvinyl alcohol, acrylates,ana,''.,eiliacryiaicl-are biscrl
e*cettc,',t
r o r c o l t r u t u o u st l l a n r e n tv a n r , a n d n r o d i f i e d
s t a r c h-'
a n c lp o l y v i n y l
alcohol,are satisfacrorywith cotton-.p;;
Dry Spinning ;;;r.-'
A relativelyhigh humidity facilitatesttrc piocessing
Ccllulosetriacetatefrom many batchesis blendedand dissolvcd ---""' oI triacc-
ti\te yarns, for exarnplein knitting
in methylene chloride containing a little alcohol, to form a 20 o. w.uving.
per cent solution.'lhe solLrtionis thcn filteredand deacrated,and Dcsizing
punrped to the spinneret.
-fhe jets Watcr-solublesizes are gcnerally used,
of solution emergefrom the spinneretinto a vertical and these are rcnro vcrl
ounng scouring.Enzynre treatrnent
spinningtube whcre they meet a streanrof hot air. The methylene will remove starch.
chloridc evaDoratcs. leavins solid filarnentso[ cellulosetriacetate. Scouring
I'he filarnentsare lecl over an oiler rvhich applies antistatic
lubricant, anrl are collectediu the sanrervay as seconilaryaoettLe Fabrjcs.neecl a thorough scouring
to rentove dirt which is
fillrnc n ts. acquircd during proccssirrg.Surfacc-a c t i v c
pnosplratc, a g c rtr u r r t l t r i s o d i r r r r i
If continuousfilanrentyarn is rcquircd, tlre filanrcntsfrom the with or without soap,ntay b e u s c dc { T c c t i v c l y
(160'F.). at 70"C.
s p i n n e r e at r e c o l l c c t c do n t o b o b b i n sb y a c a p o r r i n g s p i n n i n g
rnechanism, rvhich appliesa twist.
Il lcaching
If staplc is bcing produced,the filamentsfronr a nunrber o[
multi-holed spinneretsare brought together into a tow. This is friacctatewill withstandnormal bleaching
conclitions, an<j it
c r i n r p c dr r c c h a n i c a l l ya n d t h c n c u t i n t o s t a p i c o f t h e r c q u i r c d may bc blcachcdefiecrivcly
with hypoclrior:i.
lcrrcth. sodiurnchloritc,hycJrogcn Gi:i"o. alkatirrc),
pcroxicleo. p.rn".ti"'-icid. Sodiurn
102 r03
K F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
I I A N D B O OO A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}RE.S
II
chlorite is reconrmendcd.When triacetateis blcnded with other alkalino solutions than has.acctatc
fibrc. It is not dclustrcd by
fibres,fabrics rnay be scourcdand blcachcd,as a rule, by using boiling soap solutions.and has goo,f
Jiin",rriu,,,,l.tubility rul,.,,
techniquessuitable for the other componentsof the blend. hcat set (see below).
Triacetate fibrc withstands alkaline conditions much better Blends of triacetate with cellulosic
librcs
than acetate. rvith rcsin finishesto re.uce -"iriri"'r.".iii"i,arc cornnronly lrcatctl
fibrc anct to impart a firrncr L;;.11..-'6;;;l,itv .r r^c ccllulosic
Dycing finishing is neceslarv in rho",,-";.;":^;^^"::::::.' conrrot oI thc
Tr.iacetatefabrics can be dyed with most disperse dyestufls. In poorpliat ,.t.ntioo'o,ilitlfi;Tfii":"o nrucltrcsin cartcausc
g c n e r a l ,I r i g h e rd y e i n g t e n r p e r a t u r easr e u s e c l9, 0 - 9 B o C o r e v e r t
u p t o I l 0 - 1 2 0 " C . C a r e f u ls e l e c t i o no f d y e s t u f f si s e s s e n t i awl h e r t IIeat Setting
high tenrperaturetechniquesare usecl. In the production of cellulose.lriacetatc,
'lhe thc hydroxyl grotrpsof
use of swelling agcntsor pressure-dyeing techniqueswith the cellulose molecule h.1""
machinesyield excelleutresults. accrategroups.These bulky, .b;9;;;;il;; ,,i,;;., cnrircry by
Sanderson-type hyclroplrbfri.grui,p; havc changcd
' .
Triacetatefibre does not stain easily,and vat or sulphur dye- lhc characterof the matcrralin several
wirys.Thc Iong nrolccrrlcs
stufls may be used with blends to dye the cellulosecomponent. nrc no longer able ro nack togeth^er-as;iiil,;i;
';,1 as rlrc originll
Whcre thesedyes are used,howevcr,dyeing is donc by the two- ccllulosc.molecules,anri the po"wcrftil
bath nrcthod;thc trincctatcis dycd by dispcrscclycsin thc sccond ^y<lroxyl groups
i;;;;;f ',, r^"r io' bctwcc'
is no rorrgcr
tt,.r. to l,oliitir. iitt,,..rrrorccurcs
bath. Dircct cotton dycs can be uscd on thc cotton or viscosc tiglrtlytogcthcr.Whcnccllulosc t,i...t"i.'lr'i,.*i"|, ".p."l.ttyi,,
component,cross-dyeingblended or melangefabrics in a single theprcsence of steam.thelong.;i";;i;;;;"'iii"
bath. frectyretativeto eacliothcr;;lluio;;-i;i^;;;.;;. ro movo,rorc
Blcnds of triacetateand wool nray be dyed similarly by normal Cellutosetriacetate rhcr'ro'tirsric.
nns, howevei,-;-;;;;;;ll;rricaI
cross-dyeingmethods.Linritations will be inrposedby the fact than secondarycelluloseacetate. nrolcculc
The triacciatc rnoleculchns a
that wool is very much more sensitive to conditions than srrccessionof
triacetate. .large ncctate groups atto"trcii'lii- r"gu lar intcrvals
th" molecule, whereas secondary
:-l,o:,-g ccllulosc acctate hts a
Triacetate fabrics can be printed in the same generalway as
acetate.Dispersecolours or vat rlyes may be used.'I'heresistancc
ol triacetateto stainingrneansthat there is little risk of rnarking
l"T,
T;f,,ii:.#f .,]l
lilLi:[,?:, rl; *::**
#,il:i,'":,t
of rnoleculcsinto rcsular order is
thr;; ,;;-;".dily aclrievcd
during rvashing-off. with.cctlutosetriacctalethan wi th
;;;;j.;;;;.i, i".
Whcn cellulosetriacerarei. t,;"i;l;tir;'ilil.:u
Finishing nrovcment frcccrornof
of rhemoleculcs enablcsrh;m i" ;lj;;; thcir posirions
Triacetateis an attractivefibre with a good handle and excellent with respectto one anothcr.i"i;;"-;f;ir;:,"I,ii.,;,
draping qualitics.It is scldonrnecessaryto apply finishesto bring during spinningare relic-ve<t,. wcrc crrscd
;il iil il;",.'-r"il"'r.,r* can align
about inrprovcmcrrtsin thcse rcspccts.Softcncrs arc somctirrcs lhcmsclvcs nrorc prccisclyrnto cryslallincrcoiorrs
used, and silicone finishcs may be applied to increase water rncsccl)angcs in lhc inlcrnl.lstructurcof tiic hcllc<l
rcpcllcncy. bring about changcsin the charact".-"f-,f,"'liiri.. lrincctatc
,I.lrc
'friacetate tiglrtcr
fibresare oftcn used in blcndswith other fibres,and nrolccular struc^turcis lcss rcatlily.p.n"tini.j bi' ,noi.tr,r.,
finishcsmay be uscd to a{Iect the charactcr of other fibres in rrc a.rou.t of water t'at trr.e-'riilr. n,,.t
. u i i ir t o i i i s t r i r r i r r i s r r c t r .
the blend. Il is neccssary,thercfore, that the triacetateshould l\foistureregairrfalls lrom.4.5To
i"'irr",i'i i.ii.'n, woultl bc
stand up to conditions used in thcse finishing treatments.As r cxpcctecl, this increaseclreslstance to rvatcrpcnetratio.is accorrr-
rulc, tlrc triacctltc will causclittlc dilliculty in this rcspcct.Tritcc- prrrica.by rcduccttatrsorption
J ;i;;;l,iri;."'.1;
tatc has a rnuch greatcrresistanceto thc cllectso[ hot water antl lini.iittyi,';;;;ils,("., *r,i.r,arealreatty s,.,'t.t
i,,rl,.ilbl'J
104 105
trL,Li-l .-lr--lrIrl . T - l
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
HANDBOOK A: NATURAL POLYMER FI BRES
Ilcctrical Propcrties .I'RIACETATE
IN USE
fhe electrical resistanceof triacetate yarn is very high, and in
its unlubricated fornr it is superior to most textile fibres other The chemical relationship between triacetatc and acetatc is a
than glass, polyesters, polyolefins and lluorocarbons. The anti- closeone. Yet it is only in their tensilepropcrtiesthat thc two
static finish which is given to the fibre before processinghelps to fibres bear any real resemblanceto each otircr.
reduce the ellects of static to a minimum iri garmentsand fabrics. - _In many respects, triacetate behaves more like a synthctic
Triacetate is very receptive to such finishes. fibre than a semi-syntheticfibre. It posscsscsthe thcrnroplastic
propertiesand the low moisture absorption that wc nssociatcrvith
Handle synthetic fibres.
The low moisture absorption of triacetate is rellccteclin the
Triacetate which has been heat set has a crisp, firm handle which fact that the fibre retains some 70 per ccnt of its strcngth whcn
is particularly suitable for certain types of fabric including su.it- wet. Fabrics made from triacctate are casily washecland wiil dry
ings and ta{Ietas. The handle does not match that of acetate quickly.
fibre for garments to be worn next to the skin, such as lingerie
The heat setting characteristics of triacctatc are of grcat
and underwear. practical value. When fabrics are heat set they arc rendcred frce
from shrinkage, and acquire excellent dinrensional stabilitv.
Thcy arc sct pcrnrancntlyin the dcsircd shapc. Morcovcr, lrcnt
Ircatntcntincrcascsthc fastnessof thc dycstultsto washing nnd
light if they have been applied prior to Leat treatmenr.
1.4 Heat treatment is used to pro<tucepermancnt efTcctsin fabrics
made from triacetate. tPermanent pleats are put into wovcn
fabrics of all types, and permanent embosscclcfiects into knittcd
t,2
and woven materials. The permanency of pleats in blcndcd
fabrics dependsupon the amount of triacetati in the blcnd. ln
l.o two-component blends with cellulosic fibrcs, for exarnplc, n
& minimum of 67 per cent of triacetateis reouired.
g o'8
-The high melting point of triacetatcprouid", a widc margin
of safety in high ternperaturetrcatment usccl in clothing nraiu-
r,i 0.6 facture and laundering.
Triacetate fabrics have little tendency to shrink even bcfore
o.4 heat treatment.As a result, tighter constructionsarc rcquircd in
triacetateand triacetateblended fabrics than in equivalcnl fabrics
of acctate.
Triacetate docs not shrink and tightcn up thc fabric during
subsequentdycing and finishing.
Ironing
Triacctatc garnlcnts should be ironed damp on the reverse siclc
with a warm iron (FILCC Setting 2) or a steam iron.
Dry Cleaning
Trichloroethylencmust not be uscd. Perchloroethylene
or pctro-
lcum solvents(e.g.Stoddard solvent) are recommended.
END USES
'l'riacetatc
is establishedin warpknit garments in underwear anct
lingerie rvhich retains its shape, and in woven and knitted fabrics
which do not shrink or cockle.Triacetateis being usedwith wool
to confer its non-shrink charactcristicson the blend, ancl is
blendcd with cotton and viscose to produce cloths which arc
conrplctelystable and fornr pcrmanent plcats.
Triacetate's drip-dry properties, and the fact that many triace-
tatc fabrics nccd no ironing, have establishedit as a libre for
use in ease-of-careskirts and dresses.On the other hand, its high
nreltirrgpoint pcrmits it to be used in blcnds or applicationswheie
high ironiug temperaturesare likely to be usccl,such as mixtures
rvith linen, or in industrial applications.
I tL
lr3
3. PROTEIN FIUTES
Inlroduction
In producing wool, silk ancr other aninral fibres,
Naturc nrirkcs
use of the long-chain moleculcs of proteins.'Tlicse
arc thc
organic substanccs ih;i ;i;y a"vitat rolc in
ll!"f::'-:o","ining
the-structure and processcs of living matter.
Only.a minor proportionof the'availabie proteinis uscdfor
producingnaturallibresin this way, anclit has
lonf bccn
-manipulated
rcalizcd
that suitablenon-librousproteins"outa p"rtrops -fr"i" t'e
to bring them into libroui form. p.","ii.
t-rrg
the.primary requirementof a fibre-fornri"gr"rr.i^ii.".motcculcs,
moleculesmust be broughtinto some --^' But thc
."ri .i-.'f ie""lcnt with
cachotherif they are to frovidc o nUr"-.
r n m!rnyprotcins,{heIongmolccules arc coilcdinto a cor'pirct
ball,with coils- bciugrinkcrrtogcthcrin prn."srrv.iicriicnlborrds.
If the moleculesof theseso-inlted
st;i,,i;;;r;;i,;,, arc ro bc
- - - o
P r o l e i n .m o l e c u l e s a r e f o r n r c d b y l i n k i n g t o g c t h e r
moleculcs in diflcrcnt proporriorrf and i,'' iifr;i;ii';;q;.ii... s n r a l l a r r r i r r oa c i r l
acidssholn rt," ",uiuu
above,for ciarnplc,coukiU" ri^-t".i'iiil,i,ii,i,i"r^trt"*"yr,
two examplcsbeinggiven.
t4 l' I 15
IIANDI}OOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
NATURAL POLYMER FIB R!S
brought into alignment in such a way as to form a fibre, they CASEIN FIBRES
must lirst be subjectedto some treatmentthat destroysthe cross-
links and permits the molcculesto be uncoiled.This processis INTRODUCTION
called dcnaturirtg.
When a globular protein has been denaturedsuccessfully,it As long ago as 1898,solutionsof cascinwcrc being spun cxpcri_
may then be possible to dissolve the protein and extrude the nrentally to form fibres. casein solutions wcre forcc-crtirrougli firrc
solution through the fine holes of a spinneret.As the jets of jcts into hardening baths, forming soli<lfilanrcnts
in whiih ttrc
solution emergc,the protcin is coagulatedto form solid filanrcnts. long casein moleculcs had been givcn suflicicnt oricntation
to
In this way, it is possibleto make useful fibresfrom certain types hold toge.therin typical fibre forrn. These carly cascin librcs wcrc
of protcin. commercially of little value. They wcre briitlc antl hnrcl, arrcl
Ii a protein is to be of value as a raw material for nraking lacked the resilicnceand durability ncc<lcdfor tcxtilc usc..Ihcy
textile fibrcs, it must be availablc in adcquate quautity, and it swclled to a high degree in watcr and.tcndcd to stick togcthcr.
nrust be cheap.A uumber of proteinssatisfy thesebasic require- During the early 1930s an Italian chcnrist, Antonio l:crrctti,
nrents; thcy are conrmonly by-products fronr some industrial experinrentedwith casein Iibrcs to try ancl ovcrcome thcir <.lrarv-
proccss. Anrong them nrc casein, zein, arachin and soyabean backs.He was successful,making cas"in libres which wcrc plilblc
Drotcin. and had many of the propcrticsassociatcdwilh wool.
Cascin is availablc in thc skimrncd nrilk which rctnlins I ftcr _..Ircrrcttisold his patcnts to n largc Itnlian rnyorr lirrrr _ Srrin
butterfat has been retnoved;zein is obtainedfrom nraizc,and is a Viscosa - who devclopcd thc largc-scalenranufucturc of cascirr
by-procluctin starch manufacture; arachin (groundnut protcin) fibrcs under the tradc-nameof .Lanitat', In I936, thc output of
'Lanital'
and soyabeanprotein are left behind after the extraction of oil w a s a b o u t 3 0 0 t o n l r c s ,b y t h c f o l l o r v i n gy e : r r ' i t h u t l
for margirrineand cooking fats. le^r"]gd 1,200 tonnes,antl in 1939 tlrc productioricapacityrvrs
'I'hcse proteins
have all bectr ttsed with varying degrees oI 1 0 , 0 0 0t o n n e sa y e a r .
successfor producing protein fibres, brrt only casein libres havc Casein fibres have since bcen produced un<tcrvarious nanrcsirr
surviveclto becontea commerciallyimportant product. a number of countries, e.B. ,Lanital' in Ilclgium antl Francc,
'Fibrolane'
In gencral, rcgeucratedprotein fibrcs tend to be weak' The in lJritain, 'Merinova' - an ilut)rovcclforru ol' tlrc.
' L a r r i t a l-'
rnoleculesdo not align thenrselvcswith prccision and regularity original i n I t a l y ,a n t l ' W i p o l a n i' n i , o l i t n t l .
to form crystalline regions .in the libre, and they cannot hold
N ote
tightly togetherto provide the tensilestrengththat is characteristic
of fibres with crystallinestructure. Infornrationin the sectionwhich follows is bascdupon ,Fibrolunc'
producedcomrnerciallyby CourtauldsLtcl. in the'UK. Altlioirglr
Like wool, regencratedprotcin fibrcs will stretch easily; but,
production has be-ensuspended,.Fibrolane'canbc rcglrtlctl as-l
unlike rvool, they do not have tlre elasticitythat enablesthem to
return to their fornrer lengtl-rafter bcing stretched. typical exampleof a conlnercial protein fibre.
Spinning
Thc spinningsolutionis wet spun by cxtrusionthrough spinnerets
into a coagulating bath containing, for example, sulphuric
acid
(2^parts), formaldehyde (5 parts), glucose (2d parts)-
and water
( 100 parts). The jets of solution coagulate into
filaments in a
rnannersirnilar to.the coagulationof viscose-filaments.
- They are OEAERATION
stretched to some degreeduring coagulation.
Up to this stage,caseinspinningis simplcr than that of viscosc
rayon, as the conditionsare not so critical. But subsequentpro-
cessingmay become more jnvolved, as it is necessaryto
treat the
fibre cbemicallyin order to harden it. SPINNING
thc. solution is forced through jctr into an
.The newly-coagulatedcasein filaments are soft and weak, and acrd coagutating bath and drawn ofi ovar
rvill
.break.easily if handled. The spinning processhas aligned the
roller a5 continuous tibrs
casein molecules to some extent, but they are not organiled
into
crystal structurescomparable with those of cellulose.
Wut., p"n"- CUTTINGINTO
trates readily into the case.infilamcnt, pushing apart the SHORTPIECES
long
caseinmoleculesand softeningand swelling.thefilament.
The ellect of water on untreated casein ii such as to render it
of little use as a textile fibre. If casein lilaments are to be of
practical textile use,.they must be treated in such a
way as to
enable the long molecules to holcl together in the presence of
water, retain.ingan adequate degree of strength and dimensional
stability.
In
.c9mm91 with all proteins, casein is a highly reactive
rnatcrial,and it is possibleto makc use of this acti-vrtyto cre.ltc
cross-links betwecn adjacent cascin moleculcs. Such crosslinks
tie the casein molecules together, and prevent thcm being
apart by water molecules. Crosslinkecl casein acquires
increabed resistance to the elTect of water, retaining a higher
degree of tensile strength and resistanceto swelling.
forced
an
BALING
TT!!Tt]
Many methods of increasing the water resistince of casein
have been developed, and several techniqueshave been used
Casain Fibre FIow Clnrt
I lB I19
IIAND DOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRE,S A: NATUIIAL POLYMER IIIDIII]S
as
successfullyin practice' The processis coluntortly clescribed lVorstcdSyslent
'harclening',in that it minimized the softening ellects of water'
For use on the worstedsystem,cascinfibrc is procluccd in 3.9,
Trcatmcn-[ivith Iormatclehydcforms thc basis of many hardening 5 . . 0a r r d d t c x( 3 k , 4 t / 2 , . 9< l e n ) , 1 0 0
.10 a r r t l1 5 0 n r r n( 4 a n d( r i n j
techniqucs. staple.Thesefibresare blendedwith rnerinoor finc cross_bretl
ln a typical casein libre production process' bunches of fila- rvools,or rayonstaple,for the rvorsted industry.
nrents are^collectedtogcther into a tow as they leave the coagula-
ting bath, and are tlten stcepedin formaldehydesolution' The FIax Systenr
filn-nrentsmay be subjected to further strctching at this stage'
After treatment, the tow is washed and dried, crinrped mechani-
Ctrt tow is conrnronly uscdon thissystcmin ortlcrto rcduccncp
cally, and then cut into staple.The staplemay .be-nradeinto tops f o r r n a t i o ne,. g .5 . 0 a n d 1 0 . 0d t e x( 4 . 5a n d9 d c n )c u t t o t 5 0 n r n r
-blending ( 6 i n ) s t a p l e . ' l ' h insr a y b e b l e n d e cfl o, r c x a r r r p l e
for witl-rwool, or may be blcnded during the carding w,i t h 5 . 0 r l t e x
(.411clen)cut viscosetow or bright rayon stapte.antl proocssed
stage.
into yarn withoutcornbing.
C o a r s ef i b r e s e , . g . 2 0 , 3 3 d t e x ( 1 8 , 3 0 d e n ) , 2 0 0r r r r n( B i n )
PROCESSING staple,may be usedon the flax andjute systcnxof proccssirrg iri
t h e p r o d u c t i o no f c a r p c ty a r n s .F i b r c so f t h e s ec l i r u c r r s i oanrsc
Spinning
u s u a l l yb l e n d e dw i t h 2 0 a . n t5l 6 d t e x( l B a n d5 0 t l e r r n) l i r t tr a y o n
Caseinfibre is producedalmostcntirclyas stitplc,tow or top' A s t a p l co f a s i r n i l t rs t n p l cl e r r g t l rn,o r r n asl t i r p l cf l b r cl r n r l r o t c r r t
smallamountof fibreis usedfor 100per centcaseingoods,but t o w b e i n g - u s efdo r b l e n d so f t h i s t y p e i n i r n o u r r t o sf'up to 50
most caseinfibre is blendedwith wool, cotton,rayon, nylon and p e rc e n to f c a s e i n .
other syntheticstaPlefibres.
Blenriscontaining caseinmay be spunon all the usualsystems' Sizing
Cotlon Syslent Warps made of staple fibre blend yarns containirrgc:rscinnray
For useon the cotton anclnrocliliedcotton systems, caseinfibre bo sized satisfactorilyfrom back-beams,cither by the ,Cotton
is oroducecl, for exanrple, in 3.9 dtex (3.5 clen),50 rnnt(2 in) or SlasherSystem'or by the 'Rayon SlasherSystern'.Short warps
65',n,u Qi in) staple,ancl5.0 dtex (4.5 den),65 nrm (2% itt) carr be prepared by section warping and sizcd bclrns, to bcaiu
itrpt.- Vir.ote' staple'is comutonlyble.nclecl caicin for on a normal multi-cylinder rayon sizing machine.
.with
sDiirnineon the coitom systern, a typical and highly successful It is important that the constitucntsof thc size uscd shoul<l
fr-i..a fi,ti"g l/3 casein,i dt.* (4.5 ien),.65. ntnt (2tA in) and be readily removable,i.e. they shoul<Ibe complctely rcmovablc
2 / 3 v i s c o s e ' s t a p t e ,c: l.tfe x( 3 d e n ) ,6 5 m m ( 2 %i n ) ' from the woven fabric by a mild scouringtrcatrnentwhich corn-
plies with the conditionssugges(cd.
lVoollen Systertr Among the morc common readily rcmovablc sizing ntatcrials
For use on the woollen systetn,caseinfibre is produced,lor suitable for use with casein blcnd yarns arc:
exanrple,irr 5.0 dtex (4.5 ilen), 50 and -55 ntrn (.2 an<I2tA in) l. Tho water-solubleccllulosccthcrs,and
s t a r r l ca, n t t l 0 d t e x ( 9 d c n ) , 6 5 a r t t l 1 0 0 n r n r ( 2 % a n d 4 i n )
2. The water-solublestarchcs (i.c. rnodificd starchcs,starclr
staple.For carpet blends,ireavierdeniers,are produced,e'g'
cthers and starch cstcrs).
2 0 ' d t e x( 1 8 d e r i )a n c 3l 3 d t e x ( 3 0 d e n ) ,l l 5 n r r t r( 4 % i n ) s t a p l e '
Illencle<l yarnsspunon the woollcnsystcmcomlnoulycorrtain The starch should contairra lubricarrt,a rvater-dispcrsible
oil
about { caicin anrl } wool or rayon staple.Highcr proportions (i.e. one containing a mineral or vcgctablc oil clissolvedor
of caseitr - up to l' - arc uscdin producingblcndedcarpetyarns clispcrscd.in a sulphonated oil) being the rnost satisfactory.
containingcoarserfibres. Such a lubricant is readily compatiblc with tn aqucoussolution
l?0 l2l
q
TTT F F h F T I T h E E E E E E E E I:
l)
HANDDOOK OF TE,XTILE FI BRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
I of one of the starch or cellulosc derivatives referred to above, Dycilrg
and is, ntoreover, easily removed from the woven fabric.
Using a Rayon Slasher, rayon/casein blends yarns may be Casein absorbs moisture readily and does not havc a highly
dried after sizing,at a maximum cylinder temperatureof I10.C. orientated structure. Dyes can penetrate into thc fibre witfiorit
Casein blends with acetate or other thermoplastic fibres should difiiculty.
be dried at a maximum cylin<Jersurface teritperatureof 100.C. In general, casein can bc dyed with dyestu{Is use<lfor wool.
Using a Cotton Slasher, the maximum temperatures should Acid, basic, direct and disperse dyes are use<l where good
be some 5"C. lower in cach case. wash.ing-fastnessis not a prinre essential.Carbolan and Ncolan
It is preferable to aim at obtaining a stretch during the sizing dyes give superior wash fastness.
operation of not more than 3-4 pcr cent. and to have sonre It is essential to employ modifie<l techniqucs in the tlycing
5-7 per ccnt of size on the warp yarns for satisfactory weaving. processesif the desirable propertics of cascin fibre are to
bc
preserved.In particular,it is neccssaryto establishcarcful control
over pH and temperature. Bullerecl systems should bc use<jto
IYcaving
keep the pH of the dye liquor betweenpFI 4 and 6.
There are no special difiiculties in weaving blend yarns, e.g. of
casein and rayon staple contairringup to { of casein,either as
singles- suitablysized,or as unsizedfolded yarns. Casein Staple Fibre ond Continuous Tow
Caseinstapleis commonly dycd for cvcntuirlusc ns prcsscdfclts,
Desizing needleloomcarpets,or in woollen blends to bc usc<|,ior exnn.,pl",
in coatings. For these purposes aggrcgateclor nrctallizcd iciri
Enzyme products may be used, preferabty at pH 4.0 to 6.0. If
dyes.are mainly uscd. Selectedchrontc tlycs providc a high
water soluble sizeshave been used,desizingis not neccssary.
standardof fastness.
Continuous tow is dyed for various purposcs,nncl lcvclling or
Scouring aggregateddyes will usually provide thc rcquircd fastness.I,Icavicr
Syntbetic detergents should be used, preferably under acid deniers require less dye per unit weight titan finer dcnicrs, ancl
conditions,e.g.pll 6.0 at the same time are more readily penetratedby <tyeliquois.
Casein taken from thc balc is clean ancl alrnosi ncuiral, ancl
Illcaching tvi_flnoJ, as a rule, require scouring or treatment before <lycing.
After dyeing, the fibre should be rinscd and given a soft nnish,
In common with all wet processing,bleaching should be carried
followed by the applicationof antistaticagent. Continuous tow
out if possible under rvedkly acid conditions, e.g. pH 4.0-6.0, as
is usually given the soft finish, but antisiatic agent is seldom
casein fibres retain maximum strength and minimum swelling
applied.
under theseconditions.
Hypochlorite bleachesshould not be used.
Bleaclring may be carried out with two volumes hydrogen Caseinllltool Blends, Staplc Fibre or Tops
peroxide buffered to pll 8.0 rvith I kg/24 litres sodiunr Blends of wool and cascin arc sometinrcstlyccl in thc forrn of
pyrophosphate.Alternatively, an acid stabilizer nray be used. staple fibre in the woollen trade, or as tops for thc worstcd tradc.
Bleaching can usually be ellected cold, by steepingovernight. The procedure is similar to that usccl with cnscin alonc, but
If alkaline processingis used, it must be followed by careful greatercare is neededin dye selectionto producc a satisfactory
washing and acidificatiorrwith acetic acid. solid shadeon both fibres in the blcnct.
Optical bleachingagents miry be applied as for other fibres It is preferableto convert tops to hankcd sliver ancl dyc in
and blends. nrachinesof the Obermaier type.
l22 t,{' t23
IIANDBOOK
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M E RF t DN E S
ln dyeing these blends,it may be neccssaryto raise the tem- under slightly acid conditionsd uring.
perature sufliciently to ensure adequate dye fastnesson the wool _scouring. fhc clyc liquor
is therefore adjusted to pH 6 Utf, uiitti"l.iu:"
conlponent. --'
i.i.l, the goods
receiving a final treatrnent ut pl-I q aftcr
Casein/wool blends are also dyed as yarn or fabric, and as JV.i,ig.-
various forms of felt. Dyes cornmonly used include levelling, Drying
aggregated,metallized acid or chrone dyes, and dyeing of yarns
is carried out in the Hussong machine or in package form, and After dyeing, loose stock yarns may be centrifugallyhydro-
extractedbcfore bcing dried,and.
piece goods in the winch. in convcntionalniiini.-
Levelling acid dyes for carpet yarns, certain woollen-type labrics may bc hydro-cxtractcdby opcn
lo.vcn witlth suction
cloths and felts, are selectedfrom those of this class with neutral nrachine,or.by centrifuging^in open width.
if basket typc extnrc-
dyeing properties. Dyeing is carried out at pH 4, f.or f hour at lors are used,excessiverunning timc shoulcl
U.-f-iigfi-
ouoia.a to prcvcnt
thc boil, and thereaftersliglrtly bclow the boil. development of creases and- crack
rnn.Lr. rpec<I watcr
Aggregated or metallized acid dyes, or chrome dyes, provide manglesare not reconrmended.
a higher standard of wet fastnessfor hosiery yarns, particularly A recontmended drvins proce<lureis cither
to tlry on a slack
in darker shades,and for some worstcd-typecloths. Most of thc drier, followecl by stenteiing, or to
<!ry and finish on an ovcr-
aggregatedor metallizedacid dyes are applicableat pH 6, and fced stenrer. Ir is essentialto allow
"r'o;;qr',;;;;;rinkage fronr
dycing is usually carried out at 90-95'C. grcy to finisheddimcnsions.
Selectedchrorne dyes are suitable for dark shades of high
wet fastness,using either the chromate or the after chrome I'rintirrg
methodsof dyeing. Casein blend fabrics rnay be printcd
vcry cfl'cctivcly.Coo<I
rcsults nccessitatcthorough preparatiorr.
CascinlCellulosic Fibrc Il lends If--singcingis rrcccssary,
a ltglrt treatnrcrrtwith a low burncr will
sullicc.A thorouglrscorii
Blends of caseinrvith cellulosiclibre may be dyed in the yarn is essential.
form for thc hosiery and carpet trades,but thcy are more cont- Casein fi_b-rcis generally white, and. bleaching
is
monly dycd as [a b rics. necessary.If required. however, a rt il<.lpcrborite not usually
Yarns are dyed on the Hussong nrachine, or may be package bleach should be used una.. "ont.oii.;-.;;;i;;;;: or pcroxide
dyed on cone or chcese;fabrics are usually dycd on a winch.
the fabric should b" G;;';;';i'c rins, un<tcr
For nrost general purposes,these blends are dyed to solid **lt-::_f'_"!.'ing,
mlnlntum warp tension, followed by white room
shadeswith direct dyes and the addition, if necessary, of aggre- a stable width. Alternatively, tlie fof.i"rnny-fr" stcutcring to
gated acid dyes. As a rule, Class B direct dyes are of greatest a-ri.d dircct on an
enclosedstenter. In all casls, high t".p.iitr."r*
interest; they have the least aflinity for casein and permit the -brr.hi;;-.1;;;tl oild ou"r_,t.yi,,g
should be avoided. Whire room
use of acid dyes on the latter. b*""unn"..r."ry,
but if employed, care shoulcl be takcn
Suitablcacid dyes are drawn fronr the aggregatedor metallized &;;iJ;.;;rcing a hairy
surface.
classesof dye. In general, dyeing at high tcntperatureswill ,Fabrics
favour thc absorption of dircct dye by the casein, but thc -containing casein may. be printc<l by block, scrccrr,
rollcr, surlacc roller, and rno<Jificcl
pnp., irilnr# nr"cilrous.ncitt,
relative rate of dyeing on a ccllulosic fibre and casein can bc chrome,mordant,nroi",'uot'of'p-ig,.r,.n,
controllcd by carelul addition of salt and CalsoleneOil HS. It B:rt;;.11r..,, .ry.. ulny
is also possiblcto produce other attractiveclTectsby dyeing thc Acid.or dircct dycs shoul<Ibc appliedin
casc,inonly with aggregatedand metallizedacid dyes. potentiallyacid paste.In.sonre..or.i, a slightlyacid or
Cellulosicblends,being dyed with direct dyes, do not usually
it ,nny b""n""".s[ry ro
modify thc viscosityof tnc pnrrtrngpaste
rcquire bullercd systenrs,as they have alrcady been proccssed in orclcr
"wolt to obtain
definitionsimilar to that obraincd*iri
i.y"i,, o, .ottou
t24 t25
lHffi ,,,.:;:"bu;
moreouicklv
in a Iiquor containinga neutral solution.of sodium hydrosulphite
at approxinratcly50'C. i","i;Ji; ;;;;;i;; y,,lli,"[ ::il,,,:ll *l:
Initial small-scaleexperinrentaIstrippings should always be . A sui(ablenrillingrncdiumis a rni*t,',r"-oi'i'il, o[ soap
carried out. I part of synrhetic
dercrpent. to
c..or" n.,iili,,!'_'";";: carric<I
our
only.the requirccl
I;inishing
:']:1
df ti
l'Ji
"' ";,;i,Y**
tr:l'
imornt of fr"e ai-taii'io sanonify
i*ml'.,l'_.,',,
rhc
r28 t29
- l r l r I r I r l r - r I - I r r r l
T ET,TT} E E-E
ITANDI}OOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES A: NATU ItAL POLYMER I]TBITT]S
lYashing
Carmcnts containing cascin fibre should be washcd with carc,
and treatcdas gentlyas wool. Flarshconditionssuch as cotton will
withstandmust not be used.High temperatures and strongly acicl
or alkaline conditions must be avoidLd. Ncutral dcrcrgcnrsare
Caseirt ('Merirtova') preferable for washing.
t30 l3l
IIANDBOOK OF'I'EXTILE F I DRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}RES
Fabrics containing casein blended with wool are obviously
rnd.similar blends, also .introclucing
nylon. Thc conrbination
wool-like in appcaranccand handlc, and thcy will automat.ically
c;rscinand corton for kniucct fabrts i ri"*s gl"i'iicxibiliry o f
be trcatccland washcdas wool, causingno difficultics.Blcnds o[ of
garnrcntdesign and knittcd structurc,
cascinrvith cotton will gcnerally be wool-like in handle,and will
Caseinblendcdwith wool,.coilon, rayon staplc,
bc treatedas rvool, but such materialsshould be suitably labelled nylotr an<!
othcrfibrcshasmany possibirities in inc ncttroi-'.,rcutn,.
to avoid any possibilityof harsh treatrnentduring washing. t uitt..t
pilc fabrics,Raschclcloths,coatings,blankctfabrics,ctc.
Drying Fclts
Garnrentsshould be dried as wool, care being taken to avoid Onc of the earliestusesfor caseinl.ibrcwas in thc
high temperaturcs. mrking of
fclt for hats.Caseinfibresdo not have'a;;iy';,,;i"""
like wool
Iibres.,but they will soften and.stick togcthlr in
Ironing
*ornl *ot"r,
fornringa feltedmass.Mixed *itn *ooi, ?or"i,, iil..,
wiil rnake
The full, soft handle of garments containing casein will be the wool felt more readilv.
nraintainedif they are only very slightly damp, or almost dry,
before being ironed or pressed.Wool settingsshould be used,
i.e. warm iron (HLCC Sctting 2). Prc.rscdFclts
Dry Clcaning Dlcndsof caseinanclwool arc rnade.intopresscd
fclts for usc as
floor coverings.The compact fclting ot'tfi"- frf",rO givcs
Casein is not aflected by dry cleaning solvents,and garments ,,.:lglL-".19 high
properriesi"c"sso.y foi rioo. covcring.
containingcaseinnay be dry cleanedas readily as wool. lr..d-wearing
used lor this purposeincreases
-^,r-:-yrt the rate of milling, ar;l
rcouces costs.
End Uses
C0rpets
Kttittittg Y arns BIcndsof rvooland caseinare usedin corrvcntional and tuftcd
Cascirr and rvool blends are used for fingcring and nrachiuc carpcts.The caseincontribulcsa high dcgrceof rcsiliencc, gooJ
knitting yarns, the whitenessof caseinlending itself to the pro- coveringpower (low fibre dcnsity),w"rnith, "*""li",rt
soil resis-
duction of pastel shades. lancedue to the smoothcross_seCtion, and rclativclylow pricc.
The caseinis obtainablefor this purposcin purc white natural
Knitted Fabrics colour,or in a largerangeof spun-clye<t
colouis.
Pile carpetsare nrade with 50 per ccnt cascinblcn<lcd
Worsted spun yarns containing blends of between 30 per cent with
rvoolor rayon staple.
and 50 per cent casein with wool are very suitable for knitted
jerscy fabrics rvhere a soft full lrandle is required, together with . Blendsof cascinand rayon stapleare widcly uscdfor necdle-
loomcarpeting. The caseinprovidcssoftncss,6ultanrfwarmlh,
a widc range of solid dycd shades,fronr dark colours to pastcls.
and 50/50blcndsof cascin.arr<lrayonstaplc"onr1rur" favourably
Casein/wool blends are used for knitted berets,in which a
with an all-wool carpct in hanile, appcararrciano wcariug
dcgrcc of nrilling is required to produce the necessaryfelted
properties.
structure.
For interlock outerwear, 'T' shirts, cardigans,jumpers etc., ResilientFillings and padtlings
interestingefTcctsntay bc obtaincd with cotton-spunblcnds of
Cascinfibre has cxcellcntinsulationpropcrtics,
and good corn-
{ cascin,+ cotton; } casein,;}rayon staple(spun-dyed), } cotton, prcssibility
and resilicnce.
The lattcrpropcrtics
dcpcndto a largc
132
I JJ
t34 t35
IIANDBOOK
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
A: NATURAP
L OLYMER
FTBRES
Experintentswere cnrricd out, and a processwas developedfor
Extractcdnreal-produce<lby the normal cxtractiorrproccss
nraking the pcanut protein fibre which becanteknorvn as.Ardil'. uscd
In rne production of arachis oil
(-fhe fibrc was llrst nrade at Ardeer irr Scotland.) is subjccted to too high a
temperature,which leads to a deterioratloi,
Ily 1938,plans wcrc nrade for pilot-plant production, but thc oi1fr" propcrticsof
the protein.
war held up further progress.Experimental production of 'Ardil'
About 50 per cent of the extractedmcal
eventually began in i946. Conrntercialmanufacttrrefollowed. a consistsof protcin,
the actual prorein contentvary.ingu".oiAlilg
factory being built at Dumfries. By I 951 'Ardil' was .inproduction tl"iLc nraturityof
the seedsand the conditionsund"i which
at the factory, rvith a planned output of 9 rnillion kg. a year. ttii nr. g.o*u.
Production of 'Ardil' rvas suspendcdiu 1957.
protcinis cxtracte<I f.; iii;',,;; by dissolving
,, lr.--rro.ynd,ru1
It ln causticsodasolution,the residueafter
Notc
valuablecattle food which.,containl-*;;-3 citractionbcing a
In the sectionrvhich Iollows, information on grourrdnutfibres is
from.glutelinsinsolublern the causticsoda. i"r"".n, nirrogcrr
based upon the fibre 'Ardil', as it was whcn production ceased Acidificationof the nro-teinsotrtion pr""ipitatcs
whichis rhe raw materiil rro'n *r,iiri thc proteirr,
in 1957. nrir;[''.,;;;;
Elonga(ion RcfractivcIndex
40-60per cent dry; 80 per cent wet. |.53.
138
r39
I I A ND B O OK O F T E X T I L EF I B R ES A: N TURAL POLYMER FIDRI]S
Notc 'Ardil'/wool
blends were used_for swcatcrs,blankcts,
wcar, carpets ancl felts. Blcnds with undcr_
Crounclnut protcin fibrcs are gencrally sinrilar to woo[ in that cotton wcic ,rs.cl fo. sport.
thcy are protein in structure.They do not have the rough scaly shirts, pyjanras, dress fabrics.,ald blencls
witn iayon'for costunlc
surlace of wool fibres, and do not undergo felting in the way and dress fabrics, tropical ciothing,
.p"it. ,lrlrrc'i"a carpers.
that wool does.A comparisonof propertiesof groundnutprotein
fibres ('Ardil') and wool is given in the table below.
Croundnut meal provides a mixture of proteins,the composi- ZEIN FIBRE
tion of thc protcin in the filamcnt dcpcndingon conditionsundcr
which they are produced. INTRODUCTION
Groundnut protein moleculescarry many side chains,and thcy
cannot pack so closelytogetheras the rroleculesof silk. Ground- Ilctween1948ancl1957.a protcin-fibre ,Vicrra,
in.th.eU.S. It was maclcfio- z"in, tfr" p.ot"in'o?"wasin production
nut protein yields a rclativcly weak fibrc, which is much morc
'Vicara' _oi.".
sensitiveto nroisture than wool. was manufacrure<t.by.,tlie nl ril "i":'ir-iina Ctrcmical
Corporationof Richmond.,virginia, t;; plil"i;;a,"u
ville,Connecticut.productronwassuspencted n, Tof,-
COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES - in 1957.
GROUNDNUT PROTEIN FIBRE AND WOOL In the naturalstale,zein nr" *ii".i-up' in thc forrn
rypicrl.of a globutar .moleculcs
prorcin.ri;br; ;ily;i,i,'t,l'*1,,,,, i,,run
Property Groundnut Protein Wool librc, thc nrolcculcsnrust b,cuncoilccl 'p.
to i,,,ii'if
"frv ,.,n to nligrr
Fibre ('Ardil') themselves besideone another.ffli" l.- a"ln"
zein in causticsoda.whcn trr" ncuiiulizon:In-oirtlll' iissotving tlre
Tensile Strength (kg./mm') in the proteinntolcculedestroysthe attraction n.i.l g.o,,p.
B-t0 12-20 b"i*.,.,
Elongation at Break (per cent) anrinegroups.The moleculesaie rhcn"bl" acid ancl
40-60 30 i;;,r;;ii';nd associarc
Young's Modulus (kg./mm' / I per cent the posirions or "riennr"nt'"ricis?;;
ext'n.,at 100 per cent ext'n. per min.) )4 l:g::l:,._t"
lorntatlon. ror fibrc
1.65
I
lvlodulusof Torsional Rigidity
(dyne/cm' ) 1 . 3x l 0 l.l x 10 PRODUCTION I
SpecificGravity 1 . 3I I.JJ
' L t l t l r l
'rr, rl r - F E li E F E F,E l'''iE f''if'1F.F
I I AN DB O O KO F T E X T I L EF I B R E S A: NA'TURAL POLYMEII IIII]IrI:S
when wet. They were generally of poor quality comparcd with COLLACEN ITIBIIEIN USB
other regeneratedprotein fibres, and had little more than cheap- -
'Marcnl'
nessand availabilitvof raw material to recomnrendthem. w a s s i m i l a r to. horse hair. It
lra<l good dinrcnsionirl
stabilitya ncl exccllcntrcststallcc
to dry-clclrnitrgsolvcnts.
It was usedIargely as brush fi bre.
COLLAGEN FIBRE CMARENA)
INTRODUCTION
MISCELLANEOUS PIIOTEIN FII}I{ES
A protein fibre was made by Carl Freudenberg K.G.a.A.,
'Marena'. Wherever there is a source of
Cermany, under the name Production ceasedat the cheap, waste protcin, thcrc is lr
potential textile fibre. There
end of 1959. arc two such sourccsof irrrlustrial
PRODUCTION T"'^"#ltB#i:T[.*-",?,j,.,?i;,*]i"*l;]il*ll{li
rhegreategg-arllng
pil,i;;';;;-;ii,"".]. i" chickcri
'Marena' was a collagen fibre, produced from split hides. The ;:'oXi1,31
split hides were chopped, treated with alkali followed by hydro- 11 tl. caseof theeggalt,umin,theprotcin
...
rr'and globurar'The probrcrr'r ntolcculcs arc foldctl
chloric acid, washed,refined and spun in solution. i. to ,i,rroi.i"tii."t'"",ibringtrrcrrr
The fibres were dried and tanned. They were dope dyed. irrtothc extcndccl,fibrc-fornring
statc.
Featherproteinmorecur".^^r;;i;;;ly
cxrendcrr,
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES cross-linkedinto a nctwork.structure.Hcrc, it is but arc rrighry
ing down the cross-links a "as" o[ brcak_
wirhour;";;;;;; ii,"",,lo]."urn, .t,riu,
Spccilic Gravi(y themselves.
1.32. The sanreprocesshas becrruscd
both theseproreinsinro a.spinnabi;-expcrirnen tally for tlringing
f"rli'nig'i'r icattrcrprotcin
Ellect of Age
N one. :i",1,$,:ll,
molecules
.lli
i,,iil::..,:,li;J,,t:l,xll1i""i'il:1"$;tf
I
in the extcncledpositioi r"iif-irr.v fr"""'fr""."s;:un
Eflect of Sunlight the fibrc coagurated. ancl
The detergcnt is tr,",rreinovJ ancrwirshccl
away,,tcaving rhecgg or r."orr,"ipioi"iii';; i;;';;ii
None.
":,lt''i
and alignednrolecules. oI cxrcrrdcrl
iif: ;iJ'
Al
E{Iect of Acids
Resistant. :1iiH :: ;i:?.I[ "i;:l';[",:l::i ;i"1"
lii],:li
_ Other regcneratccl protcin fibres havc becn nrade
in this way
[ficct of OrgnnicSolvents I ronr gclatineand silk was
wilrno<roubt
nnao pru"o'1,"i o[ thcsc nbrcs
Resistant. ill',:ff:i'.t?"sontc
Insects
Cood resistance.
Micro-organisnu
Good resistance.
146 t47
I I A N D B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B R ES
A: N A . t . t r R AL p O L y l t t E R r l l l R E S
61 '-t F-l'L I t
i.n.--|:-.-n....-..---l
A: NATURAL POLYMEN FIBRES
H A N D B O OOk F TEXTILE FI BRES
by washingin dilute solutionsof sodium carbonnte
factured on a modest scale and are used as specialityyarnsin or sequcstcr-
ing agents such as Calgon.
which solubility in weakly alkaline solutionsis turned to good
Coods should have sullicientfreedonr of movernentto
effect. cnsurc
lhat the dissolving solution reaches the alginate .fhc
threa<Js.
follorving treatments are recommended:
PI{ODUCTION
(a) Alginate with Cotton, Viscose Rayon,
Lincn or Nylon: 20
Ilarv Malcrial to.40 minutes at a temperatureof at lcast 50"C. (120;F.)
in a
Seaweedis dried and milled to a line powder, in which form it DxUrcontalnlng
may be stored without undergoing bacterial attack. The first stcp Soda Ash 2.5 e.ll.
in the production of fibres is to convert the alginic acid in sea- Common Salt 5 g./1.
rveed into sodium alginate.This is done by treatment of the (b) Alginate with Wool, Celluloie Acetato
powdered weed with a solution of sodium carbonate and caustic or orhcr Alkali-
sensitiveFibrcs: 20 to 40 minutes at a tenrpcratuic
soda. of at lc;rst
50'C. (120'F.) in a bath containing
The solution of sodium alginate is allowed to stand, and the
undissolved constituents of the seaweedform a sediment which Lissapol C Z g.ll.
may be removcd. The solution is thcn bleached, and sodiunt Calgon 3 g./1.
hypochlorite is added to prevent bacterial attack. Cornnron Salt 5 g. /1.
Alginic acid is precipitated from the solution by acidification
with hydrochloric acid, and the alginic acid is purilied and dried. Note..Y'/ct steam may causc idcntification tints
to stairr goods
containing nylon and sirnilar librcs which arc bciirg
. stcanr sct.
Spinnirg Solution Excess moisture should be avoided, an<l when .ioiiiing
occurs it
may be removed usually with warm socliurn hyclrosulphitc.
The alginic acid is neutralized with sodium carbonate, forming
sodium alginate. This is made up into a solution containing
about 9 per cent of alginate,which is again sterilized and filtered.
ITRIJCTUREANDPRoPERTIES
Spinning Fine Structureand Appearance
Sodium alginate solution is wet spun into a coagulating bath Alginate fibres are striated length_wise.The
surface has a foldcd
containing calcium chloride, hydrochloric acid and a small appearance;in cross-sectionthe fibrcs are round
to oval with a
amount of surface active agent. Tho jets emerging from tbe serrated outline.
spinneret are coagulatedinto lilaments of calciun-ralginate.These
are brought together,washed,oiled, dried and wound. I'cn:rcity
ilt
$.
NATURAL RUBBETTFI[}RES
rii INTRODUCTION
i i
i: Rubberis a naturalpolvmero-btainecl
producedby certainsoeciesof plant, by coagulation
tl i
o[ thc latcx
ri the ru.bbertree which growsin iropical
"tt^ttl'iirr"r"
,.oidn._
-'"' ltrasilicnsis,
r.: r,r raw state,rubber a
.is .tough,elnsticmatcrial which
! I
_.
soltens. on heating,becoming plasti-c,"J--J"rei_lite. In the
Alginate processing -
of rubber.it is tnei<tia ^il ;;j;;;lwerrul milts.
This.softensthe rubber, renaering
ALCINNTE FIBRES IN USE ii _"r.-,ir"fr'"plastic and
l1letr jestroving.theelasricity;i rd;;
'fhe trme'milling providesan opportunity ;rvrnirl'", rhe same
sensitivityof calciurnalginatelibres to dilute solutionsof ro, niiiji,g oir,er nratcrinrs
rubber, norablysulphur *iri.r, tnt ".
alkali has beena seriousdrawbackto the practicaluseof these :ll:.-tlr.o
seg-rl9nt processof vulcanizaliono. "uring.-'--- .*" jn rh" sub-
i,iJ
fibres.
When rubber has beensofteneduoJ',ii".O
Their non-flammability is a most valuableproperty,and has su{Iiciently on thc nrill, it is
led to their use,for exanrplc,in theatrccurtains.A really wash- usual plastics.rhernroplasricb b; ;r;i;l,t;j'l,ia"rr,lp.,t rrv tr,"
able alginatefabric would be of particularappealin this respect tcchniques.such as extrusion
moulding.If ir is thenheated.inits n;;';i;;;, and comprcssion
for children'sclothes. with the.sulphurwhich has.been.mixed tl,""ruub., ,.u.t,
-itr into it, and it sctsin
The solubilityof alginStefibresin alkalihas led to a number rts moulded shape.T'he ru.bberloses "iiir"i"pirrtici
of specinlizcd applications.
Thc llbrcsare used,for cxamplc,as - '*iiir' ty anrl
acquirest'e unusualelasticity,*
strcngthprovidersin ploducingloosely-spun wool yarns; thc "rrf"i"i.' url"nnir..t
rubbcr.
t52
153
trl '.-;l rl rl r r r r l
i..........|:E'l:-l:
r I A ND B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B I { E S A: N A T ( ' N A L P O L Y M NI r F I N I I E S
knives, nrounted on shafts, one set being below and the other PITOCESSING
above the sheet.Each pair of knives exertsa scissors-like cutting
action on the rubbcr sheet passing betlveen thern, producing Scouring
filanrents which may bc collected dircctly as warps, or passed Soapsarrd detergentsntay be usetlfor scouringfabricscontaining
between prcssure rollers. The rollers squeezethe filaments into rubber threads.Sodium carbonatemay be usid i[ nccessary
ribbons in which they adhere lightly together; the individual anrl
no sign.ificantharm wjll be done. Caustic soda should nbt
filaments are readily separatedfrom one another when required. bc
used.
In the original technique for producing cut rubber thread,
which has now almost gone out of use, calenderedrubber sheet Illeaching
rvas vulcanized and then wrapped rouud a large drum. As
Ilubber js attacked by strong oxidizing agents,nncl
the drum rotated, a rotating circular knife moved slowly -pcroxidc blcaching
must be carried out with care..Hydrogen
along the face of the drum, cutting the sheet into a line spiral and hypo-
'Ihis chlorite. bleaches may be usett, tire iorm.r b";ng prcfcrrctl.
of filanrent. proccss produces filanrents in comparatively
Peraceticacid and sodium chlorite rnust not bc usccl.
short lengths,up to 180 nr (600 ft), and hasbeensuperseded by
the more modcrn techniouesrvhichproducecontinuousfilarnents
Dycing
n r e a s u r i n 1g 8 0 0m ( 6 0 0 0 ' f t ) a n d n r o r e .
Using modern cut filament techniques,it is possible to cut to Rubber filanrcntsarc usuirlly colourcd whcrc ncccsslrry
by tlrc
-covcri
counts as fine as 85s,and if rectangular filanrents are being made f, appropriate pi gnrenrs ng nrix ing. lf rhc ng
i.l_dj,i:-",: .<Iuri
yarn_rs to be dyed, carc should bc taken
the second dimension may be reduced even further by use of not to ,se conrlitioni
calenderedsheetsof appropriate thickness.A calenderedsheet of wlrich mighr harnr.rhe rubbcr. I-Iigh ienrpcrirturcs,
::,:l:1i"ul.
oxlotzlng agcnts,excessivealkalinity and organic solvcnts
thicknessequivalent to 115s,for example, will provide a filament rnusi
o[ averagethicknessequivalentto l00s count. be.avoided.Dyes containing "opp"i in the irolccules
aucl dycs
The commerciallimit for cut filament is usually in the region which are fi_xedby the addition of copp.r salts
arc not rcconr_
of 85s. mendcd. It is possiblo to use trrem wiiriorrt harnrful
ctlccts, but
only by exercisingvery careful control.
(b) Extruded Rub ber Filatnerts
Rubber latex is mixed witlt vulcanizing agents, accelerators, I'inishing
antioxidants, pigments and other materials, and is extruded I3 ,.1t...
linishingof garmenrscontainingrubbcr, precaulions
through glass spinneretsinto a coagulatingbath, cornmonly of shouldbe taken to avoiclmaterialsand c6nditions'which
acetic acid. The jets of latex coagulate, and the filaments are nright
harmthe rubber,as in dyeing.
washcd, dried and heated to bring about vulcanizationof the in particutar, may be cncounrcrcd irr rnauy
rubber. The filamentsare thus convertedinto fine, highly-elastic ..-l-l::.::: leat,
unrshlngprocesses, and this will causedegraclationof thc rubbcr
threads,which are dustcd with talc to provide a smooth surface yarn. Temperaturesabove 95.C., evcn
ior short pcriocls,nrtrst
which facilitatesproccssing. bc avoided,tl.rcmaximu't pernrisiiblctotal trcatnicrit
'I'hc lir.c at this
Thc cxtrusion processproduces filanrents which arc usually tempcraturcbcing r hour. pcrnrissibrcti'rc is doubrcd ['r
by contrast with thc square cross-section
of rourrd cross-section, cach l0"C. drop in telltpcrlture.
of the cut rubber filaments.They are strong and unifornr, aud
can be spun to very finc diametcr and in almost any continuous STI{UCTURE AND PROPEITTIES
length.
Using this tcclrniquc,it is possiblc to produce filarnentsto Natural rubbcr is a polynrcr of isoprcncin wltich
thc isopreno
counts as line as 160s. units arc arrangcdin tlre crs configuration;it is
c'ls-polyisoprcnc.
158 159
I I A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
A: N A T U I I AL P O L Y M E R F I l l R E S
The rubber nrolecule has a dcgree of polymerization of about c.ross-links
which hold adjacentlnoleculcs
10,000,i.e. there arc sorne 10,000.isopreneunits in the chain. fogcther..l.trc fol<.ls
in
thc nrolecules
allow thcnt still to be pulle<Ii,ito',i"rv positions
rcsponseto a force (assunringtheri are not too in
many cross-
links).,
but a limir is ieacheclot *l,i"h tfl" flnt, iuilf no
}I CH
pcrrnitfurther rnovement.lf thc stretchitrg longcr
\ 't / fo.."-is now rclcasi,J,
Ihe
.rubber moleculesreturn _to the pos-itionsthai' corrcsponrt
to the shapein whicb the rubber was vutca,iizeJ.'-
H. H
ISOPRENE
+ 4 ,1 -C
I-
II
,^.^./\ /\/\n -C-7\.A
I
/V\/\ - C -/\,^\
T-'\ - r
i',
I II
I ./'""-| I
/\/v\-C-l\...,\
I
/V\/1.-C-/\/V\
II I
I
Lzt-t\ | ,\ -C - r.r..\
I cH, H I I I
L poLySuLpHtDlc
Jn MONOSUI.PHtDtc cAnOoN-cAn00N
POLYISOPRENE (x >21
( N A T U R A LR U B B E R )
l / u l c u t i z a l i o t t o l R u b b c r - W h e n . n a t u r a l r. u b b c r i s
Natural rubber; crs-polyisoprcne. v L r l c a n i z c dt,l t c l o r r c
cnairr molcculcs arc lirrkc<t-..ct,c,''riciity-ii-'a,t:j,i.;;1";""i;";;i;;"."?
i n t c r v a l s. a l o r r gt h c i r l c . g t h s . ' l r r c .n a t u r c -o f r-lat"r-iir""i-riitv",iiii,
t r c c i o i i - i i r r t < sv u r i c s w i t r r
l'e condirions
undcr rvrricrr
vulcanizatiou
Thc 'rubber-like' behaviour of rubber is due to the unusual foroexample,
be polysulphidic,mono.uifiii.ii"'oi-"ni'rriirl.nrrrun
cross_
forrn of its nrolccules,which are highl y-fol<lccl.When a piece of
rubber is pulled, the molecules tend to straighten out, and if the
stretching force is sustained,the nroleculesmay begin to slide over Rlnge of Propcrlics
one another and take up new positions.When the stretchiug force The properties of vulcanized.rubber rnay be variccl ovcr
is released,the molecules will return towards their folded state. a very
rvide.range by suitable choice of vulcanization conclitions.
remaining in their new positions with respect to one another. A
lightly-vulcanized rubber
Rarv rubber is thus a plastic material that displays elasticity to ryay be soft an<l po.r"rr- a vcry low
initial modulus, and it could stretch to g or 9 tinrcs its original
a remarkable degree.If it is heated, the moleculescan slide more lcngth.A highly-vulcan ized rubber, on the othcr tlnnA,nroy irou"
easily over one another; the rubber is thermoplastic. ,o
When rubber is milled, sorne breakdown of the long molecules TllI cross-linkstying its molecules togcrhcr rhat ii is ; hard,
unyieldingsolid which will not stretch to any noticeablcdegrcc.
takes place. The entangled nrolecules cannot hold orr to circh Rubber lilamcnts can thus bc macleto a wi<icrangc of prolicrty
other as ellectivelyas in the urrmilledraw rubber. They are nrorc spccifications,and it is dillicult to gcncralizcin consi-rlcring
rdbbci
easily pulled apart, especiallywhen heated. Milled rubber is fillnrentsas a wholc. Natural rubLer has, howcvcr,chnracteristic
more thermoplasticthan raw rubber. propertieswhich are inlrerentin the naturc of thc nlatcrial,
and
When milled rubber has been mixed with sulphur and other lhc inforrnation which follows rnay be of usc irr this rcspccr.
vu_lcanizingagcnts, ancl then nroulded into a ncw shapc, thc Rubb^crJilamcnts may be used barc, or covercclby othcr textilc
sulphur undergoesa chemicalreaction with the rubbcr, creating yarnsof virtually any type. The natureof theseconiposite
rubbcr
160 l6l
Elongalion
700-900 per cent (cf. spandex: 700-800 per cent). The figuresshow a much g1gn1g1
rcduction in the load/extcn-
during.thcfirstan"d,..;;;l;;;;;s""riil
Elnstic Rccovcry
:,o'1,.?l1o
spand€xfibrc ," rhccasc
:t_lhe tharrin thc caseof tf,ciuLi"r. The
tor the spandexfibre.however,..moin valucs
Rubber has an immediatc recovery front stress,under normal t igii.i. itli'r'*orta npp.n.
ro give rhe spandexfibrc a'conside;fl;';.il,,;c
of 100 per cent.
circumstances, ovcr rhc
t62 |,63
} T A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E FIBRES A: NATUIIAL POLY[,rER FINITES
natural rubber in this irrrportantpropcrty. It is equally inrportant, If thc fibre is kept in a stretchedcondition,as in the stressdecay
howcver, that the load/extcnsion ratio should be maintained testsabovc, the relaxationof stressis accompanicdby arr inconr-
throughout thc life of a garnlent,with thc fibre held in a highly- plcte return to the original length when the hbrc is relaxcd. .l.hc
stretchedstate. anrouutof permancntset in the c:rseof rubber lilarncntsis snrall,
Thc following table shows the results of further tests com- and most of it takcs placc during the initial pcriod of strctclr.
paring the stress decay for natural rubber and spandex fibres.
'Instron' tester in a conditioned _ As would be expccted frorn the results of thc tesrs on stlcss
The tcsts were made using an decay, the permanent set of rubbcr filanrent is ntuch lcss
than
atnrospherc,the specimcnsbcing cxtendcdto 300 per cent exten- with spandex fibre. The foltowing tablc conrparcs thc
two
sion and maintained there for the stated times. The rubbcr libres in this respect. In thc cxper.imcnts frorir which thcsc
thread is o[ heavier gauge than the spandex so that the stress valueswere obtained, 25.4 cnt ( l0 in) sanrplesof tlrrcaclwcrc
loss was measured at comparable values of stress.Samples of uscd, measurernentsof extende(l leng[h bcing takerr 5 ruirrutcs
finer rubber thread, however, wcre tested in the same way and r f t e r .e l o n g a t i o n o
s l 1 0 0 , 2 0 0 a n d 3 0 0 * p e rc c n i l r a t lb c e r tr c t n i r r c t l
it was found that the pcrccntage stress loss was the satne for lor tlle tintes stated ancltlre sarrrplcs rernoveclfror|l thc strctclring
all counts tested. The results shorv that the stressdecay for the frame.Thus, 5 rninuteswas allowed for recoveryln'cach
casc.
spandex libre is about twice that for the rubber hbre.
Comparisonof PcrnranentSct, Rubbcr and Stlnntlcx lrjbrcs
Conrparisono[ StrcssDccay, Rubbcr and SpanclcxFibrcs
Extcnded Ltngtlt (lil.,
StrcssLoss (per cent)
Sp!! ", ::!!:__ 100')(,Elong'n.
- Rybber Ttu'ead_ 200y" Elong'n. 300"/,,Elons'n.
622 rltex(560clen). 60 gauge Spandex Rubbcr Spandcx Rubbcr SpundcxRnbbcr
Pcrnmnent Set Thc data show that the pcrm:rnentset of thc naturll
fibrc is
When the load is removed lronr a strctchcd rubber hbrc, ntuchlcss than that of thc spanclcx.Thus, for an initial cxtcnsion
rccovery is almost 100 per ccrrt if thc tinrc of stretchingjs srnall. o[ 300 pcr ccnt for 80 rninutcs,thc rubbcr lrts strctchcd
fronr
164 165
I T A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E
- . .
FIBRES
- -'-n-'--,
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRI]S
1-.r-.'
l0 in (25.4 cnr) to 10.85 in (27.6 cnr) whereasthe spandexfibrc Flannnbility. Rubber will burn, but it does
not rcadily propagate
lras strLtchedfionr l0 irt (25.4 cm) to I 1.85 in (30 cm), i.e. tnore fl anre.
than twice as much. Moreover,the rubber shorvslittle itrcrease itt Spccilic Heat. 0.41-0.45.
stretch after the first 5 minutes, whereas thc spandcx fibre con-
Tlrcnrrul Conductivity. 0.25-0.31 (relativc
tinues to stretch as time goes on. to watcr).
This dillerence in permanent set bctween rubber and spandex
libres is aggravatedat higher temperatures.The figures on pagcs
167 and i68 show tho diflerencein heat ageirrgbchaviour of
rubber and spandexlibres.
Modulus
52.5- 70 ke/cnrz (750-1000 lb/inz) at 500 per cent extensiort'
(cf. spanrlei: 175 kg/cmz (2500 lb/inz) at 500 percentextension)'
SpccificGravify
0.960-1.066.
Elfect of Moislurc N 60
F
lrJ
Negligible.
BO
Y T U R A LR U B E E R
zlcirls.N:rtural rubbcr is rcsistant.to
rs attacked by conccntra (eclsulp'u
urost iuor.ganic
"fr'"'o*idizing
acids, but
ric o.iJ
--- l,r.f'
-"e v, v^ acicls
such as nitric ancl chrontic acids.
Mincral acids and the s
,'c
ryd'urc,,.^1i,"i,i,'"tn1'ilff
,'JitllJ;i;'';1,
ll:'i,jo;:l'
f
J
f
/ v
threads,causingsonre changc
of shatle.
"il:
o
o
5 l/kalrs. Resistanccto alkalis gencrally
- is
60 good.
o
z PANDEX Gcneral. Oxygen and. more especially,
ozone attack rubbcr,
t- causingdegradationwliich m a d e
a p p a r e n tb y
Antioxida.rs
A r r li o xi r : rr r r c ,arc
, , . ^ ,incorpor.ar.,r
,.^^-..^..1a. f a c ce r . a c k i n g .
. s u r j,lii,lll-l,i,t;
i;,iffi;",i,ir,i"'
looo
900
000
700
cr 600
t8 24
TIME IN HOURS {
'-"
L?
I{eut Agcirtg, Rubbcr and Spunde-rFibrcs
A rlry heat ovcn agcing test carried out xt 100.C. at 200 per cent
cx tcnsion-Natl ral Rublter Producers' Rcsearclt Associaliort.
Iificct of Agc
In the abscnccof exccssiveheat, sunlight,oils and greases;and
catalystssuch as coppcr and ntangancse,the agcing effectsarc
very slow.
'fhe
general e{Iectsof age are loss of modulus and extensibility.
3()0
Iiflcct of Suulight PL:R C.[ I.IT
Light has both a discolouring and a deterioratingaction on Rttbbcr 7'hrcar. cotnpuris'tr
'l'l)cse ol stan.tran!artr! I'orvtr T,rtrcutrs.
rubber which is proportional to the intensity of the light and s t r e s s - s t r a i nt l i a r r a n r s D It647 powcr .l-lctro;;, nntl
s t a r r ( t a r (' tL a c t . r o n 'r u b b c r t l r_r coat < l s DIUTA
thc tinrc of cxposurc. rfrc l'owcr Lhrcad.-Loslc-r ytrn
i l h r s _ r r a trei i c i " . . i i , i J u n r o r t u l r r s
oI
and Lii,r.',, f),,:r',i,i'Lil.
168
169
. I r"I r I . F
t r I. t I t I t I t F t , I I F F F
I { A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M E NF I D R E S
Insccls
these will give adequate protection lor most normal textile
applications.
'itubber I{esistant.
is attackcdby chlorine and other halogens'I{ydrogen Micro-organisrns
p"roiiJ" and hypochloiite bleaches may be used, but peracetic
acid and socliuni chlorite bleachesmust be avoided' Itubber is attacked only uncler vcry warm and
<larnpconclilions.
Copper salts cause degradation, and must be kept out of con- Elcctrical Properties
tact with rubber.
Elcctricalresistivity: l.7x I016ohrns/cnr.
cubc.
DielectricConstant: 3-15.
EIIcct o[ OrganicSolvenls
Power Factor: 0.002-0.L
Natural rubber is swelled to a small extent by acetone,alcohols
ancl vegetable oils such as castor oil. It is attacked by hydro'
"urboni oils and fats. Dry cleaningfluids should be avoided'
|
-1
\
, l
t-F t F F F F,-l''1-lt1
F,t F,t f'''IF t F t t l"'i
I I A N D B O O KO F ' T E X T I L EF I D R E S ^: NA'rUItAL POLYM E IT IITOI(I:S
cluring World War II. The exhaustducts of thesc engines, Silica Fibrc
op"ruiingat temperatures in the regionof 700to 800'C',required
inrulutio-n from the airframeand other structuralparts of-.the of,glassfibre or tcxrileto silicafitrrcor texritc
^ii.r"ft, anctthe insulanthad to be reasonably fuel-tight'light l.n:,:^o^1y..rr'oT
ln tneory a straishtfonvard ls
prolonged high frequency extractionproccss,ftrt irr prtcticc
in weigit an<Iable to withstand the tlrerearedifficult-ies
which.must tr. ourrioni..;i.lise arc
vibration associated with jet engines. of strength,(b)-increased 1a1toss
brittlenessu"A i.j ,f.rri,,-f,rge
in lcneth
Silica was obviouslya suitabGmaterialfor this purpose'a.nd and diameterof fibresafterprocessing tlr. gfossnirie or textilc.
provide
a new rorrteto silicahbre productionwas discoveredto
tfr" nUi. in quantity and it reasonable price'-This consisted in
A typical manufact.uring processfollows thrcc stngcs:
roinni,t* ctasi nUre and then leachingout all the constituents (a) Choppedglassfibrc is lcacheclwith hydrochloricacid until
oitr.. tt-tni the silica. Fibres producedin tltis way werc over
for thepurpose mostof the non-silicanratcrialhas bcenrcnrovccl.
96 per ".nt puresilica,and theyprovedadmirable
ioi*ti.it ih.y tu"t"-intended. Sincethe end of the war' they (b) The leachedfibre is washecland then fcltcd into bhnkcts or
huue develop"i into on" of the most important types of higt- batts.
i;;;;";;ir;;:t;sisiine fibres, with a wicle range of industrial (c) The batts are dried and heat-treatecl, the tibres bonding
applications. togcthcrto increascthc strengl.h
of thc nratcrial.
FORMSAVAILABLE STI{UCTURE
AND PROPERTIES
brrlk
Silica (G) fibres are commonly available in - the fornr of Chemic:rlSlruc(urc
fibre, bait (fe10, cloth, tapc, slecving, braided rope, scamless
Silica .fi.bresproduced by the leachingof gltss fibrc arc alrnost
tubular cloth, cord and Yarn. pure silicondioxide,commonly over 9g per ccnt. -fhc conrposition
of a typical modern silica (C) fibre of ihis typ. (,ltcfrasil')is ls
NON,lENCLATURE Iollows:
sio" 98.7 per cent
Silica fibres macle from glass fibres may be - describedcon- Fe'o' 0.1 per cent
i""l""tiv t. t,f,ca (G) librei to distinguishthem from quartzand
(V)
f.om siiica fibres'pioducedby the viscoseprocess(silica Al,o,I 0.4 per cent
fi bres). TiO, J
CaO 0.3 per cent
Nolc Mgo 0.1 pcr ccnt
'Refrasil"
Thc infornration wltich follows relates prinrarily to Thc balance consistsof combined water and traccs of othcr
pioau..a by Thc Chemical ancl hrsulating Co' Ltd', U'K' Thjs elemcnts,
'nrny
fr" taken as a typical example of a modern silica fibre nrade
by thc lcaching of glass ftbrc. Finc Slruc(urc:rnd Appcnrancc
Smooth-surfaced libre of near-circular cross_scclion.Iribrc
PRODUCTION d i a n r e t e r sr a n g e l r o n r 0 . 0 l . n t r n ( 5 p ) t o 0 . 0 2 n t r n ( l 0 p ) .
Iiillrc
l e n g t hi s a b o u i l 9 n r r r r( % i n , .
Glass fibre Silica (G) fibres are whiie. Batt arrclbulk fibrc arc likc raw
cotton in appearance;tcxtilcs rescmbleglasstcxtilcs.
This is producedin thc usttal wiry, as describeclorr page 649'
182 il r83
I { A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E FIBRES
A : N At u R A t _p o t _ y Mu n r t r r r t I s
Fibre length of batt (felt) and bulk fibre nray be varied betwecn Spccilic II eat
6 and 50 rnnt (/a-2 in).
Vcry line lilament batt is also manufactured with a fibrc 7 ' a n p( C . ) B.T'.U.sllb.l"F. Culs.lt:.1"C.
dianrctcr of Q.75p.. 260 0.19
538 0 .l 9
0.21 0.21
Tcnsilc Strcngth 815 0.23
1095 0.2J
Silica (G) fibre textiles have adequate strength for the nrajority 0.26 o.26
1370 0.27
o[ applications.Minimum breaking strer)gthof a typical yarn, 0.27
I650 0.28
5 9 5 0n r / k g( 3 0 0 0y d / l b )i s 0 . 4 5 4k g ( l l b ) ; 3 5 7 0r n / k g( 1 8 0 0 0.28
yd/lb)is 0.908kg (2 lb).
Chcnrical. propcrtics
Elongation
tlci tl s
Vcry low.
Silica (C) fibres are verv stablc to
lilastic Recovcry acids,othcr tlran lrytlrofluoric
and phosphoric acicls.
Silica (C) fibres have almost perfect elasticity.
l
r --l . J r-r ' I
t E F t - - l"1t t t t t l'"i|,',ir:
IIANDOOOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
: NATURAL pOLyt\.tERFltlRIlS
I'etrtp.("C.) I nsulatiott Rcsistance (olurrsI cnf) Silica (G) libre textiles havc.adequatestrcngth
20 5 x 1 0 7t o 5 x 1 0 8 for nrost applica-
lions, but where heavv abrasionii fit"fV-i"i"
200 5 x 1 0 1t2o 2 x 1 0 r l .r"r"ounr".",f,".g.
in the rnachine braidins"{ il''";;,
500 2 x 1 0 et o 5 x 1 0 ' .rl*,
treat the goodswith a fin_rshing ;,lilrcferablc to
900 agentthat will incrcasethcir
2x 107to 5 x 107 rcsistancero abrasion. This
;e;it;' ,fr"' u..lif ,lg or orhcr
operationto be carrieclout. successfully,
l/o/e. Lorver figuresrelate to plain weave,0.45 nrrl (0.018 irr) rcnroved..quickly and thc finish is
thick. Fligherfiguresrelate to 8-end satin weave,0.90mrn (0.036 whcn the silica gooas a.e iiri tr.nt",f in
The.applicationanctremovatof tri" "oati"! ur..
in) thick. ir.r',lo .n..t nt orr
n""t thermal an<telecrrical
pdffi;-;i';c
Eltcct of Iladiation ;lrjll" silica(G)
Silica (C) fibrcs of low boron content may be usedin regionsof
high neutron and ganrma flux without appreciableradiation littd Uscs
'I'he
heating ellects. following figureswcre obtained by exposing Tlrc ind.us,trial
applicationsopcn to silica (C) Iibrcs
silica (G) fibre materialsto neutron bornbardmentin the CLEEP and varied, but they fall nrainly into arc rnilny
reactor at U.K.A.E.R.E., Harwell, England. threegroups:
(l) I{igh tenrperaturcclcctricrl
insulution.
(2) [ligh tcnrl;craIrrr.c
t hcrlral i n s u l a t i o r r ,
A4ucroscopic N uclcar
(3) Chcrnical cnginccring.
lulat eial Absorptiotr Cross Section
(ctrt2per grarrr)
I Iigh 7'cnpcrature Elcctricol Itrstilutiorr
I{efrasil tape T-RF-3 0 . 0 16
Rcfrasil yarn Y-RW-445 0.016 alcr.tapes
:lXilJ:l,ltf :l:^,r'^1,^:r.._:1,:lrsareuserr
rbravarictyo|
Relrasil fibre F-RF-75 0.019 J.j.i;";;;;:,ii;;:';l,i:l
,.i,of;i,',::,",.,,j,_,]l:.,:i::ili:,,"u,a,!tiii
fi.:lil:.l'::lllg":l:"t:lI :l ;';;t; ;;';;i?;'ili'fi I:'::';:liii;
;;;;;Jiiilii;;':,::5::illi;
These lorv values mean that the materials are completely
satisfactoryfor reactoruse,espcciallysincethe thermalproperties
;j:'J;::l*:ll:?.'."',.1:1,::,'i;;i,;i'
for thernrocouples, highfr.qu.u.y f.rroti,,g
.oifi.
renrain substantiallyuna{Iectedby neutron bombardnrent. II igh Tempcrnture Therna! Insulatiort
,l, r.,therrnal
insrlator,siticr (c )
SILICA (C) FIBRES IN USE
lloI ;il;il;:[]:lli',drliIi,
il;,1,li','_t';;l:lfl:,*,-..,.,.,1:rr,y
h.i:":;.1"',i,1:,1:1,:,_:i:,{,t';;;
u':.1in.tnefollowi,,;
1;,;;;;; Jf,]
GcrrcralChnractcristics
ll,
liltre), (b) silica fibre
ii,i;k";;, 'i
6i'il;,;"ilii'?,lill":l'i:,lil
iii"lil'll,i,,,,lii
Silica (C) fibres combine light weight witlr low thcrnral conduc- fliTl;
!:l,l':l?, ";l.,ll,,ll;:,:i:
::1,,:f t.:,;;;;*i
:r;i
9.",'l*_:l.ii;
c l o t l r c o v c r c r l h h r r t z a r c/ ^ r ^ r r , ^ . . - r r - _ . . . r
i;;''.;;i'il;ir,,
iiii'i,ii'iiJilllii
tivity, flexibility, high tcntperaturercsistanceand high resistancc
ll"lI,"y,,:.1 r,u,ic,
.l:. tJli,ii; i;il.J .,iil1;,
",i
J,ii,,
fiLi: j,lili
to thermal shock. In addition, thcy have the chernicalresistancc 0
lf.liij;. ;?,:i.
:i::,:,
andalso
r,l .ii,
rp"iii,l' iJ,,ii,.,ili
lii,"J
-:It.l"per,"li,iii"r,,'i,igii'ili,p::lli'l:
that is characteristicof silica, and cxcelleut l.righ tcntperaturc to proicct-
electricalinsulationpropertics. :i;j:lfi,
processes.
Silica (C) fibre batt has a br.rlkdensityin the region of 4lb./ftr. ClrctnicalEngineering
(64 kilo./mr.). It can be conrpressed to a bulk density of about ln high ternperaturechenticalengineering
iiill*liiqs:
9 lb./ft3. Datt consistsof a close selt-bondedfelt of fibres inter- operationsltcliasil is
locked in randont orientation.As no bondirrgagent is used therc
is no distortiou or loss of strengthat high temperatures.
t86
n':;{r,$
ririi,f,
lir*l[,'#
fu
iil;iI 187
IIAND!OO K OT TEXI'ILE FIBRES A: NATURAL PoLYIvIER FII}IIEs
curtainsin conveyor-fed annealing and nornlalisinglurrracesand
alsodrapedoverlargecastings to controlthe rateof cooling.ln . Thc technique of producingfibrcsfronr inorganicruntcri:rls i'
this way has beenundcr investigation for a cionsi<tcrable
continuoussteel castingprocesses gasketsprecisioncut fioru tinre.
Early fornrs of inorganicfibre weie weak,howcvc.r, antl thc higlr
thick Refrasilcloth are usedin special valvescontrollingthe florv loadingsof, inorganic material precru<red
of nroltenmetal.RefrasilRopesare usedin gaskets for furnacc trrc nianutactureof
anythingother than coarsefilaments,e.g. of 5011, dianreter.
door seals.Many other applicationsinvolvingnewer fornrsof M9{ern research,
Refrasilmaterials notably by,Avtex Fitr.r, jii.., has--rnatle
arecontinuallybeingfoundin hightemperature possiblethc productionof very line firarnentsof
chenrical engineeringandengiueering processes. silica and otrrer
high-melting. mater.ialsby the viscosctcchniqrc.iitre basisof
In atomic cnergyapplications,the low boron contentof silica rs.ro dispersethe inorganicmaterialsin a very linc
(G) fibresis advantageous jn that thereis no heatingeffectwhcn :,]:_fl:"::.
lornl ln the vrscose solution.
the silicais irradiatedwith neutrons.
.. Many iriorganicsubstances are solublein alkali, ancl will
dissolvein the viscosesolution.They are suUsclucntty
regcnc-
ratedas the viscoseis coagulatc<l in the coagulaiing batlr,-pro_
viding a fine dispersionoflhe inorganr"*otJiioi in
urc viscose
ilrantent-
Silica has been madc into filarircntssuccess[ullyby
tltis viscosc
tcchrriquc,a,d rayon fibrcs arrtr f^brics corrtnirii'g
siricn rrro,c
(3) SILICA (VISCOSE PROCESS) FIBRES; SILICA (V) FIBRES or nrixed with carbon and other substanccsare
oir ilrc nrarkct
('Avceranr').
Fibres produced by dispersingsilica or der.ivativcsin viscosc
NOMENCL TURE
solution, spinning by the usual viscose techniques,aud then
removing the conrbustiblc materials to leave fibrcs consisting Silict fibres rnade by thc viscosc techniqucnray bc
substantiallyof silica. dcscribcd
conveniently as ,ri/ica (V) libres to distinguish
tlrcnrfroru q uartz
and from silica fibres procluced by the glassfibrc
INTRODUCTION Ieacltingtcch-
rrique (silica (G) fibrcs).
The production of fibres front a high-melting ntaterial such as
silica presentsconsiderabletechnical difilculties.Filarnentsmay be Nolc
'l-he
melt-spun by a direct process,as in the case of quartz, but this information which follows relates orirnarilv to .Avccrant,
producedbyAvtex FibersInc.,U.S.A.This nray
is not readily adapted to thc production of textile grade filaments tr. i.f,tl, asa typical
on a large scale. exanrpleof a modern silica fibre rnade by tire viscosc
tcchniquc.
Filaments may, however, be produced by indirect methods, PRODUCTION
as in the production of silica (G) fibres, in which the fibre is
produced by spinning a lower-meltirrgmaterial which is sub- Spinnirrg
scqucntlycouvertedto the high-nreltingnraterial, Production of silica (V) fibrcs by Avtex Continuous Ccrrrrric
'l-his
indirect rnethod of production nray be taken a stage ljrbcr Proccss rnakes trsc of thc convcntional viscosc
proccss
further, as in the production of silica (V) Iibres. The silica, in (scc pirge ll). Sodium silicateis dissolvc<lin
tlrc viscoscsolution
tliis casc, is dispersedin a solution of viscose,which is spun into prio.r to.spinning, ancl this is converteclto
hyJrutcJ silicic acid
rayon in the usual way. The cellulosic material of the viscose during the coagulationof the fibrc in thc acii coagirhtirrg
rnry thcn bc burnt lway ut any stirgco[ proccssing,to lcirvc a batli
The. tcchniqueuscd is, itr tlris rcslrcct,di[Icrcrrtfiorrr
fibrc lormed fronr tlte silica residuc. Ure lorrg-
establishedtechnique oI incorporaiing particlcs
of pigrncnt or
r88 189
t EI t t t t t t t t t t t t t t
l
' . I A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I DRES A: N A T U R A L P O L Y N , I E RF I B I T E S
clelustrantin spinning dopes. In the latter case,the resulting fibre silica. The composition may be varicd ovcr a widc
rangc Up to
contains essentiallythe same particle.size inorganic material as a silica content of about 60 per ccnt by weight;ille
corrtnrcrcial
rvas supplied in the spinning dope. ln the Avtex process, productcontainsapproximately35 per cent
silici and 65 pcr cent
inorganic material is dissolvedin the spinning dope, and is thus regeneratedcellulose.
present in a nrolecularly dispersed form. As the cellulose has ^.The fibres are superficiallyidentical with unnrod.ificdrryon;
been regeneratedin the acid coagulating bath at the sanre time l r l a n r e ni st 1 . 3d t e x ( 1 . 1 5d e n ) .
as the inorganic material is precip.itated,the resulting hybrid ..'.Avcerant'{S contains 35 per cent carbon and 65 pcr ccrrt
fibre has few, if any, domains of either celluloseor silica, but is sl I l c a .
essentiallya continuum of both these materials. - The fibres are sinrilar in appcaranceto typical carbon
'Ircatnrcnt of Fibrc filamentis 0.69 dtex (0.62 clenj.
Fibres produced as above may be furtlrer processedat any sub- Tensile S(rcngth
sequent stage to produce a variety of protlucts, including a silica 'Avccrnnt'-CS
fibre. r'Icnsile
ena.city-cN/tex(g/den)'ni|'i"([.aft 53 ((,.0)
Pyrolysis of the rayon-silicamaterial under reducing condi- Strengrh
kg/cnrz(lb/inz),3500
(SO,OOO)il ,200( 160,000)
tions witl produce a carbon-silica fibre. If this carbon-silica libre
is oxidized, thc carbon may be burncd ofl and a silica filament srl-rcn(u FrrllrF.s
rN usrl
Iormcd. Alternativcly,pyrolysis of the rayon-silicafibrc may bc
carried out under oxidizing conditions, resulting in the direct Rayon-silicayarns ntay bc wovcn, knitred, fcltcd,
choppcd into
formation of a silica fibre, without goirrg through the carbon- staple, or madc into fclts or papcrs. Controllcd
pyrolysis to
silica fibre stage. pr*r:: the dcsiredtypc of silici, sili"a-"urbon-oi.iti.on cnrbidc
Thc carbon-silicafibres produccd in this way arc unique in n r a r e n a tm
s a y b e c a r r i e do u t a t a n y s t a g c .
that both the carbon and the silica are present as fibrous struc- Thc. fabrics produccd in this way uscJ prirnarily
as rcinforce-
tures. This may be shown by the fact that oxidation of the nrent in the manufactureof high i.rnp.rntur"
rcsin systenrsfor
carbon-silica fibre results in a fibrous silica, while chenrical use in rocket and missile technology, e.g. rc_entry
systcnl hcut
extractionof the silica from the carbon-silicacompositionresults shiclds and rocket nozzlcs.
in a fibrous carbon product.
Sincethe carbon and silica are indistinguishable as to structure,
even using high magnification electron photomicrography, the
tendency for these materials to react to form silicon carbide is
enhancecl.Treatment of the carbon-silica fibres in an inert
atmosphereproducescontinuoussilicon carbide filaments.
Two products,basedon rayorr-silicaand pyrolysedrayon-silica
arc produccdcomnrcrciallyby this proccss,unclerthe tmde nanrcs
'Avcerarn'-l{S (rayon-silica)and'Avceram'{S (carbon-silica).
STITUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
('Avccranr'-RS and'Avccram'{S).
Fine S(ructurc ltttl Appcarnncc
'Avceronr'-RS yarn
is a conrposition of rcgcneratcd cellulose an<l
190 l9r
D: S Y N T I IE T I C F I D I T E S
In thc years after World, War..I,.
chcnrists carricd out n grcat
dr:alof rcsearchon nerhorls"i
ri,iH,rg'rir'.tli,li,'un.tgroups
sucha way as to cr-care of
::?::ll1
poryrners lo,lg;,;i;;;;;. Ma.y synttrcric
I}: SYNTIIETIC FIBRES wercmade.sonrcof rtr.n,t'"i,,g-jrtn.ii.r,,otl,...
rhesepotymerswoutctctissolvii;r";;il,,,., rubbcrs.
.lli"r,"i
rra.turar an<tir was
I, POLYAMIDE FII]RES for peopleto try.extruding tt" p.1v,,,""r'r"lrrt
sprnncrcr holesro find out wherh]er ionstlrrougrr
2. POLYESTE,R FIBRES nl;;;;;i;';i.t bc rrradcin
thc samewty as ravolr.
3. POLYVINYL DEI{IVATIVES ogo o.
4. POLYOLEFIN FIBRES ^" 1'-,.t-":9.
cxpcnrnental -i913, cennan chcmistswerc producingan
fibre frorn polyvinyl chlorid;-in'i;;s
"r tirtleinr.ercsr way. But thc
5. POLYURET}IANE FIBRES lP::^:1.- ir-n'pot"ntioi1"*rii",.ho*. tn te2|,
nDrcswerespunin GcrnranyAonr
6. MISCELLANEOUS SYNTI-IETIC FIBRES and vinyl-acerare, n ."p"1y"i".'ol vinyl chlorirlc
anctin rg:c " n;;;-;;;'b"ii,g
rncrciallyfrom chlorinar*a n,u,t" "on,-
Pc cc, which many claim_ noryuilri'.il;d;. fiil *r. rhe fibrc
Introduction as the first synthctictcxtirefibrc.
p" c". wasonryof tirnjrc<I.;;1,,;';;
The nranufactureof syntheticfibresis a wondcrful cxlmplc o[ the
_
ncvcr of grcat cornnrcrcinl ;il;il
.fhc ii,l., nn.rit *a,
inrportancc. rcai-bcgirrnin[ol
way in which industrial chemistry is contributing to modem life. lhc syntheticfibro industrywas
'Terylene', to stemr.o,r.,il. wurt of wailacc
We now accept synthetic libres such as nylon and on polyesrcrsand polyanridcs,
'Acrilan' ancl 'Courtelle' as everyday nraterials, using thcm as |l_^C1lo,Jr*.
lrDrc wc know whictr lcd to rhc
as ilylorr.
casuallyas we use the rvool and cotton, flax and silk that have circrnistryis onc of thc nrost
provided man's fabrics for thousands of years. ^.Today,^polymer
ot scientificresearch.and flritful branchcs
Yct until tlre 1930s,synthetic libres existed only as a few experi- ,puninror"iiii;ilf :; ;lill;?:H:i.i:,'#xT;[: no*r,.iiig
mental lilarnents that showed little sign of serving any useful
purpose in the textile trade. Who would have dreamed that in
twenty years or so the production of synthetic fibres would have
become one of the world's great industries?
