FIRST SEMESTER REVIEW

SUMMARY FOR HONORS SCIENCE

**I cannot stress enough to you the importance of knowing your vocabulary.
People who only sort of know their vocabulary do poorly on the final exam.
You need to really know the material. If you only study by LOOKING OVER
NOTES, you will not do well. You need to make outlines, rewrite notes, make
practice problems, and do things of that nature. The exam is application.
You will need to work quickly and efficiently.
You will need a calculator for the exam. I will provide a periodic table.
IF YOU FAIL TO PREPARE, PREPARE TO FAIL.

Metrics
At first, the standards for the metric system were the earth itself and water. Today
scientists use more modern standards for the metric system (such as wavelengths of
light in a vacuum). The metric system is essentially easier to use since it is based
on the decimal system. To convert one size of measurement to another size of
measurement, one only has to multiply or divide by the appropriate multiple of ten.
King Henry Died GULP Drinking Chocolate Milk
Kilo Hecto Deka MLG Deci Centi Milli
There are six prefixes used commonly in the science class.
kilo (k) means 1000 times
hecto (h) means 100 times
deka (dk) means 10 times

deci (d) means 0.1 times

centi (c) means 0.01 times
milli (m) means 0.001 times

1mL = 1 gram =1 cc
The meter is defined as one ten millionth of the distance from pole to equator. The
liter is the volume of a 0.10 of a meter cubed (sometimes a decimeter or 10 cm is
used instead of a 0.1 of a meter). The gram is the mass of one cubic centimeter (cc)
of water (at 4 degrees Celsius).

Models are devices that simulate the behavior of a real event or phenomenon. A
model does not have to look like the event it is imitating, only act like it. There are
several common characteristics of all models.
1. Models are designed by people, thus are limited by the frailties of
humanity.

2. Models are developed from a large number of observations.

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3. Models are based on the belief that Nature acts consistently, that is, under
the same conditions, the same activities will give the same results.
4. Models are changed if they cannot explain new observations.
5. Models are discarded only if they cannot be changed to account for new
observations.
Good models have many uses.
a. They can be used to suggest new experiments;
b. predict and describe new observations; and
c. explain what observations mean. (DOPE)

Observations are anything that we can perceive through our senses. Data is any
information that you observe. If the data contains measured amounts of something,
that data is NUMERICAL. EMPERICAL data is data that you perceive with your
senses; odor, color, etc. Observations are used to make inferences and predictions.
An inference is an interpretation or explanation of what caused the event that is
observed or predicted. A prediction is an expected future event or observation. A
hypothesis is a prediction that is based on previous knowledge. Every hypothesis is
a prediction, but not all predictions are hypotheses. In this class we will focus on a
hypotheses that is testable.
The major emphasis of this chapter is that all matter has certain characteristics or
properties that can be used to identify them. Such characteristics or properties are
classified as either extrinsic or intrinsic. An extrinsic characteristic is one that you
can change such as size, shape, or texture. An intrinsic characteristic is one that
you cannot change such as density, melting point, freezing point, or chemical

reactivity.

Usually the extrinsic characteristics of matter are all that is needed to identify
matter. But as the sample size gets smaller, this becomes more difficult to do. With
very small sample sizes, chemical reactions become more important in identifying
matter. Whole rock and powdered rock are not affected by the action of hydrochloric
acid (HCl), but whole shell and powdered shell are. From this one can conclude that
there are at least two kinds of matter, that which will react with HCl and that
which will not.
To begin to explain the behavior of matter, the concept of the particle model of
matter is introduced.

MATTER IS MADE OF TINY, MOVING PARTICLES.

Matter is defined as anything with mass and volume. The three most common
forms of matter on earth are; solid, liquid, and gas. A solid has a definite shape and
a definite volume and very slow moving atoms. A liquid has a definite volume but
no definite shape and faster moving atoms. A gas has neither definite shape nor
definite volume and its atoms move at the greatest speed. These definitions can be
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explained in terms of the particle model of matter.

