AC Vs DC Cable Transmission For Offshore

AC Vs DC Cable Transmission for Offshore Wind farm Seminar Report-‘09
1. INTRODUCTION
The application of wind energy throughout the world is growing fast. The
development of larger, more efficient turbines is opening up new frontiers in wind energy
generation in the form of large offshore wind farms. The use of high-voltage direct current
(HVDC) technology can fully realize the potential of these developments. Wind farms
located offshore are planned because of higher average wind speeds at sea and space
limitations on-shore. Offshore wind farms will be different from their onshore counterparts
for several reasons. The turbines will on average have a larger diameter and rated powers,
the farm will be difficult to access during periods with high winds, erection and
maintenance will be more expensive, the turbine noise will probably not be an important
issue, and a submarine electrical connection to shore will be required.
Figure 1: Offshore Wind farm
As the increasing demand, offshore wind power characterized by larger size

of the farms, 200 – 1000 MW are planned, and increasing distances from the grid. Cable
transmission is the only solution for the transmission from the farm to the shore. Often land
cables are also required to reach a sufficiently strong interconnection point in the grid.
Together this gives transmission distances of 50 – 100 km. The electrical system concerns
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 1 MACE

the electrical power components between the generator shaft and the grid connection and it
concerns the way these components are interconnected and operated. Its function is to
convert mechanical power to electric power, to collect electric power from individual
turbines, to transmit it to the shore and to convert to an appropriate voltage and frequency.
The system consists amongst other of generators, cables, transformers and power
electronic converters. Systems are mainly characterized by the type of voltage used within
the farm and for the shore connection (AC or DC) and the frequency of the electrical signals
(fixed or variable). Some efficient way of configuration to collect the electric power from
individual wind turbines and to transmit this power to an on-shore high-voltage power
system node has been discussed here. The inventory concerns both constant and variable
speed wind turbines and transmission by AC and DC cable networks.
Background
Wind power is the world’s fastest growing energy source. By 2020, 12% of the
world’s demand of electricity will be produced by wind. Recent trends are a move from
onshore to offshore, the up scaling of wind turbine size (to 3-5 MW), and the integration of
land and marine-based networks. A major challenge is connecting a variable energy source
to a distant grid demanding power stability.

2. WIND POWER
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as
electricity, using wind turbines. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-
powered generators was 121.2 gigawatts (GW). In 2008, wind power produced about 1.5%
of worldwide electricity usage; and is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years
between 2005 and 2008. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind
power penetration, such as 19% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 11%
in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. As of May
2009, eighty countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.
Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network;
smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies
increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy
as a power source is attractive as an alternative to fossil fuels, because it is
plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions.
However, the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed due to their visual
impact and other effects on the environment. Wind power is non-dispatchable, meaning that
for economic operation, all of the available output must be taken when it is available. Other
resources, such as hydropower, and standard load management techniques must be used to
match supply with demand. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using
wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand. Where wind is to be used for a
moderate fraction of demand such as 40%, additional costs for compensation of
intermittency are considered to be modest.
2.1 Effect on power grid
The intermittency of wind power and other renewable power sources creates issues in
power grids, which expect some supplied power to have a certain degree of constancy and
reliability to satisfy baseline demand while other supplied power must respond to variations
in demand.

One proposed solution in Europe is to create a super grid of interconnected wind

farms. This large-scale array of dispersed wind farms would be located in different wind
regimes, reducing the overall variation in power output.
2.2 Development
To develop a wind farm, a suitable location is first identified. Good locations for
wind farms should have fast steady winds and be near transmission lines. Land parcels on
which wind turbines will be located then must be leased from the land owners. The wind
resource must then be evaluated using data recorded by onsite meteorological towers. The
wind farm project must then be financed and constructed.
2.3 Types
Depending on the location of the turbines installed, the wind farms can be classified
as Onshore, Nearshore, Airborne, and Offshore. Among these, onshore windfarms became
very popular because of its comparative low initial investment and pollution free energy.
Thus such windfarms were constructed in site where continuous unidirectional flow of wind
is available. But the increasing demand and non availability of suitable lands, the world is
now going for offshore wind farms.
2.3.1 Onshore
Onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines

generally three kilometers or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit
the so-called topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge. The additional
wind speeds gained in this way make a significant difference to the amount of energy that is
produced. Great attention must be paid to the exact positions of the turbines (a process

known as micro-siting) because a difference of 30 m can sometimes mean a doubling in

output.
Figure 2: Onshore Windfarm
2.3.2 Nearshore
Figure 3: Nearshore Windfarm

Nearshore turbine installations are on land within three kilometers of a shoreline or

on water within ten kilometers of land. These areas are good sites for turbine installation,
because of wind produced by convection due to differential heating of land and sea each
day. Wind speeds in these zones share the characteristics of both onshore and offshore
wind, depending on the prevailing wind direction.
2.3.3 Airborne
Airborne wind turbines would eliminate the cost of towers and might also be flown in
high speed winds at high altitude. No such systems are in commercial operation.
2.3.4 Offshore
Figure 4: Offshore wind turbines
Offshore wind development zones are generally considered to be ten kilometers or

more from land. Offshore wind turbines are less obtrusive than turbines on land, as their
apparent size and noise is mitigated by distance. Because water has less surface roughness
than land (especially deeper water), the average wind speed is usually considerably higher
over open water. Capacity factors (utilisation rates) are considerably higher than for onshore
and nearshore locations. In stormy areas with extended shallow continental shelves, turbines
are practical to install