During the early years of the present century chemists became
interested in the unusual ntaterials we now know as plastics. In
time, it became realized that the strange properties of plastics
were a consequenceof their molecular structure - their molecules
rvere long and threadJikc, nrade up of atonts strung together likc
nrirriaturestrings of beads.
These materials rvith thread-like molecules became known as
polynrcrs, and during lhe I920s and I930s great progresswas
rnade in the study and understanding of polymers of different
types. It was found that rubbers and libres were polymcrs, thcir
unique properties deriving from the particular shape of long
moleculc thcy possessed.Fibres, for example, were polymers in
which thc long rnoleculescould pack together alongside one
anothcr like st.icksirr a bundle of faggots.
t92
193
l,;,1 r I r t
F F F F F F F F F F,F N F F1N NF, N
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
N: SYNTTIETICFI BRES
Polyarnidesare polymers which contain recurring amide groups cx. (cu.).,co Nr-r
as integral parts of the rnain polymer chains. Naturally-occurring > --r.rH(cx.). co HH(cH.)"co r.+r(cx"). ___
polyamidesinclude the protein fibres, e.g. silk and wool. Synthetic
polyarnide fibrcs form one of the most important of all classes CAPROLACTAM NYLON 6
of textile libre, which we know today as nylon (seeNomenclature,
page'207). have been.spun experimentallyfrom ilrousands
Synthetic polyarnidesare made by a condensationreaction _ libl::, produce(lby one or other of thcsccondcnsation of
taking place betwcen small moleculcs, in which the linkage of Lo,Ll.tu".^
rcac'ons.But onlv a very few havc attainc<lreal
the nrolecules occurs through the formation of amide groups. ' inrportance cornrnercial
in rhe-rnode.i.rextile inclustrt.-ii;"';;
-nyion
them,which
The reactant molecules are selectedto yield linear molecules of as nylon (or, nlo." p...ir.iy,
polyamide a{ter reaction has taken place, and the linear lt:,l"oy.now 6.C _ s..
l\omenclature, page207) was thc first conrnrcrcinlly
polyanridcsfrom which ntodcru nylon fibres are spun arc typicrlly succcssful
synthctic lcxtilc fibrc.
of trvo structural typcs, which may be representedas follows:
Nylon 6.6
(l) H"NRNH(COR' CONHRNH),,COR' COOH
The story of nylon's discovcryis a ro.rarrcc
(2) H?NRCO(NI-IRCO),,NHRCOOH oI nrodcrn scientific
rcsearch.It is the rcsearch of fiction conrc
'- iiic;
to "'- ttrc "t,nncc
In each case R and R'represent chains of atoms separatingthc discovery that led to a world_wid" inJurt.V.-
'n' representsthe nutnber of recurring In 1927,the managemcnt of one of amliica,s
functional groups, and ^ largest chcrnical
uuits in the polymer molecule,i.e. the degreeof polymerization. firnrs,p. I. du pont de Nemours & Co., decideJ
ifroi tn" outlook
Synthetic linear polyarnidesof these two types are produced o[ their industry was becoming too r"stii"toL-M'Jr"
on.r nror",
by one or other of the two follow.ingroutes: thcy were dependingon."."n."-h to k;"p ii;;;uir'['aot"
processesand in their developmcut in rhcir
(a) The type of polymer shown in (l) above is producedby thc of n"* pro.lr'rcts.But to a
interaction of a diamine and a dibasic acid, e.g. hexatretltylenc large extent it was .directed' ,.r.0..I, ].;;;;.;ir-;;
was retatcd
d i a n r i n ea n d a c l i n i ca c i d : to. the products already being manufacturcA,
anJ-io cstablishcd
scientificfiel<ts.
Backedby this research,. du pont was flourishing;but in spite
Nrt, {cH.)u NH. + Hooc (cn.)o coon of.this, insuflicientwas bcing donc to
broadcn thc scope o[ the
irtdustry during the years ah-ead.rt *o.
H E X A M E T H Y L E I I ED I A M I N E A D I P I CA C I D a."iJ"al ihcretore, that
rcscarchshould begin along lines which
did noin"ccssarity t"ar
II rny.direct relation to the bread-and_bu tter ,lii"lti* of thc firnr
+ ilsclf. The researchchemists would bc gi"."
cxp,loreat will in any new scicntilic territo;;
"'fr.. hand to
to-*fri.n ilrcir fnncy
- - co NH (H.)o HH co (cu.)n co NH (cH.)o Nn co (cu.)o co --- took..them. They would not be expectcA
ti .o"trifri,tc anything
o[ direct conrmercial value to the tirm;
NYLON6:6 no. *oiita thcy havc
lo convincc lhe managententof any
P O L Y H E X A M E T H Y L E N EA D I P A M I D E
irs"fut prrposc in thc
researchthey chose. It was to be reiearch for'reJearcrr's
s:rkc.
t94
195
T I A N D D O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S B: s YN,nE l Tt C F I l t n E s
carried out in the conviction that if anything was discovered,it glycol and dibasic acid
molcculcs altcrnatcly cnd-to_crr<l
would be something entirely new. In 1928, the work began. produce a long polynrcr to
nrolccule.
Responsibilityfor lcading the team of chenristsfell to Wallace H.
Carothers, a comparativcly young and little-known organic HO-R-OH + HOOC_R,_COOr{_>
chemist who had served as instructor lor four years at lllinois _o_R_ooc_R'_coo_R_ooc_tt,_.coo_
and Flarvard Universities.
Carothers,during the next few years,was to lead his team with - l'hc estcrification
took placc as -,u'.i!iri.
ror.red'Initia'v, theserrrirtt'or."ucxpccted, '.'.,1"r,
and polycstcrswcrc
a brilliance that had rarely been surpassedin scientificresearch. r,ii ing into rrrc
:' p"'i"i"niui t-.
!i'"io*- r,".",''.
Had he lived, Carothers would lrave become one of the great
scientistsof our tirne. But he died at the age of forty-one,before ;lili:ri'XT,[,t;?3t;fi
,* u'oi.
thc rcsultsof his work wcre to comc to fruition. or,r*i,*aiii,iJlirrii,ll'",ii"Tif j,iij
JJj;il,,ll,rTl".l,',i.I-;il
nanresuperpolyesters.Tl
Polytncr Ilescarclt
wrl"n.sJriiini;';;"iifJ,:1"."""i:U,||v.cIcar,v.iscousriouiJs
-J;'
.,.
P"jn.q this.carrvp.rioj,, carotli;.: ilr";;iica
Carothers and his tcam, irr 1928, chose for their research thc the rctarionshipsbcrwccntt," p.op"rii"s';f';"-,;;."
gucsstu<r
ictl
study of the long chain molecules which give us our rubbers, rrrotecurar anrJrhcir
plastics and fibres. At that time the chemistry of polymers was
srrucrures.rnis ..rJnrili';il ;;#;tuiJrrar phasc
thc rcscarclrincrcascclt ol
little understood,and much work had to be done before arr r,ur
vi"iJ.J'riiil scic.cc,
;;,;j[ii,,li}.T;rji'.}:l]',,i:.1:]',,'.,
adequate background could be built up in the new scientilic lield. Anril
Much of our present understanding of the behaviour of long ^.{n 1e.39, on unus11t
"#"'.i;;;;;'
";'ffi l.por
y..t",**n.
observed,.which._was ro prove of i;",;;;; i,,iiolnn.".
chain moleculcs is a result of the work carried out by Carothers nrscovered jf lr ,un,
that the nroltcnpolyest".*^.-t",,",i.,f
and his colleagues. rod, and the rorl was then <trawn with a gllrss
The llrst stage of the research included a study of the tech- iway, ,iri""f'r"*r.l,Iratcrialstuck
niques by which short moleculescould be linked together into long P lltc lod' forming a Iine srrandri,'tii,e it"'i.Jlncr thc nrorrc'
polymer rnolecules. Carothers concentrated his attention upon |l1r:. asrhe
lrsolidified
:991 strand.
t.rt trc'rrit'"i..ir,"il,,nr.tthccor<t
nrrand to fornr" t""J.o"ti"r""."riii,i.nl"nr'rt. .I.his
the production of polymers by condensation reactions, rathcr wasquitc flexible,and strong
than by addition reactions involving unsaturated monomers (scc enoughto be wound o, to a bobbin.
page xxiv). And in the initial experiments, he made use of thc D rawittg
esterificationreaction between alcohol and acid groups to providc
Hcre, then was sonrethinq _ a nrorrerrsynlhcric
the link that joined small molecules together.
.orlj b; io;;;;j;;,,;,f;.,,"* uolyrler rlrrr
In an esterification reaction taking place between two mono-
nrane
nts.J ;l;;";;';;;l"i'l"l:,;:iX?rin g thcIongconrirruous
functional substances,e.g. methyl alcohol and acetic acid, thc
,"ilH' ?i "liLll
#ffJ ;l'j,t,,#, jll.:Jl;
two materialslink to form an ester,and water is eliminated:
tuntil^t}ey {i};!:1,
werescvcraltirncs
:';:i...,':.
thcir originallcngth.Whcn
CLI"O[{ -t-CHTCOOFI+CH"COOCFI, -r-I-I,O thc fitarncntss^owcd ,o tc.(tc..cyj" 'rirctr strclcllc(l
;."ii;;;";"'
l c n g t hi n r l r e w a y r h a r s t r c r c h c j . , " b origirral
; ; . : t . t , . y* i , u p l y
L ; ; ' ;-f,,.,f
Carothersand his colleagucscarried out this reaction betwcerr cxlcndeduntil a point was rca.chcd
difunctional substances,i.e. glycols, containing two hydroxyl tv:ts.rcsistcd, nnd thcy rcrnairrcd. _ai- *fii"f, ,"r cxtcnsion
groups, and dibasic acids,containing two carboxyl groups.Thcy .in thcir ";;'.|.;,j,.
..._M.or.gu"r, rtrephyiicatcharncte;isi;;,f ir,"'ifilJ".,",.,ts
selectedre&ctantswhich would not readily forn.r ring molecules, tvcnta dranraricchanrcafrer 'r1,. rnr(rcr_
in the anticipation that the esterilicationprocesswould link tlrc being""1;;r^;;.';;, ,,,,.trnrun
statc,thcy werc duil an,ropoqr.,
with Iittrc resisrarrcc to rcusirc
196
197
[l r I , r t ' I ' -I
I_FFFFFFFF
I I A N D B O OK O F T E X ' I L E FIDRES B: S Y N T I . IE T I C F I N R E S
bv the two fibres makes for great versatility,and there are few competition with nylon { and nylon 6.6
as I gcncral purposc
textilo fielclsin rvhich nylon does not compete eflectivelywith textile l'ibre.Thcsc two fibres secnt destincct
to i.outinuc rs thc
other fibres.This versatilityof nylorr6 and nylon 6'6 has increased two general-purpose poryanridcfibrcs for as long as wc c:'l
sce
steaclilyover the years as researchhas introduced all n.rannerof ahead.competition wilr.deveropnot fronr a
'fibres ir-cw'conrcncler,but
mo<.liflcations and improvementsto the basic types of fibre' Thc bctween the two established whiclr ,,f..",fV slrare thc
procluction of trilobal filaments and textured yarns in conr- polyamidefibre field betwcenthenr.
paratively recent times, for exanrple,has opened up vast new
fields of applicationfor nylon fibres. Sinilarities and DifJerences
Since the end of Worli War II, continuous expansionof thc The chemical structuresof
,y,rth"ti. fibre rnarket has built up.the production of nylon 6 .nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 are virtullly
idcntical,differing-onry in the arrangen't"nioi'tlrc atorns in rhc
una nyton 6.6 into one of the world's great new industries'An antidegroups,as follols :
enormous capital investmenthas been made in the nylon pro-
clucinginclustry;vast sums have been expendedon the research - NH(CH,LcoNH(CH,)"co _ _ NI{(cH,),,NFICO(CH,).CO _
that .ii necessaryto ensuremaximum elliciency of production and Nylon 6 Nylon 6.6
continuous inrprovement of the product. The result has been to
create an industry that is operating with great efficiency, and There are diflcrcncesalso in thc nrolccular
proclucing two closcly-sinrilartypes of polya-midcfibrc for wltich wciglrt distribtrtion
and thc avcragcnrolccularwciShtso[ tllc
two pniiiu.*, rcsultirrg
ihere is i sustainedand indeed increasingdemand' from the dillerences in po[,rnerizatio,,
If either of thesetwo polyamidefibres,nylon 6 and nylon 6'6' iJh;1;ues usc<] in
lnanufacttrrc.
suffereclfrom serious deliciencieswitlr respect to their suitability Thcse structural rclationships bctwccn nylorr
6 and nylon 6.6
for widespread use in the general textile field, the way would bc are reflectedin thc rclationships.bctwcenttr"
t*o fibi"r rp,,n tronl
op"n fo. ihe development of a more satisfactorypolyarnide fibrc' RolVrn..s. .In general. terms, the characteristicsof thc two
Lik" "ny other texlile fibre, nylon 6 and nylon 6'6 have short |11",
rorcs are srnrlar, and trrey fulfi[ sinrirar rorcs
lomings- with respect to their use in specific applications' But' in thc textirc
industry. But there are diffeienccs i,, tf," pi"p"rii"s
by uni lurge, the two nylon fibres provide.a range of propertics rvlrichvary in practicalsignrlrcance
of the libres,
accordirrgto thc requircntcnts
tliat enables them to compete effectively throughout almost the of particular end-uscs.
entire lield of ,generaltextile applications. Sonre of lhe more jmoortant clilTercnccs bctwccn nylon ( and
ihis situatioriprovides little lncentive for the introductionof nylon 6.6 are as follows:
u n"* polyu.iae fibre to compete in the general textile field' (l) Nylon 6 has a lower melting point
The prospeits are nracleeven less attractive by the cost situation' nylon 6.6 (about 250.C.). For nroit
(about 215"C.) rhan
^prnltiini-t"*titc
Nylon 6 an<tnylon 6.6 are now being produced by highly-ellicicnt lhis is.not.a signilicantfactor. l-he "ri,fti,ie
-;"i"i"of purposcs,
o-...t"t that are establisherland thoroughly understood' Thc gcnerallyhigh enough to nreetalr nylon 6 is
economic conditions that infltrenced the choice of these two arc circumstancesin which the higher
normar .&ri."nr*tr, but thcrc
poiyanritles for cleveloprnentin the early day-sare still valid n-,"fti,u poiirt"of nylon 6.6
with 6 is advantagcor.rs.
ioclay. The rnw nrutcrialsin each case are substarrces 'fhc.lowcr
linke<lin linear fashion in thc nrolecule,and thesc rnclting point of nylon 6 has bccn clainrcd
carbon atoms rcsult in lower fuel costs during nrn to
are inherently attractive as raw nraterials;they rnay n u fn.irr"-.-'Lcss hcat is
substances necdedto keep thc polynrcr nrolteriduring
t. mu,l" by opening oul the 6-memberedring of aromatic sub- r;i;;r;;g.*
slanccsavailablefrom coal, oil and other sources' (2) Nylon 6 has a grcatcr aflinity
for certain crycstutlsthan
Unclcr present circunlstanccs,therefore, it is dillicult to scc rrylon 6.6...Dycd togcrier with acict'.ty;
t; ;i;; #nc <tycbnth,
how any othcr polyamidc fibrc could establishitself in dircct nylon ( will dye to a shadeseveraltinl",
.l..p.r lfr.i'thut uttnin..l
203
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES lt: sYN I.ltETlC rlllRES
costs
thcnr are becouringof greatersignificanccthau bcfore' The . All fibres estabrisrra place for tlrenrsclvcsin thc tcxtirc
scrutinizcd the greatest care' industry by oflering a rnngc of propcr.tiestf* ,iiif.i.
- procluction,too, are being
of -with to r grciltcr
point, nylon 6 or lesserdegree from the property ranges
tieqrite the haridicap of its lower softening of othcr ribrcs.-r.hc
npp"nit to be making headway against nylon 6'6 in many uscr assesses the characteristicsof every Iibre and
rvhich oflers hinr the rnnge of propcitics sclcctsthat
point
"ountri.s, including the U.K. and U'S A' lts protagonists bcsi 'suitcA to his
characteristics,increased light and heat particu.larnceds,at the price he can
io th. .l.eper dyeing allorrl t" ;;;.
as iescri-betl ibove' These factors have.given it the edge lnevltabty, the charactcristics of any indivitlual fibrc rvill strit
stability
sonreapplicationsbetter than othcrs,arrd
o" nyfon 6.6 in spccific applications,such as tyre cord' The for c.riairi apptications
the rangc-of properties it orTers*ili
softei hand of nyion 6, too, has beeu o[ advantage in sonre b.-.;rtit;ly unsuitaurc.
';;;d Thc
applications,such as tricot fabrics, and thc prodtrctionof fabrics dema.nd for any fibre depencls upon
irs ;;.i;;, upon rhc
from falsc-twistedYarns. brcadth of the spectrurn of tcxtiie ^plrii"'"ii","
. ior wtrictr its
With onty ot.t" ri* matcrial to be made, compared with trvo characteristics are sat isfacrorv.
in the case of nylon 6.6, it would seenl that nylon 6 production ln the case o[ thc nolyarriiclefibres,
nylon 6 and nylon 6.6,
the inherentcharactcriiticiof thc fibrcs
shoulcl be simpler and cheaper than that of nylon 6'6' A new rirJ"iin.,.r".,r,
';;, of r widc
range of imporranr textilc appticatio,rs,
route to caprolactamfrom toluene has increasedthe advantage ,,ixi ;i; ", nrc pro_
auced on a largc scalc to nreet thc restilti'g,r;,;,,;l.,fhcrc.r.c,
;;tj;t.J by nylon 6 in this respect.on the other hand' it is
holcvcr, spccificnppticarionsfor whicir
claimed that <liarninesand diacids are cheaper to producc than iii.',r,;;:i1;" of rrylorr6
and nylorr 6.6 are inadcquate,an<l
amino acids,giving nylon 6.6 an advantagein costs' i,.,,port.ili-iroi"litir I nrrrkcts
The extra leat- stability of nylon 6, allied with its lower ll'rny^9" cl-ose<ton rhisaccount.
f " .rfri'"".*rllt'ii,r"i w"lr trctt,"t
melting point, have made the developmentof continuousprocesses to nrcelrcquircnrcnrs try o,,ly',i*ingicfacror;rtrc
:T, l.^ :"_flll.
c,nd.-use.nray rcquirc,for
now being spun direct from molten polymer
simplei.'Nylon 6 is'I'he cxarnple,that thL fibrc shotrldrctairr
pto,lu"ccl. high nrelting point of nylon 6'6, and its its tcnsilecharacteristics
at a tcnipeiatur"triglr"iit,oiittrcrncltinS
os it is
point of the fibre.
tendencyto decomposeif heltt in a molten condition,have made
more difficult' If the end-use,in an example such
itr. J.u.topnt.nt oi continuousspinningprocesses as this, rcprcscntsarr
ro.'ti,"-
i:,"r-";:T:"1.3j."lll,:r nu,.,'ir,",",i,'Ii,i,liill]r,,'j
With so many technical and ccononricfactors involved, it is aLll!:I.
spccializ.,l
:ir^"^1"_i-ll"dlicing iorn.,
oi poiv""ii,i"
r" .iiili,ir,l
dcfi.ciency
in thc propeiticsis
difllcult to preclict what the long-term result of competition made goo<1.
betweennylon 6 and nylon 6'6 will be. In the lneantime,it can thistypeof backgrouriJ itat n.* polyanridc fibrcs
],J:,lg^i1:!
dwelopcd,
be forecasi with some certainty that nylon 6 and nylon 6'6, i,i" ::i1qr:.^o:,,-'l:" and.rhc oiproo"r,'i.,-Li;;;';;;1j.",;;;'
rron,rwo
n" .non.t,'ili" "riJu.r,.,t";;;"";.
betweenthem, will be the nrainstayof polyanridefibre produc- *::; ll:.T ;:
tion for some dccadesto come. T:1:n:1-"]".ically or physicaily r" rn"",'rp"Jnc',,i..rs.On tt,.
:l,l:, l^119,",1.w
chemically
types p"iJu."j,'*r,i.r,,rir.r
of nylon^."-Uli"e
Otlter Polyanide Fibres from riylon 6 and nylon 6.6.
With nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 so well established,and with the
..ono,rli., weighted io heavily against the introdtlction of new NOMENCI-ATURE
gcncral pttrpose polyamitte fibrcs, thc prospcctsof devcloping 'l-hc-
ternr'nylon,,as coinccl.
i.* potyonliA" fi6rei are obviously restricted.The opportunitics by..<l
rr l)ont,wrs clcfincdas .l gcrrcric
nlust li; very largely in the direction of producing specialized :::]]],^t1::.:
I in synrheiicporvn,"ij.. *i, i.ii'1,n,r"."ur.ri
l"ng-crra ng
anlldegroups as arr inlesral-partof tlie rrrairr
types o[ polyamiJe hbre which can serve in particular applica- llolynrcrchairr,ancl
whichis capabreof being formedri;i;
tions foi rvhich the regular nylons (and othcr fibres) are ;"fr;rffii,t irr wnicrrrhc
stnrcturalelenrents
are ori-ented
ln tne aiieciio,i oi ifr. n,,ir,.
inade4uatc.
206 207
'I'EXTI
ITANDBOOK OF I-E FIBRES II: SYNTIItrTIC FIT}RES
I'rior to the introduction of polycaproamidefibres ('l'crlon L') In thc copolyntcrizationo[ ethylcrrc cliarrritrc, atlipic ncitl
s,ebacjc_ _hcxant
in Gertlany, the polyhexamethyleneadipantidefibre dcveloped 114 l:il fgl example, a resulianr pofVnnii,r" dcscribcd
by tlu Porrt in the U.S.A. was the only fibre of comnlercial (90: I0) would bc n .opolynr"r contaioing
'nylon'. Through- it,t]l_l?",6.616.10 thc
irirportanccthat came within this dclinition of o . oa n o o . t Uc o r n p o n c n tisn t h e p r o p o r t i o n s( b y
w c i g h t )o f 9 0 : 1 0 .
oui thc wartimc years, the du Pont fibre was known sinrply by I;cdcral 7'racleCotttrttissiottDefinitiotr
thisnanrc. Nylott. A manufacturecl fibre in rvlrich
'l'hc 'Perlort L', however, brought another tlrc fibrc-[orrning
devclopmcnt of
substa'ce is a lorrg crrai'syrrthetic polyar'irle
polyanride fibre on to the nlarket, and this Iibre too could be i. wriicrr lcss trrarr
85% o!. the anrirt-e
(-colNH-j ri,,k;;;;^;;.^';ii..r,.a
describedas'nylon' under the ternrinologyestablishcdby du Pont. ltronraticrings. to t,uo
Clearly, sonrc tnethod of dillerentiating betweetr these two
polyamide fibres,and others which have since appeared,becanre Arantid. A manufacturecl
fibre in which thc fibre-fornring
necessa ry. :?9:tT9: is a
.long-chain synthetic
poryriiiiir,
ii rvrricrr
at rcast
'fhis or,,oorrne..anilde
can be done most ellectively and precisely by referring linkages
(_CO_Nfl_) are attachcdtlircctlyto
to the polyarnide llbre in ternrs of its chemical structure; the trvoaronratic
rinss.
original nylon, for exarnple,is polyhexanlethylene adipanride'
'Perlon L'is polycaproamide.This ternrinologyis too cum- TyPESoF POL;MIDE FIBRE
and
bersoure,howcvcr, for cvcryday usc, and a sinrple tncthoclo[ 'fwo
nomcnclerturervas dcviscd which retained the accepted ternr o[ types of librc - nylon 6.6 and nylorr 6 _ donrinatc
'nylon', but distinguished between the diflerent fornrs of polyarniclc thc
fibre fiel<|.As alrer<Iya"r.iirr.',f ii,.r" n.i',t," gcncral-
polyamide. that rcprcscntthc bulk of polyanrictc fibrc lroduc-
l:_rpi:l!*:
,^1
Using this nontenclature,the nunrber of carbon atonts iu years,however,a numbcrof ncw polyanride fibrcs
i]:: i:_::i,
nxveassuntecl
the constitucntsof the nylon are indicatedby appropriatefigures' conrmcrcial irnportance. In somcCascs, lhcschavc
the clianrinebeing consideredfirst in the case of a polyamidc alreadyconreinto conrnrerciilproductiorr;il
;iil; cascs,thcy
ma<.lcby condcnsingdiamine and dibasicacicl.Thus, the original
l.::- :,]jl r"d:r d,cvcloprnent, but ihow prosiectsoi'acrricving r"ut
nylon, made {rom lrexamethylerre dianrine and adipic acid, is lntportancc ln due course.
nylon 6.6 - the diamine and dibasic acid both contain 6 carbon ln this sectionof the Hanclbook, the comnrcrcially
typesof polyamidefibrc are discuisccl ' irnportant
atonrs.The nylon made fronr hexamethylenediamine and sebacic as follows:
acid, likewise,is nylon 6.10. (l) Nylon6.6
When the polyarlide is nrade by self-condensa tion of a single
constituent,c.g. an anrino acid, the nature of the polyamide is (2) Nylon 6
indicated by a single figure representingthe nunlber of carbon (3) Nylon I I
atonrs in tlte molccule of the original constituent.Nylon 6, for (4) Nylon 6.10
cxanrplc,is the fibre made by self-condcnsation of caprolactanr'
'Pcrlon 'Perlorr'). (5) New typesof polyanrideFibre.
i.e. L' (rrow known simply as
208 209
r l I r
I:IBII'ES SYNTII ET IC FII}RES
T I A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E
I
+ ---
-- co NH (cH.)" r.+rco (cH.)o co NH (cu.)o NH co (cH2)4co
N Y L O N6 : 6
E
POLYH X A ME TH Y L E NE A D I P A M I D E
yarns' nronoltlatnents'
Nvlon 6.6 is produceclas multifilanlent
i;;;i;'t;; io*, in a rviclc rauge o[ counts and staplelengtltsto
suii virtually alt tcxtile requirenrents'
""i.rr"'ili"!
aie available'in bright, semi-dulI and dull lustres,
for specializedend-
ona- *iitt additives such as optical bleaches
uses.
""i1,"
which is
prop.r,ies o[ nylor-r6'6 fibres vary over a range
characteristics of the polymer, each TRILOBAL CIRCULAR
riniii"a'by the inherent will
controlling his process to protluce.fibres that
rr^nri".i,jt".
".i.f tp..in" reguiremeits. In general, commercial nylon fibrcs
fi,,l{i!:f,Jli i'"1,,",li,
:i:iJliXl}t"fi:
ii',i,""f,,j11",?l',*i,i','."i"i,1l,Ti,,ll,."f
fall into two maln ",arres, (aI regular tenacity
and (b) higlt
;i!t,T"i'J:t
l{i.!l'{r:;'"","?i,?'t,i.T*.:lrm
sionalhigtrlightcffccr,_
ji{
I'lil.l *it*llnsi
tcnaclty.
'-'Nyi;" antrprintson uoiti-w"";;;;li'i',;ii;,r rabricsrravc
well to
6.6 is a thernroplastic.nbt:: ollt lcnds itsclf runusualclarityanddcfinitioh.
with this property' Crimpecl
uhvsical rnodificationsasiociated
available'
;;;i"i;;i";;J vorns of all the [ar'iliar tvpes arc PI{ODUCTION
nylon 6.6 is tuade to<lay.The stagcsin thc synthesisare shown (a) Adipic acid is reactedwith anrnronia[o fornr acliprnridc(5).
below. (b) Adipamide is dehydrarcclto adiponitrite(6).
Originally, cyclohexanol was made from phenol, rvhich was,
(c) Adiponitrile is rcduced to hexamethylcucdilnrirrc
in turn, obtained from the benzenedistilled from coal tar or with
hydrogenin the presenceof a catalyst(7).
petroleum. The phenol is reduced to cyclohexanol by hydrogena-
tion in the prescllccof a catalyst(l).
(2) Butadiene Route
Much of ihe cyclohexanol used today is produced by a more
direct route froni benzene,which is reduced to cyclohexane (2); Butadieneis a basic raw material of syntlreticrubbcr manufirc-
the latter is thcn oxidizeclby air in the presenceof catalyst, ture in the U.S.A. and it is pro<lucc<lin grcat quantity
fronr
forrning a mixture of cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone(3)' petrolcun'r.It is rnade into adiponitritc by llre foilowing
routc
(sce below) :
(a) Butadieneis chlorinatedwith chlor.inegas,to lorrn
OH OH dichloro_
b u t e n e( l ) .
4'\
t l t
o t l (b) Dichlorobuteneis treated with hydrocyarricaci<I,
fornring
l, 4-dicyanobutene(2).
PI-IENOL CYCLOIIEXANOL
(c) Dicyrrnoblt:l..il Irytlrogcnrtcdin thc prcscncc
,to of cntnlyst,
o Iornr acliponitrilc(3).
(\ @-al o,f -F zc-:
t l
Adiponitrile is tlren convcrtcd into adipic ncid or hcxarlcflry-
lcnc dianrineby hyttrolysisor rcduction icspcctivciy.
\,/ \-/ \,,,
BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE CYCLOHEXANOL CYCLOHEXANONE
@
CH.:69-CH:CH.
o- C t C H : C H - C H 2 C H 2C t
@ _ NH2CO (CH.L CONH 2 BUTADIENE DICHLOROBUTENE
HOOC (CHrL COOH
ADIPIC ACID ADIPAMIDE @
@ o
C N c H r : C H - C l - 1C
, H 2C N cN (CH,LCN
rn
c N ( c H , LC N NH, CH, (CH,L CH, NH2 DICYANOBUTENE ADIPONITRILE
ADIPONITRILE H E X A M E T H Y L E N ED I A M I N E
Nylon 6.6 Mononrcrs. llutadicne Iloutc.
Nylon 6.6 Mononrers. Cyclohcxanol l{oute.
(3) Furlurol Routc
Cyclohexanol,or the mixturc of cyclohexanoland cyclohexa- Ftrrfural is producedin large quantiticsfrorn corn cobs
ancl olt
none producedby the secondroute, is oxidized to adipic acid (4). hulls. It is convertedto adiponitrilc by the following routc (sce
bclow):
l lcxitntctttylcnc dinrninc,tltc secotttlstnrting trtatcrial,is nradc Furfural is cotrvcrlcclto furan (l) nn<l this is rcduccd
to
[rorn adipic acid by thc lollowirrg route: lclrllrydrofuran (2). 1'rcltnrcnt with hydrochlor.icitci<Iconvcrts
)l)
2t3
I
I
+ WINO UP
satr
INYLoN I
-l!-
F"r**;4
\-r'
NYLON
P O L Y ME R E X T R U S I OO
NF NYLON
C O L DD R A W I N G
Drawing Method
At this stage,thc long nrolccttlesof nylon polynrerare folded and Nylon should be scoured with mild agit:rtion at a nrodcratc
'fhe
in a state o[ random orientation. filamcnts are weak and tcmpcratrrre,e.g. 50-60"C. Suggcslcd scouring fornrulns nrc
opaque.In order to develop thc inhcrcnt ltrstrc ancl strcngth o[ givcn in the tablc on pngc 222.
the nylon, it is necessaryto bring the molecules .into alignment High ternperaturcs will usually incrcasethc ellcctivcrrcss
-flte of thc
with respcct to the long axis of the libre. filaments are there- scour, and causepartial settingof thc flbric. Wrinklcs or crc:rscs
fore stretchedor drawn. set in thc fabric during a high terlpcraturescour rnay bc dillicult
Drawing is carried out by a techniquesintilar to that used.in to remove in subscquentopcrations.
the production of rayon. Tlte undrawn yarn is passedrouud a Yarns or fabrics carrying a polyacrylic-type size must bc
pair of feed rollers which control the speed at which it leaves scoured before heat-setting,as it will be inrpossible to rcmove
the package.It then passesseveral tinres round a second roller the polyacrylic acid after heat-setting.
which is rotating such that its surfacespeedis four or five tinres Tho renroval of graphite becomes nrorc difiicult with tinrc,
faster than that of the first feed rollers. The filanrentsof nylon and nylon lace should be scoured bcfore storage.
in the yarn are thus stretchedto four or five times their original
length as they pass fronr thc first to the second rollers, the Equipnten!
moleculesin the filanrentsbeing drawn into alignrnent.
Jig Scouring
The drawn nylon is lustrousand strong.lt may now be heat-set
in boiling water bcfore being wound, or it nray be wound up The jig may be used for scouring wovcn fabrics mltle frorn
imrncdiatelyafter drawing. filarnentyarns, It is advisablcto removecrcasesby slcam franrirrg
During drawing,the dianretcrof the filamcntshas becn reduced, before the fabrics are loadcd into the jig.
and they have acquircdgrcat tensilestrcngth.The appcaranceof
the filarnentshas changcd;they arc now trunslucentarrd lustrous, Ileck Scouring
whereasthe undrawn yarn was dull and oprque. The bcck is used for scouring most spun wovcn firtrrics,sonro
Thc plrysicalpropcrticsof the nylon yrrn produccd in this wly warp knit fabrics, and somo light and looscty wovcn filarncut
will deperrdto sonlc dcgreeon thc clegrccof oricntation of thc fabrics.
nrolccules.This, in turn, dependsupon thc clrnwingor stretchirrg Beck scouring is not rccommendedfor most hervy or tightly
to wlrich thc filtrrtctrtslravc tlccn subjcctccl.'l'he clraractcristics
of woven filarrrentfnbrics becauseof wrinkling an<l subsccfucrri
the fibrc can thus bc controllcd during nranufacturc. streakirrcss.
221
' l ' l
f''if''1F Fi t Fi ll l"':l'"1t l"'it I'l t l''l f'l f'l
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE F I BRES B: S Y N T T I E T I CF I B R E S
\
r3o*;er;trF
<
f f l : t 3 € E : ag9 !
i F U - 3 t - (/)FF
i E 100 pcr ccnt nylon is blcachcdnrost cffcctivcly
thc acid sodiunr chloritc rncthocl..fhis nrcthod
[ry nrcansof
i.
is uscful as n
222 223
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE. FII}IIDS
B: SYNTTIEl'tC FI S,{ES
bleach for (l) nraxinrLtmwlritencss,(2) renrovingyanl lints, ilnd pcroxide/telrasodiunrovro.phosphate .l_his
(3) whiteningfabrics that have beenyellowedby exposureto air at - bleach
'.h."t
at -i,,
50"C. will
bleach the wool, bui wilt have ritti"
high tempcratures.Fabrics should be treatedin opcn width fornr component. tt.,. nylon
to prevcnt wrinklesfront being set by the hot bleachingbath.
Rlends of Nylon and Cottott
Pcracclic Acid Bleacli ng
These blenclscan be bleached wirh (l)
This techniqueproducesa good white with nylon when only a acicl so<lium chloritc, (2)
hydrogen peroxidc in a continuous
light or moderatc coloration must be reduced.It has the addecl unit or kicr, or (3) sodiurri
hypochlorite.
advantageof being less corrosive to equipntent than the acicl Acid sodium chlorite i::::.d to rernovc
sodiunr chlorite tcclrniquc,and there are no toxic fumes. yellowing fronr nylon
which results from hcat_s_ctting,
as ncithcr of thc othcr two
bleacheswill be erlecriv". u"ot_iuing
Hydrogen Pcroxidc; Sodiunr I:ly pochloritc ;;;;;;.;ir'icquirctl
',rur"". whcn
a blended fabric contains 50 p"r
c"n-t 1."_or"'Jf
Thcse are not ellcctive bleachesfor nylon, and they should
not bc used .in high concentrationor at clevated ten)peratures Dycing
for long periods of tinre. Some degradationof nylon may takc (l) 100 per ccnt Nylon
placc under such conditions.
Nylon has allinity for nrtny. classcs
I-]lcndsof othcr fibres with n1,lonrlay rccluircLhc usc of thcsc o[ <lycs,nrrtl nrny bc dyul
bleachingnaterials; in such cases,the conditions of tit.ne.tem- 1y.11c_ltuttr
purposes, .wittr a_vcry .wi<tc.n,lg"-oi-jy.rtrtir. t._or.
nylon urort
perature and conccntration should bc licpt as nrodcratc as is dve<twith dispcrsle
"; ;;i,i';;. ctasscs,
possible. laltcr includine nculral-clycing rhc
prcmctallizcd and,chrornc dycs.
Selc.cteddirect dycs are used, and
"oll1o: "3T.o.nty
onbren<ls '
va[ dycs nray sorrrclinres
bc
Blcttrls ol N)'lon and lla),otr
rurne tnanutacturers
ot "vro,'"ijl";i;;i.
have_introducctlnylons witlr specitl
Blcach as for 100 per cent nylon. dyeing characteristics.
These.h";;'" ;;d-e-;"..i,riJir," prort
of nrutricotour.
eficctsin singrc-uoit, ucriorr
Blcnds ol Nylon and Polyester Filtrc,r ,ty-";";;i';;; ilr ccrrrrrytorr
- - l T - t . - t- l r-
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: S Y N T T IE T I C F I I } R E S
dispersedyes. Most of thcsedyes have good fastnessto washing, these exhaustwell at neutral or slightly
alkaline pl{; thesc arc
beirrg superior to disperse dyes in this respect. Some have designatedas neutral-dyeing.
particularly good fastncssto light. Chrome dyes are, in general, """,i.j-ctycing (non-metallizcd)acid dycs gcncrally
,_,fl:to good
lalr havc
fast to soaping at the boil. transfer propertiesan<Igood wctiastriss.
Acid dyes do not transfer as well as dispersedyes, and the
selection of dycs and dyeing procedure should be made with N etrtral-Dyeing prcmetallized Dycs
grert care jf maximum lcvclness is to be obtainetl. This is 'lhese
dycs are rccomntencled tor dying raw stock arrd top, arrtl
particularly true when filanrentnratcrialsare being dycd. in continuouspad-dycingsystcnls.f.irc/can,
l{etarclationof the dyc ratc will generally give good results tro*.u.r, bc applicrl
to nylon yarns in eirherskein orpackalefor;;;;;;;
in achievingmaximum lcvelncss.This may be done by ternpera- piece goods. The use of theseAyes i; spun nyrorr
ture control, pH control, and the use of additivesin the dyebath.
-irign"i.,'nl"ro,
ori nfo,""ni'vr,r,r. is linlitc(l
by theirpoortransferproperricsj
"u.i, nf
Acid dycs are absorbednrore rapidly as the dycbath lempera- ur.r.
turc is incrcascd,or as the pFI is lowerecl.'fhe dyeing rate nray Acid-D ycing pretnetalliTcclD ycs
be controlled, thcrefore, by initiating dyeing at or near the The acid-dyeingprenretailizeddye'chronracyt'rlrack
neutral point, and then gradually raising the temperatureand
lowering the pH.
-"i,i;nlilJli""::i,ij:ul:ihl;*,i:l
::"li"iffi:,ixLi,''ff
w is used
.lJy using conrbinationsof these classesof nylon, rvhich differ is possibleto treat the nylon with a dyc_resist
bclore blcnrJing
only in their dyeing characteristics, the dyer can obtain colour with thc wool.
and rvhite, two-colour, three-colour and tone-on-toneeffects.
l'he nrost versatileof combinationsis obtainedby usingdeep dye (a) Neutral-Dl,eing Acitl Dyes
and basic-dyeableyarns on which cornplementary colours, Thesc are conrmonly usc<lfor. dycing rrylon/wool
blcntls,pro_
as wcll as colour and whitc eflccts,may rcactily bc obtainc<.1. d ucing.satisfactoryunions,in palc io heavy shrrtlcs,
'fhe nnd trriljing
sha<leon the basic-dyeablenylon should be restricted lo up well. They havc good wetfastrr.r. n,i.l
fair to good light-
nredium depth, in ordcr to prevcnt cross-dyeingof basic dyes on fastness.
to the.deep dye yarn. Also, the easicstIabric to dyc .is onc
(b) Level-Dyeing Acid Dycs
containing 50 per cent decp dye and 50 per cent basic-<lyeablc
yarn; the greater the dcviation fronr these proportioni, thc of thesedyes
,orenos
, Yi"t . _producca good union on nylon antl rvool
greatcr will bc the rcstrictionson shade contbin:rtionsthat can fil llght to nrcdiulu shades.
be achieved. (c) Acid-Dyeing prenrctalli4d Dyes
(2) Bletrds . The_se dyes are conrnronly used ou nylon/wool labrics
that
have been carbonized.They producc.unionsilrat
havc lightfast_
Nylon is often uscd in blcndswith othcr fibres,to providc fabrics nessin pale shadcsof l5 to.40 sun hours (.Chronracyl,
dy-cs).
with propcrticsnot attainableby using a singlc libic. Whcn dycrl ncutrnl or with fornric ncij, tlrcy tlo
'lhe not lcvcl ns
following points should be consiclerecl when blends or wcll as with sulphuric acid, but this nrrrit bc
conrbinationscoutaining nylon are to be dycd: u.scrtwith grcat
care as. it can damagc nylon. The clycbath pl_I
should not bc
(A) Desircd Effcct lower than .3.0,or degrldition of thc irylorr'rnriy
rcsutt.
( l) Union dye (r)) Chrotne Dyes
(2) Cross dye As a class, chronrc dyes olTer the best lightfastness
(3) Leaving one fibre white. _ on wool.
Except in a few cases,thcy havc a gooA tig'irif,isrncss
on nylon,
(B) Type of Operation and they are therefore used to procluio selecicd
shlcles on nyionT
(l) Batch wooI blcnds.
(2) Continuous. f'he blends may lre difllcult to chrorne, as thc wool
absorbs
(C) End-Use FastnessRequirements. proportion of rhe chronrc froil tfi"
3l1ls9 frorf'l, f"uui,ig
insullcient for the nylon.
Blends of Nylon and Wool (e) Ncutral-Dyeing prunetallizc.r! Dres
Nylon and wool have aflinity for the sanre types of dyes, but
- These dyes are nor. gencraily recorrrnrcndccl[or thc u'iorr-
their absorption ratcs are differerrt. This faitor makei every blcnds of nylon arrclwool, as rhcy slrow prcfcrcntial
change of shade or fibre prolrortion a clilTerentclyeing probleni. !,{:il.g
allnrly 9f
I or the nylon. Sclectcddycs will, lrowcvcr,proclucc
Thc blocking of dyc sites by onc or more dyes in a mixturc solicl
shadeson 50/50 blends if thc dye alliniiy of thc
nylon hrs bccn
nray also be a di{ficutty which must be solvetl by careful dye reducedwith a resistantpretrcttnlcnt.
sclection.For thcse rcasons,it is esscntialto test every coloir_
cornbinationbefore crrrying out the dyeing. Dlentls of Nylon nul Ccllulosic Fibrcs
. Cross-dyeingor dyeing one fibre and lcaving the othcr un<lyed Sevcral.methods.of dycing nylon/cellulosicfi[:rc [rlcrrds
nriry bc
is. not gcnerally a commercial proposition with nylon/rvool uscd..Union-dyeing,cross{yciug and sirrglc_fibrc
blencls,as both fibrcs take up thc sanredyes. In sorne cases,it tlycing rrc all
possible,thc choicc dcpcnclingon the
faitncss icquircr:ucntsof
228 229
rtL '' --l -_l --t --l -l --l --l -l -l -[ ,. -l ,-l '. -l ' - - l '--l --I
m-Fi lr,flr'ff,,ilTt'f-l,l ft'il',il.l 1.,:ltl f'l l',i
IIANDBOOK OI. l'EX f ILE, FlBlLES
l l : s YN 1 . tE
. tT tc F t t l R E s
the fabric, thc availableequipment and the proportion of libres
nrixture fabrics may be dyc<l usirrga single_bathprocess
in the blend. which
is shorter.and cheaper thin_ rhc two_barh-t".iiiii.1i"
Usually, the nylon portion is dyed with acicl dyes, and the "o,umonly
used to obtain cross-dyecl effects.
cellulosic llbre with selccted aftcrtreated direct dyes. When
The preferred nrethod is based on the usc of thc
nroderatewashfastnessis satisfactory,dispersedyes are put on high-
tcnrperaturebeam-dyeingnracrrinc,sincc it rras bccn
the nylon and direct dyes on the cellulosicfibre. found tiiat
under theseconditionsselcctccldispcrsctlyes givc
Vat dyes may be applied to nylon/cotton blended fabrics in a stain on thc
nylon which is wcakcr than, or it l"nri no*hcirvicr
Iight and rncdium shadcs, trsing a onc-step procedurc iI thc thrr', tlrc
pcrccntageof nylon in thc blcnd is about 25 pcr ccnt or lcss. siadc on thc polycstcr fib'c corrponcrt. whcn tlrcsc
sclcctcd
dyes arc uscd, thc fastncssof tlrc siuin on tnc uyton
For heavy shades,or blends containing more tltan 25 per cent is atlcquatc
f,or a wide rangc o[ apparel outlcts. Whilc thc jlcscrrcc
nylon, a two-step procedureis usually necessary.Acid or pre- ol this
orsperse-dye staln on the nylon cxcrtssotnc inflrrcnceorr thc filral
mctallizeddyes are applied to the nylon on the first pass, and
vat dyes applied to the cotton on the sccondpass. shade which can be obtained,a wiclc range of irtt-racrivc
colour
contbina.tions
_can be produced on the fin-ishcdfabric by cross-
dycrng the nylon with. Nylomine ancl acid rnilling
Lilcnds ol Nylon and Acetale Fibre dycstulls.
l rlree-coln ponent mixturessuch as nylon polyestcr
These nray be dycd readily with clispersedyes. Acid dyes nray / /cotton may
also_be handled by thc onc-bath proicss, tut thc problcnrs
be used to dyc the nylon and leave thc acctatc white, but the oi
shl<lc control in bulk scalc workirig rnlkc it ltlvisrrllc (o
rcverseis not possiblc, lcuvc
thc cotton undycd. whcrc trrccottori is in an .intirratc
Most of the dispersedyes produce strength and shade on blcncrrvitrr
the.nylon or polyesterfibrc, care shoulclbc takcn in
nylon which differ from those produced on acetate.Only a fabric <lcsign
ancl choice of colour to avoid exccssivecontrasls whiclr
limited number of dispersedyes produce good unions. rvoulcl
u..lr?l"hes of. changingcolour as thc cottoir conrponenr
Subtle cross-dyeellects may be obtained by selectingdyes :ll:I is
prctercntlallyabraded away in wear.
which have more aflinity for one fibre than the other. Ccrtain textured fabrics, such as scerstrckcrs,which
are
Lrnsuitablefor bearn-dycirrg,may bc handled
Blerrds oJ Nylon and Silk on thc rvinclr
machine.
When dyeing thesc blends,a careful colour selectionis required
for union shades.Cross-dyeingis not possible. Printing and Surfacc [flec(s
N4any types of nylon fabrics nrc printed conrntcrcially.
Nylon
Blentls ol Nylon and Polyesrer (P ET) Fibre Ilat-wovenand nylon tricot fabrics arc printed by conventiona
I
rollcr- and screen-printing tcchniquesto mcet thc nccdsof a grent
White reserveeffectsmay be producedon nylon/polyesterpiece-
vanety of end-uses.
dyed warp-knitted fabrics. The nylon component is dyed with
selectedProcion or acid dyestufls,leaving the polyesterfilament Nylon. carpcts,hosiery, specialityfabrics and ynrns
are also
pnnred, but specialtcchrriques and equipnrcntarc oftcn rcquircd.
conrponent white. The brightness of the polyester nray be
enhancedby the subsequentapplicationof a fluorescentbrighten- . A w i d e s e l e c t i o n . odfy e si s a v a i l a b l ef o r p r i n t i n gn y l o n ,i r r c l u r l -
ing agent to proclucea white comparable with that obtainable acrd, drrcct, prernetallizcd,vat and dispcrsc lypcs.
:i9 ,'":"V,
l(esrn-bondcd
on 100 per cent polyesterfabric. Level shadeson 100 per cent pignrentsarc also used.'l-hcsclcctiorrof clycs
iiorrr
any of these classcsshoulcl be bascd on thc crrtl-usc
filament nylon fabrics are dillicult to obtain using Procion dye- of thc
stufls, but where the eflect is broken as in a striped fabric, the fabrjc to achieve aclccluatecolourfastncssancl biiglrtncss
of
evennessof dyeing is perfectly satisfactory. shnde.
lJoth componentsof woven or warp-knitted nylon/polyester Fabrics of nrultilobal cross-sectionnylon :rntl Schrcincr-
calenderednylon tricot fabrics are espccia[lysuitcrl to printing.
230
731
R: SYNTI]ETIC FIDNES
I I A N D B O O K O F 1 ' EX ' T IL E F I B R E S
produced by any other nrethod.Thc print nray bc stillcncd to
The increaseclcover and smoothness of these fablics give clear
somc extent, but pigment printing is usurlly satisfactorywhcre
Jefinition of printed patterns, good colour register,and more
the coverageis small euough to lcavc tlre lrand of thc fubric
desirableopaque backgrounds.
-foinrtrlac trnirnpaired.
Specilic for printing pastes d.epcnd upon the type
of clye to be uscd, the method of application,and the naturc o[
the iabric. Pastesto be used in screcn printing are generally Disclnrge Prirrting of Nylon
thicker than those for roller worl<.Fabrics o[ spun yarn requirc 1-hedischargeprinting oI nylon has bccn lirnitcd by thc following
a thiuncr plstc tltan sheerfilamentconstructions' factors:
(a) Few dyes are satisfactorilydischargeableon nylon.
Acid und Dircct DYes
(b) Dyes which are dischargeable do not usually huvc sullicicnt
These are widely used in printing piece goods for dresswear'
levelnessto meet rnarket requirements.
They provide the brightestshadesthat will meet nrinimunr fast-
nessrequircnrentsfor dressfabrics.Thcy build up readily to full (c) Dischargedareashavc a tendcncyto discolour with agc.
shacles,and arc used for attractivecombination shades. Best resultshave bcen obtainedwith pastelshadcs,dischnrging
to whitc or to a colour with vat dycs in tlrc pastc.
N e ttrral-tlyeing atil Acid'dyeing Prurte!ullit'cd D5's5
These types are duller than nrany acid and direct dyes' but Stripping
exhibit vJry good fastnesson nylou fabrics. Thcy are used rvhere
Dispcrscor acicldycs nray be rcnrovcdfrorn nylorr by:r strippirrg
nraximum lightfastnessand wetfastnessare rcquired, as in
proccclurebased on a rcducirrg action, 'l'hc following is lrrr
carpets,car upholsteryand swimwear.
cxanrpleo[ thc type of stripping techniqucwhich may bc usctl:
Vat Dycs 1. Add thc following to the stripping bath, bascclon weight
Selccted vat dyes print easily and produce shades with out- of goods:
standing fastneisto washing.Lightfastncssis commonly inferior Zinc sulphoxylateformaldehydc 5 pcr ccnt
to that of tho same dyes on cotton. Acctic acid (56 pcr cent) or fornric acid for
heavy shades 10.0 pcr ccrrt
'Duponol' D 'l-issapol'
Dispersc Dyes Pastc or N surfitce
end posscssgood active ageDt 0.5 per ccnt
These dyes are econotnicalto use with nylon, 'fhs
shadesare clrtllcr 2. Strip for 45 minutcs at BB to 99'C.
aflinity, builcl trp ancl lcvelling pt'opcrties. 3. Drop thc bath antl rinse wcll.
than tjiose prodtrced with aci<l dycs, and arc iufcrior to the acid 4 . S c o u r w i t h ' D u p o n o l ' D P a s t c ,' D u p o n o l ' l l A , o r ' l - i s s a p o l '
clycs in weffastness.They must be processedwith.care to avoid
N.
stainingof whites during rirrsingfor removal of thickener'
If this proccdurc docs not rcmovc acitl <lycscomplctcly, llrc
following additional trcatnrcnt rnay bc uscd:
IlcsirrB oml ccl I'igttrcnls
l. ltun at thc boil for about 30 nrin. - rnisc 3'C. / rnin. irr rr
I)ignrcntsarc applicd to nylon fabrics usuillly frotn itn cmulsiort s o l u t i o nc o n t l i n i n g :
.ont,,ining su[Iicicntresin to bind the colour lrcchirnic"rllyto thc
A c e t i c a c i d ( 5 ( r p e r c e r r t )0 . 1 3 o z . . l g r .(l 0
. .8 g/l; 0.1%solrr).
fabric. The ettrttlsionmay be of the water-in-oil or oil-in-watcr
Sodium chlorite 0.07 oz./gal. (0.a g/l; 0.057osoln) pll to
typcs. Thc pignrentsare fixecl to the fabric by curing thc resin'
6 . 0t o 7 . 0 .
Pisnrentsare used in printing slreernylon fabrics and irl tltc 2. I)roo the bath and rinsc wcll.
procliririon oI opaque white-on-whitc ellects which cannot bc
2J)
232
r . 1 r l r ' fI J r - I r l ' I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES N : S Y N T I I I J T I CF I B R E S
234 235
'TEXTII-E
IIANDBOOK OF FIBII,F,S
t ! : s YN . l .ItE . r .ct F I U l t e s
l. Cold Caluilt ritr!: goods.Durability and hand are excellcnt
in this proccrjurc,rvi{h
Calcnderingis used to polish and smooth a fabric surface, or opacity and thinncssrated as goocl.
to minimize the nrark-ofl of labrics treated with resinsor water Calenderinghas the least efcct on fully finishctl
'I'he nylorr tricot,
repellents. rolls of the calender are normally unheated,and as the goods havi already bccn hcat_sct,,1,j i""r-iJ.f .r.piug. .l.his
pressuresof 30 to 50 tons are uscd. js the most economical
wiy of.ScJrrcirr"r.;i;nl;;;;g nyron rricor,
as intennediatedrying and franring 0." unn...r*iy.
Thc cflccts
2. Flat Colcndcring - Tricot Fubrics on the fabric, howcver,arc only fair to gooc|,
unJ ii," calcndcring
nraybringout u'dcsirablc
lusirewhich-nrust
ttr". trct.ut.,i iifr
Flat or Schreinercalenderingof tricot nylon producesa durable by subsequent
wetworking.
finish which increascstlre covcring porvcr of the fabric and
'fhe
clrangcs its hand and appe:rrancc. changc irr appcarancc 3. Etn bossittg
resultsfronr a cornpactionof thc fabric stitch and fronr difiusion N.yJon 6.6 may be durably crnbossed without
of light reflected from the embossedfabric surface. A change in trre usc of rcsins.
This is achieved by embossing at elcvatcJ
the fabric hand rcsults from a decreasein thickness of the tcnipcraturcs with
close control of the moisture contcnl of
fabric, antl a change in the frictiorral properticsof its srrrfacc. thc tabiic, <lwcll tirrrc
and roll pressure.
Fully dricd tricot, calcndercd at zcro tensiorr, produces the I^ rnost cases,it is not .ccessrry to hcnt-scr
optirnunt finishcd cflcct. srrnrlowc.rbosscd
prttcrns.to obtain a lastirrgcll'cct.Dccp
Schreincrcalendcringcan be uscd to: horvcvcr,rcqrriro
.pnttcr.rrs,
hcat-sctting.Thc fabric shorrldbc corriplctcly,"f,,i.j during
hcat_
(a) producethin, lightrveightfabricswith a high degrccof opacity, setting to prevcnr loss of rhc rtrrcectinr"rrsif;;i';ii;,.
which retain goocl porosity and good bursting strcngth;
4. Napping and Sueding
(b) obtain excellentwhitenesswith a fully delustredappearance;
and sueding.equipnrentis uscd to producc
(c) obtain a more eflectiveprint base by .increasingcover ancl |lnging ruiscrl sur-
fabrics,.tlrc conrlitions n.c".r..y to obtnin
smoothness; 1119. ,onrnYlon
oesrred ellect on a particula.r.fabric being a
bcst ictcrnrincd by
(d) produce a trvo-fold increasein covcring porver of the fabric; experiment.Knit fabrics shoutd bc l"i."d";;,1i;;;
ii'rst to nchicvc
nraximunreffectin atry rarslngoperatlon.
(e) increasethe styling potential of tricot by changingits normal
jersey appearance. ha,sa higher tenacitythan natural fibres,and
,.,t\yton thc clotlr_
on. nappcrs for wool or cotron fabrics nray
In the Schreiner caiencleringof nylon tricot, the fabric is :1E l,:rT:,i|_1*d.
nor oe oI adequatestrcngth. Stiller napper clotlring
passed through an engraved (diagonal grooves I l8-142/cm; is usually
required to.obtain a good napped .r.fo."
300-360/in) Schreiner calender at temperatures of 193 to on-,, nfion frbric. zf
softeneracting as a lubricant,wct or dry, assists
2 0 5 o C . a t 1 2 - 2 7 m ( 1 3 - 3 0 y d ) p e r m i n u t e .O n a 1 2 2 c m ( 4 8 " ' raisingfibrcs
in
t o , t h c s u r f a c eb y r c d u c i n gi n t c r _ f i b r cf i i " r i " i i . ' -
in) width rnachine,good resultsare obtained at roll pressuresof uesl rcsultsare usunllv obtaincd in sucding
B 0 t o 1 0 0t o n s . by using thc fincr
grades of sanclpaper.
Calcndcringnray bc carricd out at any stagc during finishing,
but the cllects obtaincd will depcnd upon thc stage at which 5. Shcaring
it is introduced into the finishing scquence. Fabrics of. spun nylorr nrrclblcnd-ftrbrics
corrt;rirrirrg
rrylorr rnay
Schrcincr calcndcring rcsults irr excellent opacity, thinncss, bc shcarcd to rcmovc exccsssurfacc fibrc.
unifornrity of appearance,durability, dcfect coverageand hand. ln tiic'casc of pilc
fabrics, slrearingis use<lto..cut thc pilc to
lVith scourcd or dyed tricot, calendcringflattcns the yarn and a unifornr hcight.
Shear setting.varies, <tcpendingupon f"b;L-;;;;;i;crion,
c l o s e sl h e s t i t c h ,b u t w i l h l c s s s h r i n k l g c t h a n o c c u r sw i t h g r a y pilc
dcnsity and the dcpth of cut rcquirccl
236
Lritial Modulus
I{egularfilament: 353.2-530.0 cN/tex (40-60 g/den).
Avcrngc Stillncss
N y lott 6.6
R e g u l afri l a n r e n t1: 5 9c N / t e x( l B g / d e n ) .
High tenacityfilarnent:282.6cN/tex(32 g/den).
S t a p l e9: 7 . 1c N / t e x ( l l g / d e n ) . Ellcct of Moislure
Average Toughncss N y l o n a b s o r b so n l y a s m a l l a m o u n t o f n r o i s t L r r c
c o r n p a r c dw i t h
R e g u l a r f i l a m c n t: 1 . 0 8 . nrost natural fibres. lt has a regain of 4*4..5
t)er ccrrt.
High tcnacity Iilanrcnt : 0.77. . , ^ 1 ' h et c n a c i t y . o [t h o r o u g h l yw c t n y l o n i s i ( ] t o t 0 p c r c c r r to f
I rs qr), (condltroncd)tenlcity. Thc clongirtion
of wcI rrylon is
lilcx Resislancc 5 to 30 per cent greater th:rn that of clrli (con<liiiorrcrl)
nylorr.
Exccllent. . The filanrentsdo r)ot swcll appreciablyin rvatci;"ttrcdilructcr
rncreasesonly by about orrc_flfticth.
Abrasion Rcsist:rnce
Ihermll lrropcrlics
Excellent.
Me lting poirtt.
Spccific Gravity
Approxinratcly 250"c. -r'lrc rrngc of rc'lpcl..trrc
1.t4. ovcr. wrricrr
nylorrsoftcrrsand rnclts is vcrV narrow.
u0 .l,t I
' r l
\
-TEXTILE
ilANDnOOK OF rtllillES t r : s Y N r . l r E . l . tFc I n R t i s
II lJcct ol Low 7'erttpcratttrc 'l'lrcrtnal
Expansiort ond Cont ractiott
Nylon retainsits streugthrvell at low tenrperatures. Alter several Iteshrunk nylon ya.rn<Jccrcascsslightlyin lcngth with an incrcasc
hours at -40'C., a nylon rope does not lose strength,and the rn temperatureand incrcasesslightly in leng*th
strength is retaincd after the rope is rcconditionedat nornral rvith a clccrcasc
ln tentperature.In thc tentpcraturerangc
Ien']pcra tures. fronr 25 to l-t0,,C.thc
'fhe clrange.in lengthis abouto.007To p";'T (07;O;i"
tenacity of regr.rlarand high tenacity yarus increases t h en r o i s t ucr eo n t e notf t h ey a r nr c n r a i nc so , n t o , ,,per.F),
i
rvhcrr
slightly rvith a slight decreascin elongrtion when tlrey arc chilled
to about - 80'C. Sltri nkage Pro pcrti e.r
ElJect ol I'l igh Tetnperature When nylon yarn is rentovcd fronr thc
bobbirrsantl allowc<.| to
Nylon can withstanrltcmperaturesrU) to about [50'C. for many relax with_no tension,it nray tcnd to "ontro"i
oi sirrinf by about
Irours without undue loss of strength. It turns slightly yellorv per cenr,rhe icrualam";;i-;;;;Jll;,gu1,onrrre
a f t c r 6 h o u r sa t 1 5 0 ' C . ?:9^..i:
?!Lreatmentof the yarn.
prevlous
This.is rclaxation shrinIagc.
Prolonged exposure in air at elevated temperaturescauses The unrelaxcdresiclual,sirrinkagc.of,,yi;; ;,;;; is thc nrnount l
clcteriorationof nylon, as evidcnccd by permaneut losses in of shrinkagethat takes place in boiling
watci irnnicAiatclyattcr
breaking strength,breaking elongationand toughness.The fibre the yarn is remove<I
frTl^rhc n^ ivrrf""i""nluc _-\
cliscolours(yellows)[o sorne extcnt, and unclermany conditions rcsidual shrinkageis in thc .n.ng:_boby"rl forr,rlris
'I'his q to l2 pcr ccrrt,cornrno\ily
of cxposurc thcre is also an increascin the resistanccto initial 9 to l0 pcr ccnt. figurc irrcrudcsttr. r"i,i*^iiu,, srrrirrkngc,
strctch. : and if this has been ailowcd to
tnf."-ffnl. L"tor" pta.ing
Apart from tliis eflect oI prolonged cxposure, there is an the ya.rn.in boiling watcr, thc rcsi<lurrl
lfr.i,i,,.g" is rcducctl
instantaneousand reversiblechangein thc fibrc propcrtieswith accordingly.
increasein ternperature,resulting in a decreasein tenacity and lVlren.conrplctelyprcshrunk yarn is
iutnrersc<l in watcr it rvill
an increasein elongation. gain in.length. This gein ,.,lny
b" u, nrri..t.r
u, i'pcr ccnt. It is I
Anti-oxiclantsare added to nylon yanls for sonre (generally reversibleelTectand should not bc confusccl
witli true shrirrkacc.
industrial) end-usesto conler a high clegreeof heat resistance.
Flantmability Ellcct of Agc
Nylon is lcss {lamrnablethan cotton, rayon, wool or silk. If a Negligible.
flame is applied to a nylon fabric, the material rneltsand tends
nffect 0f Sunlight
to drop away. The fabric does not normally support conrbustion
on its orvn, but its flarnmabilitymay be increasedby the presence ln comtnon with most other-tcxtilc.
fibrcs, nylorr is altcctctl by
o[ certain chernicalfinishesand dyes. prolongedexposureto riqh.t.r'hcrc
is " gr,i,i;i.ii;; o[ srrcngtrr,
I g n i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e :5 3 2 ' C . but littlc or no discolouiatiorr.
IIeat Cdpacily arttl IIeat of Fusiotr I'he degree to which nylon resistsdctcrioration
or ultraviolet light in a particular ."ng. by sunligltt
1-lrespccificheat o[ nylon at 20"C. is 0.4 calolics/ gr.arn/ "C. At ,i *,""ililgths " <l"pcrr<ls
2 3 0 " C . ,i t i s 0 . 6 c a l o r i e s / g r a n r / ' C . rrpon a nunrbcr of factor.s,ns follows
a
Tlre hcat oI frrsionof nylon is 22 calories/granr. I . L u s t r c . . B r i g h tr r y l o r ri s c o n s i t l c r a b l y
., n t o r c r c s i s t a ntto l i g h t
l h a r rS e n r i d u l ol r D L r l l .
'l'
lrcrrrttrl C ontl rtcli vity 2. Anrount of surface exposecl.
l - h e t h c r n r a lc o n d u c t i v i t yo f n y l o n p o l y m c r i s 1 . 7 B . T . U . / h r . / 3. Size or diarnetcr of exposetl filanrcnts.
ftr./'F. for I inch of thickness. I_ligh ttcrricr per
filanrent nylon is morc rcsistantto licht.
242
243
ilANDIIOOK Or TEX.TtLE l:lBI{US
N: SYN'r.,IETIC I:IBRES
4. Length of tirnc of exposurearrd intcnsity of light.
Materials Ilaving No pcrrnanent
5. Tinrc of ycar and geographicallocation. Nylon deteriorates Etfcct on Nylorr 6,6
Cltcntical .lcttt ,l.ittrc
nrorc rlpidly in surnrncr. Cottc,ctr- p.
("c') (tr.)
6. Tenrperaturesduring exposurc. ,.!.'.""nt' ,
\p?r cc,rl)
7. Locatiorr of exposed nylon, indoors or out<loors. Acetone
Acetic acid 25 60
Stabilizers.n.ray be inco^rporatedin nylon to give improvecl Benzene t00 3
resistanceto light and heat for specializ.ed
ipplications. Carbon tetrachloridc ?5 60
Cotton scec|oil 25 6()
Dichlorodifluoromethane 8 2 120
Ethyl alcohol 25 t72
Chcntical Propcrtics Forrnic acid 25 60
Hydroxyacctic aci<l 100 3
Materials [:Iaving No PenrtatrerrtEflcct orr Nyjlo,, ynr,,
Lard 100 3
Most conrpoundsof the following gcncral typcs have littlc or no Methyl alcohol 82 l2O-,
efi'cct on thc. lcnaciLy and clougation oi- nylon yarn rrndcr l)otassiumcarbonatc
t9
2
)5
5 .fo \
ordinary conditions of exposure: Potassiurrrhy<lroxidc 2 rr'rbrrllts
t0 65 3
Sea water (Flori<Ia)
Alcohols Sodiurn cyanitlc 4 wccks
I0 25
Aldehydes Sodiunr hydroxi<.le t6tl
t0 85
Stoddard solvent l(t
Alkalis Telrachlorocthylene 25 60
'l'richloroethylenc 25
Dry cleaningsolvents 60
25 60
Ethcrs
Materials IIoving o pcrtnrtttetrl
Halogenatedhydrocarbons EfJect otr Nyltttr l,urtr
tendcncyto stretch under low loads. By the same token, nornral processing,by developing an cxtensive varicty of cncl ttses,
tcnacity yarn stretchesmore easily than high tenacity yarn. particularlyin knit articlcsand garmcrrts.Ilxanrplcsincludc rl{nrs
Humidity is also a factor which influencesnylon's resistancc women's and childrcn's hosc, bathing suits, undcnvcrr, glovcs,
to stretching. In otre series of tests, for exanrple,wet nylon sweatersand dressrvcar.
stretched I per cent with only 24.2 per cent of the load required In addition to the propertics of loftirrcssund strctclt, lltcsc
to stretchbone dry yarn I per cent. Nylon conditionedat 50 per yarns and thc fabrics nradcfronr thcnr nrc charlctcrizctlby gootl
ccnt r.h. required 64.6 per ccnt of the load needcdat 0 per cent cover, light weight, soft lrand, dullncss, incrcasctl:rtrsorption,
r.h. durabitity lnd frecdonr from pilling. E,:rchoI thc prttccsscsis
capableof producing rnodilicltionsof thc bulkcd yarn by chltrg-
I-lcat Setting ing the basiccharacteristics,providing flcxibility and adaptubility
Nylon fibre, yarn or fabric may be heat set readily in either to different end use requirerncnts.
dry hcat or steam. The threshold temperaturefor dry heat is
in the region of 205"C., btrt rnuch lowcr temperatureswill bring I{ cut Rcsistancc
about heat settingin the presenceof water, e.g. in the region of Nylon 6.6 has adequatc rcsistlncc to hcat for practically tll
120'c. appareland honte furnishinguses.n nti-oxidlnts arc lcldcrlto sorrrc
Goods which have been hcat set by either the dry or wet y a r n st o c o n f c r r h i g l rd c g r e eo f h c a t - r c s i s t a u fcocr s o r r r icr r t l r r s l r i ; r l
lrrocessrvill subsccluentlyhold thcir gconlctrical coufigttratiotr us e s .
through processingin boiling water, irud will exhibit wrinkle Flantc Resistarrce
recovery characteristicsconrnlensuratewith tlte severity of thc 'l'hc
s c t t i n go p c r a t i o n . flanrrnabilityof thc fibrc ilsclf is only onc lspcct of ll:urrrrrr-
Fibre rvhich is beat set under dry conditions su{fersa com- bility of the labric coustructcdfronr it. Othcr factorsarc involvcrl,
pacting of the internal structure, which results in decreaseddye including construction,type of surlace (brushcd or nirppcd, for
receptivity or dye rate. Fibre heat set under wet conditions results exanrple,as comparcdwith clean),the typcs of dycsnnd chcnricals
in a more open structure, wl'rich dyes deeper. usedin finishing,and the moisturecontcnt of thc nratcrial.
These properties impartecl to nylon by heat setting have been Clcan, undyed fabrics of nylon hrvc a goo<l lcsistencc lo
a nrajor factor in its acceptanceiu nrany consumer uses.lt is burning ancl are considcredhighly satisfactoryfor practic:rllynll
fortunate thrt nylon 6.6 heat sets rcadily at temperaturesin thc lextile purposcs.Whcn nylon nrelts,it forms a nrclt ball which
range of 205"C., which is well below its melting point of about drips away. Usually, wherr thc igniting flnnrc is rcrnovcd, thc
250"C. This allows a good operatingmargin in heat setting,hot flarne cxtinguishesitself. Dycd and finislrednylon, howcvcr, will
drawing, calcndering,pleating and yarn texturing operations. in some casessupport the spreadof flarne.In principlc,anything
that will tend to hold the structure togethcr and rctlrcl or
Te.rtnri ng prevent dripping of the molten polynrer will help to support
The thernroplasticnature of nylon has made possible the the spread of Jlamc. Iror this rcasorr,prcmctlllizcd arrd chronrc
succcssfuldcvelopnrentof a wide variety of permanentbutking dyes, thcrmosctting rcsins and certnin flanrcproo[irrgconrposi-
and texturedclfectsou continuouslllirmentyarn. Ir{any processes tions developedfor other fibresnray tcnd to incrcirscthc cnpacity
aro userl,rvhicharc bascclgcrrerallyon trvisting,crirnping,looping of nylon fabrics to support lhe sprea<lo[ flurnc.
or curling (dcfornting)rvith sonrcsort oI hcirt sctting.ln adtlition
to providing additionel bulk and texture to the filamcnt yarn, lv[oisture
-fhe
theseproccssesnray or may not intpart a certaitl deglee of stt'etch r : r t ew i t h r v h i c h n y l o n c o r r r c st o c q t r i l i b r i t r r r rv i t h l h c s r r r -
ancl recoverability. rouncling a i r d c p e n d su p o n t h c a v n i l a b l cs u r f i r c c ; r rsv c l lu s t l c r t s i l y
The textile industry has ntldc good use of this aspectof nylort lund typc o[ packing. For this rcason,the only slfc corrrlitiorrirrg
250 251
I I A N D B O OK O F ' I ' E X T I L E F I BRES
B: S Y N T I . IE T I C F I D R E S
lrextnrentshould be controllcd by daily weighingsuntiI constatrt Fibre Dcgradatlon lry Llght
ii wcight is rcached.A shcerfabric will come to equilibriurnin less
i than an hour if looselydraped over a rack. The samefabric when I:ibre A vcragc Percentage Sicn'tt{t
tightly rolled may take l0 days. Shipping bobbins and warps
sonrctinrcsrequire 20 days or ntore. Ilctuirred
Ouldoors Dchind G lus.s
Static
Fluorocarbon yarn (,Tcflon''l'FE) r00
1'he rclatively lorv rnoistureabsorptionof nylon is conduciveto
100
Acrylic fibrc ('Orlon,) 57
the accumulationof static elcctricity.This nray causea problem
6l
Nylorr yarn (bright; 6.7 dtexlf) 38
in nylon processing,encouragingballooning in yarns and the
50
Polycster(brighr, semidull,dtiil)
inability to lay nylon [abric straight on tablesand trucks. Static ('Dacron') l6 72
nray also causea yarrr or fabric to pick up soiling materials.It is High tenacity rnyon 8 23
nccessaryirr the processingo[ yarns and frbrics, therefore,to
ensure that static is kept to a minintutn. cxposure,
Miami,Florictr;fncingsourhat
Static nray be controlled by modification of the polymer and orlu?1r";,"l"",inuous
the use of antistatic agents.A high humidity in processingwill
also prcvcnt the accunrulationof static clcctricity. If huntitlity
is too high (above75 per cent, it may lnake the finish tacky and Angstrdnrsinto thc visiblc l:luc slightly abovc
4,0fi) Angsrrijms.
create tension difiiculties. I{igh humidityI nray also produce l"or thjs reason, thc cflcct is lcss pronouncecl
oii-nyto,l thrtr on
uneven stretch and recovery due to the tendencyof the nylon the polycstcr wlrcn the two fibrcs nr" pln.",l unlcf glr,ss.
to stretch nrore easily as the humidity increases. durability of nylon is extendcctt y ""itain prcrrrctal_
,,_Illo,lith,
ltzeo 0ves-
Static eliminators are very eflicient when positioned efectively.
In warping for tricot, for exanrple,the eliminators should be
I
placed at each drop wire bank on the creel just after the eye Washing
board and as the ya.rn goes on the beam or spool. Colour.ednylon goods are best washeclin warru water at 50oC.,
Nylon should always be allowed to condition for at least 24 6.0"C.
Blcntrs
*1.y"T11 of nylonandcouonnrly
hours open to the atmospherein rvhich it is to be proccssed. Dewasllcdilt_1lj:g{r.r,
at.rathcrhighertcnrperat.ures,up to about70.C. WhitL
and lighrcolouredfabrics nray pick uf tints
Ligltt
irlnr
- colourc<l
fabrics,and the two shoulctbe *ortr..l ..pn,ntlv.
Most fibres undergodegraclationwhen expose<lto light, resulting Bleachingis genepaIyunsatisfactory, "",r ,ri".ir,rbc avoidcd.
in loss of strcngth and other pioperties.The relative mcrits of
Drying
fibres in respect of light resistancecan be assessedonly against
identical concurrent cxl)osures,and some data comparing nylon Nylon fabricsabsorbvery.littlcwater,and thcydry quickly.
dryingor cokl tunrbleclryingarc prcfcrrcd. ' J I Drip
with other fibrcs is given in thi following table.
The rcsults of this tcst inclicatc that nylon rates below thc
fluorocarbon yarn and acrylic fibrc both in the open and under Ironing
glass. Behind glass,the polyesteris second only to the fluoro- qualiries
I]]"i-li.,"T:"llerrr of crcascrcsistanccan<lshapcrctcn_
carbon yarn. Sonrc inrprovementoccurs in nylon durability by ron, especraily whcn it has bcenellectivcly
placing it bchind glass. hcilt sct.A nrininrurn
'fhe anrountof ironing requircd;this nrly bc clriiccl
_is otrt wirh a
wavelcngths that degrade nylon rangc fronr 3,200 ory lron at 'synthctic' sclting,or by usinga stcanliron or srcarn
252
251
r . t - r r
I
.,.i.
r l r r ' I
F F F t t F I I t F,F F F F l'iF
IIANDNOOK OF TEXTILC FIIIRES n: sYNTnEltC FtrlRF.S
<lricdand heat-set,follorvedby clycingand drying. In the single- typefibrewill corrveysignificantly highcrylrrr arrdfabricstrcnctlr
pass process,thc scverity of heat-setiingis restrictedby fabric rvhenblendedwith cotton,than can be obttincd with yarn nrrtl
discolouration,dinrensionalstability and smooth appearanceaftcr fabricnradefront 100percentcotton.Suchblcncls arecornntorrly
laundering.In the two-stageprocess,a rlore contpletedegreeoI n r a d er v , i t hl 5 t o 5 0 p e rc e n to f n y l o ni n t h eb l c n d .A s t h c p c r c c r i -
hcat-settingis achieved,which actually ycllows lhe fabric ancl tage ol nylon.increases, fabric flcx lifc, tearingnnclbicnking
necessitates subsequentbleaching,but provides excellentdinten- strer-rgth and abrasionresistance incrcascs irr suclra rvay tlrat a
sional stability and smooth appcaranceafter launder.ing. b l e n dc o n t a i n i n5g0 p e rc c n tn y l o ns t a p l cw i t h c a r c l cccol i t o r r v i l l
Using tlre AATCC Wash and Wear Pcrformance scale, a havea 30 percentgreaterfabricbreakingstrerrgth.'l'hcrc rvillllso
flbric finishedby tho single-pass processrated 2.5,whereasfabric be a threefoldinrprovenrcnt irr abrasionresistarrcc ancla sixlbld
produced by the two-pass proccss rated 3.5. There was lcss increase in flex life as cornparecl with a fabricof 100 pcr ccrrt
rclaxation slrrinkagein the second fabric. cotton.
The wrinkle recovery properties of propcrly prepared nylon Nylon staplesof this type are uscdto rciuforcecottonfabrics
tricot are excellent.This is due in part to the mobility of thc suchas twills,sateens, denims,whipcords, 'l'hc
drills nnd tlucks.
knit structure,but also to a great degree to the excellentwork followingtable illustrntcstypicalinrlrrovcmcnts in str.cngth irrrrl
rccovery of the fibre. Nylon has a high work rccovery undcr abrasionresistance whcn25 per cent nylonst:rpleis adttctlin tlrc
conclitionsof high deformation, rvhereaspolyester yarns have r.varpo nly.
superior work recovery under conditions o[ low dclormation.
In tricot fabric. the mobile structure works to the advantagc Effectof Nylou Strpleon Fabr.ic
l)ropcrtics
of the fibrc having the best rccovcry propertiesutrderconclitiorrs
of high dcfornration,and trylon is cxccllcnt in this rcspcct. I'will.r I)cttitrts
100"/, 75'/., cotto,t I 100'/" 75'jL cottotrI
G loves Irubric Property coltort 25 "/" nylort cctttort 25 "/,,rtylott
Nylon has been used successfullyin ladies'glovesmade lrom 19(trp tvorp
sueded simplex fabrics. A leather graiu appearallcemay be Fabric weight (g/nr: ) 257.6 264.4 381.4 3 8 1. 4
obtained by embossinga'crush'-like pattern on to simplex.The llreakingstrength(kg) 4B.l 54.5 18 84.4
pattern is durable to hand laundering. Stoll abrasion(cycles
to destruction) 260 1100 1600 4000
O ulervear Accelerated abrasion
Nylon tafleta is used in shell cloth in jackets and wind- (min. to destruction) z7 50 36
breakers.These garmentsare generallylined with fleecednylon
fabrics or fiberfill,or are laminatedto other materials.The colour In the latent cure typc finishedfabric, nylon is uscd to inrprrt
fastrressof these garments is acceptable,and they have excellent strengthand wear life, The nylon componentconrmonly anlounts
appearanceretention and easy care properties. to some 15 pcr cent.
Nylon taffcta and tricot have founcl atl irlportant outlet in lllcnds with cotton contaiDinghigh pcrccntagcs(c.g. 50 pcr
blouscs and drcsscs,whcrc thc satnc cottlbinationof propcrtics ccrtt) of nylon havc grcat rcsistnncc[o wcur, abrirsiorrand llcx
is advantagcous, Iife, and good rcsistanccto thcrnral ratlilrtiotr.
Stoplc I rrtluslrial
Nylon staplc is widcly uscd as a conlponcnt of blcnclsrvith 'fhe
high strcngth, elasticity, abrasion rcsistancc nnrl olhcr
other fibres, notably of cotton. A lrigh strength,high ntodttltts characteristics of nylon have opcncd up n rvidc field of applica-
258 259
'IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES D: SYNTT{ETIC Ft I}RES
Rcxclant Synthcsis
'a)
Thc caprolactanrtrscclirr lrroducittg nylon 6 polytncr is made
by one of severalrorttcs,of which thc following are important:
o
r-c\ (L(t (ri)
(l) CyclolrcxattoneRoutc t l -t
;-(ctt'1
t l
This is thc route by which caprolactanlis comnrotlly producccl NH, CO -r
for nylon 6 manufacture(sec pagc263). cYcLor-rExANoNL CAPROI,ACTAM
Cyclohexanonemay be made from bcnzenevia one of several C a p r o l ; r c t r r n Irt r o d t r c t i o l r .C y c l o l r c x ar rr ; n c l l . o u t c .
routcs, including the following:
(2) Cycloltexane Routc
(a) Benzeneis chlorinatedto chlorobenzene(l), which is then Benzenenray be hydrogenatcdto cyclohcxarre(l), which is thcn
convertedto phenol (2). Phenol is reducedto cyclohexanol(3), nitrated (2). The nitro-conrpoundis rcducccl,iorlnirrg cyclo-
which is oxidized to cyclohexanone(4). hexanoneoxime (3), which is convcrtcd to caprol:tctanlrs abovc.
(b) Benzene is nitrated to nitrobenzene(5), which is then NO" NOll
reclucedto aniline (6). The aniline is then converted to cyclo- __ o @ l l
.____._-.--,- - - l l
hexanol (7), which is oxidized to cyclohexanone. (., \-.' \-,/
(c) Benzeneis hydrogenatedto cyclohexane(8), which is then BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE CYCLOI]Ii XANONI:
OXIME
oxidizedto cyclohexanone(9). Caprolac(arn Procluc(ion. Cyclohexnrrc ll ou tc.
1'hecyclohcxanonc Produccd bY any of thescloutcs is rcactctl (3) Cy<:lolrc.t),lunincIlotttc (uppcr rlilgrarn, plrgc
264 ).
w i t h h y d r o x y l a n r i (ni e
n t h c f o r m o [ its sulphltc Nl'l"OI{.1{".SO,), A n i l i n c i s h y d r o g c n a t c dt o c o n v c r t i t t o c y c l o h c x y l t r r r i r r(cl ) .
fornringcyclohcxanonc oxirne( l0). I-Iydrogen pcroxidc is rcactcclwith this to forrn an atklition
Cyclohexanotteoxitne is trcatccl with s u l p h u r i c i t c i d , a t t t l conrpound,which is thcn convcrtcd to cyclohcxarroncoxirrrcby
run<lcrgocsihc Bccknrann trltrsfornlatiolt t o f o r n r c a p r o l a c t an r lreatnlcnt with nrnnroniunr tungstatc solution (2). Thc cyclo
(ll). hexanoncoxinrc is convcrtedto clprolactrnr as abovc.
262 263
I
an
\-/
NH-
-r r-l'I
ffi FFffi
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTII-E FIDRIIS I]: SYNTII ET I C FII}RI]S
ililililflililil||iltI SPINNIRTT
SPINNING
5ltAtI
PI.AIII
COKING
COOI.ING
CUTIER DRIT.R DRY
WAITR clilPs
il '. L l
HYDR0XYl"lll$! I I fl corrlc
A/51
mu ,f']1, F1LAMENT
\
yARN
illr20ll
OXIME / tLh:|l
\
5Ul.PlruRrc
ACrDti?5lr
IMHCllr
() L':li-'{_:t-'qr DNItR
lllll
MIXING
CHAMBIR
SOOALYE coHHoilSAIT DEIIYDRAIION
2ila 0H tHYDRocrMiloN CRUDE
PHEN0t" lcYcr"oilexAN0L CYCTOHEXANONI
H Y D R o G E- N H 20 l S T l L t A T l o N DtSilLtATr0ll POLYMIRIZATIOIJ
PURE CYCIOHEXA}IOL PURE
CYCLOHEXANONE in verticaltubc
O NOH
ll rl
)-lpc0 Cllt
STAPLE FIBRE
cil,
,t l cll,
AHHONIUM
cut
LACTAM
OIT
SOtU]ION
5ULPIIAIE
DISIIttA]ION
I cllr
L NH PR€PARATION
IIANDBOOK OITTDX'TILE FI IJRES n : s Y N . r . leI ] . tc l ; l l t l t u s
to usc a scour liquor containingsodaash,at a temperature of Dycirrg
60-70"c. (l) 100 pcr cent Nylon 6
solventdetergent,
For heaviersoiling,an en-rulsified a strongcr
alkali,or botb, arc reconrmended. Ihe dyeing characteristicsof nylon 6 are csscntiallysinrillr
to
In sorne cases,solvent scouringin pure or chargedper' thosc of nylon 6.6, but dyestullstcnd to dillusc nrorc rcadily inlo
'l'lris
chloroethyleneis preferred,particularlyin tlte caseo[ nylon 6 nylon 6 fibre tharr into nylon 6.6 fibrc. lrrcnnsthat witlr
weft-knittedlabricsandgarments. nrany dycs, nylon 6 requireslessdycstufl to attain a givcn shadc,
Many conrmercial deepdye and basicdyeablenylon 6 yarns and its rate of exhaustioncxcec<!that of nvlon 6.6_
are tinied with a specialsightirrgcolour and, in this case,it is _--.Nylon 6 has a nrarkcclaffinity for rnarryclasscsof dycstul.f.
'l'he
necessary to destroy the dyestufl chenticallyby additionof classeswith thc witlcst applicatio.s aie ttrc ciisp*si:, aciti,
hydrosulphite to the scourbath. p.re'retallized, clirect and selected rcactivc dyestufli
corirbiraj
tions.
lllcnching As .in thc case of nylon 6.6, basic dycs an<l vat colours trc
rarely used.The_basicdyes tcnd to havc poor light fastncss;thc
Potyamidetibresin gencralare naturallywhite, aud chemical vat-dyesare costly and difhcult to apply, havc poor light fustncss
bleaching is unuecessary exceptin specialcircumstances. Bleach-
and low migration powcr.
ing nray be necessary, for example,if heat-setting has causcd
discolouration,or if the nylon is blendcdwith other libresthat . As. nylon 6 is hcirt-sctilt a ntlxintrllr lctlpcrilturc of lg3.C.,
thc hc.t stability o[ thc dycstrrflsuscd is riot usurily criric:,i.
needbleaclring. Carc should be taken, however, in choosing thc dycs. Whcrr
Althoughrecomntencled altd usedin the past,strongoxidative sctting prcccdcsdycing, it is csscntirl tlrat lricvcn trcatnrcntis
bleachessuch as peraceticacid, sodiunrchlorite and sodiunt givcn, or there nray be sorneditliculty in obtlining lcvcl sharlcs.
hypochloritenlust not be usedfor the bleachingof nylon 6 as
they can causeexcessive oxidationand a resultantreductionitt Metlrcds and Preparatiott
dyeability.Moreover,the resistance of nylon 6 to pltotodegrada- The techniquesused in dyeing nylon 6 are sinrilar to tlroseuscd
tion is often drasticallyreduce(lafter suchoxidativetreatments in dyeing nylon 6.6. It is often dcsirableto rlye frorn a slightly
resultingin unacceptable strengthlossesalter exposureto ligltt. highcr dyebath pl-l and to raise the dycbath i.,,,r,.rr,rr. ,,,or.
When the use of an oxidativebleachis unavoidable, e.g. for slowly to the_firrallcvel, in orclerto preventtoo rapirlcxhaustiorr
nylon 6/cetlutosicblends,hydrogenperoxideis the preferred o l t h e ( l y c s t u l l .w h i c h w i l l r e s u l ti n u n e v c nc l y c i n s . -
agent;very little oxidation occurs in this case providedthe It is most important that thc goocls sh-orrld" bc thoroughly
correctconditiorlsareenlployed. scouredbefore thcy are dycd.
272
rl':ll: -1 --1 --t -1 "-l '-t --l r'- .- r . . r .-l r-1 r-1 -l
rttltF,F,tl
'TDX'I'I
I I A N I ) I } O OK O I . ' LD I;IDI{DS
sYNlltElrc Ir(us
2'16 277
i
I
-l rl 'l r j r t f
I t t
l i
i
: -ll"lr-r]-]-]'-lrlrll-,-i
IIANDIIOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B : S Y N T I IE T I C F I N R E S
'l'he
Where steanrinjection is available,lessdegradationand yellorving stage in proccssingat which scttingis crrricd
out dcpcn<.ls
of the nylon 6 occursand heat settingtentperatures can be raised upon a number of factors. Frorn thc ccononric point
of vierv,
to l950C. Infra-redsettingrnay alsobe usedon sinrilarequiprnent, it is dcsirableto sct as the final operation,as
this rcduccs thc
the fabric being passedunder speciallyarrangedinfra-redunits. total numbcr of opcrations.This may bc intpossiblc,
howcvcr.