The particle model of matter can be used to explain the differences between the
phases of matter. A solid has its particles fixed apart in space and moving very
slowly. A liquid has its particles moving rapidly and touching each other. A gas
has its particles moving very fast (average speed is 70,000 mph) and very far apart
(Remember very far apart is a relative term, especially when talking about matter
particles. The average distance between gas matter particles is measured in
0.00000001 cm distances, not far for us but far for matter particles.).
The changing of one state or phase of matter to another state or phase depends
upon whether or not heat (energy) is being added or removed from the matter.
Melting is the changing of a solid to a liquid and requires heat (energy) being added
to the solid. Freezing is the changing of a liquid to a solid and requires heat
(energy) being removed from the liquid. Adding heat (energy) to a liquid changes it
to a gas. This is known as vaporization. There are two types of vaporization.
Boiling is the rapid changing of a liquid to a gas. The change is rapid because gas is
being formed throughout the liquid. Evaporation is the slow changing of a liquid to
a gas. This change is slow because it occurs only at the surface of the liquid. By
removing heat (energy), a gas can be changed into a liquid. This is known as
condensation. Sublimation is the term used for the changing of a solid to a gas or a
gas to a solid. The former activity requires adding heat (energy) while the latter
requires the removal of heat (energy). Remember, phase changes are different
from chemical reactions as no new matter is formed. If you were to add solid copper
to nitric acid, you would obtain the same chemical reaction that you would if you
were to add liquid copper to nitric acid.
When adding or removing heat from an object, the speed of the atoms change. With
a solid, the object has a definite shape and a definite volume because the atoms are
moving slowly. As heat is added and the object melts the atoms are moving faster.
Remember, temperature is a measure of the speed or vibration of atoms and
particles. As these atoms become a liquid, their shape changes to the shape of the
container but the volume remains constant. With more heat, vaporization occurs
and the liquid becomes a gas. Gases have no definite shape or volume.
It is again pointed out that there are at least two different kinds of matter since
rock and shell behave differently when HCl is added to them. The objective is to
determine experimentally if gas is matter.
Samples of HCl and shell are sealed in a plastic bag and massed. When the twistie
is removed, the shell and HCl mix; their reaction causes the bag to inflate. The gas
has volume. When the bag and its contents are massed again, you learned that the
bag has neither lost nor gain mass. The bag is punctured and the gas escapes. Now
when the bag and its contents are massed, the mass is less. This shows that the gas
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had both volume and mass. By definition, gas must be matter. In addition to
showing that gas is matter, you also demonstrated the Law of Conservation of
Mass. The mass of the shell and HCl was the same before reacting and the same
after reacting. The only time there was a change in mass was when you popped the
bag and released the gas.
The difference between mass and weight is discussed. Mass is the amount of
matter present. Weight is the force exerted by matter because of the presence of a
gravitational field. Weight is affected by three factors;
1. the amount of mass an object has;
2. the mass of the planet that the object is resting on, and
3. the distance between the object's and the planet's centers.
Weight may change because of the effect of one of two factors. As the mass of a
planet gets larger, weight increases. This is why you would weigh ten thousand
times heavier on the surface of a white dwarf star than you weigh on earth. As one
moves further from the center of the planet, weight becomes less. But the mass of
an object remains constant, regardless of where in the universe it may be.
The concept of density is also introduced. Density is how much matter is in a given
volume. It is calculated by dividing the mass of a material by its volume.
Customarily, the density of solids is measured in g/cc, and liquids and gases are
measured in g/mL. Pure water has a density of 1 g/mL. Anything less dense will
float in water. If it has a greater density, it will sink. If its density is equal to that
of water, the object will stay where you put it. This applies to all forms of matter as
well. A substance will float if its density is less than the density of the matter that
surrounds the substance. A greater density than the surrounding matter means the
substance will sink.
The emphasis here is to define operationally the gas produced by the action of HCl
on shell. The student then uses this operational definition to see if any other kinds
of matter may contain those matter particles responsible for the production of this
gas.
The gas from the reaction of HCl and shell is collected by the water displacement
method. A baby food jar is filled with water and turned upside down (inverted) in a
bucket filled with water. A piece of rubber tubing is placed into the baby food jar.
Gas travels through the rubber tubing and forces the water out of the jar. The jar is
then removed from the bucket and quickly capped
Using this method, three jars of the unknown gas from the reaction of the shell and
HCl are collected, and each is tested as follows:
1. Limewater is added and turns cloudy.
2. Phenol red is added and turns yellow.
3. A burning match or splint is put out quickly.
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These tests are performed on air at the same time. Air has no effect on either
limewater or phenol red, and a burning splint continues to burn. Therefore, the
unknown gas is not air (ruling out). These tests on the unknown gas and air
become the operational definitions for the gases.
The operational definition can answer one the two questions:
1. What do I have to do to measure how much is present?