3. OFFSHORE WINDFARMS
Offshore wind farms are likely to be larger than those on shore as the economies of
scale in offshore projects are more significant. Compared to onshore wind power, offshore
wind power is more complex and costly to install and maintain but also has several key
advantages. Winds are typically stronger and more stable at sea, resulting in significantly
higher production per unit installed. Wind turbines can also be bigger than on land because
it is easier to transport very large turbine components by sea. Offshore wind development
zones are generally considered to be ten kilometers or more from land. Offshore wind
turbines are less obtrusive than turbines on land, as their apparent size and noise is
mitigated by distance. Because water has less surface roughness than land (especially
deeper water), the average wind speed is usually considerably higher over open water.
Capacity factors (utilisation rates) are considerably higher than for onshore and nearshore
locations. In stormy areas with extended shallow continental shelves, turbines are practical
to install.
Offshore installation is more expensive than onshore but this depends on the
attributes of the site. Offshore towers are generally taller than onshore towers once the
submerged height is included. Offshore foundations may be more expensive to build. Power
transmission from offshore turbines is through undersea cable, often using high voltage
direct current operation if significant distance is to be covered. Offshore saltwater
environments also raise maintenance costs by corroding the towers
Offshore wind turbines will probably continue to be the largest turbines in operation,
since the high fixed costs of the installation are spread over more energy production,
reducing the average cost. Turbine components (rotor blades, tower sections) can be
transported by barge, making large parts easier to transport offshore than on land, where
turn clearances and underpass clearances of available roads limit the size of turbine
components that can be moved by truck. Similarly, large construction cranes are difficult to
move to remote wind farms on land, but crane vessels easily move over water. Offshore

wind farms tend to be quite large, often involving over 100 turbines. These wind farms are
likely to be located some distance from the shore.
3.1 Indian Scenario
At the end of September 2007, India had 7660 MW of wind generating capacity and
is the fourth largest market in the world. Indian Wind Energy Association has estimated that
with the current level of technology, the ‘on-shore’ potential for utilization of wind energy
for electricity generation is of the order of 65,000 MW. There are about a dozen wind
pumps of various designs providing water for agriculture, afforestation, and domestic
purposes, all scattered over the country. The wind farms are predominantly present in the
states of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat. Other states like Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kerala and Madhya Pradesh have a very good potential.
3.2 Transmission Issues for Offshore Wind Farms
Electric energy generated by offshore wind generating facilities requires one or more
submarine cables to transmit the power generated to the onshore utility grid that services the
end-users of this renewable energy source. Because the power from the wind turbines is
generated as an alternating current (AC) and the on-shore transmission grid is AC, the most
straightforward technical approach is to use an AC cable system connection to facilitate this
interconnection. Present state-of-the-art and the most cost effective AC technology for this
type of interconnection is solid dielectric (also called extruded dielectric or polymeric
insulated) cable, usually with cross- linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation. This is the cable
system technology presently used for all offshore wind farms constructed to date (all of
which are located in Europe) primarily as a result of: ease of interconnection, installation,
and maintenance; operational reliability; and cost effectiveness. For relatively small
generating capacity wind farms it has been sufficient to bring the power to shore at the same
voltage used to interconnect the wind turbine generators (WTG), typically 33 kilovolt (kV).
As the energy generating capacity of the wind farm increases, however, use of submarine
cables in this voltage class for the connection to shore would require a prohibitively large

number of cables and would lead to high line losses and excessive voltage drops combined
with unnecessary sea-bed disturbance to accommodate installation of many cables. One
solution is to step up the wind farm transmission voltage from the WTG production and
collection voltage of 33 kV to a higher AC voltage suitable for transmission to shore. This
requires an offshore substation platform containing step-up transformers. The first wind farm
large enough to require this approach is the 160 MW Horns Rev Wind Farm commissioned
for operation in December 2002 in Denmark.
Corona is another factor. Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such
as air) by the presence of a strong electric field. Electrons are torn from neutral air, and
either the positive ions or the electrons are attracted to the conductor, while the charged
particles drift. This effect can cause considerable power loss, create audible and radio-
frequency interference, generate toxic compounds such as oxides of nitrogen and ozone,
and bring forth arcing. Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the
former case in the form of oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to
the space charge formed around the conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the
loss per unit length of a high voltage AC system carrying the same amount of power. With
monopolar transmission the choice of polarity of the energized conductor leads to a degree
of control over the corona discharge. In particular, the polarity of the ions emitted can be
controlled, which may have an environmental impact on particulate condensation. (Particles
of different polarities have a different mean-free path.) Negative coronas generate
considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it further downwind of the
power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of a positive voltage will reduce
the ozone impacts of monopole HVDC power lines.
Earthing, particularly for lightning protection, will need to be addressed as offshore

structures may be more exposed to positive polarity lightning strokes. Positive downward
lightning has higher peak currents and charge transfer, and is likely to be more destructive
than the more common negative downward strike. Coupled with the difficulties of offshore
access, this may lead to a much higher economic benefit of improved lightning protection.