Very short settingtimes are possiblewith infra-red,owing to the b e c a u s co f i n s t a b i l i t yo f t h e f a b r i c ,or thc possibilityof danrngc
high penetrationachievcd. to dyc or finish,and scilirrgrnight bc c n r r i c do u t i n l l r c l o o r n s t l r t c
P.in stentcrsare tlre most suitable equipment for heat-setting or aftcr a scour.
nylon 6, eithcr by hot air or infra-rcd. Clip stentcrsare not Setting in thc loornstirtcrcquircsgrcat carc, or sllins tluy
bc
suitable,owing to their inferior control of the fabric, as they do fixcd resulting in discolouration..scttirrgaftci scouring
lxrs thc
not ovcrfeed and nray cause dyeing variations at the selvedge. drawback
.of increasing tlre numbcr of opcrations ncccssary,
Hot roll machinesusing heatedcylinders are suitablefor stable and difliculty may be expericncccl in obtainir;g thc rcquircclyiciJ
*bcen
fabrics, but there is insulllcient width control to permit less from a grcy fabric unlcss ullowancc has nrirdc in thc
stable constructionsto be processed.This latter method is thus construction.
unsuitablein most cases.
Plclting
(b) lVet l{eat Setting Pleatsmay be heat-sctin nyron 6 fabrics,n.d will withst.n(r
thc
e f l e c t so l ' r v e a ra n d w a s h i r r gN. y l o n 6 n r o r r , . , l i l i r , , r (cci i.tg .
Stearn setting is carried out at 105-ll5'C., dependingon thc 22 dtcx;
fabric and yarn. This technique is most suitable for weft-knit fabric,
tbicxin,ple,
iso[tor ti;ri;it for lirrgcri;
?9^l::l]::k"it
a ppllcanons.
fabrics, as penctration is good with this type of construction.
Ilcfore.pleating, thc cloth nrust bc scourctl
It is difllcult to set tubtrlar weft fabrics in any other rvay. wcll lrt 60.C.,
o p t i c a l l y b l c a c h c do r c r y c d ,a n < rt h c n c r r i c c or n . s r c . t c r
When batching on a mandrel for steaming,the greatestcare ilt ir
nraxlmutn temperatufcof IjO"C. plcating should bc cirrrictl
nrust be used to get even tension from inside to outside, and out
at 170-180'C.,dependingon thc plcatinglpcccllncl sizc
to avoid steam escapesthrough the edgesof the batch. Quality of lrlcul
required.
of steam is. also important, as excesscondensedmoisture must
When optical brightcning agcnts or <Jycsarc applic<lbclorc
be avoided if even dyeing propertiesare to be achicved.The .
plcating, care nlust be taken to sclect tliosc rhat
stcam rnust bc saturatedbut not superhcated.A vacuum cycle ,,r" ,,o, ,,.,,t_
scnsitiveat thc tcntpertturesused.
before steanringis of great value in obtaining even setting,and
should be used whenever possible. Tcxluring
Slight variationsin treatment may result in noticeabledyeing In cornnron with other thcnnoplaslic yarns, rrylon
differencesand it is essentialthat settine treatments should be 6 rlay bc
<lcforrncdby hcrtt Ircatn]ent.to producc Lulked,
uniform betrveen steaming batches. Siniilarly, the size of the sirctch or torquc
yarns.The false twjst technique,for example,
fabric roll should be limited to ensure complete and unilonn is conrnronlyuscd.
Nylon 6 nray be used to produce fatie twist yarns for
p e n e t r a t i o no f s t e a mt h r o u g h o u tt h e p i e c e . l n - s o r ncea s e sp, a r t i c - nll
crinrp yarn outlcts,and gtrntents ntadc fronr corrcctly proccsscd
ularly rvith warp-knitted faltrics processedon the bcarn, it is
nylon 6 yarrrshavc a dillcrcnt charactcrfr.ont thosc nratlc
possibleto obtain a good degreeol set by treating in hot rvater front
nylon 6.6.
at the boil or I l0oC-.This iI knorvn as irydrosetiing. Unfortu-
Nylon 6 has a lower bending nrodulus lhln nylon 6.6,
nately, fabric shrinkage is often excessiveand special fabric nncl
constructionsto allow for shrinkageare necessaryrvhcn scttirrg .this,resultsin an- unusuallysoft yarn, thc softncssbliug a111rnrc,,r
'fhc
ur tlrc gilnltcnt. c[Icct is plrrticularly noticcablcin ttic clrrc
b y t h i sr n e t h o d .
of garnrents1>roducccl on nr.,ii,,m gaugc knitfing units.
2'tB 279
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
S Y N T I I E T I C F TD RI ] S
S]'IIUCTUITEAND PROPERTIES
liinc Slructrrrcurrd Appcar:rncc
Nylon 6 fibres arc sntooth-surfaccd, rvith no striations.jn nticro-
scopic appearancethcy arc sinrilar to nylon 6.6 ancl are as
fcaturelcssas glassrods.The {ibresare cornnronlyof round cross-
scction,bul.spccialty1;csof n.,lorrof nrultilobalcross-scction arc
n o w p r o du c c d .
'l'en
acity
'fhe
tenacity of nylon 6 may be varied within limits by adjust- N1,lon6
nrcnt of the ntanufacturingconditiorrs.In general, the grcater
the dcgrcc of strctch during drawing, the higher the tenaciiy ancl EIonga(ion
the lowcr the elongation.
Slandard: 23-42.5 per cent, <Jry; 27-34 l)cr ccnt, wcr.
J'enacitiesof typical nylon 6 yarns are as follorvs:
Higlr tenacity: 16-19 pcr cent, dry; 19-22
Starrdarcl:39.7-51.2 cN/tex (4.5-5.8 giden), dry; 36.2-45.0 1.;crccnt, wct.
Staple: 23--50per ccnt, dry; 3l-55 lrcr ccnt, wcl.
c N / t e x ( 4 . 1 - 5 . 1 g / d e n ) ,r v e t .
Fliglr tenacity: 66.2-73.3 cN/tex (7.5-8.3 g/den), dry;41 .7- Mastic Rccovery
6 2 . 7 c N / t e x ( 5 . 4 - 7 . 1 g / d e n ) ,w e t .
Stalrlc: 33.6-48.6 cN/tex (3.8-5.5 g/dcrr),dry; 30.9-41.5 Like nylon 6.6, nylon 6 is a highly clastic fibrc, irr thlt it rvill
recover its oliginal dirlcnsions aftcr lrcing dc[orrtrcd by llrc
c N / t e x ( 3 . 5 - 4 . 7 g / d e n ) ,s e t .
application of a strcss..standardfilarnenthai irn clirsticrccovcry
Tensilc Slrength of 100 per cent up to an extcnsionof 6-g pcr ccnt. Ilccovcry
from 10 pcr cent extensionis about g5 pcr ccnt.
S t a n d a r d 5: , l l 0 - 5 , 8 8 0 k g / c n r z( 7 3 , 0 0 0 - 8 4 , 0 0 0l b / i n : ) . _ Recoveryfronr cxtcnsionalso follows ilre pattcrn sct by nylon
I l i g l t t c n a c i t y : 7 , 7 0 0 - 8 3 0 0 k g / c r n z( l 1 0 , 0 0 0 - 1 2 0 , 0 0 0l b / i n : ) . 6.6, only part of it being instantnncous,
and tirc rcnruirrdcitaling
placc over scveral lrours,
2B0 LI 28I
282
283
I I A N D I ] O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
n : s Y N T l lE . i lC F l n R t i s
(3) Dyes and linishes used on the yarn. -fhese
ntay have a
considerableellect on light sensitivity. 7. Exposcd to stcaln atmosphercat 99.C.
for 6 drys.
2S5
-
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNTIIETIC FTORI]S
l t
(1) IIeat Rcsistonce
'I'hc (8) 7'oughness
lorver nrelting point of nylon 6 means that it nray not be
Nylon 6 a
used at elevated tetnperatureswhere nylon 6.6 is still e{fective. -has breaking tenacity in thc sarnc rirngc ts ilrat o[
n y r o n o . o , b u t t h e c l o n g a t i o n . a tb r c a k o f r r y l o n
At tcmperaturesbelow its melting point, on the other hand, 6 is gcncrally
greatcr,than that of a nylon 6.6 of sirnilar tcn:rcity.-f
nylon 6 has a sornervhat bettcr rcsistance to the effect of pro- his means
rnar nylon o has a greater toughncsstlran nvlon 6.6
longed heating.This can be an important factor in some uppii.^-
tions, e.g. tyrcs, rvhere thc fibrcs must withstan<l elevated (9) Modulus
tenrpcrat urcs.
The initial modulus of nylon 6 is lowcr tharr that of
nylon 6.6,
(5) Fatistrc Resistance which me_ansth_atnylon 6 defornrs nrore rcaclily undcr
a loa<I.
This is a factor.in jts solter hancl,as high rnodulus
Nylon 6 has a bettcr flligue resistancethan nylon 6.6, and this -givingnylon 6
tentls to result in incrcascd stillncss.
is important too in applicationssuch as tyl.es,where the fibre
Thc low initial modulus of nylon 6 can nrakc for tliflicultics
is subjectedto rcpeateclstresses. in processing,as the yarn will stretchcasily at rclatively moclcst
(6) Hand tens-ions. In general,howcvcr,nylon 6 nray bc handlcd at tensions
sinrilar to thosc uscd for nylon 6.6
In general.nylon 6 goods have a softer hand than those nrade
frorn^nylo_n6.6. This nray be arlvantageousin applications where (10) Sltrinkagc
a soft, full hand is desirable, e.g. in tricot and in fabrics made O t l r c l I h i n g sb e i n g e q r r l l , n y l o n 6 l i b r c s t c n d f o s l r r i r r kn r o r c
from textured yarns. Nylon 6 has been particularly successful in
Dolltngwatcr than sinrilar.yarns of nylon 6.6. .l.his
in the tricot ntarket, where its softness has provcd an attractive is :rn inrpor_
taxt factor in thc processing of nylon yo.n.. t,i
feature. itr" productiorr
of,hosiery, for exanrple,it has the foilowin! "ons"or.u"".,
_.In applications where nylon 6.6 has benelited from its greater knit.hoserathcrlooscrrhauwhcnnylon
filanrent rigidity, e.g, in texturecl yarns which have a crisp hand ^o.o
.(ills 1:^5,
uscd,-t11Tsa,ry.roobtain
ln order to proper
widthwisestrctch.Dcpen<l-
associated with maximum stretch and recovery, it is advisable ing on the mill handling conditions,this can
to use nylon 6 yarns containing filamentsof increaseddiameter ...Ji'ln incrcascd
snagglngrn urc greigc hosc.
and in fewcr nunrbers. Small increases in cliameter produce (b) To ollset the abovc disaclvantagc,
Iarge incrcasesin rigidity, and it is possible in this way to bring - the -i"*",
stitch in finishcd
hose of nylon 6 is somcwhat tighter,-an<l
nylon 6 yarns more into line with nylor.r 6.6 yarns of similai .o picks will
be encountered after boarding.
total denier. The increasein filament denier also increasesstretch (9) a high
and recovery. . _shrinkagcnronJfilamentmay bc a<lvanragcous
'tutrirtai in
hosiery nranufacture. In the procluction of
stockings, for
example, the finished shape.is obtnincd
(7) Affinity lor Soltening Agents entireiy by shrinking
the knit tube to the boarding fornr, and thc
Nylon 6 has a greater allinity for softening agentsthan nylon 6.6. ligh shrinkage
coupled with.hjeh elongation is of de,inite
Cationicsoftenersare absorbedmore rapidly and completelyfronr a.tvontul"'in producing
a stocking with proper fit.
solution, and lhere is a grcater softening eflect from a given In certrin non-run stvrcs,-machinc limitationsnrakc it ncccssary
amount of softener. 'l'his nrakes necessarythe use of finiihing that the anklc be knii raiher.foo... ,f iiigi,"rfiri"f,-g.nylon
procedures lhat ensure slow enough absorption of finish to againadvantageous is
provide a uniform absorption of softener.
in producing a stockirri- wiifr-soiirfo"torvnt.
288
289
lVashing
Dry Clcaning
Nylon 6 goods are rvashed preferably in handJtot water (up to
43'C.); blends of nylon 6 and cotton may be washed at rather Nylon 6 is not aflectecl by any of the solvcnts
c--'
onrnronly uscd
higher tenrperatures,up to about 70'C. White and coloured in dry cleaning,and no difl'icuitiesar. inuolu.ii.
fabrics may pick up tints from coloured fabrics, and the two
should be washed separately. Many garments are nrachine- End-Uscs
washablc. 'I'he
Bleachingis generallyunsatisfactory,and should be avoidccl. encl-uses
of nylon 6 aregcnerally
sirnilarto thoscof nylon6.6.
I)rying Note.
I'yre Cortl. Like rrvlon 6_6, nylon
Nylon 6 fabrics absorb very little water, and they dry quickly. 6 has rna<JcgrcaL headway
in- the tyre cord ficli. It is'cliinred
Drip drying or cold tumble drying are preferred. Carnrents iil',;;lrroi " hrs ccrrnirr
advantagcs over nvlon 6.6 in this
should be given a cold rinse and a short spin (15 seconds) "ppfi.iti*, "otably thc
following:
followed by line drying. It is advisableto avoid overloaclingthe
spin tlricr with too lrrany garmcnts. (a) Nylon 6 hns grcatcr thcinral stability
nt thc tclul)crilrurcs
encountcredin tyrcs.
Ironing (b) The adhesionof nvlon 6 to
rubber is strongcr ilran thflt
Nylon 6 has excellcnt qualities of creaseresistanceand shape of nylon 6.6.
rctention, especiallywhen it has been ellectively lreat set. A (c) The flex rcsistanceof nylon
6 is grcatcr tharr that of
nrininrunrantount of ironing is required;if necessary, this should nylon 6.6.
be carried out with a warm iron (HLCC Sett.ing2), and the
garnrent must be damp. Ironing tentperaturesabove 150.C.
should be avoided. Glazing may occur at higher temperatures,
especiallyif the galrnent is dry, and sticking may occur at
temperatures betwecn 180 and 200"C. Excessive exposure to
ironin( temperaturesrnay causdyellowing.
Previous treatnlent of the fabric has a considerableeffect on
its rcaction to pressingand ironing cond.itions. Certain <lyesmay
change colour at clevatedten)peratures. I[ a change of forrn is
desired, e.g. in creases,pleats or wrinkles, the conclitionsof
temperatureand ntoistureunder which the form was established
nrust be exceededto produce a permanentchange.
Nolc. Certain garntentssuclr as rainlvear and anoraks will
often have beentreatcdwith specialwatcr-repellent finisheswhich
rvill require lessseverewashing treatmcnt.The same nray apply
to quilted and lined garments,and these should be washed in
warnr water and ironed rvlrcre ncccssary with a cold irorr
( l t L C C S c t t i n gl ) .
290 291
w
It
- - N H ( c H 2 ) , 0c o N H ( c H r ) , o c o H n ( c H . ) , o c o - - - llrnzilfrorn I l_:unirro_
u1de.can9i9 acid madc frorn castor oil (sec bclow). -I-hc
obtained fronr castor beans;it i, "*ii,,it"i oil is
N Y L O NI I fry ii'r" cornbirrc<l
actionof pressurcan<torglnic solvcnts.
Thc oil contairrs g5 pcr
cent of triglycerylrjcinolcate.
INTRODUCTION Triglyceryl ricinoleatcis couvcrtcd to
nrcthyl r.icinohntcby
tfentnrentwilh rncthylalcohol.
For sonreyears,a nylon-typepolyrnerhas bcenmadcin Francc MetbyI ricirroleatcis nyrolyzcdat high {cnrpcrirturc, I
yicltlirrg
under the nanrepolyamidel l, polyundecanamicle or 'Rilsanite', ^cplaldchydc,rrrcttrylunclccyl;;;;i.;,,,i':;'.;;;ii;,;,;r,,,
prinrarily lor usc as a plastic.The polymer is made by self- rcid-s(l). Pureheptaldehyctc of f. rry
anctmcthylurrJclfi.;;;i; ,,,."isotarctl
condcnsationof I l-arnino-undecanoic acid, and under the by frnctionalclisiillation.
nomcnclatureschemeused for polyamidefibres (seepage207) Methyl
.undecylcnate is hydrolyzcdlo undccylcrric
Undccytcuic rtcitl(2).
i t i s ny l o n 1 1 . aci<tis anririar.,l'
by-r;;"ii;; r'uiii,'i,'.,,.',o,,i,,,
Nylon I I may be melt spuninto fibres,and the productionof {onu I I -amino-unclccanoic ru
acid (3).
nylon 11 libreswas developed in Franceby OrganicoS.A.,with
the cooperation of the Italianfirrn SniaViscosa.
cr7ilr. (oH) coocH3 o c G t . l rr c i l o
METI.IYL NICTNOI.EATE I.IEPTALDETTYDE
TYPESAryp SrZESOF NYLON lr
yarns,tnonofilaments,
+
Nylon I I hasbeennladeas multifilanrent cHa : cH (CHr) COOClrr
stapleand tow, in a rangeof deniersand staplelengths.It was ^
(2\ ---'
produced under the trade nanle 'Rilsan', for. example, *-
)7 METI{YL UI.ID[-CYI.E
NNI E
in the followingsizes:
Cl-t. = 611(Ct-tr)oCOOt.t o
F i l a n r e n: t l 2 l l , 1 2 1 21, 8 1 32, 9I 1 0 ,4 5| 1 6 ,5 71 2 09, 01 3 2 1
, 45i50, UNDEC''/LENtCACtO
290/ro0. -y!.rlrc.l!.r_o_
Lr_{u.{-o_: rc-ac ||)
Production of I I-A nrirro-unclccanoic
Acid l.nrru C_.nstor
S t a p l e :I . 4 / 3 2 , 3 7 ,6 2 m r n . ; 2 . 91 3 7 , 6 2 , 9 5 l,l 2 m m . ; 6 / 4 0 ,7 0 , Oil.
100,120mnt.
'l'orv: Castorojl is availablcin very lerrge
qunntitics,
I 1 0 , 0 0 0d t e x( 1 0 0 , 0 0 0d c n ) . nntl lhc proccss
for producingI l-anrino_urrac",i,,oi""n"i,i'ir';;t^i;i;
straiglrtforward. sirrr'tcarrtt
292 293
!r
Fftttlr
I
I I A N D I } O OK O F T E X T T L E F I B R E S I ] : S Y N ' T I IE T I C F I N R E S
I'olyrncrizallon
Telomerization.is, in eflcct, a polymerizationreaction which is
stopped after only a few monomer units have linked together. Polymerization of ll-unclccanoic acicl is carricd
'fhis out in thrcc
is achieved by carrying otrt the polymerization in the stages,the monoller being fed as an aqucoussuspcnsion
into the
presenceof a relatively large anrount of a chain-stoppingmaterial, reaction vessel.
which provides radicals which block the active ends of the Stage l. Water is renrovecl, and the I l_undccanoic
-foty"o,r.l"nsa-
acicl .is
grorving polymer chain and so prevent further polynlerization. rneltcd.The temperatureis raiscclto 215"C., ln,l
When ethyleneand carbon tetrachlorideare heatedtogetherat tion begins.
high temperature in the presence of a catalyst (e.g. benzoyl S.tag92. Polycondensationis allowecl to procccd until
peroxide), the ethylene undergoespolymerization until such tinre . thc
desired degree of polynrerization has bcen rc:rchcd.
as the ends of the polymer chain are blocked by Cl and CCl.
radicals formed from the carbon tetrachloride.Conditions may .|toge 3. The ntolten polynrcr is hcld for a (irue a t 2 1 5 ' C .t o
bc adjustedso that this occursafter only l, 2, 3,4 or 5 ethylene a l l o w t h e m o l e c u l a rw c i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o nt o a t t r i n a
sntisfactory
molecules, for example, have linked together ( l). state.
The product obtained by telomerizing ethylene and carbon . The molten polymcr is passedto a storagctank, fronr rvhiclr
tetrachlorideis a mixture of compounds of gencriil structure it may be fed directlyto the spinncrets.
CI(C.H.,),,CC1.,where n is a small number, e.g. I to 5. One Note.Tbe basicreactionwhichoccursduringnylon I I prorluction
of the products, which may be separated by clistillation,is is as follows:
l -chloro-I l -trichloroundecane i.e. Cl(CHr), nCCl". nI-I"N (CFI,),,,COOH+H(FIN(CH,),,,CO),,O
fI _r-n _ I I I,O
Hydrolysis of this by aqueous sulphur.ic acid yields
1l-chloroundecarroic acid (2), which is reactedwith anrmonia to Spinrring
producc I l -amino-undecanoic acid (3). Moltcn nylon II polynrcr is very stablc it thc tcnlperatureusctl
294 295
I
--l
T I A ND B O O K O F 1 ' E X T ' I L E F I B R E S
I]: SYNTIIETIC FI NIIES
during nrclt spinning (about
215"C.), and it nny be .storcd
to'g pcriods wirhout acterioration-."d;";.r^i,,;rccarrions for
ar.c
lll;L:: ffi:$'r:lJl"ionbv mainiai; ;;s;;ii ;Jr'"rvrn
CASTOR OIL
crundcr
There is littie tendency_
for l2-rlcnrbcrccl
occur during polymerization, ring forrnationto
"n.1.
ALCOHOLYSIS wergrrtmater.ialin thc polynrer tt,. nn.,oirrrt."li"* nrolccular
i.. u.ry "iinif ."l.l," potynl".
ff ilillIifrJl l,fi::aficr
prod i,
uctio;;
;i r;;,,
; ui,vi,it.,.u,t,riu
i"
Spinning jscarriid out.in n^,tualtncr
Mc thy I r i ci n o l e a t e sirnilar to thut usctl irr
rrylon 6 producrion. and.
rtr,c_firarn;;;i;
;;;"i;,,*;
clcpendingon thc type ro r rrcgrcc
ol rrDrc rccluircd.
PI{OCESSING
l)1.cing
Nylon ll ltas :r lowcr. rrr
oisltrr
c bs<_rr.ptiorr
lhirrr ",arty
rrylotr (r or 6.6,
andthiscausc<l .tr
sonrc<rvcirrs.,llllliiuf1i"l-.fi,',ii,,""'i,
sarisfacrory .;,;; rlcvclo'_
i:iJJ,,,s;:F:' rrycingt"crrni,l;;;: now bccn
antl acctate dyes.give.good
rcsurrs,wirrr cxccilcrrt
U n d e c y l e n iacc i d
y.iji,1,,i,i'i^ll*,,11*',1,:,lH
,^.,|{;t-a]tizea
i:i:liii":!"fl:!llii; i;",j,-*llt
are usccl with tfiesc dvcs.
Nylon ll has an exccllent
resistanccto acicl solutions,
acid dycing batlrs of pH and
as low rs 2 can be trscj
AMINATION Nylon I I can bc spun_.tv",t'.:tr9"riu.lv, cllcctivcly.
rangeof colouriug *lrfl"tf,i f",.fp o, n *i.f"
marrers..Thc
t"* rpii"i"e'
-ro."fi,;,;,u;;;r..
t",;urlij,rr.pcrrnirs
or rhc useof nranyorga.ic.ry"rrun
1 1 - a m i n o- u n d e c n
aoic
STRUCTUI{E AND PTTOPEITTJES
-l-hc
p r o p e r t i e so f n v l o n , l l
a r e c s s e n t i n l l ys i r r r i l a rt o
tlloscof
"l i,irsrrruch
POLYCONDENSAT
ION
- ",iI
ii,,J".,ff.f.;llll,"J1""]""1 ,,, ii;;i ,,.',,,iiporv,,,,,i.r.,.
NYLON ,II
:p::|F ;i,,i
crrarn oI carbon alonts separating
11,,.1',i,.,
h,1,.,
;'J';'1,
illl_,f
;f,rill"f li:
30e).'l-hcnroisrurc thc arnitlc lio,,-p.
1r". p"g.
u
absorrrion
"'* -riel't..i"
J,;r-.i;.;;;;;;;,
i,iii, rr," .p..iri"
f,il;'llili1;.",l;il;"1 rivron
rr tr'" r"*iii"r;r',"orr,.,.
Nylon ll Florv Clmrt
-l'he
m e l t i n gp o i n t o f n y l o n l l i s l o r v c r
t h i r r rt h a t o t n y l o n6 ,
296
29"1
I
I
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES A : S Y N T TEI T IC F I B R E S
in accordancewith the tendency for melting point to fall with [lastic Ilccovcry
increasein the number of methylene groups between the amide 100 per cent at 6 per ccnt elongation.
groups.But as the methylenegroupsare an even number,nylon 1l
ialls into the higher of the two series of polyamides. For this Inilial Modulus
reason, the melting point is not very much lower than that of
Nylon has a higher
nylon 6, which has 5 metbylene groups between amide groups' -lI initial nrodulus than eithcr nylorr 6 or
-
'odd-number' series. n y l o n 6 . 6 . l t i s t y p i c a l l ya b o u t4 4 1 c N / t e x ( 5 0 g / t l c r r ) .
and therefore comes in the
The higher rilidity of nylon I I givcs it a blttcr <tirncnsional
stability to repeatedstrxins and a l>cttcrrcsistirrrcc lo crccp tltln
otlrer polyam.ides.
Flcx Ilcsislancc
Exccllent.
Abrasion Rcsislancc
Exccllent.
Spcci{icGrnvity
r.04.
Nylott I I
Elfect of l\loislurc
Fine Structureand APPcarauc" / Nylon 1l absorbslesswater than nylon 6 or 6.6. lt
has a rcgain
of l.l8 per cent. The nroistureabsbrptionao"s ,iot
Nylon I t filaments are sim.ilar in appearanceto those of other rapidly with increasinghunri<.lityas in thc .ur. of
incrclsc as
nylons. They are smooth surfaccd, and comtnonly of circular 6.6.
nylon 6 untl
cross-section. Water absorptionat 20.C. and 65 per cent r.h., 1.3 pcr
-- ccnt.
\ Nylon 6 and 6.6 unclcr sirnilar conditlonsabsorb 4 and
Tcnacity 3.6 pcr
cent respectively.
Fibres miy be producedin a ratlge of tenacitiesby varying the
-Tenacities
drawing and other conclitions during productio,n. are
Thcrlnal Propcrlics
comm;nly in the range 44.15-66.23 cN/tex (5.0-7.5 g/den).1'he
tenacityis virtually unaffectedby rnoisture. Melting Poinr: 189"C.
Soltcttirtg Point: l7O"C.
'l'cnsilc Strengllt
IJlJcct ol
.lIigh. 7'empcrature. Thc behaviour of nylorr I I on
Fibre of tenacity 66.23 cN/tex (7.5 g/den) has tensilestrerlgthin prolonged hcating is similar to that of nylon
6 or 6.6.
.l.hc
the regionof 6,deOkg/cmz (98,000 lb/inz ). librc yellows in dry air at I50.C.
Deco_nrposition takes place at about 300.C. in itn itrcrt
Elongation rtnrosphcre.Moltcn nylorr I I can bc nraintaincdfor rvccks
at
Regularfilament: 25 per ccnt wet or dry' s p r n n t n gt e n t p e r a t u r(e2 1 5 " C . w
) i t h o u t u n < l e r g o i ndgc c o n r p o s i t i o n .
298 299
K F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
I I A N D B O OO D : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R N S
'fhc
Iilfect of Sunliglt( initial nrodulus of I I is higher lhnn lhosc of
.nylon thc
Sinrilar to nylon 6.6 (special sunlight-resistirrg grades are rcsutring
in.inircrse<t
stithrJss .t.his
arrttr:igioiry.
ljll,ll.llt9::
aovantageousirr applications is
available). such as brush bristlc.s,arrtr it arso
nrakcs for easier processing.Nylon f f y,i,.,r.
Jo'not strctch so
ClrcrnicnlPropcrlics casily as nylon 6 or 6.6 yarirs whcn'
,"lri".t.i to physicrrl
ploccssingsuch as winclrng.
.,1cirls.Nylon I I is fairly resistant to diltrte nrineral acids. There
is slow deteriorationat high tenrperaturesirnd high concentra- The high initial nrorlultri of nylon ll srrggcsts
lhlt this is lr
us.cful nylon for thc hugc tyre cortr nrlrrkii. 'l.yr.cs
tlolls. rcirrfor.ccrr
with nylon ll woulcl not-bc iubjcct r" ff,,i_rrl"t
Alkalis. Nylon I I has a high rcsistanceto alkalis. tilig ro ilrc cxrcnr
llrat.nylon 6 anrl nylon 6.6 rciniorcctl ,1,,.".'ni.."''
G cneral. Nylon 1l has a highcr resistancethan other polyamidcs . The low moisture absorptionof nylon I I eriablcsit to rctain
to oxidizing agents.It is inert to common reagents. its
-cxcellenrinsulation propcrtics nt lriglr fr,inii.firi"r; lhis is :r
ruscfulcharactcristicin eicctricalapplicatiorrs.
Iiftcct o[ OrganicSolvcnls Nylon I l, with a snccific grdviry. of only
1.0.t, is a vcry
Nylon I I has a bigh resistanceto cornnrolrorganic solvents,and light fibrc, with nrucrr grerter covcrirrg porvcr
tharr lrrc otrrcr
is gcncrally sinrilar in this rcspect to nylon 6 rrnd 6.6. It is polyarnidcs.
soluble in plrenolsand 100 pcr ccnt forttric itttd acctic acids.
Wnshing
Irrsccts Like..other polyanride fibrcs, nylo-n il is easy
ro rv:rsrr,trsirrl;
Nylon II is not attacked by nrotlt grtrbs or beetles. c o n d i t i o n ss i n r i l a r t o l h o s c u s c i l f o r n y l o n
6 ' u n'-'
d 6.6. I:ilbrics
tray be waslredrepcatcdlywithorrt ycllorviirg.
I\{icro-organisms
Drying
Nylon I I is not attacked by nrildewsor bacteria.
Nylon I I has a low ntoistureabsorptiorr,atr<ltlrics
vcry rnpidly.
Dlec(ricll Propcrlics It should be dried in thc santc rvuv its rrylorr
6 arrcl6.(r rrsing
tctnperaluresas low ns possiblc.
Nyton I I has excellcntelectricalinsulationpropcrties,whiclt are
r c t a i n c du n d e r c o n d i t i o n so f h i g h h u m i d i t y .
Ironing
Ilandlc Nylon I I fabric nray be ironcd slfely lrI
tcnll)cnrturcsin thc
region of 80-100"C. Great carc ntust [)c
Nylon I I has a plersant, soft handle. lakcn to nvoid usirrg
tenrperaturcswhich tnight softcn the fibrc.
NYLON II IN USE
Dry Clcaning
Gcncrnl Chnraclcristics Nyl_onI I nr:ry.bc dry crcancdwitrr.trt <riilic.rty.
Ir is nor rrilccrcrl
Nylon I I rescrlblcs nylon 6 and 6.6 in nrany o[ its irnportant Dy rne usual dry clcaning solvcnts.
propcrtics, but it posscsscsfeatures which aflect its potential
End-Uscs
applicationsin sevcral ways.
'fhc
nrelting point of nylon I I (189"C.)is otr thc low side for N y l o n . I I i s . u s c di n a g r c a t v a r i c t y o f t c x t i l c
l p p l i c r t i o r r s .I t i s
gencral textilc use, and great care tnust bc tal:cn in ironing rn<l rrndc inlo tricot kniilcd lingcric:rrriltrntlcnvcrr,
Lnr" a,,.1,uuu.,,
othcr c lcvu(e<l-tcmperat
rrrc treatnrcnts. fabrics. lt scrvcs in thc sanrc sort of fickls :rs
rrylorr 6.6 irrrtl
300 301
- t
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES S YNTII ETI C F I BI(ES
nylon 6. Fabrics of nylon I I are hard wearing and comfortable, rcspects.The moisturc absorptiono f n y l o n 6 . 1 0 i s l o w c r t h a n
rvith all the ease-of-carecharacteristics associated with nylon that of eithcrnylon 6 or 6.6, and n y l o n 6 . 1 0l i b r e sa r c u n u s u l l l v
6.6 and 6. resilient.
Heat-setting processesare used in the same way as with other
thermoplastic fibres. Permanent pleats and creases may be Rcgain
obtainedeffectively. z.o-
Mclting Point
(4) NYLON 6.10
214"C.
Nylon 6.10 libre is spun from polyhexamethylcneseblcrtc, nrade
by the condensationof hexanrethylene diamine and sebrcicacicl: (5) NEW'tYPES OF POLYAMTDEI;tBtrE
lulroduction
H.r.r(cr.r.)otl-r. lrooc (cr. )ocoorr
Polyamide fibres in widespreadusc today, i.e. nylon 6 ancJ
6.6,
H E X A M E T H Y L E N ED I A M I N E SEBAC|C AC|O have a range of characteristicswhich scrv" ttrcnr wcll in
'l'hcsc_ thc
general textile ficld. Iibrcs hitvc lrigh tcnsilc strcngth,
which is associaledwith a high dcgrce of jasticity; thcy
lu-rvc
---NH.co (cH.)"co ruH(cH.)or.rx.co(cH.)oco ruu-- exccllcnt.bending strcngthand outstandingrcsistanccto nbrasion.
Nylon fabrics havc good clirncnsionalstaliility rvhicli is cnhnnccd
NYLON 6 : IO by heat setting.
The polyarnide libres have-a rclativcly low spccific gravity,
nraking for lightweight fabrics. Thcir rnoistur.'^brorplio,,
INTRODUCTION i.
low.enough_topermit of easy washing and clrying.
"thosc
Polyhcxamethylenesebacate is produced in relatively small This combination of properties,togcthcr rvith dctailcd
.
rnrounts, largcly for use in plasticsancl in the manufactureof rn the.sectionsdealing with the individual nylons, has
crcatcd
synthetic bristle. Fibres have been spun front it, and they ltavc for polyamide fibrcs a vast which sians alnrost every
_market
field. of. textilc application. But it is incvitaLle tlrat
a number of interesting characteristics.Sebacic acid, however, thcre arc
is expensive,and there seemsllittle likelihood of nylon 6.10 fibre applications for which the range of propcrtics o{Iercd
by nylon
being manufacturedon a major scale for textile applications. is inadequate.Characteristicsa.luan[og.ousin one applicaiion
rnay be less desirablc irr other applications,for which n
diflcrcnt
PRODUCTION balance of properties is required.
The. relativelylow moistu-reabsorptionof nylon, for cxantplc,
l
Sebacicacid is produccd from castor oil. It is condensedwith contributes to its case-of-care chartcteristlcs. llut
it also
hexamcthylenediarnirre,thc proccssbcing sinrilar to tllat uscd cncouragcstlre accumulationof static clcctricity,wlrich
nray bc
in the production of nylon 6.6. The product, polyhexanrethylenc tundesira-ble or cven dangerous in ccrtain circurnstanccs.-I,hcrc
sebacate,may be melt spun rvithout difliculty. are applicationsin which it would be advantagcousto
havc a
nylon with higher water absorption.
STRUC'I'URENND PROPERTIES O.ther.propertics too have provccl inarlcqualc irr spccitic
applicalions.Polyamidefibrcsgcricrallyhavc I sunlightrcsistancc
N y l o n6 . 1 0f i b r e sa r es i n r i l atro t h o s eo f n y l o n6 n n d 6 . 6i n m a n y which is adcquatefor normal textile uscs,but thcy arc
attncked
302 303
-rEX
nANDBOOK Olr l'lLE. FIIiltES n : s i Y N T i l D , f l ct : t n R l i s
too readily by ultra-violct Iiglrt to nrake thcm the preferrctl lbst-rrb,.greatquantities of 'l.yrc
'spccializcd' .fi.brc. cor.d, for cxarnplc, is a
choicc in applicationsthat rnust withstand continuoussurrliglrt. application which js I nr,rjor or',ti"i fo. nylon antl
Degradation by light is cornuronly less serious in the lustrous other fibres.
types of nylon fibre than in fibre which has becn dulled by During the I960s ancl 1970s there rvas an
increaslllgawtre-
addition of titanium dioxide. Much can be done to improve nessof theneedfor developing polyarnidc fitrr.,iuitf, pr"op.rii.,
light resistanceby the usc of chemical additives, but nylon's tlratwouldenable themto iorrr.-pcte
i'ore effcctivery in spccializctr
tcndcncy to undcrgo dcgraclatiouin sunlight has told aguinst fields.rndanurnber of newtypesof p"iyuiii,i.'iiiric'canrc
it in curtains ancl sinrilar applications. nrarkct.Sonreof thescarrcicsig,,eit on ure
ti, ,.ru. iii-.u,,,plrativcly
Whcn uylon is washedin watcr containing iron salts,it tends narrorvspecializcd fields.Others.
h:rvecxtordedtl,.';;i;;-;1
to absorb the dissolvedmaterials,and acquiresa yellow colour generaltextileapplications anclbrouglrtiirrpioicrircrrts
which is diflicult to remove. characteristics ' '- - ' in thc
of irylonfabricgcnerally.
The initial modulus of nylon is low, and thc fibre tbus extends
rcadily at low loadings.This nrakesfor difliculty in processing, 1'hc.developrlerrtof polyarniclefibrcs with propcrtics
. tlillcrcrrt
and in ccrtain applications. It is a factor in thc flat-spotting from the 'standard'nylon fibres has followcd tl,r".'fi,.,",,
which occurs when nylon is used for reinforcing tyres.
(l) Physical morlificationof cxisting nylon
Nylon r's sensitiveto bleaching agents and to acids, and it lypcs.
tcnds to lose strength when heatcd for prolonged pcriods, c.g. (2) Chcrnicnl rrrodificttionof cxistin6
rrylon typcs.
at lentperaturesdbove 150'C. (3) Production of ncw typcs o[ polylrnitlc.
Thcse characteristicsof nylon fibres are of little significance
over a vast range of nylon's textilc applications. But in cer-tain
applications, they are sufi"icientto rnake nylon less competitive (l) pHystcAl I\,IODIFICATIONOl: EXtst-tN(; Nyt_oN .t.\,l,tjs
than it might be. And in spccificapplications,they may render
nylon altogetherinadequate. of polymer
.lVlodilication
For most purposes, for exanrple, nylon has an adequate The polyamides from which nylon 6 ancl nyl<.rn6.6
resistanceto heat, and the melting point - especiallyof nylon fibrc.s lrc
spun trave been subjcctcct to intensive stucly ovcr
6.6 - is high cnotrgh for rrorrnal textile applications.In rccenL a vcry lorrg
period. A great deal is known about thc cxtcrrt
ycars, howcver, developnrcntsin space travel, supersonicflight to which thc
propcrtiesof the fibrc may be nrodificclby
suitablc control o[
and other lields have created a demand for fibres which can the molecularstructurcof the polynrer.
w.ithstandtemperatureshighpr than those ericounteredin every- The physical properties of nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 rnay
day appl.ications.The normdl nylons offcr a rangc of properties bc
nrodified within lintits by irrflticncing thc nvcrlgc
which is attractive for these specialized applications, but in nrolccular
weight, nrolecularweight distribulion,dcgrcc of ciy".strrllinity
many casestheir melting points are too low to permit of their use. und
dcgree of orientation of the polymers. Full arlvantagc
In nrany clectrical fields, similarly, the characteristicsof is now
taken of teclrniquessuch as <trawing which allow
polyamidc fibres are generally attractive,but there are specific thc rnantr-
facturer to control tenacity, flexibility and othcr trrcchanical
applicationsin which they would be more satisfactoryif the properties.
moisture absorption was lower. The extent to whicll the propcrtieso[ thc fibrc nray [:c varicd
It is apparcnt,therefore,that nylon would be able to play an .i' this way is linrited by thc functar'c'tal chcnricil struct,r"
important role in rnany specializcdllelds of applicationif-ceitain of- the. polyanride. 'I'hc nrelting point of polyhcxanreilrylcnc
characteristicswero changed to suit specific needs.Sonre of these adipamide. (rrylon 6.6. polynrer).inny b" incr"irs"il, for cxanrplc,
ficlds, though spccializedin the sensc that they rnny rcquirc by rncrcasingthe lnolccular wcight. But a poinl is soorr rcachcd
particular propcrtics in thc fibrc, arc of great inrportanccarrd lt rvhich furthcr incrctsc in nrolccultr wcighf has no cllccl:
thc
30{ 305
-l
}IANDTIOOK OF TEXTILE F I I ] I TD S B: Syr.{tilEt.lC FIDRES
optimurn rnelting point for this particular polyanride has been m a k i n gn o n - w o v e n
f a b r i c s( e . g .t . C . t . F i b r e s , C a r r r b r c l lt cr y' )I
reached. .:ll..d,rnelcling (a coribination-of rrreltirrJ
f:lTt.l._ andrvciclirig;.
The possibility of effecting dranratic changes in properties, lne nererolltlibres tnay havea core of relativclyhich rncltiiic
beyond those already known, by adjustment of the physical state polnt potymer and a sheathof relativclylow' rrrcltingpoini
of the polymer is thus remote. polyrrer,which is designed. to florv on hcitirrg.Fibre websarc
lll:11.1 9y tlre applicationof controlledhear antl pressurc, tlrc
Modification of Fibre nDresoelngbondedat cross_over points.
significant
inrprovenrent in quantityfronr availablc-rawmatcrials.In
in flat-spotting
characteristics. acldition,lhe pr.o-
duction of nylon 6 an<t6.6 has now b""; l;;;"d;.t
of lrigh ellicierr_cy, ro u sragc
and thcre rs an enor.lous capitarinvcstrnc.t
in thesetwo libres rhroushoutrhc worlcl.
li rr;;11;;, potynrrri<tc
fibre was ro competccflirivcty ,;^i;i;;;r;"ii*"rr.r
Graf t Polymcriz.ntion ollcr convincingimprovemcnrs'in havc ro
icncrai i"iiii" ir,nrn"r.ri.ti.r,
The grafting of polynrers ancl other substanceson to the sidcs and be capableof producrioni,i .onrp*UiJ
ol polyanridcntoleculesin another chenricaltcchuieuewhich can cheaperprice. iiianfity nt a
produce substantial results. Acrylic acid grafts on nylon 6.6 Dcspitothc blcakoutlookwhich faccsclrallcngcrs
and 6.6,in the generalficl<j,thercrcnraingrcat to nylon 6
provide sodiunr salts which have an attraction for moisturc.
Jpiiortunitics in
Fibre. treated in this way has high wet-creascrecovery propcrties. lhe productiono[ new typesof polyarnidc for spcciaiizcA
trons.A numbcrof suclrpolyanriclc applica_
Calciunr salts of acrylic acid grafts tend to raise the melting fibrcsarc nf..".ly in conr-
point.of the nylon, e.g. to 360.C. or higher dependingupon th- mercialproduction,and othcisare un.lcr<Jcv"f"o,"""t.
'I'he
clcgrecof grafting. nrost obviorrsline ot. approachi"-in"'A.""f"1rnrcnt
Moisture absorpl.ionof nylon fibres nray be increasedby the theseuew polyamiclefibres has'fr."n to "*,,,"i,r" 'tlr" of
gra[t polymerizationof ethyleneoxide on to the Ilbre. Tlrij also using diamincs,<tiacids, cllcct of
amino acids ;,,J-'i;,;i;;,,;
-'ii,a conrnining
inrprovesflcxibility. nrorcor lessthan thc 6 carbol atornsprcscnt'
i,'t ,,.ru,run,.r.
of nylon 6 and 6.6. As would..fr" ,u,ii"irr"i"r'f,"tl,.'puty",,,i.l.,
(3) NEW TYPES OF POLYAMIDE prcparedin this wav arc basicallysi,ull,,r'iii
6 and 6.6, but rhc crrang".i,i ii,;';;;;;,,;' frrlrrciticsto rryl.r,r
ild;;i
groupsin rhc potynrcrcliin arrccrs;;;il;,"n;;;;;;;t., urc nrrritrc
Irilroductiott
[an[ ways. i' irrpor-
During the 40-50 years that have passedsince the intensive
investigation of polyanride fibres began, mauy thousands of poirrt of polyanridcsin a hornologous '"i
"rl13^::l!"g scrics,
polyamidcs have been prepared an<l exanrined ai potential libre- to b.e,
3:,-11f:,:njsj1'". iowerecr
", ti," "r,i,]rr., ,iil,r,rilii'"
forming.nratcrials.Evcry conceivablc<libasicacid, diamine,anrino f;:ip', ::l*:"j_ fol grou
psiu"r"*s...p'i"i
:,1,id". -*pi"r."iiil
rJ ;;";;i;,i,
acid and lactanrhas bccn polymerizcd,and thc polymer spun into ll:.-rl^"],,:"r
_t:ints lowrwocu.rvcs,
".," f;"::ii
fibre. mcthylcne
sroups, and rn;'" rii;r';l;' ;;,' ;ii,;i,.r":;
:Tl*:i_:t
methylenc groups.The
Many of thcse polyanrides have proviclecl fibres which excel evennumbcrsarc highciiii",r"ililj,i
nunbers.
in_prrticular propertiesby cofirparisonwith nylon 6 and nylon
Nylon I l, for cxanrple, whiclr h a s
6.6. But none has yct been developedcommerciallyto the eitent nn cvcn nunrbcr of
nrernytenegroups bctwecnthe arnidc groups,
of presenting a serious challenge to the position of the two has a nrclting poirrt
which is only slightlylorverthan that
establishedfibres. o[ nylon 6, with .5nlcthylcnc
groups separating the anridc groups.
The reason is prirnarily an ecorronric one. None of these
polynulid.
polyanridc libres could be produced in the necessaryquantity Il: T:l,iig.t"int.of a pt'.nvt"n"
is incrcasc<t
ro a sigrrificnnr
and. at a price which would be conrpetitivewith t6at of the :l:::,t",,:t..Jlj':1,1:1,p..
espe_cially
.r;;;';;';';' "i;i;",r":
estatlished nylons. Nor does it seem likely that this position when subsritution
is in rhe pnia p;;iri";:
could change in the foreseeablefuture. I:l:jll:.1b.:rprion is anorhcrir;;ri";a pr;pcrtywhictris
Nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 are both producedfrom raw nraterials
",t^ <tistance.bc
rwee
n trreariiiriee;; ;;."';' ;i,. ;i;:il;
:,T:l I T.,-h:
thenumber or nrettrytcrc
containing 6 carbon atoms, and undcr prcscnt econorniccorr_ :[l: f g;;i;;; ;;;:;;";,,l;;ffiti;il;
absorptionis lowerc<J.
ditions these are rnaterialswhich can be produced clreaply and
lly adjustment
of the scgnrcnt
of polyrncrchlrintltnrsct)lratcs
308
o o t l
o t' t r-: ' -t Spccific Gravity
'c' r.13.
c.YcL()P[ l.l lA o - l l
o ll: l.JE I Ja)lI
Ellcct of Mois(ure
^,_,-'e) Regain 4. l.
(cHa).
I 1
t l
L co-r'ixJ l'hernral Properlies
VALEROLACTAM Melrirtg Poinr : 250-260"C.
P r o r l L t ci ot n o f V a l e r o l a c t l n r
CLrcmicalPropcrties
I'olyntcrization E,rcellcntresistanceto ntost conrmon chcnriclls ln<l solvcrrts.
Valcrolactanr nray be polyrnerized in a manner sirlilar to
caprolactam (seepage264) at a temperature of about 280-290'C.
-l-he NYLON 7
polynter produced in this way (molecullr rveight about
15,000-16,000)is in equilibriunr with sonrc l5 pcr ccnt of low
nrolecularweight cyclic oligonrers. Nylon 7 fibres are spun front polyhcptanor rl iclc (polyocnuntlrl_
r n i d c o r p o l y e n a n t h i r n r i d: c )
Spinning
Polyvalerolactamrnay be nrclt spun in tlrc samc way as nylon 6. [- (crl),,coNH-],,
INTRODUCTION
STI{UCTURE AND PROPERTIES
Polyheptanoamide(nylon 7) fibres have bccn dcvcloncd in thc
The propertiesof nylon 5 llbres are generallysinrilar to those
U.S.,S.l{.under the nanre 'Enant'. The physical propcrtics of
of nylon 6.6.
thesc.fibresarc,.generallysinrilar to thos; ;f nylon 6 nncl 6.6,
Tenacity but there are dillerencesin certain charactcristicswhich coutd
be of commercial significancc.
42.4-44.O cN/tex (4.8-5.0 giden).Wet is about 90 per cent of
dry. I:ibres of up to 83.9 cN/tex (9.5 e/den) may be produced. PITODUCTION
Elougation
Polyheptan
oanrideis ntadeby scl[-condcnsation
oI cithcr 7-trrnino_
20-28 pcr cent. hcptanoicacid or its lactanr.
Initial Modulus
RcnclantSynlhcsis
I-lighcr than nylon 6.6. 'fhe
ntonomcr ntay bc rnadc by thc following routcs:
Crccp Characlcrislics
Nylon 5 fibrcs have low crccp rt clcvatcd tenrpcraturcs,arrd (n) TclonrcriTatiotr
'l'he
lrc an inrprovclncnton nylon 6.6 in this respect. steps in this syntlrcsisarc showu bclow. 'l-clorncriza
tion of
312 313
Polymerizatiou
Self-condensation of the lnonomer is carriccl out in a ntanncr
(b) Cyclohexattorte Roule
sirnilarto that usedin making nylon 6, to yielcla nylon 7 polynrer
The steps in this synthesisare shorvrrbelow. Cyclohexanoneis of molecularweight as high as 30,000.
oxidizctl to caprolactonc (l), which is convcrtcd to 6-chloro-
caproic acid by trcatnrcut with hydroclrloric acid and zinc Spinning
clrloricle(2). ln-thc absenceof oxygcn,nylon7 is thcrnrallystablcup to lborrt
6-chloro-caproicacid is convertcd to 6-cyano-caproicacid by 300"C.As it meltsat about225"C.,mclt spirrning
trcatnrent with cyanide (3), and the ester of this acicl is then nrty be carrictl
out without difliculty.
hyclrogcnatctl lrcirl (4). IIydro-
to tllc cslcr o[ 7-arrrino-hcplanoic Uldcr equilibrium conditions,nylon ? contains only a vcry
lysis of this yields 7-anrino-heptanoicacid (5). snralIproportion (about 1.5 per ccnt) of rnonorncrand otlrcr low
3t4
315
I
, l
IIANDBOOK OF'TEXTILE FINRES
Elongalion
35 per ccnt.
Higher than that of eithcr nylon 6 or nylon 6.6 at 40-60'C. Ileaclant Synthcsis
SpccificGravily
(A) Butatliene Routc
1.10.
Dinrerization of butadicnc providcs cycloocl:rrlicrrc ( l), rvlriclt
Iillcct of Moisturc is hydrogenatcdto cyclooctanc(2). Tliis nr:ry bc convcrtcd to
cap.ryl lactarn by routes sinrilar to thosc uscd in convcnrrrg
Nylon 7 absorbsless nroisturethan cither nylon 6 or nylon 6.6. cyclohexarrcto caprolactanr.(see page263).
Regain: 2.9.
Thcrnral Propertics
Melrirtg poirrr: 220 230"C.
ril
v> /-\ ()
EfJect of IIigh Tentperature. Nylon 7 has a higher resista nce C H , : 6 1 ' 1- c H = C H r (-_,! -fa>-
to the effects of elevated temperatures than either nylon 6 or \J
nylon 6.6. BUTAOIENE CYCLOOCTA- CYCL O O C l A N E
Ellcct of Sunlight
C a p r y l L a c t a r n P r o t l u c t i o n . I J u t a r l i c n cl l o u t c .
lJetter resistanceLhiln either nylon 6 or nylon 6.6.
NYLON 7 IN USI:
(l)) A cctylcnc Routc
Thc highcrnreltingpoint (by conrparisonwith nylon 6) and the Polynrc.rizatio-n
of acctylcneproduccscyclooctir tctrcnc (l), which
lorv moisturcabsorptioncould bc important advantages for rs paruy hydrogcnirtc(lto cyclooctcnc(2). .l-lris is oxidizcd
nylon7 in ccrtainapplications. to
Coupledwith the increasedinitial cycloocteneepoxide (j) lnd transforrncdlo cycloocrlrronc (4).
modulus,the low moistureabsorptionof nylon 7 nrakesfor This is converted to thc oxinrc (5), rvhich undcrgocsihc Ucck-
supcriorrvash-tnd-wearcharacteristics. nrann transformationto capryl Inctant ((r).
3r6 3t7
Elongation
f'6'
o Hc' !,',
C H , = C H- C H = C H ,
40 per cent. HC
BUTADIENE \ /F H ,
cl..!r
SpccilicGravi(y .cilr_ciitct I
1.09.
@,.,- l, s,9 -cYcLoDODECATn
tENE
Ettcct of Moisturc
(cH-
' I )l t (cH,)'
I(egain: 2.5. i
6)
\C/ \c./
Thcrntal Propcrtics tl
I.lotl
N ' l c l t i n gp o i n t : 2 1 0 - 2 1 5 " C . CYCLODODECANONE C Y C L O D O O E C A N OONXEI M E
@-t"
NYLON 12
Nylon l2 fi brcs are spunfrom polylaurylamide
N H , ( C H r ) rC
r OOH o
__--________->
)_jo
: 1r,C,
/
I2 -AMINODODECA NOIC A C I D LAUnYL LACTAM
[-NH(CH"),,CO_],,
P r o d u c t i o r ro [ L a u r y l L a c t : r m f r o r u l ] L r t a d i c r r c .
IN'I'RODUCTION
' r
T I A N D R O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
n : s Y N ' t l t E r l cr l D t t E s
PII.ODUCTION
Aramidsareproduced by reaction
of aromaticcliacid
chlorides
with
aromaticdianrinesin a solventsuch asN.N-climethvlformamide
(DMF). Polynrersare dry spunfrom solventsolutioninto a hot
air streamor wet spun into a coagulating bath, follorvedby
stretching.
STRUCTUI{EAND PROPERT]ES
Ararnidfibresarecomntonlyround or clog-bone in cross-section.
They are paleyellowto crean'lbeforebleaching. Tenacitiesare
h i g h , e . g . 3 8 - 1 9 0 c N l t e x ( 4 . 2 - 2 1. 5 g / d e n )i l r y a n d 2 8 - 1 5 9
cN/tex (3.2-18 g/den)wet. Elongationdecreases with increasing
fibre tenacity, front 3-30% <lry,4-21% wet. Recovery,froni
lorv stretchis alnrost100%.Ararnidfibresarestiff: resiliencv and
recoveryfronr bendingare excellent,anclabrasioirresistance is
high.Sp. gr: l.3B- 1.45.Regain3.5-7.0. Resistance to chenricals
is high,and aranrids areunaffectecl by nrosthousehold chernicals.
They are attackedby concentrated aciclsancloxidisingagentsat
high temperatures. Heat resistance is high,degradation oCcurring
on prolongedheatingin air at temperatures above3700C.The
fibres have very low flamrnabilityand are self-extinguishing.
Sunlightcauses somediscoloration and a slightlossof tenacity.
Aramid fabrics provide effective screensagainsthigh-energy
nuclcarradiation.A goodrangeof fastcoloursnraybe obtained
by usingdisperse dyes.
A R A M I DF I B R E SI N U S E
Fabricsmadefrom aramiclfibressuch as 'Nonrex'and 'Kevlar'
are lustrousand attractive,witK good drapingcharacteristics
and handle.Shaperetentionanrl wearresistance are excellent.
but the high strengthof the fibrescan causepilting.Like other
nylon.fabrics,aramidfabricswasheasilyancldrip-dryquickly.
Dry cleaningdoesnot presentproblenrs. lroningntay be-carriccl
out safely at ternperatures
up to 3000C.
Applicationsfor aramidfibresareconrmonlythosewhichtake
aclvantageof the high strength,lorv flammabilityand excellent
heat resistance, e.g.,specialised
astronautical
and nrilitaryuses,
industrialanclprotectiveclothing,heat and clectricalinsulatiorr
materials,
liltrationclothsand tyre corcls.
326
327
T IA N D I }O O K O F T ! , X ' I ' IL E F I D R E S I}: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES
polyester fibre to be marketed which does not meet the F.T.C. of pounds in the constructionof 'Terylcnc' plants. In Jtnunry
delinition, and could not, therefore,be called a polyesterfibre! 1955,a large plant came into productiorr,with an annual caplcity
of 5 rnillion kg divided alnrost ecluallybetwecn filrrrrcnt yarrr
Federal Trade Cotnnissiott Delinitiotr a n c ls t a p l e .
In 1956,a second unit of similar capacity began production,
The generic terrn polyester was adopted by the U.S. Federal "l'crylene'plant
a n d t h i s w a s f o l l o w e db y a i n N o r t l r c r r rl r c h r r d .
Trade Commission for fibres which satisfy the following official
definition:
Polyester. A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming
In thc U.S.A., the du Pont company bcgan producing lrE'f
substanceis any long-chainsynthetic.polynrer conrposedof at
fibre on an experimcntalbasisin 1950.The fibrc wls known in
least 85 per cent by rveightof an estei of a substituteclaronratic
its early days as'Fiber V', but was subscqucntlygivcn thc tmtlc
carboxylic acid, inclucling but not restricted to substituted
name 'Dacron'.
terephthalate units p(-R-O-CO-C6H4-CO-O-) and para-
PET polycsterfibresarenow beingproducctlin uranycourrtlics.
substituted hydroxybenzoate units p(-R-O-C6Ha-CO-O-).
CH,
l
</ COO|I
</ COOCltr
coo cH" coo cH, cH,oH
cH,oH
6\ l7'n P .X Y L E N E
" a\ r- T E R E I } I ' I ITI A L I C D I M E TI . I Y I -
\.',
t -
cH20H
- > t t
\./
ACtO 1EREPHIHALArt:
coo cHl COO CH? CHaon
ETHYLENE DIETHYLENE PET Polycs(crF i b r c s . l ) r o r l u c t i t r r r o f r r r o r ro t r r c r s
GLYCOL GLYCOL
TEREPHTHALATE
-t
D: S Y N T I I E T I C F I I }R E S
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTTLE FI BRES
(,
t-Z
<tr
tr.rL
r- It
HO (CHr)roH
ETHYLENE
uj
GLYCOL d
g
lll
| H + H' o
J
"ol--oc(
' )coo1cu,1,o- o'
| \ / . Jn
F-
TEREPHTHALATE
POLYETHYLENE
lvv v, ,l
I 'll + Ho (cHr) oH :
@
l
coocllt o O l
i z6 rq'
7fr
\
POLYETHYLENETEREPHTHALATE ^YEL?.|!.. o
polyethyleneterephthalate u
Pro<luctionof 7a t--{
z< lrJ
zu
Spinnlng
?z
Polyethylene terephthalatemelts at about 260"C''
and the molten ?{
nolvmerisstablesolongasoxygenisrigorouslyexcluded.Every
5>
ai in th" .p.olvmerization
riett spin-nine'
i;;J'^['ft;;-;;i";
"oting in-tocontactwitb the molten loFl
il;;,'io-pr"""tt-"i'
nolvmer. . z
l@+-ol
""il"il;
spinningbuil<'ling, the chips of polymer-aredried to d l@+lofl
of-moittuttl'und the; passe<l.to.storage
hoppers' o
I t7-1-
r;;;it;;;; to the spinning
l
required
nri,. irt,j ri"ip"t" iu. chips are fed al =
"'i;i;;;t
machines. usedfor \]|}$]llrlilnlTlri|Nrn
i€
is carriedout in a mannersimilarto that through *--**"'i
pumped-
";;;;i;; nur"t, ttt" n"'oiiitt polvmer being
ili#'il; ,pi""Jt.i. a, the filamcntsemersc'thev solidifv and
arewoun<linto packages of undrawnyarn'
335
JJ'+
1I
I
, l
,l
I
tl
tIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES I
The undrawn yarn is stretchcdto about live tirnesits original the construction of the fabric and on thc tensionsrvhich are
Icngth on drarv-twistmachines,the stretchingbeing carried out developed during setting. In othcr rcspccts,thc scqucnce is
usually at elevatedtemperature.If high tenacity yarn is being attractive,and it is linrited only by thc fastucssof thc availablc
nrade, the filaments are drawn to a higher degree than in the dycstuflsto sublinrationunder heat-scttingconditions.
nranufacturcof regular tenacity yarn.
It is normal practice for PET polyester yarns to be drawn hot, Scouring
as this gives a more uniform product than cold drawing. The PET polyesterlibrcs arc supplied in a high statc of clcanlincss,
stretchingof heavy denier yarns and monofilamentsmay, how- and it is gcnerally unnccessaryto scour thc ntatcrial prior to
cver, be carried out at room temperature,as the poor heat dycing. If, horvcver, a batch of fibrc should bcconrc so dirty as
conductivityof thc libre makes for irregularitiesin thick lilaments to require scouring,the bath may be sct with
which are drawn hot.
Water 1,000 parts
Sroplc Fibrc Sodn ash 2 parts
Staple fibrc is producedby spinning a great nurutrcrof filarnents Detergent,such as tcxtile soap,
and bringing thenl togetherto fornr a lreavy tow. This is drawn or Lissapol C, D, NC or ND I prrrt
and then crinrped nrechanically,and the crinrp is set in the fibre The tcnrpcrnturc is raised to 70'C. for 15-30 mirrutcs antl,
by heat treatment.The torv is then cut into stapleof the desircd altcr scouring,thc goodsshould bc rinscd tlroroughlyto clinrinntc
lcngth. all tracesof alkali. A small quantity o[ acctic acid nrty bc addcd
to the final rirrsc.
PITOCESSING PET polyestergoods will oftcn acquirc dirt lnd stains durirrg
manufacture,including aftcr-waxingagcntsrpplied to sizcdwarp
The basic finishing processcsfor 100 per cent PET polyester yarns, loom stains and othcr forms of soiling. II goods nrc
filanrent yarn fabrics may be arranged in the following three heat-set before removal of thcse stains, subsequentclcaning of
sequences: the goods will become di{licult and perhaps irnpossiblc.It is
(l) Scour - heat-sct- dye prcferable, thercfore to scour goods bcforc heat-sctting.A blth
(2) Fleat-set- scour - dye of the following cornpositionis comrnonly uscd:
(3) Scour - clye - heat-set
Water 1,000parts
Loonr stains and other forms of contaminationare difiicult z Soda ash 2-3 parts
to rcmove frorr cloth which has been heat-set,a.ndit is prefer- or causticsoda (llakc) 0.5 pr rts
able to scour before heat-setting.Also, goods which have not Detergcnt,
suchas textilesoap,
been heat-setbefore dyeing will tend to shrink during dyeing, LissapolC, D, NC or ND l-2 parts
and the dyed goods will be subjected to high-tenrperaturesafter
dycing. For these reasons,sequence(l) is the most gcnerally Fabrics of relatively opcn structure, such rs voilcs,
usefu[. nrarquiscttes
and lerrosmry bc scouredin a shallowwinch at
Scquence(2) elinrinatcsa drying processand is suitable for temperatures
below60'C.
fabrics which are pcrlectly clean in the loomstate.It is, however,
Illcachirtg I
rarely used for PET polyester fabrics except in the case of
curtairr ncts. Thc nrtural white colour of PET polyeslcr fibrcs is usunlly I
I
lf sequcnco(3) is uscd,sornestifTeningof the fabric is likcly to satisfactory for nrost purposcs,and blcnclring is unrrcccssrry. I
occur following hcat-sctting.The degreeof stiflcningdependson Whcn fabrics arc to be finishcd white a slightly inrprovcd I
336 337
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IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTHETIC FIIIRES
colour nray be obtainedby bleachingin a bath set with 2-3 parts Techniquesreconrmendedfor obtaininga good whitc finish on
o[ soclium chloritc per 1,000parts of watcr at pH 3-4. Other PEI polyester and blcnds are outlincd bclow.
common blcechingagentshave little or no ellect on the colour
of PET polycster fibres. 100 per cent PET Polyester and pEI' polycstcrlNylon IJIcnls
The best results are obtained by making use of fltrorescent
brightcning agents.Those used with PET polyesterfibres com- lI/ orp- kni I t ed F ab rics
monly havc the following characteristics
: An exccllcnt white is obtained by trcating thc hcat-sct flbric
(a) A relatively high dyeing temperature is required. One with acidifiedsodium chloritc, followed by tlrc applicationof a
result of this is that they are virtually non-eflectiveas additives fluorescentbrighteningagent at 130.C., or 100"C. with a corn_
in domesticwashing powders. patible carrier, on a beam-dyeingmachinc.
With most brighteningagents,a goocl whitc can bc obtainc<l
(b) Hieh wet fastness.This ensureslittle loss under normal
by a single-bathmcthod in which the fluorcsccntbrightcnirrg
washing conditions, obviating the need for restoration of the
agent and conrpatiblccarrier are includcd in Lhcsotliuruchloritc
white during washing.
liquor.
(c) Lightfastness is high enough for all apparel uses, and in
most cascsis suitablealso for furnishingsand curtairrs. lVcft-knitted Fubrics
Fluorescentbrightening agents are applied by the mcthods Weft-knittedfabrics rnay bc handlcd on thc winch, using sinrilur
uscd in dyeing with dispersedyes, i.e. techniques.
(a) Applicatiorr at the boil, without carrier.
Wovett Fabrics
(b) Application at or ncar the boil, with carrier.
The.beam-dyeingmachine is recommcnclccl for blcachingwovcn
(c) High temperatureapplication (130'C.), without carrier.
fabrics. Alternatively,the jig may bc uscd, thc conccntrationof
(d) Application by pad-thernrofix techniques. chlorite bleachingchemicalsbeing increasci by sonrc20 per ccnt
The nrethod selectedwill depend upon the type of machinery to compensatefor thc shortcr liquor.
available, and the structure of the fabric. Most [abrics may
be handledon a bcam-dyeingmachine at or above 100"C.,while Pad-Thennofix Applicatiott ot' Fluoresccn! Ilrighttning Agcttt
a jig may be used for the more stable woven fabrics. Padding and baking the fluorescentbrightening agcnt, without
Rope processingin the winch is often used,especiallyfor warp- cherwicalbleaching,is often enrployccl,
cspccinllylor warp-knittcd
knitted fabrics. There is some slight risk of rope marking, but or woven curtain nets.The processis chcaperthan thoscdcscribc<l
this can usr.rallybe removed during subsequentstentering. above, but the results are usually in[crior.
The selectionof a particular fluorescentbrightener depends
.The taking stagemay be combined with hcat-sctting,anclllso
upon the fluorescenttonc and fastnessrequired, and on the with chemical finishing whcre this is carricd out, providing a
method of applica{ion.The amounts of brightener and carrier very economical finishing proccdurc.Thc pa<ldingliquor "on_
arc dctcrnrincdby the strcngtlrand eflcctivencss of the products, tains suflicient brightening agcnt, basc<lon tl,c ""pr"ssion oI
and the nrrnufacturers'instructionshould be followed. the mangle, to give the rcquircd tntount on thc fabr.ic..l-lris
Most Iiuorescentbrighteningagcntssuitablc for PET polyester varics with thc product and the effcct rcquircd, nncl thc nurnu-
fibres nray be applierl fronr a soditrm chloritc blcach liquor, so facturers'instructionsshould bc followccl.No crrricr is nccdctl,
that a onc-stngcclrcnricalnnd optical blcach is possible.Carriers but a wetting agcnt nrily bc incorporntcdit dcsircd.
of the o rtho-phenyl-phcnol class nrust not be usc.d.howcver. Altcr padding ancl drying, thc fabric is hcrtcd on il srcnlcr
either during or after chlorite bleaching. aL 220"C. for lG-30 sccondsdepcndingon thc chl rirctcristicsof
338 339
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HANDBOOK I]: S YNTTIETI C FI BRES I
the stenter.Excessiveexposure to high temPeratureshould be to relax in boiliug water, comrnonlyby sonrc7 pcr ccnt. At.
avoided in order to avoid inrpairing the brightening ellect. 130'C.,shrinkage is of the ordcrof l0 pcr ccnt.
If unsetyarns in packagefornr are subjcctcdto any proccss,
PET PolycsterlCellulosic Fibre Blcnds suchas dycin[,involvingclevatcdtcnrperaturc, thc shrinkagcwill
Chemical bleaching should be employed, especiallywhen the
bring aboutconsolidation of the packagc. In dycing,this rcstricts
cellulosic component is cotton. For best results, fluorescent thc evenflow of dye liquor and causes unlcvcldycing.
brightening agentsshould also be applied for both components Beforedyeing,PET polycstcrfilanrentyiuns rrc wound on to
of the blend. colhpsiblepapertubcsand relaxcdfor 20 nrinutcsin sirturrtcd
Several methods of chenricalbleaching may be used, the choice
steanr,preferablyat a temperature 5'C. highcrthan thc uurxinrurrr
depending on the result required and the equipment available. temperaturewhich will be reachedin thc dycing.
Acidified sodium chlorite provides a nrost effective single-stage Precautions shouldalwaysbe takcn to cnsurcthat conditions
bleach, and a high white is obtaincd from a chlorite blcach in the stearning chamberare as unilorm as possiblc.Variation
followed by a peroxide bleach. .in the steamscttingconditionscan causevnriatiouin clycirrg
A good result is also obtaincd from a hypochlor.ite bleach
properties,and it is prclerableto steamthc wholcof cachdycing
follorvedby alkalinehydrogenperoxide.Hypochloritc or peroxide batch at the sametimc.
used alone as a single stage proccss will givc a white sttitable
for nrany purposes, e.g. as ground for subsecluent dyeing. IIclt-Sclling
Processesexcluding chlorite are gcnerally more suitable for Tho purposcof heat-settingis to stabilizethc fabric to thc cflccts
colour-wovengoods. of any hcat trcatmcnt which it nray rcccivc in subscqucntfinish-
'l'hc
Depending on the weight and construction of the fabric, it ing processcs,in making-up, or in usc. sclcction of hc:rt-
rnay be possible to heat-set and then process in rope form at settingconditionsis controllcd,thcreforc,by thc intcndcrlcnd-usc
temperaturesup to 100'C. without undue risk of rope marking. of the fabric and by thc thcrnralhistory of thc yarus fronr which
Lighter weight fabrics, and those of tight construction generally, it is constructed.
must be handled in open rvidth on the bearn machine or jig. For PET polyesterfabrics,tho heat settingtcmpcraturcshotrltl
PE1'polyestcr/{lax blends may be bleachedaccordinglo these which are to be uscd in plcatirrg,
bc highcr than the tenrperirtures
gcncral principles,but nrore intcnsetrcatntcutis rcquircd. cnrbossingor calcndcring,so as to clinrinate thc possibility of
uncontrolled shr.inkagein thcseproccsscs.It should bc cnrphirsiz-ctl
PET Polycster I lVool Blends that the. ability of PEf polyester fibre to acccpt.a pcrrnancnt
The PET polyester component canuot be bleached with chlorine set is riot inlluenced by the temperaturcof prior hcat-sctting.
compounds in the presence of the wool cotuponent. Chernical In this respect, PET polycster fibres difler from sonrc othcr
blcaching of PET polyester/wool blends is virtually restrictcd, synthetic fibres.
therefore, to the blcaching of the wool. Hydrogen peroxide is
the preferred agent, and bleaching is carried out after a fluores- Steant Sclling
cent brightcning agent has bcen applicd to the FET polyestcr Prcssurcsterming is not rccontnrendcdfor thc scttirrgof I'l:'l'
component. This corrects any yellowing of the wool which may polycsterfabrics, bccauscof vrriations bctrvccnthc insitlc nrrtl
have occurred during the application of the ageltt to the PET the outsideof thc batch in thc dcgrccsof shrirrkagcatttl rcstntint
polyesterfibrc. which arc produccd.
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Il/\Nt)llOOK Oli I llx.lll-li liilllllrS Il: .SYNl llI: l IC t:lllttt:S
s l r l t l cs l r o r r l rbl c o n l l r c l r E ' l ' l t o l y , g s l cs or n t l ) o n c l l t . j l' l:'l' I' o I)' t,sI cr I Ct'II trIo.ri c I;'i br c IJIctttI t,t! I,-ttbri c.r
\ \ / l r c n r v h i t c r c s c r v c c f f c c t sa r c r c q u i r c r l ,l l r c s cs h o u l c la l r v a y s 'l-h.c
II
r n o s t r v i r l c l ya p J r l i c r b l cr r r c l h o r fr o r t l r c p r i r r r i r r g. I I ' l : l .
b c p r o d ' c c d o . t h c I r E , - fp o l y c s t c rc o l t ) p o r ) c t r-tl.' h i si s t h c o a s i c r p o l l ' c s t c r / c c l l u l o sfiicb r c b l c r r d c cf r; r b r i c sr r r a k c s, , r . u i r r r i x t t r r c s
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350 351
I I , \ N D I ] O O K OI: I I:X I ILL trllll{llS
I}: .SYNl'IIll'rIC III ItRI]S
S I I i L l C Il t - rI { l r z \ N D I ) l { O I ) l I: i ' l l l : , S
I r i . r c s r r i t r r b rf .cr , o r r r a r r c x t i r cp . r r ) o s c s . r
s r a . c r a r cprr o c c s s c sc,. g . f a r s c - t r v i s t i r r g , f . r b u r k i r r gr r y
I ' L ' l ' p o l y ' c s t cfrl b ' c s a r c s u p p l i c di . t r r c f o r r r ro [ i s p r o r r L r c c aI r.r a t l r r i i i . r r ,
fira're't ylrrrs,
s t a p l c f i b r c a n r l t o r v . - f h e p r o p c r t i c so I t h c I i b r c ; r P I c l r r L r c c r - t r t r r yk ac rcnr . ,k.l r o r v na s
t y f r c j , , , r , r r v : r i l i r . r cI.r r s . r r r c
can t.st rr" c : r s c st,r i l o b ' l c r o s s _ s c c l i oy n
c . r s i d c r e db y d i v i d i ' g t h c v , r i o r r st y p c so I I r b r c a . l i s p r o v i c l c ct ln g l u " " u i l . ' , i . , ,
into thr..,.,.,,,i,., i,,
8ro.l)s, ( l) lrigh tc'.city h a n c l l ca n < ll t r s t r c .
.lil.rrrc.t y^r', (2) ,rcdiunr t.,,;.iit
l l l ; r r r c _ r1r 'ta r . , ; r ' r l ( 3 ) s t ; r p S t a b i l i z c db u l k c d y . a . r . ra) sr c r l s o p r o t i L r c c t l
r cf i b r c . ' r - i r c sgcr . o . l ) sr i i [ [ c rc o ' s i r r c r - froru,.l.crylcnc,
a b l y f r o r r r c u c h o t l r c r i n r c s p c c ro" f c c r t r i i r p h y s i c . r p r o r r c r t i e s , polycstcrfibrc.'r'rr ey rlif'r'.r' h o,,,ccrtJirr'.otlrc, rr,ir[.,ry;,;;,i:;.;.
b . t r v i r l r i r rn.r ) y o r c g r o r r l ld i [ I c . c r ) c eusr e g c . c r a i l y f t r l s c - t r v yi s. tr r s , i r r h a v i r r gr . r v s r r r i ' k . 1 ; c ,
o'ly^slight, l o r v. * t . , r . i t , i t i t y ' . , , , t
a l t h o u g l r . l t c r : r t i o , i ' c l c . i c r l r ^ y a f l c c t s o r r r cc h a r a c t c r i s t i c s . frccdornfronr torcprci^ sirrgrcs rnr,ri."i.r,.,,clrts
'l to sizc rrorc ca.sil1,. c.,, bc krrittcrl
h c v a l u c s f o r t r r c p h y s i c a rp r o p c r t i c s d c s c r i b c d
berorvarc
arcl is f.cilitrrr.,f;fri"rt.frif;;;ii;;,
t h o . s cw ' l r i c h . ' r y b c r c g a r r r c cars t y p i c a l o f f i b r e bclorcclycingis noi rcrruircd. .flrris^irg
i . t h c s t a t ei '
r v h i c h i t i s r r a ' r r [ a c t u r c d a r r r r . u i ' r 1 r t i . a c, r t r r c r I - l i g ht c n a c i t yI i l a r l c n jt r ^ . : i . l r r i g h t
as flla'c't or I r r s t r ci n a n r r r g co I
sluplc.
-l-lrc
p r o p c r t i c so I n r a t c r i a ll v l r i c h h a s b e c n p r o c c s s e r l y a r ' c o u ' t s .' l ' l r ei r r d i v i d L rf ial rl r r r r c ' t s
irr a r c ,r v i t l , i . r r ; . * ; ; ; i ; , , ; ,
s o n r cl l t a n l l c r ,c . g . h c a t _ s cot r s p u l l i n t o s t a p l cy a r n " t 5 , ( l d t e x ( 5 r t c n )a t ) p r o xS. . ; ; ; ; i t y l c s
tvill usually y: ia: lrl ' v a r yi r rt e ' r r a c a o t . h i g hr c n a c i r y
r l i f f c r f r o n r t l r c p r o p c r t i c so [ f i b r c a s s r r p p l i c cLl y
thc pro,ltrcci.
i t ryr da l s oi ' e x t c . s i o rcr l r r r r c t c r i s t i c s .
'l'lrc , S t . ' l c f i l l r c i s r i r u , t li cr r , , , r , , g . u i . : c , r r r r t s
i ' [ o r r r r . t i o ' i ' t r r i ss c c t i o ' i s r . , n i c <r t, 1 . , o t, r , c p r o p c r t i c s f r . r r r 1 . 7 _ _I l t lr c x
clI I' l: l' polyeslcrfibres supplicd by l.C.l. l]ibrcs 'trnrlcr ( 1 . 5 j . L Jr l,c n )i r r t l r r l l
I_kI., . l u s t r cV s .l i r i o r r st y p c s ,r v l r i c lrrr l r yt l i l l c r
t h c t r l r r l cn i u r r c ' - l ' c r y l c n c ' .
ll]l]i!.l,,bl.v in propcrrics,
'rc.rlc,sigrrcrt
slic:cir.icrllt li;,',;;J,i;,',j;;
"l'crylerrc'filarucnt v;l:l.orl: s y s t c r r rssu, c ha st l r cr v o r s t c c l , , u , x , l l c , r , . , , t l ; , , ' ; ;
y a r n s a r c p r o ( l u c c ( lr n a * , i t l c r a n g c o I : ] r i ' ' r i r r g
t y p c s a n r l c o t r r r t sN . l a n y l r c i n t c r i r r i r r g l eocrl p r o r l u c e rt c xt ur c t l . l l i r x s y s t e r ) ) s' S. . r r r cs t u p l cr b r p l r r t i c t r l a r
''l'crylcnc' p r . r l ' c e di ' b r i g h t l u s t r c a, r r l r r r a i s - c c l l o a p ' r i c . t i o i r si i , , r i , ,
ulri lcrtrrci s . v , i r r r l l ci r r
f i l a n r c n t y a r n i s s r r p p l i c cri v i t h a n o n r i n a l ' S ' t r v i s t
o [ ] t u r n / i r r c h ( 3 0 t u r r r s / r n c t r c ) . ' I . l r i s k r r o r v r ra s ' pr o c l r r c c c c r t a l l lt y p c s .
r
t r v r s t ' ,a n r l t l r c a c t t r t r l c v c l v a r i c s r v i t h t h c d c n i c r o I
t I r e y ar r r c r i r r y r c c lt o r v i s s r r p P r i c cf o
c o n c c r r r c cal s, s l r o * , ni n t h c f o l l o r v i n gt a b l c : r r p r o c c s s i r ) go ' t r r c c o r . r v c r t c r
s y st c n ts .
P r o t l t t c c r ' l ' w i s to f , 7 ' c r 1 , ! s 1 1F"i 'l u t r t e t t tI , t t r t t
I r r a c l r l i t i o nt o ' s t : r r r < J a r a ' _ s tfai p r c
Yonr itttx(dut) Avcrogc',S''1'rli.r.r b r c , t , " v .v a r i c r i c sr v i r l rr o * , c r
p i l l i ' g t c . c l c . c i c sa r c r r r a r r ct o r
1'ttrtrsfittclt i r s c i , , , u o o i l " , .a, r r t rr v . r s t c r rb l c . r r s
7'trrtr.rf trtclrc rvit^ woor' Sincc t'is, crraractcristi.
2 8( 2 s ) 0.1 ;r g.i,r.,r .t t'c cx'crrscoI
l2 t c ' a c i t y a n d d t r r a b i r i t yt,r. r c p a rt i c u l a r ' L y j r c
4.t(40) 0.3 t2 g i v c . c r r d - u s c' r r s [ [ r e c l r o s c ' ' r v i r r r t o b c r r s c t li r l a . y
-56 (s0) 0.3 ; ; , ; . . ' i t ' o . . * , , , . , . , 1 ' ,trrcr c, r o r v c s l
12 , i l l i r r g v a r i c t y c a r r ' c u s c r li r r l u n r " t y - i u o u . rI r. t l i c s ,
B 4( 7 s ) 0.4 t6 r v c a r ,r v l r c r c
il0(t00) rcrluired a,rcl,uli.rc';*i',;;;.rrrr'rtriliry
is 'ot .t.
0.5 20 :1,l,?,i
p r t r r r,1::f1c,is
rcr r r p o r t a n c c .
r40(125) 0.5 20 I I i g h t c n i r c i t yh, i g r rr. r r o t r r r r uf isb r c i s p r . t r r r c c r r
r67(ls0) 0.[J 32 c ( ) t t o r )s y s t c . r . ' r ' r r i si s f . r r r s c. r r r l r c
2 t6 ( 2 s 0 ) 1.0 | : r r t i c r r r urry t r c s i g r r c dr t , r b t . , , , t i , , f , u i 'tr,
40 c o t t o nr v l r c r cy . r r s r t r r rf . b r i c s r . , fi i r c r c , r s l d
l t l c c l i r r rtrc r r ; r c i t yf i h r ' e r r t y a ' r i s p r o t r t r c cirrlr s r r c . g r r r rr . cr c r l r r i r c t l .
, a ra.gco{' l r J c t l i u n rt c n a c i t y ' ' r ' c r y r c r r ca' ,r t l r o r r g l r
I t r s t r ccsl a s s i f i cads b r i g J r t r, r r i al ' c l c x t r ar l u l r , , , , i . a s r r . , , , 1 r3jb r c , l r i r s l r
i , , ' . ' , r ' , , " *; i,- c o r r r ' a r ; r t i v c l lyr i g h c x t c ' s i b i l i t y ,
c o r . t s a ' r i . u r r r bres o f f i , l l r ' c r r tp. sc ' y a r ' . I . t r r c t l r c c x t c r r s r o r r r .b r c . k [ r c i r r g
w r , r c i iyi s c r i 3 0 5 0 p c r c c r r t .L a r 1 l c< 1 . . r r r i t i cosf t r r i s
c . r r r r t .sl - 5 6 , 8 . tl,l 0 a . d .l 6 f - t l t c x( 5 b , 7 5 , 1 0 0 , f i b ' c : r r c b r c r r r r cst .r c c c s s -
150;l;,,i';1,; f t r l l y r v i r ' c o t t o . b t i t r t r . r r r r r c llro r v c r
i r r t l i v i r l tfri al al r r r c rlrrtcsc l c l ro l 2 . 2 d t c x( i t l c n )i l p p r o x . c x i c r r s i t . , i r (i r yr r o t l . r r r s. r).
c o t t o r r i, v h o s cc x t c l r . s i ot ,r t b r c ^ k i s
o r r l 15, l 0 , , c r : . . , , t ,1 , , . u i , , - t ,
352
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]OOK OI: I:II}I{I]S I]: SYNI IIEI IC I:II]III:S
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I l i g l r t c r r : r c i t Iyi l r r r r r c r r [t ]: , 1I p c r c c r r [( r l c p c r r r l i ror g
n t1,pc)
l r , l c d i u nltc n a c i t yf j l a r r r c n t :1 5 _ j 0 1 . , . . " , . , i
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I r { c r l i L r rtrcrn a c i t ys t l p l c : 3 0 5 0 p c r c c r r t
'l'lrc
c x t c r r s i o r r .bI r c u k i s v i ' t r r ^ l l yr r . l r l [ c c t c [t rl y r r r ' i s t r r r c .
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''l'crylcrc'
f i b r c s h a v c . g o o t l r c c o v c r y f r . t l r r s t r c r c l r ,. r r t l f r . r r r
c o n r p r c s s i o n b, c r r d i l r ga r r r l s l r c l r r . .
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'l-crylcnc'
l r l s l h i g h r c s i s t : r r r c ct o t c n s i l c t l c f o r . r r r r t i o r irn l l r c
t . c g i o r r. f c x l c r r s i . . [ ' r v l r i c l r [ i b r c s : r r . cr r r o s ts t r t r j c c t
r l L r r i r r gr r s c
( 0 - 5p c r c c . t ) . - l ' h c i r r i t i n l r r r o d t r r oi f cr.sticity for thc fo,,r iyl.,cs
t ' f I i b r c : r r ca s f o l l o r v s :
I l i g l . r t c r r l c i t y [ ' i l l r r r c r rt t 9 1 . , 1 . , 4 , g c N / t c x (
,I | l() | .10
r / t l c r r)
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. . - 3 s 3 - - ! . . 0
I I i g ht c n a c i tsyt r p l c7: 0 6c N / t c x1 { 1 r0: / t l c r r j l l ) l ) r o x .
''l l \ 1 c ' t l i r rt rcrnr r c i t ys t u P l l .2 ( r . 55- . 1 0c N / t c x( l i l ' f , Og . / r l c r r . a p p r o x .
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IIANDNOOK OF 1'IIX'I'ILE, III I}ItLS
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r\ r'cr:rgc T'orrglurcss 'r''ttltcrrtrtrrc:
lilJact ()l Ltrv AL - 40.c., tlrc tcrr.city of
I I i - g ht c n r c i t l , f i l ; r r r r c n t0 : . 3 2 5g . - c r n . / t l c n i c r - c n r . 'l
c r ; ' l c ' , . ' i ' c r c u s c sb y 6 p c r c c r r [. . t r i t s c . r t c r r s i b i r i t y
N ' cl r l i t r r r rt c n a c i t y l j I l n t c n L : 0 . 5 0 g . - c l u . / c l c r r i c r - c n r . ,t..,",,r",
b y 3 0 p c r c c r r tr c l r r t i v ct o t l r c r . c . . c i t y^ t 2 0 , , c .
rrt _i00.c., rt,..
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tlrocxtc,rsibiriiy,
c t c c r c u s cbsy l rb o u t 3 5 p c r c c r rl .
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t 1 6 0 " C . ,, . 1 . c r 1 , 1 gr1c.t,l.r,i n sa b o t r t
ttttttlttltts, yants apcl fiblcs 1r'c rrroststrbjccIi1 trsc, .of
h:rl[ t c . . c i r y a t n o r r r r r l t c r r r p c r ^ t u r c' r. r r c c f l ' c c t o . t r r c
t l r c y c x l r i b i t n c g l i g i b l c c r c c l ) . ' 1 ' c r 1 , l c n c 'f i l l n r c n t y a n r , f o r .ils
I c ' ^ c i r y o [ ' ' r ' c r y l c . c ' o . fp r o r o . g c d c x , o s u r c
c . t u n r p l c ,r c c o v c r s c o n t p l c t c l y f r o r n a n c x t c n s i o n o f I l t c r c c n t , to'igh Ic.rl)cra-
t t r r c si s s r n . l l i . c o . r p a r i s o rrr, v i t ht l r c c r l c . cot ' , r r r . y . i l r c r
l r r r l r c c o v c r y i s n r o r c t h : r r r9 0 l t c r c c r r t c o r n l t l c l c a [ t c r a r r c x t c n - fibrcs,
[ r o t h r r r a r r - r n l cal cn r l n a t r r r a l .
s i o n o f 3 p c r c c n t . ' l ' l t c r c c o v e r y f i g r r r c sf o r s t a p l c f i L r r c su r c l o r v c r I l c a t c c li . i r i r a t r - 5 ( ) " c .' ,' r - c r y r c ' c ' i so ' r y s r i g l r t l y
t l r r r r t l r o s c f o r f i l a r r r c n ty l r r n , c l t r ct o t l r c p a r t i i r l l y n o u - r c c o v c r a b l c trisc<lrorrrcrr
a l t c r o . c r . o ' t h ; i t . r c t ' i . s r r b o L r gt 5 p c r c c r r t
r c r r t o v l l o f c r i r r r p l r o r r r s t i r p l c f i b l e r l t r r i r r gl o u d i n g . oi' irs origirr,l
s t r c n g t ha l t c r I r r r o n l ha n c l5 5 p c r c c n I a l . l c r6 r u o n t l r s .
A l r r : r s i o l tI l c s i s ( u n c c
I r o r i r l c r r t i c a l l yc o r r s t r t r c t c rrl n a t c r i ; r l s t, l r c : r b r . : r s i o rrtc s i s t l r r c co f I ; l o n rr t t rbt i l i l y
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^t rr
l r t o s t t c x t i l c f i b r c s , b o t l r n u t r r n r l i r n r l r n : r n - r r r l d c ,b c i r r g c . r c c c r l c c l t c r i p c r a t r r rb ccl'w its ig.itior poi,t. A flurrrc.pplicrr
'l-hc t c lt l r c( i r r r c
o n l y b y n 1 , l o n a n r o r . r gt l t c c o n r r n o n c r f i b r c s . lrbrasionrcsis- c i . . r s c sr I t o r r r c l t ,r v i t l r t l r c f o r r r r ^ t i o ror [ ^ r r r t , i t c r l
bc.tr wlriclr
t u r r c c s < ; f t l r c l o r v c r - p i l l i r r gv a r i c t i c s l r r c I c s s t h a n t l t a t o f t h c i g ' i t c s r v i t h d i f l i c u r t ya n d b u r . s r v i t h : r s o o r y | r ; r r r t c .
