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Today, we will discuss something very general. Inspite of knowing these general thumb rules, Civil
Engineers still end up making disastrous mistakes which would not only cost them but also cost the
people living in the building designed by these engineers.
Earlier, I wrote an article describing one of my projects where structural designing was executed on
site (which was extremely pathetic) even before Architectural design was done. (Check
out: Consequences of Wrong Structural Design | Live Project example)
In this article, we will go through the essential thumb rules to be followed for giving a column
layout. Ofcourse RCC columns have to be designed in accordance to the total load on the columns
but apart from that it is essential for every Civil engineer and Architect to remember a few thumb
rules so that they are prevented from making mistakes.
Alignment of Columns
A rectangular grid is to be made for placing the columns. This helps in avoiding mistakes and placing in
columns can be done in the right way.
Errors in Construction
Wrong size of the Columns
The size of the columns was 9x9 and the building is supposed to be constructed upto G+2 floors
which is really disastrous for the structure.
It could lead to structural failure and ultimately structural collapse.
(The duty of the Civil Engineer is to understand and not make such dramatic blunders. The
consequences of this kind of structural design could be disastrous.)
If the client insists on using smaller columns (9x9); in that case, use of M20 grade concrete should be
done mandatorily and the construction should not be initiated before the client agrees to do so.
Design of Foundations
Foundations
Foundation of a structure is like the roots of a tree without which the tree cannot stand. The
construction of any structure, be it a residence or a skyscraper; starts with the laying of foundations.
Before designing the foundation, the type of soil is determined. Depending on whether the soil is hard
soil or soft soil, a specific type of foundation is adopted.
RCC Structures
RCC Structures are nothing but reinforced concrete structures. RCC structure is composed of building
components such as Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase etc.
These components are reinforced with steel that give stability to the structure. Staircase is one such
important component in a RCC structure.
In this article, we will discuss different types of staircases and study the RCC design of a dog-legged
staircase
Stairs
Stairs consist of steps arranged in a series for purpose of giving access to different floors of a building.
Since a stair is often the only means of communication between the various floors of a building, the
location of the stair requires good and careful consideration.
In a residential house, the staircase may be provided near the main entrance.
In a public building, the stairs must be from the main entrance itself and located centrally, to provide
quick accessibility to the principal apartments.
All staircases should be adequately lighted and properly ventilated.
Various types of Staircases
Straight stairs
Dog-legged stairs
Open newel stair
Geometrical stair
RCC Column
A column forms a very important component of a structure. Columns supportbeams which in turn
support walls and slabs. It should be realized that the failure of a column results in the collapse of the
structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance.
Supporting the slabs is the main function of the columns Such slabs are called Simply Supported Slabs.
Simply supported slabs could be either one way slab or a two-way slab. It depends on the dimensions of
the slab.
A column is defined as a compression member, the effective length of which exceeds three times
the least lateral dimension. Compression members whose lengths do not exceed three times the
least lateral dimension, may be made of plain concrete.
In this article, we are going to discuss in detail the basis of classification of columns and different types
of reinforcement required for a certain type of column.
Reinforced Cement Concrete Column Plan and Section
Rectangle
Square
Circular
Polygon
Short column, ? ? 12
Long column, ? > 12
Tied columns
Spiral columns
Minimum eccentricity
Emin > l/500 + D/30 >20
Where, l = unsupported length of column in mm
D = lateral dimensions of column
Minimum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must be atleast 0.8% of gross section area of
the column.
Maximum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must not exceed 6% of the gross cross-section
area of the column.
The bars should not be less than 12mm in diameter.
Minimum number of longitudinal bars must be four in rectangular column and 6 in circular
column.
Spacing of longitudinal bars measures along the periphery of a column should not exceed 300mm.
Transverse reinforcement
Helical Reinforcement
The diameter of helical bars should not be less than 1/4 th the diameter of largest longitudinal and not
less than 6mm.
The pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is allowed);
75mm
1/6th of the core diameter of the column
Pitch should not be less than,
25mm
3 x diameter of helical bar
Pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is not allowed)
Least lateral dimension
16 x diameter of longitudinal bar (smaller)
300mm
In any case of the above, the thickness should not be less than 100mm
Effective span
The spacing or c/c distance of main bars shall not exceed following:
Calculated value
3d
300mm
The spacing or c/c distance of distribution bars shall not exceed the following
Calculated area
5d
450mm
Diameter of bars
The diameter of the bars varies from 8mm to 14mm and should not exceed 1/8 th of the overall depth of
the slab.
For distribution steel, the diameter varies from 6mm to 8mm.
Cover
The bottom cover for reinforcement shall not be less than 15mm or less than the diameter of such bar.
RCC Beams
RCC beams are cast in cement concrete reinforced with steel bars. Beams take up compressive and add
rigidity to the structure.
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e.,
loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls,
or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In Light frame
construction the joists rest on the beam.