Also for directly connected wind farms with 33 kV collection circuits, some form of
reactive power compensation/voltage control may be required. It will, of course, be cheaper
to locate this on land.
4. HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT (HVDC)
A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct
current for the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more
common alternating current systems. For long-distance distribution, HVDC systems are less
expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC
conversion equipment compared to an AC system may be warranted where other benefits of
direct current links are useful.
The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in

the 1930s in Sweden at ASEA. Early commercial installations included one in the Soviet
Union in 1951 between Moscow and Kashira, and a 10-20 MW system between Gotland
and mainland Sweden in 1954. The longest HVDC link in the world is currently the Inga-
Shaba 1,700 km, 600 MW link connecting the Inga Dam to the Shaba copper mine, in
the Democratic Republic of Congo.
4.1 High voltage transmission
High voltage is used for transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the
wires. For a given quantity of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission
power loss. Power in a circuit is proportional to the current, but the power lost as heat in the
wires is proportional to the square of the current. However, power is also proportional to
voltage, so for a given power level, higher voltage can be traded off for lower current. Thus,
the higher the voltage, lower the power loss. Power loss can also be reduced by reducing
resistance, commonly achieved by increasing the diameter of the conductor; but larger
conductors are heavier and more expensive.
High voltages cannot be easily used in lighting and motors, and so transmission-level
voltage must be reduced to values compatible with end-use equipment. The transformer,

which only works with alternating current, is an efficient way to change voltages. The
competition between the DC of Thomas Edison and the AC of Nikola Tesla and George
Westinghouse was known as the War of Currents, with AC emerging victorious. Practical
manipulation of DC voltages only became possible with the development of high power
electronic devices such as mercury arc valves and later semiconductor devices, such
as thyristors, insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), high power
capable MOSFETs (power metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors) and gate
turn-off thyristors (GTOs).
4.2 History of HVDC transmission
Figure 5: 150 KV mercury arc valve converter for transmitting AC hydropower voltage to long distance.
The first long-distance transmission of electric power was demonstrated using direct
current in 1882 at the Miesbach-Munich Power Transmission, but only 2.5 kW was
transmitted. An early method of high-voltage DC transmission was developed by the Swiss
engineer Rene Thury and his method was put into practice by 1889 in Italy by the
Acquedotto de Ferrari-Galliera Company. This system used series-connected motor-
generator sets to increase voltage. Each set was insulated from ground and driven by
insulated shafts from a prime mover. The line was operated in constant current mode, with
up to 5,000 volts on each machine, some machines having double commutators to reduce

the voltage on each commutator. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a

distance of 120 km The Moutiers-Lyon system transmitted 8,600 kW of hydroelectric
power a distance of 124 miles, including 6 miles of underground cable. The system used
eight series-connected generators with dual commutators for a total voltage of 150,000 volts
between the poles, and ran from about 1906 until 1936. Fifteen Thury systems were in
operation by 1913.Other Thury systems operating at up to 100 kV DC operated up to the
1930s, but the rotating machinery required high maintenance and had high energy loss.
Various other electromechanical devices were tested during the first half of the 20th century
with little commercial success. One conversion technique attempted for conversion of direct
current from a high transmission voltage to lower utilization voltage was to charge series-
connected batteries, then connect the batteries in parallel to serve distribution loads. While
at least two commercial installations were tried around the turn of the 20th century, the
technique was not generally useful owing to the limited capacity of batteries, difficulties in
switching between series and parallel connections, and the inherent energy inefficiency of a
battery charge/discharge cycle.
The grid controlled mercury arc valve became available for power transmission
during the period 1920 to 1940. Starting in 1932, General Electric tested mercury-vapor
valves and a 12 kV DC transmission line, which also served to convert 40 Hz generation to
serve 60 Hz loads, at Mechanicville, New York. In 1941, a 60 MW, +/-200 kV, 115 km
buried cable link was designed for the city of Berlin using mercury arc valves (Elbe-
Project), but owing to the collapse of the German government in 1945 the project was never
completed. The nominal justification for the project was that, during wartime, a buried
cable would be less conspicuous as a bombing target. The equipment was moved to the
Soviet Union and was put into service there.
Introduction of the fully-static mercury arc valve to commercial service in 1954

marked the beginning of the modern era of HVDC transmission. A HVDC-connection was
constructed by ASEA between the mainland of Sweden and the island Gotland. Mercury arc
valves were common in systems designed up to 1975, but since then, HVDC systems use
only solid-state devices. From 1975 to 2000, line-commutated converters (LCC)

using thyristor valves were relied on. According to experts such as Vijay Sood, the next 25
years may well be dominated by force commutated converters, beginning with capacitor
commutative converters (CCC) followed by self commutating converters which have
largely supplanted LCC use. Since use of semiconductor commutators, hundreds of HVDC
sea-cables have been laid and worked with high reliability, usually better than 96% of the
time.
4.3 Rectifying and inverting systems
Rectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. Many substations are
set up in such a way that they can act as both rectifiers and inverters. At the AC end a set of
transformers, often three physically separate single-phase transformers, isolate the station
from the AC supply, to provide a local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual DC voltage.
The output of these transformers is then connected to a bridge rectifier formed by a number
of valves. The basic configuration uses six valves, connecting each of the three phases to
each of the two DC rails. However, with a phase change only every sixty degrees,
considerable harmonics remain on the DC rails.
An enhancement of this configuration uses 12 valves (often known as a twelve-pulse

system). The AC is split into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One
of the sets of supplies is then configured to have a star (wye) secondary, the other a delta
secondary, establishing a thirty degree phase difference between the two sets of three
phases. With twelve valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two DC
rails, there is a phase change every 30 degrees, and harmonics are considerably reduced.
In addition to the conversion transformers and valve-sets, various passive resistive and
reactive components help filter harmonics out of the DC rails.