Gcrrcr;rily,
s l r r r r r l u r t tl y p c , b c i n g g c n c r i r l l y o I t h c s u n t c o l r l c r a s r v o o l . I l r c n r o l t c ' b c . d r r r . o p sf . o r r r t r r c b L r . r r i r r rgr r . t c r i : r [, " v l r i c l r
is
l l r c r c b y c x t i r r g t r i s l r c cl cr ^, v i . g n c l a f ' t c r g r o l v . ' r ' r r c
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,,i
r. 1 8 . 1 0 0l r e rc c r r t' ' r ' c r y r c . c ' f ^ b r i c sr v, r r c 'l c s r c rrrr c c o r c r i . g
to ti >^.zycr,
c u t t b c < l c s c r i b cads b c i r r go I l o r v f l : r r r r r r r a b i l (i rl ty. , i . i ' i
l , l l l c c to f l \ l o i . s t u r c ril. i:,,,,-
s t . r L r c t i oart,l t l i t i v c sI ,r r r i s l r cusr r c trl r c
''l'crylcnc':r[tsor'trs r ) l . c s c . cocr .o t r r c rf i r r cr s r v i l r ,
o r r l y a v c r y s r u t r l la n r o r r r rot I r r r o i s t r r r c , : r r r c l o I c o u r s c ,i r r l ] r r c ' c cc o r r s i c l c r : r brlryr c b L r r . r r i rcr rgr , r r l , c t c r i s t i c s
,,f
t h c t c r r a c i t ya n d c l o n g a t i o n : r r c u r r a f l ' c c l c br ly l r r o i s t r r r c- .l ' h c a r r y p a r t i c u l l r rf a b r i c .
r r c l i s t L r rrcc g l i n i s a 1 ; p r o x i n t a t c l 1 , 0p.c4r c c n t a t 6 5 p c r c c n t r . h .
trrrt2 l 0'C. , S p c t ' i f i cI I c u t : 0 . 2 ] c a l . / g . c l c g .C . a t 2 0 " C .
I ) r o l o n g c cclx l ) o s r r roc [ ' - l - c r y l c n ct' o n r o i s t t r r lct h i g l r t c n t p c r a -
t r r r c s ,c . g . b o i l i n g u ' a t c r o r s t c l r r r , u , i l l b r i n g a b o L r ta s l o r v
I - u t c n ! I I c u t o l I : t t . t i o r t .I l - l 6 c l r l . / g .
t l c t c r i o r r r t i oinr r t l t c y r l r y s i c lpl r o l r c l t i c so f t l r c f i b r c t l t r ct o I r 1 , , 1 ' . , , -
l 1 ' s i so I t h c p o l l , c s t c pr 'o l l , r n c r .
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f i b r c s . ' - l - c r y l c n c ' n l r t c r i a l s r n a y b c s L r b j c c t c t rl v i t h o t l t t l a t t i l t g c
S h r i n k a gIe' r o P c r t i c s
t o a l t y o f t h c u s u a l b l c a c h i n g n g c n t s ,i n c l t r d i n g t l t o s c b a s c t l o r t
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hypoclrloritc, cliloritc, lrydrogcn pcroxidc, pcr-sltlts ltlltl tlrc
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.ttritkagc of f r l a n r c n ty . a . r nisn b o i l i n g w a t c r l s
h i g h c t 't h a n t h c h o t - a i r t c r c i l i n n o r r n a l t c x t i l c u s c . ' l ' h c o n l y c h c n r i c a l sr v h i c h , a s : r
a p p r o x i t r t a t c l(yr p c r t t n t , ^ " 4 t l i i s i s .
t c r r a c i t yy a r r l s l t o r v si r s l i g l t t l y c l a s s , r v i l l c l i s s o l v c ' - l ' c r 1 , l c n c ' f l b r ca t t t o r t t t ; t lo r t t t o t l c r r t t ct c t t l -
s h r i n k a g ca t t 0 0 " C . A g a i r i ,h i g h plrcnols rvilI srvcll or tlissolvc
r n c c l i t t t rt c
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t c l l l p c r : r t r t r casb o v c 1 2 0 ' C ' crrrploy'ctl.
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:r:nr.,r, r v a t c r s h r i n k a g c so l l L c s i s t a n c ct o d i l u t c [ o r r r r s o I p l r c r l o l , s t l c l t l t s c t c o s o t c I r o t t t
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6 ancl l0 pcr ccnt w o o c l t a r , i s g o o r [ a l n o r n r a l t c t ) l p c r a t t l r c sC. r c o s o t c l l l c s c lv l t t i v c s
n y l o n n t c t l i t l r ut c r l a c i t yy a r n s a r e . a b o u t '['crylcnc''
a r c 10 antl 7 pcr cettt' a r c n o t l i a b l e t o c a t t s c s c r i o t t sc l a t r t a g ct o
r J s p c c t i v " l yi,n h o t a i i n i t C O " C 't h c y
p c r c c r t t ' C y c l o h c x y l : r r r r i n c ,r v h i c l r i s c o n i n r o r t l y a t l < l c d t o b o i l c r r v l t c r
r" u n r rl t t 2 0 0 " C . , l 4 a r t c l9
i L . r y t . , r . ' s t a p l c f i b r c c l i t l " r sl r o ' r ' ' I ' e r y l c t t c ' f i 1 ; r r l r yc ar trll l l r l t o l r r i p i r t r i z -cco r . r o s i 6 r tr,v i l l a c c c l c r a t ct I c t l c g r l d l t i o l c l t t t s c t lb y
a n c ls t a p l eI l L r r cs h r i r r k s stcanr itr cotrtacI rvitlr'-l'crylcnc'.
f r . i , rg ' i t " ^ t s t a b i i i z c c. ilt u t i ng r l l a t t t taf c t t t r c ' . ''fcrylcnc'.
r v a t c r 'S h r i n k a g c si n c x c c s ' o sf this P c r s p i r a t i o n c l o c s n o I h : r v c a n y c l c l c t c r i o u sc l l c c t o n
l c s st h a t r I p c r c c n t r n b o i i i n g
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a n r o t r r l ta r c , h o l v c v e t ,
n l a y c x c c c c2l . p c r c c . t r t ' / t:id.s
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l s r a i s c d s t i l l f u r t l r c r .N o f c l t i t r g ' - l ' e r y l c n c ' i s a p o l y c s t c r , a t t t l i s t l r c r c [ o r c s r r b j c c tt o l r y t l r o l y s i s '
i n c r c a s i n ga s t h e t e r n i c r a t u r e
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s l r r i n k a g eo c c t l r sr r n c l e 'n'r-rlo' ci sr tyclocnndci't i o n s
w h o l l y o i 1 0 0p c r c c n t y a r n s ' t h c p o l y c t h y l c n c t c r c p h t h a l a t c ,b t t t t h c c l T c c t sn r c n o t t l t c s l t r t l c
in cuch casc.
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I , . f l e c to I S u r t l i g l t t r v i l l O c c u r t o a n c x t c r r t c l c l t c n r l c r tot l t I l t c S c v c r i t y t l I t l t c c o t t -
'l'cr)'letrc' has a higlt rcsistattccto dcgraclatioll by light' A{tcr c l i t i o n s . l l x c c p t r r n c l c r c x t r c r i l c c O t t t l i t i o t t s ,t l l c r l r t c o f a c i t l
l o s s o f s t r c n g t h ,b t r t c l o c s
p r o l o n g c d c x l l o s r t r c , i t s r t [ T e r as g r l d t r a l h y c l r o l y s i so f a p o l y c s t c r i s r r n c x p c c t c r l l ys l o r v , i t t t r l c 0 t t s c t l t r c t t t l y
g l l s s , ' ' l ' c r y l c t t c ' s l t o r v st g L o r l r : c s i s t a n c tco t l t c r n uj o r i t y o I r t t i r r c l : r l t t t t l o t g l t t t i c l r c i c l si s
n o t c l i s c o l o t r r ' .W h c n c x p o s c d b c l r i r r c l
r c s i s t i r n c c t o sutrligltt, lrtrd sltorvs a a c h a r a c t c r i s t i cp r o p c r t y o [ ' ' l - c r y l c n c ' I i b r c .
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a n c l i l s d c r i v a t i v c s )i s f t r r t c l u t r r c r t t l l tl lyi l l c r c r r tf r o r l t t l t l r t o I r v n t c r ,
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Oiliz,irrg orrtl Ilcdttcirtg Agcrrls p r o g r c s s i v cs o l U t i o n o I t l r c f i [ t r c o c c t t r s , r v l t c r c l t s i r r t l r c I l t t t c r
.-I-crylcnc'polycsterfibrelrlrsarlcxccllctttrcsistlllrcetooxicliz-irlg c a s e ,c l c g r a c l n t i o o n c c t t r sr v i t h o t r ts o l t r t i o r t a k i r l g p l l t c c .
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fibrc rvill withstantl blcacltirrg r c s i s t n n c eo [
a t r t l r c c l t r c i n ga g c n t s , l t t t t l t l l c
scvcrc t h a n t l r o s e t l o r t t l a l l y c t r l l l l o y c df o r t c x t i l c f o r t l r c l ) r l r p o s c so I a t c x t i l c l i b r c . l t r v i l l , [ o r c x l t t t t p l c ,r v i t l r s t a r l t l
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o f , c ' z c r r c ( 2 1 0 " C . ) , , . ' ' t h ; r l c r r c( Z fS " C i , < l r ' l r c r fy:lt X : i . i , - , , i i , , , -
( 2 - 5 . 1 " ( .:.r)r,r t l
a r r u c c c l c n t t c t ll t t r r c k c l n t h c f i b l c . rlinrctlrlp , l h t l r r r l : r t(c2 g 2 . C . ) .
'-l'crylc.c'
i s v i rt r r ^ i l ; , u r : r r i ' c c r c tl r y t l i r r r c r l r ypr r r r l r . r : r r c
I ' . l cl c t o I O r g : t r t i cS o l v c n l s ' o a r * l I c r r p c * t t r . c s .I ) i c l r l o ' . r l i i l t r o r - a r r c t r l r r c l rt
'l-crylcnc' 'lrrcor' ( . A r c t o r r (, r , r
p o l 1 ' c s t c rf l b r c s l r o r v sl r i g l r r c s i s t a r t c ct o t t t o s t o l ' t h c l 2 ) a r r d . r , r o c r r r o r o r r i f l r r o r o . r c r r r(r,rAr rr .cc r . r r.,r
'l;r'c.rr'22),'s or
c o n l n l o r ' ro r g u r r i c s o l v c t t t s .l i x a r r r p l c so [ t l t c s c ,r v l r i c h i n c l t r t l c t l r c c o r r r r r r . r r r. lrys c tilr r r c f ' r . i g c r . r r rLr rorrrri ttsl .
'l-cr rr.I ullccr
i r g c n t s r r o r r n a l l l ,t r s c c [ o r c l r y c l c a n i n g , a r c i l s l o l l c l w s : a c c t o r t c , y l c l c ' t o u n y r r o l i c c a b l ct l c g r c c l l I
t c l l l l ) c r ; r t r l r cl sr c t r v c c r r
t l i o x u r r c ,c t l r c r , l r t c t l t y ll r t t l c t h l ' l a l c o h o l , b c t r z c t t ct,o l t t c t t c ,x y l c r t c , - 2 0 " C . : r r r d. t 2 0 " ( . ' .
l i g l r t p c t r o l c r r n r ,t r t c t l t y l c r r cc l t l o r i d c , c l r l o r o f o r t t r ,c r t r b o t r t c t r a - l { c s i s t ; r n coc[ . l ' c r 1 , l c n ct o' l r y r l r o c r r r . t r o r r
oilsis 13ootl.
c l r l o r i d c , p c r c l r l o r o c t l r l ' l c t t uc r t r l t r i c l r l o r o c t l r y l c n c A . t roorl) tcnl-
'l-crylcnc'.
p c n r t t r r c ,t h c s c l r a v c l i t t l c c f l ' c c t o n t l t c s t r c r r g t ho [ Inscclr^
( l o r r t i n t r o u si r r r r u c r s i o nI o r 6 r n o n t l r s i n n r c t h y l l l c o l r o l a t 3 0 " C .
I ) 1 1 ' l ' p o l 1 ' c s t ci sr r r o t ^ s o r r r c co f r r o u r i s l r r r r c r r t
c i r u s c sn c g l i g i b l c l o s s o f t c t t i r c i t y ,r v h i l c a l 5 0 " C . r c c l t r c t i o ni s o l t o r i v i r r gc r c : r ( r l r c s ,
: r r r < l ' ' l - c . y l c . ch' : r s ^ ' c x c c l l c r r Lr c s i s t . r r c c
tlrcordcr of l5 llcr ccnt. r o r v r r i t cu r r r s ,t l c r . r r r c s t i t l
-['hc ''l'cr1'lcrtc', b c c t l c s ,s i l v c r - f i s l r ,n t o t l l l n f v i r c u r r t l s i n r i l u r
trcatnrcrttoI unsct forrtts o[ sttclt lts trrr[inislrctl llcsls.
f i l r r r r r c r ryt: t r r t , i r r s o l v c t t t sl n i t y c i r u s c a l r p r c c i : r b l cs h r i r t k a g c .W i t l r l\ I icro-org;rrrisrrrs
l r r c t h y l c n cc h l o r i c l cu n < l c l t l o r o f o r r r r ,t l r i s r v i l l o c c u r c v c n i I t r o o n l
t c n r p c n r t u r c ,a n c l r v i t h r t u r t t y o I t l r c o t l r c r s o l v c t t t s t t t c t t t i c l t t c c l I : u r r g il n i l b l c t c r i : rt l o r r o t : r i l : r c k , ' l - c r y l c r r c . i t s c l [ ,
l r r r ti t r r r r r sltr c
r u t r o v cs, l r r i n k l r g ci s c o n s i t l c n t b l c : r tt h c i r i r r t l i v i t l t r l lb o i l i n g p o i n t s . r c r r r c r r r b c r ctrllr : r ts . r r r c I ' r r r r l g: ri r r r lb ' c r c l ri '
: r r c c r r p : r [ r r.cr ' g r o w i r r l ;
cvon o. tlrc vcry srrtrll;r.r.rrat ol'co.l;l'rirrrrrls
S o l v c r r t s c a t r s i r r gt l r c g r c l t c s t s h l i r r k : r g c a r c b c l t z c t t c , I o l t t c t t c , , u t , i a t , ' ' a , ,i ,r,a
x y l c n c , t l i o x a r t c : u r r l l h c c l t l o r i n l t c c l s o l v c t t t sr v i t h t h c c x c c l . r t i o t t P t c s c l t t o n t l t c s t r r l ' l r c co i I i b r . c s c o r r r p r . i s i r r l l
) , i l r . r r so r f l r l l r i c s .
o 1 ' c a r [ r o nt c t r a c i r l o r i d c r, v l r i c l ic a t r s c sI r o s l r r i r r k a g c(.] i r r c t t t t t s lb e s t r c l r g ro r v t l r r v i r r l r r r ' c r r o c i l c c t o . t r l c t c ' s i r c
' - l - c l 1 ' l c l t cy' i i r t l s 1 l r . . 1 r c r . t i.cr s t r r c
t : r k c r r ,t l r c r c [ o r c , t o c n s u r c t l r l t t r t t y s t r c h or l t r a . l c r i r r lb' r t J r r t > c l r r c gt sc r t c ' ' t c r r b y t r r c
o r . g i l a r s , r sc : r r c . r s c
f : r b r i c s r v h i c h u l c t o b c c x p o s c c lt o h o t s o l v c n t s h l v c p r c v i o u s l y s c . o r s r l i s c o r o u * t i o ' . r t i s d c s i r u l ; l c ,t r r c r . c [ o r . c ,
to tirkc ,.,u,,,,,,r
prccuutions aglrirrst[rrng;rl lttt:rck,
bcen lrcat-sct. strclr ;ls Urc :rvoitllrrcc of
'l'hc (liunl) Storirgc.
r a n g c o f c h c r n i c a l sr v h i c l r r v i l l c l i s s o l v c ' - [ - c r y l c r rpco' l y c s t c r
f i b r c l t t r o n n a l o r t r t o t l c r ' : t ttcc r r r l ) c r l t t t t r ci s l i r r r i l e t l , : r n t tl l l c o n l y
Illcclric:rlI'ropcr(ics
c h c n r i c : r l sr v h i c h a s a c l r t s s" v i l I d o t l r i s a r c p l t c n o l s .N I o s t p h c r t o l s
r v i l l s r v c l l o r r l i s s o l v e ' . 1 ' c r y l c n c 't,l c p c r r c l i n go n t l r e t c t l ) p c r a t t l r e I r r c o r r ' r r o n r v i t l r o r r r c r s y . r r r c t i cf i r r r c s
rr^virrg;rr.rv rrr.isrrrrc
r u r r r cl o r r c c n t n r t i o nt t s c c l .S o l r r t i o l ri s t t o t r t c c o t t l p t r n i c tbl y i r t t t t t c - r c g t r i r r , ' - i ' c r y l c r r ics' l r v c r y g c t o t li n s r r l l t o r .
''l'crylcrrc'
< l i r r t ct J c g r l r l i r t i o r ra, n c l t l r c v i s c o s i t y o f i r s o l t r t i o n o [
i r r o r t l r o - c l r l o r o p l r c r t onlt a y b c t t s c c il t s r I l l t c l s t l r c o I t h c t l r o l c c t l l a r I ) i t' I c c't ri c (.o I t.\-| (t tr | ..
r v c i g l r to I t h c p o l y c s t c r . 3 . 1 7a t 2 0 ' C . a n d l k c . / s c c .
''l'crylcnc'rvilI 2 . 9 8 a t 2 0 " C . i r n d I l v l c/.s c c .
a l s o c l i s s o l v ci t t t . t . t o t t od- ,i - , a r t d t r i - c l r l o r o a c c t i c
'l '-l-crylcnc'
l c i d . l r c s c c r ' r t t p t l t t t t t ltsl i s s o l v c i l I t c t l ] 1 r c l i t t t t r casb o v c
t l r c i r n r c l t i n g y r o i n t s ,t v l r i c h a r c r c s p c c t i v c l y 6 l ' C ' . , l 0 ' C . a t l c l l/ o I tr rrta rc.yi.sli vi t), :
.55"C. 1 . 2x l 0 ' o o l t n r - c r r:rr.l 2 - 5 " C :. r r r r 6l 5 p c r c c r r l r . l t . ,
''['crt'lcrtc' n t c l r s t t r c rol r r
S o r n c o t l t c r s t t b s t a t t c c st v i l l t l i s s o l v c lrt lrighcr a I r r i l . f i l r n . ' l ' h i si s s c l r n cl 0 r l 0 r r i i r n c st n c
rcsistivitl,of silk,
lclrl)crirlufcs, s o l t r t i o r b
r c i r r gr a p i d i n t l r c b o i l i r r gs o l v c t t t .A t l r o l l g n)'lolt, coltoll or llyon.
360 l6l
r l r l
t
I T I I T F F F F F F F F F F F I. F F I. I
'TI]X'I'ILI]
OOK OF I'I S YN-TIIII'I C I:I I]III]S
v c a r s h ; r s s t i r n u l u t c t l u r r i n c r c : r s c r lr i c n r : r n r lf o r I , l r ' l ' p o l y c s t c r
fibres is tlrcir ability to ttrkc orl a'pcrlrlitttctltsct'rvhcn sltapcd
I l b r c s . I t c r n - r a n c . tp r c s s i s i r l o g i c a l s t c p f o r , , v r r r ri l' t l r c c r c a t i o r r
r t l r i g l r t c r r p c r a t t t r c s .I ; o r c x a t r l p l c , p l c a t s l n a y b c i n s c r t c t l i n
o I c a s c - o f - c r r r cg i r r n r c r ) t si,n w l r i c h t l r c l r c : r t - s c i l i r r o g{ r l r c l l b r c
a I , l i r l ' p o l v e s t c r I i r L r r i ci n s U c l r a w a y t h i l t t l r c y i l r c l r i g h l y
t l r k c s p l : r c c u f t c r t l r c g a n n c l ) [ l r l r s [ r c c n r r l r t l c r r p . ' l l r c g u rr r r c t r t
t l L t r a b l c t o r v c l r i r r g a n c l l a u u c l c r i n g .P r o v i d c d i t i s p r c s c l t t i t t
i t s c l f i s s c t i r r t h c c l c s i r c r ls l l n l ) c .
sullicicnt proport.ion, Plr-f polycstcr fibrc also confcrs this
I ' o l y c s t c r f i b r c s g c r r c r a l l yh a v c p r o v c r l l n o s t s r r c c c s s f t ri 'l t l r i s
p r o p c r t l , o n b l c n d e t l f a b r i c s c o n t a i r r i n gi t .
'l'hc r c s l ) c c t ,c o n r r n o n l y i r r b l c n d s w i t l r c o l t o n , a r r t l t l r c n r p i r l r r r l v l r r c c
nbility oi Plr'l'polycstcr fibrc to acccllta'pcrtttancttt sct'
o f P c r r r u r n c n pt r c s s l r ; r sb c c r r a r r . . j o r f a c t o r i n t l r c p o l y c s t c r f i c l t l .
i s n o t i r r f l u c r r c c db y t h c t c u r p c r : r t r t r co I a n y p r i o r I i c a t - s c t t i r t g
l r c a t n t c n t c a r r i c d o U t t o c o n f c r r l i n t c n s i o n a ls t a b i l i t y . l n f a c t ,
i t i s c s s c n t i a lt h n t l r n y f a b r i c t o b c p l c a t c d o r c t t r b o s s c cbl c p r c - S t t t t lgi l r t
vioLrsly Ircat-sct at a substlrntially lriglicr tcltrpcratitrc thart A l l l i b r e s a r c a l l ' c c t c db y t l r c l a r l i r r r i o r r is. s u r r r i g l r t r, v l r i c l rb r i n g
t l r a t r c r t r r i r c r il n t l r c s h a p i n g t r c a t l l ] e n t i r t o r c l c r t o c l i r l l i n a t c t l i c a b o u t c l c t c r i o n r t i o r ro n p r o l o r r g c t l c x g r o s r r r c l., l . rl ' p u l y c s t c r i s
p o s s i t r i l i t yo f r r n c o u t r o l l c r sl l r r i n k a g et l L t r i n gt l r c p l c i r t i n g p r o c c s s . b e t l c r t l r a n r r y l o n i n i l s r c s i s t a r r c tco s u r r l i g l r t r, r r r t lt l r i s s t r p c r i o r i l y
I ) l c : r t ss c t i n a g a r r n c n t i n t h i s r v a y r v i l l b c p c r t t t a r t c n ts o l o n g r s n r o s t p r o n o u r r c c dr v l r c n I l r c t i b r c i s b c l r i r r t g l llss. I)l:1 1.,olycstcr
a s t l r c s c t t i n g t c l t l l ) c r a t r t r ci s n o t s u b s c r l U c n t l yc x c c c d c c l . ' l ' h c f i b r c s l r n v c c s t ^ b l i s l r c ral r r s c I L rrln r r r k c Ii r r t l r c c r r r . r r r ilri rc l r l , l u r g c l y
I c n t l ) c r a t r l r cu s c r l i n s c t t i n g i s s c l c c t c t [r v i t h t l r i s i n v i c r v ,c s p c c i i r l l y t l r ' o t r g l r t l r i s i r r c r c . s c r lr c s i s t : r r r ctco t l r c c l l c c t s o I s t r r r l i g l r r .
r v l t c n t l r c g l r r r r r c n tr r r u s t r v i t l r s t a n r li r o r r i n g . A r r a 1 1 1 l I r c fl a b r i c ,
f o r c x u r i l p l c , r v i l l c o r n n r o n l y b c l r c a t - s e ta t t c n l p c r a t t r t ' c isr l t l t c C ltctrticul I) t ttpc rt ic s
rcgion o[ 200-220'C.
I ) l : ' [ ' p o l l ' e s t c r [ i b r . c sl r : r v c a ' r c x c c l l c r r t : r l l - r o r r n rt cl s i s r . r r c cr o
ln l propcrly hcat-sct iabric, thc fibrcs rvill tcrlclalways to
c l r c r n i c r r l s . ' l - h c yl r . v c i r s r r r p l i s i r r r l y g r o c l r c s i s t : r . c c t , : r c i t l s ,
r c v c r t t o t l r c i r s c t 1 ; o s i t i o r r .I I e l t - s c t t i r r g c o n t r i b u t c s g r c a t l y ,
b r r t ; r r c I c s s r c s i s t a n t o a l k : r l i ,a n c l t i r i s r r r t r s b I c b o r r r ci r r r r r i n d
t l r e r r c f o r ct,o t l t c t l i n r c n s i o r r asl t a b i l i t y a r t t l r v r i r t k l c r c s i s t a r l c co I
i n t l r c s c l c c t i o r or f ' [ i b r c s l o r i n t l r r s t r i a: lr p p l i c : r t i o r r s .
I ) l r I ' 1 r o l 1 ' c s t fc;lt l ' ti c s .
l ' l i . l ' p o l y e s t c rI i b r c s a r c l r o t a f l c c t c da J r p r c c i r r b b l yy . r r y , I t r r c
[ ) t r r i n g h c n t - s c t t i n g , f t r r t h e r c r y s t a l l i z - a t i o no I t l r c p o l y c s t c r
n o r r r t r l b l c a c l r i n gI c c l r r r r c l r - r c s .
t a k c s y r l r r c cr, e s u l t i n g i n a n i n c r c a s c i n t l t c s t i [ I n c s so f t h c f i b r e .
-l'lris
r n a y a { l - c c tt l t e h a n d l c o I t h c t a b r i c , r v l r i c h b c c o t r r c sc r i s p c r .
-l'lris I',ltct ri col I' ro pt r I i t's
cflcct is alleviatcclby subscqrrcnttnccltanical trcatnrent of 'l'he
tlrc f a bric, atrtl tltc scqtlencc o[ {inishing operations is oftcn c x c c l l c r r t c l c c t r i c a l p r o p c r l i c s o f l r L .l.' p . l y c s t c r [ i b r c s a r c
s c l c c t c d t v i t h t l t i s i r t r - I l i n d . I f h c a t - s e t t i r r gi s c a r r i c d o u t b e f o r e a l l i c d r v i t l r g o o c l r c s i s t a n c ct o t l r c c f l c c t c l I l r i g l r t c n r p c n r t r t r c sc,. g .
s c o r r r i n g a r t t l/ o r d y c i r r g , [ o r e x a n t p l e , t h c i n c r e a s c c ls t i f l n e s s o I 1 o 1 8 0 ' c i . A s t l r c r r r o t l c . nt r c r r d i s r o r . ' c l c c r ' i c . l r r r o t o r sr i t
tltc fabric rvill bc largcly workccl out cluring thc lattcr opcratiotrs. l r i g l r c r I c n ) l ] c r ; r t u r c st h
, c r c i s a c l c r r r : r r r[rol r g o o r l i r r s u l l t o r sr v l r i c l r
It is csscntial that hcat-scttingshould bc carricd out undcr r v i l l w i t l r s t a r r ccl l c v a t c r lI c r ] r l ) c r u t u l c sI ,. l r .l ' p o l y c s t c r f r r b r i c s ,l r c l t -
a c c u r a t c l y c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s ,a s a 5 " C . v a r i a t i o n i n t c r l r p c r a - . s c t a t t e l n l l c r a t r r r c sa b o v c t l r o s c c r ) c o u n t ccl d i r r p r l c t i c a l u s c ,
I r r r c t l r r r i n g h c a t - s c t t i r r gi s s u f l i c i c n t t o c a t t s c a c l t a t l g e i n s h a t l c I r l v c [ o r r n c lr n n r r l ,l p p l i c a t i o r r si r r t l r i s f i c l t l .
o n s r r b s c r l t r c rdr ty c i r r g .
I f h c a t - s e t t i n g [, o r o l t c r c a s o l l o r a t t o t h c r , i s c a r r i c i l o L t t a f t c r I'i lli trg
c l l , c i r r g ,i t i s n c c c s s l r r yt o s c l c c t t h c r l y c s t t r f l sw i t h l l l r r t i c t r l a r c l t r c 'l
l r c P l r c r r r r r r c ' o no f - p i l l i r r g i s a f a r r r i l i u r. r r c i n t l r c u , c r r i r r r i
i n o r r l c r t o l i l i r r i u r i z ct l r c c l l c c t o I r l y c s t t r l lv o l a t i l i z - a t i o r lt t. r t l a y o i f l r b r i c s f r o r r r l l l t y p c s o I s t l p l c f i b r c . S r r r , l l [ r L r r r t l l cosI l i b r . c s
b c n c c c s s a r y r r r r r l c r t h c s c c i r c u r r r s l l t t t c ctsO s o f t c r t t h c h c l t - S c t c o l l c c t o r r t l r c s t r r l r r c co f l l r c I l b r i c t l r r r i r r gu s c , l o r . r r r i r r g ' p i l l s '
flbr ic b1' crrlcrtdcriltg t l r o t l t c r l t t c c l t l t l t i c atlr c a t r t t c t t t . r v l r i c h a r c I r c l d o r r t o t l r c [ r r L r l i cs r r r l ' i r c cb y f i b r c s g r i p p c r l l t o n c
'l'lrc
r l c v c l o p r n c r rot [ ' p c r n t a n c n t p r c s s ' t c c h t i i q t t c st l t t r i t t gr c c c r t t
361
166
'I
III\NI)IIOOK OII EX'TII-I.,FII}III]S n : - s Y N 'i tl [ . t t c F t t ] t U : S
c n ( l b y l l r e ! ' a n t r u r d a t t h c o t l t c r c n c l b y c n t l t t t g l c t t t c nitn t h c I l l c n d c c l r v i t h r v o o l . ,P E ' l ' I r o l y c s t c r a t l c l s
c r i s l l n c s so I h ' . c l l c ,
prlI buncllc. \ r ' c r r rr c s i s t a n c c ,t o u g l r n c s sa n c l s t r c n g t h . ' l ' l r c
cllcct of tlrc IrE I-
In thc case o[ fibres sttcltas u'ool, tltcscpills Itray be rcntovccl p o l y c s t c r i s t t l o s t l t o t i c c a b l ci r r f a b r [ s
s u b j c c t c r lt o c l . r ) l ) c o r -
fairll, casily,e.g.by brushing.Rut in tltc case oI a strotrgfibrc c l i t i o r l s ,j n r v l r i c h t l i c r v o o l b c c o r r r c .lsi n r p
ani clsily.,..,,r".l.:iil''.
srrch as Plr'f polycstcr, thc fibrcs holcling the pills clo not brcak p r c s c n c eo I I ) E - l ' p o l l ' c s t c r
l l r o v i c l c s . , ' . i r . r ' c . s i s t a r r c c . r rr rl il r r r c r r -
c a s i l y , a n d t h c p i l l s r c n r a i r ta t t a c l t c c tl o t h c g r t r t t t c n ts t t r f a c c . s t a b i l i t y , f o r c x a r r r P l ci r t l r . s c r . c g i o r r o sI tlrc body *r,.,.
;i9nal
I ) i l l r n g r r r a y b c r c c l r r c c cbl y u s i r r g t i g l r t l y c o r t s t r t t c t c d1 , 1 1 1 1a1nsc l l r i g h h t r n l i d i t y i s l i a b l c t o r u r r r p l cr r r r r lc - r c : r s c
a..ll-rvool f.br.ic.
\ v c l v c s , a n c l t h e t c n c l c t t c yt o p i l l c a n b c r c t t t o v c d c f l ' c c t i v c l yf r o r r r
I ' E ' l ' p o l y ' e s t c r c l o t h b y c a r c [ L r ls i r r g c i n g o f t h c l o o s c f i b r e c n d s . 1l'ashirrg
-l-lris
is carriccl out prc[crably altcr clycing, as fusccl polyester I \ 4 o . t f a b r i c s c o n t , ' i r t i r t gl ) l l ' l ' I r o l l , c s t c r f i b r c
lr.c rvaslrrblc, btrt
fibrcs tcnclto dyc to a darkcr colour. i n b l c n d f a b r i c s t l l c t t i t t u t ' co I r i r c -o t h c r c o n r l ) o n c r r t
rvill g " *c, r, rr ic, ri ,: .rrl sl y
Ir'lany nranu[acturcrs are now producirrg polyestcr fibrcs of control tlre bcltirviolrr oI tlrc fabric rrrrrl.lr
tlill'cr.crr,
l o r v e r t c n i i c i t y , r v h i c l ' r l t a v e a r c d r - r c e dp i l l i n g t e n d e n c y . cortditions1 . - h t l s ,r v o o l , s i l k , r c g c r r c r : r t c cd c l l u l o s c s ; r r r r l
cclltrlclsc
'I' acctatc fibrcs are rcr:rtivcry rlclicatc Iibr.cs
c.rI ttrc rl I' rtt' tt.r rvlriclr corrlrl t;;
darltagcd j f t o o ^- s c v c r cr v : r s h i n gc o r r r l i t i o l s r v c r c t r s c r J .t ] l c r r t l s
of
P l i - t ' y r o l y c s t c rf i l l n r e r t t y a r n s t n a y b e . s u b j c c t c ctlo L h c p r o c e s s e s I'13'f llolyestcr fibrcs rvith cottorr or flax,
c l n l h c o t l r c r .l ; r 1 r l , 1 r . c
t r s c c l i n 1 ; r o c l t r c i r r gt c x t t t r c t l y l l t ' n s . S o t t t c o I t l r c s c y r r n r s s h o t v g c t t c t ' i l l l yl t t o r c r o t l t r s t . ' l ' l t cc o n t l i t i o r r s
r r s c r li r r l n r r r r t l c r . i rbr gl c . r r t l s
a c l v : r n t a g c so v c r t e x t u r c d n y l o r r y a n r s , f o r c x a t t r p l c i n l r r a i n t a i n - oI I' E'l' PolycstcrIibrc witlt otlrcr fibrcs lrrc
t l r c r . c l ' o r .cco n t r o l l c r l
i n g s t r l l c r i o r r v a s h / r v c a r c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s ,r v r i n k l c r e s i s t a n c c a n d r)rore by the otlrcr fibrcs trra' by trrc I)E'r' porl,cstcr.
r c c o v e r ' ) /[ r o r n . s t r c t c l r . Plr'f polyestcr Ilbrc ltlts tlrc valrr:rblcclurrirctcristic
, oI con-
P r o r l t r c c r - t c x t u r c cyl a r n s h a v c h a d a n o t a b l e s u c c e s s ,s u c h a s [ c r r i r l g ' l t l i t t i t t t t l l lcl a r c ' p r o l ) c r t i c so n f a b r i c s
' r l t i t l i t r l t t t t r c o r r t ; r i p i r rigr . ' l ' l r c
t h e f a l s c - t r v i s t b u l k c c l y a r n s r v h i c h a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e c lb y l o r v dcgrce o[ c a r c ' a c h i c v c c lc l c l l c n c l sl r r r g c l y o 1 t l r c
s t r e t c h a r r c hl i g h l e r r g t hs t a b i l i t y . ' l ' h e s yc a n r s a r e u s c c l ,f o r e x a n r p l e , portiott of PII-f poll'cstcr flbrc prcscrrt, 1rr:.-
b u I r r r o s t r r r . t i c l c sc o n -
i n t l r e r r r e n t r f a c t t r r oe I c l o L r b l cj c r s c y a n r l o t l r c r k n i t t e d f a b r i c s ; t a i n i n g I ' E - l ' p o l y c s t c r f i b r c , i I l v l r s l r c ccl o r - r
c c t l y , r . c c ; u ci r 1 t l r e s t
t h c s c a r e r l l o r e s t r e t c h r c s i s t a n ta n c l [ c s sl ) r o n e t o s l r r i n k a g ec l u r i n g only liglrt irorring.
p r o c c s s i r t gt l t a n c o r r t p a r a b l ef a b r i c s n r a c l e f r o n r b u l l < e d n y l o n . P E ' - l ' p o l y e s t c rf i b r c s l r a v c h i g h s t r e n g t h l n r l l t l r : r s i s '
rcsistlrrrcc,
a t t d t h c y w i l l w i t l l s t : r r t cvli g o t ' o t r sr r r c c l i a n i c r l
r v l s l r i p gl r . c u t r r r c r r t s .
It is 'ot ,cccssary to t.cut 100 pcr cc't
I r [ , ' l ' l l o l y c s t c r .g . o r l s
a s i I t l r c y w c r c l l l l l c l c l r o n t l c l c l i c a t cl r a g i l c
Illcnds n r n t c r . i r r cl ,v c p r l i o r r g l r
Iiglrtly co'strtrctcrt fabrics rr:ry givc rrrIs,,yr1r..,,.,,,.,...
A l r i g l r p r o p o r t i o n o [ - t l r c o u t p u t o f I ' 1 1 ' l ' p o l y c s t c rf - i t r r ci s i n t l r c I ' E ' l ' 1 ; o l y c s t c fr i b t ' c sl t a v c a l r i g l r r c s i s t , , , . r i . .
tu clrcrrricra r It t : r c k ,
f o r n r o l ' s t a p l c , r v l r i c h i s r v i c l e l yu s e c li n b l c n d s r v i t h r v o o l , c o t t o r r , a n c l l t o l l c o f t h c t l c t c r g c r t t so r c h c r n i c ; t l s
c o r r r r r r o r r l yt r s c r l i r r
viscoscand flrx. r v l t s h i t l g ,i r r c l r r c l i n gl l c r o x i c l c s ,p c r - s l l t s ,
l r l , l l o c l r l oirt c s , : r c i r t s l r r c t
I l l c r r c l c c rl v i t h c o t t o r r , I ) E - f p o l y c s t c r f i b r c i n c r e u s c s t h c r v c r r r a l k a l i s , r v i l l b r i t t g a b o t t t i t t t y s i g r r i f i c l n tc l c t c r i o n r t i o n
of tlrc I,li'l'
; r n r l i r b n r s i o r r c s i s t l n c c ,c s l ) c c i a l l yr r s t h c 1 ' r t ' o p o t ' t i oo nf p o l y c s t c r l l o l y c s t c r f i b r c t t t t t l c r c o r t t l i t i o n s l i k c l y l o l r c c p c o r l r l c r . c t li r r
f i b r c r c a c h c s 5 0 p c r c c n t a t t c l n t o r c . C r c : t s c l ' c c o v c r \ /i t t t p r o v e s , t l t c l a t r r r c l c r i nogf t c . r t i l c s V . i g o r o t r s t c c l r n i c l r r cr sr r r r yl l r t r sb c I r s c c l ,
a r r r l : r f a b r i c c u n t a i n i n g 6 7 l t c r c c n t I ' E ' l ' p o l y , c s t c r / 3 3l l c r c c r t t c n r r b l i r r gs o i l t o l > c r c r r r o v c r cl f l - c c t i v c l y .
c c > t t o r rl u r s p r o v c t l p : r r t i c t r l r r r l ys r r c c c s s [ ' r rI lo r s l t i r t s , t ' r t i t t r v c r t t ' , I r : r b t ' i c st t r a y b c l r : l v c l-) c r i c c t l y s : r t i s f i r c t o r i l y
. r l t r r i n gl l r r r r r l c r i r r l S ,
jackcts anrl suits. Thc fabric lurs thc harcl wcar, cuse-o[-citrc b t r t t l r c y r c r f o r " r r c c o I l r r ^ r r c - r r fg r l r f r c . r t sr v i i l
r r c r r c r r tcr l r rc o r r . c c t
;rropcrtics associatcrl rvith tlrc l'11-l' pclll'cstcr fibrc, ltttcl tlrc t I i r t t r l t i t r g sa t t c l o l l l h c t l s c o f i t r i t a b l c r r r l k
'l'lttts, ir)g-up tcclrrrirlrrcs.
I u r r r r l l co, p a c i t l , a r r r l a b s o r b c t t c yo I c o t t o r r . l l ' l l l l ' l yg i l r l l r c n t s r r r r c l cf r o n r I r c a v i c r - w , c i g l rl i, l : l ' p g l y c i t c r l
I6fi ( ) n
369
t L |.
I t l l l t l l t l l r r t L h h h h h h
-170 371
I I A N D I } O OK O F T E X T I L E F I N R E S
B: SYN'rIIE'IIC FI I]IIES
freqtrency rvill be deternriucd by expcricncein each particular I0. Cood rcsistance to most contnotr
case. chcnricals, i n c l u d i n g
oxidizing
. l n d r c d u c i n gt g c n t s . G o o ( l 1 ' " r i r f , , , , " t' "o l | c i d s .
Drl i g u o o d r c s r s t i r n c lco d i l t r t e a l k a l i s , b u l a
a c k c d by co[-
c e n t r a t e dh, o t a l k a l i s ,
PET polyestcr fabrics absorb very little watcr, and most of the l l , C o o d r c s i s l a t r c tco c o n l n t o ns o l v c n l s .
water in a wct article is ir the intersticesof the cloth. Garments
dry quickly and easily whcn hung in the air.
Thc spin<lrying of hot wet articlcs,followed by rinsing in cold
","#i"lll":'::"i',,1:J,.::.,.i,".?:l:T,,i'lll'.ii;
l i b r c st o b c c o r n co n c o f t h c r ) o s t v c r s n t i l c
water, is particularly to be avoidcd, as is prolonged spinning, uf,,ff i,o,f.rn lv,,if,"ti"
fibres.
wlrich has a strong cooling eflect. Bad practice of this nature is
most. likcly to occur whcn using 'twin-tub' washing machincs. Apparel Fabrics
Tumblcr drying in hot air helps to rcmove washing crcases. P E f p - o l y e s t cfri b r c s l r l v c r n l d c l l t c i r w y
After the garme ts arc dry, tumbling should be continucd for i r ) t o v i r l r | i r l l vc v c r v
typc oI apprrel cnd usc. Alonc or irr blcrrtls
5-10 minutcs without heat to allow progressivecooling. ,"i,fr *",,i,r"",i",,1
i;[; :'l ;l?::*o":n;,'i"i, "',ir,'cspro
uii,";,;;";;'';;;
Ironing ["]J:'l
wrrh hishrri,ncnsionar,," si'rn,c,,rs
PEI polyestcr articles rvhich havc becn washcd corrcctly will
0,,,,,;illi'#ljll;'?:l;l;ili:'
I n c s n . c n g l ri r n ( t( l i n l c n s i o n si rlll l ) i l i t yo f
necd little or no ironing. If necessary,however, ironing nray be
I , l i . l ,p o l y ( , s t cl irl l -
r ) r c nyt i r r n sc r r a b l tcl r cr r u r r r u f a c t utroc p
carried out cllectively by steam ironing or dry ironing at 'j:i,
:"J,1'
Jii'";,J:"n,:1[:"",;.J::ll;
r i . o c l u c. 1c, . ; r ,l i A i u r ; . ; ; ; , ;
'synthctic'setting
on thc rcversoside, or with the help of a press
cloth. Ironing tclrpcraturcs should not cxceed about 135"C.
:llnll;;:l*,i:lifl
shapeand appcarancc.Contirruo Ilflii
Sticking occurs at about 250'C- havc t",p",.lniit-o,,rl"r,"lii
.foun<r' iiilil:ll,ftil,iljf x;i,il,fi;
lingcric.
Dry Clcnnirrg Full-handling filamcnt fabrics
arcnracrcr,o,,ip,.oa "
P E T D o l y c s t c rf i b r c s a r c h i g l l l y r e s i s t a n tl o n l l t h e c l r c n r i c a l s u.".-i
"*iiilt'.'li ; Jir":lfj:i:l;::l'*lli'::
likcly to be cncountcrcd irr dry clcaning, and no spccialprecau-
tlons arc nccessary. iil,'J"3i,'|,',ft
i'i,,l,li,.ilT"r",,ll",ll,tT*;,ili',"?l;t".;
Errd Uscs :xli;J,#iifui, iili.i:,:"Tffi'J:i,,,v ;i;bi;;;;,,';;;;;
il;';
The inrportant propcrties of PET polyestcr librcs, filanrent and polycstcrstaplcfibrc provi<lcs
yarns
.PEf arrdfrrtrricswitlr rhc
staple, may be sumrnarizedas follows:
1. Low moisturc regrin. o f c n t r a p p e da i r .
jli;
Ll,lr:_i:J!:q'i[,'Tilflii,i"",:i,:,J,lilt"i:ti
2. FIigh dry and wct strcngths. Suiting fabrics ntadc fronr pE'f
3.
4.
[Iigh initial nrodulus.
Fligh rcsistanceto and recovcry from bcnding.
;:1
i:tfiyjlr;:
-a 1i"J,#i1i"ltii lti];
L$,il;ilt";t:,:?'i;i
5.
6.
Lorv crecp.
Ability to be hcat-set.
i n crc_q
uate
;;;";i;;;' ; ;u,i:'"i,l,il,llii", :lffi li[l:"l;li
cvcrraflcr prolongcdconlintrorrs
rvcar.
7. Fligh abrasion rcsistance.
8. Good clcctrical insulation propertics. Curtains
9. Good rcsistanccto cxposurc to elcvatcd tcnrpcraturcs. Thc good resistirncc
to srrnlightwhich is n fcuturcof pl].l. poly_
J t !
J73
r l r - l r I r l r I r [ r I r J r-t
l-I
[ l ' F l r II ' I
I , F l II F IF |F, F
tF IF L l tt IF tFr IFr F
l r |l'|l
] f'''i
F I
l L ) l
B: SYNTIIETIC FIANES
IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
thgse llbres to like. Polycstcrfibre filling js casy to wash and dry, non-allcrgcnic,
ester fibres, espcciallybehirrclglass,has cnabled
the curtain trade' The fast dyes springy and crush-resisting.
"ri^tlirf, I'i iniportunt outlet in greatly
polyester fabrics have contributed
rt"o i"'Jtlrf "-g'pET Sewing Thread
to successin this lield.
High strcngth and high nrodulus arc useful charactcristicsin a
Floor Coverittgs sewing thread, and PET polycster yarns havc comc into widc-
good headway in the field oI spread use in Lhis application.
PET polyester fibres have made
sliver knit rugs and
it*r iou'"tlngr, notably in the production of Ilosiery Dye ing
tufted carpcting.
PET polyesterdye-bagsarc uscd in thc hosicry tratlc for dyeilg
nylon stockings.The PET polyester libre resistsdyes uscd with
LaunclrY EquiPnrent nylon.
allied with strength'
The hcat resistanceof PET polyester{ibres, Papernuking
have
resistance proved ot.great value in
fr^ri *."t ancl abrasion
Laundry-bags, dye bags' polrslredhcaq press The felts used in paper manulacture must have a good rcsislatlcc
laundry applications.
and calender sheettng to moisture, heat and abrasion, and nlust bc ablc to stand for
"o1"", t"tnOrv blankets, packing flannel
;;;-;;;;;;;""tv maii r'orn-pet polvesterfabrics' which long pcriods without rotting. PEI polycsicr librc has provcd
previously
used' especially satisfactory in this application, hnving thc nddcd
outlastthe fabrics
advantage of resisting the acitl conditions which rcsult wlrcn
ConveyorBeUs aluminium sulphatc is used as [iller.
in rubter
PET polyesterlilamcntyarnsare usedas rcinforcement in indus- Electrical I rtsulatiott
ancl havo proved particularlyvaluablc
""]i"Juti belts,
are subjectedio acid conditions'The PEt The good dielectricpropcrtiesand high strcngthof l'DT polycstcr
;;;;-;i";'il1;
up well to acid which penetrates fibrei are maintained at temperaturcsabove 100'C., and fabrics
o"iv"t*fi.i"ftt""mcnt stinds nrade fronr these fibres are used in the insulation of elcctric
into damagedbelts. motors designedto operate at elevatedtcmperatures'
Fire Hose Tyres
polyester
The high ^ifi"" strengthand high initial modulusof PET
possible the production of fire hoses which are PET oolvester corcls have made substantial hcadway in tlris
ni'i", ."4'"
r o t - r e s i s t a a
n tn' d
. i r " " g ' " " a - i i g h t . ' T n e s eh o s e s - a r a
ebsolutely a o o l i c i t i o n .T h i s d e v e l o p n t e nht a s r e s u l ( e dt o s o t t t ed c g r c ef r o t t t
without sullering cant
signifi damrge' thi increasinguse of radlal ply tyrcs, ilr which tlrc rcill[orcclrlcrlt
;";'"b"];i, o"utside
Io strctcll. llle lllgll
i s r e a u i r e dt o l t a v e r t t o p t i r n u n t r c s i s t a l l c e
Ropes,N ets, Soilclotlr modilus of PET polyestir fibres is an arlvantagcwhich enlblcs
The strength,high modulus,resistance to light' heat' microbes' t h e n r t o c o m p e t e e f f e c t i v e l ya g a i n s tr a y o r l a n d n y l o n i l l t l l l s
;;;;;;l;:;;';;;<l other influenceshave openedup.an impor- field.
nets'sailcloth'awnings
i""i'n.la of applicationin ropes,twines,
and other goodsof this type wbich are uscd outooors'
Filling
-polycster
the
PET stapleis uscdas lilling in pillows'qLrilts'and
37'l 315
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI DRES B: SyN'r|ETtC rt 0Rlls
(2) POLY_I, 4-CYCLOI'IEXYLENE_DIMETI-IYLENE 'I'lrey
a r e a v a i l a b l ci n a r a n g co I c o u n t s ,c r i n r p a n t l s t r p l c l c n g t h s
TEI{EPIITHALA'I'E FIBITES (PCDT POLYESTER to mcet all requircrncnts,
FIBRES)
PRODUCTION
tcrephtha-
Fibresspun from poly-1,4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene
late: PCDT polycsterfibres arc spun lronr poly-t ,4-cyclohcx
ylcnc-
dimcthylcncterephthalatc nrudeby condcnsingtcrcphthrrlic
rrcid
ct I1-c.lt' with I ,4-cyclohexancd
inrcthanol :
--[ -ocl-tr-cH \"*.u,o.o-O-.o-],,
Ll1!-Ltti
cltr-cll,
HOCU'-CH ru-cHlorr
+ lrooc-o-coolt
I NTRODUCTION
isonrersof I,4-cyclohexancdimethanol has a melting point of width form bcfore proccssing in rope fornr. -l-his trcatnrcrrt
about 290"C. partially stabilizcs thc goods and hclps to ptcvcnt cracks
or
streaks,Carc should be takcn, however,to v;id fix tion of itny
Slinning identificationtint that might be prescntin thc goods.
Thc polyn'reris melt spun in the usual way, thc filamcntssolidify-
Miscclltncous
ing is tirey nrcet the cold air. Tlrcy ate drawn to 4j to 5 times
thcir original length at a temperaturcof about 120'C. Blcnd fabrics containing pCDT polycstcr fibrcs will withstil)d
all the usual lreatmcnls cncoutrtcrcdin rnill proccssing.I3y con-
PI{OCESSING trast with PET polyestcr librcs, PCD-l' polycstcr iibrc.s rvill
withstand kier boiling, ancl this proccss nray bc uscd on blcucls
DesiziIlg of cotton and PCDT fibrcs. Mcrcerizing will not allcct pCD.l.
polyesterlibrcs, so long as thc tenrpcralurcof lhc causlicsolution
Knitted and woven fabrics will ofter.rcoutain sizing naterials in
is kept at 32.2'C. or lowcr.
addition to clirt, oil and grease.Dcsizing and cleatringmusl bc
Illc_ndsof PCDT polycster fibre and wool nray bc crrbonizc<J,
carried out bcforc dYcing. .
but they should bc ncutralizcd as soon ts possiblc attcr baking.
Water-insoluble sizing materials may be removed with a
proteolytic or antylolytic enzynte. Thesc enzynres arc usually
llcra-Sctliug
ictive at temperaturesup to 60"C., and 30-60 minutes at this
tcolperaturewill usually bc sufiicicnt to solubilizc tl]e sizes.Thcre Fabrics.of ICDT polyestcr do not requirc hcat-scllir)g,Firbrics
or" lrlony rapid desizingagentsavailablc which will digest starcll should bc llcat-trcirtcd to rcnlovc rcsirlurrlcarricr aftir tlycirrg.
'I'he
in 2-3 minuies. Sodiunr bromite desizing is also used. tinre and tcnrpcrirtrrrcrcquircd to rcnrovc thc clrr.icr vtrric-s
with type of carricr used. Nlanuf cturcrs' instructionsshoul<lbc
Scourirg followcd closcly.
Except lor lubricants applied in nranufacturing,PCDT polyester BI€nclri||g
fibre is usually clean and free from foreiSn matter./The lubricants
can bc rcmovcd prior to dyeing by a wartrt wate\(71"C.) rinse. PCDT polycstcr fibrc is prodtrced as r whilc fibrc wlrich docs
Y a r r r sa n d o t l r c r g o o d s I n a y b e c o n t a m i n a t e dw i t h d i r t o r o i l ' not nornally rcquirc blclching. ln blcnds with othcr fibrcs,
and a mild scour with non-ionic detergcntand alkali (tetrasodium however, bleachirrg rnay bcconrc neccssary,and any of thc
pvroDhosDllatc) should bc used. lI the material is extremely dirty tcchniquesuscd to blcach the contplcmcntary fibrc nray bc uscd.
oi "ont"iir oii or greasestains, it is advisableto scour with 3 PCD"| polyestcr blcnds havc bccn blcachcd by both'batch and
Detroleum solvent tltat has been emulsified with a non-ionic continuousrnethodswith hydrogcn pcroxidc.Sodiunrhypochloritc
enrulsifying agent. Alkalis, such as tetrasodium pyrophosphate' and sodium chlorite nray also bc uscd to bleaclr blcntlcd fabrics
trisodium phosphate, sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide wilh no ill elTecton thc ?CDT polycstcr fibrc.
should be used with the petroleunr solvent for best results' I t i s c o m m o n p r i l c t i c ct o i n r p r o v c t l t c w h i l c n c s so I b l c n c h c d
lf thc PCDT polyester fibrc is blended with other man-made f i l b r i c s w i t h t h c a i d o I v a r i o r r sb l t r c a n d / o r v i o l c t r l y c s o r
or natural fibres, the ustlal scouring or bleaching ptocessesused pigments,optical blcachcsor whilcncrs or conrbinationsoi both.
to prcparc the otller libre will not normally aflect the PCDT fibre' Optical brightcncrslhat producc good whitcs on ccllulosicshavc
A thorough rinsing should follow any preparatory treatment little or. no efcct on PCDT polyestcr fibrc. Expcricncc has
to ensure that residual chenicals or foreign matter have becn shown that a comtrination of two optical briglrtcricrs.onc for
c o m n l e t e l yr e m o v e d , PCDT and the other for thc ccllulosic fibre, protlucc gootl
It is advantageousto boil ofi or scour rnany fabrics in open whiles.
3i8 319
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIDRDS
A: S Y N T I IE T I C F I N R E S
DJcitlg tlre polycslcrfibrc and aftcr-trcatcddircct dycs
on thc ccllulosic
PCDT polycsterfibres may be dyed either wilh disperseor librcs. classcs.oldycs,lllc carricr ",,,t iny n"."rr,,ry
azoic(devclopcd) dyes. tanlsshould ,llolh. nrir'ir.
bc addcd to rhc dycbulha[ rhc sr;rr "iifi"
Av"i,"
Disperscdycs provide a conrpleterangc of shadcsfrom cycre.
pastelsto blacks.Azoic dyesare mostcomnronlyusedto produce In caseswhcrelastncssrcquircmcnts ctnnot bc nlct willl aftcr-
.
blacks. trcated. dircct dyes,a two-baihcxhaustiontcchniquc",,,r'L'";r",I
In conrnronwith otheriypesof polycstcrfibrc,PCDT polyester to n r p l r t h o l ss,u l p h u r ss,o l u b l c" " , . , j , i f r r "
- a ntop l y . , v a t s , *,oi""
libres requirc the use of temperatures above the boil, or of dycs lhc cotton or ravon..l lrc pCD.f polycsrcilt-br;
f i r s t w i t h d i s p c r sdc y c s . : f h cc c l;;;;;
carricrs.
orra.yon,
i" rr,"n
ay!J-
In-n,,;.'11"';l"illl:'J,,[tl?.;lli"i,ffi::i]
Carricrs forthc spccificdyc uscd.
Bccauseof a lack of prcssurizedequipment,nlost dycing is dycr slrould usc the scqucncco[ nlclhod bcst
,.Thc suilcd to
done with the aid of a carrier.The proper selectionand use nrs own equrpmcntwhcn handling l,CD,l. polycstcr/ccllulosic
of a carricr is importflnt.The self-enrulsifyingbutyl benzoate blends.The polyesrcrfibrc nray bclyccl by
r1,";;;ri;f;;;i;;;,
"onb"ay"i.on; ;;;i;,,;;,;;';:;
carricr is suggestcd
for knittedand wovenfabrics.This material the heat-fixationpro""sso, uui
has low loxicity and produceslevel, well-penetrated dyeings.
If the productis properlyformulated,it yieldsa stableemulsion
T.;"f
Jl,.,ii l'i"..,i1,?:',,";
a I:rtcrtinrc.If rhccorronor ra-yorr ;T:ll
is r" r,.-iv..ti'irliii'"l,ir.
merclyby addingwarm water while stirringvigorously.
Biphcnylcarriersare widely usedfor dyeingcrrpctsof PCDT
polycstcrfibres.Thcse carricrs should be used accordingto
*:,;;l* .kilk'iii
;:illi:l',,:":i,lil,",""'
)ll:"J:[*
scouringnrust bc carricclout "tt.r. tl," ,".oiil
.fr"f ,,*""i"r,i r""
manufacturers' instrtrctions. PCD7' I,olyesruIlVoo! Dlcnds
Emulsionsof mcthylsalicylate havealsogivencxccllcntrcsults.
A largcr conccntrationof this carrier is neccssary,however,to P C D ' f .p o l y c s t cfri b r ci n b l c r r d w
s i t l rw o o l c r r r b c t l y c t lb y c i t h c r
produce dye exhaustioncomparablewith that obtainedwith a one-batchor two-batchmctho(
butyl benzoate. For this reason,methylsalicyl4teis moreexpen- n)enrs.rhepcDr por
ycsrcr
n,j;"'ll"lilir ;l,l"lil;::J""rj,J:.:-
sive to use. I with nculral-dyci'g acicts,ctirorrrc "," pi'""i"t., rij'..,,r
[""r:*'
I I igIt Tenrperotura Dyeing Dispcrse dyes wilt stain thc wool to various
. dcgrccs.Ctrrcftrl
A reductionin both time and chenricalcost may be obtainedby ro mini.tizcthcst.i' aticluotirrrpaii
iJril.'J1t"Trli"r:ecessarv
dyeingPCDT polycsterfibre under pressurctt clcvaledtenlpera-
'?;:'*fi
""1,,"^fi ":*1,,,"i:
tures.Tcmperatures of up lo l2l'C. arc recommended.
of a carrier is necessary
The use
to obtain completeexhaustionof the
mcrhod
li.:iifl
"':,,11."
::'i::l;:,lTi,fl:
'i,;
is uscd,lhc dycs for ltrc *";i
dycbath,and the butyl benzoates are particularlyeffcctive. ;l;;;,t,i
'l'hc s9l*9"1h"
e r c c t c dl r o t | l l h o s c t l l a t w i l l t l y c l r t l h c s l i g h t l y
hcat fixation proccssfor dyeing polycslcrsis espccitlly acitl corrtlitiorr
effectivein the rpplicationof dispcrsedycs Lo PCD-| polycstcr alplying <tispcrsc
<tycsorr rtrc iufV"rr.. nLr". if,"
nll:"1
curra {"1 rd y c t n g p r c r n c l r l l i z c dd y c s c i r n b c u s c c l p r o v i t l c
frbresand to blendsof thesefibreswith ccllulosiclibres. to trrcrr.s
w c a r r a s t n e sls) r o p c r l i c sI.f c o l o u r sb r i g l r l c r
l h l r r rl h n s co b l ; r i n l b l c
w j l l l t l l i s . c l a sos f d y c s a r c r c q u i r . c dl,l i c r c
PCD'f Polyestcr I Ccllulosic Illends " . " " n u , , , f r " ,u i * , " 1 , i
i r c r <ur yctngnltlltng(lycslltat ,n:ty bc trscd.
Blcnd labrics of PCDT polycstcrfibres with ccllulosicfibrcs S r r r l l i t ( l d i t i os o f
l n r r n o r r i u | | sr u l P l r u t en r i g h t b c n c c r t c <tto a i t l
can bc clyc<lin a one-bathproccclureusing dispcrscdycs on tlyc ;*"-,;,J;;; ;;,
u r c w o o l i l c r l h c p o l y c s t c rf i b r c h l s b c c r rb r o U g t l l
o sh (lc.
380
381
j
384 385
I
"l ' l I
f-l r f I
t t t F . F . t F . F . Fl -, l,' : f ' , I , t rt F : i l
I i A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S B: SYNTIIETIC FIDRES
w
ch:rriis
nray cause dilllculties.
PCDT polyesterfibrcs have a lowcr spccilic gravity than pE.f
polyestet Iibrcs, giving them iocreased coucring pow"r,
. Tlrcy
provide.lightweight fabrics oI grcat warmth and
con)fort.
. . I ne nrgh meltrng point of PCDT polycster fibrcs makcs for a
3.O high safe-ironing temperature labotit itA.C.).
pCDT polyesterfibrc may be
.Fabrics.containing hcat-sctirt a
r c r a r r v e r tvo w l e n r p c r a t u r ec,. g . a b o u t 1 6 0 " C , ,a n d t h i s i s
nrrtic_
u l a r l y u s c l u l i D t h e f i n i s h i n go [ b l c n d c df a b r i c sc o n t a i n i r r gw o o l .
.i2 o
.9
o l'5
F t o
IVas[ing
Similar to PET polyesterfibrcs.
5 10 !5 20 25.30
STRAIN(% ELONGAIION) Dryirrg
Similar to PET polyesterfibrcs.
lroning
PCDT polyester fibrcs may be ironed safcly at tcr.npcraturcs
up
to about218'C.
I'CDT Pol),csterFibrc ('Kodcl'\
386 387
IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: SYNTII ETIC FI BIT[S
Bulk Staple
the
Dillerential cooling of the filaments as they emerge from. (C) NEW TYPES OF POLYESTER
spinncr"t protlucesa spiral ellect in the filaments'This technique
is uscd in producing bulked polyesteryrrns' 'l'hc
n)ostradicalwly oI prorJucing polycstcrlibrcswith dillcrcnt
rangesof propcrtiesis to spin the fibres fronr ncw typcs oI
Textured and Bulked Yarrts p o l y e s t e rP. o l y - p . e l h y l e n c o x y b c r r z of oart ec,x a n r p l c .
l , i , sb . c , r
Polyestersare thermoplastic,and the libres may be subjectedto W u n r r ) t ol l D r e sw h i c l l w c r el l t a r k e t c di n J : r p ; r na i A - . l . c l ll., r o _
all the tcxturing processesrn common use' r l u c e dt y r e a c t i r regt l l y l e n eo x i r l cr v i t l rp - t y, i t r u * y t ru. r , ,i . ' " . i , f
.
t l l c p o l y n l e rn l c l t sa ! 2 2 4 o Ca n d i s r : r e l ti p u , r ., 1 . 1 ,l ". i b ; . , ' ; ; ;
Bicomponent Fibres ,_il'illr
i'l _rlany respecrsto I)E'l polyestcr'nbrcs.t.elccliv' ii
Bicomponent lilaments are prodtrcedfrom polyesters,.witheflects 35_.32-46.80cN/rex (4.0_5.3 gi,t"i,y, "to,,giriou-"f-iii"u'[
similai to those obtained frorn bicomponent polyamide
yarns' I 5 - 3 0 7 0 , r v i t f r a l r r r o s tI O A ' / or c i o v c r y "t o , , , ' i o * " f " " " , i i i o , i .
Moisturereg,rirrQ.4,i/o and spcciticgrav'ity1.34;;; ,;;:i;;;ii;;
to thoseof l,ET polyesterfi-bres.l{eiistariccto o.i,fsu,iif,ff."ii",
(B) CHEMICAL MODIFICAT/N OF ESTABLISHED
r sg r e a t etrl ) a t h a t o I P E Tp o l y e s t cfri b r c s .
POLYESTER TYPES roly-p-e rylelleoxybcnzoatcfibres, rcscrrrblilrgcloscly
thc
e s t a D i l s t l cpdo t y e s t c r{ l b r e s ,w c r e u n a b l c t o o f t c r a r l v a l t a u c s
Tbe polyesters from which PET and PCDT polyester fibres are u r a Ln ] l g l t tt.r a v cg. i v c n r c r n a w o r t h w h i l ep l a c ci t h c t c x i i l c
spun-arc chemically inactive materials, and this has.been- an n l a r K e ta,n dp r o d u c t i o rnv r sd i s c o n t i n u c d .
important factor in the di{Iiculties associated with dyeirrg these
frbies. There ate no active Sroups in the polymer molecule to
which dyestulls arc attracted.
ycars
Much of the rescarchon polycster fibrcs during recstlt
has becn concerncd with this problem of improving the dyeing
iira.i"t"risti"s of the Iibre, ond ptog,"st has been made by
modifying the chemical natttre of the polynrer molccule' Special
-PfT
tuo"t bt polycstcr ftbrcs are norv produccd, for cxarnple,it'
ihiclr sulphonic iroups havo bcen introduced iDto tllc polycstcr
390 391
IIANDAOOK OF TEXTI LE I'IIJRES D : S Y N T I rE T IC F I I ] R D S
f o r m j n g p c n d a n t g r o r r p so f a t o n t s a t t t c l t c d t o t h c
l o r r qc l r r b o n
3. POLYVINYL DERIVATIVES D a c K D o nocl t h e p o l y n t c rn r o l c c u l c .
A s t h c . f o r n r a t i o no f p o l y r n c r t i r k c sp l a c c b y l r c l < l i l i o n
of onc
l!r(roduclion s r r a t t n r o t e c u l et o a n o l h c r ,w i t h o U t t l t c c l i n r i n n l i o n
of rvalcror
a other nraterials,this type of rcaclion is an eddition poly,,t",i
It has long bcen known tl')at cert in compounds containing P.oly.linyl compounds wcre arr.tongthc nrst polyrncrs-to
z,,iiui,,.
.f""frf" ft"ri t rvoul<lunclcrgo spontaneous change, during which bc
solid st.udicdasrolcntial sourcqsof synthciic fibrcs..f.li" ".rlv
: r l i e L r i d ,' ft o r c x l t t t p t c , r v a s c o t t v c r t c t lg r d t r l l l y i n t o a . rrDrc ' f c . C c ' C"li,,"u
w a - sn l r t l c b y c x t r t r d i n gs o l r r t i o r ros f i r c i r l o r i n : r t c d
n r n t " ' r i r t . t t " l o w - b o i t i n gl i q u i d v i n y l c l t l o r i t l c ,n r o r c t h i r n a p o r y v r n y ct h l o r i d c .I t r , v i l sn o t u n l i l t h c c a r l y y c l r r s
c c r t l r r y i r g o .w a s s h o w n t o c h i l n g ci l l t h i s w a y ' Il, howcr,,cr,-that polyvinyl conrpounds
-tcg,,,, o f W o r k l W r
'lhcse
cltatrgcsarc tlow lccogtlizcd as polynlcrlzil(lons'otlrlllg p r o r n r s c , r nt h c l i c l d . o f g c n u i n c t c x t i l c f i b r c s .
io ,l;r; ;"i,i
rvhich thc smill molcculcs join togcthcr via tlre double bond to Fibrcswcrc spun
r r o m s o l u t r o n so t p o l y a c r y l o n i t r i l (cp o l y v i r r ycl y a r r i d c ) ,
fornr long clrain trtolccttlcsof llolyntcr. lSr:c bclo,w') -,- r r r v cs r n c cd c v c l o l ) c di n t o o n c o f l h c ) o s ti r l r p o r l a n t
ald tlicsc
C o r n n o u n d sc o n t l i n i t t g t h e v i n y l g r o u p , i c ' C H " = C H - ' wtll of lrll cltrsscs
tllis w y, ntl thc polylncrs of synthctic llbrcs.
conrmorrly undergo
'fo'nt"tt-arc potylne rizat iotr in -the
ili"i nr" ialletl polyvinl'l cotttpotuttls' linking
o
r o s c t l l c ro I l l r c s n t a l l t l r o l c c t t l c s f a v i n y l c o n ) p o u n dr c s u l l sl r l POLYACRYLONTTRILE,
FI BIIES
thJ fornration o[ a long nroleculc consisting of calbon lttonls'
tl)c rerrrrining atoms that werc prescnt in the vinyl compoul](l
Fibrcsspun lrom polyntcrsor copolynrcrsof lcrylonilrilc
:
cI{" =CI'I.CN --! -cl'r,-cH-Cr,rr-cH_
i l
NF V I N Y L C O M P O U N D
P OL Y M E I I , I Z - A ' I ' I OO CN CN
Acrylonitrilc Itolyacrylonitrilc
i;
r r a c q u l r c oa n c w s t a t u sb y b e c o m i n ga c o n s t i t 0 c n t
of onc of
t{lT gf synrhc(icrubbcr undcrctcvctoprrclr
::]",1]-":
lu uermat)y ilp:.,;.Lr
and thc U.S,A.
D u r i n gW o r l dW a r I I , t h es y n t h e t ircu b b c ri n d u s t r vu D d c r w c n r
;rnrl w:rs
rrndcr
s y n l t r c t i cl i b r c
A c r y l o n i t r i l cu n d c r g o cas d d i t i o np o l y r n e r i z a t i or n c n c l i t va. r r d
poryflcrytonilrilc hlrl bccn cxamincdts a polcnliitlfibrc_tointinc
l ) o l y r n cdr r r r i n gl h c l a t e l 9 l 0 s .p r a c t i c a<l j i i T i c u l l i1c,,, . fp r * " , , i " j
392 391
--l . [ " " t r I , - l ' t - '-l - l ' [ - [ r l ' l ' l "-1 "-1
I I I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
B: SYNTII ETI C FISItES
any substrulial progress beiug made jn lhis direction, howcvcr,
the nrain problenr being to nod a way of spinning a polymcr a pilor plantr f'his was followc<.lby
a conrnrcrcial l)lirnt lvlrich
rvhich was virtually infusible and insoluble in any of tlte solvetrts
then cxanlincd. Al that tinre, attempls to spin polyacrylonitrile
rvcre directcd largely at prodncing ntore soluble copolymers,e.g. Tlr""Jdlliil i,lli"ll:,i':,:1,1""1,',i;x;:ll,*
i'r3"",lill
iiff: []ffi#
*,i;i';l
T;ll,';1
r ll,"'m;i**fx
containing vinyl chloride, which would dissolvc in common
solventssuch as acetone.Fibres werc spun fronr tllesocopolymcrs
by dry spinning techniqucssuch as those used in spinning acetate pt:rnr wrsopcucdi r Cotcrainc ;,, N;;it,";;;
fibres, and sonre of the copolymer fibres had propcrties of i,?"]lJu:".""u'Acrilan'
considerableinterest. O"y-r-,,i.*_
thepcriod1.955-60, polyacrylon
,^ irrilc fibrcplar)tsbcla
Shortly before the war, solvents for 100 per cent polyacry-
lonitrilc were found, such as dinrethyl fornranride, and the "i::Tiion::inerli: 1,"J1,1".o
ir!d,!ll:,.:: ::i:ilJ;,iJ1T j,:ll
experimental production of polyacrylonitrile fibres continucd
i,",X,j''l:, d.sirrccrhcn,
",:;;;,;i;;, :;ii i;ii;
throughout the war years in Gerntany by I.G. Farbcnindustrie, 1:oJ:.r:",ltucri
and in U.S.A. by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. Inc. lly
1942,du Pont rvcre producing a polyacrylonitrilehbre which was
o[Iered to the U.S. Governrneut (or military applications.1'hc 't"t'ptrs
evrluation of this polymcr rvasso promising that in l9{4 du Poni o t ; I ' o L y A c R y L o NI . fRt L I : l i l B R t i
announced their decision to begin pilot plarrt producliorr. lly
Polyacrylonitrilc fibrcs are now proclucccl
1945,du Pont were producing tlre world's Iirst polyacrylonitrilc
c;,,i - "i
by tnrrry ntrlul.irc-
fibre, whiclr was provisionally named Fiber A. rncs
lratrc';r
1"1:'i,,:?f;;;l; ";l;i:ir",,", r\r
"';' " i;
;;' ;;,;;
Thcse carly polyacrylonitrile fibres werc alnrost as siroDg as
nylon, r.nd had a high resistanceto chernicals(notably acids)
and to sunlight. They rvere very dillicult to dye, and it seemcd t t'n-i": l'ill':'
il:il livil'"'*'l'
r';liLi
'u'T''""1';'l'i;,'iff ll^":o#
l';
tlrat their most promising comnrercialoutletsmust lie in industrial
and outdoor applications. As dycing lcclrniques rvcre cvolvccl, :?*"r'"",,:.3ffi :
:iJ:ii:,t,Ji:::i;,,:i
ni?i,
however, it becamc apparent that polyacrylonitr ilc fiblcs could
also become of importance in tlr/ apparel labrjc field. e::{fj :;i}ill
:ij:fJ,jff;::i:,i $x:t,,':i*,,"Ji:.,1t::':",t"f
rcspcct, ,,1
In 1948,du Pont made plans for the largc-scaleproduction of it i' n'o'"JlrriJiio
SJil'rt".ti,Tiltii',f,'ii,J",;i::
Fiber A. and in July 1950a plant came into production at Canrdcn, ns'r Scncrnlclassth.rr irr thc
South Carolina. The ftbre was produced as continuous filanrcnt
cascor.poryanjdeor porycsrcrl.
yarn, and it was given the trade nanre 'Orlou'. This first fibrc tibrcs'rrrcrc
wasi,
lvas a 100 per ceot polymer of acrylonitrile,and it still presente(l ,""1'"#';';1:1",1i1'",it,,1$ti9"'"nitrirc
,oo'b".o,n
" ofp"-r-",,i,'
ffi ;";:':i"t1',,t,,?,T;tTit".lrlffi
problenrs in dyeing, In due course, howevcr, thc introduclion oI
snrall proporlions of t sccond mononlcr providcd nrodificd fornrs ',x'i?:[
t":::ff -,i3$t,li["T:t;:lii*;iilJl':i:f
;,,,j
of ,ibre \',ith improved dyeability.
I n M a r c h 1 9 5 2 ,a s c c o n d' O r l o n ' p l a n t a t C a n r d c nb e g a np r o - which
nbres
oi si,ritar
xti
"r'"'i'i"'i'ii.'"",,ii
ducing staple fibre- ;?ii:1,!;l"fl,jilii'
This. problent rvas considcrcd by lhe
^ U.S. Fcdcrlrl .l-nrrlc
l r l c a n w h i l c ,i n 1 9 5 0 .a s c c o n d U . S . r n a n u l a c t u r c cr n t c t c ( lt h c
poly crylonitrilc fibrc ficld, when ChcnrstrandCorp. constructcd FlJll''i:Tl;:'^li::,'"Jilil,'1,::,11,:',lli:
lii::X lililr:l,:ll
394
395
IIANDBOOK OF TEX'I LE FIBRES B : S Y N , T IE
I TI C I,''IIRI]S
NOMENCLATURE
396 397
Ii
-1 ' -1 r 'f 'l I r l r
E E ll E E E l': f: f: f: f: f:': fr h H H H
II NDUOOK OF TEX] ILE FII]IIES SYNTIIETIC FTBRES
398 399
'IANDBOOK OF TI]XTILE FII]IIES s YN ' r ' c r t c
(b) Acet;,leue mcl IICN
Acrylonitrile is rllilde direclly front acetylencby the addilion ol'
HCN.
CH=CH+IICN-+ CH,=q11q1
\<J)Acctoldchyde Route
n3 aE+
Hydrogcn cyanide is added to acetaldehydcto lorm the cyxnhy- d= E*El
drin (l). This is dehydrated to acrylouitrile (2). ;'
9]"", :.*r."^
/6if$'t
]t l,t t'-
+IrcN9cH"cH<3$
cl{.cHo \-
"z
J 12.
\
ii
tt lt H
5
Polynlcrizn(iorl
I LZ-Y * F
Thc polynrcrization o f f l c r y l o n i t r i l ea n d i t s c p - m o n o m e ri s c o m - I t/
r r r o n l yc a r r i c d o u t b y s l i r r i n g t h e m o n o m e r ( w i l h w a t c r i n t h e I tt €;l
fl-l l!
presenccof catalysl and surfactants. Sonrc of thc acrylonitrile i l \ . = +
dissolvesin the water to form a 7 per ccnt solution, the excess -l .!-r
rlonorner fornring an cnrulsion.
As polymerization proceeds,tlre polymer (which is irrsoluble
i|r rvatcr) is prccipitatedto form r slurry.'fhis is liltercd, and thc
polynrer is washccland dricd. ,
Polymcrization may bc carried out as a batch process,or on
a continuous basis,In thc lattcr case,mononter, wrter and othcr
nra(crials rc fcd into a rcaclion vcsscl,irnd slttlty is withdrawn
contintrously.Unrcactc(l rllononrcr is rccovcrcd and rctutlred to
t h c o o l v n r c r i z ai ot n .
400
Spirring f l c t o r i l y . B r s i c d y c s w c r e u s c d , b u t l i g h l .f i l s l n c s sw i r s
noot. A
s a l r s l a c t o r yr a n g c o [ s h a d c sw a s p r o v i d c d ,h o w c v c l ,
P o l y e c l y l o n i t r i l e1, 0 0 p c r c c n l o r c o u l a i n i t r gt l p t o l 5 p c r c c n t by n11fti11p
co-rrononter, tends to deconlposcou mclting, and fibres cannot ion lroccsstlcvclolccl
irr l95t)ior ,i";i;;;;;;
be produced by nrelt spinning processesls ttsed lor polyatnide
||".31i:i,""n,o.'s
and polyestel libres. Acrylic fibres are thelclore pro(luccd fronl 1-heprcferredtechniqucrvirsto nrtkc usc of ncicldycs
prcscncc in thc
s o l u t i o D sc,i t h e r b y d r y o r \ v c t s p i n n i n g rous ions.Thc proccsslrast"",, of gr""i u.i,," iu
,of^cul)
(|yctng ilu ttbrcs birsc(lon lrcrylorritrilc;
tltc col)Pcr itcts its ir
Dry Spinning
blidgewhich links rhe nitrile grout)oi rl," tiUJ"r" iii.';y;
-fhc nrolecule.
polymcr is dissolvedin an orgauic solvent,such as dimethyl
fornramide, to fornl a soltrtion containi0g 25-40 per cent of - U s i n g t h e c u p r o u s i o n t c c l r n i q r r ci ,t r v a s p o s s i b l ct o o b l a i n
firs.t colours covcring a wiclc rangc on ,Oilon,
polymer. This is degassed,hltcred and licated alnost to boiling stlrnlc libr.c-
llthough the rnorc highly oricntatcd conrinuo,,,
point, and then extruded through spinnerets. frfu,ii",'ii-.O.iou:
o y " s o r c a d i t y . C o o d r e s u l t sw c r c o b t i r i n c ( 1l ,l o r v c v c r ,
Thc fine jets of solution en'rcrgeinto a vertical tttbe or spinning loy-_ayellg
::,'l9l
undcr prcssure at tclnpcrrlulcs up to 120"C.
ccll, throtrgh which air or olller gas at high tenpcrattrre (e.g. W h c n n r a n u [ a c tr e r s b c g a D p r o d u c i n g c o D o l y , r r c r s - o f
400"C.) is florving. As the jets fall through thc tube, the solvenl ,
r o n r l l i e , .U r c p o s i l i o nc l ) a n g c dT. h c r n a i n r c n s o n
ac.u_
evaporates1o leave solid filancnts of polyruer' for introduciriu
'fhe l sccond conrponcnt into thc polyrrcr rvrrs
filanrcntsare brought togcthcr at thc base of thc spinuing to cstlblisir ii;.;;;ll
cell and strclchedhot to 3-10 times their original length. If con- ;|"'::i,i",:'?l;"Jl]",lt,l::ill""sattcrtor
poittrs
ror trvcstrrrr
tinuous filament yarn is being prodLtccd,the lilaments are oiled,
trvistcd and thcn wouncl on to bobbios.
cop.oryn,crs
'l'l:c
;",,;;il;,,i;; ;;;,,1':1rl:llJ:T"t:'1,,
ll,;'iill,l']ll'',"
ntorrolrers u s c ( l t o ( l a y a s s e c o n ( lc o l t l ) o l c n t s i n a c r v ,
lf staplc fibre is rcqtrired, a number of yarns are brotrght ,
l o n l r n t e c o p o t y n t e r sa r e c o n ) t l o n l y o I t h r c c g c n c r l l
together into a tow. This is then criulpcd and cut into staple d e p e r r c l i lo
g n t h e L y p eo f s i t c t h e y o l f c r t o t l y c s t u i l s :
classt,s,
of thc dcsired length. Uncut tow is ttsed for convetsion. (l) I4onom-erswhich providc non-ionizing polar
groups wlrich
are able to form co-ordination conrplcxeJ
lVrt Spituting *itl, jy".f'uffr, l'g.
vinyl acctate,mctlryl acrylate,
Polymcr is dissolvcd in din'lethyl [orl]lamidc or othcr solvcnt, ( 2 ) M o r r o m c r sc o n l a i n i n c b a s l
and the solution .is degasscd and ftltered. It is then punped oI formingionic bonds*iii., ""ili "fut ulr];t:')""ttttps c:tprblc
t h r o u g h s p i n n e r e t isn t o a c o i r g t r l a t i nbga t h g d n t a i n i n ga l i q u i d i n
which thc solvcnt is soltrbtebut thc polyn{er insoluble.TIre jets
of solution coagtilalc into finc filanrents,fornring a tow wl]ich
is washeclafter emerging from the bath.'fhe tow is heated and
"f,j rl:jliTfi,t,]!l;
uu!'],"y"""11T"";i,";":Uiiji""
;i"il,ii,Td':
drarvn, driecl, oiled and crimpcd. It nay then bc healcd lo relax Jn addition to providing anchor points
the libre beforc bcing cttt into staple.
.,
f;
,,tif'lffi.;ti: for dycstrrll nrolcculcs,
if:'i;:iilliliilr':;"l,li
PROCESSING
ii:!1:lfi andttrcdesrcc
l:.^r1:'j"d, ot crysrrtiinity
i. i.i*"i.,i.
xl;ij:Ti:
'ir'rrr".
.p,"i
trom.thasc opolynrcrn
s r c n r o r c r c c c p l i v cl o s o l v c n t s ,
t r c i n gn i o r c
andnrorccasiry
pcncrrarcd
by <tycsttirt
,,,,i otl"i
Dycit|g lllilll,,l;"t,"o
T h c c a r l y f o r m s o I p o l y a c r y l o n i t r i l cf i b l c , s u c has 'Orlon'Typc e f l e c ti s n o t a p p a r e n ht ,o r v c v c irn, t l r ec a s co f s r a f t
4l staple and Type 8l lilanrcnt yarn, werc dimcult to dye satis- c- -o] p- lo] sl ylni ttteerras s, u s e ( il n t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f t h e r r i t r i l ea f t o yf i E i c s .
402 403
IIANDI]OOK OF 1'EX'I'ILE FIDRDS
r , : s Y N . I .[l .t ] - t c F I t r R u s
T h e i n t r o d u c t i q no f t h e g r a l l d o e sn o t a f f c c t t h e f o r l n o l ' t h c -f'hc
acrylic
fibrcs o[cr unus
p o l y a c r y l o n i t r ibl {a c k b o n ea,n ( lt h e r e s i s t a n ct oe s o l v e n tisl r t h i s
casemay actuallybe increased.
or rhc'brc",", tl jf,gll Jl,llll'",1":l]::i;,,lli:
.hi,rircrcrisrics
(rcgrcc.by selcction oI a pirrticullrtypc of acrylorritrilc
Today, acrylicfibresare proclucedi[ wbich receptivityto all c o n t r o l l i n gl h c s p i n n i n gc o n d i l i i ;;;;r,;i;;;,;1.
typesof dyestulfhas bceu built irr. rrrc
arrerria.ricrii
i;;. ?;i;;;",:',,jffii,il"t;to,:,1j'
:lii,:l"',::ll
liiDc S(ructurc anrl Appcar;rncc
Acrylic fibrcsarc ploduccclin tr v
irrgu'onrr'";;,i;iri;;.;';,,;;;,'Ji::il",1,:'lii;::'""'i,:.:''.l:11 '
ger:cral,wc1 spun fibrcs havc a roun<l
STI{UCTURE AND PROPEITTII]S or t i,l,i"y_ i*-",, ,i,,,n".i
cross*ectiorr. Dry spun fibrcsrnay bc of dog-bonc,r, ft,,t'.llrrr-
s e c t i o nM . a n yb i c o n r p o n c rarct r v l i i f i b r c s. , ; ' 1 , - , f , , . . , i ,
The propcrtiesoI polyacrylonil.rilc
fibrcsvary ovcr a widc range, ' yij.ii,il
I t i g h - b u lfki b r c so n p r o c e s s i n g .
each manufacturerproducinga fibre or fibres that will have
the blend of propertiestbat hc feels will meet his particular 'fcD:tcily
rcqurremcnts, 'fhc
eady typcs of..polyacrylonitrilclibrc, wlriclr
consistcttoI l{X)
l)cfccntrcrylonitr-ilc
polynru,rvcrchighlyori.,,rnLJ,,uii..,:u*i"i-
)\i9 (€r- \3 4.O
{o9*@ lix'
{-\ dl
z
9^@r"*o
j20
6s%i.h.2ooc
@886
@"{
26.5
@ .-}
.-c
o
o -
.^@@rN^ffiR@ -2o 17.5 r. onroru@az
z, zernlr@
F
20 30 g. cnrsuru@5o
EXTENSION
% a. acntLar@ro
1.O
lo 3020 40 50 60 70 BO
sTnatN (% ELoNcATtoN)
'Coutlellc' Slrcss-stritin Ctrrvcs
.for,.Sonrc Corrtrrrcrcitl Acrylics. (Singlc librcs
tcslc(l tt strrrrtlartl
crlr<litiorrs)-Cheustran,t Lt .'
404
405
SpccilicGtavity
(l\ Stalle atrd Totv
Dry: 1 7 . 7 - 3 1 . 8c N / t e x ( 2 . 0 * 3 . 6 g / d e n ) l. t 6-l .18
\Vet: I4.l -23.9 cN/tex ( I .6-2.7 g/den)
Dltcct of Moislurc
S t d . L o o p : 1 5 . 9 - 2 0 . 3c N / t e x ( 1 . 8 - 2 . 3 g / d e n )
S t d . K n o t : 1 5 . 0 - 2 0 . 3c N / t e x ( 1 . 7 - 2 . 3 g / d e n ) l{egain: 1.0-3.0 pcr cent.
Il.T.: 29.1-37.l cN/tex(3.3-4.2g/den),
ary Water absorption at 20"C. and 95 per ccnl rh: 2.0_5.0
Dcr ccnt.
25.6-31.8cN/tex(2.9-3.6g/den),
wet. T h e w a t e r a b s o r p r i o nb y a c r y t i c si s r c l a t i v c l yl " * , l i , r
ia i.
s u l t r c r c n t o. r c d u c c t h e d i f [ c r r l t i c sa s s o c i a t c dw i t h ( l c v c l o n n ) c l | t
(2) Filantent ('Creslau') of static chargcs (e.g. by comparison wirh polycsrcr fib.";j.
ii i;
D t y : 3 5 . 3 - 3 6 . 2 c N / t e x( 4 . 0 - 4 . 1 g / d e n ) a r s oa s r g t t r c a n tl i l c l o r i n l h c c o r n p l r a t i v c l yg o o t l d y c a b i t i t y
of
wet: 26.5-33.5cN/tex(3.0-3.8el(len). -,.- acrylic fibres.
Tbe tensile propertics of acrylic fibres arc allcctcd lo
. sotnc
Tensilc Strenglh by waler, rhc tcnacity, for examplc, bcing reclucedto
::gle-e
/)-y) per cent ol the dry tenacity,
Staple: 2,100-3,150kg/cnr?(30,000-45,0001b/i'r1)
: 3,500-5,250
Filaruent I (50,000-75,000
kg/cm lb/inr). Thcrmll I'ropcrlics
Iilorrgation Acrylic fibrcs do Dot havc lrLrcrlelting poi[ts, but lcnd to stick
lo nrctal surfaccst\t Z|5-Z5S"C,whcn prcsseclagliust thcm.
S t r p l c : 2 0 - 5 5p e r c c n t .
F i l a n r c n t :3 0 - 3 6p e r c e n t . ElJect ol IIigh 7'en pcrat ure
[l.slic l{ccoyery 1 h c m c c h a n i c usl t r c n g t l o l f a c r y l i cl i b r . c si s n o t s c r i o u s l yi r l p a i r c t l
b y c x p o s u r ct o l l e i l t .' l ' h c t c n a c i t yi r f t c r I 0 0 l r o u r s i r t I 5 5 " C . i s
Acrylic libres have a bigh clastic recovcry fronr snrall extcnsions, typically about 96 pcr cent of thc original tcnacity.
406 40'I
I I A N D B O O K O l ' l - C Xf l t , E F l l ] l t r r s i R : S Y N T l l Er u C F l t t l 1 . I s
After l5 nlinutes at l30oC., acrylic fibre nray becotnecream- t h e ,f i b r e .s t r c r r g t hb c i r r gl p p r c c i r b l y u l t a l ' l c c t c db y c o r r c c l t t n r t c t l
colouretl. As heating bcconrcs more sevcre, the fibre bccomcs crrDoxyltc..acids,phenols, rlcolrols, kctorrcs, hydrocarborrs,
progrcssivelyrnore discolourcd.At 150"C. it is noticcably yellow c l rl o r i l l a t e dh y d r o c a r b o r rosr ( l c t c r g e n t s .
ftcr I hour. At 250"C. the libre darkens through ycllow and Sornc. Jess conrnron organic substal)ccssuclr lts tlirrrctlryl
.
brown to black within 5 minutes and bccomes insoluble in the r o f l n a m l o c , d - b u t y r o l a c t o n c ,d i n r c t h y l s u l p h o x i dicr d c l h y l c r r c
rrsualsolvcnts, c rbooatc are solvcnls for acrylic fibrcs.