Beams reinforced with steel in compression and tension zones are called doubly reinforced
beams. This type of beam will be found necessary when due to head room consideration or
architectural consideration the depth of the beam is restricted.
The beam with its limited depth, if reinforced on the tension side only, may not have enough
moment of resistance, to resist the bending moment.
By increasing the quantity of steel in the tension zone, the moment of resistance cannot be
increased indefinitely. Usually, the moment of resistance can be increased by not more than 25%
over the balanced moment of resistance, by making the beam over-reinforced on the tension side.
Hence, inorder to further increase the moment of resistance of a beam section of unlimited
dimensions, a doubly reinforced beam is provided.
The external live loads may alternate i.e. may occur on either face of the member.
A pile may be lifted in such a manner that the tension and compression zones may alternate.
The loading may be eccentric and the eccentricity of the load may change from one side of the
axis to another side.
The member may be subjected to a shock or impact or accidental lateral thrust.
For example:
A Reinforced Concrete Slab is the one of the most important component in a building. It is a
structural element of modern buildings. Slabs are supported onColumns and Beams.
RCC Slabs whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimetres are most often used for the
construction of floors and ceilings.
Thin concrete slabs are also used for exterior paving purpose.
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or
directly on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building.
In high rises buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the
steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
While making structural drawings of the reinforced concrete slab, the slabs are abbreviated to
r.c.slab or simply r.c..
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves
strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations run across the
short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
Reinforcement design
A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction.
A two way slab has structural strength in two directions.
These slabs could be cantilevered or Simply Supported Slabs.
Construction
A concrete slab can be cast in two ways: It could either be prefabricated or cast in situ.
Prefabricated concrete slabs are cast in a factory and then transported to the site ready to be
lowered into place between steel or concrete beams.
They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. Care should be
taken to see that the supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions to avoid trouble with
the fitting of slabs over the supporting structure.
In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork. Formwork is a box-like setup
in which concrete is poured for the construction of slabs.
For reinforced concrete slabs, reinforcing steel bars are placed within the formwork and then the
concrete is poured.
Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to hold the reinforcing steel bars away from
the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the
reinforcement.
Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist only of
sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a
tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.
The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On commercial
building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour.
On low-budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very
common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there permanently.
In some cases formwork is not necessary for instance, a ground slab surrounded by brick or block
foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore acts as the base.
Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes and other
architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios.
These limits are exactly the same as those for beams. As a slab is usually a slender member the
restriction on the span-depth ratio becomes more important and this can often control the depth
of slab required in terms of the span effective depth ratio is given by,
When a slab is supported on all four of its sides, it effectively spans in both directions, and it is
sometimes more economical to design the slab on this basis. The moment of bending in each
direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans and the conditions of restraint at each
support.
If the slab is square and the restraint is similar along the four sides, then the load will span
equally in both directions. If the slab is rectangular, then more than one-half of the load will be
carried in the shorter direction and lesser load will be imposed on the longer direction.
If one span is much longer than the other, a large portion of the load will be carried in the shorter
direction and the slab may as well be designed as spanning in only one direction.
Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using co-efficients which are
tabulated in the code.
The slab is reinforced with the bars in both directions parallel to the spans with the steel for the
shorter span placed farthest from the natural acis to five the greater effective depth.
The span-efective depths are based on the shorter span and the percentage of the reinforcement
in that direction.
The concrete of the R.C.C. (floor and sunken slab) should mixed with a waterproofing material to
get a denser, watertight concrete.
Then cement and waterproofing material should be diluted in water and splashed onto the RCC
sunken slab. Over that a layer of plaster should be provided using a mortar plasticizer with the
cement mortar.
Brick laying of walls and plastering (prior to tiling) of the walls and floor should be done with
cement mortar mixed with a mortar plasticizer.
Tile fixing for the floor and walls tiles should be done with non-shrink, waterproof tile adhesives
to make the tiled area waterproof.
Sanitary pipe joints should be sealed with sealants specially manufactured for Sealing Sanitary
joints firmly so that no water can leak through.
Foundation Design
Foundation is the base of any structure. Without a firm foundation, the structure cannot stand. That is
the reason why we have to be very cautious with the design of foundations because our entire structure
rests on the foundation.
In this article, we are going discuss the step by step guide to Column Footing Design.
Step 1
Step 2
Bending Moment
Critical section for maximum bending moment is taken at the face of the column
For a square footing,
Mxx = q x B/8 (L a)2
Mxx = q x L/8 (B b)2
Myy = q x B/8 (L a)2
Step 3
To fix the depth of the footing shall be greater of the following:
Depth from bending moment consideration
d =?(M/Qb)
where, Q = moment of required factor
Depth from shear consideration
Check for one way shear
Check for two way shear or punching shear
Critical shear for one way shear is considered at a distance d from face of the column.
Shear force, V = qB [ (B b) d]
Nominal shear stress, Tv = k . Tc
Tc = 0.16?fck
Step 4
Check for two way shear
Critical section for two way shear is considered at a distance at a distance d/2 from all the faces of the
column.