5. HVDC TRANSMISSION BASED ON VSC’S
Voltage Source Converters (VSC) have for the first time been used for HVDC
transmission in a real network. Experience from the design and commissioning of the
transmission shows that the technology has now reached the stage where it is possible to
build high voltage converters utilizing Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs).
Operation and system tests have proved that the properties that have been discussed for
many years regarding VSCs for HVDC are a reality now. They include independent control
of active and reactive power, operation against isolated ac. networks with no generation of
their own, very limited need of filters and no need of transformers for the conversion
process. This is only the first installation of VSC for HVDC.
The development of semiconductors and control equipment is presently very rapid

and it is evident that this technology will play an important role in the future expansion of
electric transmission and distribution systems.
VSC based HVDC Transmission Layout.
5.1 Converter Technologies

5.1.1 HVDC Classic

Using HVDC to interconnect two points in a power grid, in many cases is the best
economic alternative, and furthermore it has excellent environmental benefits. The HVDC
technology (High Voltage Direct Current) is used to transmit electricity over long distances
by overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. It is also used to interconnect separate
power systems, where traditional alternating current (AC) connections can not be used.
ABB pioneered the HVDC technology and is the undisputed world leader in the HVDC
field.
In a high voltage direct current (HVDC) system, electric power is taken from one point in a
three-phase AC network, converted to DC in a converter station, transmitted to the
receiving point by an overhead line or cable and then converted back to AC in another
converter station and injected into the receiving AC network. Typically, an HVDC
transmission has a rated power of more than 100 MW and many are in the 1,000 - 3,000
MW range. HVDC transmissions are used for transmission of power over long or very long
distances, because it then becomes economically attractive over conventional AC
lines. With an HVDC system, the power flow can be controlled rapidly and accurately as to
both the power level and the direction. This possibility is often used in order to improve the
performance and efficiency of the connected AC networks.
5.1.2
HVDC Light
The Pulse Width Modulated Voltage Source Converter a close to ideal component in
the transmission network. From a system point of view it acts as a motor or generator
without mass that can control active and reactive power almost instantaneously.
Conventional HVDC converter technology is based on the use of line-commutated or
phase-commutated converters (PCC). With the appearance of high switching frequency
components, such as IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) it becomes advantageous to
build VSC (Voltage Source Converters) using PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
Technology.

The key part of the HVDC Light converter consists of an IGBT valve bridge. No
special converter transformers are necessary between the valve bridge and the AC-grid.
Aconverter reactor can separate the fundamental frequency from the raw PWM waveform.
If the desired DC voltage does not match the AC system voltage, a normal AC transformer
may be used in addition to the reactor. A small shunt AC-filter is placed on the AC-side of
the reactor. On the DC-side there is a DC capacitor that serves as a DC filter too.
5.1.2.1 Pulse width modulation technology for HVDC Light

This is an entirely different concept compared with the classical HVDC converter.
In the PWM bridge switching very fast between two fixed voltages creates the AC-voltage.
The desired fundamental frequency voltage is formed through low pass filtering of the high
frequency pulse modulated voltage.

VSC three phase converter
The PWM pattern and the corresponding power frequency voltage of a VSC converter
With PWM it is possible to create any phase angle or amplitude (up to a certain limit) by
changing the PWM pattern, which can be done almost instantaneous. Hereby PWM offers
the possibility to control both active and reactive power independently.
This makes the Pulse Width Modulated Voltage Source Converter a close to ideal
component in the transmission network. From a system point of view it acts as a motor or
generator without mass that can control active and reactive power almost instantaneously.

Furthermore, it does not contribute to the short circuit power as the AC current can be
controlled.
5.1.2.2 Active and reactive power control

The fundamental frequency voltage across the converter reactor defines the power
flow between the AC and DC sides. Changing the phase angle between the fundamental
frequency voltage generated by the converter (Ug) and the voltage on the AC bus controls
the active power flow between the converter and the network. The reactive power flow is
determined by the amplitude of Ug, which is controlled by the width of the pulses from the
converter bridge. The control is performed by the MACH2 system developed by ABB. All
functions for control, supervision and protection of the stations are implemented in software
running in a family of microprocessor circuit boards.
5.1.2.3 Station Design

The majority of equipment in a HVDC Light is delivered in enclosures and tested at
factory before shipment. For example the IGBT valves, the control equipment, the valve
cooling equipment and the station service are all delivered in enclosures. This simplifies the
civil works and also makes the installation and commissioning faster than for a traditional
converter. The HVDC Light concept lends itself to a modular standardized design with a
high degree of factory testing.