Whcn acrylic fibres are hcated, thc mocltrlusfalls and thcy arc
'Ihis _Most salts are without cflcct, but vcry conccotratcd solltions
casily strctched. strctching, iI carricd out carcfully, is a o f s o d i u n r a r d c a l c i u n r t h i o c y l n i r t c ,z i i r c c h l o r . i d c. , , . t . . i r i , i n
revcrsibleproccsscausedby increasedoricntation of the polynrcr o(ber salts act as solvcnts.
nrolcculcs,without nny apprcciableplastic flow taking place. lI
the stretchcd fibrc is cooled before tension is rcleascd,the fibre Eltect of Organic Solvenls
rcrnains in its stretchedform. If the stretched and cooled libre Acrylic fibres gencrally havc a goorl rcsisllncc lo comnlon
is lrcated again, however, it will rclax and returl to its original organic solvents,including those lornrally uscd .in tlry clcaning.
lcngth.
Iosccts
This ability of acrylic Iiblcs to assumca tnctastablcstate ttttcr
bcirrg strctched at high tcnlpcrature is used iu tlle prodtrction oI Acrylic fibres are not attflckcd by moth llrrvac or othcr itrscctti.
high shrinkage libres.
Micro-orglnisms
Flonnnbility Acrylic fibres arc not alttcked by nricro-orgunisnrs. Flrbric buricrl
Acrylic fibrcs will burn, but thcy arc uot dangerouslyflantnrablc I n . s o r r .c o n l a t n r n g v a r i e l y o f n r i c r o _ o r g : r n i s r r cr st l i n c d
ils
li brcs. o n g r n a l b u r s t i n gs t r c n g t hi l f t c r 6 r n o t r t h sC
. olton, un(lcrsinril r
conditio.ns,had undergonc a complctc loss of sircngth aflcr 2
Eftccaof Sunlighi weeks' incubation.
Acrylic libres have cxcellent resistanccto thc ellccts of sunlight. Elcclric{l Propcrtics
Aftcr 600 hours cxposure, lhs tcnacity of a fibre is typically 'fhe
clcctrical resistancco[ acrylic fibrcs is o[ thc santc ordcr lrs
96 pcr ccnt of the original tenacity.
that of other man-madc fibres.'fhe follorvirrgtablc, for cxrnrple,
ChcmicalProperlics shows lhe electrical rcsistanceo[ ,Courtcllc' in colrp;,rison ruirti
some other fibrcs. Thc mctsurcntcnts wcre lakcn on scourctl
Acicls '/'
sanrples,altcr conditioning at 50 per ccnt.r.h. and 20.C. For cach
Acrylic libres arc unaflectcdby dilute solrttionsof strong mincral measurement1.5 grams of thc sanrplc wcrc placc<lbctwccn two
acids, but they tcnd to bc attacked on prolonged itnmersion in circular electrodes,and thc.rcsistancc nrcasurcd oll thc l).1).L.
conccntrated solutions. Ivlcgohntcterat a tcst pressurcoI 500 volts rvhilc thc sarrrplcrvlrs
rundera load o[ 30 g./sq.cm.
Alkrlis
R c s i $ t u t c c( x l 0 ' 1 o l t r n s )
Ditutc solutions of caustic socla and all solutioris of sodiunr Acctate -5.0
carbona(c and bic:rtbontlc havc no cflcct on lltc trtcclrtnicitl Cotton 0.006
propcrtics o[ acrylic fibrcs. Stroug alkrlis attirck the [ibrc. 'Courtclle'
5.0
Nylon 6.6 3.0
PET Polycster 5.0
Acrylic 0brcs are rcsistant to nlost colnnton orgattic substances, I{ayon sraple (,Fibro') 0.014
408 409
is lessthan that
Thc bcnclingstillncssof a fllttcDed cross-section
of a rourrclcross-scction {ibrc o[ equal cross-scctionalareir; thc
lvleclnricul PK)pe ics
T l r c . s t r c s s - s t r aricnl l t i o n s h i p so f d i t l c r c n ta c r y l i cf i b r c sv i t r v
CHARACTERISTIC S T I F F N E S S R E L A T I V ET O ovcr
C R O s S .S E C T I O N A L I D E AL I ZE O NATIO R O U N D F T B R EF O R a wr(tc_range(scc pflgc 405), cach fibrc bcirrg tlrc pr"o(lltct
B E N D I N GA L O N C A B A X I S
of its
SHAPE STIAPE AB/co p u r t i c u l a rc h c n r i c ; ral n d p l t y s i c a ls l r u c t u r c s .
Thc dcgrec oI orientation r.csullingfronr rlrawing is :r ntosl
irnporlant faclor in dctcrrnirring thc- nrcchrnicrl
c 1riof",:ii."'oi
a) ,.\
A (-l-) s
v
1 ulc lore. uls tnay bc sccn froll llrc cliagrarrron pagc
showing the stress-straincharactcristicso[ a spcctrunr;ii*yli;
fibre typcs. Continuous fiLrn)cnt,as excntplificd try ,Ci"ri"ni
405,
o .Orlon' :,
ROUNI] is usuallynrorehighlyoricnrc<1. zb, o,, tt,i "rli;;'ti",,;:
c has a vcry Iow degrceoI oricntation.
Ali possiblcunri,iiio,i,
,.\ betwcen,and cvenbeyond,lhcselirrritsarc possiblc.
C' A {-.I-J-B
v
D
12 0.82
In gcncral,thc tcnaciticsof acrylicfibrcjnr:ry bc rcgurdccl :rs
BEAN lying in a rangc bctrvccnllrirt o[ standar(lr"ivun .,i.1 i,uin,,.
Acrylicsarc strongcnorrghfor all lhc uoru,"l "pp"r"l "p1il;c,r-
c tions bu(.are not usuallyconsi<lcrcrl for high_sticngrh airplicu-
20 0.5?
L:f-jJ u 3.O O.54 t i o n ss u c h r s t h o s ci n w h i c h n y l o n a n d p o i y c s r ciri .b r " r ' r " r u " .
OOG IJONL D Allied with good tcnacityarrdcxtcrrsionis an cxccllcntcl;rstic
(- ross.acclionxl shnt-'c, Lilcct o n llcrrilir)g Siiillrcss-Cltct,tttrattl Ltd.
tccoveryanclhigh initial motlulLrs.'lhcnrcclrntrical l)rol)crtics ils
410 4u
II NDI]OOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES B : S Y N ' r I IE TI C F I I T R E S
a whole, thercfore, arc sucl'ras to nltke for the production of 50 pcr ccnr or rnorcrcrytic litrrc rrlry trc
fabrics oI good dinrensional slability. Most inrportant of all, }l:"']it.?l!)illj"r
q r r r a D l yp t c a l e d .
perhaps,is thc fact that these nlcchanical propcrtiesare rctaincd Acrylic goods arc modcrltcly flanrnrablc.
irr conditions which rvould tend to bring about deterioratio[ in
nrany other Iibres. Acrylics are not significantly afccted, for High Bulk Fibrcs
exarrple, by cxposure to sunligllt, moisture, nricro-organisrns, Thc. Iong polymcr molcculcs in a polyrcrylonitrilc
chcmicals or solvcnts. .l:,,19::Shthcy.areconrposcrl -*"if-
fibrc bchnvc
The rncchanicalpropcrtiesof acrylic fibres combinc to providc
ot I nrixtuicof r""*onuifv
orocrco crystallrncarcas and lcss rvcll-orttclcd
the attractive handle which is so irnportant a charactcristicof or lrntoinhoLrs
arcas.Evcn fibrcsspun fronr ptrrc acrylonitrilc.to
fabrics coustructedfrom thcse llb|cs, ,,oi ,t,o* iio
samedcgrecol order.flsis possiblcin [ylon antl polycstcr
lll)rcs.
r ' u r t h c r m o r cn,c r y l i cf i b r c sd o n o t d c v c l o pn i u c i
additiorrrl
Spccific G ravity crystallinityon orientationor hcat-sctring. i-trcy Aitfcr iir rtiis
Acrylic fibrcs have a low specific gravity, slightly higher than rcspcctfrom polyamideand polycslcrlilics, arri
u"ryii"'iirii.""
that of rrylon. Thcy providc lightweight fabrics which bulk well. lrc ln cot'tscquence moredilliculIlo heat_sct.
Ironing
\ K n i l t c d g a r n l c n t sa r c u s r r a l l yr c a d y t o w c i t r i l s s o o D
I i r st l r c vh a v c
lYashing oflco. Sonlc garmcnts and wovcn goods nrly rcqtrirc
a nririinrrrnr
of ironing,whichshout<l
be carricdout wirira J"of iro" irili--C
l i n i l t c t l a n d l i g h t w c i g h lg. a r n l c t r t so f I 0 0 p e r c c u t a c l y l i c f i b r e
Setlingl) on thc rcverscsicteot the fubricwtr"ii iir;'g;;;i
should bc washcdi[ warm watcr (40'C., 104"F.) using a detergcnt
is dry.
or soapflirkcs,whilc morc tobust glrorctrts such ls slritts lnay bc
rvashedin hand-hot water (48'C., ll8"F.). Thorough rinsing in
lukewarm watcr, followed by cold watcr, is reconrmendedto
prcscrvc the soltncssfor which acrylic ftbrc fabrics arc outstand-
ing. The usc o[ a proprietary softcr]ing agcnt in the linal rinsc Dry Clcnoiug
rvill also hclp lo rctain softncssancl colour.
H*[:*i H:'flt"fi:"l
BJ ':iJ:l::,'iliil,J,iT;l,i:',fl1i
418
fi
419
T I AN D A O O K O F T E X T I L E FIBRES B: S Y N T I I E ' I ' IC F I I } I I I ] S
End Uscs
ChcapRaw Material
'l'here Kni cd Outenyear
were a number o[ reasonsfor the rapid incrcasein thc
procluctionof polyacrylonitrilefibrcs. Acrylonitrilc,thc basic As thc dyeing
' 1>roblcnrs wcrc
";;;. rttttl
raw maLerial,rvas availablein plentiful supply attd at a vcry graduaI y, porjal;yr;;i,;ir. -t"."-':otnc., .lriccs tctlttcctl
low pricecomparcdwith raw materialsfor othersynthcticfibrcs.
Also,theproductionof polyacrylonitrile fibresis rclativelysintple, lt*il,i:,*itrffr*ilrur"r"".':.lidi'ilfiii"l'T
"r*l1;
and the patent position makes it possiblefor a producerto
manipulatethc basicprinciplcsand slill evolvea polyacrylonitrile rri',i"Tif jti{itixil.l:{1""11i"lillii{'illtilii
. hbrc with traditionalcharacteristics of this typo of fibre. *h","0,
*ooi-.i""i*.'
r,"i"ii dJl;:"uT::n:1i,,;illii,Ji''.]l[t:
Despitethe astonishing progressoI polyacrylouitrile fibres,and
their rcadyacceptance into a wide rangeof applications, theearly
yearswerebesctwith many troubles.Flighfibrc pricc and scrious
dyeingproblenrsheld up progressduring the early years.
At first, djspcrsedycstullswcrc virtu lly thc only classthat
'fhcsc
could be usedon polyacrylonitrilcfibrcs. dyesgavc s:rtis-
factory Iastness in palc shadcs,and they are still usedmainly
for this purpose.But they do not build up to mcdiumand deep ,lii:::,,.,,115tii!ft
l;y
iilit,,:'j:r,';,',..l:iitil?fift{i:ltff
shades,and lor the productionof heavy shades,acid dyesl"uffs
rvereapplied,using the 'cuprousion' technique.Tbis was not .;*
::l't'fr'','l".,ljl L
i;"ii:':TfilIlil'
x1## llllliil:i
'
r adoptcdwidely,horvever,owing to difncultiesin obtaininglevel
dyeingsand thc restrictedrange of acid dyestu{Ishaving good
dyeingproperliesby tl)ecuprousion tcchnique. [:lff;l;,1fiif ::i*i*#tnfi ji t!i.,
:,ii,1#l"i?,'"1;i",',f,
rvcre.supenor rcsistrrcr',
nrrtl
The brsic (cationic)dyestullswerefound to bs complcmentrry in clcar*biliry,"u'ji:1ff#luo,i,',i:lt
dyestuflsin that they would profide deepshades u r l g n l c r c, l e a n esr h r d c sc o u l db c o b l a i n c d
to tbe disperse
yarn yicld factorsof 95-9gpcr c w i t h . A c r i l l r r ra. ,r r d
of vcry good fastness to washing,and moderate /fastness to light.
Thcy were nol cltirely salisfactoryfor plle shadcs,howevcr,
bccauseof a very high initial rate of dyeing.The mein defccl
of the old type basicdycs on polyacrylonitrile fibreswas thcir lit**'*i'll-ir.l**;i[i[-$*i
nodcratefastncss to light.The ncwertypesof cationicdyeshavc
a very high fastnessto light and irnproveddyeingproperties.
Inrprovemcntin the dyestullsand dyeingtechniqucs
acconrpanied by the development of polyacrylonitrilc
nrodi[icd propcrtics.The incorporationof sntall amounts of
has been
fibreswith tlurl'ffi [['',i{*;nd*[ii;ll
fr
;i::{"'.'J::"1"-"io::'"i:,l'lH"ll,^u"lrlxllil.,'
secondcomponcntmononrcrshas providedacrylonitrilccopoly- p.rncticcs
with poly_acrylonirrilc
car.pct
sriplc,-.nrl "irri"i,"lfii",''
mers rvith incrcascdamnity for anionic dyestufs applied by "t. tonsslapteworsrc<t
spinning
is'r,sc.r
ir, y,i;;;;,,;;,,,',f*l
conventionaldyeing methods.These acid dyeablefibres have i#::.
420 421
-1 - --t
nnnnnt nnt nr t t EF,l_
It AN DTIOOK OI: TtlX'IILE l'IBRES B: SYNT}IETIC FI BRBS
ffiffi*t,ffifiqtr
Acrylic flocked[abricsarenow established in variousntarkets.
Pilc flocked furlike fabricsmay be matle from acrylic fibre,
f o r e x a n r p l ea, n d t h e n p r i n t c d ,b r u s h c da n d l i n i s h c t l .O t h e r
applicationsincludevelvetand corduroyapparelfabrics,sucde,
toy aninralfurs,souvcnirpcnnants,wall panels,paint rollcrsand
rccorclplayer turn-tables,
Flockedfloor coveringsare now beingproducedfronr acrylic
fibre, aud acccptance has becn good in many applications.
'fhc ,,t",'#1ltl;d;jl,T*;$f
,1',;;;"*'ffi itfi
nrotorcar industry,for exanrple,is usingflockedfloor coverings
in appreciab!c amounts, :ft'i,:jd:;xi{,'#:"*ki
Tulting
Fine gaugclufting has assumeda positionof someinrportancc
in thc tufting trade, espcciallyin tbc blanket scctiono[ lhc
industry.Tulted blauketsand linershavcaddedto existingavail-
able productsand exlenclcd consumcrchoiccin this field.
ffi-fi*rr.;ffi'nr
ffrfir**Nmfiffi
lly usingvariouscombinationsol'bright and dull fibre a witle
r a n g eo f a p p e a r a n c easn d t e x t u r c sm a y b e o b t a i n e da, n d b y
polishingand tigeringsuch fabric a variety of cloths has bcen
producedfor a rangeof markets.
- T - l . T . l
I
' t r l
:
t l
h h E f: h F,f': n E_n n R F-n [ IFL f':-l'':
i ' r l r ! r ' l
other fibres are being used as the sheath fibres around the VEREL
"l,ttto*"ti" core. This typc of yarn is being used in cuffs' neck
bands and waist bands of sweaters, and in some iustances V E R E L f i b r e i s o l t h e p o l y a c r y l o n i t r itlycp c ; i r i s p r o t l u c c rblv
,ttio"gfr"ut [he sweater,providirrg cornfort, good shape r€tentio,n 'o'":,
Tenrtessee ErstnranConrpany, U.S.A.lt it riri',,'iioii, poly-,, i.',
and itnoroved elastic propertics. Bathing suits' socl(sand douDle o r u n ( l s c l o s ecdo r n p o s i t i oinn,r v h i c lar c r y l o n i t r i lics p r o b : r b ltyl r c
jersey iabrics are in which acrylic/ elastomcr corc- n)ajorconlponcnt,beirrgpresentto theextcntol'sorni60 pcricnt.
.applications
spun yarns are gaining popularity. By F.T.C.definition,VEREL is a modacrylicfibrc.
In the wcaving industry, core-spun yarns are.assumlng-.an
incr"asing impoitance, with stretch woven {abrics linding TYPESOF FII}ITE
inrmccliaic tttoik"ts in ladies' slacks, mcn's tlousers and suits'
yarns are
shirtings.andupholstery fabrics. Elastomericcore-spun VEREL libfe is manufactured olly in staplc form. A rangc oI
being irocluced on cotton, woollen and worsted spin!ling systenrs'
staple lcngths is available to suit all plocessiugsystcnrs,in tbc
p.oui,ting another outlet for acrylic fibres in thc years ahead' following deniers : 3, 5, 8, 12, 16,2.4 aln<!40. Tha fibic is procluccd
in bright or dull lustre, and various crinrp lcvels and diffcrcnt
(2) MODACRYLIC FIBRES degrecsof crimp permanenccars availablc.
VllllEL tibre is protluccrl in trvo l:asic cross-scctions, pcanul
This catcgory of polyacrylonitrilc fibrcs includcs modacrylic a r t r lr i b b o n .
per cent-by
l.ibrcsspun fiom polymers consislingof lcss than 85
weicht o[ rcrvlonitrile units (-{l{1- cH(cNF). btrt excludrng
in which acrylonitrile is not the malol
tlroic copolymers
comPonelrt.
jllglg
IYPII
rangc PITODUCTION
Thc nbres in this category are sptttr from an extensi'r'c
in which the nature and propor-
oI coDolvnrcrsof ncrylonilrile, Mononter SyEthcsis
vary
rion of ihc sc:ond (rnd possibly othcr) componcnts Inay
bc
within wide linrits. The types of modacrylic fibre that- can Acrylonitrile. Sec page 399.
are caprblc wide varia-
oioJu."o wit}lin this broad cateSory \of
iion.-in prop"tti"t, clepcn<ling on their compositio\ and method I'olymcrizalion
of
--Aslrlanu[acttlre. No iuformation available.
in the caseof acrylic fibres,detailsof the chemicalstructure
lllc
of individual motlacrylic fibres are not always avallable' Spirrning
chosen
.""on,l "on',pon"nt of ihe polyrncr is, however,commonly -fhe
polynrcr is dissolvcd in solvcnt (probably acctonc) nnd thc
-ii" vinyl ihloridc, vinylidcnc chloride or vinylidcne drcyanr(lc'
'frorn spinningsolutionis pumpcdthrougha spinncrct..fhcIinc jcts of
iniorrnoiion whicir follows is based on data for vEREL* solution_emergeprobablydntoa coagulaliolbath (wct spirining),
fib;;, ;;l;it may be rcgarded as a rcpresentativelibrc of this in which thc solventis removcdto lcavcsolid lilanrcnt-s. .l.hc-sc
tvDe. are gathcrcdinto a bundleor tow which is proccsscd to slnbili?.c
it. Lubricatingoils are addcdto aid i|l thc subscqucnt
spinningof
* l{egistcredtrxdc |rlark of EastmanKodak Conlpa[y, Itochestcr,
yarns,and a crimp is addcd.
N.Y., U.S.A.
426
I I A N D I } O OK O F ' T E X T I L E FII}RES a : s Y N T I I [ . 1 . ]c F l t t . I i s
The tow n]ovcsto x cutting machincwhere thc continuous or tinrc'rhc uscor rlresc
<lvcs
shourd
strandsarc cut into staplenbrc. :'ifi,iT 1""':":i,i::1'
Pl{ocEsslNc - iriji* :tfts:ffif JT,:x:| ",,,",
i,",#;::ll,Jli,,l,Jul
Scourirtg *;i:!!!"t#J":,:,i'
fi ifih",.f
riiJl';iili,i*i,i:,:"i,';
Scouringof fabricsof VEREL iibre follows the generalpattern fJ:ll'":ilii:'f,ji,lfi
lli:",liiil1; ;''ii',lJi,,l
I |.i#"","J,1,,',1';T
established lor other rnan-rrtacle fibres.A ncutral scouringwith
(letcrgentrvill renrovedirt acquircdfront previousprocessing.
I""#l:ijnJlt"Xu:
,",:::l,l;""r""t",:";.""1::j5ll,lnillffi
Alkalinc scouringshouldbe carriedout when necessary
r r n i l d a l k a l is u c ha s d i s o d i u npr h o s p h a toer t e t r a s o ( l i u m
V ER[,L.
rvith
pyro-
p l r o s p l r a taet 6 0 0 C . A s t r o n g e ra l k a l i n cs c o u r w i l l d i s c o l o u r e".fu tuii:iiHilq*llllliu,,illr
r'r{ii,,,,,;i!if bcobtairrctl
bv usirr!
u rr3)i,l.r:of re^perarurc
,ir. ( I'J3'/',t'!i,,;t']
lllexching
'[T u:;:i"',,
;11;:]::"',,li"'""""'l,i
flii:.Il'llii
i"ll iI
VEREL iibre doesnot as a rule requirebleaching,fls il is whitc
#.,yf*ifi
enoughfor most enrl-uses.Socliumchloriteancllormic acid nray Disperse Dycs
be usedto slightlybleachV[,llEL if neccssary.'l'he
useof optical
plussmallanrountsofcationic(lycis themostpractisal '1""?""'.llJ;.',"",*ifi
;:iTl;',i:ff
brighteners
andeffectiveway to brightenVEREL.
"';i:",*",
-,:'Jl i:**il;.iiilj*iii
Dyeing il"'l"i,l;,3ii"'ii;'"x1
6) 100 per cett VEREL Fibre
V E R E L d y e s r e a d i l ya n d n o s p e c i a l e q u i p nnet j s n e e d e dI.n d y e i n g
:","i'"J;ii',r,llilT*t;i#illx1:l,1i:i
Neutrc Prentctdlized Dyes
nrost shades a rlyeing assistant is used to ensure conrplete
exhaustion of the dye and to provide bcst fastnessproperties. Thesodycshavebccnuscdvcrv s
V E R E L c r n L : ed y e d a s r a w s t o c k . s k e i n o r p
o p c r a t i n gt e n r p e r a t u i e
of?loC f o r beit results. \
' i e c e"s o o d s a t a n
* j.::li"i
;t*fr :xl,ti,'t;,il'"":ti
jf::,Jf,lthitt;ii:Tffi
Thrcc classes of clycs ntay be used successtull'yin dycing Y:,*
VEREL: (l) besic, (2) disperse,and (3) neutral prcrnetallizcd. l. VEIIEL Dyci g Assistan
Bosic D),es I
Basic or cationic dye conrbinationsarc available with cxccllent
ii:d*d*ihi.ffi,:ffiii*
fastnesspropertieson VEREL fibrc. When uscd ilr combination
with thc proper dyeing assistants, basicdyes level wcll and exhaust
elnrost corlrplctcly.In addil.ion,r cotltplelc rangc of shadescan
b c o b l a i n c dw i t h t l l c s cd y c s .
Propcr scleclion of dycs is jnlportant. lvlany basic dyes havc
poor fastnesspropcfties and certain basic blues are sensitivc to r',.i"T'T1",,#?*;,1,'"',.
iii'',,i1.fffi'JliiliJ'L ?,l.iil,,,i
il;
hext; they tcnd to discolour or rcduce iI exposedto high tempcra-
428 429
r I
I
tf f f f F_F.f111l"ll''l11l''il''ll''iF'll"'it ll I'l t I
I T N D A O O K O F T E X ' T IL E F I B I T E S B: S Y N ' I ' I IE T I C F I D R E S
I
,}}ff, F,F.F-Fl' h h F h h h h h t, I, I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES SYNT}IETIC I:IIIRI]S
'l'he is thatcuringtenlperatures
suchcolorants. mainconsideration Stripping
an(l tin)esnust be kept below thosewhichcancausethe fibre to
yellow. BasicDycs
Dles for Printittg VEREL S t r i p p i n g _ ol cr v e l l i n go f b a s i cd y c sc a n p r e s c n p t r o l > l c r nM s .o s t
overothers.
Eachclassof coloranthassomeadvantages t l y e sc a n b e s t r i p p e d l r o n rV D l l D L ,h o r v c v c br ,v u i i l u r c o r r r b i r x r _
ll t i o r r . . o fa d y e i t ) ga s s i s t a l()'tl r n a d c lV - I ' n r i r t c x6 h c r n i c l r l :)t.
levellingagent (MigrassistAC - 'l'atratexChcrnical),and rrrr
Cationic Dyes. Thesedyes producevivid coloursof excellent
They are generallythe best
tinctorialpower and good fastness. oxidisingagentor rctlucingagcutor both, tlcpcntlirrg on which
(yes areused.
dyesfor printingVEREL fibre.
Resfu-lJonded hgDrc ts. Althougheasyto apply and econotnical Net ral PrenrctollizedDyes
pd
i n l i g h t t o m c d i u n rs h a d e sr ,e s i n - b o n d e i g r n c n lcsa r la d v e r s e l y Sodiumchloriteand sodiumhypochloritchavc both bccn uscd
affeit the hand,dry-cleanability and flanrmabilityof fabrics.With to slrip lllesedycs from VEREL fibrcs\.vjthgoods cccss.Miury
carefulselection,however,thesecolorantsgiveacceptable colour- o I t h e l e v e l l i n g , a g e nstusg g e s t cf do r n c u t r a lp r c r n c t a l l i z cdcytc ' s
fastness. Ily liniting the amountof coverage, most flarnnrability on wool and nylon also work well on VEIiEL.
r e q u i r e m e nctas nb e m e t .
Finishing
D elustri ng D uring St eanling VEREL fibre is used in a wiclc varicty of blcncls ancl fabric
constru€tions,each having dilrcrent end_uscrcquircnrcnls.Finish-
D e l u s t r i ndgu r i n gs t e a t n i noBf V E R E Lp r i n t e df a b r i pissa p o t e t t t i a l ing techniquesare selccled to suit particular riccds,and thcrc is
p r o b l e r ro n l y i f t h e p r i n t c ( l a b r i ci s w e t ( o l h e rt l i a n w i l h p r i r l t
-Daste) no single finishing proccsswhich applics to all fabrics.
or if saturated steamis usedto fix the dyes.lf delustringis
e n c o u n t e r eddu r i n gt h e s t e a m i nogP e r a t i o nt h , e f a b r i cs l r o u kbl e
( l O : 2 0 g / l ) i n a w a s hb o x a t 9 4 o C Resirt T.reattncnl
exposed t o a h o t - s o l u t i o n
arrit cooled slorvly tlrrotrghsubsequentwash'boxes. The fabric Rcsins bchavc on VEREL fibre as thcy do on othcr hydrophobic
s l r o u ktlh e nb e d l i e di n ) n l e d i r t e layt 1 0 4 - l 2 l " C . fibres, i.c. they simply form a coat on thc surfacc oi fn" nUr"
A nroreclesirable solutionto thisproblernwouldbe to eliminate or fabric. They do not crossJink or olhcrwisc react with thc
the causeof delustringby drying the printed fabric prior to fibre.
stearringand by usingrvell-trapped steamto developthe dyes. A blend of VEREL and ccllulosicsnray bc succcssfullyrrcntcd
Otrjcction:rblc clelustrecl spots nlay also occur ifcondcnsatetlrips wilh rcsir if curing tinrcs and tcmporatur;sarc closcly confro cd.
o n t o t h c f a b r i cd u r i n gs t e a t n i n g .
434 435
I I A N D D O O K O F T E X ' T IL E F I I ] I I E S
o : s Y N _ I .l : _ r c F t u t u i s
n t a curingtenlperature of 135'C.,for example,5nrinutesnight
bc the mininrumtinre to effecta cure.A curing temperature of fcnsile Strcngth
149"C.nright requireonly lI minutcsfor culing.Temperaturcs _3 ,290k}lclrn2
2,940 tb/inz.).
G2,0oo_47,000
exceecling 150"C rvill causeVEREL to yellow, the extentof the
cliscolouration dependingon the lengthof time of exposureto trloogaaion
e l e v a t etde r n p e r a t u r e s . 35-40pcr cent,dry or wct.
The usc of rcsins or other finisheson fabrics clcsigned for
maxinrutnflame resistance may sometimcscausethe labric to Iilastic Rccovcty
Iosesomeof its inherentresistance to burDins. 88 per ccnt at 4 pcr ccnt; 55 per cent at l0 pcr
ccnt.
Slu'itrkagcControl
lDitinl Modulus
Fabrics containinghigh percentages of VEREL fibre may be
linishcd rvith good dimcnsionalstability it they are relixcd 247.2 cNltex (28 g/clen)
completelyby hcating in the finishingroutinc. This may be Avcragc S{illncss
accomplishcd in a loop or airlay dryer,or sirnilarequipment,at
lenrperaturcs up to 127"C.Stretchingof the fabric during any 8.0.
phaseof processing shouldbe avoided. AvcragcToughncss
Shcaring
4.33 cN/tcx (0.,19g/(tcl)
Fabrics of VEREL fibre are easily shcaredon conventional
shearingequipnrent. The fusing of fibre tips mry be a problenr Yield Strcss
on densecul pilc fabric, but this can be elirninatedby passiug 5.83 cN/tex(0.(16g/cten)
the goodsthroughthe shearat a slowcrspced.lt is importcnt
that the shearbladesare kept sharp. Yicld Strain
Singcing 3.6 per cent E.
VEREL nbre forms charredblack beadson the fabric surface
duringsingeing.Fabricscontaininga low percentage ComDliauccRntio
of VEREL,
howcvcr,may be singedsuccessfully both in greigcand linishecl I.t8.
Iorms.
Spccilic Gravity
STI{UCTUREAND PROP r.37.
'l
hc infornrationwhich [ollorvs rclcrsto Va[ts] rype te:,
Iillcct ()f Moisturc
3 D / F l u s t r ef i b r e .
Finc Struclurcnnd Appcarancc Regain: 3.O-3.5pcr ce0t.
436 437
- l
' I
' I
f t l' l' 'll' 'll" li " li l n n n f n n F ' E n n n n l
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIl]RES 8 : SY N , r lD
t 1 .Cl F I U R E S
Ellcct of A8c
-fhcre
is virtually no changc in thc propcrtics of VEITDL
E[]ect ol IIigh Temperature titrre
over an extendedperiod of timc.
R e g u l a rf i b r e : s h r i n k a gien b o i l i n gw a t e r ,0 . 2 p e r c e n t ;I l o t a i r trrtccaof Suntight
( 1 4 0 " C ) ,s h r i n k a g4e- 6 p e r c e n t .A r a p i dc h a n g e of properties V E R E L , h a s g o o d w e a t h c r i n gc h a r a c t c r i s l i c s ;
takes place,with fall in tenacityanclmodulus,and increasein r e s p c c tl h a n a n y n a t u r a l f i b r b a n d m o s t .
it is bcttcrin llris
c l o n gtai o n . o [ l h c s y r r r h c'"r i c""'""'
tiUics.
'l'errperatures inclLrding viscosc, accrntc, polyanridcs r"r'l
e x c e e d i n gl 5 0 o C w i l l c a u s eV E R E L f i b r e t o ;"iy;l;;;;.
Affer 50 weeks' outdooi "^posur", VEI{E.L
yellorv,the extentof discolouration clepending on the lengthof rctails lood
strength and elongation unclcr conditions *lri"t,
time of exposureto elevate(l temperatures. wool and cotton.
.1";a;;;;d;i;
Flcttrunbility
Chemicrl Propcrtics
VEREL fi1.:re hasa vcry goodflameresistanbe. lt is very dimcult
Acitls
to ignite, and is self-extinguishing.
It leavesa hard black char,
and docs not drip. Exccllent resistanceeven at high concentrations,
Alkalis
Good general resistance.Alkalis unricr modcratc conditions
no clfecl on tenacity, but causc somc discolourrtion. havc
Getteral
h". a lrigh degrce o[ rcsisralcc to a wiclc rarrgo
Y-:.la_!, of
cilcn)lcals.
3.0
Ellcct of Org:tnic Solvcnts
2'5
V E R E L f i b r e r e s j s t sa l l d r y c l e a n i n gs o l v e n f sa n d
2.O nloslconrnlon
organlc solvents.It dissolvcsin wafln acctonc,
t.5
t,o
Insectr
0.5
Not attacked
Micro-organisDtr
STRATN(% ELONG^TION) VEREL fibre is not attacked by mildew and
othcr nricro_
organisms.It is unalTeclcdafter being buricd for fz *."iir'i,
moist,,biologically acrivc rivcr loam at 25.C. Corto,, A1"oiniu..,
after 6-7 days iD the same test.
Electrical Propcrlics
Diclcctric
.strcngth cxcccds 1,500 volts/rnil (lilrrr); diclcctric
,VEREL' c o n s t n n t4 1 0 a t 6 0 c y c l c s .
438 439
I I A N D B O O KO F T [ , X ' I ' I L t ]F I U R E S
Allcrgcnic Propcrlics Il: sYNTltEfrc FltrnEs
*;::j;f"|il ;;ii,,';;.J"1:",::lll,"'.,il"J#i'i:.ili:l'u
fili
V L I T I ] LI N U S E llnvi rctntrcnt ql Corul i t i ons
Gcocrtrl Cltrrac(cristics VEI{EL fibrc ltas cxccllcntrcsistancc
gcncral wcl lhcrirrg conditions- l o s u t r l i g l t l ,a g c i n g a r r u
VEREL- fibrc po-ssesscs tnuny illtractivc chanrclerislicsfrom tlrc is cotr]flctclv rcsistlrrl lo irltirck
pornt ot vtew ot gcncral tcxtile usc. It contbjnes bv insecls ";; ,rrtil;;;i[')rrt
a soft. warrn
hlnd_lc with thc captcity for absorbirrgmoisture that Chunical Rcsistonce
";;i".1;;
c o n r t o r t i t b i cw c f l r . I t h s a g o o d r v l r i l c n c sas n d c l y c s 'l
c a s i l va n c l ltc rcsislalcc of VEt{LL fibrc
c c c t r v c t y a, n d n l a y b c e l e c l r o p o l i s l r et d
o il lligh llistre. to ntost ty|cs of clrcrrricll
acid.and
:l:]:jlli'lS.'d is ,ol a[Iccrcd arkati,
iscxccucnr.
rr wirrritirisrai.l
cor(rrrrors ;i:;i;,ii:;i;;
lt,Iechanical I'ro part ics by thcchcnricrrtsirscti
r,,.iil,iiiil,i
Ir\tilc.Iro^ccssing.NorrcoI thc corrrrrrn
Vff{EL is strong, loUgh fibre. Its nrecltlnical propcrtics arc i r l l c c Il h c f i b r c . rlry .1.,,;i;,;.
_,;i;.,,i,
or urc slmc or(lcr ils thc avcragc typc of acrylic
fibrc. Tenlrcitv.
c l o n g i t U o na t ) ( l c l i t s t i cr c c o v e l y a r c a d c q u : r t cf o r Pilling Resi.trance
norntal tcxtiic
ilpplcarlons, xnd alc nol affcctcd significantly by walcr.
yPIIL n9r" cxhibits lirrlc lcndcncy
t o r v r ( l s P i l l i r r g ,c v c in
IrDncsnladcwilh low lwist ynrls.
Spccific G ruvity
Thc spccific graviry of VEREL fibrc is relarivcly high (1.37). lYr|shing
440
441
- I r - l r l l r t r l r l
t E f'||I l''il'l l''it fl li E E E E t f: f: f: H Ir l'l
i l
I I A N D A O O KO F T E X ' T LI E F I B R E S A : S Y N T T I E T I CF I B R E S
Dry Clcrning
I:abrics of VEREL fibre may be dry clcancd by the normal Catpcts
nrethods. The fibre is not affccted by thc usual dry clcaning VEREL fibre.has many valuablc characlcristics
lo ollcr to lhc
solvents. carpet tradc,_including good abrasion rcsistancc,
g"oJ
'i, ;";"r;;;;
rangcof dyeabitity,
highresistancc *iii"e ;;i
End Uscs l^"-1.ll
case ot l,l]dl
cleitnl|lE-
Pilc Fabrics reta.inlhcir appcarancc and tcxtlrrcovcr lorrc
-.!urn"tt
or scrvice,and testshavcshownvEl{lL ro bc bcrtci ncriods
Thc softnessof VEREL fibre, cornbinedwith whiteness.excellent ifi,,;;;;;i
flanre-resistance and controlled shrinkagc have provcd advan- in this respcct.
tageousin the production of pile fabrics. These include both the The soil resislance of VEREL is excellcnt,and it
woven and knitted types of construction for a wide varietv of easity and cficctivetywjrh lhe aid .r ;i;i;i;i;;;;;;:'];is clcancd
crrd usesranging front coatings,liner fabrjcs and floor .ou"rings, w e a r t e s t s .V E R E L c a r p e t sg a v c 2 0 t o
- SOp.r."ni-gr"nt"i
to trimmings for collars, cuffs, boots and shoes. wear life lhan acrylicfibies.
The availability of VEREL in both regular cross-sectionand Carpetsof VEREL fibre havc a crush rcsistancc
wool.They_ simihr to
ribbon cross-sectionforms has been put to good use in the displayexcellcntstainresistancc ",Jn;;; ;;;;i;;;
r l r r r uf u c t u r eo f s i n r u l a t e df u r f a b r i c s . and are inherentlynlothproofand rot_rcsisti[s.
Pile fabrics nrade fronr VEIIEL provide warmth without
r v e i g h t ,a s s o c i a t ew d i t h s o f t , a t t r a c t i v ei r a r r c l lren r l q r e r t c o n r f o r t .
Note
Knit Cootls
Lastrile.(F.T.C. Defrniti)n )
The ability of fabrics oI VEREL libre to rctain a solt hand
after repcatcd washing and drying is advantageousin knitwear A m a r r u f r c t u r efdi b r c i r r w l r i c l r . t h ef i b r c . f o r r u i r r g
s u b s t a r : ci sca
such as sports slrirts,underwearand children'sgarnrents.A blend c o p o l y n r e ro f a c r y l o n i t r i l er r r d a d i e r r c( s u c l i
as Uuta,tlc,ioj
containing some 25 per cent of VEREL with cotton realizesthe conrpos.ed..of not morethanS0%tur ot t"oii-iijZ,t,i;;j;il';l
attractive propertiesof VEREL at an economic price. a c r y l o n i t r i luen i t s .
442 443
l.
II NDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBIIES t ] : s y N . l| | t i . tI c F t l r R u s
lib,rcs.
spun frorD a copolyntcr of vinyl clrloritJcarrclvinyl acctlrr:,
POLYVINYLCHLORIDE FIBRES callcd 'Vinyon', wcrc prodrrcccljtr lhe U.S.
Fibrcs spun from polyntcrsor copolymcrsof vinyl chloridc: Iu 1940, French chcmisls discovcr.c(lthlt I,.V.C. itsclf coulcl
bc clissolvcdirr a rnixlurc o( acctonc lrrcl crrborr disrrlptrirlc,:rrrtt
CH2 : CHCt -----> ---cHr-cH-cH2-cH --- this solution was suitablc for thc pr.r:tlrrctionof p.V.C. iibrcs
on il conlDcrcirl scalc.
ct cl
VINYL CHLORIDE pouvvipvu cHLoRIDE
P.V.C, fibres arc |low lrrilrufilcturcd in a valicty of for|lrs arrtl
nrodilications.'fhcy have achieveda linritcclsucccssin thc tcxtilc
INI RODUCTION tradc,.but their range of applicationsis rcslrictcd by thcir lorv
softening poiot. Many P.V.C. nbrcs will soltcl at tcnrpcraturcs
Polyvinyl chloridc (P.V.C.) was 0rst tnade by the French chcnrist as lorv as 70'C.
I-Ienri liegnault, who prcparcd and polynrerizeclvinyl chloride in On the other hand, it.V.C. fibrcs havc churactcr.istics rvhiclr
1838. Whcn all kuown polytners came under examination as Irrvc crcatcd a clcnranclIor ihcnr in ccrtain rpplications. .l-ltcy
potential sourcesof synthetic libres, during the early part of thc (lo not burn, anrl havc a lrigh rcsistlncc to nrany chcnric:rls..l.hcii
prcscnt ccntury, it was natural that polyvinyl chlolide should bc l c n ( l c n c yl o s h r i n k i l l r c l i l l i v c l yl o ! v l c n l p c r i t t r l . ciss r r l r t l c r r s co f
anlorrg lhosc considercd. r l l l r c p t o ( l u c t i o no f h i g l r b r r l k y l r r n s ,
I\'[any atlen]pts were made to dissolvc polyvinyl chloride ard
produce filanrents by extrusion of solutions through spinnerets.
llut thc polynrcr rvas clifiictrlt to dissolve,alrd solvents suitabla ]'y|r::soF pol-yvtNyl-cr.l!.glrpE
I|lry
for usc ou a corrrmcrcialscalc were not discovcred.
l:ibres are prorlLrccdfront 100 pcr ccnt polyvinyl chloritlc, frorrr
Alr experirrcntal P.V.C. fibre vr'asspun in Cermany in 1913,
copolyrrers contrriningsrnall proporlions o[ variorrss".o,.,,i",,,,.,-
but did not come into largc-scaleprocluction,During tl)e ycars pooents,and frorn polyvinyl chloridc rvhich hirs bccn clrcnricllly
follorving Worlcl War I, atten)pts rvcre madc to modify thc
n r o d i f i e dc, . g . b y c h l o r i n r t i o n .
polynrcr in ordcr to make it morc readily soluble, It was found
Thcsc fibres arc availablc in a vilriety of fornrs, c.g, of
tbat. this could be achievedby introducing a surall proportion ol
controlled shrinkage, to suit particular applications. 'l.hcy rrc
anothcr vinyl compound into the polymerization, forming a produccd as conlifluotrslllamcnt yarns, sttplc Iibrc and tow.
copolyntcr in which the nrolecular chains did not pack togethcr
so closcly rs in lhc caseof P.V.C. itsclf. Experinrentallibres werc
rnade lrom a copolymer contaiuittg 85 per cent vioy{ chloride
In tl)c scction which follows, polyvinyl chlori<lc fibrcs llc corr-
and l5 pcr cent vinyl acetatein Gcrmany in 1928.
sidercd under thrce typs classifications,
as follorvs:
In 1934,jt rvas found that lhe solubility of polyvinyl chloride
coulcl also bc incrcasedby chlorinnting lhc polynrer. The large ( l ) PolyvinylChloridc Fibrcs(100pcr ccnt I).V.C.)
chlolinc atonrs introduccd at irrlcrvulsaloug the.P.V.C.rnolcctrlcs (2) Vinyl ChloriclcCopolynrcrIribrcs
had an cllect similar to that of thc acetategroups in the copoly- ( 3 ) Chemically-ModificdPolyvinylChloridct:ibrcs.
nrer, reducirtg the degree of attraclion exerted between the long
nrolcculesand incrersing solubility. NOMENCLATUI{E
'Pc Cc' fibres, nrade frotn chlot'inatedP.V.C., were introduccd
in Gernrany in 1936.Thcy achicvcd sonrc limited success,btrl. The name 'Vinyon' rvas rcgistcrcd ils a t r a c l cn r r r k b y U n i o n
I
havc ncver rrradcrcal progrcssin thc gencral textile ncld. In 1937. Carbiclc Corporalion for thc fibrc spun fronr a copolyntcrof
M4 44s
i
i
l . r
L E N E E tTt tTt h t E h h h h h - l : _ h
i .
C hlorolihre
-l'lre
lcrfrr chlorofibrc is also widcly used to denoto polyvinyl
chloride fibrcs as dcfincd by thc Federal Tradc Comnrission.This
l c r r n h a s t h c a d v a n t a g eo f a v o i d i n ga n y . p o s s i b i l i t yo [ c o n f u s i o u
with the trade namc 'Viuyon'.
PRODUCTION
(l) PoLYVIN'l' LCHI.ORlDEI:lIIILS\. Monomcr Syntbcsis
(lo0 PER CENT I,.V.C.)
Vinyl chloridc is produccclin vcry largc quantity
for thc procltrc-
I N ' f R OD U C ' fI O N t i o n o f p o l y v i r r y cl h l o r i c l cp l a s t i c sn, n c j f i t r c
n , , i , , u f " . r , , r ", n . 1 " ,
u s co t o n t y a s n ) n l lp i r r t o f t h c o u l p u l . f w o r o u t c s
l r r cc o r r r n r o n l y
1'he productionof 100 per cent P.V.C. libres has madesteady rused.
progressin a few countries.The Frcnchfirnr of RhonePoulenc
(a) Acctylcne and Ilydrogcn Chloridc
Textile has, in particular, perseveredwith the development
fibres. A c c t y l c n ei s . r c a c t c dw i t h h y d r o g c nc h l o r i c l ci n l h c p r c s c n c c
'of
l thcse - L h r r oThe first P.V.C. fibres rverc sDun at the
i sp l a n t i n 1 9 4 9 ,a n t lb y l 9 ? 6 s o r i r c9 r r r i l l i o l ,r r'llcrcuricchloridc catalyst of
rorrvillc+rt
kg oi libre rvercbeingprocluced annually. CH=CI.I + I-ICl->CH, =CHCI
446 447
'TDXTILE
II ND ROOK OF FIIIRES a : S Y N T i I D TcI F r o R E s
(b) Etlrylcne arul Chlorine t)lrocEssrNc
Etltylere dichloride is produccd by rcaction of etbylcne with 'l
he infornrationrvhich follow
i:ifi:i;ili'iih:
chlorine (l). This is then hcated under pressurorvhen hydrogen
chloridc is reledsed,leaving vinyl chloride (2). i"i1:* jllii;
i;",ii"i,i.ll,.','iiX,,:f,i,l,t:,1,.",
(l) (2) L X : S t a n d a rpd. V . C .
CH, =CH, + Cl"--+CH,CI.CH,CI-+CH,.:CHCI
ii'":f3:'..61,i,X;';.i n" .
illl:;:;li.u
l'olyntcriza{ion
Vinyl chloride is polymerized typically as an aqueous emulsion
i'roirins
:'iii#il,ri{,iixi':,xdllliii'i:llll"iisc
warcr
(s5%)
'lletractyl.':
in autoclaves, under pressures of 45-50 atlnospheres and a Sraplcfibre*itlL sfiri,i*glcfiarrctcristics
tenrperaturcof about 65'C. The polyrner lorms a suspcnsiouiu
the water, and is recovered by spray dryiug.
,ii!i!f,ii
:{i:",,m"iit,i:::xrfit*
;",,
;:rljit;i_,
irtcr.
t h c r n l asl t a b i l i t v _
'Fibravyl'ZC:
Sirrinkage in boilingw tcr 25_30,/o.
Dycirrg
(')' " "''
'l'lre Ji,?liii,! "rhtcnds)'
il! :!,,:;,,[X!""
!1,
standarclproccdureis to
Dlxrnrtlg
P . V . C . f i b r e s n r a y b e s p u n b y d r y o r n r e l t s p i n n i n gp r o c e s s e s . *:,?,"ili:$i ll :fij,llxl;"l''fiL':
j"'";"li:"ll ii{fi:lif
l:
Dry Spi ning (2) 'Thernovyl' (100per cenror
blends)
l'.V.C. is dissolvcd in a solvcul, e.g. acetone/carbon disulphidc 'l'lr
e t c c h r r k ; r r tel se s c r i b cat lb o v e
nrixture, aud tbc solution at 70-100"C. is pumpcd through spin-
nercts.The line jcts emergeinto a stream o[ hot air, thc solvcllts
evaporaling to leave solid lilaments of l'.V.C. Thc solvents arc
rccovcrcdand re-used.
[aeiq1;:*; [ii:rr*t,j rilul,
j j lij:.,
Li,.::,,Ti:'#l::;;tl[: "ri n,]i[ {nli:,ii
-';;irr,iji',.,ii.'
i'ir,]iiii
This processis used almost exclusivclyfor the conrmercial lL
spinningof textile-grado
P.V.C. fibres.
"j;-oli1",i,:
,,r.,j'::'jl'""."il] irisco'r,r,,r,
Ji,i"lnl:li:';J1,', rrv
;?,:i'
Ir'Iclt Spinning
Molten P.V.C. may be spun by extruding it through spinnercts,
bul the spinning temperaturcscannol be raised high enough to
(3) 'Fibravy.l'LX or ZC (100 pu cent or blctttls).
permit of the production of finc denicrs necded for staple and Shriukqe Conditiorts.
tow. P.V.C. begins to clecontposoat about 200'C., and belorv 'l'lte
t e n r p e r a t u rceo n d i t i o r : su s c t l [ o r s h r i r r k g
i t l r c s c[ i b r c s
lhis tcnrpcraturethe viscosity o[ thc moltcn P.V.C. rcstricts ihc
fincncssof thc cxtruded filaments to a dianrctcr of about 0.2 nll). il"iill''l,ilil,'"ji;tfi
llr,::l;:t
ll,-l;,;,I:ill.';i
1f,il1-l
448 449
-t -1 -l -l 'I
t
[F, t f t t t t I F,
l'}}] I
I
Hl''F-F,t , t
ITANDtrOOK OF TEXTILE FII]RES B: SYNTII ETI C FIBRES
bc userl c r e a t i n gl ) u l k r r r r l r c l a t c rcl l f c c t s ,i l s i r ] t l r c c i l s c
ResisrDyeing; CrossDYeing r u c r y l il ci .b[ roer s . ol.
P.V.C.fibresresistmost of the typesof dyestuffusedfor dyerng Shrinkage. n]ay be brou8ht about by dry, wct or slcarni|c
natural fibres,and resistor crossdycing eflectsare obtainable trcatnlcnt,the
-choicedcpendingupon il," nliturc of tf," noo.l.i
in blcnds. o ' 1" i , . : r , r t r se s s e n t i taol c a r r yo u t t h c t r c r t n r c oat s u u i [ o r n r l y
l!
as Dosslble-
Printi!rg Iiry treatmcnt may bc carrictl out by subjccting thc goods
, -on to
"l'hcrrnovyl'ZC nray be printeclcffectivclywitlt clisperse clyes, Itot air in a stcntcr. Steanringnray bc acbicvctl
n'"yli,i,l",
o n e r o r t n a n e n c l o s e dc b a m b c r .
c o n v c n t i o n as lt e a n l i n bg e i n ga l l t h a t l s r e q u i r e ct ol s e t t h e ( l y e s
Wet treatmentsare carried out on thc jig, etc., thc tcchui<ruc
tuscddcpcnding on tlre naturo of the gooG. y"r,r. "ro
tr"^i"J
il hank form, and piecc gooclsarc in opcn width,
SholYcrprooIng scwn cnd (o
eno. Alter treatment, piece goods may be passcr.l
P.V.C. fibres are hydrophobic, but water will nevertheless lhrough thc
stenter to smooth oul the fabric and sct the rcquirctl sbri-nklac.
penetrirte through thc intersticcs of a cloth made lrom thcm. Shrinkagc carricd out on mixed yarns, doublci u"",, o, u"ir.
P,V.C. fabrics nray bc showcrproofcd by mcans oI the standard sprrnfrorn blcnds ot p.V.C. r,vithotlicr llbrcs cr..l"i n
paraffin rvax type ageuts, with or without the addition of iiilfr-,f'.oi""
of bulking. Sbrinkagc carricd out on fabrics ;il
aluminium salts, . k;;ii"J;;;;
brings about a.tightcning of tbe yarns, anrl this rnay
b" u.]"d to
aqvantagcto obtain various cffcclsdepen<.ling upon ihc conslruc_
tion of the fabric.
Wa(erproofig
P.V.C. fabrics may be renderedcompletelyimpermeableto water l. Fabric witlt,Varp ol One Moterial and Welt ol
Auorher
by the applicationof a suitablecoating,and all forms of standard When fabrics are made with p.V.C. we[t, for cxanrplc,
and
coating agents may be used. Thcre are advantagesin using a cottoo warp,_the shrinkageof the p.V.C. produccs
a fnbric which
coating which rvill have the same non-Ilammabilityand resistance rs very trgbuy packed and very strong. Fabrics of
this tvne arc
to dcgradation of the P.V.C. fibres, and special matcrials for used ror.motor-car hoods, sports clothing and rainwear:
tiicv are
this purpose'are available. very reststant to tearing, are showcrproof and dirncnsioitally
If rubber coatings are required, it is best to use a self- stable.
vulcanizinglatex at low tcnperaturc, rather than a processwhich Very dense velvets (collar vclvets)mry be ntlde b y
slrrinking
r e q u i r e sv u l c a n i z a t i o n a t t e n r p e r a t u r easb o v e7 0 o G - f o rc o n t i n u o u s a relvet of normal construction, but woven with
a g r o u n do f
[ i l i r n e n to r ' F i b r a v y l ' , o r l 0 0 o C . f o r ' T h e r r n o v y l 'Z C . P.V.C.
lypes o[ jersey trave bcen crcatcd by knitring p.V.C.
, J\gw on
rnreumK machrn-cstogether with olher typcs of yarn (cotton,
llondirg rafon, uylon), and shrinking ttlc kr)irrcd fabric during
I_o.!j].
|lnrslrlng.
Specialadhesivesare availablc lor the bonding of P.V C. fabrics'
2. I{orrrogeneous Fabric nnde with Mixed Doublctl yarns
tligh'bulk and SltrinkageTreatments Shrinkageof the P.V.C. yarns in this casccrcatcs a bulky
fabric.
l' .V.C. fibres of the shrinkable typc rvill undergo a high dcgreeof 3. Ilontogcncous Fabric nade vitlt Dlentlcd yarnt
s ,n d t h i s n l a y
s h r i n k a g er v h e nh e a t e dt o a p p r o p r i a t et e n r p e r a t u r e a The ellects of sluinkage in this casc are similar to (2),
but thc
450 451
I I A N D B O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S I ] : S Y N T I IE T I C F I D R E S
gcneralappearance is lhat.of a tightly packcdplaiu cloth wovcn lilonS:rlio|l
with bulky yarns.Additionaleflcctsnray bc obtrincd by raising
I l-20 per ccnl, wet or dry.
this type of fabric.
4. Fancy and Cloquc ElJects SpccificGravity
Shrinkageellectsmay be localizcdby usingthe abovetechniques 1 . 4( " I ' h c r n r o v y lZ' C : l . 3 t r ) .
as pattcrnsin the fabric. Using a plain fabric as a basis,fabrics
rvith designsin relief,cloqucs,plaitedweavc,knop eflects,etc., liltcct of l\toisturc
may be produced. The-.watcr absorption is virtunlly nil, and thc fibr.c docs
not
swcll in watcr. Moisture has no cllccl on mcchanical pruri.rti"a.
Shaping; MouldiDg;Ernlrossing
Tho thermoplastic natureof P.V.C.fibre,and the low temperature flctntal Propcrlics
at which softeningtakesplace,are put to good use in shaping
S h r i r r k so n h e a t i r r ga b o v e7 0 o C .l " l h e n n o v y l ' Z C : i l l ) o v cl 0 0 o C . I
lechniqueswhich are used on labrics containingP.V.C. fibres.
i l s t h e e x t e n ( l e dn r o l e c u l e st c r ) d t o r c t u f l t t o t h c i r p r c - s t r c t c l i
Fabricscorlsistingtotally or in part of P.V.C. libres suchas
'Fibravyl' confilluration.
LX nray be shapedby heatingthernin sucha way thal
t h e ys h r i n ko n i o a f o r m e r . . At highcr tcnrpcraturcs,softcning contintrcs,urrddcconrposiliorr
Fabricsrvhichhavealreadybeenshrunkin the piece,or fabrics b c g i n sa t a b o u t 1 8 0 ' C -
nradefronr therrnallystabilizedlibre suchas"l'hernrovyl'LXnray
be enrbossecl or nloul(ledunder pressurc,with or withoul the I;lontnability
h e l po l h e a t . P.V.C...fibrcsarc r'nhcrcntlynon-flurrrnrablc. 't-hcy will not
'shriuking-on' brrrrr.
Usingtho method,il is possibleto coverflexible nor \vrtt they cntit 0atncs or rclclse nrolten incantlcsccnt
drons
metal or rubbertubes,electricalconductors, ctc.,with sleeves of capable oI sprcading a firc on combustiblc nralcrials-
P.V.C.tubularfabric,and then to shrink the cloth on to the tube When subjccted to an intelse {lanre, fabrics nratlc fronr prrrc
or wire it covers P . V . C . f i b r c s w i l l d i s i n t c g r a t cb, u t t h c r c s i d u c sn , n y t "
tuuiti"j
On the other hand, by mouldingfabricswhich have already D y , r a n q l o r t h c y a r c n o t h o t . l ' l l c r c i s , t l t c r c f o r c ,n o r i s k
of
been shrunk,it is possiblcto make a range of useful articles burning.
rvhich are unallectedby humidity, such as loudspeaker grilles,
upholsteryand car fabrics. ItlJcct of Low I-a11pstt1r,r.
P.V.C. libres rctain their flcxibility and strcngth at lcnlpcraturcs
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES --,.' as low as - 80'C.
(llasedon continuousfilarnent)
Finc Structurcand Appcarance Thernrul Conductivity
Smooth,rod-likefibres,of ncar-circular
cross-section. 1 4 x l 0 - 2 1 w . n r - l. K - l ;
l F - |
t
l
\
'
\
r '
t
r '
l
l'rF,I
H A N DD O O KO F T E X T I L EF I I ] R E S B : S Y N I ' I IE T I C F I B R E S
ChcmicalPropcr(ics Itrsccls
No ellecl. The fibres remained unharmed, for example, after P.V.C. fibres have a high dielectric constant.
4 years' steepingin caustic soda or caustic potash (50 per cent).
Allcrgcnic Propcrties
Getteral P.V.C. tibres do not cause any irritation
when in coutflct with
P.V.C. fibres have outstanding resistanceto a wide range of the skin.
chemicals, .including bleaches, urine, perspiration, reducing
age0ls,oxidizing agents.
Eflcc( of OrgnnicSolvcnls
Alcohols, ether and petroleum hydrooarbonsdo oot affect P.V.C.
libres, but the nbres are swelled by toluene, trichlorethylcne,
bcnzcne, carbon disulphide, ethyl acetate, acetone,chloroform,
methylene chloride and nitrobcnzele. They are also a[tacked
by pbenols.
L X C o n ti r r u o u F
s ilaruerrt
GcneralCharactcristics
Fibre Structure
I ) . V . C .f i b r e s . l r ec o r r r r r r o n rl ya t l l e rf c r t u r c l c s s
a r r t lr o t l - l i k ei r r
15 s r r u c r u r ea, n d i n t h i s r c s p c c tc o n t r i b u t cn o t h i n g
E L o N G A T T o N% u r r u s r r :trol
p o t e t i a la p p l i c a t i o n s .
Mcchanical Properties
I'olyvinl,l Chlotidc Fibrc: Co linuous Fihntctrl 'I'he
r e g u l a tr y p c so [ I r . V . C .f i b r e I r a v er u s c f u cl o r l b i n l t i o r o
rl
454
' 455
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
l l : s Y N . t -e r I C F I n n E s
l)rviron rncnt ul C onl i t i ons
t e n a c i t ya n ( le l o n g a t i o nw, e l l s u i t c ( lt o g e n e r a l t e x t i l ac p p l i c r t i o n s .
'l'he J ' . V . C . f i b r c s l r a v c u n c x c c l l c n t r c s i s t i u l c cl o t l r c < J c g r . ; r t l i r l i v c
r n e c h a n i c aplr o p e r t i e sa r e u n a f f e c t e dl ; y l l t o i s t u r e .
i n 0 u c r ) c eesn c o u n t c r c d i n o u l d o o rr r p p l i c u t i o r risn,. t , , ,ifn g l u , i i i g l i i
Fabrics madc front P.V.C. fibrcs have atl atlractive handlc,
insectsand nlicro-organistns.
aod arc \vlrnl and co|uforlirble against the skin. Thcy havc a
h i g h a b r a s i o nr c s i s l a t r caen d g o o d w c a r i n g q u r l i t i e s , Chemicul Rcsistacc
-l
Spacific G ravity hc higlrrcsislanco c f p . V . C . l i b r c s t o c l r c n r i c a l si n, c l r r t l i n sa c i r l s
lundalkalis, ntakesthcsellbrcs lhc lirst clloicc for rrlrny
The specilic gravity of 1.4 is fairly high, in the same rcgion as ;,,r'"n,rfri,ii
applications.
thc modacrylics. -fhc
p o o r r c s i s t a n c cl o c c r t a i nc o m n t o n s o l v c n t s o , n tirc otlrcr
hand, has createdproblcrrrsin ccrtain textilc applicrtions. p.VC
Moist ure Reluiottshi ps
g o o d s c a n n o t b e d r y c l c a n c d w i t h t r i c h l o r o c t h v l c n cl r r t l c r r c
P.V.C. Iibres are absolutely non-absorbent,and the fibres do r r u s t t l r e r c f o r eb e t r k c n i n d r y c l c r n i n gt o e n s u r ei l r a t t h c c o r r c c t
not swcll in water. The ntechanicalpropertics of the llbre are s o t v e n t sa r e u s e d .
unaflccled, and fabrics nrade from P.V,C, are dirnensionally
strblc ;rnd crcasc rcsisllnt rvhcn subjcctcd to ny form o[ wct Elccrricity
processing.I'.V.C. fabrics wash and dry casily and quickly. ['.V.C. g c n c r f l t cn c g t i v c c l c c l r i c i l y b y t r i c t i o w i t l r
.fibrcs thc
s K l l . w l r c r c a st r ) o s lo t l l c r f i b r c sd c v c l o p
Thcnnal Propertics l l o s i l i v cc l c c t r i cc l | i t r p c s .
It is cl:rirrred r l r l t t l r i s n c g . r l i v cc t c c l r i c i t yt , , , . r f , " r " | ' r " i i r i " - " i i t ? . r r .
P.V.C. fibres havc exccllelt tlrermal insulation propcrties, and and is o[ valuc in thc trcatnrcnt of ihcunratisrn ",,A
,i,,iii,,i
this contributes to the warmth of properly-constructedP.V.C. complal'uts.
ganlrcnls.The good low-tcr perature propertiesare an advantage W h c n P . V . C . l i b r c i s b l c n d c dw i t h w o o l t h c ; : o s i t i v cc l c c t r i c i t v
i n c c r t a i na p p l i c a t i o n s . g c n c r a t c col n l h c w o o l n c u t r a l i z c st h c r r c g a t i v c l c c t r i c i t y
on itrc
Thc low softening terlrperaturcof P.V.C. Iibre, on the other P.V.C,, so that static is reduccd or clinrirratccl.
hand, has always been a drawback to its use as a gencralpurpose In-tr.l91ds
.. _ w i t l rc o t t o n o r r r y o n , t h c c l c c l r i c i l y g c n c r l t c d b y
lextile nbrc. Thc introduction of the newer types of l,.V.C. fibrc l h c . P . V . C . f i b r e s i s c l i s s i p : r t cbdy t h c c c l l r r l o s i i i b r c .
Nvlo,i.
spun fronr stan(lar(lan(l chlorinated P.V.C. rvith increasedheat acrylic, acctatc or silk fibrcs do not dissipttc ttrc ctrrrgc
io'a,iy
s i s t a n c eh,a si n c r e a s e tchl e v e r s a t i l i t yo f t h e f i b r e .
r e'fhe s i g n i l i c a n ct x t c n t .
high dcgrec of strctch that" may be locked into P.V.C. static
,lI ^ c l c c t r i c i l iys c a r r s i n gt r o u b l c i r r t l r c p r o : c s s i n go r r r s c
fibrcs by slretcbing when warm, and subsequcntly.cooling, o r l ' . v . U . - t r 0 r c s ,i t l l a y b c p r c v c u t c db y u s i r r ga r r l p p r o p r . i r r t c
bestows upolr these fibrcs the high bulking charactc/stics that a n l i s t a t i cl i n i s h .
havc bcen so useful in acrylics.
P.V.C. librcs are absolutely llaneproof, and this has proved \YnshiDg
one of their nlost in'rportantfeatures. Mixed rvith otber fibres, Fabrics containing P.V.C. fibrcs nray bc wrshcd crsity arrtl
they will suppressthe flarnrnabilityof thcsefibrcs to a rentarkablc cffcctively,so long as care is takcn to cnsure thnt lukcwflnn watcr
dcgree; 25 pcr cent ol P.V.C. fibrc blcndcd witl cotton or other 'fhe
only is uscd. water tcmpcralurc ntust not bc highcr than
ccllulosic Iibrc, for exanrplc,will prcvent the fabric or yarn from
6 0 0 C a r r dp r e f e r a b l yb e t r v c c n3 0 a n d 4 0 o C .
s u p p o r t i n gc o m b u s t i o nw h e n i g n i t e d i 7 5 p e r c e n t o f P . V . C .
llbre in a blend of this sort will rencler the ntixture alnrost
non-flarnnrable.
4s6 R* 457
T----l
L
- - L ' 1 t t ' f
t
, - Ut
r
II NDEOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES B: SYNTII ETI C FINRES
CL OCOCHT
Bletrds with Wool VINYL CIILORIDE 'vrNyoN,
VINYL ACETA]E l t
P.V.C. staple libre is blendcd wilh wool for the production of
woollcn goods, providing fabrics of incrcased strength. Thc 'flrc
milling capacityis incrcascdby shrinkageat clcvatcd temperature, l i b r c . ' D y n c l ' - i ss p u t rf r o r r a c o p o l y n r c ro I v i r r y l c l t l o r i t l c
yielding a cloth which would not otherwise fclt. Shrinkage a n o a c r y l o n l t f l l c ,w h i c h a r c i r r t h c r l ( i n o f 6 0
l l i t r t s t o . 1 0p l l r t s
capacity is likewiseadded to labrics which are normally incapable b y w c i g h t r e s p e c t i v e l y( p. r o d u c t i o ns u s p c n ( l c ( l ) .
d being milled.
In worsted goods, the addition of P.V.C. fibres brings about
CHz-Cllct + Cftr= C|.|CN - > - c l t :- c f t - c l t r _ f l t _
an incrcasc in strength, and nrakcs possible lhe produclion of
bouclC clTects. cL cN
The addition oi P.V.C. to wool is also a way of lowering the VINYLCIILORIDE ACRYLONITRILE 'DYN
EL,
460
461
This is pyrolyzcd to split it into vinyl acetateand acclic acid. SII{UCTUIiE AND pl{OpEt{l.II:s
(b) Acctylene is bubblcd through acetic acicl to provide
a Irinc S(ruc(urc :rnd
nrixturc of the two reactants in vapour fornt. 'I-he gas mixture ppclrrncc
is passedover a zinc or cadrriun salt catalyst at 200_250.C. S r n o o t hs u r f r c e df i b r c s o l . r o u n d
o r d o g _ l t o nc r o s s - s c c l i o l t .
'l'cnacily
Polynlcriza(ion
Vinyl chloridc and vinyl acctate alc copolyntcrizcd by enrulsion 6 . 2 - 8 . 8c N / t c x( 0 . ? * I . 0 g / ( l c n )w
, c ro r ( l r y
polymerization or in a solvent for thj copolynrer, tlr. pro..ri 'I'cnsilc
Strerrgtll
b e i r r gs i r n i l a rt o t h r t u s e d i n n r a k i n gp o t y v i r i y L ' c L r l o i i(cJi ;e; ; ; ;
448) 'Ihe 'o 8 4 0 - I , 1 9 0k g / c l r 2( 1 2 , 0 0 0 _ l ? , 0 0 l0b / i n 2 . 1 .
polynrerizarior
is conrirriccl
",,tit prfv,ii.,oi,i,6i.i"-
-rco"ii",i.
ular rvciglrtin thc rangc12,000to ZZ,0OO ir.s'Uceu IloDgtlion
Ackls loscc{s
Unaflectcd at normal tempcratures by mincral acids. Hot acids Not attacked by moth grubs or bcctlcs.
cause deconrposition and embrittlement.
Micro-orgaoisnts
Alkalis Not at.tackedby rnoulds or bactcria.
Unaflected by 30 per cent causticsoda or causticpotash.
ItlcctricalPropcrtics
uenetar I{igh dielectric strcngth o[ 650 volts pcr nril nt 60 cyclcs.
Coocl resistanccto nlost comulon chemicals,including perspira-
tron, Allcrgcnic Propc(tics
Not toxic to skin surfaccs.
.VINYON'
HH IN USE
Ccncral Cllarnclcristics
The low softcning[emperature of'Vinyon' Hll, quitc apartfronl
any other factor,deniesit anythingbut very spccializcd tcxtllc
applical.ions. This being so, there is littlc jnducemcntfor lhc
nranufacturcrto improvc tcnsilc and clongationpropcrlicsin
orderto makethe fibre moresuitablclor nornralproccssing tcclr.
niques.In thisconncction, it is interesting to notc that lhc tcnacity
o f t h e e a r l i e rV i n y o n ' C F r v a si n l h c r e g i o no l ' 3 0 c N / t c x( : 1 . 4
g/den), and tlre clongationl8 per ccnt, so that it rvoultl trc
possible to effect consitlcrableinrrrroverrrcItiI rrrcchanical
p r o p e r t i eosf ' V i r r y o nt' l l l i i t h c n e c t il h o u k lr r i s c .
The chemicaland biologicalpropcrticsof 'Vinyon' I.I[I nrc
g e n e r a l l ys i r r r i l atro t h o s eo f 1 0 0 p c r c c n t i , . V . C .l " i b r c sl.h c
30 60 90 120 [ibre is corrrpletelynon-flarnrrral>le, alld is resistclt to ntany
S T R A T N( % E L o N c A T T O N ) chemicals.lt is attackcd,horvcvcr,by a fairly rvitlc rangcof
commonsolvcnts.
Ind-Uses
V i n y o n ' l l l l i s u s e da sa b o n d i n gf i b r ci n n o n - r v o v calp p l i c : r t i o n s .
'Vin!o!t'HII
M i x e dw i t h o l h c r f i b r e si t b e c o r n ci sa c k yr v l r c rl r c a t c ral n db o n r l s
466 467
II N D B O O K O F ' T E X - t I L E I : IN R E S sYNIl|EItCIrtUl([s
rl-t r-T 11 --t .-T r-J -J ''l - . ' r ' t - t - t 'I -l ---[ '--Ed
:t NhTFTIIF-FTTTT}T
I ' A N D A O O KO F T E X T I L [ , F I B R E S D : SY N T I E
I T IC F I I ] R E S
IilTcct of Sunlight lillcct of 0rgrtrricSolvcDts
Ncgligiblc. llcsists alcohols,pctrol (gasolinc),paraliin anrl rrrilcral o i l s .
lt is
s o l t c n c ob y a r o r ) ) a t i cl t y d r o c t r b o r r se, s t c r sa r r d c t l r c r s .l)issolvcs
ChcrDicrlProperlics in ketonesand to sonte cxtcot in cltlorin;rlcdsolvcnts.
Acitls Insecls
Unallected at normal tcmperaturcsby mineral acids. Hot acids Not attackcd by nroth grubs or bcctlcs.
causedecompositionand embrittlement,
Micio-orgaDisnrs
Alkalis Not attacked by rnoulds or brc(cria.
Una(ected by 30 per cent caustic soda or causticpotash.
Illcclricrl Propc.tics
General Iligh dielectric strcngth of 650 volts pcr nril ut (r0 cyclcs.
Good resis[anceto n]ost common chemicals,including perspira-
Il o n . AllcrgcnicPropcrtics
Not toxic to skin surfaccs.
.VINYON'
HH IN USE
@@
?xp
Gcncral Ch:lr:lclcrislics
T h c l o w s o l t e n i n tgc m p e r a t u roef , V i n y o nI' . l ll , ( t n i t ci r n x r tf r o n r
:'@
Y\ig
tfll %
^l
any_.otber
applications.
nra.oufacturer
factor,deniesit anythingbut very spccializcrJ
This being so, rhcre is littlc j|lclucenrcrrt
to improvc lcnsilc and elongationprop"rti"s i,i
order to makethe fibre moresuitablcfor nornralproccssing
n i q u e sI .n t h i sc o n n c c t i o n
of,the earlier
tcxtilc
Ior thc
tcclr.
i t ,i s i n t e r e s t-irnteoggni o rt rci h r t t h c t c ] r a c i r v
jn
g i ( l e n ) ,a n d U. V i r r y o n 'C F w a s t h e o f : O . f . f l L " *i - i . i
l e c l o n g a t i o nl 8 p e r c c r r t ,s o t l r i t i l r v o u l r lb c
p o s s l b l et o e l l e c t c o t ) s i ( l c r r b lier I l p r o v c t l r e ri rt tl r r r c c l r l
icll
p r o p e r t i eosf ' V i n y o n 'I l l j i f t h en e c di l r o u l t rl r i s c .
The chemicaland biologicalpropertiesof .Vinyon' I.ll.I rrc
generallysimilar to those of 100 pcr cent i'.V.C. fjbrcs. ,l.hc
f i b r e i s c o n r p l e t e l yn o n - f l a n r n r a bal er ,r d i s r e s i s t a ntto n r a r i v
chemicals..lt is altacked,horvcvcr,by a llirly rvirlc ralgc oi.
c o m m o ns o l v c n t s ,
End-Uscs
'Vinyon'ItH . V i n y o n ' . l l l li s u s e da sa b o n d i r r fgi b r cj n n o n _ r v o v :crrpr p l i c l r t i o n s .
M i x e dw i t h o t h c r l i b r e si t b e c o r i r ct a s c k yr v h c rhr c a t c rai r r cbl o n t i i
466 467
I I N D I } O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
t h c n m s so f l i b r e st o g c t l r c rI.l . i s t r s c t il n t l r i sr v a v [ o r r r r : r k i r r p sl'NT|ll]TIc Ft nREs
.TYPES
f c l t s ,b o r r d c df i r b r i c as r r t lh c a t - s e r l a bpl ca p c r sl .t n D o ; t t n rt D D l i c x : OF IIII]RI]
t i o n s i-n c l u d ef i l t e r f a [ : r i c st,e r . b a g sd. o o i p r n e l ; a n d w e b t ; i n e s .
'Vinyon' 'Dynel'
i s u s e df o r i n t l u s t r i aal n t l o u t t i o o rf a b r i c si n c l u t l i " n s r v a sn l a r k e t c a
( lss t a D l e ,
g i t r t l e rf :u r n i t u r ct,a r p a u l i r :rsw, n i n g sf,i l t e rc l o t h s3 n d p r o t c c t i v E .niriuo*ii. ffi;;l;ili',i,ij'l"low'trislrt' scnri{ull
rrrtlrlull,
c l ot h i n g . ,Dylrcl,:
l n c r c w c r et h r c c ) a i nt y p c so f
(b) .DYNEL' (l) Rcgulur.Stanclardgr.adcslaplc
'"
(2) Controlledl! igll-slu.inkart
nd row (.ll,pc lti0).
' D y r r e l r' v a s
a f i b r e o f t h c p o l y v i r r ycl h l o r i d ct y p e p r o d u c e db y
t h e F i b c r sa n d F a b r i c sD i v i i i o ; o a U n i o n C a r b i i l eb o r f o r r t i o , i ,
i,ii,,l;:iJl,i',1lJTi,::il
Titf:fitijlJ,il'ltfiifiilj,ti
i r r ^ t l r eU . S . A .I t w a s . s p u nl r o n r a c o p o l y r r r corf v i r r y l ' c h l o r i c l e (3) Cupc.t ,Filrc. A spccirl
( 6 Up e rc e n t )a r ) da c r y l o n i t r i l(e4 0 p c rc e n t ) . fibrc for c;rrpct rrsc, rvitlr lowcr
Ily F.'f .C.dcfinition,'Dyneliwis a notlicrylic fibre. H*il?;.i'f, f"";r';";;-"';'
llii,"];1,fl::'1,,T:*il "L',;'i;i
I NTII,ODUCTION
PRODUCTION
T h c m o s t s e r i o u sd i s a d v a n t a g e
t o l h c u s e o [ p o l y v i n y lc h l o r i d c
type fibrcs for generaltextile applicationslies in thcir low soften- l\'IonorrrerSJnthcsic
tng point. Many attcmpts were nrade lo raise the soflcning point
oI. vinyl chloridc/vinyl acctatc copolyntcrs, a s u s c d i t r n l a k i n g (a) Vinyl Chloridc. Scc prgc447.
'\'inyon'
I'lH, by adjustnlenl of the relativc proportions of thc (b) Acrylonitritc. Scc
t]flgc 399.
two conrponcnls,but without succcss.
Durirrg I'olyntcriz:rtio|r
w a s l o u n .dt h e w o r k o n v i n y l c h l o r i d cc o p o l y n r c r Iso, w c v c r ,i t
t h s t l l b r e so f s a t i s f a c t o rsyo f t c n i D p go i n t c o u l d b c
spun.from
.copolymcrs of vinyl chloridc arrJ icrylorritrilc,iri "'". (40pa
I:l''iJ"i?'l;l'"%,i:,i*"';1,;i:i,11: rrs)nrcpor
v-
w h r c ht h e v i n y l c h l o r i d cr c m a i n c dt l t c n r a j o rc o r p o n c n t .
.-.ln "lrll fibre produccdfrom copolymersof lhis type was Spinning
'Vinyon'
N . 1 - h i sw r s a c o n t i n L r o uf ish m c n t l i b r c * h 1 ; i ; ; ;
is.dissolvcd
d r y - s p u nl r o r r a s o l u t i o no [ v i n y l c h l o r i d c / a c r y l o n i t r i l c ) c o p o l y - Ij: o":jt19, in ncerr
n ) e r .I l i s n o l o n g c rp r o d u c c d .
I n - 1 9 5 1 ,U n i o n C a r b i d cC o r p o r a l i o rirn t r o c l u c cot ln t o t h c "",.diii,'i"";"'j
;:,,1":l
rr,c..warcr, "tit*.ili'1";iii"[x
Jlil):*,:""-
t c x l i l em : r r k e at n c w f i b r ec a l l e d, D y n c l ' T .
h i s f i b r c w a ss i n r i l a r r.ndsorid nr,,,ii",,o'
Ji ;::1,:,T,':,:X"r*;il.ll,'t,
lil
l o . ' V i n y o n 'N i n t h a t i t w a s s p u n f r o r r ra c o p o l y n r eo, f u i n v i
;il':l;'r",nj[T;;;
i;:,:,1;':l:;l r'oi"'ir
ri'",i.i'.,'i;,r'i;;,'';;,1;
c h t o f l d ea n d a c r y l o n i t r i l ew, i t h t h e v i n y l c h l o r i d ef o r m i n gt h e
mirjorcomponcnt.IJutit waswet-spuniristcadof bcingdry_lpun, ;;;;;,:;;' ;;;"':i;;;lljii:']fi ^::,1
fffJf:1"';
J,':l H';i"il?:i
-coniinuoui
a n d i t w a s a v a i l a b l ea s s t a p l ea n d t o w , i n s t e a do f
I rl a m e tn-
'Dyrrel' PROCESSINC
. P r o c l u c t i oonf w a sl a t e rd i s c o n t i n u ebcul ,t i n f o r n l a t i o n
about it has beenretainedfor its historicartdfechnicalvalueirr
t h c f o l l o r v i r rsge c t i o n'.D y t r e l 'w a so f i n r p o r l . a n ,c,e , , , . * r u , r i . I)csizirrg
o f a f i b r es p u nc o n r n r e r c i a lflryo r na c o p o l y r n eorl ' v i n y lc h l o r i d e D-csizingwith cnzyn)cflgcnlsis
rcconrnrcndccl,
cspccillly irr blcrrtls
a n da c r y l o n i t r i l e . o f ' D y n c l " , v i r I c c l l r r l o s tf i b r c s .
468
469
' t
T
ft1n Rn n n t I F F F F f: |', t,E-]'r_t_-h
IIANDDOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: SYNTII ETI C FIDRES
Scouring
Goodswhich havc bccnsoilcdduringproccssing may bc scourccl
-.r -.lul,,r b y t r e a t m e n t - f our p t o I h o u r a t 7 0 " C . i n a b a t h c o n t a i n i n g
:E ?!E non-ionicsurfaccactiveagcnt.
t t (,z Illcachirrg
v p i t
f
'Dynel'is
a white nbre which doesnot normallynecdblenching.
3\ | If bleachingshould be considercdnecessary,- sodiunt chloriic
" < \ I nray be usedin a liquor acidificdwith nitrii acid.
: l---J
9 t zI Dyeing
(a) 100 per ce l 'Dynel
T
F 'Dynel'-fibre,
stock, tow, yarn or picce goods may bc <.lycrl
F
ellectlvely by conventionalmethods,on convcntional equipmcnl.
F A full rangc of.colours nray bc obtaincd, from lights tirrough
= darks, with cxccllcnt laslrlcssto pcrspirfltion,crock-ing,wnshiig
d
u and Iight, and rcsistanceto gas fading.
4 o Dycstuflsuscclinclude thc cntirc rangc of dispcrscdycs, ncutrll
I
premctallized dyes, most of thc cationic dyci, ancl cc.inin
vni
dyes._From this wide range it is possible to sclcct dycstulTsto
F' match any rcquiremcnt, and to withstand virtually cvciv tvpc ot
scrvice required of thc finisheclfabric.
'Dynel'may
be dyed at temperaturesbclow thc boil by usirrg
L a carrier. This adds to dyeing costs, however, ancl subitantilJ
o quantitiesof 'Dynel'are dyed at temperaturcsof 96.C. and abovc
J
without a- carrier. At tcmperaturesof 96"C. with a carricr, thc
,
fibre'smoisture absorptionbecomeshigh enough to bc of practical
value in dyeing. When the colour has been fixed in thc fibrc bv
the dyeing process,it is unavailable to the action of wrtcr nni
the various chemical agents that might be expectcdto dischargc
or alter the colour. This results in cxccllent fast.nssspropcrtic-.s.
_6 Restoritry Lustre
o 'Dynel'
s< A absorbs watcr at dycing lcmpcraturcs,and this rnav bc
lrappcd in thc bot fibrc, c:rusing a loss oI lrrstrc. l.his has a
r,rx rr
J
4'10 471
II N D B O O K O F T E X ' T IL E F I I } R E S
B: SYN'TIIETIC FII}ITES
by scnri-decat izing with stcanrfor shorl cyclcs,or in thc ctsc of Iillslic Ilccovcry
p a c k a gdc y c i n gb y u s i n ga b o i l i n gs o d i r r nsru l p h a tsco l u t i o u .
(l)cr ccut) 100@ 2 %
') 93 @ s'/,
hernoplosticity 95 @ to'i1"
'Dyncl'
is a thcnnoplaslicfibre, and (his nrustbc consideredin
all processcs involvingelevatcdtemperaturcs, Avcr:rgc Stillncss
inclu<.ling dyeing. cl\/ tcx 90.9
.lt must be given specialatrent.ion during piece<tyeinglCoolirig 218 8.8
at the cDd of dyeingnlust be done very slowly to avoid settin!
(g./dett.) (r 0 . 3 ) (24.7) ( 1.0)
c r c a s c isn . l h e f a b r i c .T i g l r t l yw o v c nf a b r i c sj n p a r t i c u l anr r u s i Avcragc Touglncss
ue grvcllthts careto ayoidcrelsing. 0.58 0.13 0.60
Spccilic Gravity
(b) Blends
l.J
I n a d d i t i o nt o 1 0 0p e rc e n ta p p l i c a t i o n s , , D y n e ul ' si se riln b l e n d s
w l r n a t u r a la n d r n a - r n a d cf i b r e s ,a r r t lr n a y b e c o r n n r e r c i n l l v Ellec( of Moisturc
u n i o l - a n d c r o s s . t l y epdr i r r t e di n a r v i t l er a n r eo f , t , r , f . , S i i i , i r i i R c g a i n :0 . 4
procerlures are usetl for dycirrg blcnds with rayon, rryon anrl W t c r . h a sv i r t u a l l yn o c l T c cot n t l r cn r c c l rn i c r rpl r o l ) c r l i c s
f l c e r a t e , . . r a y oann d w o o l , r : r o l r a i rw of tltc
, ool, cotton,acrtlic at)(l fibr,e.There is no shrinkagcor fclting ", t"",r,"rl,i,i.,
polyauriclc libres. potnt.
il"f"*
DO tng
Ihcrmal Proper(ics
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
Rcgnlar fibre: slrain releasc slarts at 120.C.;
fibrc trcconrcs
mouldable in thc rangc 135-163"C.(dry hcar) "il"
Fine S{ruclurc and Appearance fr"ifi"g *"i"r.
H-igh-shrinkfibre: shrinks 30 per ccnt in loiling
;ii;; ;;;i
White (or spun-dyed)fibre. Cross-section of regular and high 127"C. in dry heat.
shrink typcs: irregularribbou; carpetnbre: roun.l to elliptical. Carpct libre: strain relcascbeginsat 130"C.
\ Flotnmability
Regular Mglt-Shrink Cdrpct 'Dynel'will
Tcucilv - burn if held iu a flanre, but it gocs out if thc llanrc
cN/tex 18-31 37 8.8 ,. .ryg]:t! it.wi supporr
combusrion.
(g./clen.) (2.0*3s) ,nor li docs""i .riit,lil."j,
(4.2) (1.0) o I m o t t e nm a t e t r a l.
Sarrrcwc[ or dry E[ec( of Sunlig[t
Tcnsilc Slrcngllr Prolonged exposure causcs sonrc loss of tcnsilc
strcngth.1'lrc
kg/cnr2 fi bre darkens gradually.
4,060 4,900
(p.s.i.) (58,000) (70,000
[,long4tiorr CLcrnicalI'ropcr(ics
(pcr ccnt) 30-42 t4-t7 90_t20 Acids
Santc wct. or dfy Exccllcnt rcsistanccto acids of all conccnlrillions.
4'12
473
- l ' l r I
I
I I A N D A O O K O F T E X T I L E F I A RE S
Alkalis B : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R E S
I\{icro.orgalisnrs
Exccllcnt rcsistanceto atkalis of all concentrations.
Completelyrcsistant.
Certeral
",f:"1.,t by strong dcrergcnrs,soaps,ctc. Dleclricalproperaies
l:! Rcsistaatto a widc
rangc ol Inorganicchcnticals- Die.lectricconslant; 4.g6at 60 cyclcs;4.29
morstureabsorptionencourages at 1,000cyclcs.l_ow
accumulltion"f r,"ii","i".i,iiiirl
Ellcct of OrgaDicSolvctrts
Unaficctcd by hydrocarbons, dry_cleaning .DYNEL'
solvents and nrost IN USE
othcr organic solvents. Acetone, cycloheianone
u"A'.iinr",f,"i
formamideare solventsin varyinj d;sr;;.6;;i;i;
'^;uo
ii,"lt'l","lJj General Cbaractcristics
and somc a''.'ines exert ,otu"nt o.* .*"tti.,g';;;;,;,;;;il;;
temperatures.
i:Ii?i:
Insects
Conrplctelyrcsistant.
***ttg1$ffi''i"'ffi
;flpifrg]h5[ilffit
Mechanical properties
**+r;t*ifr
;t$i;#;frf
;1;fr$i'"',,qffi
?o 30
(% ELoNGATToN)
40
$,'ffiil;;frti''ffirffi
ifi,;d,iil"$-.T",l:d,l.,if
*itm
'Dy
474
el'
*tlry;*n$:ili'*le-;:',l'4
ffi\,#i* 475
TIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES A: SYN'TIIETIC FI I]RES
Dinrc sio al Stability Thcsc shapc<lftbrics arc dintcnsionally stlblc, and rcrunin
'Dyncl'fibre :;o
-
i s n o t a h i g h l y c r y s l a l l i n em a t c r i a la n d i t d o c s n o t , tunlcssthe slupiug tcntpcriltLrrcis agnin cqtrall"j or "x.""dJ
therefore,have a sharp melting point. Whcn heated,the l'ibre will use.of bolh.lhc shrirrkagcand tlrc tircrnroplnsticpropcrticr
.The
shrink slightly as it reachesa strain-rclcasetentpcrature.l[ the or -uyncl w e l l c x c n t p l i l i c di n t h c n r o r r l d i n go f h i l t s ,w l l c r c
.are.
tenrpcralurc is incrcased furtl')cr, a grcatcr shrinkagc will occur t n c l b n c r s s h r u D ko r t l o a f o r n t c r i l u d l l l c t r s c t i n t l r i s s h p c .
until finally all the strainsimparted to the fibre have becu relieved. F o r r a d i o a n d h i g l r - f i d c l i r yg r i l l c s a r r d r h c f i t c , h i r l r i c n r u c f " -
Whcn a'Dynel'fibre has had strains rclicvcd at a given tent- trrrcs arc uscd to provitlc fabric stilhcss arrtl rigiility
to tlrt,
perature and time, it bccomesdimcnsionally stable thereafter up finishedarticle.
to this temperature for that time. Fibres held under tension
may be heated considerablyabove their strain releasetempera- Fire Resistance
turcs with only minor changes in molecular structurc. When 'Dynel'
'Dynel'fabrics will not supporl conrbustion,'l-hcfibrc rvill btrrn if hcltl
are stabilizedby dycing at the boil, or by boiling i n c o n t a c t w i t h a n o p c n 0 a n r c ,b u t i t s t o p s b u r n i r r ! , " f , " n - - r f i "
o[[, they are dimensionallystable in boiling water and dry-heat l i l n r e l s r e r n o v c d .l ; a b r i c s m a d c e n t i r c l y o f . D y u c l , p a s s t l t c
tenpcraturcs up to 120'C. ASTM Test D626-41 for flarne-retardcdicxtilcs, Lut sou,c ,tv"_
If 'Dynel' is heated in air at high tempcmtures, it darkens slulTsirnd finishescontributc lo nantnrability,rnd fabrics stror'rl,.l
gradually and loses weight. lts nrechanicalproperties,however, be testcd beforc clainrs are ntadc as to their firc rcsisltrncc.
arc prescrved to a remarkable degree. When 'Dynel'is heated
for prolonged periods under tension, the tenacity at elevated Outdoor Exposure
tcmperaturesincreases. 'Dyncl'Jras
In order to take full advaotagcof thc dinrensionalstability of o u t s t f l n d i t )rgc s i s t a n c tco o l l t ( l o o tc x l t o s l l f cu l d c r n l l
'Dynel' in typcs.of. conditions, Wtrcn 'Dyrrcl' fabrics wcrc burictl irr soii
blendcd fabrics for apparcl, it is prcferable for thc
Ioom rvidth of the goods to be greater than the desiredwidth of a n q n c t o u n d c r L r o p t c a lc o u d i t i o D so f 3 1 " C . a D d g Z p c r c c r l t
the finished fabric. Finishing, then, should include one stagc rclative humidity, no dcterioration oI the cloth was tlctcctcri
at rvhich the fabric is allowed to relax complctely, under heat after 6 months. Eight-ouncecotton duck disintcgrated"ourpf"r"lf
and rro tcnsion, to its natural length and width. in l0 dtys under the samc condilions.
