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THINK ABOUT lT wttat areyou madeof? lust asbuildingsare
madefrom bricks,steel,glass,and wood,living thingsaremadefrom
chemicalcompounds.But it doesn'tstopthere.When you breathe,
in air,food,and waterto
eat,or drink, your body usesthe substances
If the first taskof an
you
alive.
keep
carryout chemicalreactionsthat
architectis to understandbuilding materials,then what would be the
first job of a biologist?Clearly,it is to understandthe chemistryof life.

KeyQuestions
R Whatlhreesubolomic
particlesmakeup aloms?
ffi Howare oll of the isotopes
of an elemenlsimilor?
ffi tn whotwaysdo compounds
differ from their componenl
elements?
ffir Whof ore lhe main tyPesof
chemicolbonds?

&trmm'mruw
R:

The studyof chemistrybeginswith the basicunit of matter,the atom.

The conceptof the atom camefirst from the Greekphilosopher
Democritus,nearly2500yearsago.Democritusaskeda simplequestion: If you take an objectlike a stick of chalk and breakit in half, are
both halvesstill chalk?The answer,of course,is yes.But what happens
if you breakit in half againand againand again?Canyou continueto
dividewithout limit, or doestherecomea point at which you cannot
dividethe fragmentof chalkwithout changingit into somethingelse?
Democritusthoughtthat therehad to be a limit. He calledthe smallest
fragmentthe atom,from the Greekwordatomos,which means"unable

Vocobulory
otom o nucleusr electronr
elemento isotope. comPound.
ionicbond r ion r
covolentbond . moleculeo
von der Wools forces

TokingNotes
Outline Beforeyou reod, moke
on outlineof the moiorheodings
in the lesson.As you reod,fill
in moinideosond supporting
detoilsundereochheoo.

to be cut."
Atomsareincrediblysmall.Placedsideby side,100million atoms
would makea row only about 1 centimeterlong-about the width of
your little finger!Despiteits extremelysmallsize,an atom contains
subatomicpaiticlesthat areevensmaller.Figure2-l showsthe subatomic putii.l.r in a carbon atom.ffi: The subatomicparticles that
make up atoms are protons, neutrons, and electrons'

ffi Proton
@Neutron
"h

'"WElectron
q;"i

WhoI lhree subalomicparliclesmokeup aloms?

Protons ond Neutrons Protonsand neutronshaveaboutthe same

mass.However,protonsarepositivelychargedparticles(+) and neutrons carryno chargeat all. Strongforcesbind protonsand neutrons
togetherto form the nucleus,at the centerof the atom'

hil$

FIGURE2-t A CorbonAtom

Electrons The electronis a negativelychargedparticle(-) with only

1/1840the massof a proton.Electronsarein constantmotion in the
spacesurroundingthe nucleus.Theyareattractedto the positively
of the energy
chargednucleusbut remainoutsidethe nucleusbecause
and
of
electrons
numbers
equal
have
atoms
of their motion. Because
atoms
and
protons,their positiveand negativechargesbalanceout,
areelectricallyneutral.
themselves

""|e;;'i.i"""Search,'

,&o' {'ls55snOverview

I
1Lgssol.N.g-les

frsotmPmm
mrrud
Elements
elementsimilor?

the isotopeso'fon
EP ,o- ore ollof
tli:-t^"-::t11:1t5:T;:;l'
elementis a puresubstance
srerut'L
chemical
A chemrcar
but only about

T:tt;;.rl'."ttt*
elementsareknown,
typ. of atom.More than 100
*"9 in livingorg":ttT"t:-t]*illt /
Lv'''vur..o"'*oitly
art
dozen
[wo ooze'
two
c' for example'
bYon ]t *t-rtnt' 'y-boi''
arerePresented
and Hg
sodium,
Na.for
standsfor carbon,H fo, hyd,ogen,
piotons in the nucleusof an
for mercury.fnt "o*U*'of
carbort'satomicnumber
elementis caliedi , ;;it;ti-bt''
;f carbon,ha: ttIJ^t3::TrT*,
is 6, meaning that t";;;;
rable'
rhePeriodic

E'
::?'ATl;it?,:i:'.tffi;;::i" npp*aix
which showsthe eiements'

of neumay havgdifferent numbers

lsotopes Atoms,of an element

trons.Forexampl',ith";sh:tl"**'-',t;?:*"il"13;i1ffitil';t
someseven'u"? u t::j:l::i";;;.';;
somehavesix neutrons'
contaln
in the number of neutronsthey
the sameelementtft"tiifzu
neutronsin
to"f number of protons and
iit
i,otop"''
u,
known
are
identiits massnumber' Isotopesare
the nucleusof an atom is called
comPoffgure2-3'showsthe subatomic
fiedby their mass""*it*'
weighted
;nd carbon-14atoms'The
sitionof carbon-12'c*b";-t;:
atomic'mass'
its
isotopesis called
of the *u"t' oiun element's
average
of eachisotopein nature rs
"Weighted"means't'ut tttt abundance (E-gecaus; ther"havethe
i9calculated'
.orrrfrer.d *it." tnt l"tt"gt
the same
isotopesof an elementhave
samenumber of erectrorrr]dr
chemicalProPerties'

Numberof
Prolons

FIGURE2-2 DroPletsof MercurY

metollic
;'A;;;; o silverY-white
temPeroture
room
ot
liquid
is
elemeni,
extremery
is
lt
ond formsdroPlets'
poisonous.

