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How is scientific knowledge acquired?

How is scientific knowledge acquired? We must know some terms to


answer this question. These terms are knowledge, science and scientific
knowledge.
We will start definition of knowledge. The dictionary meaning is
acquaintance with facts, truths, or principles, as from study or
investigation. Knowledge is, roughly, useful information. It is information
that's adapted to a purpose. It is good explanations, and it is solutions to
problems people had. In philosophy, it has been said that there are three
different types of knowledge. The first type of knowledge is known as
personal knowledge. This is related to things that we know from our own
experiences. The second type of knowledge is prodecural. This is the
knowledge that goes along with knowing how to do something.
Propositional knowledge is the third type of knowledge according to
philosophers. This involves the knowledge of things that are known to be
facts. (1)
The other term is science. Science is a systematic enterprise that builds
and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and
predictions about the universe. Science is a phenomenon that causes
welfare of humanity as well as never-ending pain. Sicence is evolution,
happiness, welfare. Science can save life, but it can cause destruction of
society. There are advantage and disadvantage of sicence. To convert
advantage is dependent of people. How did science emerge? The
answer is because of needs of people and sense of curiosity. Thunder,
lightning, the moon or the sun's eclipse, diseases, disasters, and so on.
natural events sometimes drew people curiosity, was sometimes scared.
The way to overcome fear and to curiosity is to have control over nature.
ncentives created science are not only needs of people. Also they are

desire to dominate, desire ofsuperiority and comfortable living and so on.


Fear, desire and curiosity of peple never end. So science production will
continue non-stop. There are four properties of modern science. These
are diversity, continuity, innovation and elimination. Diversity means that
science is open to everyone, any wishing person or organization can
conduct scientific studies and language, religion, race, country does not
recognize. Continuity means that production process of scientific
knowledge never stops. nnovation means that every day new scientific
information in an evolutionary process and new area of science are
emerging. Elimination is called that validity and accuracy of scientific
knowledge at any moment can be controlled by anyone and wrong
knowledge can be eliminated.
Scientific knowledge obviously emerges from a process that is intensely
human, a process indelibly shaped by human virtues, values, and
limitations and by societal contexts. Science results in knowledge
that is often presented as being fixed and universal(2). Properties of
knowledge are
Scientific knowledge is factual; obtains tangible subject.
Scientific knowledge is objective; your feelings, thoughts and
prejudices have been eliminated.
Scientific knowledge is Is open to criticism and doubt.
Scientific knowledge is dynamic; changes, renews itself, is not
absolute.
Scientific knowledge is certain; is considered valid until proven
otherwise.
Scientific knowledge is selective; it does subject of studies in the
field. Every science has its own field of study.
It is collective; is the product of a collaborative effort.
It is rational; systematic and consistent within itself.
It is generic and is valid everywhere.

Scientific knowledge is predicted. It predict the future and provides


the ability to do research on this topic.
It is applied and it is deterministic; makes causal explanations and
establishes cause and effect.
How is scientific knowledge acquired? The answer is that scientific
knowledge is acquired by scientific method. Scientific method is based
on mind which includes endurance events, impartiality,rejecting
dogmatism,be open to criticism,to accept the possibility of error. And
scientific method is based on experiment and research which includes
Identify the problem ,observation, hypothesis building, hypothesis testing
theory and access to general law. The Oxford English Dictionary defines
the scientific method as: "a method or procedure that has characterized
natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic
observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing,
and modification of hypotheses(3). Scientists in this way, information
overlap in time with the accuracy of the events in the universe and they
aim to make a reliable description.
The steps of the scientific method are to:
o Ask a Question
o Do Background Research
o Construct a Hypothesis
o Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
o Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
o Communicate Your Results