2. What must I do to tell if something is present chemically?

Since this course uses the second question almost exclusively, then you must have
an operational definition tell (a) you what to do and (b) what happens when you do

it.

The unknown gas is then identified as carbon dioxide. Three other forms of matter chalk, baking soda, and zinc - when reacted with HCl make a gas. The resulting
gases are tested to see if they are carbon dioxide. The gases from the chalk and
baking soda did turn phenol red yellow, limewater cloudy, and put out a burning
splint quickly. The gas from the zinc has no effect on limewater or phenol red, but
does cause a burning splint to make a small explosion which sounds like a "squeaky
pop".
A key concept of this chapter is that you have your first evidence that the NUMBER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ATOMS IS LIMITED. Three totally different
substances all produced carbon dioxide when reacted to acid.

From these activities operational definitions were developed.

1. Carbon dioxide turns phenol red yellow, causes limewater to turn cloudy,
and puts out a burning splint quickly.
2. Air has no effect on phenol red or limewater, and lets a burning splint
continue to burn.
3. Hydrogen has no effect on phenol red or limewater, and causes a "squeaky
pop" explosion when exposed to a burning splint.
Limewater and phenol red belong to a group of materials that are used to tell if
certain kinds of matter are present. This group of materials is called indicators.
The chemical equation is also introduced. A chemical equation is a shorthand
method of writing how matter interacts. Its form is
R E A C T A N T S

PRODUCTS

The reactants are the substances that are being combined or rearranged to form
new kinds of matter. They are always on the left-hand side of the equation. The
products are the new kinds of matter formed. They are always on the right-hand
side of the equation.
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This chapter concludes with the concept that there are more kinds of matter than
kinds of matter particles. Shell, chalk, and baking soda contain particles that
produce carbon dioxide when added to HCl. At this time the idea of pure and
impure matter is introduced. Pure matter is made up of only one kind of matter.
There are two types of pure matter - elements and compounds. An element is