2-3 Corbonlsot'oPes
FIGURE
6 protons
ollh-ove
Lotoo"t
'Uiiifi"*ttof corbon
of neutrons-6'
bythetotol
oreidentified
7l a. rh"v"umbers
tn me
neutrons
"i
ond
numberof protons

3'ond
."lu"n-i2-,
"otbon-l
isotoPe
"i"i5*'
Which
ClossifY
..rU--iA
J iorbonisrodiuctive?

that
isotopesareradioactive'meaning
Some
lsotopes
Rodioqctive
overtime'
U"utt iown-at a constantrate
their nuclei areunstableu"a
but radioactive
dangerous'
*
The radiationthese;"id;
:d::lbe
scjentificand practicaluses'
isotopeshavea number of important
by analyzittt agesof rocks and fossils
Geologists*" d;;;"t
can
Ra-diationfrom certain isotopes
ing the isotopesf"""J l" ittem'
food
andto kiil bacteriathat cause
be usedto detect"";;;;;;";cer
to
"tracers"
or
y:.1i:l?:*
g:
tospol.Radioactivi;;,ti!;
t;; il::within organrsms'
foliow the movementsof iubstances
otom'whichhos
l$ ln Your Notebook Drowo diagromof o hydrogen
numberof l.

of Life35
TheChemistrY

Chemicql
Compounds
e* tn whol ways do compoundsdiffer from their
compnenl elements?

Vocobulory
REIATED
WORDFORMSTheverb
reocfmeonsto oct in resoonse
to
something.
Theodiectivereoctive
describes
the tendencyto respond
or reoct.

In nature,most elementsarefound combinedwith. other elements

in compounds.A chemicalronlpolrnd is a substanceformed by the
chemicalcombination of two or more elementsin definiteproportions.Scientists
showthe compositionof compoundsby a kind of
shorthandknown asa chemicalformula. water, which containstwo
atomsof hydrogenfor eachatom of oxygen,hasthe chemicalformula
H2o. The formula for table salt,Nacl, indicatesthat the elementsthat
makeup table salt-sodium and chlorine-combine in a 1 : 1 ratio.
ffi The physical and chemicalproperties of a compound are
usually very different from those of the elements from which it is
formed. For example,hydrogenand oxygen,which aregasesat room
temperature'can combineexplosivelyand form liquid water.sodium
is a silver-coloredmetal that is soft enoughto cut with a knife. It reacts
explosivelywith water.Chlorineis very reactive,too. It is a poisonous,
greenishgasthat wasusedin battlesduring world war I. sodium chloride, tablesalt,is a white solid that dissolveseasilyin water.As you know,
sodiumchlorideis not poisonous.In fact,itis essentialfor the survival
of most living things.

Chemicql
Bonds
ffi Whot are ihe moin types of chemicol bonds?
The atomsin compoundsareheld togetherby varioustypesof chemical bonds.Much of chemistryis devotedto understandinghow and
when chemicalbonds form. Bond formation involvesthe electrons
that surround eachatomic nucleus.The electronsthat are available
to form bonds arecalledvalenceelectrons.e* The main types of
chemicalbonds are ionic bonds and covalentbonds.

Modelon lonicCompound
O Youwill be assignedto representeither a sodium atom
or a chlorineatom.
@ Obt"itt the appropriatenumber of popcorn kernels
to representyour electrons.
O pitta a partner with whom you can form the ionic
compoundsodium chloride-table salt.
@ ttr tablesalt,the closelypackedsodiumand chloride
ions form an orderlystructurecalleda crystal.Work with
your classmates
to model a sodium chloridecrystal.

Anolyze ond Conclude.

l. RelobCouseond EffectDescribethe
exchangeof popcornkernels(electrons)
that took placeasyou formedthe ionic
bond.What electricalchargesresulted
from the exchange?
2. UseModels How did you arrange
the ions in the crystalmodel?Why did
you choosethis arrangement?

rrsrywwwffitrfiffirywq

36 Chopter2 o Lesson
I

,l.