5.1.3 HVDC-Plus
Siemens Power Transmission and Distribution (PTD) launched a high-voltage direct

current transmission (HVDC) system on the market, based on a new generation of
converters using voltage-sourced converter (VSC) technology. The HVDC Plus system is
suitable for direct current links up to the 1,000 MW power range where line-commutated
converters are still used exclusively today. In contrast to line-commutated converter
technology, the HVDC-Plus system operates with power semiconductors which have both
turn-on and turn-off capability. As a result, the commutation processes in the converter are
independent from the AC system voltage. Next to other applications the transmission
system allows the low-loss transport of electrical energy from offshore wind farms to the
coast and the economical and environmentally-friendly supply of power to oil platforms
from the AC system on the mainland.
The high-voltage direct-current transmission system HVDC Plus makes use of all the
advantages offered by self-commutated voltage-sourced converter technology. This
includes grid access to very weak AC systems as well as supplying passive networks.
Active and reactive power can be controlled independently. The capability of very rapid
control and protection actions of the converter makes the system highly dynamic, which is

necessary especially for AC faults and system disturbances. Last but not least, the black-
start capability function enables the HVDC system to restart a collapsed network.
HVDC Plus operates with an innovative multilevel converter concept, which offers in
comparison to existing VSC solutions additional significant benefits. Amongst others these
are low losses due to low switching frequencies, full modular design and therewith a
straightforward scalability. In addition to the operation as back-to-back link and as cable
transmission, HVDC Plus can also be used in combination with overhead lines.
Offshore wind farms in the power range of a few hundred megawatts usually demand for
particularly high requirements of power transmission. Many wind farms are located
offshore over a hundred kilometers from the AC system on the coast. This generally
exceeds the economical and technical limits of AC-based cable transmission systems and
calls for new DC transmission concepts, for example based on the HVDC Plus system.
Oil platforms, which have a high power demand, also require a high level of power quality
for the transmission if they are to be supplied from the mainland and not locally as in the
past. Power delivery from the mainland not only increases the availability of the electric
supply on the drilling rigs but also renders the maintenance and servicing work unnecessary
for the small power plants currently used on the platforms. This also eliminates
environmentally harmful CO2 and NOX emissions from the small power plants usually
used at sea.
Submarine cables are used exclusively for power transmission across the sea.
However, the transport of power in the form of alternating current via cable is limited to a
length of about 80 to 120 kilometers for technical and economical reasons, depending on
the power to be transmitted. For this reason, direct-current transmission is the preferred
solution.
5.2 Configurations
5.2.1 Monopole and earth return

In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is

connected to earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground,
is connected to a transmission line. The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to
the corresponding connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.
If no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes
at the two stations. Therefore it is a type of single wire earth return. The issues surrounding
earth-return current include
 Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines

 Underwater earth-return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise
affect water chemistry.
 An unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect
magnetic navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.
These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor

between the two ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the
converters is connected to earth, the return conductor need not be insulated for the full
transmission voltage which makes it less costly than the high-voltage conductor. Use of a
metallic return conductor is decided based on economic, technical and environmental
factors. Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1,500 MW. If
underground or underwater cables are used the typical value is 600 MW.
Most monopolar systems are designed for future bipolar expansion. Transmission line
towers may be designed to carry two conductors, even if only one is used initially for the
monopole transmission system. The second conductor is either unused or used as electrode
line or connected in parallel with the other (as in case of Baltic-Cable).
5.2.2 Bipolar
In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with

respect to ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full

voltage, transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However,
there are a number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it the attractive
option.
Figure 6: Bipolar system pylons of the HVDC Cable
 Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar

transmission with a metallic earth-return. This reduces earth return loss and environmental
effects.
 When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of
the line, approximately half the rated power can continue to flow using the earth as a return
path, operating in monopolar mode.
 Since for a given total power rating each conductor of a bipolar line carries only half
the current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a
monopolar line of the same rating.
 In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of
transmission towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line is
damaged.
A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.
Bipolar systems may carry as much as 3,200 MW at voltages of +/-600 kV. Submarine
cable installations initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional
cables and operated as a bipole.

A block diagram of a bipolar HVDC transmission system, between two stations

designated A and B. AC - represents an alternating current network CON - represents a
converter valve, either rectifier or inverter, TR represents a power transformer, DCTL is the
direct-current transmission line conductor, DCL is a direct-current filter inductor, BP
represents a bypass switch, and PM represent power factor correction and harmonic filter
networks required at both ends of the link. The DC transmission line may be very short in a
back-to-back link, or extend hundreds of miles (km) overhead, underground or underwater.
One conductor of the DC line may be replaced by connections to earth ground.
Figure 7: Bipolar HVDC transmission system
5.2.3 Back to back
A back-to-back station (or B2B for short) is a plant in which both static inverters and
rectifiers are in the same area, usually in the same building. The length of the direct current
line is kept as short as possible. HVDC back-to-back stations are used for coupling of
electricity mains of different frequency and phase number and two network of the same
nominal frequency but no fixed phase relationship. The DC voltage in the intermediate
circuit can be selected freely at HVDC back-to-back stations because of the short conductor

length. The DC voltage is as low as possible, in order to build a small valve hall and to
avoid series connections of valves. For this reason at HVDC back-to-back stations valves
with the highest available current rating are used.
5.2.4 Systems with transmission lines