matter that cannot be broken down into simpler matter by ordinary chemical
means. The smallest whole particle of an element is the atom. The atom is defined
as the smallest, unique matter particle. The compound, the other form of pure
matter, is matter that can be broken down into simpler matter by ordinary chemical
means. The smallest particle of the substance is the compound or molecule. The
molecule is defined as a particle made up of two or more different atoms chemically
combined (molecules are combined covalently).
Impure matter is a mixture composed of two or more kinds of matter. Mixtures are
different than compounds in that they can be separated easily. Mixtures also keep
the properties of the individual substances that comprise them. Compounds on the
other hand take on all new properties. This concept was demonstrated when you
tested copper compounds in chapter 5 lab. Copper in compound form DOES NOT
react to nitric acid. Since our only test for copper element is that it reacts to nitric
acid, we had to separate the copper compounds with a single replacement reaction.
Once copper was changed from a compound to a mixture, it reacted. You know this
now, but technically, we could test for the copper directly on the nail since mixtures
keep their properties. All you need to do was test directly in the test tube. You
remember that you tested the nail separately. Sometimes it formed a red liquid,
but it never formed a blue green liquid.
Another question arose that could the copper be rust? If you recall, I did a demo
where I tested real rust with nitric acid and there was no reaction. So, no they
cannot be the same if they had different reactions.
A heterogeneous mixture does not appear the same throughout. That is, one can
see the individual parts of the mixture. A homogeneous mixture is one that appears
to be the same throughout. Homogeneous mixtures are classified as being a
solution, a colloid, or a suspension. In a solution the material being dissolved is
called the solute, while the solvent is the material doing the dissolving. The
process of dissolving is one in which the solute particles are broken apart and
spread uniformly throughout the solvent. A colloid is a homogeneous mixture in
which the particles of the solute are too large to be considered to be a true solution.
Examples of colloids are jello, smoke, fog, and mayonnaise. A suspension is a
homogeneous mixture that will have its particles separate and settle out. Examples
of suspensions are muddy water, Pepto-Bismol, latex paint, and ketchup.
Here the concept that forms of matter, with very different extrinsic characteristics,
can each contain the same kinds of matter particles.
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Here is how you proved this. To begin with, you dissolved three different kinds of
solids in water, heat them in the presence of nails, and collect the rust-like coatings
that formed on the nails (The purpose of heating the nails was to speed up the
reaction). You then add concentrated nitric acid to each of the coatings and note
that a brown gas and a blue-green solution formed.
The reason for the nail and the chemicals was two-fold. First, a single replacement
reaction was needed to isolate the copper metal. Copper metal in either a pure form
or a mixture will react to the nitric acid. Copper in compound form does not react to
nitric acid. You performed a number of experiments to demonstrate that the
properties of compounds are different than the properties of mixtures. Remember,
mixtures keep the properties of the substances that comprise them. Once the
copper compound (blue in solution) is split into copper and other substances, your
solute turned from a blue color to colorless.
At this time you are introduced to the concepts of control and experimental outline.
A control is the unchanged part of the experiment used for comparison. A control is
necessary to see if the manipulated variable, the condition you change, has any
effect on the responding variable, the condition which changes because of changing
the manipulated variable. The first control used is the nail in test tube #4, the one
in which no solid was dissolved. This shows that the rust-like coating came from
the materials you dissolved in the water, not the water.
Your results mirrored the results from the earlier chapter in which several different
substances produced carbon dioxide when mixed with acid. Here, several
completely different substances produced copper metal. Again, more evidence that
there are more kinds of matter than kinds of matter particles.
The second control is rust. After adding nitric acid to rust, you find that no brown
gas or blue-green solution forms. This comparison shows that the nail coatings
were not rust.
The experimental outline is a formal presentation of a laboratory or experimental
activity. It has the elements of the scientific method. This outline includes a
statement of problem,
hypothesis,
control,
procedure,
equipment,
observations/data,
and conclusion.
You test copper metal with concentrated nitric acid and find that the copper
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produces a brown gas and a blue-green solution. It is then inferred that the nail
coatings are copper.
The operational definition of copper is that copper is present if a brown gas and
blue-green solution form when the material is placed in concentrated nitric acid.
You also develop the operational definition for iodine. If a purple gas is formed
when a substance is heated, iodine is present. You need to remember that Iodine
will form a purple gas when heated if it is an element, a mixture, or a compound.
The compound actually separates into a mixture, and since mixtures keep their
properties, it gives a purple gas just like pure iodine.
You test three other forms of matter, a yellow solid, a white solid, and a brown
liquid. The first and the third form a purple gas when heated. The KI was shown
to have Iodine when we added the chlorine water and mineral oil. The oil made a
lavender color.
This is the third proof that the number of kinds of atoms is limited. Three totally
different chemicals all produce iodine. A white solid, a yellow solid, and a liquid
produce iodine. Your third proof in lab that there are more kinds of matter than
kinds of matter particles, is formed.
We could go on testing elements forever and keep finding the same results,
however, at this point, we use a model to see if it is in fact plausible for a few atoms
to account for all the kinds of matter in the universe. Nuts and bolts are used to
represent individual atoms. You find that with just 4 different kinds of nuts and
bolts (atoms) you can make more than 50 combinations. Combining the nuts and
bolts represents a reaction between atoms.
The concepts of symbols and formulas are introduced. A symbol, consisting of one
or two letters, represents an element and the atoms that make the element up.
Each element has a unique symbol. The symbol always starts with a capital letter.
A formula which tells the number and kinds of atoms present represents a
compound and the molecules that make the compound up. There are two numbers
associated with symbols, formulas, and equations. The subscript tells the number
of atoms represented by the symbol that immediately precedes the subscript. The
coefficient tells the number of symbols or formulas present that immediately follows
the coefficient.
The concept of density was used to show that elements are unique since each had its
own density. The concept of heaviness was also discussed. The heaviness of matter
depends upon the density of the matter, not how much matter is present.