In othcr tests,such as thc mineral-bnsc-agarand frcc-hanlitr,:
t c s l s ,n o f u n g u s a l t a c k w a s o b s c r v e d . , D y n c l ' i sc q u a l l y r c s i s i a n i
Novcl Fabric Constructiotrs
\ to attack by insccts.
The controllecl shrinkage of 'Dyncl' nray be used to obbin
selectivediflcrencesbetween parts of a fabric in which ,Dyndt' . After uncovered cxposures in Floricla for 250 sunJrotrrs
{approximately60 days) on yarns and tapes of low dcnicr librcs,
is used in conjunction with other fibres. PLrckeredand bouclC 'Dynel'
retained more tl)an 50 pcr ccnt of its originrl tcnaciry
ellects,for example,are obtained in this way. an(l clongatron.
Fabrics may be knit or woven and stabilizedby heat shrinkage
to give extremely tight constructions. The selection of olher Blertcls
synthetic and natural libres for blending extcnds the range of 'Dynel',
by itsclf, combincs nrany of thc chlracteristicsof tlrc
novel fabrics o[ this type.
tnore expensive nalural fibres with a nunrbcr of ntan-maclc
fcalures not availablc in any natural fibrc.
Heut Sctting: Moulding 'Dyncl'
Thc application of hcilt to 'Dyncl' [abrics at tcn"rpcrflturcs . In blends with wool, nrakes slrongcr fabrics lhat hold
irbove their shape.and prcss.Wilh rayon, ,Dyncl' provitlcs t varicty of
thcir strain-relcasetcntpcraturcs is uscd in thc inrparting of texturcs with.-inlprovcd shape and prcss rctcnlion and Iongcr
permanent pleals, and in moulding fabrics into desired shapes. useful wcar life. In blcnds with cotton, ,Dyncl' hclps thc fab-rjc
476 477
I
HAND BOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: S Y N T I . I E T IC F I B R g S
to keep its loft, and thercfore its softnessand warmtb, even after steam iroDs, manglcs, or hot-hcad prcsscsshoulcl not bc uscd.
long use and repeatedlaundering.From 25 to 4Qper cent'Dyoel', The resistanccof 'Dynel'-conlaining fabrics to slrrinkrtc bv
stock blended, is generally most advantageous. h c r t i s i n c r c a s c t rl n : r r k e d l yb y s t o c k - b l c n d i n gw i t h n r o r c - h c e i
rcsislant.-fibrcs.When 25-40 pcr ccDt .Dynct' js prcscnt, lllc
W:rsbing frbric will be stabilizcd ancl will rctain crcascssct by an iron.
'Dyncl'libres l n g c n c r a l ,s u c h f a b r i c s c a n b e i r o n c d f l t l l l c , r a y o n ' s c i n g o r
are non-feltingand non-shrinking.Theseproperties,
coupled lvith high rcsistanceto chenrical attack and high wet with a steam iron.
strcngth, make possible repcatcd laundcring cven with stroDg
detergentsunder vigorous conditions.Fabrics may be disinlected Dry CIclrniDg
with sodium hypochlorite solutions without alfecting tensile Fabrics of'Dynel'nray be dry clcanedcllcctivcly, bcing rcsislant
properties or handle. to the solventscommonly uscd. As alwnys,clcvalcd lcnipcraturcs
'Dyuel'
fabrics may be washed either by hand or by machine, n)ust bc avoided.
tho lemperature of thc wasb water being as low as possible,
preferably belorv 50"C. (lukewarm). Dnd Uscs
As with all textile fibres, nappal fabrics may pill if subjectcd
to extreme agitation jn automatic 'home laundries'.With proper Pile Fahrics
fabric construction, howevcr, nappcd 'Dyucl' fabrics can bc O n o o [ t l l c n r o s ts u c c c s s f uol u t l c t sf o r , D y n c l , i s i r r l h c p r u l r r c -
washed with confidencein automatic machines-
tion.of furlikc pile fabrics. 'Dynel' provitlcs pilc lhrt is soft
and lustrous,yct stable to st.etchingand shrinking. Fabrics nrrrdc
Drying from 100 per cent 'Dynel' and from ,Dyncl'in conrbination
The low moisture regain makcs 'Dyncl' one of tl)e fastestdrying w i t h ' O r l o n ' a n d o t h c r f i b r e sh a v e p r o v c d c x t r c r n c l ys u c c c s s f u l .
fibres, In certain constructions,r,atcr is beld mechanically,and
this may be rcmoved immediately by centrifuging.Heavy napped Sttits; Dresses, etc.
fabrics that are whirl-dried and hung up at room temperatures Dresses,suits, skirts, slacks, jackets and rainwcar arc son.rcof
will dry with remarkable rapidity. the applications for 'Dynel', conrmonly in blcnds wilh othcr
Drip drying is preferred if possible; tumble drying in honre fibres.In blendswith rayon and acetatc,2j-35 pcr ccnt of,Dyncl'
dricrs may cause sofle shrinkage. Drying temperaturesshguld markedly increasesfabric wcar lite, wi rout pilling. In blcnds
not excced60"C. \ with wool, up to 35 per ccnt,Dyncl' contributcs itrcngth and
resrstanceto wear and tear.
Ironit|g To wovcn goods generally,,Dync['inrpartswannllr, washability,
Wrinklcs are removed very easily from 'Dynel' fabrics by ironing good draping qualitics, creasc rctctrlion cvcn whcn wct, and ri
at low temperatures. If the ironing temperatu_resare too high, long useful rvcar life.
thc'Dynel'nlay stilTenand shrink. To preservethe beauty and
luxurious hand of 'Dynel' fabrics, the following pressing and Uttdcrvear; K nitwcar, e!c.
ironing instructions must be closely observed. In knitted goods, 'Dyncl' jmparts rcsistancc to shrinkrcc ancl
Wben ironing all 'Dynel' fabrics, the lowest iron settitg and s t r c l c h i n g i, n r p r o v c dr c l c n t i o n o I l o f t , a , , v : r r r rl rr r x r r r i o r rlsu r n t l .
a dry cover clolh of cotton or other fabric sbould be used. and resilicncc, Blcnds of 'Dyncl' with olhcr fibrcs arc rrsctl irr
lf no cover cloth is used,an iron witb a lowcr thao 'rayon'setting nlen's, women's arrd chilclren'sunclcrwoar,slccpwcar antl socks.
is ncccssary.All 'Dynel' fabrics can bc steam-prcssed at rcduced A blcnd o[ 25-50 pcr ccnt of ,Dyncl' wilh cotton h:rs nrovccl
prcssurcs,and wrinkles can be removed by jet steanring, but p a r t i c u l a r l ys u c c e s s f ui nl t h i s f i c l d ,t h e , D y n c l ' c o n t r i b u t i n g
i:rstirrg
418 479
IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
B: S Y N T I I E T I C I : I I IR [ , S
softness,shape and size retention through many washings and Many ntodificalionsof polyvinyl chloritlc hrvc
-I'be bccrr nrndc orr
long wear. cotton contributcs high absorbcncy and assures :tn cxpcflt cntal btsis, but thc only corrrrrtcrcilrlly-irtlporlarrt
that garments stay comfortablc next to lhe skin. froccss at thc prescnt time is chlorjnaiion. f.ifr,", "r" .n,,ir-iiuiii
lo^ri3arcd. polyvinyl i'l wtrich rhc.1,i";;,;';";ii;;;;;
Furrishitrg F abrics; Curlains, etc. ;.h
n i r v c o c c n I n c r c a s c df-chloric.t_o
r o r r r5 7 p c r c c n l l o a s h i g l r a s 7 9 l r c r c c t r i
'Dyncl's
flamc-rcsistanceltas provcd an important propcrl.y irr
the usc of the fibrc lor curtains and drapcries.'Dyncl'drapcrics,
INTITODUCTION
for exanrplc, are uscd on lhe luxury lincrs Unitcd S/o/eJ and
ADteice. I n . 1 9 3 4 , G c r m a n w o r k c r s d i s c o v c r c dt h t r t t h o
sollrbiLryof
polyvinyl chloridc could be incrcasccl
Corpets by clrlorinatiorr of tlic
polymer. The introduction of additional "irt.ri".,rioi""r,f",
The spccial grade of 'Dynel' produced as carpet libre has pro- thc. polynter Iorced thc Iong nrolecrrlcs"p"rr, "nofrf
i"io
pcrl.iesdifferent from those of regular 'Dyncl'. These properties i,*'-*lu",,i
nlotccrrtesto pcnctrate ntorc casily bctwccn tllcnl.
have been built into the nbre to make it particularly suitable In 1936, chlorinated polyvinyl chlorirJc fibrcs wcre
for carpet use. Carpets nrade from 'Dyncl' combine strength . nrxrketcd
In Lrcrmnny undcr thc traclc narrrco[ .Pc Cc'. Thcy
and easc of nlaintenance characteristics rvith cxccllcnt soil wclc snun
f r o n r i t c c t o n cs o l u t i o n so f t l t c c h l o r i n i r t c (pl o l y r r r c r . '
rcsistance,high resilicncc, good appcarancc and rcsistancc to
moth and mildcw- -'Pc Cc' nlcltcd irt too low it tcmpcrllrrrc (bclorv lm.C.) f o bc
o{ rcal value as a tcxtilc fibrc, bui it ha,l a rrurirbcrci
;;ir,;;
cnrrlctclstrcs which scrvcd it rvcll in spccillizcd
Blankcts applicarioirs.
ln p a r t i c u l a r ,
it wasnon-flanrmabtc.
'I'he
Blankels nrade lronr 'Dynel'are shrinkproof and mothproof, and produclion of ,pc Cc' fibrc continucd in
Gcrnrany until
wilt withstand repeatedlaunderingand cleaning.They dry quickly a.nd.during Workl War ll. lt is pror.luccdirr East Ccrrrrlly
'l)iviacid', as
and retain their warnlth and handle over a long period of hard and in the U.S.S.lL.
wcar. In this applicalion, again, flamc rcsistanceis an important
assct.
PRODUCTION
Industricrl Applicatiotrs
\
Chernical resistanceand flame resistanccarc important charac) Molrorlct Syntllcsis
tcristicsin a fibre uscd for protcctive clothing, and'Dynel'excels
Vinyl chloridc.Sec pagc447.
in both respects.It is used for shirts, trouscrs,unifomts and other
clothing worn by people exposedto corrosive chemicals.
'Dynel' I'olyltcrizalion
is used also in launtlry nets, Illter fabrics.paint rollers
and overlays for boats and industrial equipment. Vinyl-.chloride is polymcrizccl in cmulsion as dcscribcd on
p a g e4 4 8 .
'-f
t
r I
l
r I
l
--1--1
r
II NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I]: SYNTII ETI C FI BRES
Micro.organisms
AND PROPERTIES
STIT.UCTURE Not attackcd.
Thcmral Propcrlics
Chlorinated P.V.C. fibres shrink usually at about 70'C., and
soften at 100"C.
n r o n o m c r sc, o n l n r o n l yv i n y l c h l o r . i r l cO . t h c r l r o n o n t c r sr r u r v b c
P O I - Y V I N Y L I D E N EC I I L OI I I D E F I t ] R E S i r r c l r r c l ci dr r r l l i n o r f r o l l o l l i o n s ,s r r c l r s a c r y t o r r i t t . i l c .
'l'hc
Amcrican Ir.l'.C, rcgLrlirtionsrcstrjcI lltc rrsc of llrc lcrrrr
F i b r c ss p u nf r o m p o l y m c r o
s r c o p o l y m c rosf v i n y l i d e nceh l o r i d c : ,r4r.r/rlo llrosc fibrcs spun fronr polyntcrs corrtairring t lcast g0
pcr ccnt o[ vinyliclcncchloriclc(scc bclorv),rud this (lcnnitiorlllrs
corlrc inlo gcncral usc fol such polyntcrs.-[t.covcl.sall lhc ilrrnor.-
t t t t t t t p o l y v i n y l i d c r rcch l o r i d ct y l ' c p o l y r t r c r sr r o w r r s c cfjo r s D i n i r i r r g
CH2 - C CLz ->- --- cH,- c- cH,- c -cH,- -- fibrcs,,and the propcrtics of saran fibrcs protlrrccclIry .iitlcrcri
t l nlanufacturcrsarc sullicicntly alikc in gcncrrl lrroltcrlics for thc
tcrnl saran to bc o[ prtctical valuc.
V I N Y L I D E N EC H L O R I D E CHLORIDE
POLYVINYLIDENE Saran rvas producc<Ioriginally in thc lorrn of hcavy dcnicr
nronofilaments,and it is still widcly uscd in tllis forrir todav.
Ir,[orrofilarrrca n rt sc s ; l r r n i r r r o u l ( l c r o s s - s c c l i o rirr,r r t l a l s o i r r a
INTITODUCTION v a r i c t yo f f l l t a r r dc l l i p t i c l l c r o s s - s c c l i o n s .
- . S a r a l i s c o m n r o n l ys p u n - d y c da, n d a w i d c r a n g c o [ c o l o u r c d
ln 1940, tho Dow Chcmical Co. of Anrcrica introduccd a ncw fibrcs is availablc.
typc o[ synlhetic fibrc consistiug o[ l copolyntcr oI viuylidcnc
clrloride and vinyl chloride. It was givcn the generic nanle Jcralr.
Vinylidcnc chloridc, thc chicf cornponcntof saran,.isa colour-
Icss liquid tlrat was nradc as long lrgo as 1838.In conrnron with NOMENCLATUITE
other vinyl-typc unsaturated compounds, jt will polylrlerize to
form an csscntially linear polymcr capable of fonning fibrcs. l'edcral Tradc CottrtrtissiorrD efinitiotr
Polyvinylidene chloride was examincd as a possible source of
Thc gcncric lcrm.r.r/"al wils adopled by tltc U.S. Ircctcrlrll.mclc
uscful synthctic fibres during thc carly 1930s.The lack of a suit-
C o . n r r n i s s i ofno.r f i b r c s o I t l : c p o t y v i n y l i d c n cc h t o r i t l c t y p c , t l r c
ablc solventcauscdspinning difficulties,howcver,and thc polymer
o f T i c i adl c f i n i t i o nb c i r r ga s f o l l o w s :
$'as scnsilivc lo hcat.
'fhc Sqratr. A trlanufilclurcd fibrc in wlrich tlrc librc-fornring srrb_
introduction of saran by Dow Chemical Co. in 1940
followed an intensivc rescarch projcct, the copolynrcr con14in- stancc is any long-chain synthctic polyllcr corrrposcdof li lcast
ing a srnall proportion of vinyl chloriclc bcing sclcctedas nrbst 8 0 p c r c c n t b y w c i g h t o f v i n y l i d c n cc h l o r i c l cu r r i t s
satis[ac(oryfor 0bre production.The polynrer made by Dow was ( - c l I , - c . c l "- ) .
spun by several lirms, including Pierce Plastics and Firestone
lndustrial Producls Co., who nrarketed their saran libre under PRODUC'TION
t l r e n a m c s ' P e r m a l o na' n d ' V e l o n ' r e s p e c t i v c l y .
Production o[ saran fibres rvas subsequcntlytaken up in othcr Mononter SynlLcsis
countrics,and it is now establishcdas a specialitytcxtile fibre.
(a) Vinylide nc Chloritle
'I-hcrc
a r e a n u n r b c r o I r o r r l c st o t h c f r c p r l r i l l i o t ro f v i r r y l i r t c n c
.TYPIS
O F P O L Y V I N Y I - I D E N EC I I L O I i I D I I F I B R E diclrloridc, con'rlrrorrlyvia tricltlorocrrnnc,
'l . 1 . , 2 - D i c l r J o r o c t h lnr rl icy b c c h l o r i r r a t c ttlo t f i c l r l o r o c l h : u r(cl ) ,
hc polyvinylidcnc chloridc fibrcs procluccrltodily are copolynrcrs r v l t i c - jl sr a l s o f o l r r r c t lb y t l r c c l t l o l i n t t i o r ro f v i r r y l c l r l o r . i t l (c2 ) o i
containing a snrall (lcss than l5 pcr ccnt) proporlion of othcr ctllylelle (l).
484 485
(1)
cHr ct cHrcl + cl, > cH,cr cHcL,
I , 2- D I C H L O R O E T H A N E TRICHLOROETHANE H Y D R O C E NC H L O R I D E
l
tlct
VINYL CHLORIDE
Productionof VinylidcncChloridc
Polynrcrizrtion
Vinylidene chloride and the vinyl chloride or other co-monomer
are polymerizeclin aqueouscnltllsion in the presenceof.a-catalyst'
Commercial polymeri are commonly of molccular weight in the
region of 20,00G22,000
(
Spinnirrg l
MELT EXTRUSION
The copolynreris mclt spun through spinncretsat about 180"C'' I
the liliments being quenched rapidly before being drawn to cooLrN6
Y
develop satisfactorytcnacitY. ORIENTATION
Pigmcnts may be incorporatcd in the molten polymer- belore
spiniing, titaniun clioxide bcing uscd to provide a dull filament
B v s u i t a b l ci r d i u s t n r c not f t h e p r o p o r t i o n so [ v i n y l i d c n cc h l o r i d c
an,l uinyl chloridc in lltc polynrcr, [ibrcs can bc made witlt
s o f t c n i r r gp o i n t s i n t h c r r n g c 7 0 - 1 8 0 " C .A t y p i c a l c o n l m c r c i a l
s r r a n r n c l t sa t a b o u t 1 6 0 - 1 7 0 " C . Sotan flow Cfutrt
486 487
.4
IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
u : s Y N T l |U T t CF l n R r , s
PROCESSING lallec( of Moisturc
Dycing Regain: 0.1-1.0 per ccnt.
A . b s o r b c n cayt 7 0 ' F . a n d 9 5 p c r c c n t r . h . : 0 . 1 - 1 . 0 c c n t .
Saranmay be dyed by usinglechniques and dyestu[Issimilarto fcr
thosc uscd for vinyon and acetalc[ibres. Dispersedycs, for Moisture docs not swcll tlrc fibrc, and it hls a ircgligiblc cllcct
exanrple,are used,but the fastness on the ntechanicalpropcrtics.
propertiesare poor.
Conrmercialsaran fibres are contmonlyproducedin a wide t hcrnlal Propertics
rangeof spun-dyedcolours,and thcseare uscdin prcferenccto
dycing. S o f t c n i n gp o i n t : I l 5 - 1 6 0 . C .
Sticking point: 99-104"C.
STIIUCTUREAND PROPER'IIES Meltingpoint: l7l.C.
S a r a nf i b r c sn r a y b c w e a k c n c tilr t t c r p c r a l u r c sb c l o w t h c b o i l i r r c
lii c Structurc xnd Appc:rrancc point of water. At 100'C., srran toics ntout ou"_rtri.,t
oi'iii
The filamcntsare smooth-surfaced strength.
and regular.They m a y b e
round,oval or flat in cross-seclion,
l;lanwnbility
Saran is a faint golden-yellowor straw colour,and ts trans-
luccnt in non-pignrcntcd form. S a r a ni s a l m o s tn o n - f l r n r n r a b l cn,n r l w i l l n o t s u f p o r t c o o l b u s t i o n .
Tlrcnnal Propertics
Sarantcndsto softcnat.tcrnpcraturcs so|lrcwhat lowcr thln thosc
fa.vou.redfor gcncraltextileusc.Its low rcsistancc r" il"i:';;;;ri";
with its n_cgligiblc
nroisrurcabsorprio,,, h,,u; ;;;;i";;';ir"i"#';;
garmcntfabrics.
-l'hc-norr-flanrrlrability
of saranls an t|nportantassct,ls in lhc
5 t o 1 5 Z O caseof polyvinylchloridcfibrcs,and sararif,,frri.,
srRArN (% ELoNcATToN) ". i",r,,,""i"
ruscdin drapcrics,clc.,\vhcrca firc hnzlrd js nrcsc,ri_
Dttyirontnentol Conditions
Soran Slran has cxccllcntrcsistanccto sunlight,agcing
and gcnclrl
491
TIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
A : S Y N ' r I I E T I CF I U R E S
weathering conditions. It is completcly resistant to attack by
insccts and micro-organisms. POLYVINYL ALCOIIOL FI BITES
Chatrtical Rcsisttuce
Iribrcsspunfrorn polymersor copolynrcrs
of vinyl alcohol:
The resistanceof saran to most conlmon chemicalsis excellent,
and it will withstand most of thc bleachesand other chemicals
CII!=CHOH -) -CI tr-CFl-CI I,-C11-
cncounteredin nonnal proccssing.It is attacked by ccrtain sol-
vcnts, but is not afected by those normally used in dry cleaning. I I
Pcrchlorocthylcneshorrld be avoidcd. or'l otr
Vinyl Alcohol P o l y v i r r yAl l c o h o l
\Yashing
Saran will wash quickly and easily in soap and lukewarm water. IN T R O D U C T I O N
It should be rvashedby hand, and Sreat care is necessaryto en-
sure that the temperatureof the water is kept as low as possible' P o l y v i n y la l c o h o l w a s l l r s t s y n t l r c s i z cidn C c r r r u r n yj n I 9 l . l , a r r d
rorcs w€rc s!bscqucntly produccrl irr l9Jl by Wackcr_Chcrrric
Drying \ r . n r . D , i { .u n d e r l l ) e n t r r r c. S y n t h o f i l ' .
Fabrics should be drip dricd at roonr tcmpctaturc.Tumblc drying Thc polyvinyl alcohcl molcculc conltios fl grctrt nurlrbcr oI
.
should not be uscd, h y d r o x y l g r o r r p s r, r r d p o l y v i n y l r r l c o h o il t s c l f i s i o l r r b l c i n w u t c j r .
lroning l l r c - - u s c sf o r ' S y r r t h o l i l ' t, h c r c f o r c ,w c r c l i r r r i t c t lt o s n c c i : r l i z c d
applications for which a wirlcr-solublc tibrc is of *,fu"
Saran labrics do not generally nced ironing, but if ironing is fi""
Alginatc Fibrcs, pagc 148).
nccessarya wct press cloth must be uged.The tcmperaturemust t l t c l a t e 1 9 3 0 sp, o l y v i n y la l c o h o lf i b r c s l t r i r c t c da g r c i l td c l
be as low as possible. .ln
o L a l l e n t i o n i n J a p a n . I n 1 9 j 9 , l . S r k r r r r c l a ,S . L c c r n t t c o _
Dry Clcaning workers at the Kyoto Univcrsity discovcrccla proccss for pro_
ducing a rvater-rcsistant.polyvinyl alcohol fibrc by dry hclt trlcni-
Stoddard solvcnt is recomnlended for saran. Perchloroethylene
nrcnt and acetalizatiou.ln the samc year, lvl. yaziwa :rnd
should be avoidcd. his
colla_borators at the KancgafuchiSpinningCo. Lkl. inrlcpcntlcntiv
rlcvelopeda wet hcat lreatr)rcot(hcat trc;tnrcnt in a sali solrriioir
End.Uscs
under pressure).
Despitc the restrictionsitnposcclon end-uscsby the low softcni{8 Eflorts rverc ntadc to ntanrrfaclltrc wtrlcr-rqiislilnt nolvvinvl
tempcratureof saran, the specialcharactcristicsof the fibre haVe alcohol Ibrc by thc-Japrn Synlhctic lcxtilc ttcscarchn syrci1,ti.,ir.
ensured it a n)arket of considcrable importance in the textile Krnega.IuchiSpinning Co. Ltd., Ktrrashiki l{;ryon Co. l_tcl.,
rnri
trade, o r h c r s .I t l c w o r k w a s i n t c r r u p t e db y W o r l d W a r l l , h o w c v c r ,l r r r d
Exantples ol A pplications rt wes not until 1950 that thc Kurashiki ll.ayon Co. Ltd rnd tlrc
N i c h i b o C o . . L t d . b c g r n p r o d u c i n gt l r c f i r s t p o l y v i n y l u l c o t r o l
Cirr seut covers; luggage;filtcr fabric; handbags; r o r c s u n d c r u t c t r a d c n f l n t c s. l ( u r a l o n ' n t l . l r 4 c r v l o nr c' s D c c t i v c l y .
fcnder cloths; drop cloths; ropc; car and public vchicle trp- 'l'ltc
o u t p u t o l p o l y v i l t y l a l c o l r o ll j b r c l r n si r r c r t a s c tLl : r p i t l l vi n
holstery;outdoor ftrrniiure tapc and broad [abric; insectscreen- .
J r p a r ) . I ' i l ) r c i s a l s o p L o d u c c riln o t l l c r c o u n t r i c su f l l t c l i l r i i ; r s t
ing; beach umbrellas; doll hair; mannikin wigs; fishing lurcs;
t r ) ( |c t s c \ v l t e I c .
scouring pads; vacuum cleaner hose covering; grille fabrics;
shade cloth.
492
493
"n I I t t t F F n F,F:f',F h_}-t} '}:-r;-
I I A N D I ] O OK O F T E X T I L E F I I ] R E S B : S Y N ' n cl T tc r t D R E S
usc the lcrm vinyon tor polyvinyl chloritlc typc fibrcs,
lhcrc is
o a n g c r o I c o n l U s r o ub c l w c c nt h c t w o c l o s c l y - s i n t i l a r
l c f l r r s ,a n t l
tlrc name yr'rralhas conrc into usc for dcscribiirgpolyviuyl
llcohol
T Y P E SO F P O L Y V I N Y L A L C O H O L F I B R E fibres. ifhis is rhe lcrm adoprccloflicially Uv if,"'U.S1
f..J"i^i
r ril(lc L omn)lsslon.
Polyvinyl alcohol llbrcs arc commonly insolubilizcd altcr spin-
ning by heat treatmentand lreatmcnt with formaldelrydc,and this Fult:ral Trade Connission Dcfinitiotr
type of fibrc represcntsthe bulk of the output. It is manufacturcd
as continuous filament yarns, staple and tow. Staple is available flre gcncric tcrnr-r'irrrrlrvas arJoptcdby thc U,S. Fcdcrnl .frrdc
in sizesand denierssuitablefor processingon the col.ton,woollen Lonlmrssron tor librcs of thc polyvinyl alcohol typc, thc ollicial
and worsted systems.Tow is processedon the usual types of definition being as follows:
tow-to-top systems. Vinal. A manuftcturcd fibrc in which thc fitrrc-fornrirrc
sub-
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres are also acetalized with ald€hydes slance is any long-chainsynthctic polynlcr conrDoscrl
of li tcasr
other than formaldehyde,providing llbres of modified character- )u c c n t b y w c i g h t o [ v i n y l r l c o h o l u n i t s ( _ C H . , C H . O tl _
.per )
istics. Benzaldehydeis used, for exanrple, to produce libres of a n d t n w h r c h t h c t o t a l o l t h c v i n y l a l c o h o lu n i l s i r r r d, , u y
nn" oi
high resiliencewhich are used in uniforms, ladics'and children's nrore of the various acetill units is at lcast g5 pcr c"nf t,y ,u"igi
i
clothing. of thc nbrc.
lvatcr.SolulrlcFibre
Polyvinyl alcohol fibre is produced without the heat and aldehyde PRODUCTION
trcatmenls which bring about water-insolubility. These water.
Vinyl alcohol js an unstablc nralcriat, ancl polyvinyl
soluble fibrcs are used for special purposes, such as surgical alcohol is
-accfttc.
ntade indirectly by thc hydrolysis of polyviriyl
thrcads. lvlixed with other fibres or yarns, soluble polyvinyl al-
coho[ fibrcs scrve as scafloldingfibres and yarns; when the fabric
has been made, the polyvinyl alcohol fibres arc washed out with Mononlcr Syn(hcsis
hot water.
Vi yl Acctote
Vinyl acetaleis rnadc by the rcaction o[ rcclylcnc (or
cthylcnc)
with acctic acid in tbe prcscnccof a cntalyst:
/
CH*-CH j. CH.,COOH -> CH, =CI.tOCOCI{.
Acetylcne AceticAcid Vinyl Acctltc
I'olynrcrizntion;S:rponitictli r
Thc vinyl acctate is dissolvcdin nrcthanol, and is polynrcrizcd
with the help.of a catalyst(c.g. pcroxidc or. nro_.o,,lpJ,u,rJi,
ioii,i
NOMENCLATUI{E I n g p o l y v n y l a c c t i t c ( l ) . C r u s t i c s o d a i s a r l d c dl o l l t c n r c t h r n o l
solution,.brjng.inga-boutsaponificationof thc polyvinyl acctlic
I n J a p a n , p o l y v i n y l a l c o h o l fibrcs rrc known by thc gcncnc to.polyvinyl alcohol (2). This is prccipitarc<ttron'ttrc incrhririiil
nanrc virrylor, ln thc U.S.A., U . K . , a n d o l h c r c o u n t r i c sw h i c h solution, prcsscdand dricd.
414 495
II,{ N DI] OOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNT}IETIC FIBRES
-cHz - cH - -cHr- c H-
I
{cx.-cr-} oH (t) I
OH o
OH
POLYVINYL ALCOHOT - c H r - c HI - - cH,- cH -I
Productionof polyvinyl alcohol
Spinning
*cH, -cH -cHr-CH - _cHr_cH_ct,t,_cll
Wa Spittniug . _.. - (2)
-ri Lnru+ | |
OH OH o _
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres are comntonly produced by wet spinning. c l t r_ o
The polymcr is dissolvcdin walcr to fornr a l4-16 Dcr cent solu-
tion, which is filtcred and pumpcd through spinncicts.The jcts
cnrergeinto an aqueouscoagulating bath containing sodium sul-
- cHr-cH - - c H r - c H-
phate solution.
OH o
Dry lMelt Spinning + cx"o __ll']-_r_ I
OH !11'
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres nray also be spun by a proccss whicl.r
combincs fcaturcs of dry and mclt spinning. Thc polyrhcr is dis-
-cH,-lrr- ?
- cll2 - ct.t-
solved in water undcr pressureand made into a highly concen- Insolubilizationof polyvinyl Alcohol
tratcd solution (30-50 per cenl). The hot nrolten mass is forced
through spiunerets,and the jcts cmerge into a hot air streanr
rvhich evaporatcsthc solvent to lcave solid 0laments of polyvinyl Aldehydcs olhcr than fornraldchydenray bc uscd
alcohol. These are hot drawn. in lhc accllli-
zation. Dcnzaldehyde,for cxnnrplc, proviclcs "
nb; oi-l;i;i,
resttlcnce;atdchydcsconlaining active groupings
Insolubilization such as antiio
groups may bc uscd to confcr spccial<tyc
ailiniiy ou rfrc nirc."-
Polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs produccd by thc rcgular wet spinning
process are heat treated, e.g. at about 240'C. This produces a
nrore compact Iibre in which hydrogen bonding bctwecn the PROCESSING
hydroxyl groups of polymer moleculesis grcatly intcnsilied.This
is connrntcd by the incrcascin spccificgravity which takcs placc, I)csizirrg
and by X-ray cxamination of lhe heat trcated librc. 'fltc.rrsua.l
tcchniqrrcsarc usctl, <.lcpcndirrg oD lltc nallrrc of fllc
flcnl trcittnlcnl is followcd by acetalization,usrrallyrvith fornt- s r z cu r a t l l i l s b c c u s c d .p o l y v i n y la l c o h o la r r t lo t h c r
wltcr-solublc
496
497
_-I:
f, h h h - - ts - F;f, h h fr h h h hl
I I A N D I } O OK O F T I X T I L E F I B R E S
SYNTIIETIC TI DRES
Scouring
A l k a l i n es_c o ur i n g t r c a t n c n l ss,u c ha s k i c r b o i l i u gt,c n dt o s h r i r r k
-t
polyvinyl alcohol goods,and cruse y"tto*iug.-.t-t,"y
ar" .ri
avor'ded.
A soaprinsingwith ncutrll dctcrgcntis prcfcrrcd,c.g. for
30
minulcsat 80-90'C.,usinga 0.5pcr ccntsolution.
C A L C I U MC A R B I D E
C aC ? IllcrcLing
l)lcaching by hydrogcn pcroxidc, sulphur rlioxidc antl
siurilur.
agentsis nol ellcctivc, Chlorinc blcaclicsarc prcfcrrccl.
Flypochlorite ancl chloritc blcachcsarc uscd'cllcctivciy
for rhc
bleachingof polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs.
VINYL ACETATE Optical blcachingagcnts nray bc uscrl aftcr tlrc norrnll blclrch.
Dycing
P o l y v i n y l a l c o l r o l f i b r c s h a v c a g o o d n t l i n i t y f o r ( l y c s t r r. s ;
causlrc sooA tlrc
| l u r e s r c s e t ) t b l cc o t t o n n d o t h c r c c l l u l o s i c l i b r c s
NaOH
.l.hc in llirvinr
hydroxyl grorrpsalong tlrc nrolccule. follorviu;1tvr.,",ui.tu.,]
sltrll nray bc uscd: dirccl, acid, basic,nrctul conrplc,'x, ii,liif,"r, "i,r.
S O D I U MA C E T A T E
Iraphthol,acetale.
Basic DyestulJs
B l s i c d y c s l u f f sa r c g c n c r a l l yp o o r i l I i g h t f a s l n c s sw l r c n
trsctl
o n p o t y v r n y la l c o l r o l[ i b r c s . ' f h c f a s t n c s si s i r r r p r o v c tbl y
t r s co f
a n o r d a n t , . b u t l h c s ed y c s a r c n o l r c c o n l n l c n d c d whcrc srrnligltt
I'oll,vitryl Alcohol (V inal\ Fibrc Flow Clnrt resistantis inlportant.
498 499
T I N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
I}: SYNTIIEl'ICrt BRES
14etal Contplex DyestflJs Acct;ltcdycs rnay bc uscdfor aflcr_dycing thc polyvinylnlcohol
l:2 typc mctal complexdycstuffsare uscdvery eficctivelyfor fi brc.
dycingpolyvinylalcoholfibrcs; they are distinguishcd
by excel- Direct and acid dycstuflsarc uscdnrainlyfor light shadcs.
lcnt light fastness.
I'rinti|lg
Sulphur DyestuAs R e s i np i g r n e npt r i n l i n gi s u s c dc l l c c t i v c l w
y i t h p o l y v i n yal l c o h o l
Somcsulphurcoloursand sulphurvat colourshavegooddyeing goods.Aftcr bcing prinrcd and tJricd,rirc frrlrr.ic
i. t,..,-rr""il.i
a(finitylor polyvinylalcoholfibrcs.Thc coloursarc not brilliant. to completcpolynrcrization of thc rcsinand sct thc pig";;;i;i;;;;
in (hc fibre.
Yat DycsrulJs prinrcdin.rhis way arc fast to srrrrlighr arrd rvashing
- -|"-b]i::
ano coloursarc bflcbt.
Theseare the nrostellectivedyesfor usewith polyvinylalcohol,
providinga rangeof bright coloursof excelleutfastness.A wide
rangeoI shadesis available. Singcing
Polyvinyl alcohol fibrc docs not burn rcatlily, ;rnd it r.s
not c:rsilv
Naphthol Dycstuts singcd cllcctjvcly. 1'hc lurnps oI burncd tibrc tcntl
to sri"i ru ii,l
Naphthol dyes are usedfor dycing polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs, surlace of thc fabric.
providinga rangeof bright,fast colours. If polyvinyl alcohol sizc has bccn uscclon thc flbric,
. this nrust
bc rernovcd by dcsizing
bcforclhc.t"rt,ir.l;;;;ii. ifir,i,'ri',,i,i
Acctate DyestulJs may.irrsolu
bilizcrhcpolyvi0ytirlcohot sizc,rrr:rkirrg
ll?,t_".'_11!
]l*t
[ s r c m o v a lm o r c d i m c u l t .
Acetatedyestuflsare suitablegencrallyfor the productionof
l i g h ts h a d c s .
STITUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
(l:\ Polyvinyl Alcolol lCellulosic Fibrc Blends
Irinc Structurcand Appclrance
Sulphur arrl Sulphur Vat DyestulJs Fibres are smooth-surfaccd. Thcy arc whitc, wirh a silkJikc lustrc.
Aftcr-dyeingwith ntetal complcx dyes may be necessary
to l nc I on js gcncrrlly U_shapcd,Iikc a fllltc|cd tubc.
.cross-sect
_,
obtain good results. nere ts a pronounccd skin laycr, which is nlorc crystallinc
,r tlltn
lre corc. Mean vlluc o[ crystallinity is about 50 pcr
ccnt.
Vat DyestulJs 'l'cnacity
After-dycingwith ntetal complexdycs nray be necessary Staple IIigh_.j'cnocity lVnu_Solublc
to
obtain good results. cN/tex Fikutlent Filonrcnt
(g/tlel)
Naplthol Dyestu0s Dry 3 3. 5_ 54 . . 1 5 3 . 0 _ 7 5 . t 2 6 . 5 _ _ - t 5 . 3
Thesedyes are used preferablywhen blendscontain a high
p r o p o r t i o no [ c o t t o n . Wet -(J.q*(,2) (6.0-8.s) (1.0_4.0)
28.3_44.t 44.1*67.)
. cent) (1.2_5.0) (5.0_7.6)
(c) Polyvinyl / lcohollllrool Blends Elorrgalion (pcr
Dry l1-26 I .22
Dircct acid,acid nrordantand mordantdyestulTs
nray be used. ll-20
Wct t4-2'1 l0-26
500 501
-l'hc
following propcrtics rcfcr to thc rcgular (watcr,insolublc)
polyvinyt alcohol fibre. Eltect of SuoliSht
Slightly a{Iccted after 100 days cxposurc, brrt loscs strcngth
Thcrntal Propcrlics more prolonged exposure.Tlre colour rcrnains good.
Polyvinyl alcohol fibrc undcrgocsa shrinkagc of l0 pcr c c r r ta t
220-230'C. At 220"C. it bcgius to turn yellow, and it s h r i n k s Chcnlicll Propcrtics
and softensat 230-250'C.
In boiling water (30 nrinutes immcrsion) shrinkagc is 0.2 Acitls
per ccnt. Polyvinyl alcohol fibre has a good rcsislancc to aci<.lsundcr
nornlal conditions.Hot or conccntratednrincral ircidsclusc swcll-
Flannrability ing aud shrinkage.
l'olyvinyl alcohol fibrc docs not burn readily.
Alkalis
llllccl of A8c
R c s i s t a n cies g c n c r a l l yg o o d . S t r o n g a l k a l i sc a u s cy c l l o w i n g ,b u t
Nonc tcnacity ls not allectcd.
502
503
rl
, 1
ri
I IIANDAOOK OIi TEXTILB FIDRES D : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R E S
Gerrcrol lhc high proportion of hydroxyl groups whiclr rcnrain evcn irr
Resistanccis gcnerally good. the acetalizedfibre. Dcspitc lhis, thc mcchanical propcrtics arc
not unduly allected by watcr.
Elloct of OrganicSolyenls 1'he ability to absorb ntoisturc contributcs to thc conrlort o[
Incrt to anirnal, vegetableand mineral oils, and to most common garmenls worn Dexl to thc skin.
organic solvents.Swelled or dissolved by pbenol, cresol, formic
acid and hot pyridine. Thernnl Properties
'fhe
shrinkagc/soflcning tcnlpcraturc rangc, bcginning at aborrt
Insccts 22W23Q'C.,is a little on thc low sidc for sornc tcxtilc rpplicr-
Completely resistant tions, but is adequatefor most purposcs.
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres do not hcat-sctas cllcctivcly as nylon,
I\licro.organisnls polycster and othcr thernroplusliclibrcs.
Fabrics made lrom polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs rvill burn only with
Conlplctely rcsistant
difiiculty, much depending,as always, on othcr factors such us
Elcctriqtl I'ropcrlics finishcsused,cloth construction,ctc.
Surface resistivity (nrcasuredon yarns) l.3x 10tl ohrns/cm. Dnviro rmrcnIal Condi ti ons
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres are resistantto insccl.s,rrricro-orgrnisnrs
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL FIBRES IN USE and othcr influcnccs cncountcred in outrloor appliclliorrs.
-t '
l-L ' \
r i r i :' L, , 1 L - . - t - l
I F'lt t l": I - - - - - [l - - li r . r n r;
ri
ll HANDAOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: SYNTIIDTIC FIARES
I rrdustrial A pplicotions
The durability, chemical resistance,nater resistance,strengthand
resistanceto outdoor exposure have enabled polyvinyl alcohol
fibres to establishmany important industrial end-uses.They are
nradc into fishing nets, ropcs, hoscs, tarpaulins,convcyor bclls,
tyrc cords, Iilter cloths, tents and sacks for grain storage.
506
507
I I A N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
A: S Y N ' I ' I I I , , I ' t CF I N R E S
F F F F F I :
j#i[i:",,iii,:;*.'":,il;ixi,T,,l"l
i':._,*i*,t
"Jit.,;l,
JJil,
I
lt;'fiI;::i"lii:, [:i *lJ;,ff itflItff:
t t u o r o c t h y l c n hc a
. d p o l y n r c r i z c df,o r r r r i r r gp o l y t c t r a l l " " ,
;;;,;i;;,;
l n c n c w p o t y n l c rl ) i l d u l l u s u i l a
l n d . p o t c n t i r l l yu s c f r r l
and cllorts were nradc to devel, ; rr.o|crlics,
rr4
any dirncurriei*;;; ; ; ;,'.-,"",i;: ;:":.:;X, lfli,,,"Lj'/'"',1',1;
,fiidiii"iilf
[:';:iffi ",,"jt;
]Jl:li,J;T:,.T;lt;;;l;f
undcr the trade name .'I'ellon'.
,"'T:1,::;i;,,:ifl:ll,ll,,:".'i""
il,;:,l,y
:1,1i';
lilfJH,;i,,"T;
anJn;;;r;; h"1
ll,i':ll,1l1,'l.ffjll'r:T,""";:""f'i"ro'ii" ;;'
arnorrnal
t"mp"ratur..,"
an<rl;;fill#r:"[Tl j:',:'i:r::1ill::
pro'ti"' iffi;;;;:
;,|ff ;1xifi rLii"gi'i'
;L!:'"i"ii1,l'$':'3:
",,;,,1T:l'.":l;",.:i,u",'li"",,lllllll
:dixii:"yll''""Yfl
conrinucd
J]ii'ii',,y.i.h"!::';::t';*,,,:,:ll
[ii,-!;p*l't,ll,ili*,
lo scrycnsa spccirt_-pur.posc
pi;i;;;;;
;fiiiii:-,
In 1954, ''fcflon, fibrc was in
.,""'r,,*"lj",,,",.".';:lil"hi]l
:;mffll;li#il"'ffi UT":r;:
508 509
; r l T - 1 r - 1 r l r l r l r l f l I
'J
L Ff1" fl " ti t F t F E n f r F F H f r - F - l - ] : ]
I li lj
Tl ing
A dorrblc weavcl's knol is rccornrDcndedfor tyiog togetl]er two
continuous filamcnt yarfls of l'.'f.F.E. STRUCTURE AND PROPI]IITIES
Spinnirg Staplc ffibrc
Firre Struclurcnnd Appcnrance
The slick, waxy fcel oI P.T.F.E. conlinuous-[ilanent yarn is
trndesirrblc in some applications,such as protective garments.
Thc carbon atonrs forming thc backbonc of thc p.-f.F.E.
ll thcse cases,spun yar[ made from P.T.F.E. fibre nray be used.
molecule are complctcly surrounded by fluorinc alonrs, wlriclr
Thc proccssingof a low friction fibre such as P.T.F.E. staple
act as a barricr that protccts the carbon chnin. p.'l'.F.8. fibrcs
crcatcsspccialdifficultics.Card rvebsand slivcr tcnd to fall apart
are extremely stablc to heat and chemicals.
rundcrtheir own rveight.Tlrc low cohesion of thc lllamcnls can
The molcculcs of P.T.F.E. arc elcctrically nculral, ancl lhcrc
bc overcome lo sonredcgree by blending in 3 per ccnt of rayon
are no strong polar forccs binding thc nrolcculcstogcthcr as iu
staplc. Porvdering with rosin is also efiective, a|ld lhe addition
the casc of polyamidc, polycstcr, cellulosic and othcr fibrc
of snrallqualtilics of asbestosmay help with carcliugand spinning.
molecules,Tlre molccules of P.-f.F.E. havc an cxlrcmcly rcgrrlar
Dircct Spi0nirg structure,however, and this makcs possiblca vcry closc packing
of the chains. P.T.F.E. librcs havc n high dcgrcc of crystalliniry-,
Spun yarns of I'.'l'.F.E. fibrc arc ntadc satisfactorily by direct and thc rclntivcly wcnk but vcry nunlcrous v;rn dcr. lVnlis
low-twisl
spinning.1'hc filaments in a hcavy contiruor.rs-lilalncnt, forces combins lo crcnlc il strbsllnlial inlcrnrolccular altrncliorr
tow arc brokcn in random fashion, and thc nbrcs are twisted into withir the crystallitcs.
a spun s{aplc yarn. Thc troublcsonre carding slep is thus 'fhc
nrolcculcs of I'.'f,F.E. arc clsily dcforructl by gross
e l i m i n a l e de n t i r c l v . nrcchnnicalforccs.and lhc lrrrorphorrszoncs of thc fibrc irc soft.
5t2
5t3
'L '
]
f'l
f_F'Jr.-FJJ'1'1 f''it -
F"i - n r n r r r n
r l
I
I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILD FI BRES N : S Y N T I T E T IFCI B R E S
By contrast, thc closc packing o[ thc largc fluorine atoms rouncl SpccificGravity
lhc c rbon chairr ntakc thc nolccules rclativcly inrmobile to
Ll.
forccs o[ the order that producc Brownian movement.The linal
(ransfornration, thcrefore, fronr an interlaced fibrous structure
to a frecly-moving nrollcn nrassdoes not occur unlil quite high [,Iccl of Moisaure
levcls of thcrnral cnergy are reachccl. P.T.F.E. clocs not :rbsorb trroisturc. Most non-wcttrblc of irll
P.f.[:.E. fibre is thus solt and vcry llcxible, and yet has a known hbres.
high nrelting point. Thc close packing oI 0uorine atorns around
{he carbon and thc close fi[ing of molcculcs jn thc crystallites 'l
hcrrnrl Propcrlics
are also rcsponsiblclor thc high dcnsity of the fibre.
Filanrents are smooth surfaccd and of rorrnd cross-scctiorr. P.T.F.E.has the bcst thernralstabilily ot thc tough, flcxiblc fibrcs.
-l'hcy Sonrc inorganic fibrcs, sLrch as glass or xsbcslos, ltxvc bcttcr
are lan to brolvn il colour, but can bc bleachedwhite in
thcrmal stabilily, but are not as tough or chcntical-rcsislirntirs
slrong oxidizing mincral acids.
P.T.F.E.
'fctritcily On being heated,P.T.F.E. shrinks to son)c cxtcnl. l?abricsnray
b c p r e - s h r u n kb y a b l i e f h c a t - t r e a l m c nat t a t c n l p c r a l u r c : r b o v c
Monofilanrctt
llre proposcd servicc tcntpcrature,
cN/tex(g/cten) P.'l',F.E.fibre losesils nbrc propcrticsan(l rcvct.tsto its nlirssivc
std.: 10.6-12.4 (1.2-r.4) 4.4(0.s) form at 327"C. It retains a use{ul strcnglh ult to 205.C., irnd
wcf: 10.6-t2.4(1.2-t.4) 4.4(0.5) for ccrtain ilppliciltions can scrvc at tcnrpcr;tlrtrcs;rs high lrs
Std.Loop: 9.7-11.5(1.1-1.3) 288'C. At 290'C., dccontpositionproducts ilrc lost irt th; rrtc
s r d .K n o t : 9. 7- 1 . 5( l . l - 1. 3 ) o f 0 . 0 0 0 2p c r c c n t p e r h o u r ; a t 4 3 0 " C . , a t t h c r a t c o f 1 . 5 p c r
t"tttt'"stt"tt*tltkg/.ult ccnt per lrour.
2,20s-2,62s 980 P.T.F.E. retainsa good sct and abrasionrcsislunccwlrcn ltca(cd,
(lb/in/) (31,500-37,s00) ( 14,000) and can be r)scdelfectivelyfor many applications:rt 20J.27.5.O.
Elongalion
(per cent)Std.: l5-32 52 Usclul Environmantal 7'cntpctature.,-73.C. lo 2?5"C.
Wet: | 5-37 52
Initial Modulus Zero Strcngth Temperat re. 3lO"C,
1 2 3 . 6c N i t e x ( 1 4 . 0g / d c n )
C cl l crttpcruturc.32'1'C,
lYork of ltupturc
0 . 1 2 g . c m /. d e n . c m . Spccific I I car. 0.25 Il.T.U./lb./ " F.
Aycragc Touglulcss
Eflcct of SuDligh(
0.12-0.15. Negligiblc.
514
515
I I A N D T ] O OOKF T B X T I L EF I B R E S SYNTII ETtC FIDN[,S
ChcnricnlI'ropcrtics
Acitls
-R#$r
P.'f.l:.E.-fibrcis conrplctclyincrt, lor exanrplcto boiling sulphuric
acid, lo luming nitric acid or to aqua regia.
ffi#*u
Alkalis
P.T.F.E. is conrplctcly incrt, cvcn to boiling stturaled sodiunr
h y dr o x i d c .
z
Cenersl
Inscets
P.T.F.E.FIBRES IN USE
Not attackcd.
P.T.F.E._ fibrcs are uniquc in that they conrbincthc rcsistancc
Micro-orgaoisms to chemicals, solventsand elcvatcdtcnipcratr,r"* nr.o"iot".i*iif.,
Not attacked. inorganicnbres,with the flcxibilityand torrghncss ftratarc iypici,i
of many organicfibrcs.
ElectricalProperlics Front the oulsct,P.-l'.F.8.librcs havc bccn cxtrcnrclycostly,
andfor this_rcasorr ulonclhcy coulclrrotbc corrsidcrcd f.; g";;;,ii
Exccllent insLrlator. t c x t i l cu s c .I n . a d d i t i o nt,l l c y l l a v cn n u n p l c t s a ngt ,r c a s yi i r n d l c ,
oo rnoistureabsorption,high dcnsityand low nroilulus;cvcn ii
Arltcsivcncss costwas not an importantfactor,thcy would bc of littlc intcrcst
Fcw nraterialswill stick to P.T.F.E. for apparclapplications.
Thc outlct for P.'I.F.E.fibrcs must obviouslylic in cncl-uscs
Cocllicicnaof Iiilrrc-to-Filrre Friction where performanceis of greatcrsignilicanccihan initirl
high
About 0.2 - lowest of all known fibres.
cosl, and such cnd-uscsh vc crcalcd a rclalivcly snra lrr-ii
importantnrarkctfor p.T.F.E.fibrcs.
516
5t7
l ' l ' l | l t l r l t l r
||ANDD00K OF l EXl ll-E FIaRES B : S Y N ' r T E ' I ' IC F I D R E S
'l'o,\icit
y I a u n d r yp. a d s ,l a u n c h yr o l l c o v c r s ,s p c c i a lc o n v c y o r
bcltinns.
Although l,.T.F.E. itsclt is not poisolous in ally way, it givcs crcclncat tapcs and wral)s for corrosivc scrviccs,
nrolccti-vc
olf toxic gascswhen heated above 204'C. The releaseo[ thesc crothlng,corrosion-rcsistant cordagc,anti-stick bandigcs,and
gascs incre3scsas thc temperature rises. Care should be taken, hoseand V-beltcuringtapes.
therelore, when P.T.F.E. is being used to ensure that snrall
portions of P.T.F.E. libre do not contaminate tobacco. A piece
Bearirtgs
of P.T.F.E. lint picked up by a cigarettecould evolve poisonous
vapours which might causediscomfort if inhaled.Srnokingshould The Iow coefllcient of frictionand high load bcaringcharaclcris_
bc prohibited whenevcrP.T.F.E. fibre is being processed. tics of this fibrc havc rcsul(cdin its wiclc acccptiric"
'8";;j;;'.
i"-i;;;
duty bearingswhere low rclativespccus"r. i,;;;i;;
rnay be fabricatedfrom wovcn fatrricsor conrpositc
Dnd.Uscs ,;"1;;;;j;
containingP.T.F.E.fibre flock.
Tltc rpplications fo; P.'l'.t:.E.fibres are alnrostentircly in the lield
of iudustrial specialties,where there arc lnany small-volumeuses
for a fibre that combinestoughnesswith unprecedented corrosion
rcsistance. FLUORINdfED ETHYLENE.PROPYLENECOPOI-YMEI{
FIBRES
Draidcd I'ocking
l' .T.F.E. braids arc uscd with grclt succcssin the packing o[ Fibrcsspun fronr fluorinatcdethylenc_propylcnc
copolynrcr:
chemical pump shafts, whcre the material nrust withstatd highly
corrosive materials. Irr a pump handling 102 pcr cent funting
nitric acid, for examplc, a braidcd packing o[ P.'I'.F.E.Iibrc was
I
still in good condition afler T rnonths,whereasthe best previous
packing lasted 2-3 weeks. The packing in a centrifugal pump t l t l
handling molten urea nrixture lastcd 34 days, whereas lhe best c-c
previous packing lasted 2 to 5 days. t l I I
The low coelTicientof friction of P.T.F.E. fibre contributes to
its successin this application. Best rcsults were obtained by
F . E . P .R E S I N
inlpregnating the braid with P.T.F.E. dispersion.
Filtratiotr Fabrics
The high resistanceto corrosion of P.T.F.E. Iabrics enablesthern INTRODUCTION
to serye as filtration fabrics for spccial industrial applications.
The introducrjon of p.T.F.E. plasticsand fibrcs has bccn
P.T.F.E. is used successfullyfor.the filtration of hot, corrosivc followcd
oy the developmcnl.of many resins bascd uporr copolynrcrs
liquids and gaseso[ nrany types. o[
tctrafluoroethylcne.Onc oI the most irnporlrnt of tlicsc'is
; c;-
p o l y m c r o f l c t r a . 0 u o r o c t h y l c nacn d h c x a l l u o r o p r o p y i . , , " ,
Gaskels, clc- * f , i . fi i
xnown as ltuorinatcd ethylcnc propylcnc copolyrrrcr,
-l'he or I:,lf.p,
chenricalresistancc,softnessand toughnessof P.-f.F,E. fiblc l lures spun Irorn F.E.p. arc vcry similar to l',1..F.E.
fibrcs-
rre charictcl'isticswhich scrvc it wcll in thc production o[ gaskcts cxccpLlhat thc F.E.p. fibrcs are thcrmoplastic,."ltiug
ot nlroui
for pipe flangcs handling corrosive liquids. Othcr uses include 290"C.
518 519
'TEXTILE
IIANDI}OOK OF IIII}ITES
PITODUC'TION
I t t i , t i a lM
, odulks t0,500-38,500kg/c r2 (150,000_550,000
F.E.P. r'csinsare prcducccl by the copolyrnerizationoI tetra- l D / nr . )
f i u o r o e t h y l e aud
n e hexallu oropropylene:
I,lssticProperticsljWo recover!up to l(y/oextension
RelativeStiflrcsst76.6-397.3 cN/tcx (20_45 g/dcrr)
ti I l-'t ,
l i : ifl
-[r
LF
TETRAFLUORO.
FI
E TH Y L EN E
I +y I
l ' -c :fc-l -' >i ll- c - cl -' +- cf - ' i / i
l
L F
r
IIEXAFLUORO-
PROPYLENE
tF I l l
L F
r rF l
\F
F,E.P. RESIN
iIl
l
RclativeTouglnrcss
0.3-0.6 (est)
&;efiicient of Friction 0.1
Resistanceto AbrasiortVcry good
RelractivcIndcx | .42
Specilic Gravity | .76
PROPt:I{'fIES
liflcct of Moisturc Surl'accrcsists\vcttirrgarrtltlocs not rctain
water. Adsorption0_042o Shrinkagcin rvaierat l00oC. :rl.tcrid
Sinrilarto P.'f.F.8.,but thc Iibres are thermoplaslic,meltiug
a b o u t2 9 0 ' C . ltinutes, 4-2A,/o
Tlrcrnul Propcrties
M e l t i n gp o i n t : l ? 0 o C
U s r l ) l et c r n p c r i r t r r raen e c-: 6 2 0 t o l 5 0 o C .
L o s so f t e r r s i lsct r c n g t h i t l O O o C . : 2 g , / o
POLWINYL I?LUORIDEFIBRES L i f ea t l 5 0 o C . :u r l i i n i t e c l
F l a r r : n r a b i l ist ye:l f - e x t igl u i s l r -i nagl ( l n o r r - t l r i p p i r r g
S p e c i f ih c e a r :0 . 3 3c a l / c l o C .
'l
Fibres spun fronr polyurcrsor copolymcrsof vinyl fluoricle: fr c r r l r fc o n d u c t i v i :t y1 . 9 x I 0 - 4 c a l / s c c / c l r r 2 / u C / c r l
521
' [ u . . l l
INNF.E F,FTFT}
D: SYNTIIETIC FI OITES
Dissipa
i ot n f a c t o r : 0.049 0.018 0.t7 P O L Y V I N Y L I D E N ED I N I I ' I T I L EI : I I } R E S
Dielectricstrength
Fibresspunlrom polymersor copotymcrs
( v o l t Y m i l )3 . 1 8m m 260 ot vinylidcnedinitrile:
0.2 mm 1280
CN CN CN
V o l u m er e s i s t i v i t y
(ohrn.cn.) 2 x l}ra C:r."=c/ -, -cn,,_J_cu-_J_
\ r l
POLWINYL FLUORIDEFII]RESIN USE CN CN CN
Monofilamenthas been woven into filter cloths and installed Vinylidene
Dinitrilc p o l y v i n y l i d e nDci n i r r . i t c
in a number of pulp mills to take advantage of the excellent
resistance to chlorineand chlorinedioxi(le.Filter clothsareused INTRODUCTION
in other corrosiveenvironmentsat temperatures rangingfrom
- 6 2 0 t o l 5 0 o C . O t h e r a p p l i c a t i o nisn c l u c l em i s t e l i m i n a t o r s ,
s u r e i c aslu t u r eas n de l e c t r i c ablr a i d .
n #,,"i:{*r-
;1qiffi'.;itilf i:n[i*
fi}, ri
;,:
q;r#i;;i*ll'r*j:{l+ ixiti:
"ltlixr*:,;1",1"
'ft,it ?i'.I
a":1' 'st
*:;ilu*lrJffiH.;i+'ii"ffi [:"
fllq:r"ffi itT
[fftrh:r#H{t1,,"i:
NOMENCLATURE
ff,:"lX',],',ifl
:
hln:iUl,:i:i
#t'.1"i,,,1'iilii,"'i,i:;""*,
IrlnlS,*,*i,r,{#
:"-,#*fttrii#i[txffi
Ik::"iT:lt"T#,,Hltil:::
i*:::.'lil,ttiit,{:,fil;
522 523
IIAND BOOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
r r : s Y N T E T tc I : l l t l t u s
PRODUCTION (b) Acetic anhydrirlcancl hyrJrogcn
. cyrnidc arc rc:rclc(lto lornl
'l)arvan'is a l.-acctoxy-1,'l -dicyanoc ianc
copolynrcrof vinylidcnedinitrileand vinyl acetate pvtolvsis oI rcclicacidbv
madeby polyrnerization of a mixturcof thc two monomers.
results
in vinytidcnc
,',rillli"'l:it]"""'
Thc
polymcrhas the followingempiricalstructure: cH.co. CN
' I
I.I FI I] CN f + lJcN > cllj co coclt.
cl{! co t -
l l
-c--c-{-c- ACETICANHyDntDE H-YDROGEN
CN
t-^cEroxy-l,|-DICYANOET
l l CYANIDE ANE
H 0 t { c N
I
CO
CN
I I
CH - l + CHr COOH
Ir{onourcr Synlhesis CN
' t
LfftfnEEnnltFF_F
IT,\NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: S Y N T I I E - I ' IC F t A R E S
calcium hypocirloritc oi sodium chlorilc. Alkalinc hydrogen .X-ray dillraction pa crns show an almost cornDlclc abscncc
pcroxidc should not bc uscd. o[. crystallinity in ,Darvirn' fibrc, with u.ry ,figf,i
""i1""""'oi -'
oricntation.Thc fibrc thus has no l'irstor<Jertraniitio,.Ip;;;;;
Dyeing
'Darvarr' Fibrc Fornr
can be dyed with disiperse,cationic or azoic dyes. It 'Darvan'
has little or no allinity for direct, acid, metallized, chrome or has a IIat, curled cross-scction.
lt is slightly oll-whilc.
vat dyes.
Tcnacity
Pastelshadesare produced on'Darvan'by using dispersedye-
stu[Is or combinations of disperse and cationic dyes. Mediun) D r y : l ' 1 . 7c N / t e x ( 2 . 0 g / d c n )
and deep shades are obtained rvith disperse or calionic dves. l Y e t : 1 5 . 0c N / t c x ( I . 7 g / d e n )
Azoic dyes devcloped with p-oxynaphthoic acid are rrsed for
L : l a c kn
, a v y a n d s o m er e d s h a d e s . lensilc Slrcngth
i,ledium and deep shades require carrier or pressuredyeing. 2 , 1 0 0 g l c m 2 ( 3 0 , 0 0 0l b / i n 2 )
Vigorous afler-scouringis neededto renlove excessdyestu{Isand
carrier (if used). Elongation
Strong alkaline conditions,dry temperaturesabove 162"C.,and 30 per ccnt, wet or dry.
wct Lemperaturesabove 120"C. should be avoidcd.
Elaslic Recoycry
STRUCTURE ND PROPERTIES Fronr 3 pcr ccnl cxtcnsion: I00 pcr ccnt.
I : r o r r r5 p c r c c l l l c x t c n s i o l | : g 5 p c r c c t | t .
liirreSlructureand Appcaratrce Inilial Modulus
Molccular Slructure l'l 6.6-22Q.'1 cN/tex (20-25 g/dcn)
Vinylidenedinitrilewill copolymerize with many monomers, and Yicld Point
il tends to lorm alternatingcopolymcrsrather than random
copolynrers. S t r e s s : 6 . 6 c N / t e x ( 0 . 7 5g / d c n )
Thc structureof the copolymerwith vinyl acetate,
for example,is virtually the same no matter wbat proportions Strain : 2-3 per cent.
of the two monomersare used.The monomerunits ;lternate AYeragcSailltress
to form a polymercontainingthe two unitsin 50:50 molar ratio.
In practice,the polymeris made from a mixture of monomers 53.0 cN/tex (6 g/cten)
in this ratio.
Avcrnge Toughncsg
The alternationof monomersin the polymer structureof
'Darvan'is probably 0.3.
due to the strongelectron-attracting forces
of the two nitrile groupson a singlecarbon atom. Hydrogen
Spccific Gravity
bonding results in strong intermolecularattraction between
polymer chains.This resultsin high secondorder transition 1.2.
temperatures in vinylidenedinitrile copolymers.The transilion
lemperaturefor an equimolarcopolyrnerof vinylidenedinitrile ElTccaof Mois(ure
andvinylacctate i s I 7 l ' C . T h i s i s s o m el l 0 . C . h i t h e r t h a n f o r Regain: 2-3 pcr cent.
a comparlblecopolymcrof acrylonitrilcand vinyi acetate. After 3 nrinutes in watcr at 100.C., ,Darvan,
fabrics show a
526 527
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
N: SYNTITETIC FII]II,ES
s h ' i n k a g eo [ I p e r c e ' t ; : r f t c r 3 0 n r i n u t e sa [ I 2 0 " C . , t h e y s l r r i ' k
G encrnl
b c t w e c nI a n d 1 5 l t e r c c n t . 'Durvan'
has ii g.ood_ gcncral resista.cc to .ttlck rly chc'ric.rs
I'hernral Properlics l n c o m l n o l l u s e . ' I ' h ef i b r e s h o w sn o l o s s o f s t r e r r g t h
aitcr 4 hours
S o f t e n i n g / m e l t i n gp o i n t : 1 7 0 - 1 7 6 " C .D i m e n s i o n a l l y s t a b l e a t i n a l 0 p e r c e n t z i n c c h l o r i d c s o l u t i o na t 1 0 0 " C .
150"c.
Dllect of Organic Solvcnls
ElJect ol fliglr Tcmperature 'Darvan'
i s i n s o l u b l ei ' a c e t o ' c a n d i n r n c t r r y r c n c r r r o r i d c ,
A f t c r 8 d a y s ' d r y h c a t a t - l 6 5 ' c . , t e s ts. a . r p l e so f ' D a r v a ' ' r c t a i n c d .rcl
rl.ot a{Iected by the solvcnts usc<lgcncraliy jn
t h e i r o r i g i n a l t c n s i l c s t r e n g t h sa l n r o s t u n c h a n g c d .A l t e r 4 d a y s , if dry .l;;;,i;;;.
It dissolvcs
at roo' rempcrature
in triircthyr
iuiiunuiir..'-"""'"'
clry
_hcatat 180"C., the tensile strength was 70 per cent of tle
original. Insccls
Alkalis 15 20 25
'Darvan' (% euoNcarroul
has a good resistanceto dilute sodium hyctroxicleat low
tc,nperatures.After 168 hours in 0.5 per cent sodium hydroxide
at 44"C.,'Darvan' suffers a loss of strength arnounting to 6-30
per cent. The libre is degraded by heating for 4 hours in 5 per
c c n t s o d i u m h y d r o x i d ea t 7 5 ' C .
Polyvinylidene Dinitrilc (,Darvai)
528
529
_:t
lF,HFFr--l-_l-ltrF,Tt
TI NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: SYNTIIETIC FII]RES
PRODUCTTON
Monotrrcr SynlIesis
Styrcnc
Styrcle.h produccd by rcaction of bcnzcnc tnrJ cthylcrrc,
bolh
o r w n t c t rm a y b c o b t a i n c df r o r n c o a l o r p c l r o l c l I | n ,
l i l h y l c n c ,i n
addition, is madc fronr alcohol.
532
533
- l
I
f )
l
r t
l
r t
l
l a
t
' I -[ -] -l -l --1 --l --I --r "-r
JJJJTI
ll
T TF F F l}T-F}}}}}
i' , r N D B o o K o F T E X T I L EF r r J r ( r . : s I}: SYNTHETIC FI DRDS
Irtrusion
Monolilaments are made by extrusion of polystyrene through
heated dies, followed by severalstagcsof drawing-
IllolccularStructure
N,[onolilamentsare extruded usually from 100 per cent poly-
styrenc.The phenyl groups fornring the side chains on polystyrcne
molcculesarc so large and bulky as to interfete with the close-
packing of the long molecules.lt has long been assumed,there-
Iore, that polystyrene could not be expected to provide strong
fibres of the type spun from polymers capable of a high dcgree
ot crystallinity.
'fhe
deyelopmcntof polymerization techniquesin recen[ years,
horvcver, has made possible the production of isotactic poly-
styreoeswhich are highly crystalline and melt sharply at 218-
220"C. (cI. isotactic polypropylencs,page 567). 'l'hese polymcrs
could becorneof commercial importancc in thc nbre neld.
534 535
IIANDBOOK OI' TEXTILE FIBRES
A: SYNTIIETIC FIITRES
I l l t a t l . c x - c e l l ccnl ct c t r i c apl r o p c r t i c sa n ( l
4. POLYOLDTT|N
tr tllDs l l ) i g l rr c s i s l u n c tco r c i d s
a r t c la l k i r l i s .
- C H 3- C H , - C H , _ C H -_
l,",ii:irilff
:Lj,iJ,l:.",fl1t;"
:"TJir'ti,1T,:,
lf:
CH":611"-*
Ethylcnc polycthylcle i:!{i.;,J:: "'il',,1:
C l'{.,- Cl-l=CI-I"--: --Ct{.--CH-CFI"-CFI- Tj:iy":']"[llli!'i:eilr,],
liilliii:".r,',',',""i*1'
Propylene
t
cH:'
Polypropylene
l
cl{r ffii,",rdft.'.i:"ril:{*,lrt,}i*illliT;:;,l*
successfully.
I N T RO D U C T I O N
iinii1# r,r#l*lr#,#flri{il|t*.,;#{l::r#
ln conrnron rvith nrauy otltcr compounds conlaining a doublc
boncl olcfins are caprble of uudcrgoing adclition poll,merization.
;i",:i:ili:li"i:",,T,,:"i,:i;r"ry,"][;t".;l_il,t
Ethylcne and propylenc,for.cxanrplc,polynrcrizcis sliorvn nbovc.
Olefirs arc opcn-clrain unsatufatcd hydroctrbons, ancl poly-
olefin lnoleculeshavc Ihe backboneconposcd of a successionof
il;ffi
ir*h:iiTf
rijrii,;+l:liiTrr,t:,ffi:,
i:i,lj,:,i.'':;
carbon ittonls rvhich is tvrrical of all vinyl-type polymers.
'I'he ',,'1"'"t,lf ".'":,:"l'i'u'I:l"iiil:
table on pagc 538 lists somc ot the sinrpler olellns and
thcir polynter slruclurcs.-I'hcscare all alplra-olc{ins,io which thc
;;"":tln".h
cstabrished ;;,,1;;; *,ffilfi'3"ff
;"#;,lj"ifr,illTiiii{f
doublc bond lics betweenthe first and seconrlcarbon atonls..l-he ,fi{"lilji
i;;?::,:i
-r;."il];;l"ili
$i,|":''lii:'iT,?j.,'lll.f
iilll;ll'If;,'.?i',:,,,,;'#:,,:?,ll
rctnairring portion of thc ntonontcr rrrolccule forrrrs nenrlant
g r o u p sa t t t r c l t c dt o t h e s i d c o f t h c p o l y n r e rc h l i n . r,"#
l'olyisobutylcnc
fi .,.;l
Thc first olclin to bc polymerizcdsuccessfullywas isobutytene,as ,'|il.:I'i:.1,',,J;
Iong ago as 1873. f ,i::1,,'l'"",'n:iffi:;:"'J":lli:l;fij'1:]:,1,,'ff
ct{, l;ll;s:xt:ff
f [i':,1'"1ff
ftiTllt"*i:ln:;t'fui",,,;
al.t - c I'olylrropylcDc
CI{"
538 539
IIANDtrOOK OF'I'EXTILE TIBRES o : s Y N T l i . l . IC l : t t l l t D S
l o r v i r r r a | l tc o r r s i r l c t a t i ofno r g e n c r a l t c x t i l c u s c . p o l v o r o n v l c n c - ' r ' ) ' t , t . s( ) t ; p o L t , o t _ t i l . t N
t;ltlt{E
poly-l-rncthyl butenc, poly-4-rncthyl_I _pcntcnc,
n,i,i oofu_a_ -[wo
r l e t t r y l - I - h c x e nacl l n r c l t a b o v e 1 6 5 . C . ,a n d c o u l d b e r c g a i d e r i typcs o[ [ibrc, polyethyleucand polypropylcrrc,
as tlonrinllc
potentially uselul textile fibres. lhe polyolc{infibre lield.As alrca<Iy poiycthytcnc
inclicatcrj, fibrcs
llclow this leflrpcrilturcregion,tl)e range of applicatiou irrc.of rclativelyninor irnportancc,
.. becornes scrvingin spcciaiizctl
appti-
I l n l l t c d ,a n d l i b r c sc i t n b e u s e d o u l y w l l e r e t l l c y d o n o t cations;.polypropylcnc
h vc lo fibres,on thc othcr lrarrd,arc of rriiclr
withstand morc tban a modest rise in temperatJr" "b;;; greatcrsigtrilicance in the tcxtile field.
;;;;;i
P o l y c t h y l e n ci s t h e . o n l y c o m p a r a t i v c l yl o w _ n r e l t i npgo f v o i . n i i
i"
oc..uscdconlmcrclally iu Iibre_productiou,and its rarrge
of atrpli_
cuuon ls tcntpcrllure-reslricted in this wav
Practical expericlcc lras slrown ttrat all ibe polyolelins NOMENCLATUITE
. mcltiut
belorv polypropylene are inadequate fronr tbc poi"t
oi "i"*'o?
rcxurc tlbrc production. And sorne o[ those nlelting above poly_ Faderul 7'rada CorrrtrrissiorrDclinitiotr
propylene nray bc disregardeclbecauseof the 'fhe
higli "o.t of',"'* gcneric tern olcfin was cstablishctlby thc U.S. Fc<lcml.l-radc
nraterial; polynrers nade from them woultl tr" to Conrrnissionfor fibres bascdon polyolcfiirs.'l'hc ollicill rlefiniliorr
litl-fri""l
to bc colnpctitive, is as follows:
I'olypropylene itself is ccouornicallythe nrost attractive
oI thcsc Olefin. A nranuflcturcd tibrc in which thc librc-l.ornringsub-
higher-rnelting poiyolefins. Another polynrer wtricl, tras ionle
u r r d e r c o r r r r r e r c i l l s c r u t i n y i s p o l y 4 _ r r r e t h y l - l - p e n t e n ;i.i i ; stance is any long-chain synthctic polynlcr composcd of at lcast
raw. ntrterral, 4 -mcthyl- I _pc|ltcoc, is poteutially aviilable 85 pcr ccnt by weight of elhylcnc,propylcrrcor otlrcr olc(in units,
at rcas- exccpt amorphous (noncryslllline) polyolcfins qLralifying undci
o n x b l e c o s t , a n d i n a d c q u a t cq r r a n t i i y .
U n l o r t u r ) a [ e l y ,e a r l y s t u d i c s o n t h i s p o l y r l l e r s l l o w c d t h i ] t category( I ) o I I)aragraph(j) of lt.ule 7.
.
rls pllysrcal propcrties deteriorate more rapidly thaD
anticioatcd Notc
at clcvatcd tempcraturcs.Wbcre polypropylene-fi bres
retain sornc In the se:tion that follows, tlre two cor))rrrcrcilly-irvailublct1,pcs
50-60 per ccnt of lheir room lcnpcrrture streDgthat I00.C.,
for ot polyolclin fibrc arc discusscdindividually:
cxanrple,librcs spun from poly-4-mcthyl_ l1)c,rtJ,r" ."tuin ooty fO
per cent. l. polycthylenc Fibrcs.
scen)sunlikcly, thcrcfore, that any oI thcsc sirnplc 2. Polypropylcnc Fibrcs.
.lt olefins
wl oller a serjous challengc to lhc chcap and rcadilv
avrilablc
propylcnc as a ralv nlirtcrial for polyolclin nUr" pro,tu"fio,r.
noiv_ (t) PoLYETIiYLENEI:llllrts
propylenc rs ure ooe polyntcr in [his classrn wltich
thc outstarrcliric
advantagcsoI polyolefins as fibre-fonling ,n"t"riuf, ,r*V
t"'r""il Fibresspunfrom polymcrsor copolymcrs
ized.
'llrc
of cthylcnc:
. I a r g c - s c a lcco r r r r r r e r c iparl o c l u c t i o ror l p o l y o l c f i r rl . i b r e si n
CH,:Cll.,
u r c l o t e s c c a D llcu t r r r ew i l l p r o b a b l yb e c e n t r c ( o l n two polynrers.
un ttre one lrand, we have polyel.hylcnewhich is being'produced
l n e n o r m o u sq u a n t i t y a s a p l a s t i c :r n o n o f i l a r n e n tssp u ni r o m t h i s INTRODUCTION
polynler have bccorne established il nraly specializcd fiel<Js.
On the other hand, we have polypropylcne, wlticlr has becolne (a) lI i gh-t et npcru t urc Process
an .important rnan-madefibre rvith a wide range of textile appli- 'fhc
p o l y n r c r i z a t i o no f c t h y l c n c w u s l r c h i c v c crl l r r r . i n ct l r c
canolls. c rlv
1 9 3 0 sb y c h e n r i s l si n I r n p c r i l l C h c n r i c a lI l d u s t r i c s L t t i . , t j n s l a n j ,
540 541
*L t ,' ,' ' r' L' 1' - ' 1' '' r' - '
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES r l : s Y N - t . l t u . r tIc: t n R E S
and a patent covcring tlre proccss was applied for in 1936 liinrililI proccsscswcrc dcvclopcrlby thc l,lrillips l)ctrolcrnr
(8.P.471,590). Corrr-
ii'lf 1!,:lg.Pat. 530,617)
a d by SrrndardOit Co. (U.S.i, r.
The corditions used in this polymerization processwere un- 2,69 |,647)
-flresc in rheU.S.A.
usually sevcre.Pressuresof 1,000-2,000 atmospheresand tempera- ncw proccsscb s r i n g a b o u t t h c p o l y n r c r i z a l i o no f c l h v _
.
tures of 150-200"C.were required, and the processwas activated lcnc at nlucll lowcr prcssurcs,and irl tcnlpcrtlurcs bclotv
100"C-
by tracesof oxygen.The product was a solid resemblingparaflin Undcr lhese
vIurJr Lutssc conditions,
conoltlons, tne
the nrolcct.tlitr
nrolccullrr cllitins
cltltirrs trc arc tttttclr lcss
wax. branched than lhosc produccd by thc hiSh-lcnrpcraturc/high_
'fhc prcssurc-proccsscs.
industrial dcvclopment of clhylcne polymcrization pre- Zicglcr-typcpolycthylcnc,for- cxatnplc,irus
scntcd nrany difliculties,but by 1939polyethylenewas commer- sorne4-5 branchcs pcr 1,000carbonatonrsin thc nrolccultrcitain:
cially available in the U.K. Licenceswere granted by l.C.I. Ltd. Phillips-typepolyethylenehas fcwcr than 2.5 sidc trunctl"s ;r.i
to du l,ont and Bakelite (a division of Union Carbide) in the U.S. 1,000carbon atoms.Thc high-tcmperaturc process,by contrist,
I'olyctbylene'scombination of cxccllcnt.dielectricand mechani- producesa polyethylcncwith 25-30sidc briinchcspcr't,000
crr-'
cal propertiesmadc it invaluablc as an insulatingmaterial. During DOll Alot1ts.
ln p r o v i d i n g p o l l , r n c r si r r w h i c h t h c r r r o l c c r r l c s
World War ll, the cntire outpul was usedin higb-.trequency radar . - a d d i t i o nt o
cquipmcnt,subrtrarinecablesand other esscnlialapplications.Pro- nave tewcr brancl)cs,thcsc low_tct)lpcratltr.c proccsscsyicltl poly-
duction was expanded continually to mcet thc growiDg wartime nrcrs oI highcr molccular wcight.
necds. Tlrc ntolcculcs of polynrcr lrot)r low-lco]pcrilturc polynrcriz.n_
.
At the end of the war, new applicationsfor polyethylenewere Iron ploccsscs,with fcrvcr sidc br.anchcs. arc ablc lo pick tolcthcr
Iound, not only in the electricalinsulation field but in the produc- rrrorccflcctivcly thar thosc frorn thc high_tcrnp"r"tur"pr*"ir.tiii"
tion o[ films, shcct,tubiog, extrudcd and moulded products.Poly- low-tcmpcrarurcpolymcrs arc morc highly ciystallinc'th;;iil;;
ethylenebccalnc one oI tbe n'lostiluportaut of the post-war plas- rnade by high-ternpenture polymcrizl rioir, "i<t rtris ntt"cts
itic
tics, and production has increascdsteadily in recent yea$. physrcap t .r o p c r l l c so f t h c p o l y m c r .' f l r c d c n s i t yo f
low_lcrrrpcra_
r u r c p o l y t n c r , l o r e x a l | l p l e ,i s h i g h e r t l ) a n l l l a t o f t t ) c
Polyrnerizationof ethyleneby thc high-pressure/hightempera- high-
t c m p c r a l u r c f o l y n r c r ; t h c I o n g u n b r a n c h c dn r o l c c u l c so f i h c
turc processdoes not result in straightforward linear molecules
of polyethylene.Thc ntoleculcsare branched, and polymer pro- I o r m c r c a n p a c k c l o s e r t o g c l l l c r ,s o t l l t t l l c w c i g l t t
v o r u r n ct s t n c r e a s c dZ. i c c l c r _ t v n ep o l y c t h y l c r r h Dcr Unit
duced by this method may have as many as 30 brauches c a s n d c n s i t yo f
for every 1,000carbon atoms in the nrolccularchain. 0 . 9 5 ,a r r d P l : i l t i p s - t y p pc o t y c r t i y t c n co f O . O C. .f t , " i " " , i , l ' " i , f , "
c i l n r e r r y p c o t p o t y c t h y l e n ies 0 . 9 2 .
Ilranching restricts the ability of polymer moleculcs to pack
dilTercncein dcnsity is comrnonly uscd in rcferring lo lltc
togcther,and prcvcnts them aligning themselvesinto the orderly ..-l-his
d r t t e r c n t t o r m s o f p o l y m c r . p o l y e t h y l c n cn r : r d e b y t h ;
patternsthat make for regionsof crystallinity,Polyethylcnenradc 'Low-dcn.ii hiAh_
tcfnperat urc / high-prcssurc(carlicr) proccssis c lc<l
by high-tempcrature/highpressurepolymerization is not bighly- tv
I.',olycthylenci polyntcr ma(lc by thc low-tcrrrpcrirturc/lorv prcssrrrc
crystalline material, and this is reflectedin its properties,especi-
{fater)-proccsses is callerl //rglr-rlcasityl,olycthyl( c.
ally with respectto the characteristicsof filamentsspun from it.
By 1956h . i g h - d e r r s i tpyo l y c t h y l c n cw a sc o m n r c r c i a l l a v vailablc.
The melting point of polyethylene made by this process,for
I t w a s b c i n g . p r o ! t r c c dn o t o n l y b y t h c Z i c g l c ra n d I ' i r i l l i p sp r . o -
cxanrplc,is co,r]parativelylow-about I l0-120'C,
ccsscs,Dut also by a modification o[ thc origirrll I.C.l,
nroicss,
The incrcascd degrcc of crystaltinity and tlrc highcr rrrolcctLlai
(b) Lo w-tenrp erct urc P rocesses . -
\r'ergntallectcd thc propcrtics of lhc polynrcr in ways rvhich
cx_
In 1954,ProfessorKarl Ziegler of thc Max Planck Jnstitule in tcnded.its range of- practical applications.Thc mclting poini,
fo|-
Germany discovereda new techniqie for the polymerization of e x a m p l c r, v a sn o w h i g h c r : I 3 0 - l 3 g " C .c o m p a r c dw i r t r l i O _ t Z b . C .
ethylene, using organo-metallic catalysts (Belg. Pat. 533,362). for lhc low-dcnsitypolyethylcnc.
542 543
I I A ND I } O O K O F T E X T I L E F I D R D S A: S Y N ' I ' I I E 1I C I : I T R l : S
l,ibrcs fronr l,os.l)cnsily Polj'lrcr
When supplies of polyethylcne became available for general use
_Dcspitcthcscsctbacks,a fcw lirnts corrtinucdthcir dcvcloprncnt
o[ polyelhylcne [ibrcs, nolably I.C.l. Ltd. and Courtflulds i((1. i;
jn tlre latc 1940s,the successful developnent o[ nylon hud already
the U.K., arrd Rcevcs Dros. lnc. tnd Nxtion l l)lasticsI'roducts
slimulated ,ntercst in the possibility of producing other types of Conrpauy in tlrc U.S.A.'fhcir cflorts brought a stcatly inrprovc-
synthctic nbrC. lvluclr had been learncd about tlrc spinning of nrcnt jn thc quality of fibre produccd fr.onr thc poiynl"i th"n
finc fillmcnts by extrusion o[ molteu polynrcrs at high tempcra- vailable. But-rcill progrcss wits lo conrc cvcntuiilly'frorn thc
tures. lt was natural, thcreforc, thrt the newly-availablcsynthetic ( l c v c l o p r r r c l t isn p o l y n r c r i z a l i o nt c c h n i q r r ct l t t t l c t l
io lhc rrro_
polynrcr, polycthylcuc,should bc considercdls ir sourcc oI syn- ( l u c t i o no I h i g h - d c n s i t yp o l y c t l r y l c n c s .
thctic fibrcs.
'I'he 'clcan'
shapc oI lincar polycthylenc ntolcculcs suggests liibrcs front lliSh.Dcnsity I'olylncr
lhat thcy arc capableoI packing togetherinto the orderly arrange-
B y I 9 5 6 , . h i g h - d c n s i tpyo l y c t h y l c n cw a s c o n r r r r c r c i l l l ya v a i l : r b l c :
nrents thfll result in regious of crystallinity. Extru.lcd lilamenls
r t w a s b e i n g p r o d u c c dn o t o n l y b y l l r c Z i c g l c r a n r j t ' h i l l i n s n r o -
oI polycthylene might be expectcd to lorm slroug Iibres when
cesses,but by a l)odiliciltion of thc original I.C.l. proccssioo.
slretchedto orienlate the molecules. -l'his.nerv
Unlortunatcly, polyrnerizationof etlryleneat high ten)perature .. type o[ polynrcr madc possiblcthc spiirning of nruclr
[ i n c r f i l a n t c n t sl l r a n t h o s c o b t i r i n a b l cf r o r n l o w - d c D s i l v ; o l v c t t r v i _
aod pressurcdoes nol produce straightforward lincar molecules
-I'hc cire. ns rnticipiltctl, thc rcducctl dcgrcc of ruolccular Lrlrnctrii,g
of poll,cthylenc. cxtcnt of branching is such as to prcvcnt thc
ancl tlrc.highcr molcctrlar rvcighls o[ thc ncw polynrcrs brorrglii
ntoleculcspackiug togcther jnto the ordered pat.ternsthat makc
rcnnrkable inlprovcmcntsin thc physicalprop"iti"s of thc tibics.
for a high degrceof crystallirrity.
I-tigh-dcnsitypolyethylcnc fibrcs wcrc strongcr lhan lhc lorv-
Despite the low degree of crystallinity of this type of poly-
dcnsity types; thcy rcachcd tcnacitics conrpiirablc with lh t of
cthylene,and the conrparativclylow molecular weight, the poly-
nylon.
nrcr can be extruded and drawn to form filarnentsof moderatc .'Ihe soltening rangc was highcr; I30-1j8.C., conrprrctl
with ll0-120'C. for lhe low-dcnsity fibrcs. .fhc stillncss ;f
strcngth. The early post-war polyethylcue was spun into com- tl,a
fibres had increascd.
l
!)aralivcly tbick monofilamcnts which fouud their way into a
numbcr of practical applications.But the tcnacity of the material Dcspitc thesc.and rclatcd improvcnrcntsin physical propcrtics,
..
nrgn-oensrtypotycthytcncrclaincd dclicicncicswhiclt havc contin_
was too low to allow of the production of filarnentsfine enough
ucd lo rcstrict jts developmcntas a tcxtilc fibrc. Filanlcnls spuD
for generaltextile use,
-l-hese fronr it havc low rcsilicncc,an<Iarc srrbjcctto rclativcty high'<ic-
early filaments of low-density polyethylene had many
formation Indcr strcss(crccp).'fhe soflcning
interestingproperlics.They were chemicallyinert, and rvcre quile Doint is still t; l;;
to nteet lhe rcquircnrcnlsoI nornral tcxtilc usc.-fhc tilan)cnlslcnd
unaflccted by water. They wcre llcxible and resilient, and rverc
to splil. Icnglhwisc,cirusing Practictl ttillicultics irr proccssirrl.
not attackedby nricro-orgauisntsor insccts.1'heir gcneral charac-
teristicswere such as to encouragefurther dcvelopmentby pion- _ n d d c d t o t h c s cs h o r t c o r r r i r r gl rsc o l h c r s i n h c r c n i i n t l t c i o l v _
eering firns. Hcavy spun-dyedlilamcnts wcrc woven into fabrics olcfin struclurc. I-hc lack of any aflinity for w tcr, tor cxanrplc,
precludcsdycing by norntal lcchnrqucs.
which were tcstcdcxpcrintcntallyin a numbcr of applications,in-
cluding cnr-seatcovers and furnishing nratcrials.