The most common configuration of an HVDC link is two inverter/rectifier stations
connected by an overhead power line. This is also a configuration commonly used in
connecting unsynchronised grids, in long-haul power transmission, and in undersea cables.
Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The configuration
of multiple terminals can be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of series and parallel).
Parallel configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for lower
capacity stations. An example is the 2,000 MW Quebec - New England
Transmission system opened in 1992, which is currently the largest multi-terminal HVDC
system in the world.
5.2.5 Tripole: current-modulating control

A newly patented scheme (As of 2004) (Current modulation of direct current
transmission lines) is intended for conversion of existing AC transmission lines to HVDC.
Two of the three circuit conductors are operated as a bipole. The third conductor is used as
a parallel monopole, equipped with reversing valves (or parallel valves connected in reverse
polarity). The parallel monopole periodically relieves current from one pole or the other,
switching polarity over a span of several minutes. The bipole conductors would be loaded to
either 1.37 or 0.37 of their thermal limit, with the parallel monopole always carrying +/- 1
times its thermal limit current. The combined RMS heating effect is as if each of the
conductors is always carrying 1.0 of its rated current. This allows heavier currents to be
carried by the bipole conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor for energy
transmission. High currents can be circulated through the line conductors even when load
demand is low, for removal of ice.
Combined with the higher average power possible with a DC transmission line for the
same line-to-ground voltage, a tripole conversion of an existing AC line could allow up to

80% more power to be transferred using the same transmission right-of-way, towers, and
conductors. Some AC lines cannot be loaded to their thermal limit due to system stability,
reliability, and reactive power concerns, which would not exist with an HVDC link.
The system would operate without earth-return current. Since a single failure of a
pole converter or a conductor results in only a small loss of capacity and no earth-return
current, reliability of this scheme would be high, with no time required for switching. As of
2008, no tri-pole conversions are in operation, although a transmission line in India has
been converted to bipole HVDC.
5.3 Possible Connections
Three options for connecting an offshore wind farm have been examined to establish
the electrical characteristics, feasibility and costs.
5.3.1 Multiple 33 kV links

This appears to be the cheapest option for distances offshore up to 20 km and power
levels up to 200 MW. Outside these ranges the cable laying costs and electrical losses are
the limiting factors. Also it must be recognized that 200 MW is a large injection of power
for any distribution circuit to accept and so there may well be limitations imposed by the
utility for large wind farms. This option has no wind farm transformers offshore, only the
individual turbine transformers. The wind farm is divided into blocks. Each block is fed by
its own, 3 core cable from shore. The maximum practical conductor size for operation at 33
kV appears to be 300 mm2, giving a block rating in the range 25 to 30 MW. If necessary,
two blocks could be connected by one cable, while the faulty cable is repaired.
5.3.2 Single 132 kV link and transformer

This is the simplest system with a higher transmission voltage for the link to the
shore. From discussion with cable manufacturers, 132 kV is their preferred voltage rather
than 66 kV. However, an offshore substation is required, on a separate platform. Also, if the
link fails, the whole wind farm is disconnected. This option is expensive for all distances

out to 30 km and power levels less than 200 MW. Putting a substation offshore for this type
of link is novel and the first few would be expensive and require careful monitoring. Thus,
it is unlikely to be used for the first offshore wind farms around the UK.
5.4 HVDC link
Advances in power electronic technology have led to the development of HVDC

systems at lower ratings than were previously cost effective. For instance, one manufacturer
has a system in the range 2 to 200 MW based on IGBT voltage source converters. Typically
a 110 MW link including cable, might cost £13M. One advantage of voltage source forced
commutated converters, over traditional HVDC current source converters based on
thyristors, is that synchronous rotating machines are not required at each end of the link.
The AC connection voltage at the ends does not have to be the same, possibly saving a site
transformer at the shore. To date only a demonstration system has been installed and there
has yet to be an offshore installation. The technology is in its infancy and further advances
are likely. In the longer term, there is the possibility that offshore turbines will be connected
at DC offshore, making HVDC links more attractive. The HVDC link uses the technology
available at present on the assumption that a marinised version is available. Again a
platform is required to house the offshore converter and switchgear, and the whole wind
farm is lost if the cable fails. This option is too expensive for distances closer to shore than
25 km and for power levels less than 200 MW. There is also a risk, which will decrease
with time, associated with applying this new technology offshore.
6. HVDC CABLE TRANSMISSION
6.1 Advantages of HVDC over AC transmission
The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage
level and construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1,000 km High-voltage
direct current transmission allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers.
Long undersea cables have a high capacitance. While this has minimal effect for DC

transmission, the current required to charge and discharge the capacitance of the cable
causes additional I2R power losses when the cable is carrying AC. In addition, AC power is
lost to dielectric losses.
HVDC can carry more power per conductor, because for a given power rating the
constant voltage in a DC line is lower than the peak voltage in an AC line. In AC power,
the root mean square (RMS) voltage measurement is considered the standard, but RMS is
only about 71% of the peak voltage. The peak voltage of AC determines the actual
insulation thickness and conductor spacing. Because DC operates at a constant maximum
voltage without RMS, this allows existing transmission line corridors with equally sized
conductors and insulation to carry 100% more power into an area of high power
consumption than AC, which can lower costs.
Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronised AC distribution