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The concept of the Law of Conservation of Mass was reintroduced, in any change
physical or chemical, mass is neither created (gained) nor destroyed (lost). Both a
physical change and a chemical reaction are used. Solutions of lead nitrate and
potassium iodide are prepared. Before dissolving, the mass of the water, lead
nitrate and the potassium iodide are found. After dissolving to make solutions of
lead nitrate and potassium, the mass is again determined. The mass did not
change. Later the solutions are mixed with a resulting yellow precipitate being
formed. This chemical reaction also did not change in mass. Both of these activities
illustrated the Law of Conservation of Mass.
To determine what formed the yellow precipitate, the yellow solid is filtered. A
portion of the yellow solid is heated, forming a purple gas, indicating the presence of
iodine. A shiny, metallic coating is left behind. Using deductive reasoning, it is
determined that the shiny, metallic coating must be lead. Therefore the yellow
precipitate must be made of lead and iodine. The other particles present when the
solutions were mixed, potassium and nitrate, where determined to be in solution
that passed through the filter paper.
A series of chemical reactions were performed to find evidence of chemical reactions.
From these activities, the following evidences where found:
1. A gas is formed. The formation of bubbles means a gas is being formed.
2. An unexpected color change occurs. Mixing two colorless solutions
forming a red solution is unexpected. However, mixing a yellow solution and
a red solution and getting an orange solution is not unexpected.
3. A precipitate forms. A precipitate is a solid that forms when two solutions
are mixed. Its color is irrelevant and should not be considered an unexpected
color change.
4. The temperature increases. There are chemical reactions that occur and
the temperature goes down, but they do not occur in the course of study. A
temperature decrease should not be considered evidence of chemical
reaction.
You then tested the yellow precipitate to determine what the ratio of lead to iodine
was. In doing so you learned that lead combined with iodine in a 1:2 ratio. This
was proven as you added specific amounts of lead to a constant amount of iodine.
The height of the yellow solid that formed was measured and a graph plotted. The
graph initially was a direct relationship, but then, despite having more iodine atoms
than lead, the graph leveled out as you ran out of iodine. This could only have
happened if you were using iodine atoms at a faster rate than you were using lead
atoms. By checking where the graph intersected, you learned that they crossed at
the point that coincided with 5 lead atoms and 10 iodine and no leftover atoms.
This proved that your ratio of lead to iodine was 1:2. This concept is especially
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important as it demonstrates that atoms combine in specific ratios. Later on when

we studied the PTE, we learned that the reason for the specific ratios was that the
atoms form NEUTRAL COMPOUNDS. When atoms combine, they do so until the
total sum of the charges of the compound are equal to zero.
To test for the limiting reagent you separated the filtrate and then added lead and
iodine to the liquid. Only one of the two liquids reacted. Remember, your limiting
reagent is what you run out of first. Initially you ran out of lead as you had so few
to begin with. Later you ran out of iodine as you were using them up at a much
faster rate (remember a 1:2 ratio). You found that you could have only one reactant
left over at a time.