A. lonic Bonding
Sodiumotom (No)

fr#

W
f,*

ft#

,##
,ffi

fis
r"

#l

n>
I

,ffi

h#

Chlorideion (Cl-J
i*l

(#

ffiffi

W
ffi

i+
#

fr#

Protons +17
Electrons-l Z
Chorge
O

4#

,i#

ffi

'61

-)>

ffi

,ffi ffi
Tronsfer (# #
of electron
ffi

Protons + I I
Electrons-l I
Chorge

Sodiumion (No+)

ffil

#
r#

Chlorineotom (Cl)

ffi

fts

rd

,#

13,

.#
i-)

r+

,ffi

,# 6#,

ffi

r-.J

[J

#'

Protons + I I
-l0
Electrons
Chorge +l

Protons +17
Electrons-l B
-l
Chorge
B. CovolentBonding

lonic Eonds An ionic bond is formedwhen

one or more
electronsaretransferredfrom one atom to
another.Recal that
atomsareelectricallyneutral becausethey
have.qoul ,rrr_b.r,
of protonsand electrons.
An atom that loseserectrons
becomes
positivelycharged.An-atom that gainselectrons
lr",
charge'Thesepositiveryand negaliverycharged
" ".g"ii*
atoms
ur! t ror"r,
asions.
Figure Z- Ashowshow ionic bonds form
betweensodium
and chlorinein tablesalt.A sodiumatom easily
losesits one
valenceelectronand becomesa sodiumion (Na*).
A chrorine
atom easilygainsan electronand becomes
a chlorid. iorr (Ci:).
In a salt crystal'there are trillions of sodium
and chloride ions.
Theseoppositelychargedions havea strong
attraction,forming
an ionic bond.
Covslent Bonds Sometimeselectronsare
sharedby atoms
instead_
of being transferred.what doesit meanto
shareelec_
trons?It meansthat the moving electrons
actuanytravel about
the nuclei of both atoms,formiig a covalent
bond. Whenthe
atomssharetwo electrons,the bond is cailed
a single.ouui.rr,
bond.Sometimesthe atomssharefour electrons
and form a
doublebond. In a few cases,atomscanshare
six electrons,form_
ing a triple bond. The structurethat results
when atom, ur.Joirr.a
togetherby covalentbonds is calleda molecule.
rn. -oiu"irt"
is the smallestunit of mostcompounds.The
diagramof a water
--'
moleculein Figure 2-4B showsthat eachhydrJgen
u,o_ i,
joined to water'slone oxygenatom
by a singleco=varent
bond.
When atomsof the ru-. .I"-.nt join togeiher,
they alsoforrn u
molecule.oxygen moleculesin the air yo"ubreathe
consistort*o
oxygenatomsjoined by covalentbonds.

ii 11.v"r. Nofebook .rnyourownwords,describe

thedifferences
.
ond
.i !"jyggl tggt_

covolent'bonJr,.

fi#

s,

c#

@*

fi

@
#r

o@

Woter molecule(HrO)
FfGURE2-4 lonic Bondinqond
CovolenfBondingA. Theiorpornd
sodiumchlorideformswhensodium
losesitsvolenceelecironto .hi"linu.
B. In o wotermolecule,
eochhydrooen
otomshorestwoelectrons
with'the"
oxygenotom.

Fishdo not breok woier

molecules
into fheir
component
olomslo
obtoinoxygen.Rother,
lhey useoxygengos
dissolvedin the woter.
How ore the otomsin on
oxygen molecule(O:l
joinedtogether?

TheChemistry
of Life37

of their structures,atomsof differVqn der Wqols Forces Because

ent elementsdo not all havethe sameability to attract electrons.Some
atomshavea strongerattractionfor electronsthan do other atoms.
the
Therefore,when the atomsin a covalentbond shareelectrons,
the
sharingis not alwaysequal.Evenwhen the sharingis equa1, rapid
movementof electronscan cleateregionson a moleculethat havea
tiny positiveor negativecharge'
When moleculesareclosetogetheqa slight
attraction can developbetweenthe oppositely
Chemists
chargedregionsof nearbymolecules.
call suchintermolecularforcesof attraction
van der Waals forces, after the scientistwho discoveredthem.Although van der Waalsforcesare
not asstrongasionic bondsor covalentbonds,
they canhold moleculestogether,especiallywhen
the moleculesarelarge'

VANDERWAALS
ATWORK
FORCES
of eochfoot
FIGURE2-5 Theunderside
on thisTokoygeckois coveredby millions
Theproiections
of tinyhoirlikeproiections.
ore modeof evenfinerfibers,
themielves
creotinqmoresurfoceoreofor "sticking"
level.This
ot themoleculor
to surfo-ces
ollowsgeckosto scurryup wollsond
ceilings.
ocross

ReviewKeyConcePts
m
I . o. ReviewDescribethe structureof an atom.
b. lnfer An atom of calcium contains20 protons.How manyelectronsdoesit have?
2. o. ReviewWhy do all isotopesof an element
l
havethe samechemicalproperties?
b. Comporeond ControstComparethe structure of carbon-I2 and carbon-l4.
3. q. ReviewWhat is a comPound?
b. Apply ConceptsWater(HzO) and hydrogenp.rorid. (HzOz)both consistsof hydrogenand
o"ygenatoms.Explain why they havedifferent
chemicaland physicalproperties.

l
38 Chopter2 r Lesson

4. o. Review What aretwo tfpes of bondsthat

hold the atomswithin a comPoundtogether?
b. ClossifyA potassiumatom easilyloses
electron'What type of bond
its onerralence
a chlorine atom?
with
witl it form

Motterond EnergY
5. Why do you think it is importantthat
biologistshavea goodunderstanding
of chemistry?