systems, it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from
propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load
that would cause portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and separate would
not similarly affect a DC link, and the power flow through the DC link would tend to
stabilize the AC network. The magnitude and direction of power flow through a DC link
can be directly commanded, and changed as needed to support the AC networks at either
end of the DC link. This has caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use
of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.
6.2 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching and control. Further

operating an HVDC scheme requires keeping many spare parts, which may be used
exclusively in one system as HVDC systems are less standardized than AC systems and the
used technology changes fast.

The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At
smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an AC
transmission line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line
construction cost and lower line loss. With two exceptions, all former mercury rectifiers
worldwide have been dismantled or replaced by thyristor units. Pole 1 of the HVDC scheme
between the North and South Islands of New Zealand still uses mercury arc rectifiers, as
does Pole 1 of the Vancouver Island link in Canada.
In contrast to AC systems, realizing multiterminal systems is complex, as is

expanding existing schemes to multiterminal systems. Controlling power flow in a
multiterminal DC system requires good communication between all the terminals; power
flow must be actively regulated by the control system instead of by the inherent properties
of the transmission line. High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because
some mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero, otherwise
arcing and contact wear would be too great to allow reliable switching. Multi-terminal lines
are rare. One is in operation at the Hydro Québec - New England transmission from
Radisson to Sandy Pond. Another example is the Sardinia-mainland Italy link which was
modified in 1989 to also provide power to the island of Corsica.
For cable links longer than 40-50 km, DC provides lower Investment costs. The
saving gained from installing only one DC cable instead of three AC cables more than
compensates for the cost of the AC/DC converter stations.
• DC cable transmissions have lower losses than a corresponding AC cable link. The
converter station losses are normally as low as 0.6% per station, and
DC cable losses are only around 0.3-0.4% per 100 km.
• Long AC cables produce high amounts of reactive power requiring shunt reactors at both
ends. In extreme cases the reactive current may seriously reduce the active power
transmission capability. These drawbacks do not arise in a DC cable.
• DC links can connect two asynchronous power grids in cases where it is impossible or
impracticable to establish a synchronous interconnection.

• The high controllability of the DC system can be exploited to improve the operating
conditions of the interconnected grids.
6.3 AC Cable transmission Vs. DC Cable transmission
AC Cable DC Cable
Higher cable costs: more cables needed Lower cable costs: fewer cables needed
Lower power transfer capabilities (per cable) Higher power transfer capabilities (per cable)
Capacity reduction due to charging currents

No capacity reduction by charging currents
Additional costs involved due to the

No additional costs of the converter stations
requirement of converter stations at either
end of the transmission line
7. APPLICATIONS
In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC transmission. Examples

include:
 Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses. (e.g.,
250 km Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany)
 Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps',
for example, in remote areas

 Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additional wires
are difficult or expensive to install
 Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised AC distribution
systems
 Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid, for example Nelson
River Bipole
 Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing prospective short
circuit current
 Reducing line cost. HVDC needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support
multiple phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from
the skin effect
 Facilitate power transmission between different countries that use AC at differing
voltages and/or frequencies
 Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources.
8. COST AND ECONOMICS FOR HVDC CABLE TRANSMISSION
Costs vary widely depending on the specifics of the project such as power rating,
circuit length, overhead vs. underwater route, land costs, and AC network improvements
required at either terminal. A detailed evaluation of DC vs. AC cost may be required where
there is no clear technical advantage to DC alone and only economics drives the selection.
However some practitioners have given out some information that can be reasonably well
relied upon:

For an 8 GW 40 km link laid under the English Channel, the following are
approximate primary equipment costs for a 2000 MW 500 kV bipolar conventional HVDC
link
 Converter stations ~£110M
 Subsea cable + installation ~£1M/km
While choosing the technology used for conversion of AC and DC based on VSC’s,
the HVDC Light is an attractive solution for offshore wind power when HVDC is
considered for offshore wind power, the most attractive technology is the voltage source
technology in ABB version named HVDC Light. The evidence is in the table describing the
differences between the technologies.
Figure 8: Development of HVDC Light ratings and losses
The new converter design gives the following benefits:
 Well-proven semiconductor technology with large number of components in

service with identical voltage.
 Simple and robust converter design.
 Good dynamic properties.
 Low losses
 Reduced costs

A recent study performed by Econnect, regarding the technological options related to

the UK offshore projects also use voltage source converters as the HVDC alternative. This
study concludes that for the UK projects in a number of projects HVDC would be feasible
particularly if “joint connection” is applied. “Joint connection” is to combine the
transmission for a number of wind parks. The total interconnection cost for the studied
projects are in the range of 250 kEuro/MW to 370 kEuro/MW with an average cost of 270
kEuro/MW. The joint connection alternative shoved an average of 240 kEuro/MW. The
studied range in power and transmission distance is 64 to 1000 MW and 30 – 100 km. The
study suggests that HVDC (Voltage source converters) should be considered particularly in
the joint connection alternatives that also gives the lowest overall costs. This study does not
cover potential transmission reinforcement costs or the cost for power flow equipment. It is
clear that the competitiveness of the HVDC alternative increases with the size of the
projects but also with the transmission distance. The following screening questions based on
the above chart are important.
 Need for power transmission 200 - 1000 MW