SF, V = q [ B2 (b + d)2]
SF, V = q [L x B (a + d)(b + d)]
Nominal shear stress, Tv = V/2((a+d)(b+d)d) - {for a rectangle
- {for a square
Tv = V/4((b+d)d)
=
k
.
T
Tv
c
k = 0.5 + ? > 1
Tc
= 0.16?fck
Market Value
The market value of a property is the amount which can be obtained at any particular time from the
open market if the property is put for sale. The market value will differ from time to time according to
demand and supply.
The market value also changes from time to time for various miscellaneous reasons such as changes in
industry, changes in fashions, means of transport, cost of materials and labour etc.
Book Value
Book value is the amount shown in the account book after allowing necessary depreciations. The book
value of a property at a particular year is the original cost minus the amount of depreciation allowed
per year and will be gradually reduced year to year and at the end of the utility period of the property,
the book value will be only scrap value.
Capital cost
Capital cost is the total cost of construction including land, or the original total amount required to
possess a property. It is the original cost and does not change while the value of the property is the
present cost which may be calculated by methods of Valuation.
Valuation
Valuation is the technique of estimating and determining the fair price or value of a property such as a
building, a factory or other engineering structures of various types, land etc.
Taxation
To assess the tax of a property, its valuation is required. Taxes may be municipal tax, wealth tax,
Property tax etc, and all the taxes are fixed on the valuation of the property.
Rent Function
In order to determine the rent of a property, valuation is required. Rent is usually fixed on the certain
percentage of the amount of valuation which is 6% to 10% of valuation.
Compulsory acquisition
Whenever a property is acquired by law; compensation is paid to the owner. To determine the amount
of compensation, valuation of the property is required.
Valuation of a property is also required for Insurance, Betterment charges, speculations etc
RCC Specifications
Shuttering shall be done using seasoned wooden boards of thickness not less than 30mm.
Surface contact with concrete shall be free from adhering grout, nails, splits and other defects.
All the joints are perfectly closed and lined up.
The shuttering and framing is sufficiently braced.
Nowadays timber shuttering is replaced by steel plates.
All the props of approved sizes are supported on double wedges and when taken out, these
wedges are eased and not knocked out.
All the framework is removed after 21 days of curing without any shocks or vibrations.
All reinforcement bars conform IS specifications and are free from rust, grease oil etc.
The steel grills are perfectly as per detailed specifications.
The covers to concrete are perfectly maintained as per code.
Bars of diameter beyond 25mm diameter are bent when red hot.
The materials proportion should be as per the specifications of the concrete.
For cement concrete of ratio 1:1:2(1 cement:1sand/coarse sand:2graded stone aggregate) require
11no bags of 50kg.
For cement concrete of ratio 1:1.5:3 require 7.8no bags of 50kg.
For cement
For cement
For cement
For cement
For cement
concrete of
concrete of
concrete of
concrete of
concrete of
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
Methods of Depreciation
The Stresses in an element is obtained from the working loads and compared with permissible
stresses.
The method follows linear stress-strain behaviour of both the materials.
Modular ratio can be used to determine allowable stresses.
Material capabilities are under estimated to large extent. Factor of safety are used in working
stress method.
The member is considered as working stress.
Ultimate load carrying capacity cannot be predicted accurately.
The main drawback of this method is that it results in an uneconomical section.
The stresses are obtained from design loads and compared with design strength.
In this method, it follows linear strain relationship but not linear stress relationship (one of the
major difference between the two methods of design).
The ultimate stresses of materials itself are used as allowable stresses.
The material capabilities are not under estimated as much as they are in working stress method.
Partial safety factors are used in limit state method.
Step one
Nominal shear stress
Tv = Vu/bd
Tv = 40 x 1000/(300 x 500) = 0.26N/mm2
Step two
Percentage of steel
Percent steel = Ast/bd x 100
Percent steel = (942.47 x 100)/ (300500)
= 0.63%
Step three
As per IS: 456: 2000
Tc = 0.48 + (0.56-0.48)/(0.75-0.5) (0.63 0.5)
Tc= 0.52 N/mm2
Therefore, Tv < Tc
No shear reinforcement required.
Step four
Provide minimum shear reinforcement;
As per IS : 456 : 2000
Asv/bsv = 0.4/(0.87 fy)
Assuming 6mm diameter, 2 legged stirrups
Asv = (2 x 3.14 x 6 x 6)/4 = 56.54 mm2
Sv = (0.87fy.Asv)/0.4b
Sv = (0.87 x 250 x 56.54)/(0.4300) = 102.47mm say 100mm
As per IS:456:2000,
Maximum spacing = 0.75d
= 0.75 x 500
= 375mm
Provide 6mm diameter, 2-legged stirrups@100mm c/c.
Maximum spacing = 0.75d
= 0.75 x 230 = 172mm
Provide 6mm diameter 2-legged stirrups @ 100mmc/c