There are some critiques about sientific methods. Paul Feyerabend the
important one of the scientist of philosophy science criticizes that
sicentific

method is generalized and it is only valid method on how

scientific knowledge is acquired. He suggest that it is an pozitivist attidue


which can not be based on theoretical-philosophical justify. In his famous
book which is called Method but No, he shows the falsity of uderstanding
of scientific method with the examples from history of science and he
specifies their appropriate implications to his criticism of such terms as
observation, experiment, propositions, hypotheses, theories.
Feyerabend's objection is based on the scientific method as the sole and
absolute acceptance and imposed as a method seems to be aimed. I
didnt read his book. He may be right on his opinion. The only method
scientific method cannot be scientific method. Results acieved in science
and emerging developments in science does not depend on only inner
working of science, unscientific ideology help obtain these results.
Sometimes, scientific method make it difficult to even understand a
simple matter. I agree with him on this opinion. But, scientific method is
neccessary for scientific knowledge.
Now, we will examine feminist critiques of science. Firstly, what does
feminism mean? It can be defined as commitment to examine and
adress unequal treatment of the sexes. Feminist scholars and female
scientists such as Emily Martin, Evelyn Fox Keller, Ruth Hubbard, Londa
Schiebinger and Bonnie Spanier have critiqued science because they
believe it presents itself as objective and neutral while ignoring its
inherent gender bias. They assert that gender bias exists in the language
and practice of science, as well as in the expected appearance and
social acceptance of who can be scientists within society.(4) Feminist
critiques of science examine inequalities in who gets to do science and

examine theories that support unequal treatment of the sexes and why
were women excluded from science. Feminist critique of science can
lead to better science . It helps science live up to th norm of organized
skepticism by questioning unquestioned assumptions. Feminist critique
as experimental control is aware of gendered assumptions into scientific
assumptions. It identifies background assumptions. It examine gendered
assumptions, it follows fewer theories based on societal prejudies and
this results more women in science.
Now, what is the history of science ? The history of science is briefly the
story of the birth of science and development. The purpose of history of
science examine conditions of emerge, dissemination and use of
objective information. Science is thought that first time it emerges after
Renaissance and has emerged in Western world. This is not true.
Science is the product of human minds. Roots of history of science
extends dates back to life in primitive societies. We will examine the role
and place of non-western societies in the development of science and
scientific knowledge. Non-western societies are China, India, Africa,
Latin America, Native America, Australia and the Pacific, Middle East and
Japan. These socities have important scientific revolution for humanity.
For example in China, the four great inventions are the compass,
gunpowder, papermaking and printing. These four discoveries had an
enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a farranging global impact. Gunpowder, for example, spread to the Arabs in
the 13th century and thence to Europe. And, China has Chinese
astronomy and mathematics. Then, India has discoveries and inventions
about mathematics, agriculture, medicine, mining and sciences. Africa
has first development in leraning systems,astronomy,
mathematics,metallurgy, medicine, agriculture, textile architecture,

communication system, walfare and commerce. In recent years, a


greater volume of African countries have embraced technology as a
driver of development, e.g. Kenya's Vision 2030 and Rwanda's rapid ICT
growth. Telecom innovation in particular has broadly improved quality of
life across sub-Saharan Africa.(5)Middle East has development in food
production, medical products, military, music, pottery, paraphernalia. The
majority of inventions here date back to the Islamic Golden Age. (6)
Science and technology in Japan is mostly focused and prominent
in consumer electronics, robotics and the automotive industry. To
conclude, the role and place of non-western societies in the
development of science and scientific knowledge can not be ignored.
But, it can be ignored because of some conditions as war. Feyerabend
says that first world contains thoughts of historical conditions therefore it
lacks general validity. Non-western science is eliminated in many places.
However, cause is not failure,society which applies the science of the
First World has a larger military force. The science of First World was
accepted ot for better understanding of world that allows us to live better,
because it produces better weapons. Every culture, every nation can
establish a science to meet the needs in their own private.(7) Conclude,
along the history of the science, non-western socities have important
developments and innovations in science but sometimes by western
socities they are ignored.

References
1,2,3,4,5,6, www.wikipedia.org
7, Feyerabend 1991: 12-14

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