 Need for accurate and fast control
 Distance more than 50 km
 Difficult to obtain permits for OH-lines
 Difficult to find/reach interconnection point in the grid
 Difficult to build a substation near the coastline (for reactive power compensation)
 Weak AC network
 Risk for dynamic instability
 Power quality issues
 Need for grid black start capability
 Need for high availability although occurrence of thunderstorms, windstorms/
hurricanes or heavily icing conditions may apply
 Need for compact offshore module
 Risk of low harmonic resonances
 Need for fast voltage and reactive power control to enhance network security

When the HVDC transmission an interesting alternative, a typical case for HVDC
Light in an offshore application could be of 350 MW transmissions with 70 km sub sea
cable and 30 km land cable
The direct investment cost for HVDC Light option including converters, cables and
installation of cable and converters will be in the range of 110 – 140 MEuro. The range is
primarily given be differences in installation costs and local market conditions. For the AC
cable option there is similarly a range in cost 110 – 140 MEuro. This corresponds in both
cases to 310 – 400 kEuro/MW and gives similar results as in the previously quoted study.
The two alternatives are thus similar in cost and a detailed study for the individual case will
determine the best solution. But other factors should also be considered such that may show
beneficial for the HVDC option:
 Grid reinforcement costs may be significant in the AC case but are very unlikely for
a HVDC voltage source solution
 Cost for power flow equipment in the AC case
 Possibilities to go much further on land with underground cable at very moderate
cost in the HVDC case.
 Increased transmission capacity in existing AC grid (HVDC case).
Obtaining cost information on the different options for different wind farm sizes
proved quite difficult as none of the equipment is off-the-shelf. Budget costs and some
simple assumptions on scaling have led to the following conclusions.
8. CONCLUSION
The equipment required for the electrical infrastructure of offshore wind farms is
available. The early offshore wind farms are likely to use electrical designs quite similar to
those adopted for recent on shore developments. A maximum voltage of 33 kV both for the
wind farm collection circuits and for the connection to land is likely in the first instance.

However, as large offshore installations are developed (>100 MW) then HVDC
transmission to shore may be more cost effective. Considerable development work is still
required for the large offshore substations or converter stations which will be required for
large offshore wind farms.
8. REFERENCES
1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current#High_voltage_transmission
2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_power_cable#Submarine_cables_for_AC
3) www.abb.com/cawp/gad02181/18e68b778f900952c1256e4b002b25be.aspx

4) http://energyzarr.typepad.com/energyzarrnationalcom/2009/03/ac-dc-wars-continue-
part-ii.html
5) powersystemsdesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=86:pdf-
full-magazine-archives&catid=21:content&Itemid=87
6) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_power_cable
7) www.abb.com/cawp/gad02181/c1256d71001e0037c1256d08002e7282.aspx
8) http://energyzarr.typepad.com/energyzarrnationalcom/2009/02/index.html

AC Vs DC Cable Transmission For Offshore

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AC Vs DC Cable Transmission For Offshore

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AC Vs DC Cable Transmission for Offshore Wind farm Seminar Report-‘09

Figure 1: Offshore Wind farm

As the increasing demand, offshore wind power characterized by larger size

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 1 MACE

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 2 MACE

2.1 Effect on power grid

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 3 MACE

One proposed solution in Europe is to create a super grid of interconnected wind

Onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines

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known as micro-siting) because a difference of 30 m can sometimes mean a doubling in

Figure 2: Onshore Windfarm

Figure 3: Nearshore Windfarm

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 5 MACE

Nearshore turbine installations are on land within three kilometers of a shoreline or

Figure 4: Offshore wind turbines

Offshore wind development zones are generally considered to be ten kilometers or

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 6 MACE

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 7 MACE

3.2 Transmission Issues for Offshore Wind Farms

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Earthing, particularly for lightning protection, will need to be addressed as offshore

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The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in

4.1 High voltage transmission

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4.2 History of HVDC transmission

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the voltage on each commutator. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a

Introduction of the fully-static mercury arc valve to commercial service in 1954

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4.3 Rectifying and inverting systems

An enhancement of this configuration uses 12 valves (often known as a twelve-pulse

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5. HVDC TRANSMISSION BASED ON VSC’S

The development of semiconductors and control equipment is presently very rapid

VSC based HVDC Transmission Layout.

5.1 Converter Technologies

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5.1.2.1 Pulse width modulation technology for HVDC Light

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VSC three phase converter

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5.1.2.2 Active and reactive power control

5.1.2.3 Station Design

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Siemens Power Transmission and Distribution (PTD) launched a high-voltage direct

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5.2.1 Monopole and earth return

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In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is

 Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines

These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with

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Figure 6: Bipolar system pylons of the HVDC Cable

 Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar

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A block diagram of a bipolar HVDC transmission system, between two stations

Figure 7: Bipolar HVDC transmission system

5.2.3 Back to back

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