Thc early polyethylcnefabrics sullercd, however. fronr serious
1'YPESOF POLYEI'I.IY[,IJNI! FIBRE
shortcoolings. Dinrcnsional stability was poor and abrlsion
rcsislanceIow; thc filaments deterioratedrapidly in sunlight; thc l,olycthylcncis corrrrnonlyprocluccdtoclayby onc or otlrcr o[ thc
softeningpoint was too low for normal textilc use.It soon becarne t rvo ion proccsscsotttlined Irovc, thc polyrrrcrsdillcr-
clear lhat fabrics ntade from thc early low-density polycthylcncs .polyn)erizat
ing in density ancl othcr physical charrctcristicsticpcnding upon
wcre not going to bc a conrmcrcialsuccess. tlrc processuscd.
544
545
r-i r l
I
' l ' l ' [ ' l ' l t l ' t ' ' l - r - I
t|-fTJ-NT F NIETTT
'tEXTILE
II NDBOOK OF FIaRES B : S Y N T } I E T I CF I D R A S
i
'I'hc
two fonns o[ polyctlrylcncutadc availablc in this way arc l'olyrllcriza(ion
dcscribcd as
(a) Low-density Polyethyleue, (a) I{igh Pressurc I ltigh Tentpcratura process
(b) High-densityPolycthylcnc. Ethylcnc is by hcating at tcrnpcraturcs in thc rcgion
-polymerizccl
lloth l.ypcsof polyelhylenenray be spun into ntonolilamenls, of 150-200'C., and prcssurcsof t,000-2,000atnrosphcrcs.;I.hc
and it is in this lorm that the bulk of polyethylcnelibre is pro- rcaction is pfomotcd by tracesof oxygen or othcr catilysfs. poly_
duccd. Sonre hcavy denicr mulli(ilament yurns are also availablc, ethylene is procluceclin thc fornr o[ a mollcn nratciitt which
aud fiuer denier multifilament yarus are spun in small amounts. solidifieslo a waxy solicl.
Polyethylcne monofihments arc available in a range of dia-
(lt) Lotv PrcsstrclLov 7-cnperaturc process
metels and spun-dycd colours. They are produced norrnally in
round cross-section,but nlay be exlruded also in llat, oval and Ethylcne is polyrncrizcdat ntuch lowcr prcssurcsand {rt tctnpcrl-
othcr cross-sectionsto rlreet spccial lequircnelrts. l u r e s b e l o w 1 0 0 ' C . A v a r i c t y o f c a t i l l y s ts y s t c n t sn r a y b c u s c c l .
I l r e p r o c c s sd c v c l o p c db y P r o f c s s oK r a r l Z i c g l c ri r r l 9 5 l _ 5 4n r a d c
t r s c o f . o r g a n o r n c t l l l i cc o n r p o u u d sc, . g . o f l i t h i t r r r rs, o r l i r r r nt r r d
NOMENCLATU RE i r l u r n r n r u n lt,| l c o j u n c l i o t r r v i t l t a s n t a l l a t n o u | l t o f l r a n s i t i o n
nretal contpound, e.g. tita|lium tctrachloridc.
O lclit
Spirrling
Polyethylcnefibres alc defined as o/cfrs under thc U.S. Fedcral
Trade Conrnrissiondcfinition (sce page xxvi). (l) Low-dcnsity Polycrhylutc Fihrcs
I - o w - d c n s i tpyo l y e t h y l c n ics c x t r u d c di D t on r o n o f i l a n r c nol sf r o u n d
I'olyolelin f l a t o r o t l l e - rc r o s s - s c c t i o nuss, i n gc x l r u s i o nt c c h n i q u c s , i u , i l u i
o
Ethylene is chernically a menrber of the olclin class of hydro- thosc uscd in nraking morrofilanrcDls o[ othcr thcrrtroplaslicpoly_
carbons,ancl polyethylcneis a polyolcfin. Polyetbylenefibres are I n . r s , c . g . n y l o n ,s a r a n ,c l c ,
thus a type of polyolefin fibre. M o l t c n p o l y c t h y l e n ci s h c l d , f o r c x a n r p l ca, t a b o u t 2 0 5 " C . ,a n d
c x l r u d c d t l l r o l r g hd i c s o f a p p r o p r i n t cs h n p c .F i h n t c r r t sc r r r c r g i n g
Poll'thene Ironr the dic arc coolcd lo I5-60"C., ln(l itrc tllcn p,,ss"r'_t roi,nJ
a set of oricnting rolls which draw tl)ct].Ito bctwc;n 4 lrnd l0
Thc term polyethyleneis often uscd in the shortencdf.orm, poly- t i r r c s . t h c i ro r i g i n a ll c n g t h .T h c < . l r a wr l i o d c p c n d su p o n t l , " t y f "
tlrcne and polyethyleue fibres are son]ctimes called.polythene o[ polyrncr uscd.
fibres. Tho oricntcd monofilarnentsarc collcctcd on st)oolsor tubcs.
-]J-L-L--L-
i l " 1f l l ' ' F
i lF . E E E t t t - | : l " i l " il ' l f "li' 'ti t
T I A N D B O O KO F T E X T IL E F I B R E S S YN'I'IIETI C IiI DNES
Tcnsilc Slrctlglh
3 iieS E l q R+ i :r ii:t
xi t.:i
3,
;1 d i
The branched molecules of low-density polyethylene do not per-
nrit of thc high degree of crystalliuity and orientatior that is pos-
sible with linear moleculesof high-density polymcr.The tensile 5,;
strengthof lorv densitypolyethylene monofilamerts is low; tena-
c i t y a r o u n d 8 . 8 - 1 3 . 2 c N / t e x ( 1 . 0 - 1 . 5 g / d e n ) .L i n e a r p o l y - ? q $ + . ? ? I I
. ' , 9 l l n q 9
e l h y l e nm
e o n o f i l a m c no t sn, t l r eo t h c rh a n d ,m a y b e l h r c eo r f o u r :l:3 I
tinlesas strong,and are conrparablcin this respectwith nylon.
Tensilestrengthis 2.,100-5,950kg/cm2(30,000-85,000lb/in2); e.s.
s-e.Ea" ;i.s.
ti.s.
s.a" a a ii.u. s"E't l : l
tenacities are70 cN/tcx (8 g/den)or more.
Exanrpleso[ the tenacitieso[ variousgradesof polyethylene rl.,, a$ $:i liR FS Ai fis
:.1? iil:]
ilil
nronofilamcnt are shownin tlre table on page551.
f.h$ i ' l f S s ) S
i $ 5 1 . - , ? , u
d i : i : : i i ri
ilir
") {: .l
d . i " i ; , i . ;
iit ;I ;I
R R
ii
?9f;g! [3 n
; E i" ;c -;iP^- :E
-d ^i ^
1 5 1: i t t;
it ;1 !,o d'- -,.:
'dE 'rX i: 3 I9 if 1l
,,i F"r ll"i {t
;i5
{! lt il ii
ro 20 30 40 ,ji:: ,,i3 >19 ;9
s r R A r N( % E L o N 6 A T T o N )
,iil
-t-L}-ut-I I | t t ' t t | r r I r I
!ttttl,,'i El:
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I]: SYN'TIIETIC FIBRES
conrpoundstnd pignents are uscd to improvc llanrc resislancc. lt rootn lcnrpcrirt u rc. 'fhcy swcll and n'llly ultinlntcly dissolvcin
-
Flarnrnability (ASTM Test Mcrhod D635-44); sonrc ch_lorinaledhydrocarbonsrnd aronratic solvcrils,c.g. bcrr-
S l o w , 1 . 0i n . / m i u . zcnc, lolucnc and xylcnc. Solulions arc obtaincclat 70-gi.C.
Nlineral antl vcgclableoils arc absorbcd and tcud to swcll tllc
Spccific IIeat- 0.47*0.50Cal./'C./grarn. librcs,especiallyat high tcntpcralurcs.
In gencral, rcsislance to solvenls incrcascs witlr incrcascd
Dffcct of Sunlight
c r y s t a l l i n i t y h; i g h - d e n s i t (yl i n e a r )m o n o f i l a n r c r r tasr c r n o r c r c s i s l _
The polyelhylcne nolccule is attacked by oxygen, the rcaction ant tlrlln low-dcnsity(branchcd)ntonolilalllcnts.
being stimulated by ultra-violet light. Low-dcnsity polyethylene
is nrore susceptibleto oxidation than high-densitypolymer. Insects
The eflect of light is particularly seriouswhen the polymer is
P o l y c t h y l c n cf i b r c s a r e n o t d i g c s t c db y i n s c c t sa n c l o t l r c r l i v i r r t
in the form of finc filarnents,which have a high surface-volume
crcatures.Thcy nray bc bittcrr throrrgh irr ln lttctrrpt to rclrcii
ratio. In the carly days of polyethylenenbre, light-sensitivitywas
olhcr matcrials tltat are uscd as food.
a s c r i o u s d r a w b a c k , b u t t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o no f s t a b i l i z e r sh a s
e l f c c t e dg r e r t i n r pr o v e r r c rt rs . Micro-organisnrs
ClrernicalPropcrtics Polycthylenc fiblcs lre contplclcly rcsistant lo birclcriir, uriltlcw
rnd othcr nriclo-orgtrrrisrns,
Acids
Polycthylcnc librcs havc a high rcsistanccto lcids lt all conccn- Iilcc{ricxlI'ropcrtics
trations, and up to contparatively high tcrnpelaturcs,1-hey arc P o l y c t h y l c n cm a d c r a p i d h c a d w a yr s t r p l s t i c , l l r g c l y l l l r o l r g l r
attacked by nitric acid (oxidation - see below). ils excellent elcctrical propcrtics. It is ari outsiandi-ng'cl"ct,.iciii
Resistuuceto Icids (ASTM Test Mcthod D5ll-56) insulator, especilly to higlr-frequctrcy currcnls.
!\'erl,. acids: No eflect The electticalcharactcristicsof lhc polynrer.arc irs follorvs:
-acids:
Strong Oxidizing acids attack slowly.
Diclc.crric Sr.,,r.g//r (Volts/Nlil. Short tinrc,
Alkalis { inch thickncss)
(ASTM Tesr IUcrhodDl49-59): 500-5t5.
Polyethylenelibres are highly rcsistant to alkirlis at all conccn-
trations and up to comparatively high tenrpcraturcs. Dielccrric Consrcar(AS1'M Test Mcthod I)l-50-54't'):
Rcsistatrccto Alkaiis (ASTM Test Method D54l-56) I kc. 2.30-2.41
Weak alkalis: No eflect I nrc. 2.30-2.41
Strong alkalis: No effect.
(i etteral
Volur.tte ry (ohnrs/cnr.)(AS'l'M -l'cst l\tctlrorl D257_5g):
.Resisrivi
4 x 10r5.
Polyclhyleuc, being a paralliu hydrocarbon, is inltercntly iuerl.
Polycthylcnefibrcs rrc higl)ly rcsistant(o a witlc rlngc o[ chcnri- Disiptttion (pot'rt\ l:(ctor (nsl Nl lcst I\4ctho(lr) r50-,54'l'):
cals at ordinary tcnlperaturcs.'lhey arc susccptibleto attack by I kc. 0.00023
oxidizing agents. 100 kc. 0.00012
Ellcct of OrS ric Solvcnls Olhcr I'roDerlics
Polyethylenelibres are insolublein most com0ton organic solvcnts P o l y c t h y l e n ci s o < l o t r r l c s a
snd non-loxtc.
554 )))
IIANDNOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I}: SYNTIIETIC Ft NNES
conditions,where the retcntion of strenglh and flexibility at Iow I!a:d lltcar. 1-lrehigh initirl strcngth,couplcd
tenlperaturcsare invaluablc charactcristics. wirh crccllcnl
'fhe wct abrasionrcsistrncc,is nrairtaincO tt.,iouet,orii'tti"'iil'i,f"';i
strcngth, Iightncss, water- and rol-rcsistanceof poly- .
a net. Experience
pory.tr,yr"n.
i"qui,l,l
has shown tl u"'',r,igl,-dc,rsirv
ethylene fibres have enabled tlrem to becone establishedin the
marine cordagefield. Thcre are great advantagesin ropesand nets
,i,iir,,ii,,iilr1ll[.illl;:"
ihat float, do not rot and do not absorb water. O!t". ul Ilanlli.ng; polycthylenc r)cts rc
FurDilure fabrics, car upholstery fabrics, curtains, proteclive Iightcr th n thosc
I n a d ct r o n l n a t u r a lf i b r c s T
. h i s r r r a k c st h c n c t c r r s t r f o l r r r U l c , , , r i J
clothiDg, tarpaulins and filter labrics are otl.rerapplications in "i:..:f]r"" andhautingin.Thcrcis l"r. ar"e,,"r"rii,ie
rvhich the special properties of polyethylenefibres enable tlrem ::
In rower tuelil,.!:9.ling
costs. polyethylcnc docs nol absorb wlitcr. lrncl
to compete ellectively with other libres, despite their inhcrent soakednet will comnronty 'il,".ii
i
weighonly "rr",ii-ri*-,riiri".l
shortcomingswhich restrict their use in general textile fields. as a wet manila net.
Irrallat ion
,Cleenlincss, Polyethylenc filanrcnts arc snrooth-srrrfrccd,and
When polyethylencis irradiated rvith gamma rays or rvith high- do not cling to sand particlcs,marinc grolvth
irnd othcr un*i ,ir"J
speed electrons, cross-links are formed bctween the polymer materials.This sirnplifiesthc work o[ tlrc crcw_
-lhc
molecules. movenrcnlof the moleculesrelativeto one anolher
is rcstricted,and the polymer beconresmorc resistantto softening Rc-tistttrrce tct E:tlcrnc Colu/.trolycthytcncrctirins its flcxibililv
-not
wbcn healed. If cross-liuking is sumciently extcnsive,the poly- ilt vcry low lctlpcrltlrrcs, anrl docs bccorrrc r"iCiJ ;;,;";
frcezing conclilions. 'fhc
c l h y l c u ew i l l n o l o n g c r n r c l t . wct knot strcngrlr -f oI twincs incrcascs
as Ihc^tcnpcrnturc <lccrcascs. T]rcsc f'ctirrs "'""i:v l,,,ir".i,,ii
whcn fishirrg.takes ptacc in Arctic watcrs,whcrc
thc l,ir t"nrp"rii-
t u r e m a y f a l l t o _ 1 0 " C .o r l o w c r .
E,rpcricuccwith mooring and gig ropcs on Lugshas proved that Buoyatrcl,. Likc ncts and t.wincs,polycthylcnc ropcs will noat
polyelhylcnc is eminently suitable for this Lype of heavy work. on water, rcducitlg thc risk of fouling propcllcrs.
Three-strandnrooring ropes of 16.5 cnr (6% in) diameter are still
i n e x c c l l e n tc o n d i t i o na f t e r t w o y e a r so f c o n t i n u o u su s e . ...Colouration. Ropcs arc conrmolly lraclc fronr nrass-colourcd
lleavy ropes of 20 and 23 cnr (8 and 9 in) circuruferencearc librc, Thc colours arc vct.y fast to light arrd wlrshing.
used in a variety ol constructions,including 4 x 2 plaited. Finer
ropes of 6.3-9 cn (211.- 3 % in) circumferenccare now acccpted Filtratiort Fabric.s
in thc fishing ilclustry as quartcr ropcs, rvhilc codJines,life-lincs,
Onc of thc
nrooring ropes,etc., arc also uscd in increasirrgquantitics. -carlicst a;.rplicationsfor polycthylcnc yarns was in
tlre production of iudustrial filtratior jabrlcs. .t.i,. .ono"
oi
properties olTcrcd by polycthylcnc is prrticularly
Main C lnracteristics suitnbli for
ttl|s apptrcatiorr,and tlrc fibrc is being trscd incrc singly for llris
J'lle nrost i|lrportant leaturcsof polyethylencropesare as follows: purposc.
560 561
II
I
I
- t I
l
\
r l
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FII]RES U: SYNTIIE'rIC
rISIIES
; DintensionelSlcriitt. Filtration fabrics ntust be able to with- Ligltt-t.ctistancc.Polyctlrylcnc llrbrics arc slabilizc<lto rcsist
stand Prcssurc used in forcing thc liquid through lbc press. .
d - c g r i r ( l i r t i oslt i n l u l a t c ( b
l y lighl, antl havc a long out(loorlifc.
Polyethylene[abrics are heat-sc[to provide excellcntdimeniional 'fhe
pignents lockcd in the filanrcntsbcforc spinriirrgarc flst
stability. to
light and water, arrd colours rcmain bright.
Corl. In scwagenltlation, which is onc of the most.itnDortant
iudustrial filtrations processes,cotton fabrics have long bcen ChettricttlIlcsist4ttce.Ouldoor frbrics arc subjcctc<lto tIilck
rusedin thc filter presses.Polyethylenefabrics are initially more b y t l ) c p o l l u t c du i r o f t o w n s a n t l c i t i c s ,w h i c l l c o n t i r i n si l v i l r i c t v
expcnsivc than cotton, but their extra useful life outweiehs this o f a c i c l sa n d o t h c r c o r r o s i v cc l r c n r i c l l sp. o l y c t h y , l c l ci s u n a l l c c l c t l
cxtra cost. lxpcrimcnts carried out by SpenborougltCorporation, by thesc pollutanls, rvhich bring about lhc rapid dccay of rrrorc
England, shorvedthat in sewageliltratjon, cotton;loths cost O.gl sensitivefabrics.
pencc per pressing,comparcd with 0.492 pence per pressingfor
a polyethylene('CourleneX3') fabric. Cotton disintegratedafter
Watcr Re;istance. Polyethylcnc retaius ils strcllgtlt an(l lcitr
76 pressings,rvhereasthe polyctbylenefabric was satisfactorvuD
resistanccwhen wct. lt clocs not absorb nroislurc, incl is quick-
to more than 350 prcssings.
clrying. Fabrics are stain rcsisling, and arc c:rsily clctrncd rvith
Other synthctic fibre fabrics wcre used in this year-long
detergenIand waler. Polycthylcncfabrics ntty bc coalctl to nurkc
practical experiment, but they had thc disadvantug"of blinain!
them watcrproof if dcsircd.
afler some 200 pressingsjtheir costs were iD the rigion of 0.62i
pence per pressing.
Illinding rcfcrs to the blocking oI thc liltralion [abric to the A hro.\io Ilcsistutrc.c.Otrldoor faltlics ntrrst rvilhst rrcl rorrgh
point.at which rvrshing does not lree the fabric of filterecl handling, antl arc oftcD subjcctcclto gt.cirl rvci[. arrd tc:rr. I.iic
parucles, a b r a - s i o nr e s i s t a n c co f p o l y c t h y l c r r ci s c x c c l l c r r ta r r c l o u t c l u o r
Iilbflcsare lough and hard-wcariug,
Blintl.r, Ay;nings and otl:cr Ouldoor Fobrics
Polyethylene offers an attractive range of properties to the Lotv-tentieraturc Rcsi a;cc, Undcr thc scvcrcstwinlcr condi-
inanufacturer of blinds, arvnings,deck-chair and olher fabrics tions, polyethylenercrn ins strong and Ilcxiblc.
for use ouldoors.
Dcusity.'fhe low dcnsity of polycthylcnc in conrparisonrvitlr
Main C harccteristics other libres is a greflt ldvanta.gcin dcck-chairand sinrilar fabrics.
Thc nrain characteristics
of interestin this respcctare as follows: fhc lightnessof polyethylencfabrics sinrplilicshanrlling problcrrrs
in outdoor furniture which is constantly nrovcd about.
Colour ond Transparency.Piglr)ented polyethylene is avail-
able in a rviderange of attractivecolours.The yarnsare contmonly
trauslucent, but opaque matcrials may be obtaincd by using Sig t riting. Awnirrgs anr.lthc likc lrrc oftcn rc<luirccllo clrry
darkcr coloured warp and wcft yarns.Tests show that 95 pcr ccni aclvcrliscntcntsancl signs, arrd polycthylcnc firbrics ollcr |lo
o I t h c r r l t l a - v i o l c tr a d i a t i o r r i n s u n l i g h t i s d i s p e r s e do n l h c dillicullics in tltis rcspcct. Spccial inks lrc irvailablc for tlris
surfacc of thc polyelhylenefabric. purposc.
Rot-rcsistatrce.
Itolyethl,lenefabrics arc completely resistantto I!edt-scuing. Dinrcnsioual slability is cxccllcnt in hcat_scl
rrricro-organisnrs
and insecls,and are ideal in lhis respectfor usc polycthylcnefirbrics,and r varicty oI attrflclivc cntbossc(lc{lccls
outdoors. Polyethylenefabrics need not be dried belore storagc. nray be obtained by hcat-trcatnlcnts.
562 563
I I A N D D O O K O F ' I ' E X - I 'LI E F I D R E S
sYN tEl tC FItrt[s
(2) POLYPROPYLENEF]BRES
rN f tToDUCTTON
Fibresspunfrom polymersor copolymcrs
of propylcne: -l'hc.
succcsslulpolynrcrization of cthylcnc, using
organomclallic
ill"lLi,i;111,
i!'i1i:i
"?'';li:lHl.,ll'
" il:,ff:ii{*,*liilll
CH!:CHCH,
[!f"f:l!i,i]:x!
t)rolcssor
x?l
llil:i._:::
Jr,:"lt jilhll
I::,1":i' 'oi*"".;'j
cit|tio Natraot Mihn notyr""l,i,
7 ';{:'tJff:,'l'l'fi
lilil:T;ffi
i",' rinif,
\ ;il,,l,,,"111';l'i,,;,':ii;[";
;i,1[':,;:'*i:::
:i!!i'r.,:: il',ff','::ilJ];l',:';iy,:,,ili"lli
""*:l'n,
:i n;:..*
:::r il'i,:
arrd sonle crystallizcd whcrc otlt
fil :l,r;liln,l;ru:,t
;ii;;;;: ;J;i;fi; ;:; ;,;'"##;ililT"liffi
i1"",1,";,":1il;
:ti,,:", ',l;
. X-ray and infra-rcJ invcsligat
j*i::nll
%ii';il:*fTi;lr
hi.",? ir"r ","m
"lffi;::i1l;l'l':1;::
illrangcn)cnt of lhc ntolcculcsin
;;;:;1'11l,l"h[,,[rl
o,,r..ryr",riion,'n;
...0'
melting, low-Jcnsily
iii::"";,';i;.11i","',*;l:lJ'i,,y*"::::1,1,",:iJ
polypropylcnc.
--L_-"L-L'I.'Ll
,-1-
.ITIFIlFFFF.
IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIORDS SYNTIIETIC FI BRES
(I) I S O T A C T I CP O L Y P R O P Y L E N E
O = CAREONATOM
O 5 METHYLGRoUP
l.rota.tir .pol),propvlcrrc.'l lrc bulky Dtctltyl
Sro ps t!rkc lrn n qlcs of
120'r!ith respecrro ncigtrbourrng inc rhyl'grf,upsi tt Lrts-nr" t".' ,?i*irrr"ri
CH" CH" CH. CH, cH. n regUtar I)cllctl or sptr.:llstructurc as sltowrt.
l -
-cHz cH cHz cH cH2 cH CH2CHCHz c H c H ? -
Ilolical S!ru.cturc. Thc asyntrnctryof thc -CII,-CHR- nlonorncr Stcreospacific Polynk'rizutio l,roccs:tcs
unit oI tlrc isot;tcticpoly-a.olcfinmikcs thc lorruttion of svn,rnctricirl 'l'hc
polynrcriz;r
t ion proccsscsdcvelopcd by Karl Zicglcr, Giulio
crystalsirnpossiblesave in tbc caseof helical chains-thc onlv casc
wlrercall the mononrerrrnitsof a poly-a-olcli cnn attcin structural Natta and their colleagucw s c r c i n r p o r l a n tn o t o n l y i n p r o v i d i n g
equivalencc. All thc Nain chainsof isotacticpolymcrsare thcrefore
h c l i c a li n t h c i r c r y s i a l l i n sc t n r c .S h o r t l ya f t c r - i r i d i s c o v e r ivn 1 9 5 4 .
thc first crystallie polynter of propylcnewas found to be isolacli;
a n d t o h l v c _a h c l i c r lc h n i n l. n d c c dc, r y s l a l l i n i toyf t h c v i n y l i cp o t y n l c r s
ciln rcsult fro|lt lrvo sir plc strUctrlrcs only, iarncly the'isoticti6anrl
lDc syndrolircttc. I
llca(l-to-ta;l n(:ll - CII r-crrr-cr r-crr,-crt-
r,cn,-cr
, Thc. figurc abovc shows thc di[Icrcnt types of helices present in [-clrt-.cr I
'solact,c polyrners ol knorvn structurc. -f hrcc-dimcnsionfll crvshls I R r{ R n J n/*
r c q u i r c n o t o n l y a r e g u l a rs t n t c t u r co f t l t e i n ( l i v i ( l u ncl l r a i n s .b u I l l s o
r r c g u l a r p a c k i n go f t h c c h a i n s i n n d i r c c t i o l r t r i c h t a n r l c s t o t h c R
ilxis of thc cl)rin. II only tltc lirst conditior) is rict, airl not rhc tlcad-ro-hcad- I
:
ncl I. CII
sccond, as tn orie litted and qrrcnchcd rnxtcrials. sntcctic and inconr-
plelcly crysl:tllizcdstructurcs of lower density and greatcr transpxrcn.y tril-lo-tiil [-ClrrCI{-CI[-cl]r-Cllr-cll-C}l-cIIr- I
L Ir R R R I u/l
rcs\tlt - Ciba Revlctv.
l'ol\"ttcrization. llcul onl Toil Linkages, Polyllcrs wilh n chcnric:rllv
regular structurc arc fornlcd by tsymmctricirl nto|lo crs (Cll,=CIllt)
only whcn the nronorlrcr units nre linkcd in l particular ordcr, i.c.
to pack logcthcr in an ordcrcd fashion. These polvnrers are hcad-to-tail or lrcad-to-ltcad-tail-to-tailscqucncc.
c r y s t il l i r c . llcrd-to-tail scqucncc is frc(luc t, but'in sonrc polyntcriz.:rtionsit
Alac(ic polypropylenc, orr thc othcr hand, is an irregular nray bc accompanied by irrcg[laritics duc to rtrrdotil llcnd-to-hcndor
slfucturc, lnd tlrc nrolccrrlcscannot assun.lc
a crystallincslruclurc. lail-to-tail linkagcs. lf thcsc irrcg[lirritics cxcccrl ccrtrin lirni(s. thct.
'fhis nr.ry lcad lo a rcdrrction or conrplctc disappcitranccof crystallinill
typc o[ polynrcr is anrorphous. - Ciba llclicl.
568 569
i l I I l l l l r t
L1 t t L T L \ I
sYNr||t:itc FltlRDs
'l'hc
tcchniqLrcsusctl prcviously in polynrcliziug alplra-olclirrs
c o r r l d n o t b r i n g a b o u t u p | c d c t c r n r i n c dp o s i t i o n i n g o f t h c
moDomcr iu rclation to thc growing clr;rin. ltcgularity of
p o s i t i o n i n gi s a c h i c v c d o n l y b y a c c u f a t c o r i c n t i l t i o u o f t h c
r]louonrertowards the c talysts i\t thc stilgc inlnlcdiutcly prcccd-
i n g i t s a d d i t i o nt o t h c g r o w i n gc h a i n .
l ' h c c t a l y s t s u s c d b y Z i c g l c r i n t l l c l o w - t c t r r p ct u r c p o l y -
nrerizalion of cthylcnc nradc possiblc lhc lirst slcrcosDccilic
lcchniqucs. Ethylcne itsclI is ir symnrcllical llolcculc, und lltc
lincar polyethylcnc rnolcculc docs not displuy stcric dillcrcnccs
of lhc isotactic,syndiotxctic :tnd rtirctic typc. nlso, clhylcnc is
a morc rcactivc subs(anccthutr propylcoc and thc higlrcr olclins,
and thc Zieglcr catalysls uscd for polymcrizing clllylclc do uot
ncccssarilypolymcrize propylcnc at all, nruch lcss polyltrcrizc it
lo a stcrcoregularpolymer in high yicld.
Delorc thc disrovcry of stcrcospccilicpolynlcriz.illiott,thc ooly
l i n c r r rp o l y o l c l i n so f h i g h r l o l c u L r l uw
r c i g l r tr v l r i c hc o r r k l b c n r i r d c
rvcrc tlrosc dcrivcd frorrr olclins rvitlr il synltnctricrl slruslurc
(cthylenc, isobutylcne). llrtt the ncw slcricirlly-cot)I Iollc(l l)oly-
t|rc[iziltion proccsscsrrrakc possiblclltc Dolylrrcliziltion ol olclirrs
h i g h e r t h u t c t h y l c n c ,a n d t h c c o l ) o l y n rrci z i tl i o n o f t h c s c w i t l l
Stcreoblock Poll' pro p5'lcnes. Strcss-Stoitr Diagranrs. Stereoblock poly- cthylcne. Higlr nrolecular wcight products atc oblilincd which,
nlcrs have lo\r'er tensile strength and grcater elastic elongation than dcpcnding upon thcir slnrcturc iurd contposition, uuy bc of
isotactic polynrcrs. (l) refers to a polymer with a hiSher nrolecular commcrcial valuc.
lvciglrt than (Il) - Ciba llevicrv.
Conrrtrcrcial l)cvcloprDcnl
-fhc
lirst pitcnt fll)plicirlions on polypropylcnc wclc filcd by
lirrcar polynrcrs of propylenc aDd othcr alpha-olefins,but in P r o f c s s o rG i u l i o N a t t a i n c o n j u n c l i o n w i l h P r o l c s s o r K l r l
establishingsuch control over the polynlerization that polymers Ziegler in 1954.1'hcy covcrcd thc nrcthod :rncl conrposition of
of dcsired steric structure could be made. Thc proccsscould be nratter, with spccilic claims for thc productio|l of finc filtnlcnts.
controlled to piovide an isotacticpolypropylenc,or r syndiotactic Produbtion bcgan in ltaly by thc firnr of Montccatiui .Socictl
'l'he
polypropylcne, or an atactic polypropylene. tcchnique has (icneralc, first in onc irnd thcn in two pl nts. lly 1957,conrntercial
bccome known as stcrcospccificpolynrcrization. quantitics of isolactic polypropylcuc bccanrc availirblc fronr
This renrarkablc developn'rentin polyner cherristry was Montecatini in ltlly. N4canwhileplans for largc-scalcproduction
achicvcd by using vcry spccialtypcs of catalystarrd by controlling of thc polyrrcr htd bccn nradc in thc U.S., U.l(. i\ud othcr
lhc rcaction conclitionswith great carc. Tlrc production of au coutrtries,and by I962 scvcral nrtnufilclurcrs in thc U.S., anrt
isotaclic polymcr, for cxarnplc, rcquircs not only rcgular 'head- I.C.l. Ltd and Shcll Chcnrical Co. in thc U.l(. had bcgrrn pro-
to-tail' linl<ingof thc monomeLnrolecules(secfigure on page569), r l u c i n gp c l y p r o p y l c n c .
bul also a constirnt opening of the doublc bond (always crs or lvluch of thc initirl irnpctus bchind lhis dcvclopnrcrrtof poly-
always lrarrs) and conslant positiorriug of the monomer with propylcnecanrefrom thc potentialit olTcredas a plasticsnrllcrill.
rcspcctio the plane in $hich thc double bond lics. Polypropylene is similar in nlany rcsl)cclslo polycthylcnc, l)ul
570 571
I
t
I , l
5'12 573
|
1r I r r' lt-r ir ir -'r ,.-- I l, I
lF
L-- L_
r lt r I f r . r r \ r r
'TE
IIANDAOOK OF XTI L E FIOI'ES a: SYNT A IIC FlllRES
absorbers and conlbinations oI scvcral antioxidants acting difficulty in producing fibres rvith tcntcitics itt tllc rcgiort of
syDcrgistically.Non-extractablcsyslcmsnre prefcrrcd for gcncral 53 cN/tex (6 g/den).
usc, and arc essentialIot some applications. It was thcn found, horvcvcr,lhat for ccrtain rpplicllions it wls
prcferable to use a u]orc rcsilicnt crinrpccl stlplc librc wilh lr
3 Meltirrg Point lower tenacity,e.g.in the regionof 26.5 cN/tcx ( 3 g/tlcrt).lior sotrtc
The softcning and melting poirrts of polypropylene are low by applicatioDs,on thc otlrer hand, such as ro1>csirnd lishing ncts
comparison with most (but not all) cstablishedsynthctic fibrcs. a high tcnacil.ycontinuous filirnrcnt polvDroDvlcncwls rc<luirctl
-fhcy with tenacity ol 7l -80 cN/tex (8-9 g/dcn).
are sufiicicntly high to enablc polypropylenc fibres to bc -fhe
uscd in gencral textile applications,including apparel uses,and ability to influcncetlre physicalpropcrticsoI polypropylcrrc
do Dot raise any rcrl dilliculties iD this rcspcct: Polypropylenc by varying thc conditions o[ spinning irnd proccssirrglrls rrr:rtlc
polypropyleneinto onc o[ lhc nlost vcrsatilcof all synthcticfiblcs.
Iabrics can bc ironed, but a grcatcr dcgreeof caulion is rcquircd
But it has, at the sarne time, creatcd unusual problcrrrsfor thc
lhan is nccessarywith most othcr establishedhbrcs.This linritation
Iibrc-manufacturer who must spin and proccss polypropylcrrc
has lendcd to be a promotional disadvantagcwhich wcighs nrore
runderprccisely controllcd conditions.
hcavilythtrn it should.
-fhc Control of elongation and shrinkagc, crirrrping irnd crirrrlr
comparatively low softening point has provcd a more
retenlion becanreneccssaryto providc fibrcs with spccitl chrrrrrc-
scrious disadvantageby placing limitations ou tlte lemperaturcs
tcrislics, sLrchrs high brrlk pcrfornlrncc, or for blcrrrlirrgrvith
whiclr may bc uscd in fiuishing opcratiorrs.ln blcnds wilh cot{on
or rayon, Ior example, polypropylene nray be subjccted to othcr librcs. Spccial considcratiouhltl to bc givcn to Ilrc plo-
duction of polypropylcne filarncntswhich worrld bc sul)icctc(lto
finishing procctlurcs which wonld nornrnlly involve heating to
tlrc various bulliing and tcxturing proccsscsrrow in widcsplcrrtl
tcnrperalurcshigher than it can st Dd without softcning. lt is
USC.
necessary,therefore, to use finishing tcchniques which do not
i n v o l v et e n l p e r a t u r egsr e a t e rt h a n a b o u t l 2 5 o C . 5. Dycing
U n m o d i l i c dp o l y p r o p y l c n cf i b r c i s v i r t u a l l y u n t l y c r b l cb y n r c r r n s
4. Spinting uul Ptoctssirtg of the stand rd products nd tcchniqucsusctl in tlrc tcxlilc lritdc.
The cxtrusion of polypropylele, and the processingof the fibre, This problcm has bccn a major factor in slowing up tlrc acccp-
'I'he
do not present any basic difiicultics. tcchniques used are tance of polypropylcnc as a gcncral tcxtilc liblc.
esscntiallysimilar to those already developedfor melt spinning The use of pignrentetlfibrc has provcclsntisfnctory for rrrrrry
other synthetic polymers, notably polyanridesand polyesters. a p p l i c a t i o n sM. o d i f i c a t i o no f t h c p o l y n r c ro r o f t h e f i b r c s t r u c t u r c
Thc stagdsof spinning and processinghad to be adapted to to pronrote dyeability has not provcn to bc ;r pronrisirrglirrc of
'l'hcre
suit thc charactcristicsof the ncw polymer, however, and con- ruack on this problern. are now sevcrrl ntodifictl polypro-
'fhese
trolled to providc for requirementsof specilic cnd uses. pylene fibres on the nrarkct which arc rlycablc but thcy rcprcscrt
lactors raised sorrreproblems. a v e r y s r r r a lpl a r t o l - t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n .
Variations io the characteristicsof diflerent polypropylcnes
wcre alrcady causingdifiiculties,as outlincd abovc. But the fibrc- lrn(urc ltrolrrcc(s
rnanufacturerfound also that he was rcqtrircd to produce more Wltcn thc dyeing and olhcr problcnls havc bccn solvcd, poly-
gradcs oI polypropylene fibrc than was usual with othcr typcs propylcnc fibrcs will bc avirilablcfor unrcslriclcd usc in l)lirrkct\,
of synthctic fibre. knit goods,upholstcry frbrics, swcirtcrslutl othcr apparcl fubrics.
lnitially, polypropylcnewas introduccd as a Irigh-strengthl'ibre It will bc in widcsprcadusc in thc wontctt'slrosicry nrrrkcl.
rvhich compared in tcnacity rvilh nylon. Once lhe lreat-stability
and otller polymer problems had been solved, there was no
5't4
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
A: SYNTIIE'TIC FI EI{ES
ll. is safc to predict that the next decadeor two will scc a
lrcnrcndousdcnrandfor an incxpensivc,serviccablc, Polyoleliu
available
textilc nbre that will be necdedin very large quantities.At Plopylenc is chcrrricallya nrcnrbcr o[ lhc olcfin class o[ hydro-
the presenltime, polypropyleneis the only fibre developedor carbons, and polypropylcne is a polyolcfiu. I'olypropylcrrciibrcs
theoreticallyfeasiblethat can combineserviceability witli econ- are thus a typc of polyolclin fibrc.
onry and availability.It seemscertain,therefore,that polypropy_
Ienefibresnrustbccomctbe'cotton'of syntheticlibrcsbeforcihe
PRODUCTION
etrd of the twcntiethcenturyhas bcenreached.
Monorner Synlhcsis
l\'opylcuc is a constituentof lhc rrrixturcsobtaincd front thcrnlirl
and c.atalyticcracking proccssesin thc pc(roleutn industry.
lt
is available.in virtually unlimited quantity and at potcntia y'vciy
TYPES OF POI-YPROPYLENEFIBRE low cost.
. U U U U U U U U L J
TIANDBOOK OF'TEXTILE FIARES R: SYNTIIETIC FIT]RES
ln thc production of staplc fibre and tow, bundlesof fine fila- slretch,for cxamplc,the highcrthe tcnsilestrcngthand lorverlhc
nlcnls are combined lo form a tow containing hundreds o[ elongation.
thousandsof individual filaments.The torv is drawn and crimped, The stretchcdlibre nray bc furthcr conclitioncd by hcirt-trcitt-
and thcn cut to an appropriatestaple length. ment at temperatures bclowthe softcningpoint. Hcrt-sctting, Ior
exanlplc,aflectsthc elasticrecovcry,shrinkirgccharactcristics ancl
S pinning and Processing Conditions flex resistanceof the nbre.
Polypropylcne crystallizesso rapidly that the undrawn lilaments The effectsof spinniugconditionsand subscqueul. lrcatlrrcnI
are highly crystalline.In this respect,polypropylenedi{Iers from
of the fibre are duc largclylo thc way in which thcy inllucncc
other syntheticpolymerswhich arc mclt-spun,such as polyamides t h e a n o r p h o u so r i c n t a t i o na n d c r y s t l l l i r r es t r u c t u r co f t l t c
and polycstcrs. p o l y p r o p y l e nTel.r ca b i l i t yt o c o n t r o n
l r o r p h o l o edyu r i n g s p i r r n i r r g
Thc unusually bigh crystallinity rcnders fibre-production very i n t h i s w a y i s u s e dt o a c l v a n t a gpcc, r n l i t t i n gt h c p r o t l u c t i o no l
sensitiveto conditions of spinning and subsequentproccssing,and fibreswith a wider rangcof propciticsthan-rvoukjotltcrwiscl)c
permils a fiuc degreeof control over libre propcrties, possible.
Thc lemperatureat tvbich extrusiotr is carricd out, commonly
8 0 o C . o r m o r e a b o v e t h e p o l y m e r r r l e l t i n gp o i n t , a n d t h e c o n - Stahilizatiott
ditions under which the filanrentsare cooled, allcct the naturc Dcgraclationof polypropylcnetnkcs fl cc prinrnrily throtrgh
irnd cxlcrrI o[ crystallinity. Rapid cooling or qucnching rcsults in o x i d o t i o t rw, h i c h i s c n c o r r r n g cbdy h c t t n n r l l i g l r t .S t n b i l i z r r t i o n
snrall crystals,whercasslorv cooling allows Iargercrystalsto fortn. of polypropylcneis esscntialto conlcr light nnd hcat stability,
Thc dcgree of orientation achicved by drawing thc lilaments and substanccs are commonlyaddcdfor this purposcbcforc thc
influencesthe mechanical properties; the Sreater the degree of moltenpolymeris spun.
Stabilizcrsare mainly conrpoundscapableo[ (lctclivxtiog
free radicalswhich prornotethe oxidativech:rirtrcaction.Coru-
poundswhich are primarily U.V. absorbers rrc of little valucirr
the stabilization of fibres(too !righsurfrce/voluure ratio).
Hcot Stability.Heat stabilizationcan bc providcd for poly-
propylcnc fibres whicb enable thc fibrcs to rctain uscful
mcchanical propcrticsafter cxposureto air lor cxtcndcdpcriods
al temperatures of, for examplc,120"C.
M O O E R A T E L Y O R I E N T E DY A R N A particularproblcrn ariseswhcn polypropylcncfibrcs nrc
cxposedto solvenlsor aqLreous solutionsfor long pcriods,as
thc stabilizerstend to bc removcd by extrrction. Rcpcalc(l
laundering, for example,may resultin thc graduallossof sontc
stabilizers. Spccialformulationslrave bccn dcvclopcd,howcvcr,
LOW ORIENTED YARN
to mcet this dimculty.
Liglu Stability.Thc uscof polypropylcnc fibrcsin applications
such ns car upltolsteryrequiresthat thc fibrc shouldbc ablc to
10 60 ..withstandlong exposure to light at elcvatcdtcn]pcraturcs. liinding
E L O N G A T I O N( % ) stabilizers for suchapplicirtions has bcena clrallcnging problcnr.
^ Pigmcntedformulationshavc bccndcviscd.and arc uscdconr-
Stress-SttainCurves lor I>olt propylc|c Fibrcs Courtcsy Itercules
Powder Co, m e r c i a l l yi n c a r p e t s u, p h o l s t e r ya n d r v i n d o wc h a n n c lt a b r i c s .
578 5't9
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIARES
D: SYNTII ETI C FII}RES
For rcasons of cconortty, it is prelerablc to stabilizc poly- Sincc polypropylcne fibrcs bccarnc lvailablc, cvcrv
propylcne fibres to nrect lhe requitcments of specilic cnd-ttses, . cllbrt lrirs
l)ccr nrade.to dbvisc satisfactoryrty"ing r""liniqi,"r.;,ri;;;:;;i
rathcr than to use fibre which has bcen stabilizedto give adequate
protection in all applications.Manufacturerscommonly market a
range of polypropylcne fibres of difering stability characteris(ics.
illi",',li'rill,llil'",liii"0,'"*'"Xo.i,'"X"li,"",ll*il:ull:
p r o p y l c n ea, n d d o n o t i n v o l v cc h a r r g i n g
t h c c h c r l i c a-r;ill;;il;;;
lc o r r s f i t i r t i o n
of tJre polymcr. Olhcr tcchniqucsrcqiirc clrcnricll
Pt{ocEsstNc or rnc porymer sl.ructurcin ordcr lo achicvc llrcir
clfccts.
Scouri g l. Techniques bosetl on IJnmotlified polypropylanc
Thc size nray be renrovedfornr the warp yarns of a polypropylene
or polypropylenc-viscoscor polypropylcue-cotton blcnd Iabric Couvc.ntional Dyeing processes
by an appropriatc scourirrgprocess.
Scouring may be carricd out in winch or jigger, using, Ior
exanrple, a solulion containing 2-4 grans per litre of sodiurn
,u,t;i,.",1:'ir?:,1I:',lillil
tion, but n-one,
lT,:"::f :l.,iif
has provirJeda conrmercially
?iJ:":""i ::,ffll:
carbonateand 2-3 grams per litrc of non-ionic syntheticdctergent ur"f,if "ofo,,i-iiiig".
Flat, pnle.shfldes
with poor fastncsspropcrfics,Ir. ;";;pj;:
(c.g. Anionico SCL) for 45 minutcs at 80-95'C. Caustic soda
(2 ml./litre conc. 36 Bi) may be usedinstcad o[ sodium carbouatc.
After thorough rinsing, llrc fabric is dlied in the tenler frame, il:::i:,:":fl
[l"::"uf ili"1,11i:1":ff
bc added slowly lo thc rcduccd li lHh''ijl;"lif
,il.,t
bearing in mind that the dried fabric can withstand 125-130"C.
without suffcring danragc.
'ui,"
o."u,.,
ir,"'r;i,-u;;;;;;;;;;;'::i:li;::l:i'lij:".'rT,illll,:lilJ;.
lVhilcning
liiel,:1111
:L';'ff nl'lli,
"T,lilJ,ll',1,::1".#l','
".;i'il:,
tlfl,-i']:
rcsistantto washingor dry cleluingoi. ro iigfii.
Polypropylcne fibre itself does not rcquire whitening, but it is
,"i;;1'."..ii::";"J:J'.
;;llJl';.iffi'",fi
[.,1.-]';:'"J'
often neccssary to rvhiten blends containing other fibres. In
gcncral, lhe processesconrmonly uscd for the individual fibrcs poinl of walcr. A dyc bath of rnoltcn i.r'""T:l?,ll
u*0, for. "^^,",r1"1'*"i
of the blend rnay bc used. Fluorescentbrightenersmay also be
addcd. iil-'"j1,,'Tll,"llj'
il:,,'l"j:f,;i,
.jij,"l;,lTllru;;.1i, ili:.:ii
rcadily acceptable.
Dyeirrg
Polypropyler:efibre, in its unnrodifiedfornr, is virtually undycable l'[ass Colouratiort
by any of the familiar dyestulfsand techniqucs.This factor has, Polyplopylcne, likc polycthylcnc,
more than any other, restricted the {ibre's progress in the apparel ad<ling
suirabri
pigmenis
to'iire-irl:llJ"T"',r'l"jxfl
;T:.lil"J,l,i"l
and gcncral tcxtilc ficlds.
'fhc
rcasonsfor polypropylcne'slack of dyeability are twofold.
On thc one hand, the parallinic chemicalstructureof the polymer
iillt,il]li:i;[lJ':]"
iil{:,,'fl
iocrcases
I rulnl",llN
:1*lml
the productio' costs.Th; i*tr" ."rt
'ii.r'"";,'iil;:;
is almost complctely non-polar; there are no centresof chcmical provedtoo exorbitantin nracticc
aflinity by which dyestullscan be held in the fibre. On the othcr T h e r r r a i nd i s a d v a n t abgfep i g r r r c r r t cl jdb r c sl i c si n t l r cn c c ( l
hand polypropylenc fibrcs are hydrophobic and almost cntircly to
srorc and market a widc rangc of colorlrsof cvcry gradc
imperrneablc to watcri waler-borne dyestuffs cannot penetrate type o[ 1]bre.In recentycarslas cxpcricr." in an<l
riiJ
readily inl.o the interior of the libre. a n o u s eo t p i g n t e r ) t eI idb r e sh a sg r o t v nt,l l et c c l t n i ( l ulc;;;;Ji;;;
ils bccorrrc
580 58
_L' '' I
'l t t F.|l| r t r F.F.I- f.,F.n E
I T A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I A R E S B: SYNTIiETIC FIBRES
econonrically acceptablc,and thc pigntented libre continues to p.ropylcncfiblc, particular clrc is ncccssaryin cttrying
out thc
rnakesteady progress. sin-geingopcration. This is cspcciallyso in ihc casc of i"frrL, "i
100 per cent polypropyle0c.
Atltlirion ol Dye Reccplors Singeingis carried out on the usual machincs,ancl onc or both
sides of tbe fabric rnay be treatcd.Thc tlistancc ancl inclination
The dyeability of polypropylene libres may bc improved by
of the flanle are set in the normal way, but singcing is usually
mixing dye-receptivesubstanceswith the polyrner before it is
carried out at high spced e.g. 140-t50 mcters pcr nrinutc. This is
spun. Additivcs of this sort include (a) mctallic compottnds,(b)
about twicc thc spccd commonly uscd for iotton anrl viscosc
polymers,and (c) misccllaneouslow molccular wcight compounds.
fabrics.
A numbcr of fibres are now on the nrarket,in which dycability
Altcrnatively,the speedmay be sct at ?0-g0 mctrcs pcr nrinutc,
has been increased by introducing additives of this type. The
and the numbcr o[ burncrs rcduccd to lralf that usctl for co on.
techniquesused in dyeing libres of this lype arc specillc to each
Whcn light and loosc-wcavcfabrics arc trcatcd, ii is advisablc
fibrc, and depend upon the nature of the additive.
to wet tltem bcforc singci0g.
Singeing usually brings about sonrc supcrficial soflcning o l
2. Techniques basc(lon Chcnticalty-ModifiedPolypropylcnc p-olypropyJcncfabrics, causing sornc stifiening. .f.tris cnri
bc
elinrinatedby passingthc fabrics throrrgha cllcnrlcr.
As the non-polar nature of the polypropylenemolecule is partly
rcsponsiblefor the dycing ditlicultics,au obvious approach lo thc
Sy[(ltclic llcsi lrcltlntcna lo ltrDrovc Illrn(l
problem is to nrodify the polymer to improvc its dyc-receptivity.
lr{any developnrentsof this sort have been made, and modified 1-hc hand-of a labric may bc intprovcd and ils tcndcncytowtrds
polypropylene fibres are now on the market. They include pilling reduced by trcaiment wilh spccial finishcs con.sisting
oi
copolymersmade by incorporating a dye-receplivemonomer into synthctic rcsins, usually in entulsiou fonn, 'l'hcsc linislrcs arc
thc polymerizationprocess,or by grafting dye-receptivesegments especiallyuscful in thc case of loose-wovcnfabrics and fabrics
on to the main polymer chain, made fronr ply yarns, such as Ioose-wovclr or twill-rvcavc
Chenricaltreatiuentof the nbre, such as halogcnation,has also upholstcry fabrics.
becn used to improve the dyeability of polypropyleneby altering Modcrn resin-bascdfiuishcs o[ this typc arc usually rtrlc to
its chemical structure. resist.rcmovalby laundcring an<tdry-clcaning,and thcy ntay bc
These tcchniques,and others like them, bring about fundamen- considcrcd as pcrmancnt finishcs
tal changesby altering the chemical nature o[ the librc, and thcy
inevitably change the characteristicsof the fibre too. These CrcascproofTrcnlnrc|lls
changes may be small, lhe libre retaining its polypropylcne Fabrics pcr ccnl polypropylcnc librc cilInot bc trcatcd
characteristicsrvith only minor changes.They may, on thc other .of 1.00
cltectrvelywtth creascproof rcsin, as t.hc fibrcs arc so incrt
hand, be so severe as to create a fibre in which the properties thilt
the resins are no! fixcd pcrnrancntly to thcnt.
<iiller-significantly from those of a typical 100 per ccnt poly- Fabrics made from polypropylcnc fibrc blcn<lcrtwith ccllulosic
propylene fibre. ^.
llbres, howcver, Inxy bc crcascproofcdby nrcansof rcsins rvhiclt
act upon the ccllulosiccomponctrls.
Singci g O w i n g t o . t h c . c o m p a r a t i v c l yl o w s o f t c l i n g p o i n t o f t l r c p o l y _
Polypropylenelibre fabrics, in common with most fabrics made propyrcnctlbrc. rt rs ncccssiry lo sclcctllnishcstlr l (lo n('l
rcquirc
from synthetic fibres, have a tendencytowards pilling.'fhis nray heatirU lo tcmperaturcsabovc 130.C.'l.his rcslricts thc sclccfiotr
be avoided by light singcing treatments. cousiderably, and many of thc ntost efcctivc of thc crctsc.
Owing to thc conlparatively low sotlening poillt of poly- proofing finishcs cannot be used.
582 583
I
I
Ia
I
W|lterproofing
I I A N D D O O KO F ' T E X T I L ET . 'tIrRE S D : S Y Nl l l l l ' l r c l : l t R e s I
I\{ouldirrg
Acrylic Resin Finishes Polypropylenefibrc is thcrmoplastic,softcning at about 150.C.
and mcltitrg at about 160-i70"C. Fabrics colsistiug rvholly or irr
Fabrics of I00 per cent polypropylele may be waterprooled by
part of polypropylenc fibrc nray bc mouldcd untlcr propcr contli-
coaling with acrylic rcsins dissolvedin organic solvenls,or in the
lions o[ tirnc ancl lcnrpcraturcinto fllnrost any tlcsircd slrlpc.
fornr o[ aqucouscmulsions.This rcsultsirr an impcrrneablcfabric, -fhis
mouldability nray bc uscd in innumcrablc npplicatious
and is not recommcndedfor apparel applications.
rvhcrc a fabric is rcquircd in t thrcc-dirncnsionalslrnpc,such lrs
brassilrcs, hats, handbags,inncr and outcr linings lor lrrggrrgc,
Silicone Finishcs pancls for furniturc and car upholstcry.
Polypropylene fabrics may be given a high degrce of rvater
repellency by treatment rvith silicone Iinishes. These have thc Fibre Content antl Fubric I'ype
advartagc of leaving the fabric air-permeable. A nrininrum of 70-80 per cent polypropylcnc fibrc in tlrc fablic is
rccolnmendedin ordcr to cnsurc good mouldability. 'l'hc fitbrics
Cltrotnirrttt Co:nrplc.res
ol Stcariclcid nray bc tnadc from staplc or continuousfilanrcnI yarns, an<l nrly
Finishcs bascd on the chromium conrplexesof stcaric acid nray bc jn almost any typc of weavc,Vcry dcnseflbrics rcquirc highcr
bc uscd to inlpart good watcr-repellcncyto polypropylcnc fabrics. tcnrpcralurcsthan lhinucr fabrics.
Non-wovcn fabrics rnust lrrvc lrigh nntl cvcrrly-tlislLibtrlctl
strength propertiesin nll dircctions.'l'hc nrain problcnr prcscntcd
Permrnent Antistatic Finishing
by non-wovenfabrics is thc rcadincsswith which thcy tcrr during
For certain applications,such as laboatory coats, overalls, etc., the hea(ing cyclc, duc to shinkagc.Chcmical bonding agcntscan
it is neccssaryto providc an antistaticfinish that rernainsellcctive oftcn overcome this dilliculty.
throughout the life of the garment. A number of products are
available for this purpose. IIcat-Sctling
In common wilh other thermophstic fibrcs, polypropylorc fibrcs
C:|lcndcring and fabrics can bc hcat-sct against subscqLtc|rtshrinkilgc and
Calenderingmust be carried out very carefully, bcaring iu mind deIormation.
the relatively low softening point of polypropylcne fibres. lt is A tempcrature of 130"C. is thc maximunr practiclbly-usablc
recommendedthat the temperatureslrould be no more tlran 90"C., temperaturefor hcat-setting.Fabrics sct at. lhis tcmDerrturc will
and the cylinder load 15-20 tons. It is possibleto use 30-40 tons resisl.sl)rinkxgcin boiling wllcr, and :rrc s(lblc rrl) t; 120.C.
on the silking calcnder. Blended{abrics containingnrorc lhan 30 pcr ccnt polypropylcrrc
can be hcat-set,(hc cllcctivcncssincreasing with thc prol)ortion
of polypropylenc in the blend.
Fornr Ilrckiflg Plcats and crcasesmay bc hcat-sctin polypropylcnc fabrics or
Foam-backed fabrics nray be made satisfactorilylrom l00 per blcnds, and thesefabrics nray also bc mouldcd into thrcc-tlinrcn-
cent polypropylene fabrics, and also from blendcd polypropy- sional shapes (sce abovc). Thcy may bc calcndcrcd ancl cnr-
lene/cotton and other fnbrics. bosscd to givc pcrnt ncnt cllccls
The.ppcedurcs used for applying polyurethane foams are Hcalsettirg inrprrts rcsistanceto wrinkling during wushing.
similar to those used with fabrics made from other fibres.Acrylic
resins may be used as adhesives,or the foanr may be applied by Bonding
fusion techniques. A variety of adhesivesmay be uscd in bonding polyolcfin firbrics
584
585
- 1- U U U U U U U U U
,F-F.tfFJJ.r F.F t F,F f=,n F,n
" I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTII ETIC FII}RES
and yarns, including (l) contact adhesivcs containing volatile averagenrolccularwcight and nrolccullr wcighl dislribUtiou,and
solvcnts,(2) hot mclt resins,and (3) cpoxy compounds. on thc content,of isotlctic polynlcr, lt nrity vnry bctwccn two
extremes,representedby a con)plclcly nnrorl)l)ousilt ctic poly-
propyleneon the onc hand, to thc 100pcr ccnl crystallincisoiactic
STITUCTUREAND PROPEITTIES polypropyleneon the otlrcr. Thc norntal "o.nlnr"riinl poll,nrcr
has
MolccularStructurc a d e g r e eo f c r y s t a l l i n i t yo f a b o u t ( r 0 t o 7 0 p c r c c n t .
T h e d e g r c e _ o [ c r y s l a l t i n i t yo f a p o l y p r o p y l c n cl i b r c i s i n -
Unlike the natural libres and most of the importantsynthetic ^
IUenccd also Dy thc lrcatnlcnt to which tlrc llbrc is sutrjcctcd
hbres,polyolefins baveno polar groups.Prior to the devclopment during procesing. Stretchingand hcat-trcatnrcntmay rtlcct thc
of isotacticpolypropylene,it was consideredthat polar groups way in which the lincar nroleculcsarc packcclinto llicir ordcrctl
wereessential to the productionof textilefibresof high strength. crystallinepattcrns.
'fhey provided
the forceswlrich held the linear molcculestogethcr Thc high degrecof cryslaltinityachievccljn isotnclicnolvDronv_
as they lay alongside ons anotherin the orientatedfibre. lcle fibres is reflcclcd in thc high strcngth ald stitilcss, rrirtlitic
The presence of polar groupsin a linear moleculedoesmake low elongationof thc libres.
the manufactureof high-strength fibrespossiblefrom polymers
of relativelylow nrolecular weight.Polyamicles yieldstrongfibres, lsotacticity Indcx
for example, when the rnolccular weight lies betwecn 10,000and 'fhc
c o n t c n to [ i s o l a c t i cp o l y p r o p y l c n ci s r n c l s r r r c dl l v c s l i n r n t i n u
30,000.
th:, arlto.llntof rcsiduc rcnrainingaflcr cxtmction of ihc polyrrr"i
In polypropylene, it is crystallinityalonethat providestensile
wrrn Dotjtng n. hcPtirnc;il is cxprcsscdas llrc isota..i..ityitular.
strengthby preventingslippageof the linear molecules.And
Connrercial polypropylcnc has an isolacticity ina"x of ov"r qO
higher molecularwcightsare necessary to obtain the necessary pcr cent.
strength.Polymersof molecularweightgreatcrthan 50,000arc
nccded,for examplc,to eliminateintracrystalline llow, corres-
FiDe Struc(urca d ApJ,enrflcc
p o n d i n gt o t e n a c i t i eos f a t l e a s t4 4 - 5 3 c N / t e x ( 5 - 6 g / d e n ) .
Monofilanrents with tenacitiesabove88.3 cN/tex (10 g/den) Polypropylcnc fibres are produced as colourlcssIilanrcnts,nnd irr
require polymersof molecularweight greater than 100;000. a range of pigntented shadcs. They are srnoot h -surlhccrl ariri
The averagemolccularweighlso[ polypropylenc usedin fibre a r e s o n l e w l ) a tw a x y i n : l p p c a r ac e . ' l ' h e f i l a n t c n t sa r c o l . t c r ro f
manufacturearc commonly higher than 200,000.Lligh-density round cross-scctior), but thcy arc nlso proclrrccdin a varictv oI
polyethylene fibrcs,by contrast,have molecularweightsin the otlter cross seclions for spccill applicltiorrs. Dianrctcls lic iorrr-
region50,000to 150,000, and low-densitypolyethylene 20,000to r l l o l l l y D e t w c e n 0 . 0 2 _ 0 . 5 r r r r r r( 0 . 0 0 0 g _ 0 . 0 2 i r r ) , b u t
hcilvicr
25,000. nronofilsare proclucedfor use as bristlcs.
The linear moleculeof isotacticpolypropyleneis thus, on 'fensile
average, twiceas long as a linearmoleculeof high-density poly- StrcnSlh
elhylene,and more tbrn l0 times as long as the nroleculeof Polypropylcncfibrcs arc produccd in a varicty of typcs of <lillcr-
low-density, branchcdpolyethylene. r r g l c n i l c ' t t c sd c s i g n c dt o s U i t v a r y i n g n r i t r k c tr c q U i r c r n c D t s .
Most applicationsare adequatcly icrvcd by fibrc of rrrctliunr
Dcgrcc of Crlstxllinity .
t e n a c i l y , - a n dc o m m c r c i a ls t a p t c a n d c o n l i n u b u sf i l n l c n t
vanls
The crystallinity of a polypropylene fibre, rvhiclt has such au p J o d u c c dt .o r g e t l e r a tl c x t i l c u s c sl l a v ct c l t a c i t y2 ( r . 5 _ 4 4 . 1
c N /tcx
imporlant infiucuce on lcnsilc strength alld other nrcchanical (r -)-
_ g / d e n l ;t c n s i t e s t r c r ) g t h2 , 4 5 0 _ 4 , 2 0 0 k g / c l r 2 1 J 5 , 0 b 0 _
propcrtics,is controllcd prinrrrily by thc uaturc of lhe polynrer 6 0 , 0 0 0l b / i n z) .
itsell. The dcgree of crystallinity attainable dcpends upon the y a r n s r e a c h i n g8 0 c N / t c x ( 9 g / t l c n ) x r c r r r a t l c .F o r
spcci:ri
586 587
I { A N D D O OK O F T E X T I L E F I D R E S D : S Y N T I I E T I CF I D R E S
p u r p o s e s ,y a r n s o f t e n a c i t y u p t o l l 5 c N / t e x ( 1 3 g / d e n ) a r e Crecp Clnractcristics
produccrl.
Cold flow or irecp churactcristicsoI polypropylcnc
the other haud, does not need to be of very high tensilestrength. arc satisfac-
tory, and.a great inrprovcmenton polyctliylenc,
High resilielcc is a more desirable characteristic,and fibres of Uut,fo nor i"o"i,
serby potyamidc-or polycsrcrlibrcs.potypropylcnc
lower tenacity are produced for this type of application. ll",-.-,1lglro
ltDrcswt undergo cold flow of up to 0.5 pcr ccttL
Knot and loop streogthsare usually some l0-15 per ccnt lowcr of tirc oricinal
ierrgthwhcnsubjccred ro r loatlof lJ.2 cN/tcxf f .Ss/(fc,rir.;i'ii
than Lhe strength o[ thc straight libre.
noursat roonltenlpcrature_
lilorrgation l;lcx R(sistqnce
Contmercial polypropylcne monoRltmcnls have an elongation at Exccllent.
brcak in thc region of l5 to 25 per cent..Multifilament yarns are
in thc rangc of 20 to 3(l pcr cent, and staple libre 20 to 35 pcr Spccilic Gravity
cent. As in.the caseof polycthylcnc fibrcs, thc spccificgravity
of nolv_
propyrcnevarieswilh thc dcgrcc oI crystallinity.
lilastic I'ropcrlics Amorplrorrsilolv-
propylenc has a spccificgravily o[ 0.g5; conrmcrcial
nbr"s ai" iu
The elastic properties of polypropylenc fibres, in common with tlrc rlnge 0.90-0.91,and highly crysta inc fibrcs rcach 0.92_0.94.
other mcchanicalproperties,may be varied over a wide range by l'olypropylcnc librcs arc tltus (hc liglrtcst.of all conrrrrcrcini
choice of polymcr and processingconditions.Fibres can be pro- lcxtilcfibres,evenrhehigtrtycrysrainc-fibrcst"i"g rieiii"i it,;,,
duced to meet the requirements of specific applications with all bul polycthylcne.
rcgard to elasticproperties.
Dltcct of Moisturc
I{igh Tenacity Fibre Polypropyleneis a parafl'inichydrocarbon,and it docs not absorb
Thc elasticrecovery propertiesof commercial high-te[acity fibres watcr. Thc nroisture regain of polypropylcnc nbrcs is so smtil
are excellenl,and similar to those of nylon. Immediate recovery as to be insignilicanl,and walcr has no cfiect on tcnsile strcngllt
afler l0 per cent elongationis about 90 per cent with virtually no and other ntcchanical propcrties,
permanent set. Water docs not cause auy noticcablc dcgradation irr nolv_
;>ropylenefibrcs. Fibres subjcctcd to boiliug *nt". o, ,t"n,i, lo.
Metliwn Tenacity Fibre long periodsshow no losso[ slrcnglh.
Cocllicicntof liriclion
Polypropylene has a rclativcly high coeflicient of friction
agninstsnrooth surfaces,particularly rnetal or porcelain.Thc co-
cfiiciclt of friction of yaln againsl, for cxarnple, a yarn guidc
dccreaseswith jncreasillg tcnsion.
-l'hc
coeflicientof friction ngainsta matt guidc, i.e. a guide with
a discontinuous surface, is much less tlran against a polished
guide, owing to the smaller actual area of contact between tbe
yaflr and nratt surface.
. l
I
' l r ' r r r-l '--1
TI NDAOOK OF TEXTTLE FIBRDS B : S Y N , r l lE . I .C
l FlnRr,s
I ' O L Y P I { O P Y L E N EF I B I T E SI N U S I : l a r g c l yb y t l r c a n r o u n Io ( t i r c n t r p p c d i n t h c f : r b r i c . . l . h c
llrcrnral
conductivity o[ polypropylcnc libic is, lrowctcr, I"*;;
it;,;;';i ;i
Gencral Characleris(i(so[ Polypropylcnc Fibrc Goods ot othcr tltjrcs,and irr lhis rcspccl polypropylcnc is lhc ,wanlcst,
Oreln commcrcial usg-
Initially, polypropylenemonofilamcntsmade their way into appli-
cations which had already been pioneeredby polyethylene.They Crease Rcsistance
oflered highcr streugth,increasedtoughness,resilience,abrasion The ability of a tcxtilc labric to rcsist crcirsc Iormatiorr durirrt
resistanccand crecp resistance,and a higher mclting point; thesc use is inlluenced by the physical naturc of lhc nbrc itsclf. Irl th;
properties werc allied to the water-resistance, chemical inertness casc of polypropylcnc fibrc, this charactcrislic varics with thc
and other propertiestbat had enabledpolyethyleneto competein molccular weight of thc polyncr, and with thc conditions o[
a range of applications. sp-inning and dra.,ving. Polypropylcnc yarns arc protlucccl iu
Polypropylcne monofilaments on this basis, were soon en- which the crease resisl.ingpropcrtics are at optinrunl valuc for
trenched in a number of fields where they competed very eflec- applications where this is imDortant.
tively with other ljbres; thcse fields included ropes and cordage, In gcneral, the crease-resistinccof polypropylcnc Jibrcs is of
fishing nets and twlnes, filter fabrics, protectiveclothing and the the same order as that of wool. Uniike wobi, howcv"r, poly_
like. propylene fibre docs not losc its high crcase-rcsistancc whcn wct.
With the introduction of line-denier multifilament yarns and Shrinkage
staple fibre, thc range of poteutial applicationsfor polypropylene
libre was extendedinto the generaltextile and apparelfields.This By.controlling the condilions of proccssing,lhc shrinkngcchirrac_
brought them into ccmpctilion with establishednatural and tcristicsof polypropyleneyarns may be varicd ovcr a considcrablc
sy[thetic fibres in applicationswhere the shortcomingsof poly- range,
propylene fibres often place them at a disadvantage.Despite the Shrinkage of polypropylene yarns is quitc low under thc
many attractivecharacteristicsof polypropylenefibres,less dcsir- tusualconditions of Iabric scouringand dyeing. Speciolcarc must
be
able properties - such as dyeing difficulties and relatively low .taken, however, whcn high-lenrpcraturchnislting treatmcnts
melting point - have lended to limit progress. sucn as rcsln curing ilrc uscd. Shrinkagcmay bc lrigh ilt clcvatcd
lemperatures.
Processitrg Belnviour This shrinkagc causedby high tcmpcraturcsis not progrcssivc,
and polypropylcnc fabrics nray be hcat-sct. In cornnron witlr
Polypropylene libres have a filamenl-to-filamentcoeflicient of other
friction higher than that of any other textile libre. This, in com- -syntbetic fibres, hcat-treatedpolypropylcnc yarns which
have been allowed to shrink and Ueconicsrribitizc<]at a givcn
bination with crimp stability and low static charge accumulation, tcmperatureare essentiallystable to subscqucnttrcatmcnt up to
makes for excellent processing characteristics. Polypropylene t h i s t e m p e r a t u r eT. h i s p r i n c i p l ei s u s e c il n p r o v i d i r r nd i r n c r r s i o r r r l
libres blend easily and ellectivclywith otlrer texlile nbres. stability to [abricsnrade frorn polypropylenc fitrrcs.-
Covering Power . . F a b r i c .s h r i n k a g eu r r d e r c o r n r n c r c i acl l r y - c l c r r r i r rcgo n r l i t i o r r s
w l r n p e r c l l l o r e t h y t e nte n d sL o b e c x c c s s i v e .l.rl i s l i r n i t st l t c u s c o f
The lorv specilicgravity of polypropylenefibre gives it a covering p o l y p r o p y l e n ei l s o m e t c x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s .
power which is, weight for weight, greater than that of any other
Higlr-shrinkagepolypropylcnc fibrcs may bc prcpnrcd by lhc
textile fibre. This has been particularly helpful in the development usc-of.appropriatcproccssingconditions.fibrcs of-this typc arc
of polypropylene blankets,upholstery,carpet and apparelfabrics. useful in the plodrrctiorro[ ccrtain typcs o[ tcxtrtrcd and-bulkctl
'l- yarns.Jn blends, thc high shrinkagc o[ a polypropylcnc corrrpo-
lrcrnnl Insulatiott ncnt of Lhistypc may lrc used to crcatc bulkcd or pirckcrctlcfc:cts
-fhe
thernral insulation characteristicsof a fabric are determincd rn yarns and finishcd fabrics.
s94 595
ilI
IIANDBOOK OF 1'SX'I'ILE FI DRI]S
I : S Y N l l : r I C r r tu R E s
Creep
ll/ osh qntl ll/ utr C I nrac tcrist ic.s
Polypropylenc yarns generally cxhibit nrore creep than polyester
Polypropylcnc fibrc is unusually rcsistant to soiling. -l-his is
or nylon yarns, but tlte amount is so sntall thal il is rarely of
practical signillcance. It is usually appreciably less than the in0trclccd in thc nrain by two factors:
normal extensionof the yarlr under the load. (^) Electrcstdic AItt 0ctiotl
Wherea rope or otherconslructionhas to withstanda contin-
uousheavyload,it is usuallydcsigncdso that the averagcloading Polypropylcnefibrcs shorv Iittlc tcndcncy to accurrrultrtc clrirr.gcs
oI static electricity throLrgh friction duiing usc. .t.hcy do iot
i s q u i t el o w , c . g .4 . 4 - 8 . 8 c N / t e x( 0 . 5 - 1 . 0g / c l c r r 1) .' h i si s n c c e s .
atlr ct dust nnd dirt to thq cxtcnt thirt nlosl.othcr syntltctic fibr.cs
s i t a t e db y s a f e t y c o n s i d c r a t i o nU s .I d c r t h c s cc o n d i t i o n st.h e do.
e f f c c to f c r e e pi s v c r ys r n a l l .
(b) Chenical Inert css
Din(nsionul Stability
Polypropylerrcdoes not rc ct chcmically with thc substanccs
Dinrensional stabilityof polypropylencfabricsis excellent,and cncoulltcrcdin gencral usc,nor is il. attackcd by contnronsolvcnts,
the water-rcpcllcncy of the fibre enablcsit to retain its Irigh grcascs,oils, ctc. Jt. js not rcadily stainccl,thcrc[orc,
stability through repeatcdlaunderings.Polypropylcncfabrics and such
staining-as docs tflke place is conrnronly supcrticial.'.l.hc sfaiir
retainthcir shapcin changingconditiousof nroisturcand hunrid- i s h c k l i n t h c i n t e r s l i c co
s f t h c f a b r i c b y c a p i l i l r y n l t r l c t i o n ,l n d
ity, and on lhe strengthof this stabilitylhcsc [abrics lound a is rcadily renrovcdby lrrLrndcring
readymarket in upholsteryand industrjalfabrics,laundry bags, or rlry clc:rrring.-
seat belts and protectiveclothing. ln such applications, poly- Ilourl ond D roping Clrrructeristicr
propylenefibrc provideshigh strcngtlr,low elougation,
toughness,
rcsilienceand abrasionresistance Hand arrd_dr ping chtt cteristicsdcpcnclgrcatly <ltl lhc rvcaving
which do not chansc undcr
rnd finishing ol fabrics.
normalconditionsof use.
Flct Resistencc
Abrasiotr Resistancc
Fibres havc good [1cx rcsistanceand rrrotlcratclygootl rccovery
Polypropylene fibreshavca high resislance to abrasionwhendry,
and cvcngreatcrrcsistancc I r o r r _ b c r r d i n ga, n d l h c s c p r . o p c r l i c s c r v c l h c r r t w - c l l i n " l r r n " t s
whcnwet.The abrasionresistance of a r , n d t t o o r c o v c r i n g s .f c x t r r r c ( lf i l i r n r c t rat n c l b u l k c t l s t : r n l c
blend containingpolypropylene fibre increasesin proportionto 'v i r t l s
hav-ernadc good hcadway in thcsc and othcr pilc fabric.s.
thc amountof polypropylene libre in thc blcnd.
Abrasionresistance High flcx rcsistancc couplcd with cxccllcrit loop- anrl knot_
is of particularimportancein applications
s t r c n g l ha r c i r ) t n o r t a | | itt r t h c p r o d u c l i o no f k t r i l t c i l g o o d s ,
such as carpels,wherethe ability to withstandwear is esscntial. antl
polypropylcncfibrc has foLrndmany applicrtionssuch
In con'rmon with othermechanical properties,
abrasionresistance is srvtiatcrs
nray be influenccdby the nrolecular cardigans,swirttwcarand undcrwcar.
weightof the polypropylene,
cross-section,and the conditionsof spinningand processing.
- Pleal Pennanence
Fibres may be produced with optimum a6rasionresistancl
characteristics
for specialapplications. Plcats may. bc ltelt-set in polypropylcnc fabrics, lrrrd tllc
l)lcills
snow exce ent relcntio . A blcnd of polypropylcnc fibrc (60 pcr
FeltingBehoviour c c r t ) a n d w o o l ( . . | 0p c r c c n t ) w i l l t a t c p t c a t i w c l l l t t r c y , i , r y ' l r c
troncd into thc I bric al I40.C. In most cirses,plcati nray
Polypropylene fibres,like nrostothersyntheticfibres,do not felt. l.rc
presscdinto polypropylcneIflbrics at 130"C.,wtricli givcs
In blcndswith wool, polypropylene reduccsthe tendencyto felt a bctrcr
nrargin o[ safety, especinllyin fabrics of l0d pcr *ni p"ffpi.py-
in proportionto the arr,ountof polypropylene fibre jn the blend. leuc fibre
596 59'1
i
I
- - l ' l ' t r l
l
I
r l
a
FFf_F F FroF F F FJJJJJJ
i IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES l]: sYN I El lC Irllllrts
ApparcL Fabrics A'IisceI Iuttco ru U v' "^
Ltulics'I!osiety I'ibcrfil
Pigrnented continuous filarnent pclypropylcne yarns provicle Polypropylcnc fibcrfil is uscd in slccping bags, rnilllrcsscslnd
com[ortable,soag-resistant
stockings. quiltcd fabrics. It is lighl, washcseasily and is con)plctcly rcsis-
lant to insectsand micro-organisms.
Ktrit I'ilc l1abric Bucking Yarns
The strength and Iight weight of polypropylcnc staplc fibre servc Car Upholslery
it well in this applicatioD. Polypropyleue monofilirrncnt yarns providc upholstcry llbrics
with long lifc, soil resistanceand low static charactcristics.
Men's Stockings
KDit Pilc Boor Li itgr
Exccllcut stockingsare nladc frortr blcnds of polypropylcnestaplc
I'igntentcd polypropylcne staplc is usc(l for this applicatbrr, pro-
with acrylic libre.
viding cxcellent thermal propcrtics,inrprovcd pilc rclcrrtion and
Drcss l(tritvear rcsistauccto insects,rnildcw, ctc.
lllended rvith rayon, polypropylcnc staplc librc pr.ovidcsknitwcar
of excellenthand. Blcnded with wool, it is uscd for swcatersand POLYPITOPYLENESPLff FILM III I}I{I]S
olhcr garmcnls o[ this type. ( F t B R I L L A I ' I N Cl r r L M )
Continuous lllanrenl.texturcd yarns arc also usc<|.
lN f I{oDUCl tON
Ccllulosic BIetds
It has long bcen knorvn that fibrous mn(crills could bc produccd
Illcnds of polypropylcnc staplc librc with cotton and othcr ccllu- by splittiog synthclic polymcr lilurs. A pirtcnt coverirg lhis tcch-
losic fibrcs show great promise as apparel fabrics. Blends with nique was filed duliug thc 1930s,but little practicirl usc of thc
cotton conlaining up to 20 pcr cent polypropylenemay be ironed 'l'hc
process has bccn nadc rnlil conrparativcly rcccnt tinrcs.
without difliculty. The dcvelopmcnt of low-tcmpcftrlurc curing conrnrcrcial dcvcloplren'r.of polyolcfins has stirrrulttcd rcncwcd
rcsinshas incrcascdthc vcrsatility and scopcof blcndcd ,naterials i[tcrcst in tlrc produclion o[ split tilnr libres.
oI tlris sort. Many polyolefin manufacturcrs are now prorlucing split l'illn
libres, notably from polypropylcnc, which oflcrs thc optinrunr
t'tIu ou() I,dDftcs price/ properties coinbination for thc typc o[ uscs forcsecn Ior
Staple fibrc and contiuuous nlultifilantcnt yanls rc wovcn into thcse libres. Polypropylcne split lilm 0brcs rnay bc as nruch as
fabrics that have exccllentchentical rcsistancc,high strength and 25 per cent cheapcr to produce than thc corrcspontJingntultilila-
long li[c. ment yarn, and for this rcasorrtlrcy arc making mpid hcadway
ilr Drarketsthat wcrc prcviously closcd to polypropylcnc tibrcs.
I'yre Cord Outlcts for polypropylene split film fibrc includc nrooriug
-lyrc ropcs, fishnct twinc, ropcs and cords, packaging twincs, fishing
cords arc nradc fronl slaplc,multifilantcnt and rrronolilanrent nets, balcr twinc, hosc rcinlorccntcntand clcctricll cords. Spccial
yarns. Polypropylenccan be madc in vcry high strengthsfor this types of polypropylcnc split film fibrc suitablc for wctving hirvc
application, but the low melting poirlt placcs sonre restriction bccn developcd;thcy arc uscd,for cxanrple,in thc protluclion of
on usc. carpct backings nnd packiug flbrics.
606 607
T I A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L D FIBRES B : S Y N ' I ' I I D - T I CF I T } R E S
r l r--l
'F.FF.[F-FJJ,F. F. I'.FJJJJJ
r-
t t
il-
i
B: SYN'I'TIETI C FI BNDS
I HANDaooK oF TIIXIILE Fllll{us
othcr small ntolccules,and it is thercforc an additiorr rrthcr
5. I'OLYUltli'l'lrAND FII'RES than a condcnsationpolyrncrization.
610 6li
} T A N D B O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S
B: S Y N T I ID T I C F I N R E S
clastic rvebbings,support and foundation gitrntcnts,[or cxamplc, polar groups, lhc rcquircnrcntso[ rubbcrJikc chsticily nlight
derive their propcrtics frorn filanrentsoI rubbcr or sitnilar matcr- bc
met.'fhc polar groups would cstnblishstrong forccs bctwccn thc
ials incorporated in thc fabric. ntolccules,providing tic-points scparatcclby scgmcnls on non_
Natural rubber filamenls have been supplying thc power to polar ntatcrial.
strctch fabrics for morc than a hundred ycars, and thcy have
A grcat dcal o[ rcscarchwas cirrricd out in tttcn]pts to nlakc
establisheda position o[ some importance in the textile industry. elastomericfibres from polyamidcsin lhis way. polyanitJcs wcrc
Unfortunately, natural rubbcr has seyeralshortcomingswith res- nradc by condensing dicnrboxylic acids with I nriiturc of two
pcct to its r.rseas a textile matcrial (see page 153), and fibrc
diamines,onc of which had substitutcd(sccontllrry)tnrinc grorrps.
chcmistshavc long bccn sccking to dcvclop clastorncricnraterials 1'hc polynrcr fronl this condcosltion includcd tr;o "lcnr",ii, ui"_
which would be superior to rubber in recovery force, resistance
essary for thc cstablishmcnt o[ high clasticity; (t) a pliablc
to abrasion, chcnrical stability, dyeability and olher properties. c o n s t i l u e n to f l o w m c l t i r r gp o i n t w i t h p o o r i n t c r c l t a i nb o n d i r l
Thc elasticity of natural rubber derives from its long, fol<led Iorcc.(thc N-substitutcdpolyamidc scgmcnt,and (2) an intcrclrairr
polymcr molecules,which are linked together at intervals by tbc
b o n d i n gc o n s t i t u e n(t t h c u n s u b s t i t u t cpdo l y a r n i d cw i t h i t s h y d r o -
chcntical bonds introduccd during vulcanization.Whcn a filament gen bonding capability).
of vulcrnized rubber is pullcd, the loug rnolcculesunfold and thc
Elastic p_olyanridcs of this typc wcrc madc, for cxamplc, fronr
rubber stretchcs.Thc extent of lhe defornation is rcstricted bv .
hexflntcthylcncdiarninc and scbacicacid (i.c. nylon 6.lti typc) in
tlle links bctwccn tlrc rnolcculcs,and whcn lllc tcnsiotris relelsci rvhich a proportion of thc hcxnnrcthylcncrJianiinc*n. ,.riln.",j
thc long moleculestend to rcvcrt to their relaxccl,folded statc.
by.a dianrilc carrying bLtlky butyl groups. .l.hoscrcgions Lf tlrc
So the filament springs back to its original form. -and
nolcculcs formcd frorn lhc hcxnntethylcncdianrinc sctracic
Elastic fibrcs produced from natural rubbcr bavc exccllent
acid wcrc ablc to align thcrrrsclvcscioscly, and dcvclon stronc
clasticity, bul lhe tensilc streugth and force of recovcry from
hydrogcn bonds bctwccn thc molcculcs:thoic rcgionsof tir" nroi"j
strctch arc lcss thnn adequatefor the production of lightweight
culcs fornrcd from the substituteddiaminc, on thc othcr hand,
garmcnts. Iu addition, the double bonds which remain in the
wcre unable to align thelnsclves,forming rcgions o[ anrorphoui
rubber molecLrlesafter vulcanization impart chemical reactivitv. polyamidc.
espccially with rcspect to oxidising agents. Finally, tt" hyAro-
When thesc fibres wcre strctched,thc rnolcculcsin lhc flmor-
carbon nature of the rubber nroleculeresultsin a low acceoiauce phous rcgions wcre ablc lo unfold, thc dcgrcc of strctchinl
of dycs. of
thc libres as a wholc bcing rcstrictcd by the powcrful borrdirr-n oi
In tllc search for ncw typcs of claslotnericfibre, chcnristshave -wls
thc lnolectrlcsin lhc cryst:rllinc rcgions. Wlrcn thc lcnsion
sought.to dcvelop nrolecularstructureswhich would provide thc
rclcasc<l, the molcculcsin the amorphousrcgions tcnclcdto rcvcrt
f u n d a n r e n l a rl c q u i r c n r e n t so f r u b b c r - l i k ee l a s t i c i t y ,b u t d i d n o r
to thcir original positions as the fibre rccovcrcd fronr its strctch.
have the disadvantagesinhercnt in the hydrocarbon structure of
rubbcr itself. SegmculcdPolyure(ltares
lilns(ic PolJanridcs In the random copolymers produccd from nrixcd cliamincs,thc
average lcngth of the two conslitucnts was rathcr small, Thc
ln rubbcr, thc tic-points holding thc long nrolcculestogcthcr at scqucnccsof N-substitUlcdpolyanridc urrits wcrc loo short to
intcrvals cotisist of covalent chemical bonds introduced durinp pcrnrit of thc dcveloprncntof thc chain ncxibility ncccssary
vulcanization.lt was realizcd,howcver, that lincar polymcr nrolel for
high rubbcr clastic forcc, whilc l.lrc scqucnccsof unsubstiiutcd
culcs could be linked cffcctively by tie-points resulting from polyanrideunits wcre too short to prevcnt.rupturc during strctch_
hydrogen bonding devcloped by polar groups in the molecules. jng-or hcatilg (rupturc drrringstrctching
If a polymer rnoleculecould be ntadc, for exanrple,in which long c a u s c sf l o w i r u l > l u r c
during hcating rcsults in lorv softcning point). Whrt was ncc,l"J
segmcntsof 'amorphons-type'moleculc were liuked together by was a polymcr moleculein which lougcr scgntcnlsof nmorphous-
6t2
6t3
type structure were separatedby segmentsof nlolecule capable IJolh types of scgmcntedpolyurethanc fibrc are produccd by
of developingpowerful hydrogen bonds. fibre manufacturcrs in considerablevariety, providing a rlngc
The solution to theseproblems was found in the development of elastomericfibres which neet many diffcrcnt cnd-trscrcquirc-
o{ polyurethanepolymersin which segmentsof the molecule are ments.
deliberatelytailorcd to perform the desired functions. The lack The polymers formed by linking preforrned scgmcntso[ poly-
of flexibility of the pliable conslituent (with low melting point) cther or polyester molecules,via the urethans group, nray bc
was overcom€ by using preformed segmentsof molecule of con- cssentiallylinear molcculcs, or they may bc branchcd an<l/or
'soft'scgments);the cohcsionof the interchain 'fhc
siderablesize (the cross-linkedinto three dimcnsional structurcs. lincar typcs
bonding constituents('hard segnrents')was assuredthrough the arc generallycapable of mclting, and will dissolvein nppropriirlc
use of urethaneor urea groups. solvcnts.Thc thrce-dimcnsionaltypcs may bc cornplctelyinsolublc
The devclopment of these scgmentcd polyurethane polymcrs and non-melting.
has providcd the textile trade \vith an entirely new type of Fibrcs spun from tl]ese scinrcnted polyurcthtncs may bc in
clastomcric librc-the spandex fibrc. Dcrived lrom n polynrer the form of monolilan]ents,or they may bc mullifilament yarns
that dillcrs [undarnentally from tl]e hydrocarbon polymer of in wlrich a number o[ 0ne filamcntshave coalcscedafter spinning.
natural rubber, the spandcx fibre is strongertltan rubbcr, ancl has Monofilanrentsmay also be produced by cxtruding shcctsof thc
'recovery power'. lt is a white or clear and near-
a greater polyurclhaneand then cutting this into lilamcnts.
t r a n s p a r e nfti b r e ,c a p a b l eo f b e i n gd y e d t o m a t c h o t h c r f i b r e si n a
'Sheerspan' produces
fabric. Globek sheer-looking labrics in
rvhite, and its high degree of dye receptivity results in a fabric NOMENCLATURE
r v i l h s h a r p ,d e e pa n d d i s t i n c ts h a d e s .
Spandex fibres have a high resistanceto chenticals,sunligltt
Elustoncric Fibra
and other degradativeinfluettces,aucl ntay be rvashedrepeatedly
rvithou t ill-effect. Thc segmcntedpolyurethanc llbrcs now on lhc markct arc rll
'Lycra', was introduced on characterized by thc high cxte0sion and snap-l>ackrccovcry
The first spandex libre, du Pont's
to the market in 1958,and commercial production beganin I960- associatedwith rubber-like clasticity.Thcy are thcrcfore propcrly
6t. describcdas elastomericlibrcs in that they rre fibrcs which bchavc
Since then, many firms have followcd suit, and tlrcre are a in a rubberJike way.
nunrber of spanclexlibres now available. Tlre tcrm elastotneric fibre <1ocsnot, of coursc, rclrtc to thc
chcmical structure of a fibre, and it should bc realizcd thflt it is
not synonymot|swilh 'scgmcntcdpolyurethane'or 'sprndcx', l]oth
1"I'PESOF POLYURETIIANE I:II]RE of tlresc lnttcr tcrnls arc basctl upon thc chcmical sttuctrrrc of
thc librc (see below).
Thc process used iu producing segnreutcdpolyurethane Iibres
(see 'Protluction' bclow) is such as to allow of almost infinite
Federal Tradc Contnission D?littiliotl
variiltiorrin thc chcnricalstructurc of thc polynter thut is fornrcd,
Modcrn segnrcutcdpolyurcthanc fibrcs nray be corrsidcrcdas 1-lrcgcncric nanlc spandc.rwls adoptcd by thc U.S. l:cdcr:rl'l'rrtlc
falling into one or othcr of two gencral typcs rvhich difTerin the Comnrission for fibrcs oI the scgmcntcdpolyurcthlnc lypc, thc
chemical structr.lreof the 'preformcct'segmcntsof the molcculc. ollicial defiuition bcing as follows:
In this respcct,scgnrentedpolyurethanefibrcs arc cither
Sparulex. A manufacturcd fibre in which the fibrc-forrling
(a) polyether types, or
substanceis a long-chainsynlhctic polymcr conrposc<lo[ at lcnst
(b) polycster types.
85 per ccnt of a segmentcdpolyurclhane.