Tabling and Graphing

A graph is a pictorial representation of data collected in an experimental activity.
There are many kinds of graphs - line, bar, circle, pictograph, and histograph. Most
useful for scientific purposes is the line graph, though a bar graph is sometimes
used to show comparisons. A line graph shows if a relationship exists between the
manipulated variable and the responding variable (See handout for detailed
explanation of these relationships and their expected graph shapes). For this
reason, unless told otherwise, always graph data as a line graph.
The various graph shapes discussed were direct, indirect, limited growth, inverse
square, unlimited growth.
Also the line graph allows one to interpolate and extrapolate. Interpolation is used
to find values from a line graph that lie between known data points. In
extrapolation the same pattern of a line graph past is continued past the last known
data points. This can occur at either end of ht line graph. With these techniques,
one can find a large number of experimental values without having actually
performed the experiments. There is one very important limitation to
extrapolation. You are assuming that the pattern the graph is making will

continue. It may actually change in ways you may not expect.

Molarity
A Mole is a specific number, and refers to the number of atoms/molecules in a specific
volume of liquid (one liter). This number has been statistically determined and is defined as
being 6.02 x 1023 atoms/molecules in one liter of liquid. One mole of any liquid contains 6.02 x
102 atoms/molecules. This number is known as Avogadro's Number. The formula to calculate
the number of moles is:
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Grams of Solid
Moles = Molecular Mass of the solid
Lets look at KI. The molecular mass of KI is calculated by using the mass of K and the mass of
I. The mass of K is 39.1, which rounds to 39. The mass of I is 126.9, which rounds to 127. The
sum of the two masses is 39 + 127 = 166
Therefore if you calculate 1 Mole of this solid, M = Grams of Solid/ 166
Solving this equation you find that the number of grams of solid needed is also 166 grams. What
this means is that if you checked a 1M solution of KI you would find the following:
1. It takes 166 grams of KI added to 1 Liter of water to equal 1 Mole.
2. Since the definition of a mole states that One mole of any liquid
contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms/molecules, then this one liter of liquid
contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of KI.
3. 166 grams of KI contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules.
To differentiate between concentration and moles, the concentration of the above liquid would be
calculated by substituting into the formula for concentration:

Grams
Remember that standard concentration is grams/100mL
C= 1 ML of Water
So C= 166 grams/1000 ml (1000 ml is used since the liquid is 1 Liter, which equals 1000 ml.
Dividing this you get C = 0.166 g/ml. This is essentially the mass of 1 ml of the water.

~The difference between the two is the number of Moles tells you the number of
atoms/molecules per ml, while the concentration tells you the mass of the
atoms/molecules per ml.~

Structure of the Atom

You were introduced to the structure of the atom. Though defined as the smallest,
unique matter particle, there are particles smaller that an atom which are not
considered unique. Originally introduced by the ancient Greeks, the modern idea of
the atom did not re-surface until the mid-eighteenth century. Dalton introduced
the concept of the atom to the modern world with the following ideas. He stated
that the atom was neutral. He said that atoms of an element are all the same.
Atoms can rearrange to make new matter and in doing so are not created or
destroyed. Also, when atoms combine, they do so in constant ratios. During the
late nineteenth century, it was discovered experimentally that the atom had at least
two smaller parts. Scientists such as Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr suggested
models to explain how the atom was constructed. Bohr's model with its use of
quantum mechanics is the basis of the modern model of the structure of the atom.
The modern model of the atom states that the atom is mostly empty space with the
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vast majority of the atoms mass contained within a very small nucleus.
The three basic subatomic particles that make up the atom are the proton, the
electron and the neutron. The proton, mass of 1 amu, is the positively charged
subatomic particle that is found in the nucleus of the atom. The electron, no mass
(it takes 1832 electrons to equal a proton, so we will ignore it and say, no mass), is
the negatively charged subatomic particle that is found surrounding the nucleus.
The neutron, mass of 1 amu, is the neutrally charged subatomic particle found in
the nucleus of the atom. The proton is responsible for the kind of atom present.
The electron is involved in how the atom reacts with other atoms. The neutron has
two tasks - it helps hold the nucleus together and it is responsible for radioactivity.
An isotope is an atom of the same element with a different number of neutrons.