614 615
T I A N D U O O KO F T E X T I L I ] F I D R E S I } : S Y N T I I E ' T IC F I B R E S
- - lr ! , n t
\
n fi F-FFT.FJJI fi r'i-t: 11 '-E
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES l l t : s Y N tl t E I l c F I B n E S
(1)9!199! Spinniug
O C N- P o r - N C O + H O - R - O H - - > The techniqueusedin spinningspandcxfibresdependsupon thc
- ocoNH - Pot- NHcooRoCoNH- Po1- NHCoo- type of polymerthat is spun.Somesegmented polyurethancs,
for
example, are essentiallylinear molecules,and are solublc in
(2) DIAMINE solvents.Other segnrented polyurethancsmay be branchc<.I or
ocN - Pol - Nco + H2N- R|-NH, --->
crossJinkedstructureswhich are insoluble.
_ NHCONH- POT_ NHCONH- RI - NHCONH- POt- NHCONH_
(a) Lirrcar (Soluble)Polyurethunes
Chain extension with glycol or diamine.
Solublepolyurethanes are dissolvcdjrr an approprialesolvcnt,
and the solutionsmay be extrudedthrough spirincrctsinto a
This final chain extension stage may be carried out also by
coagulating bath (wet spinning) or into an atmospherewhich
addition of water to the isocyanate-terminatedprepolymer, instead
removesthe solvent(dry spinning). The techniqrrcs aic csscntiallv
of a glycol or a diamine. Water may be added, for example, in
quantity sumcient to react with a proportion of the terminal t h e s a m ea s t h o s eu s e df o r s p i n n i n g , h a r d ' s y n t h eftiibcr c sd, u e
allowancebeing madefor the fact that spandexfibres arc elastic.
isocyanate groups, forming pre-polymer molecules with an
isocyanate group on one end and an amine group on the other
(b) Bronchetlor Cross-linkcd(lnsoluhlc) polyurdhunrs
end (l). When this polymer is heated,the amine and the isocyanate
groups react to bring about firrther polymerization and cross- When the nrolcculeof polyurethane is allowcd to grow into a
linking of the molecules (2). three-dirnensional structure,it is insoluble and cannot bc spun
by the abovetechniques. ln tbiscasc,a ,chemicalspinning'pro""s,
- Pot - NHrn co,
may be used.The isocyanate-terminated pre-polymcrii spun at
ocN - Pot- Nco + Hro $ocN a stagewhen it forms a viscousdopc, tlre iets enrercinrinto a
g!
gaseous or liquid environmentcontaininga ihairrcxteirtlirwhich
oct.r-Pol-NH, t oCN- Por- NH, ocN - Pol- NHcoNH- Po1-NHz diffusesinto the fibre and reacts.The pie-polynrer nrolecules
are
'branched
Chain extension with \rater linked into their final fonn, producine
producingtlre or cross-
lirrkedpolyurethane
linkedpolyuretlrane in fibrousforrn.
form.
This reaction results in only one urea group for each two Spaldex fibres nray be spun as ntonolilaments. or as multi-
isocyanategroups,carbondioxide beingliberatedas a by-product. lilanrentyarnsin tvhicha nuntbcrof finc filamcntshavecoalcscc<l
The evolution of gas during chain extensionmay be regardedas after spinning.Squaresectionmonolilaments may be produccd
desirablein ihe productionof polyurethanefoams,but it is usually by extrudingsbeetsand lhcn cuttinglhcseinto filaments.
to be avoidedin the production of polyurethanefibres. An importantfeatureof spaudexfibresis that thcv mav bc
Spandexpolymers produced in this way may be essentially spunin very fine filanrents.The finestrubberyarnsareiommonly
linear molecules,in which end-to-endlinking of bifunctional ofabout 167^dtex (150-den),but spanrlexfibresnraybeproduccd
moleculesis the predominantreaction.Such materialsare com- as44 dtex (40 den)or finer.
monly soluble in appropriatesolvents.
If branchingoccursduring the polymerizationprocess,however,
e.g. by reaction of the isocyanateend-group with an active PROCESSING
hydrogenin the molecularchain, the polymer may build up into
a branched or cross-linkedthree-dimensionalstructure. Such Scouring
polymersmay reach the stageof being insolublein any solvent, Fabrics containing spandcx fibre may be scourcd with an
and incapableof melting. emulsifiedsolventsuchas perchloroethylene
at aboutg2oc..l.hc
618 6t9
HANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: S Y N T I JE T I C F I A R E S
fabric is after-scouredin a fresh scour bath containingdetergent requiring heat-settingshould be handled with the followin!
but no solvent,to relrove the last tracesof solventand finish. principlesas basis:
* t'
I
T - "
I
' l | --[
F.F,F.N F-F-F'J
FF.FN NF,T:FF,
B: SYNTH ETIC FI BRES
H A N D B O O K O T TT E X T I L E F I B R I ] S
Spandexfibresare conrmonlyclearand ncar-transparent,
{rr
First, the long-chain polyurethane molecules are synthesized white.The colournraydeteriorate with rgc.
sonlewhat
from preformed, soft-segment polymer blocks, and. the hard
seeme;b forming the tie-pointsare spacedmore regularly along Tcnacity;TensileSarength
thi chains than those in randomly vulcanizedrubber' In rubber,
ihe occuuence of tie-points close together may limit the flexibility Becauseof their segmented structure,spandexfibresnray bc nrldc
and hence the elastic effectivenessof the in-between soft-segments; strongerthan natural rubber lilaments.The brcakingtenacitics
rhis is avoided in lhe case of the segmented polyurethanes' Also, of spandexfibresare4.9-8.8 cN/tex(0.55- I .0 g/den),conrparcd
the more regular network of the polyurethanes should result in with 2.2 cNi tex (0.25g/den)lor naturalrubbcr.
'lensile
greater elongation before breaking, by minimizing the number of s t r e n g t hosf t h c s p a r r d cfxi b r c sa r c i n t l r c r a r r q (cr l ( r -
ihains which are stretched prematurely to the breaking point' 994 ke.lcnt2 ( 8,8-00-14,200ib/in2).
The second characteristic of polyurethanes is the occurrence Tensilepropertiesare aflectcdonly slightlyby w{rtcr.
of iie-points which may be broken and re-formed during stretch-
Elongation
ing. This behaviour minimizes the concentration of points of
stress,leading to an even more regular network structure with the It is a characteristic
of spandexfibresthat they are capablcol
advantages outlined above. beingstretched to severaltimcstheir originallength.Thc breaking
Finally, the hard-segment bonding is not necessarilylimited.to clongationsrangefrom 450to 700pcr centand may vary accord-
the tying together of moleculestwo-by-two, as is thc casc with ing to dcnicr wilh thc sanrctypc of spandcx[ibrc,
covalent crosslinks. The effect of multiple hard-segment
'packages' provides additional reinforcement similar to that
obtained in conventional rubbers by the use of active fillers,
such as carbon black.
Fibre Fornt
o.7
Spandex fibres are produced as monofilaments, e.g. of round
cross-section, or as partly-fused multifilaments. Monofilaments o.6
made by cutting thin sheets of polymer may also be produced. n o.5
-9 o.4
MoNoFrL
EX'TREUDED "r*n.lillixBF?".,ur MoNoFrL
| :f"ti.^T* F ^ ^
o.1
d Modulus of Elasticity
Spandex fibres havc a low nrodulus of elasticity, c.g. abont
l/1,000 that of I convcntional 'hard' fibrc such as nylon or
cotton. They havc a higher modulus of clflslicity than nrtural
rubbcr, however. To achievc a givcn strctch, spandcx fibrcs
require a force twice as high, over the cntire rangc of elongation,
as the force requircd by rubber.
SpcciffcGravity
1.2 to 1.25.
EIIecaof Moislurc
o 100 200 300 400 soo 600 Most spandex fibres have a ntoisture regain of thc ordcr of 1.0
STRAIN(% ELONGATION) to 1.3 per ccnt ('Vyrcnc' has a lower than avcragc rcgain of
Load-elongation curves for spandex and rubber libres. about 0.3 per cent).
624 625
' . l r f r l r l r-.l
F.F'F.F.FJ'
|
E F.t F.F.1"L
F-F, i
f'l-F F-F, l I
" f ,
!' "ANDBooKoF TExrrLE FTBREs { B: syNTttEtlc FttREs
30
2.O
I
L ,1 . 5
1.O
lst and 5lh
PERCENT
Slrcss-Sttain DiagraDt, Spatdex Fi lttc (' V l rcut )
'fhis
200 300 400 diagram shows the strcss-slrain relationships of a 'Vyrcnc'
'lhc
I% ELONGATION)
STRAII'I spandex nbre, 75's count, firs1 and sixth cycle of cxtcnsion.
modulus is higher than tbat of a rubber tlrrcad.-Laslc.t Yant e d
Typical stress-straincurves for spandexfibre ('Effective tex' is Loclrotr Thrcad Ltd,
the tex at the point of measurement).
Chemical Properlics
Thermal Prope ies Acids
Spandex fibres are commonly thermoplastic,sticking becoming Resistancevaries according to lhe typc of spandcx fibrc, Most
noticeablein some casesas low as 150'C., but in others as high fibres have a good resistance lo cold dilutc acids, but rnay be
as 280'C. Melting points are in the range 230-290'C. attacked under more severe conditions,
r l r l
IFFF h hf'f'F F F lirf''F,f: h}}ft
' ; l
ITANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: SYNTH ETI C FIDRES
Corrclolion ol Efrective Power ol Yorn atd llovert Fabric FIet Rcsislanccol Elastic Yarns in Itosicry
ElJectivePower (cN lefrectivetex )<tt Cyclcs to lVaslings Growtl{tl
'Lycra' Spandex Natural Rubbcr Rupture(t) (pcr ccnt)
s\y" nT 50",', 7ty;. 'Lycra' spandex,
308 dtex 50,000 l8 t'l
'Lycra' spandex, 50,000 l8
Uncoveredyarn 0.78 I.15 0.36 154dtex l0
0 . 5I
Covered yarn 0.76 Rubber,550 dtex 5,000 !0 45
| .22 0.34 0.47
Coveredyarn removed Nores:(r)A picce o[ sock top 2.5 cm. widc was subjcctcrlto
from fabric(3) 0.75 l 13 0.37 0.50 cyclicflcxingat elongationof 100per cent.
rannc., 0.66 I .10 0.42 0.54 (,)'Growth' means incrcasein length of thc sanrplc
'Effectivetex' is the tex at the point of measulement. sub.jectedto cyclic flexing relativcto original length.
Notes..tt)
(!) Percentagesindicate actual fabric stretch, or, in thc ClrcrnicalProperlies
case of yarns, simulation of in-fabric' stretch, of 50 Spandexfibreswere the nrst elastomcricfibres to acceptdycstulls
or 70 per cent. readily.This dyeabilityresultsfrom the chcmicalnntureof thc
(r)Stretchablewoven fabric, 100 per cent total stretch polyurethane nrolecule,which containsactivcgroupscapablcof
available. holding appropriatedyes.
Dyeabilityhas opcnedup many new applications to spandcx
fibres,which were servedinadequately or not at all by natural
The data in this table show good agreement of values for the rubber yarns.Bare spandexfibresmay now be incorporatedin
original yarn, the yarn in covered form, the covered yarn after fabrics, and dyed to match other fibres in thc fabric.
weaving and subsequeotremoval {rom the fabric, and the fabric As would be anticipatedfrom the chemicalstructureof thc
itself. segmented polyurethane,spandex fibresare rcsistant
to hydrolysis.
'Lycra', for example,
The durability of spandexfibre in garments,where flex, abra- retains 100 per cent powcr aftcr boiling in
sion, and needle-cuttingare very important, is high. This dura- waterfor l hour at pH 3 to ll. In addition,spandcxfibrcshavc
bility results from the regularity of polymer structure and the a good resistance to ultra-violetradiation,oxygcn,hcat,perspira-
strengthof the interchain hydrogdn bonding. The'power'of two tion, body oils and lotions.They are physicallyand chcnrically
commercial power-net fabrics - 467 d,tex (420 den).Lycra'and stableto a rangeof heat,pH and reagcntconditionssuchas arc
56 dtex (50 den) is virtually unchangedafter 500,000 flex cycles used in processingoperationson other libres.
at elongationof 100 per cent.
The following table shows the durability and dimensiontrl lYashing
stability of the spandex-fibre fabric when it is subjected to cyclic Spandexfibresare not afiectedby the conditionsusedin washing
flexing at elongation approaching the limit of stretch of the fabrics made from other fibres, and no specialprecautionsare
fabric. Spandex-fibre fabrics of two different weights show high necessary.Soap and detergentmay be used,and garmcntsmay
resistance to fleK and low growth compared to their rubber-libre be washedeflectivelyby machineor by hand.
counterparts. Moreover, because of the durability of spandex
fibres,very fine fibres (e.g. 22 d,tex;2O den) can be produced.The Drying
availability of these fine yarns has opened up new applications No specialprecautionsare neededin drying fabricscontaining
for elastic fibres. spandexfibres, other than the avoidanceof unneccssarilyhigh
630 631
ti
i I'A
I N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S D : SY N T IEI TI C F I B R E S
lind-Usrs
Spattdexfilanrentsarc uscdin lhrcc fornls:
( l ) B a r eF i l r r r r c n t s
(2) CovercclYarns( I
(3) Core-spunYarrrs
(4) Core-twisted Yarns.
Bare Filarnet s
Natural rubber filamcntsarc conrmonlyuscd as covcrcdyarns,
in which the rubber is prolectcdand hiddcn fronr viov by I
sheathof'hard' fibre suclras nylon,cotton,ctc. Becausc of thcir
high resistance to abrasion,whiteness,high'powcr'and inhercnt
dyeability,it is possibleto usespandexfibresin thc uncovercd or
'bare'form, and this has now
bcconrecornmonpracticcin ntarry
sectionsof the stretchfabric field.
The major applications of barespandexfibrcsarc irr thc pro-
duction of foundationgarments,swimwearand hosiery.'l'llc
fabricsusedincludepower"nets, tricot, lacc, and circular knils.
The rapid penetrationof spandexfibrc into thcsc nrrrkcts
followedthe reductionin cost rcsultingfrom clinrinationo[ thc
expensive coveringoperation.All rangesof fabrics,from hcavy
to lightweightgarmenlsare now produced.
In the power-netfield,spandexfibre hasnot only lakcn over a
major portion of the market,but it has also enrblcdthc nlarkct
to expandby increasingthe versatilityof thc fabrics.-l'hishas
o 50 too 150 200 250 beenparticularlynoticeablein the lightweightfabricsainredat
% AVAILABLESTRETCHlbeyonduse dimcnsioo, areassuch as the teenagemarkct. Dyeabilityof sprndcx has
Relstionshr'pcf 'power' to stretch beyond the trsc dimension. beenan importantfactor in this respect, allowingof Lhcproduc-
tion of a wide range of coloursand shadeswhen spundcxis
temperatures.In general,the drying condiiions-may be selected dyed,for example,in combinationwith rrylon.
to suit the base fabric. The introductionof fine count spandexfibresand of bcanrcd
spandexfibreshas pernlit ed tricot mallufacturers to produccc
Ironing wide rangeof nylon and spandextricot stretchfabrics.Spandcx
It is generally unnccessaryto iron the types of fabric in which can be knittedin combinationwith nylon in thc fornl of hfllf-
spandexfibres are used,but ironing may be carried out effectively gaugeor full-gaugcwarp combinations to providea vnricty of
if necessary.A low temperaturesetting should be used. fabric texturesand constructions. The fact thirt tricot frbrics
are knit, coupledwith the stretchof thc spandcxfibre,allowstlrc
Dry Clcrning
productionof tricot fabricswith considerably |l]orc stretchin
Spandexfibres are Dot afTectedby the usual dry-clcaningsolvents, both directionsthan was hitherlopossiblc.
and garments may be dry cleanedwithout difnculty. The useof finer countsallorvsof the productionof fabricsof
oJz 633
l
J
l
' l ' l ' l r
H A N D B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B RE S
B: SYNTHETIC FTBRDS
a high degreeof 'femininity'for the foundationtrade.A variety Spandcxyarnsmay bc covcrcdin this tashion,trsingslandard
of tricot fabricsrnay be createdby usingfine count spandex typesof covcringmachine.'l'he spandexyarn is slrong,unifornr
fibresundervariousheat-setting conditions. and highly resistantto abrasion,permittingths usc of very tinc
Covered Yarns coveringyarnswithout risk of damageto the spandcxlilamcnts.
In the coveringmachine,the elasticlilamcnt of rubber or
R.ubberfilamentsare coveredby winding yarns of'hard'fibre spandexpassesthrough the centreof a hollow spindlewhich
round themin spiralfashion.Eithercontinuousnlamentor spun rotates at high spced. As it rotates,thc spindlc wrrps lhc
stapleyarns may be used,and two layerswound in opposite coveringyarn spirallyon to the elasticfilament,which is hcld
directions are cornmonly used to provide a balancedstructure. undera controlleddegreeof stretchduringthe covcringoperalion.
Coveredspandexyarnsare usedprimarily for thc foirndation
garmenttrade.Coveringprovidesmaximurnfabric powcr wilh
controlledstretch,lhe covcr settinga Iinlit to lhc anloUlltof
stretchthat ran takeplace.This typeof yarn is nradcinto porvcr-
DRIVESPOOL nets.wovenlenos,laffetas,salins,narrow fabricsand brrri<ls.
The purposeof coveringspandexyarnsis rathcr<li{fcrcnt frorn
COVEREDYARN that of rubber.Spandexyarnsare covcrcdprimarily to prcvent
the slippagcof extcndcdthread within thc unstrctchcrlfabric.
Wherethe fabric construction(e.g.powcr-nct,tricot) provirlcsa
TOP STRETCH ROLL sufficientlyfirm anchorage, then marked thrcadscan bc uscd,
but in ryovenconstructions, for example,it is prcferablcto usc
covered,core-spunor core-twistedyarns.
OUTSIDECOVERYARN Core-SpunYarns
A core-spunyarn is orrc in which a non-clasticfibre sheathis
spun arounda core of spandexor other clastontcric yarn, 'fhis
type of_yarn is made by introducingthc elastomeriifilamcnl,
-=.-*
rNsrDEcovER YARN stretched to a carcfully-controlled
dcgrcc,into the spinningframc
wlrerestaplcfibre is bcingspun,in sucha wiry that thc staplc
fibre is twistedinto a yarn with the elastomcric filamentforming
a core. Any type of staple fibre, such as co .on, wool, acrylic-,
polyester, etc.,may be usedin forming thc spunsheath,and'ali
STRETCH ROLL typesof spinningsystems may be used.
ELASTIC YARN The power and stretchof the resultingyarn dependupon thc
denierof the elastomcricyarn, and the dcgreeoi stretchundcr
which it entersthe spinningzone.Only a comparatiyclysmall
proportion(e.g.5-7 per cent) of elastomeric yarn is uscd,as a
YARNPACI(AGE
rule, the_amountdepending upon the end-usefor which thc yarn
is intcnded.
It is obviousthat the structureof a core-spun yarn is differcnt
DRIVE ROLLS
from that of a coveredyarn made by applying spirally-wound
Covering elastic filaments. yarns to an elastomericcore, The core-spunyarn may bc madc
634
635
H A N D E O O KO F T E X T I L E F I D R D S B: SYNTIIETIC ITINRES
'fhc
vcrsatilityof corc-spunspandcxyarnsis incrclscdby thc
fact that theycirn be hcat-set.
This may bc carriedout cllcclivcly
at temperatures as low as ll0'C., with cxposurctinrcsof about
30 nrinutes,or at highertcmperalures for shortcrtincs.
Heat-setting of yarns or fabrics providesa broad rangc of
ellcctivepower, from zero lo the maximum. l'hc pro.css js
importantbecauseit providesa nrcansof adjustingthc elrslic
propertiesof flbrics to the requircmcnts of thc application.
Core.spunspandexyarnsarc use<lfor nrakingwovcnlnd knit
goodsof many types.
Woven Fqbrics
Fabricsof a wide rangcof weights,from lawnsand batistcsto
SPANDEX
DRAFT ZONE
HARD FIBRESTAPLE
IN ROVING FORM
I CORESPUN
(7odcn.)
i oAcRoN/coTroN/LYCRA
CORESPUN
YARN
6,
\ ,o -*,.rr*
SPINDLE
on a convcntionalspinrriugframe
Core-spinning
| r r r-l r-[
NF
fJJJJJ-FJ.T-f--
I
t
H^NDB'.K FTBRE.
oFrEXrrLE A: SYNTHETIC FIARES
I
heavy ducks, have been made from core-spunspandex yarns
with polyesters,acrylics,polyamidesand their blendswith natural 6. MISCEI,LANDOUS SYNTHETIC FI8Rr6
fibres.Spandexof 44-78 dtex (40-70 den), for example.mav
be usedfor lightweightfabrics,and I 56-3 l2 dtex( l4O-2Adaeni
for poplin or duck weights. GLASS FIBRES
638 639
H A N D B O O KO F T E X T T L E F I B R E S B : S Y N T I I E T I CF I D R E S
from a heatcdglassrod, and speculated about the possibilityof
producingsyntheticnbres.
In 1713, the French physicist RenC-AntoineFerchault de !::l ff*htol
iq"*I!1"1"$T;,,.."*,Inif
was.keptru.rning
?u:ll,?lr;i,il,.,ll
itf."jl:li",i:il:,
l]9-t11 at abour
650,.p.. ty n "oit_
Riaumur describedthe making of glassfilamentsfor the manu-
facture of imitation heron feathers: Two men work together,the
one heatinga pieceof glassover a flame and the other plucking ii'!iil!ii'',: Ll:Hn.l;iifi,iTi",,-,
x
a nlament from the softenedglasswith a glasshook, which he
attachesto the rim of a wheel like that used for spinning,and iidfl';"'*:-1"*,;oi,:"1;:i;:,#-lli;n.*#x
as 6 microns diameter.
then reelsup the lilament by revolvingthis wheelrapidly.
Riaumur speculatedas follows on the possibilityof usingglass N i neteentbC entury Bicontpottent G lqssF i bre
filaments in textiles: 'If we knew how to manufacture slass The glas filamentspinningprocessdescribed
threadsas ptiabteas lhosein which spidersenveloptheir iggs, aboveis still uscd
loday rn scarcelymodifiedform in the cottage
thesethreadscould be interwoven.Even if glassis not pliable, it ln.fustri"s--oiil,"
Thuringianand Bohemianforests,to make the _"dium-nne-nl,i
cannot be said-to use the expression-that it is not .,textile".' ments for'Angelt Hair' and other Christrnas_rree
Rdaumurexperimentedin the production of fine glassfilaments, 'Angel's ;;";;;ii;";l-
Hair'is interestingas an early""".p1" ;i'i;;'L;;;rn_
and succeeded in making lilamentsfiner than thoseof silk. They
were, however,very short. f ?l:nt.qb* whichis becoming
of er""i'ini-"ri'L;;;'?s;';;;;
i
' l r l , l r l r l r l r'l r-l
FFFFF}
fffrFjql:FF
.1 metres (13 fcet) in diameter and revolving at 400 r.p.m. Whert
the cylinder is full of spun glass the filament is transferred to
D: SYN'II]ETIC TIARES
I , r l
I r- t- r- a .. - - - - - l'-r,- r, - - - - r,
t . I I I t I i I i I . I I . I ,l I ' ' t t r
F Ii
l [ i
I
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES E: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES
Bulk St.tple Fibre can be combincd-in the lanrinating and cxlrrrding proccsscs-
A fluffy, bulky libre that is used for air and liquid filtration, with paper, film and foil. The resulting producls arc uscd cxtcn-
pharmaceutical wadding and dunnage. sively in the packaging industry.
Scrim Bonded Mat or Stoplc Tissucis a thin highly porous nrat rnl(lc
This is a low-cost. non-woven reinforcement fabric made frorn from monolllamentsof type'C'glass arranged in a vcilJikc pat-
continuous filament yarn in an open mesh construction. It is lern. This mat is nsed mostly in thc rcinforccrncntof bilunrcn
made by coatiflg length-wise yarns with a hot-melt adhesive and which is applied to buried pipes as protcction againstcorrosion.
applying cross-yarnswhile the adhesiveis still motten. Asphftlt It is also uscd as a surfacing mat on top of olher rcinforccmcnl
base and polyethylene adhesivesare used, for example, in making malerials to producc a smooth rcsin-richsurfacc.
scrim.
Glass fibre scrim is moisture-resistant and rotproof. The glass Rovirtg
yarns provide exceptional tear and tensile strength in two direc- This is a low-cost,high-strengthrcinforcemcnt matcrial nrade by
tions, and materials reinforced with glass fibre scrim have a very gathering a number of continuous filantent strands and winding
high dimensional stability. them into a cylindrical package. It is availablc in two forms:
Glass fibre scrim is available in a wide varietv of sizes. It continuousstrand roving and spun strand roving.
646 64't
I
'TEXTI
IIANDBOOK OF LE FIBRES B : S Y N T T I E T I CT I N R E S
carbonate)may be regardedas basic ingrcdients,to which are lip to form a fibre, and attachingthc fibrcs to a high-spccd
added varying anrounts of otber materials such as soda ash windirrgcollet.The btrshingsmay be nrounlcdon ttosrln,"itiuo
(sodium carbonate),potash (potassiumcarbonate),aluminium tanks.or lhey may forrn lhe basiso[ independcnt fiberizincunits]
hydroxide or alumina (aluminium oxide), magnesia(magnesium beingfed with glassby remeltingglassmarbles.
oxidc) or boric oxide. As the 50 or more nlamentsare drawn from the oriticcs.thcv
The glasses commonlyusedin making textile nbres-'E glasses are broughttogetherinto a strand.A lubricalingsizc is applicrl
and 'C' glasses-are made from compositionsof the following to facilitatesubscquent processing.
tyPe: If the strandis to be usedfor rcinforcenrcnt of plastics,thc
lubricantor sizewill be chosento be compatiblcwiih polycstcr
'E or epoxidelaminatingresins,and the strandmay bc convcrtcd
Glass
ltryrcdient Amount (N, approx.) into variousforms of choppedstrandmats,rovingsor choppccl
Silica 52.5-53.5 strands.
Linrc 16.5-17.5 If the strandsare intendedfor use in tcxtilc werving,lhey
Magnesia 4.5-5.5 mry.be processed through convcntionaltcxtile proccsscsinto
Alumina 14.5 suitableyarns.Theseyarnsare availablein standardbasiccounts
Soda; potash Lessthan 1.0 e . g . o f 5 . 5 ,1 1 , 2 2 , 3 3a n d 6 6 T e x .
Boric oxide I0.0-10.6 Thc diametcrof thc filamentsproduccdin this wav dcncntls
'C'Glass uponthe rate at which the glassis drawn fronr thc oiificci, thc
sizeof the orifices,and the viscosityof the mclt. prodtrcrioniatcs
Ingredient Anount ("/,, approx.)
a r ce x t r e n : e l y - h i gr h
e ,a c h i nJg k r r r( 1 . 9r n i l e sa) n t i n u t c l ( l n t o r c .
Silica 62.0-65.0
u n e r n a r b lwe l l tp r o v j ( laesn ) u c ha sl 6 0 k r n( 10 0 r r r i l e) so I l l h n r c rt r.
Lime 6.0
Potash 1.0-3.0 (B) SrqpleFibre
Alumina 1.0
Soda I 1.0,15.0 Therc are a numberof methodsof producingglassstaplcfibrc.
Boric oxide 3.0-4.0 the most importantof which may be considercd
as tlrc Ccntri-
fugal, Jet and Rod Drawing processes.
The ingredientsare charged into a furnace, whete they are
fused at high temperature,forming molten glass.Filamentsmay Certrilugol Process
be spun direct from this melt, or the glassmay be formed into In this process,moltcn glassis thrown out o[ holcsin thc basc
marblesof l6 mm (5/8 in) diameter. Themarblesareinspected, and of a mclal spinncrrotatingat high specd.Fibrcsof this tvnc arc
any that contain impurities are discarded.The others are then bondcdinto a web, and are uscd in heat and soundinsi,intion.
passedto the spinniugmachines, fiberizingunits or'bushings'as This techniqueis not generallyrrscdfor producingtextilegrade
lhey are calledin the glassfibre industry. glassfibres.
Fiberising Jet Ptocess (Steam Blowing, Batwool or Slaplefibrc proccss)
(A) ContinrousFilamentProcess
Staplehbre is producedby a process in which ntoltenglassflows
Continuousnlamentstrandsare producedby allowingmolten undergravitythroughholesin the baseo[ ptatinumbrrshinss. rs
glassto flow through perforatedtips on the baseplateof a plati- in the productionof continuousfilament.Thc strcarns
o[ glaisnrc
num melter('bushing'),drawingaway a streamof glassfrom each then drawn into fibrcs by the action of high-speed strianrsof
650 651
T I A N D A O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S B: SYNTHETIC FINNES
Rotl Draritt-gProcess
This is a modern developmentof the traditional process-for
making glasslilamenls. ln a typical modern machine, 125 glass
roOt,u-su-utty about4 mm' (0.1575 inch)in diameter,-are mounted +GLASS STAPLEFTBRE
'spinning SPRAY -
verticallyand adjacentto one anothet in a so-called -:__j_.-::]-=_.
Dlorgaaior(per cent)
Dry: 3.0-4.0('C' type: 4.5)
Wet: 2.5-3.5
ElasticRecovery EII€ct of Agc
100Dercent None.
Itllect of Sunlight
None,
o.22 Acids
Glass fibres are resistantto acids of normal strcngth and undcr
Hysteresis
ordinary conditions. They are attacked by hydrofluoric, con-
None centratedsulphuric or hydrochlorrc,and hot phosphoricacids
658
I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNTIIETIC
FIDRES
Alkalis l\licro-organisnrs
Hot solutionsof weakalkalis,and cold solutionsof strongalkalis Not attacked.
will attackglass,causingdeterioration
and disintegration.
l.lkclrical l,ropcrtics
Generul -fhe
following valueswcre obtained front measurcnlcnlso u b u l k
Highly resistantto all chemicalsin common use. glass:
'E'
Glass ,c,G loss
Ellect of OrganicSolvents Dielectricstrengrh(volrs/ nril) Up ro 2,800
Glass fibre is not attackedby organic solvents,but the size on Dielectricconstant(22'C.)
the yarn may be attacked. 1O' cycles 6.4J
l0a cycles 7.t4
l0ro cycles 6.1I 6.'t9
Insects Power factor (22"C.)
Not attacked. l0! cyclcs 0.0042
l0r cycles 0.m9
l 0 r oc y c l e s 0.0060 0.0t1
Volumeresistivity - solidglass(ohrns/c.c.)
22.C. 2 - 5x l 0 r r
'1
15"C. l0?
€.0
788.C. 10"
7.O 871'C. 105
982"C. t0'l
6'O r093.c. t0r
r260"c. 10,
g Coeltcictt of Friclion
With glass: 1.0 for clean glass.
OplicalPropcrtics
2.O
Index of refraction(at 550millimicrons;0"C.): 1.549('C' Type;
1.O r.541).
Clarity: transparent,
0 Ultra-violettransnission:opaquc.
o 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
SIRAIN (% ELoNGATIoN)
Acoustical Propedics
Velocity of sound: 5,786.4 nVsec(18,000 ftlsec)
Acoustic impedance(g.7cmx/scc.): l.4x 100
Velocity of crack propagation: 1,603.25 m/sec (5,2(,0 ft/scc)
661
.I l,- t
I
r i
I r l
l', -, -JJJ
- - l'''1,
HANDBOOK OF TEXTTLE FIBRES FIBRES
B: SYNTTIETTC
665
- l l t l t t r t l
l r ! l l l l
I I L T I I I I
LI: r, - I: li - - |: - - il - !: l.,,:- !"i -J."
ri I
it I
t'
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE F I BRES
B: SYNTHETTC FIBRES
Inorganic Fibres
TYPES OF ALUMINIUM SILICATE FIBRE
Aluminium silicateis an inorganicmaterial,and fibresspun from
Aluminium silicate fibres are produced typically as short staple
it are inorganic fbres.
hbre. or as long staple,lextile grade fibrcs. The lonp staole tvoe
is produced as finc or mediurn fibres to meet partic-ulariecuiie_ High Temperature Fibres
menls. The growing importanceof fibres capableof retaininguscful
propertiesat elevatedtempcratures has lcd to lhc usc of tr
Short staple libres are made from an aluminium oxide_silica general descriptivelerm high tempersturcfbrcs. This tcrm is
melt which containssmall amounts of soditrmand boron (sodium
commonly applied to fibres which can be used above about
D o r a t e ) t o h e l p i n c o n t r o l l i n gt h e m e l t . S t a p l e l e n s t h
- is 6.35_ 40O"C.,and aluminium silicatefibres qualify for inclusionin thc
z ) . 4 m m ( ' / a - l i n ) ; f i b r e d i a m e t e r0 . 5 _ 1 0 p . group.
666
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTIIE'IIC TIBRI]S
PRODUClION SpccilicGrnrity
2;13.
AluntiniunrSilicate
A l: I mixture of alumina and silica, containing a small propor- Thcrmal Propcrties
tion of sodium borate (for short staple) or zirconia (for long
Mching point: above 1,760'C.
staple) is fused in an electric furnace.
l+4
axitrttun Use 7'ct,tparaturc'.
about 1,260'C.
Fibre Production Aluminiunrsilicatefibre showsno tendencyto mclt or sintcr
Molten aluminium silicateis poured from the furnace in a small cvenat temperatures but thereis a gradualchangc
up to 1,370'C.,
slream. As it falls, the stream of liquid mects a blast of com- from the amorphousglassystructureto the crystallincslructurc
pressed air or steam. -fhe stream of aluminium silicate is disinte- at temperatures above 1,000'C.,the changeprocecdingfrslcr at
grated into fine droplets or particles, and these are attenuated highertemperatures.
into fine libres as they are blown through the air. The fibres are
collected on a mesh screen, forming a mat of llbre which is Specific Heat: Bulk fibre, measured at 60"C., pcr nSfivl
coilectedfor processing. designationC-351: 0.20.
j
Thernnl Conductivity: Ihe diagranr on pagc 670 shows curvcs
STITUCI'URI] AND PITOPERI'IL:S of tlrcrnrrl conductivilyflgainsl nlcln tcnlpcrntrtrcsfor foltr
fabricatcdfornrs.
!'ine Strucaure
and Appearance
ChemicalProperaics
Molecular Stuclure Acids
Aluminium silicatefibresare amorphousin structure,sinrilarin Good resistanccto mostconrmonacidsundcr nornrll conclitions.
this respectto glass.If they ale held at ten]peraturesabove but attackedby hydrolluoricacid and phosphoricacid.
1,000'C.and below the meltingpoint for long periodsof time,
the meterialundergoesdevitrilication;the amorphousmaterial Alkalis
acquircsan ordered crystallinepattern. This change makes the
fibre more brittle, lower in tensilestrengthand more easily Cood resistance to dilute alkalis at normal tcmDcraturc.
but
abraded.There is also someevidenceof shrinkase. attackedby strongalkalis.
Metals
Fibre Fornt
The fibres exhibit non-wetting charactcristicsto nroltc|l
Aluminium silicate fibres are white. Thev are smooth-surfaced aluminium,zinc, etc.; they are frequentlyuscdfor the conlain-
and of round cross-section. ment of thesemolten mctals.
TcnsilcStrcnglh Gcneral
L o n gs r a p l ef.i n e : 1 2 . 6 0 0k g / c m ?( I S 0 , 0 0 0t b / i n 2 ) Good gencralresistance
to mostcommonchcnricals.
Rcsislsboth
m e d i u mc o a r s e :8 . 1 0 6k e / c m r( I 1 5 . 8 0 0l b / i n 2 ) oxidizingand rcducingatmospheres.
No significantchangcon
c o a r s e :3 , 5 0 0k ! / c r n 2( 5 0 , 0 0 0t h / i n 2 y ' ( e s r . y cxposurcto hydrogenat 1,300'C.
668 669
|
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F
t H A N D E O O K O F T [ , X T IL E F I B R E S B: SYNTIIETIC FIBRES
4
I ture applications,including thermal, acousticaland clectrical
insulation,filters,packingsand gaskcts,contrinrrrcntand con-
veyanceof molten/ non-ferrousmetals.
Bulk.
One of the major usesin bulk fornt is in high tcmpcraturc
OF
MEAN TEMPERATURE. insulation. End-uscs include furnacc hot-topping, hcating
'l'hc
Alttttritriurrrsilicqte Fibrc; Thernul Conductivill'.This graph showsthe elementcushionsand jet engineblankcts. bulk fibrc is also
thermal conductiyity of diflerent forms of aluminium silicate fibre used as an expansion-jointpacking in kilns and furnaccslo
('Fiberfrax') plotted against temperature.
reduceheat lossesand help maintain uniform furnacc tcmpcra-
tures.
l
of aluminium silicate fibres, coupled with rcsistance to high or boards rcduce hot wall tenrperaturesin industrial firrnaccs,
'Ihe
tcmperatures and vibration, makes them suil.ablematerjal for kilns aud combustion chambcrs. block providcs lowcr hcrt
acousticalinsulation for jet engines. losscs and lightcr walls as compared rvith nrany convcntional
rcfraclory fire bricks.
Paper Devitrilication nrly take placc in conrbustion applicutions,
owing to the high lcrnperalurcsinvolvcd.'fhc tcnrpcralurcgrarlicnt
Aluminiunr silicate paper is made in a range of thicklesses,e.g. throtlgh lhe block is srrch,howcvcr,that dcvitrilication is gcncrally
20,40 and 80 mils. Applications for paper include high tempera- confined to the hot face of the block. The block oltcn appcars
ture linings, filters, gaskets, fabrication aids and electrical to be stronger after exposure to dcvitrifying conditions thun
applications. before.Exposureto high hcat conditionsdoes not appcar to havc
a serious eflect on lhc insulating propcrties of thc blocks. and
Higlt Tentperature Lirings. The thin gauge and low thermal such blocks may be re-used,even though the hot faccs nrry bc
conductivity of aluminium silicate papers make them useful lor more easily abraded and show somc surfacc shrinkage.
l
high temperatureliuing materials.Many non-ferrousmetals,such
as aluminium, magnesium,and some brassesand bronzesdo not Oil-Jired Furnaccs. Illocks or boards line thc corrrbustion
readily wet or attack the fibrc. Paper nrade from.it may therefore charnbers of oil-fired furnaccs. Thc usr.:of alunriniunr silicatc
be used to line metal ducts, ladles, crucibles, spouts, launder blocks reduccs slag build-up on thc chanrbcr wall, and littlc if
systems,ingot nrouldsand other metal componentsused to handle 'l'hc
any corrosion from direct llamc impingcnrcnt occurs. light-
these molten metals. rvcightblock also elinrinatcsthc necd for a forccd air'tflcr purtlc'
Aluminiurn silicatepaper is also usedas a lining for combustion of the furnace. Purging is norv done entirely by blccd-dorvnof
613
-LIL_i-L_l t r t l t
\ \ l
t.nnnF,E.F
nn nF,nnnnhE f}
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES B: SYNTHETIC FI BRES
other types of castablerefractoriesweigh675-900 kg (1,500- insulationnrry bc uscd cllcctivclyin thc rlcsignof pllnts for
2,000 lb). For an equivalentthickness,thc aluntiniurnsilicatelid burningwasteat thcscincrcascdrcmDcraturcs.
weighsonly 257.5kg (350 lb).
Filtrution ol Rudioactit,cparticy'c.r.
Alunriniunr silicatc fibrc is
PressurcVessels. Castablealuminium silicatecompositionsare used in liltering radioactivcparticlesfrom hot gas strcanrsin
usedas liningsfor pressure vessels. The lining is installedon the a l o m i ce n e r g yp l a n t s .
inner wall of the vessel,conforming to the contoursof the top
I
and bottom,as well as the inlet and outletports.In one applica- Missilesund Rockets.'fheresistanccof lightwcightalunrinium
tion, the vesselis designedto withstand2l kglcnt2(300 lb/in2) silicatelibre to crosionand thermalshock is advantagcous in
g a sp r e s s u raet 8 1 5 " C .T h e l i n i n g .a p p l i e d5 l m u r ( 2 i u ) t h i c k . nrissiieand rocketinsulation.
permitsthe original5l mm (2 in)-thick stainless steelwall to be
replacedwith a l3 mm (% in) carbonsteelwall. Firc-resistant Products.The non-flanrmability o[ alunriniunt
silicate^
fi bre_is_a useful property in the manutaciureof fireproof
Moulded Shapes srfes,files,desks,panelsand partitionsand thc likc.
Rigid,structuralmouldedshapesof aluminiumsi[catelibresand
high temperaturc bindersare usedfor many applications. These
include re-usablerisers for non-ferrouscasting,which have the
advantagethat the riser is not wettedby molten aluminiumor
magnesirrm. Other applicationsare combustionchambcrliners,
baftlesand flamedetectors,small furnaceand ovenliners,and can
sctter platesand shields.Corrugatedsbeetingservesas spacersin
high temperature absolutefiltersand may be adaptableto base-
platesfor heatingelementwires.
Other Applicatiotts
Aluminium silicatefibres are being usedcommerciallyand ex-
perinrentallyin a great number of applicationswhich show parti-
cular promise for the future.
-tiu-L_-li
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f[-l- - F I- i - ; l- . Fl lr -. l. -t t - I F ' Lr
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I ,
I
H ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTH ETIC FI ARES
I
transformation which has changcd thc comnrcrcial ouflook
for
I\{ETALLIC FIBRES this ancientproduct. The metal of the lilamcnt is now sonj*i.ti".t
between layers of plastic, which protect it from the ;t;;;il;;;
Fibresproducedfrom metals,which may be alone or in conjunc- and from other corrosive influences.
tion rvith other substances. The multicomponcnt filaments produccd by slitting srndwiclr
materials of this type are strong-r and moie,obusi ih;; i;;
filamcnts cut from metal foil alone. They retain tt" giitt.,
INTRODUCTION oi
the mctal during prolonged pcriods of use, onO trauJ a iof1,
pleasant handle. Coloured pigmenls may be addcd
Filam€nts of mctal haye been used as decorativeyarns since the to the ad-
hesrve_used in sticking the plasticfilms to the mctal foil or mctal_
very earliesltinres. Nletal threads,for example,were used by the
Itzed film-
Persians for producing the intricate and attractive patterns in
Mctallic fibres of this type are now widely used in the tcxlilc
their carpets; the ancient Egyptians woye threads of gold into .
Industry, and are produced in a range of colours anrl
the fabrics of their ceremonialrobes. forms bv
many manufacturers.They remain, however, esscntiallvdcco#
These metal filaments were made by beating soft metals and
Itve materiats,and their applicationsare rcstrictcdto this typc
alloys, such as gold, silver, copper and bronze, into thin sheets, of
use.
and tben cutting the sheetsinto narrow ribbonJike filaments. The
filaments were used entirely for decorative purposes, providing a Single-componcntMctallic Fibrcs
glitter and sparkle that could not be achieved by other means.
As textile fibres, these metal filaments had inherent short- With the rapid dcvclopmentof the nrissilcand spacc_vchicle,
thc
comings which restricted their use. They were expensive to pro- single-componcntrnctallic fibre has assumccln n"* i-poriin"".
duce; they tended to be inflexible and stiff, and the ribbon-like Metals are being made into filamentsso line that tht;;i";;;
degree
cross-sectionprovided cutting edges tlrat made for a harsh, rough -of flexibility which enables them to scrve i. pi""ti."i
texlile fibres.These fine-filamentmclallic fibrcs may Uc,p,,,r
handle; they were troublesome to knit or weave, and they had nn.i
woven and knittcd on normal textile mrchincry, ind
only a limited resistanceto abrasion.Apart from gold, the metals rhev havc
physical and chemical characteristicsrhat ."nOii
would tend to tarnish, the sparkle being dimmed with the passage rt.- oi oi"ni
of time. importance in many tcxtile applications.
Despite these shortcomings, the metallic ribbon-lilament has Many tynes of nretallic filantcnt arc now bcing proclucc<I
remained in use for decorative purposes right up to the present conrnrcrcially;sorne,like stainlcsssleel,are nraking go-odprogr"r,
day. The development of modern techniques of surface-protection in a variety of tcxtile end-uses.
has brought cheaper metals into use; aluminium foil, for example,
may be anodized and dyed before being slit into filaments which TYPES OF METALLIC FIBRE
are colourful and corrosion-resistanr.
Ribbon-filaments are now manufactured in considerable ouan- Metallic fibres usedin the moderntcxtile industryare of two
lity, e.g. as tinsel. but they remain an essentiallydecorative m a i nt y p e s :
material. The filaments are weak and inextensible. and are easilv (l) I4.etallic (Singlc-component)Fibrcs, or Mctallic (S.C.)
broken during wear: they lack the flexibility that is essentialin a Fibres.
genuine textile fibre. (2) J\4etallic(Mulri-component)Fibres, or Mcrallic (M.C.)
Fibres.
Mullicomponent Metallic Filanlents
In. the sectionwhich follows,the two typcsof mctallicfibrc arc
In recent years, the ribbon filament of metal has undergone a consideredseparatelyunder theseheartings.
6't8 679
I J A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B I I E S B: SYNTIIETIC FI'IRES
:
NOi\,II]NCLATURF, k n i t t i n g o p e r a t i o n si;t l i m i t s h a n d l i n ga n d p r o d r r c t i o nr r l c s , i t n d
rcstricls lhc cnd-Lrseapplicalionsof rvovcrrwirc flbrics.
Thc tcrnr nrctdlic lihrc, in its generalsense,nlcanssinrply a liblc On lhc olhcr hand, mctals havc inhcrcnl chanlclcrislicslhirt
that is nrade fronr metal. Fibres of this typc also comc into thc could bc of very great value in many modern tcxtile applicatiorrs;
catcgory of inorgunic {ibrcs. thcy could serve in cnd-usesfor which organic, glasj antl othci
'normal'
textile fibres are inadccuale.
Fedcral Trade Connissiotr Dclinitiott During the lrte 1950s.lhc devclopmcnt of high-spccd flighr
The gcneric lcrm Drclallic was adopted by the U.S. Federal Trarle and spacetravel createddemandsfor flcxiblc rlalcrials ihat worrld
Commission for fibres of this type, the oflicial definition being be caprble of withstanding uniquc cnvironnrcntal con<.litions.
as follows: These materialswould be used, for cxamplc, in the manufaclurc
of protectivcgarments,antennamcmbrancs,parnchulcsand othcr
Meiqllic- A nranufactured fibre composed of metal, plastic- structuresused in thc spaceprograntme.It bccanretpparcnt that
coated mctal, metal-coatcdplastic, or a core completely covered lhe requirementsfor such applicationscould bc mct bv thc nro_
by metal. duclion of fibres of adequatc flexibility frorn h igh-tcirrpcrri u rc
nretalsor alloys,c.g. of the stainlcssstceltypc.
The flexibility of mater.ialsis a function of cross-sectional arcu.
(I) METALLIC (SINCLE.COMPONENT) FIBRES As thc diameter of a rod is rcduccd by onc-hal[, its flcxibility in_
creasesby a factor o[ four, The problcm of producing rrrclll
INTR,ODUCTION fibrcs of adcquatc flcxibility rcsolvcs ilscl[, thcicforc, irito thrt
ctl producing lilancnts of thc lcccssury lincncss,ln thc casc of
The ductilityof metalsmakespossibletheir conversion into wire, a metal likc stainlesssteel, with a nrodulus of 29.000.000.it is
by drarving the nretal tbrough dies that bccome successively nccessaryto reduce the diameter of a rod to form a filtnrcnt of
smallcr.This processresembles,in some degree,the production approxinralely one-half-thousandlhof an inch (lZ nricrons. rD_
of a syntheticfibre suchas nylon by extrudingmoltenpolymer prox.)^to attain a flexibility equivalcnt to that of r -t..] tltcx
throughthe orificeof a spinneret.In eachcase,the nraterialis n y r o nn n n e n t .
bcingforcedinto a continuouslengthof narrow-diameter rod by l)uring the 1960s,methods of producing mctal lilanlcnls oI thc
forciugit througha hole of appropriate diameter. rcquired finenesswerc dcvelopcd. lnitially, thc proccss wirs so
The productionof wirc is a traditionalhurnancraft that has expcnsivethat thc lilanrentswere rcstrictcdin thciiusc to csscntiIl
its origins in the earliestdays of the metal-workingcivilizations. nrilitary.a_ndaerospaceapplications,rvherc low volunrc and high
As the techniqueof rvire-drawingbecamemore relined,it became cost could bc lolcralcd. Subsequcntly,dcvelopnlcnto[ thc procc-ss
possibleto producewires of smaller and smaller diameter,but has lcd lo increasedprodtrction n(l a sUbstanlill lowciinc ot
the nature of the processset a limit on the finenessof the wire costs. Ivlctal fibres havc bccorncavailablc in qrr:rntiticsantl il a
that could be producedeconomically in this way. cost which entitlesthem to considcrationas gcnuinc textile fibrcs.
Fine wire is, in eflect, a mononlamentof metal, and it bas
long been woven into fabric-like structures such as window
screens, wire supportstructures in industry,filterscreens,and the TYPES OF METAI-LIC (S.C.)FII}t{E
like.The metalwiresusedfor theseapplications, however,do not
have the flexibilitythat is a characteristic of a genuinetextile Continuousfilamcnt yarns and staplefibre are produccdfrtrnt
fibre; they retain much of the inherent stiffnessof the bulk a nunrberof difier.cntmetalsand alloys,thc st:rinlcss
stccls0(X)
mctalfrom whichtheyare formed.They are quiterigid materials, series l8/8 alloys) bcing particularlyimporlant. Nickct trlsc
and this rigidityimposes mechanical in the weavingor
difficutties supcralloys,suchas ChronrclR and Karnra,and scvcnrlof tlrr:
680 681
B: SYNTHETTC FIBRES
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
The sliverformedin this way of 9.8-15.2 cm (4-6 in) staplc,
refractory metals such as niobium and tantalum have also been by conventionalgilling techniqucs(c.9.
may then be processed
formed into filamentsof 12 microns and finer. pin-drafter)' Sliversaslight as 16.7g/m ( I 5 g/yd)
Warner-Swasey
These metal fibres are available as twisted multifilament yarns,
may be madewith very few fibresin the cross'section.
tow and staple fibre.
Multinlament yarns are heat-set and without torque. They.are
Metal fibres may bc made more amenableto proccssingby
tvoicallv of 90 .na t OO,I Z micron diameter filaments,equivalent
rougheningtheir surface to improve drag or drafting,charactcr-
Atix tiO-l3O (den 100-300) approx.; 25 tnicron diameter
istic-s.Thii property is reflectedin excellentfibre-to-fibreintcr-
filament yarns are also available for industrial applications such as
action during drawing, and high translationof fibre strengthto
high temperature conveyor belting or cordage, where iigh tensile
yarn
- strengthat appropriatetwist multiplicrs.
strength is particularly important. Filaments of 8 p diameter and Roving1nd spinning processesmay be applicd-in a convcn'
finer are available. tional nianner ind yarns of 100 per ceni stainlessstccl, for
Core-spun and wrapped yarns may be made with organic and example,have been spun successfully.
glass fibres, the metal being either core or wrap.
Filament yarns may be bulked by the conventional processesto Blcnds
provide an unusually elastic textured yarn which lends high cover The primary applicationfor stainlesssteel fibre has bccn in
to fabrics. blencli with organic fibres l{any important cnd-uscs,rcquirc
Staple fibre is available usually in the form of sliver. blendscontainingvcry snrallproportionsof stainlcss stcclfibrcs'
On the American Worsted System'thc blcnd is gcncrally
achievcdat the pin-drafter'
Sliver of stcel'ibrc is introduccd to
PRODUCTION numberof organicnbrc tops'
the pin-dra{terwith an appropriate
Metallic (S.C.)filamentsare produced by drawing either single Thrie or four passesthrough the pin'draftersachicvc-a-good
blendwith aslittle as+ percentby wcightof stainless stccllib-rcin
lilamentsor mullifilamentstrands.
Single filament drawing prodtrces excellent quality metallic- the Rnalyarn.Worsledyarnso[ 60scountand highcr'containing
ftbres, but multifilament drawing offers the best possibility of ?1per c€nt steel,may be made in this way.
reducingcost and increasingavailability.One methodof drawiog When a low is bcing used,the blend may be startcdat thc
multifiliment yarns is to enclosea bundle of 2 mil. (0.002inch) filament-breaking machine by introducingstainlcssstcel and
wire in a sheathof a dissim.ilaralloy.Thesheathedbundleis drawn organicfibre low simultaneouslY.
to the requiredextent,and the sheathis removedwith nitric acid Worsted-yarnblends containingsmall proportionsof nrctrl
fibre may also be made satisfactorily by introducing Jlood or
to leave ihe multifilament yarn ready for sizing, warping and
Turbo-brlken metallic fibre sliver along with Pacilic Convcrtcd
weavlng,
organic fibre or top to the pin-draftersfor gilling and blcnding'
Ya-rnsmacle in this way are more applicable to linc worsted
PROCESSING woven fabrics than the tll-Turbo yarns describedabovc, which
havebeenusedprimarilyin knittedstructurcs.
StapleFibrc Conventionalopening,cardingand spinningsystemsarc suit-
ablefor processing metalfibrein blendswith wool or man-madc
Staplefibre may be producedfrom continuousfilament tow by woollen spun carpet yarns.The various settings
processingthrough tlre Perlok Systemfor fibre breaking.Tension fibres foi use in
control, specialguides,especially-hardenedbreakerbars' etc., are on the machinesare determinedby the predonrinantfibre in thc
required,but the processis essentiallythe sameas that usedfor blend.
breakingorganicfilameottow. Metalfibreis fed to the cardweb afterthefirstbreakersection.
682 683
{j
i' H A N D B O O KO F T E X T T L EF I B R E S
B: SYNTIIETIC FINRES
S T I { U C T I J I { EA N D P I t O P E R T I I : S
The tow end is fed from an overheador sicle_feed position
into the centreof the card web beforedeliveryto tfre cJnr"- oi 'l
he propertiesof a metalftbrearc esscntiallythoscof thc metal
side draw feed.Care should be taken to unwind tbe tow end iiom itself.The generalcharacteristics
of metallibrcsas they rclatcto
thc side o[ the packageand not over the end of the Dackapc to lheir usein textilcsare discusscd
in the next scction.
prevelt unneccssary twisting.The metal fibrc should be a-dded stcclfibrcs
Detailsof the Structureand Propcrticsof stainlcss
to the blend subsequent to peraltaor burr crushingrolls. are given on page690.
The advantages of usingthis techniqueare as foll6ws;
l. No alterations in machinesettingsor productionoutputsare
necessary to manufacturecatpet yarnscontainingmetal 6trc. METALLIC (S.C.)FTBRESIN USE,
^.2. Uniform blendingof the small percentages of the metal
GcncralCharactcristics
fi bre is obrained.Depending on the widih of thelard w"b. w"iJi
perccntages of mctal fibre in the spun yarn will uary fr6m Metalshavea numberof generalcharacteristics
whichcan be of
approximately + to + per cent. greatpractjcaluslrin textileapplications.
.3..The low percentage additionsby weightof metal fibre are
obtainedby direct feed. Meclrurical Propu|ics
blendingtechniqueswhich are necessary The potentialhigh yield and fracturestrengthsof most mctals
...,,4;
wfln 11.:-"9:.ru.ing
staptelibresare avoided. makepossibletlre productionof fabricswhich exccedin strcngth
thosethat can be produccdfrom cxistingorganicor glassfibrcs,
5. The additionaladvantageof significantreductionof in_
The molecular architectureof metals imposcs a cbaractcristic
l
processstatic in operationssubsequentto the addition
of metal behaviourunderstresswhich diflers from that of a typical organic
fibre is obtained.
textile fibre. The stress-straincurve of a metal fibrc, for example,
_ Cottonlength stainlesssteel fibres may be made by roller-
-long showsa completelyelasticbehaviourup to a yield point. It is
drawing a Hood-brokensliver on super dratt "quipr*ni. devoidof a viscouscomponentsuchas we lind in orgnnichigh
Blendingof organicfibre and sleel nU.e ,nJv tt.n U. ilcom_ polymers,and which we identify as primary crecp;this enablcs
plishedby appropriatedoublings. textile structuresto be made with designloads far in cxcessof
thoscachicvable with organicmaterials.
Non-wovens The absence of a signincant viscousbehaviourcharactcristic irr
nretal fibrcs ensurcsdimcnsionalstability in ccrlain struclurcs
Staplesteel fitre may be processedinto 100per cent cardedand which, at best,would be difficultto achicvewith convcntional
garnettedwebs to form non-wovenstructrlres. textilematerials.
It may also be
fed.to air-layweb-formingsystemsas sliveror card *"1 ro-iorrn The mostsignificant diflerencebetween organicfibresandnlclal
unrrormttbre densll.ywebs.Thesewebs may be comoacted fibreslies in the Yorng's lr4odulusof Elasticity,which is most
bv
variousnreansto form highlyefficient,high "Lpu"itynii", readilyrecognized as the rigidityor stiflnessof a material.Most
-.OL',
vrorattonlsolators.etc. organic textileshave a Young's Modulus of around 50(),0(D,
wbereas most lnetals exceed 10,000,000,Stainless stccl. for
Dyeing example,has a modulus of 29O00,000.
It was this high modulusof elasticity, and consequcnt stillness,
Stainlesssteel(304 type) fibre rnay be.dyed with certaincom_
which previouslyexcludedmetalsfrom usc as tcxtilc nrntcrials;
inercialtextiledyesto producedark shadei.
it placedseverelimitationson the proccssability and cnd-uses of
684 685
the fibres.lt is only with the adventof modernultra-linemetal in industrialapplicationssuch as drycr fclts in paper'nating'
fibresthat adcquete flexibilityhasbeenachieved. wherethe thcrlnalconductivityof thc blcndcdyarnscontributes
to dryingefnciency.
Spccific Gravity
Most metals have a high density in comparisonto those of or- Electrical Properties
ganic materials,and this can be a seriousdisadvantage in the use
of metal fibresfor many applications.Stainlesssteel,for example, Resistance Hearing. Metals. as a rule, are excellentelectrical
conductors. Within tbe rangeof highconductivity, howcver,therc
has a specificgravityof 7.88,comparedwith nylon at 1.14and matcrialswhoseresis-
is a broad spectrumwhich inclrrdcs metallic
polypropyleneat 0-9. lt is difficult, therefore,to use the denier
tance to thi flow of electric current enablssthem to bc usedas
or tex designations for fineness,or the cN/texor g/denvaluesfor
tenacity,without compensating for thiswidedifference in density. resistanceheatingelements.
The high theoreticalstrengthsof some metals,however,will
result in high strength/weightratios,as well as the high modulus- Elinination ol Stalic.The high electricalconductivityof most
to-weightratios now realized. metal fibres providesan eflcctivemcthod of eliminatingstatic
eiectric charges. Blencls containing low percantagcsof mctal
Chenical Properties fibre providJ fabrics that are essentiallystalic'free. If a single
metal fibre is incorporatedin the cross'scctionof a yarn, nnd i[
The resistanceof metalsto chemicalsat room and elevatedtem- the metal fibres along the yarn are within a critical distancefronr
peraturescovers ranges which differ generally from those of eachother(withoutnecessarily touching), suflicicntclcctricalcon-
organic flbres. Metal fibres can be exploited,oo this account,in tinuity is providedto obviatethe accumulation of high concen-
many military and industrial end-useswhere specific chemical trations of static electricity.
resistanceis a requiremeut.There are, however,applicationsin In sucha structurc,the eliminationof staticchargcsnray bc o[
which metals may sufler corrosion due to chemicalaction. much greatereconomicsignificance lhan at 0rst appcars.Apirrt
from tLe nuisance createdby clingingof garmcnts, staticclcctri-
T lrcnnal Properties citv encourages soilingof fabrics by atlracling particlcsof nir-
Many metalsare able to tolerateand enduretempetatureshigher bornedirt. And withoutihc electricchrrgc to hold it to thc fibrc'
than those which organic fibres will generallywithstand. Most suchdirt as doesaccumulateon tlre fabric is casilyremovcd This
organicfibres may be usedin practiceup to 120-260"C.,whereas meansreducedmaintenance costsin applications suchas carpcts'
metals can be expectedto perform useful structural functions and ease-of-care propcrties in apparel fabrics.
in temperaturerangeswell in excessof 260"C. Metal textile fibres In someenvironmints,the possibilityof a sparkarisingfrom
can operate usefully, for example, at temperatureswell over a static charge n.taybe a potcntial hazard. When inflammable
1,000'c. fluids are bcing handled, e.g. in fuelling stations or holpital
Most metals are good conductorsof heat, and metal fibres operatingroomi, the dangerof explosionmay be matcriallyre'
may function as heat-sinkswhen used in adequateproportion in ducedif clothingis static-free.
blends.Thus, metal fibres may protect organicfibres in the blend The use of metal libres in static control providesan antistatic
from the effectsof elevatedtemperature,by conductingawayheat treatment that is permanent,and lasts the lite of thc garment'
before the temperatureof the fabric is raised to a level where Wear,Iaundering ind dry cleaning,heat,light or comm-on chcmi'
damageto the organicfibre may occur. cals will not influence the retention or eflectivencss o[ thc clcc'
This property is of significancein applicationssuch as protec- trical conductivityof the yarns or fabrics. Furlhermore,by thc
tive clothing, the metal fibre acting as a safeguardagainstthe verv nature of this techniqueof static control' thc efiectivcness
effectsof brief exposureto high temperatures.It is also useful of the treatmentis completclyindependent of thc moislurccontcnt
687
i
l HANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES B: S Y N T T JE T I C F I I ] R E S
o[ the fabric, its finishes,or the environmert. The antistaticpro- The labricationof nretalfibrc textilcsis achicvcdon convcn-
pcrties rre retained even after fabrics are clried ilr an oven to iionaI textile processingequipntcntat conrmcrcialproduction
constant weight. rates,and without inordinatemodifications. In sonrcinstanccs,
lvtost organic antistatic agents depend for their eflectivencss in order to achievegood running characteristics, spccial finishes
on the absorption of nloisture fiom the atmosphere,and their are applicdto the yarnsto improveinternalfilarncnl.-on-filamcnt
eflectivenesswill comnronly be reduced as the relative humidity abrasionresistanceand to add lubricity ro lhe yarn surfacc to
falls. This is unfortunate,as under theseconditionsthe accumula- reduce wear on guides, needlesand other nraclrine surfaccs.
tion of static is most evident. Certainof thcscfinishcs,rvhcnlcft on thc filatitcnt,contriburclo
Organic antistatic agents are often wax-like substaucesin which the end-usepcrformanccof the fabric by cnhan;ingwcar lifc,
soil nray become embedded, and they tend to act as soil-traps. corrosionrcsistance, colouringand bondingto othcr nlatcrials.
Thc incorporation of metal fibres as antistaticagentsdoes not in Staplelibre yarns spun from 100per ccnt nrctrl fibrc, or lrorn
any way contribute to soiling of the fabric. blendscontainingmetal fibre in all proportions,nray bc knittcd
or woven into a wide range of Iabrics.
Pilling. In structures composed of bulked, lofty yarns, the Very short fibre, with aspcctratios oI I to 100to 1,000arc
climination of static reduces the tendency to pilliog. Static electri- usedas reinforccment in resin,metalor ceramicmrtriccs,lcnding
city encouragesthe accumulation of lint, dander and fly, which structural,electrical,thermal and nragncticpropcrticsto the con)-
serve as nuclei around which unlike charged fibres aggregate on positestructure.
the face of the fabric to form an incipient pill.
Carpets
Magtrctic Properties. The magnetic properties of some metals
Blendsof metal libre with carpctfibresprovidcc rpctsthat arc
make possible the development of novel textile applications. essentially As little as * to + per ccnt o[ a stainlcss
static-{ree.
steelfibre, for example,will reducestatic to bclow thc levcl whicb
Micro-wat,e Reflectivity.Fabrics made from blcnds containinq is noticeableto an individual.
a low percentageof metal fibre have a high micro-wave reflecli-
vity. This makes possible the production of micro-wave reflective I nrlustrialA pplicatiorts
garments, reflective tow targets and other military applications
where radar reflectivity is important. Metat fibres,such as stainlesssteel fibres,may be usedin many
industrial applications.They provide reinforccmcntin nrcchanical
rubber goods,includingtyres,high-temperaturc-lolcrtnt flcxiblc
END.USF,s conveyorbclts, Fourdrinierwire and papcr nrachincwct and
dryer felts,filtration fabrics,both wovenand non-wovcn,cordngc,
Continuousfilament metal yarns may be woven into a range of braided hose and webbing where high flerlifc, corrosion rcsist-
[abric constiuctions,includingthe plain weaves,twills and sitins. ance, dinrensionalstability and strength are dcnrandingperfor-
The1,rr1ut be knitted on both warp and weft knitting systems, nrancecharacteristics.
and braided, flat and tubular; they may be used io filament Raschclknitted commercialfish nettingand cargo handling
wound compositesystentswith variousresin matrices. systemsalso hold attractive prospectsfor ntetal fibre textilcs.
Thc propertiesof thesetextile structuresconfirm the exDecta- Sewingthreadsare ntade efiectivelyfrom metal librcs.
tionsof high temperature lolerance,high fiex-life,excellentabt.a-
sion resistance,corrosion resistanceand dimensionalstability. Apparel Fabrics: Honte Furnishings,etc.
The structuresare, in fact, true textiles,manifestingdrape'and Low percentage blendsof metalRbreswith bulkcdacrylics,nylon,
hand as a textile technologistindgesthesecharacteristics. polyesterand wool are madeinto knittedfabricssuchas men's
688 689
f-l r l
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HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES B: SYNTHETTC
F I D RE S
AYerage Stiffness
1475-1881 cN/tex ( 167-2 l3 g/den)
PROCESSING
Avcruge Toughness
Dyeing
Metallized dyes give deep sbades.
0.019-0.024
Abmsion Resislance
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES High
ElectricalProperlies
Efrect ol IIigh Temperature
Comparedwith natural and other man'nade fibres,metal libres
Less than l0 per cent strength loss at 426"C. Up to 90 per cent geneially are good conductors of electricity. Compared with
toss at 980'C.
copper, nickel and some other metal fibres, stainlesssteel is a
pooi conductor; stainlesssteel libres may bc used for rcsistancc
T hennal Conductivity
heating.
Stainless steel is a poor conductor but a good resistor compared
with copper or nickel.
STAINLESSSTEELFIBRE IN USE
Stainless steel is a good conductor of heat.
GeneralChatqcteristics
F lamm abili ty : Non-fl ammable.
Stainlesssteel fibres have the basic mctallic fibre characteristics
Efiect of Sunligbt alreadydescribed,providing textile goods of high modulus'high
abrasionresistaoceand
tensilestrength,flexJife, tear-resistance,
Nil. compressionalresilience.The libres have a high resistanceto
many typesof severechemicaland physicalenvironments'
Effect of Age
Nil. Etrd-Uses
The end-usesfor stainlesssteelfibresinclude thosedescribedfor
Chemical Properties metallic (s.c.)fibres generally.
Acids In comparison with some other metals such as coppcr or
Resistant to nitric and phosphoric acids. Attacked by sulpburic nickel, stainlesssteelis a poor conductorof electricity.Stainlcss
and halogen acids. steelfibres are particularly suitablefor the production of heatcd
structuressuch as pads,draperiesand blankets'
Alkalis The thermal conductivity of stainlesssteel is put to good use ]
in protectivefabrics, the steel fibres acting as a hcat'sink that i
Not affected by common alkalis. protectsother fibres with which it is blended.Smalt conccntrn'
'Nomcx'high I
iions of steelfibre (about 5 per cent) blendedwith I
General temperaturenylon, for example, have a remarkable cffect on I
The chemical properties of stainlesssteel fibre are similar to those the high temperatureresistanceof fabrics' The stainlessstcel I
of the bulk metal. Not attacked by common bleaches unless they fibre conductsaway heat and preventsthe temperaturerising to I
are halogen dedvatives. a point at which the 'Nomex' becomesinadequate.
The relatively high cost of stainlesssteel librc has tcnded to l
Effccl of Orgrtric Solvetrts encouragethe developmentof applicationsin which small pro- |
Not attacked by common solvents portionsof steelfibre may be blendedwith other fibres,to prodttcc I
valuablecharacteristicssuch as thosc describcd.As little as l/5 |
lnsecas per cent steel fibre blendedinto a carpet yarn, for examplc' re- |
Not attacked. ducesstaticalmostto negligible amounts.
I
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tANDBooK oF TE*TILE FTBRES E: SYNTHETIC FI BRES
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B: SYNTE
H T I CF I B R E S
of rollcrs togetherwith lwo shcctsof cclluloseacetatebutyratc,
in sucha way'thatlhe aluminiunrfoil bccomesthe centreof thc
arithmetic proportion. sandwich.
The laminatedmaterial is then slit into narrow ribbonlike
w i d t h .e . g .3 . 2 - 0 . 2n r u r( l / 8 - l / 1 2 8 i n ) .
f i l a m e n tos f t h e d e s i r e d
Colour In some typesof metallicfilament(c.g.Types4 and 5), the
Toleraoce centre of lhe sandwichconsistsof a plastic (e.g. polycstcr)film
to Light
BreakingElonga-Yield (hrs.) which has beenvacuum-coated with aluminium.This may then
Yield Strength tion Pt. (Gold and be protectedwith layersof lacqDeror plastic film as above.
Type (yd./lb.) (e.) (%) (g.) silver) Many types of coloured metallic filament are now produccd,
the metallicglitter of the aluminiumshiningthrough the colourcd
l^ 270 Acctate Butyrate, adhesiveor the coloured outer plastic films. Gold-colouredfila-
foil 10,500 t60 30 10 100 mentsare made,for example,by using an orange-yellowdyestufl
lB 310 Acetate Butyrate, or pigmentin the adhesive;silver is obtainedby relying only on
foil t0,000 170 30 100 i00
the natural glitter of the aluminium.
2 230 Cellophane,foil 10,000 200 20 n.a. n.a.
3 150 Polyester, Alum.
foil 16,000 r75 80 t2s 100 Pt{ocEsslNG
4^ 100 Polyestcr,Alum.
Metallized Poly-
ester 28,000 t75 8() 90 t00 Dcsizing
48 l5O Polyester,Alum. Conventionaltechniquesand equipmentmay be uscdfor polycster
MetallizedPoly- type metallic yarns.
ester 18,000 2i0 80 t25 r00
5 50 Polyester, Alum, Scouring
Metallized, Non-
Laminated 47,000 90 80 40 100 Polyestertype yarns are best scourcd on ropc or opcn-width
machines,the squeezeroilers being adjustedto give as light a
n.a.:not available. nip as possiblein order to avoid unnecessary
damage.
trleaching
PRODUCTION Polyestertype metallic yarns may be subjcctcdto nornal blcach-
ing operations.Care should be taken to minimize exposureto
Modern metallic filamentsare made by sandwichinga thin layer alkalineconditions,temperaturesin excessof 90"C. and prolongcd
of metal, usually aluminium, betweenthin sheetsof the appro- cycletimes.
priate typesof plasticfilm. There are severalwaysof carryingout
the lamination. Nore. Coated polyesteryarns are not recommendcdfor high
In the production of the Acetate Butyrate, Aluminium Foil temperatureconditions,i.e. in excessof 70"C.
(Type 1) metallic fibre, for example,a thermoplasticadhesiveis
appliedto both sidesof a sheetof aluminium0.01 nrm (0.00045 Dyeing
in) thick. The adhesive may or may not be coloured.The coated Somemetallic(m.c.)fibresmay be dyed eftectively,the techniqucs
foil is then heatedto about 90'C., and it is passedthrough a set and dyes being selectedaccordingto the type of plastic in the
698 699
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI ARES B : S Y N T H E T I CF I B R E S
'IcnsilcSlrcnglb
fibrc. The acetatcbutyraletypesshouldbe treatcdgenerallyas
acetatc,and dyeing carried out at ternperaturesnot exceeding 'fhc
standarrlsoriginatlysct up by thc fr4clallicYartls lnstiltrtc'
70'C. Polyesteryarnsmay be dyed at the boil, with the exception U.S.A., are shown in the table on pagc698'
of most coated types.
It is generally more satisfactory to make use of coloured fetracity
metallic yarns where possible,rather than to dye the metallic
yarns in the fabric. Dyeing problems are commonly concerned AcetateButyrate,foil: 2.6 cN/tex.(0.3g/dcn;'
with the avoidanc€of colouration of the metallic yarns during Polvester. foil: ().2cN/tex(0 79 g/tlen).
the dyeing of the basematerial of the fabric. This is usually a P o l y e s t errn, c t a i l i z e d| :1 . 0c N / t e x( 1 . 2 5g / t l e t t ) '
matter of careful choice of dyes,avoiding those which dye the
plasticin the metallic fibre, Elongrlion
Seetable on page698.
Acetate Butyrate, foil: 30 Per cent.
STRUCTURE
AND PROPERTIES Polyester,foil: 140Per cent.
Polyester,metallized: 140per cenl.
The propertiesof a metallic(m.c.) fibre dependupon the nature
of the plasticfilm usedin its production,andof the metalusedas Yield Point
the centreof the sandwich. See table, page 698.
In general,the fibres behavein a manner similar to n.rpn-made
fibres spun from polymer on which the plastic film ls based. DlasaicRccovcry
Acetate butyrate metallic filaments,for example,have a resem- AcetateButyrate,foit: ?5 per cent at 5 per centclongalion'
blance to acetatefibres; polyester type metallic filaments are Polyester,foil: 50 per cent at 5 per cent elongation.
similar to polyesterfibres in their generalcharacteristics. Polyester,metallized: 100 per cent at 5 pcr ccnt elongation'
The nature of the aluminium layer inside the sandwichalTects
the properties of the metallic filament to a significant extent. trlex Resisaanc€
ln Types 1,2 and 3, the aluminium is a continuouslayer of Relative flex resistancesof the main types arc in thc following
foil; in Types 4 and 5, on the other hand, it is in the form of ratlos:
discreteparticleswhich have been depositedon a layer of plastic
Acetate Butyrate, foil: I
film. The discontinuouslayer of the latter types results in a
Polyester,foil: 18
finer, softerand more pliablefilament,with propertieswhich diller
Polyester,metallized: 70
in many respectsfrom those of the foil-type metallic fibres, as
indicated below. The figures quoted refer to specific metallic AbrasionResistance
fibres of the various basic types, but there is considerable
variation in propertiesbetweennbresof the sametype. AcetateButyrate,foil: fair.
Polyester,foit: good.
Polyester,metallized: excellent.
Fine Struc(ureand Appcarance
Metallic (m.c.) fibres are flat, ribbon-like filaments,commonly Effectof Moisture
3.2-O.2 mm (ll8-lll28 in) width. They are smooth-surfaced, Regain: AcetateButyrate,foil: 0.1 per cent.
andmay be colouredor uncoloured. PolYester,foil: 0.5 Per ccnt.
Polyester,metallized: 0.25 per ccnt.
700 701
Alkalis GencralChar:rclerisaics
Acetate Butyrate: good resistanceto weak alkalis; degradedby Appeardnce
s t r o n ga l k a l i s . I Mctallic (nr.c.)yarns are used in thc textile industry almost
Polyesler: ditto. Metal foil types are more resistant. entirely as decorativematcrials.Thcy providc a mctallic glittcr
and soirkle that cannotbe obtainedin otber ways.The aluminium
Generql foil ihat provides the glitter in a modern mctallic yarn is-pro-
Acetate Butyrate: Similar to acetal€ yarn. Not affected by sea- tectedfrom corrosivematerialsof its environmentby the plastic
water, chlorinated water, or perspiration. Generally resistant to film in which it is enclosed.It remainsuntarnishedthrough long
periodsof wear, and polycstcrtypcs will withstandrepeatcd
bleaches,but sensjtive to caustic soda used in peroxide bleaching.
Also sensitive to copper sulphate and sodium carbonate at high iaunderings without losingtheir sparklc.Metallic yarns arc not
temperatures, a{Iectedby seawaterol by the chlorinated water of swimming
Polyester: Generally good resistance. ^oools.and are widelyuscdin modcrnswimwcar.
The dvestutrsusedin colouring metallic fibres are usually fast
Effect of Organic Solvents
to light, and the colour remainsbright to match the sparklefrom
the aluminium foil.
Acetate Butyrate. Attacked by acetone, ether, chloroform,
methyl alcohol, tetrachloroethane. Not attacked by benzene, MechanicalProPerlies
carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol, perchloroethylene, trichloro- As metallic (m.c.) yarns are used primarily for decorativepur-
ethylene. Doses.they do not as a rule contributesignificantlyto lhc
itrength oi fabrics or garments.Nevertheless, they may bc lscd
". *ift o. warp yarns, and are strong enough to withstand the
Polyester. Attacked by acetone, benzene, chloroform, tetra-
weavingand knitiing operations.If necessary, the metallic yarns
chloroethane, trichloroethylene. Not attacked by carbon tetra-
chloride, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, perchloroethylene, white are combinedwith supportyarns,suchas n}'lon.
spirit. The plastic film of the metallic yarn is flexible,and the yarns
are extensibleto a degreethat dependsupon the type'
703
H N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S B : S Y } . I T HE T I C F I N R E S
ChcuricalProperties than I05'C. Polycslcrtypesmay bc ironcd at tcmperaturcs
up
Aluminiumwill corrodcand tarnishin air, and in contactwith to 130"C.'llayon'settingis preferable
for both typcs.
seawater,but in metallic fibres it is protectedso effectivelythat
it retainsits glitter for long periods.The chemicalresistanceof Dry Cleaning
a metallic lilament is, in general,the chemicalresistanceof the Metallic fibres may bc dry cleancdwithout ditliculty, provided
plastiofilm. In the caseof polyesterfilms, this is outstanding. care is taken in the selectionof solventto suit the typc of fibrc.
If metallic fibres are held in contact with strone alkaline
solutionsfor prolongedperiods,the aluminiummay bi attacked End-Uscs
at the unprotectededgesof the ribbon. Metallic fibres should Metallic(m.c.)yarnsare usedfor decorativcpurposcsin almost
not, therefore, be subjectedto alkaline reagentsof significant every lield of textile application.Important end-uscsinclude
strength. women'sdressgoods,upholstery, curtains,tablelinens,swimwear,
Organic solvents,too, may attack the laminate adhesiveor packaging,footwear,car upholstery,suits and hats.
lacquer coating; grcat care should be taken in dry cleaning to
ensurethat an appropriatetype of solvent is used,
Thernnl Properties
The plastic films in nretallicfibres are thermoplastic.
and will
softenat clcvatedtemperatures. Dclaminationmav occur it the
fibres are hcated.and acctalc typcs in particuiarlhould bc
processedonly at low temperatures.
The plastic films may be permanentlyembossedby heat and
pressure,and specialeffectsmay be introducedinto the fibres in
thls way.
Washing
Acetate butyrate types may be hand washedin lukewarm water
with a mild soap.If processedas silks or woollens,they may be
-
safely washedin home or commerciallaundry equipment.
_ ?olyester-typesmay be washedat temperaturesup to 70.C.
Dimensionalstability is good and creaseresistancefair.
Most coatedpolyesteryarnswill not withstandtreatmentsother
than thoseusedfor silks or woollens.
Drying
Acetatebutyrate types must be dried at as low a temperatureas
poss-ib-le.
Polyestertypes may be dried at higher tempcraturesas
usedfor polyesterfibres,with the exceptionof most coatedtypes.
lroning
Acetatebutyratetypesshouldbe ironed at temperatures
no higher
704 705
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'I B : S Y N T H E T I CF T B R B S
HANDBOOK OF IiXTILE FIBIIES
POLYUREA FIBRES
.----'. + znHH'
nNH,-R-NH, + NH2CoNH2 fn-runcoNl|
DIAMINE UREA POLYUREA
Productiol o! Polyurca
INTRODUCTION
Following the introduction of nylon, many typesof condensation
polymer were examinedas possiblesourcesof syntheticfibres.
Among those consideredas vr'orthyof detailed study were the
polyureas,formed by condensationof diamineswith utea' and
ihaiacterized by the recurring urca group, -NH-CO-NII-'
in the polymer molecule.
Polyureafibres were spun in America,Gcrmany and thc U.K.
during the 1940s,but despitca considcrablercsearchellort thcy
did n;t yield a fibre that was selectedfor commercialdevelop-
ment. It was not until 1950 that polyureasagain canre undcr
intensiveinvestigation,this time in Japan,where the nrm Toyo
Koatsu lndustriesLtcl. beganseekingnervoutletsfor urca.'lhis
chemical,producedin ver/largequantities,is a che:rpllld rcr(lily
availableraw material for the production of syntheticproducts.
There is an obvious attraction in using it as the starting point
for the marufactureof syntheticfibres'
within 5 years,Toyo Koatsu had developcda laboratory-scale
processfor the production of a polyurealibre made by condcns-
ing urea with nonamethylene diamine.
P E L A R G O N I CA C I D AZELAIC ACID
g
cH= cH- cs = cH (cHr)rcooH + 20,
(B) cH!(cH,)5
LINOLEIC ACID
r - l
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B: SYNT}IETIC FTBRES
H A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
Polyme.izaaion ElasaicRccovery
Nonamethylene diamine and urea are dissolved in water, using a 70 per cent recovery from 8 pcr cent exlension aftcr 30 seconds;
slight molar excessof diamine. The solution is heatedat atmo- 92 per cent recovery after 5 minutes.
spheric pressure,the temperaturebeing raised from 100'C. to
Spccific Gravily
about 250'C. over a periodof 15-18hours.Vacuumis applied
in the final stages. 1.07.
The polymeris milky-white,with a meltingpoint of 225 231"C.
It contains only a very small amount of low-molecular-weiglrt Dflcct of Moislurc
material,and may be spun directly. Regain: 1.8 per cent.
Hydrolysis occurs on exposure to stcam at 130'C.
Spinning
Thcrmal Propcrai€s
The polyureais melt spun, and is hot drawn, c.g. in three stages
a t l 0 0 oC . ( t o p r o v i c lfei br eo f t e n a c i t y4 8 . 6c N / t e x ;5 . 5g / ( l e n Soltening point: 205'C.
) .I r
i s w o u n do n t o b o b b i n sa.n dn t a yb ec u t i n t o s t a p l e .
Mehittg point: 240"C.
Alkalis
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES Good resistance.Retains more than 90 pcr ccnt strcngth llllcr t0
hours at room temperature in 40 pcr cent caustic soda.
l-ine Strucaureand Appearancc General
Smooth surfaced filaments of round cross-section. Cood resistance to most common chenricals.
Clrcnical Propeflies
Polyureafibres haveexcellentchemic:rlstability.They resistacids
better than nylon, and alkalis better than PET polyesterfibres.
Moisture
With a regain of 1.8polyureafibre has a lower moistureabsorp-
tion und€r standardconditionsthan eithernylon or PET polyester
fibres.This could be a disadvantagein appareluses.
Specific Gravity
Polyurea fibre is tighter than any synthetic fibres other than
polyethyleneand polypropylene.This could nreangreatercover-
ing power than nylon or polyesterfibres, with which it seems
likely to compete.
712 713
NOMENCLATURE
',[-"O
-l*a\"-.-l-l'. c_)
,',,,.:' 3
In the chemicalsense,polycarbonatesare polyestersderivedfrom
carbonic acid, H,CO". They do not qualify for the description
polyester,however,under the U.S. Federal Trade Commiision Filamentsarenlelt spun.
delinition.
STRUCTUREAND PITOPIR]'IES
PRODUCTION Tenacity 16.8cN/tex(L9 g/rlen)
Polycarbonatesnay be made by condensing an aromatic Elongation 40,6O,,/o
dihydroxy compound with suitablecarbonicacid derivatives,e.g. lnitial Modulus 397.3cNitcx (45 g/tlcn.y
carbonyl chloride (phosgene)or estersof carboiricacid.
714 715
ITANDBOOK OF TOXI'I LE FIBRES B: SYNTII ETIC FIITIII'S
716 7t7
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r-l I f t t- , r , r \ f - i
I t I I I
,:h f-.}}-F:-h -F].HF}Hh
Poly cster fibrcs hon t A.) I'olyvinyl chloridc(PVC;vinyon) Sodium cellulosexanthate, 13 'Vicara',141
modiflcations,389 fibres,444 Soya beanprotein fibrcs, 144 Vinnl:seeI'olyvi yl .lcoltol
new types, 391 Polyvinyl chioride(chlodnated)
nomenclature,329 Spandexflbres:Jee Polyurethane fibrcs
fibres,480 librcs Ir.T.C.dcfinition,x\viii, 495
physicalnlodification, 389 Polyvinyl chloride (copolymet -
typcs,328 'Dynel' F,T.C. definition,xxviii, 615 Vinyl acctnte,463
type) fibres, 468 Speakman,Prof. J. 8., 149 Vinyl alcohol,493
Polycstcr(poly-1,4-cyclohexylene- Polyvinyl chloride(copolymet -
'Vinyon'HIJ Spinning, xviii, xix, l3 Vinyl chloridc,446, 447
dirnethylene terephthalate; t y p e ) t i b r c s ,4 6 1 polyrncrization
PCDT) fibres, 376 dry, xix Vinyl conrpounds,
Polyvi yl fluoride fibres, 520 man-madefibres, xviii of , 392
lolyester {polyetllylenetcreph- l'olyvinylidene chloride (saran)
thalatc;PDT) fi brcs, 3 j0 nlclt, xix Vinylidcncchloridc,484
fibres,484 wct, xviii Vinylidcncdinitrilc,.523
I'olyesters,dcvcloptnentof, 196 Polyvinylidcncdinitrilc (nyrril)
Polycthylenc,537,541 Spun-dyedviscosc,21, 29 Vinylon:scclblyvinylrlcolrol
fibrcs,523 Spun yarns, xvii llbrcs
l'olyethylencfibres, 5 36. 541 Pot spinning,viscosc,15
Polycthylcne terephthalate fibres; Stainlesssteel fibrcs: see IUetallic Vinyon:secI'olyvinylchloridc
Propylene,polyrnerization,565 (stainlesssteel; S.S.) fibres fibrcs
s.c Polycster(polyethylcne; 5'17
PIT) fibrcs Staple yaJns, xvii F.T.C.dcfinition,xxviii, 446
Protcill fibres,xii, 7, 115 ' V i n y o n ' l l l l ,4 6 3
I'olyisobutylcnc,536 Stcarn,C. I I., 9
nrisccllaneous, 147 Stcreoblockpolyners, 569 Viscosc rayon, 9
Polyisoprere,159 nornenclatute,116
Polymerization,xxiv Stereospecific polymerization,569 Viscosc rayon(hightcnacity),39
PTI'E, Jee Polytetrafluoroethv- Stretching,xx, xxi Viscosc rayon(highwct nlodulus;
addition,xxiv lene fibres polynosic),25,4?
condensation, txiv effect on orientation, xxi
Pyrrolidone, 310 Styrene,533 V u l c r n i z r t i oo| f| r u b h c r ,1 5 4
headand tail, 569 'Supcr' high lcnacity viscosc
vrnyl conlpounds,392
Polymer-modilied viscoseravon. nyon, 42
Qiana, 322 Superpolyanrides,198 wct spinning,xviii
38 Quartz fibret, 179
Folynosicfibres:seeViscose Superpolyesters,197 Woodpulp,viscose fronl, I I
(high wet modulus) fibres Surface-modificd viscose, 2l Woolprotcin,xiii
definition,52,53 Swan,Sir Joseph, 5
Radiation,silica(G) tjbrcs, 186 Syndiotacticpolypropylene, 566
Polyolefin,539 Rayon: seeCupro, V iscose,
Polyolefinfibrcs, 536 Syntheticfibrcs, 192 Yarns
Saponificd Ccllulose Ester continuous lilamcnt,xvii
intloduction,536 f.T.C. delinition, xxvii, 9
nomenclature,54l 'Refrasil', spun,xvii
182 Tachikawa,S., 5l staplc,xvii
typcs,54l Ripening,viscose,l3 'Tcflon', 509
Polypropylene,565 Rubber (natural)fibres, 153
commercialdevelopntent,57 1 Telonrerization,294
"fenasco',26,40 Zeinfibres,l4l
production,565
stericstructure, 564 Terephthaiicacid, 332
Saponified cellulose estcr fibres. Tetrafluorocthylene,509
stcreorcgularity,565 9, 74
Polypropylenefi bres,564 Thrcad-Likcmolcculcs, ix
Saran:rc? Polyvinylidenc Toplram,C. lr., 9
I'olypropylcrrcsplit fiLn hbres, chloride fibrcs
601 Tophanrbox, 9
F.T.C. dcfinition, xxviii, 485 Triacctatc fibres, 99
Polypyrrolidonc,3l0 Schutzenberger,80 'Iiicel',
Polystyrencfibres, 533 100
Schwabe,Louis. 3 Tyre cords, 46
Polytetranuoroethylcne (PTFE) Seaweed,fibres fronl, 7
fibrcs, 509 Tyrex lnc., 42
)cflcln, xN
Polythene:JeePolyethylene Silica fibres, 178
Polyundecanamide,292 Silica(G) fibres, 181
Polyurea librcs, 707 Urban,Johann, ri5
Silica(V) fibres, 138 'Urylon',70?
lolyurethane (spandex) fi bres, Silicate (mineral) fibres, 176
6t0 Silk protein, xiv
Polyvaler6hslqm,311 Skin effect, xx, 24
l'olyvinyl alcohol (vinal) fibres, 493 Valerolactam,3 1 1
Soda celh-rlose,12 'vercl',42'l
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723