The Periodic Table of Elements

The PTE has evolved into its present state through the contributions of several key
people. The first person to realize that the elements could be arranged according to their
chemical properties was a Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev. He arranged the known elements
according to their Atomic Masses and was able to predict the properties of undiscovered
elements. Protons were unknown when Mendeleev arranged the table. Later, a British scientist,
Henry Moseley, realized that if the table were rearranged slightly by using the ATOMIC
NUMBERS, instead of the Mass Numbers, the table was more accurate. Later on, Glenn
Seaborg further tweaked the table, dividing it into the modern table that we are using today.

Key Points: First, remember the table is set up FOR ATOMS, which are NEUTRAL
Period-Refers to the number of electron shells in the atom. Remember that the
first electron shell can hold only two electrons. This is known as the K shell. The M and N
shells are capable of holding 8 electrons each. Before electrons can be placed in additional
shells, you must always fill a lower shell. As electrons move outward from the nucleus of the
atom, they gain more energy. This means that the valence electrons have the most energy.
Valence Number-This is the Roman Numeral at the top of the column on the
PTE. It tells you the number of valence electrons in the outermost electron shell of the atom.
This is significant as it is these electrons that determine the chemical properties of the atom.
Atomic Number-Refers to the number of protons in an atom. If you change the
protons, you change the atom. The number of protons can change in a variety of ways. The
process in which this occurs is called Transmutation.
decay (alpha decay) results in the loss of two protons and two neutrons. This is
essentially a helium atom. The mass of the atom decreases by 4 amu.
decay (beta decay) results in the conversion of a neutron into a proton. The mass of
the atom remains the same.

decay (gamma decay) results in mass of the atom being converted into energy.
Fission-The splitting of the nucleus of the atom into two approximately equal sized
atoms.
Fusion-The combing of the nuclei of two atoms to make a larger atom.
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The main forces that hold an atom together are the following:
Strong force-this force keeps the protons in the nucleus. Failure results in alpha decay.
Weak force-this force keeps the neutron a neutron. A neutron would like to become a proton
and an electron. Failure of the weak force results in beta decay.
Electromagnetic-this is the force of attraction between opposite charges. It is the interaction
between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons in the electron cloud.
Mass Number or Atomic Mass Number- This is the sum of the protons and
neutrons in an atom. It is a decimal numeral as it is an average of the isotopes.
Metals-these atoms form positive ions when they attempt to have a full outer electron shell.
These positive ions are called cations. A loss of electrons is oxidation (LEO).
Nonmetals-these atoms form negative ions called anions when they fill their outer
electron shells. This process is reduction (GER).

LEO SAYS GER

Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, a Gain of Electrons is Reduction.
So, when an ionic bond occurs, you have an oxidation reduction reaction occurring
as one atom is gaining electrons while another is losing electrons.
TYPES OF BONDS
Ionic Bond-this bond forms when there is a permanent transfer of electrons and two
ions form, which then attract. LEO SAYS GER, or use OIL RIG. Atoms are
attempting to attain a full outer electron shell. With most atoms, this will involve 8
electrons. With the first five atoms, it will be two electrons though as a full electron
shell can involve the first shell, which holds two electrons. So, when an atom loses
an electron, a Positive ion, or CATION, forms. The gaining of an electron will form
a negative ion, or ANION. Opposite charges attract, and a neutral compound will
form.
Ionic compounds are able to dissolve in water to form electrolytes (substances that
conduct electricity).
Covalent Bonds-a covalent bond is a much stronger bond than an ionic bond and is

the bond that nature has chosen to use as the building block for your body.

Although some covalent substances can dissolve in water, they will not dissociate,
meaning, no ions form. Covalent bonds do not form ions. Instead, electrons are
shared. Atoms that typically share electrons are the gasses, forming what are
called diatomic molecules, as well as some column four atoms. For the sake of
simplicity, we are going to focus on hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and silicon.
Polyatomic substances are covalently bonded so this is why they do not separate in
water.
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Metallic Bond- this bond is different than the others in that it involves the valence
electrons of the atoms being shared by all the other atoms in the substance. It is
almost like a crunch bar with the Krispies being the atoms and the chocolate being
the valence electrons flowing all around the different atoms (if the chocolate were
liquid).

Acid Base Chemistry

Acids by definition, acids are substances that are PROTON donors. This is
because they give off HYDROGEN ions, which are protons.
Bases bases are of two main types, but are substances that are PROTON
ACCEPTORS. Bases can be hydroxides, OH, or carbonate and bicarbonates.
Regardless of type, they accept protons.
**When acids form, the proton attracts to the water molecule forming a
HYDRONIUM ION, H3O+. ** For simplicity, we are simply saying that a hydrogen
ion forms in the water, H+.
When acids combine with bases, a SALT AND WATER always form.
A NEUTRALIZATION REACTION occurs when an acid and base are combined and
the final pH of the solution is 7.
When referring to acids and bases, it is important to be able to differentiate
between STRENGTH and CONCENTRATION.
Strength refers to the ability of the acid or base to form ions. The stronger
the acid or base, the easier it is for the substance to form ions. This means that the
bonds holding the hydrogen or the hydroxide are actually weak, so that the ION can
actually separate and move about in the solution.
Concentration refers to the actual number of ions per mL of solution.
This means that it is actually possible to have a concentrated, weak base since they
refer to two different things.
pH is a reference to the concentration of ions in the solution. It is a mathematical
calculation that you cannot make, so all you need to know is the range. pH is a
scale that ranges from 014 with 7 being neutral. Anything below 7 is ACIDIC.
Above 7 is BASE. pH is a logarithmic scale, with each number being 10 times
greater than the number preceding it. For example, a pH of 5 is 10 times more
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acidic than a pH of 6. A pH of 4 is 10 times more acidic than 5 and 100 times more
acidic than a pH of 6.
Acids and bases are identified with INDICATORS. Indicators are chemicals that
test for the presence of other substances by the presence of a color change. In the
case of hydroxide, OH, you used a chemical PHTH. If hydroxide is present, then the
PHTH turns pink. If the pH is either 7 or less than 7 then there is no reaction. To
test for acid, you use the indicator CONGO RED. In the presence of acid, congo red
will turn BLUE. Phenol Red could also test for acids, turning yellow.
Acids and bases will neutralize each other in constant ratios. This is demonstrated
by the lab where you are titrating. You first demonstrate this by adding a fixed
amount of base to neutralize acid. You determine the ratio needed to neutralize the
acid. Then, you learn that if you double the amount of acid, you also need to double
the amount of base needed to neutralize the acid. As the acid changes, the base
changes by the same ratio. If the acid and base neutralization is plotted on a graph,
the line of best fit is a direct relationship.
Carbonates and bicarbonates are polyatomic groups that react to the hydrogen ion
to form carbon dioxide and water.
CO3 + 2H H2O + CO2
HCO3 + H H2O + CO2
The key thing to note between carbonates and bicarbonates is that they require
different amounts of hydrogen ion to make THE SAME PRODUCT. Bicarbonate,
sometimes called Hydrogen Carbonate, differs in that it already contains one
hydrogen ion. For this reason, it needs only ONE hydrogen ion to form the carbon
dioxide and water.
Other polyatomic groups of note, along with their charge, are as follows

Hydroxide

OH1-

Nitrate

NO31-

Sulfate
Phosphate
Ammonium

SO43PO43NH41+

Notes:
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