7 Transformers 71, Introduction. A transformer is essentially a static «lectromagnetic device consisting of two or more windings which link with a common magnetic field. One of these windings, the primary, i, connccted to an altcrnating voltage source, an alternating flux is produced whose amplitude depends on the primary voltage and number of turns. ‘The primary induced voltage is Hy=44°4 f $m Ty where f= frequency, gm==mutval flux and Ty= number of turns in the primary winding This flux linking with the secomdary winding induces in it a voltage whose value depends on the amplitude of flux and the number of secondary winding turns. The induced voltage is the sccondary windmg is Bi=4'44/ m7 where T.=number of tums of secondary winding. Ratio of voltages is s/Ep™=Ts]T. Therefore, any desire:! value of secon- dary voltage can be attaincd by using a suitable number of tums. It must be understood that a transformer is not an energy conversion device but a device that transforms electrical energy from one or more primary a.c. circuits to one or more secondary a.c. circuits with changed values of voltage and current. ‘The main reason for extensive use of a.c. powcr systems is on account of transformers. ‘This is because the transformers allow the power to be generated at the most economical generator voltage, power transfer at the most economical transmission voltage,.and power utilization at the most suitable voltage required for different applications.’ Presently, most of the electric power for industrial and utility » is generated by large hydro-electric plants and steam statiom in the form of three phase a.c. at a frequency of 50 Hz, The voltages of the generators installed at the power plants is usually 6'6 kV or 11 kV. To transmit the power over long distances the voltage of the generators has to be increased depending upon quantum of power and the distance in order to reduce transmission losses and to effect economy. On the other hand, the voltage is decreased by the distribution substations to 3'3 kV, 66 ZV apd 11kV in rural, urban and industrial area, Ulimately, the voltage used in’ industrial and domestic premises has to be d to 498,V or 230 V.. The raising and lowering of a4. supply voltages is accom- polished by Power transformers, Therefore, as regards this application, the teansformers may be classiied ax. . (6) Seeg-up transformers—transformers which raite the voltage, and ‘ii) Seep-down transformers—transformen which lower the voltage. However, basically each transformer may be wred as both a stép-up and a step-down transformer because itis a reversible device. ‘The power tranformers have a remarkably high efficiency ing from 95 to 99'S percent, depending upon the power rating. The grester the power ‘of the transformer, the higher the efficiency.332 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESION 72, Gore ard Shell type Transformers, The transformer is basically a very simple device, It consists of windings wound on a laminated magnetic core and insulated from iron and from vach other. ‘The core is actually a magnetic circuit which serves as a path for the mutual flux. Therefore, the windings encircle the core and the core encircles the windings. There are two general types of constructions employed’ to achieve this in transformers. Consequently, depending upon the typ2 of construction used, the transformers are classitied into two categories as : (i) core type, and (ii) shell type. Core type transformers, The magnetic core is built of laminations to form a rectangular frame and the windings are arranged concentrically with each other around the legs or limbs of the core as shown in Fig. 7°1(a). The top ant botto n members, called the yokes, connect the two limbs and have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that of the limbs. indi wv Hv.winding — yinding Lv. Winging LV. Winding Core Core Yoke (a) Core type (6) Shell type Fig. 71. Single phase transformer connection. A single phase transformer nay be designed with primuy win ling wouad on one limb and secondary winding on the other limb. "This arrangement results in a large separa tion between the primary the secondary windings and hence a large leakage reactance. In actual practice, each limb carries one half of the primary winding and one half of the secondary winding .o that the two windings can be closely wwupled together to keep the leakage reactance low. The low voltage (I.v.) winding is wound on the inside nearer to the core while the high voltage (h.v.) witidiig is wound over the Lv. winding away from core in order to reduce the amount of insulating materials required. Shell type transformers. In sell type transformers the windings are put around the central limb and the flux path is‘completed through two side limbs as shown "in Fig. 71 (®). The centrai limb carries total mutual flux while the side limbs forming a part of a parallel magnetic circuit carry half the total flux. Consequently, the cross-sectional area (and hence width) of the central limb is twice that of each of the side limbs. __ Both high voltage (h.v.) and low voltage (I.v.) windings are divided into a number of coils, The h.v, and Lv. coils are shaped like, pancakes and are arranged longitudinally along the core alternately. This give: rise toa sandwich winding with h.v. coils sand- wiched between I.v. coils. In the gore type the ignpressipn. ig created thas. the windings surround the where- 8 with the shell type that the cores surround the windings cores‘TRANSFORMERS 333 Comparison of core and shell types of transformers 1, Construction, Core type transformers are much simpler in design and permit easier assembly and insulation of windings. Also, the core type of transformers are easier to dismantle for repair work. 2. The force produced between current carrying windings is proportional to the Product of the currents carried by them. These currents tend to be very large under fault conditions. Consequentlyvery large electromagnetic forces ure produced when the secondary winding is short circuited with the primary winding cnergiacd. Since, the windings. carry currents in opposite direction, there exists a force of repulsion between them. Hence, the inner winding experiences a compressive force crushing it on to the core; the outer winding experiences a tensile force pulling it away as shown in Fig. 7°2. Inner winding Tensile Core Tensile torce force [compressi force juter: winding Fig, 7-2, Electromagnetic forces on transformer windings. In modern power networks, the reliability of transformer oprration is very important and therefore the :ivsign of the transformers should be such that the windings suffer no damage when short circuited. It is amply clvar from Fig. 7°1 that windings ina shell type transformer have greater capability of withstanding ferces produce | under short circuit conditions s these windings are surrounded and thus braced (or supported) by the core over a large portion of length. On the other hand. the windings in core type construc:ion have a poorer inechanical strength, because they (the windings) are not braced! or supported. ‘Therefore, the windings in core type transformers are more susceptible to. damage under short circuit conditions, than the windings of a shell type transformer. (iis) Leakage Reactance, Due to large space required between the high and low voltage windings, it is not easily possible to subdivide the windings to a great extent in the case of core type transformers, while, in the shell type, the windings can be easily sub- divided by using sandwich coils. ‘Thus it is porsible to reduce the leakage reactance of shell type transformers to any desired value. (ic) Repairs, The windings of a core type transformer are completely accessible except for a small portion in the window. This is of a great advantege in repair work because the coils can be casily inspceted. Also, the core type transformer is easy to dismantle for repairs. In the case of shell type transformers, the coils arc’ surrounded by core for a large length and therefore there is great difficulty in inspection and repair of coils. (v) Cooliag, In the case of core type transformer, the windings surround the core, ‘The windings are exposed and therefore the cooling is better in windings than in core.334 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In the case of shall typ2 transformers, the core is exposed and therefore cooling is better in core than in windings. ‘The most vulnerable part of a transformer is the insulation of windings. Therefore, core type of construction is universally followed because it affords better heat dissipation facilities from a part which is most prone to damage on account of heat developed. 1:3, Single and three phase transformers Single phase transformers. The cross-sectional view of the windings and core of a I-phase core type transformer is shown in Fig. 7°3(a). Single phase core type trans HV LY. Leg ib) Side Hiemb () Shell type, Fie. 73. Single phase core and shell type transformers. formers use two legged iron frame with one half of the primary winding and one half of the secondary ‘wound on each leg. The low voltage (I.v.) and high voltage (b.v.) windings are oondentric with each other With I.v, winding placed on the inner side nearer to the core. Fin. 7'3(6) shows the cross-sectional view of a single phase shell type transformer. The low + dtage (1.v.) and the high voltage (h.v.) coils are sandwiched between each other. The generation, transmission and power utilization Tax: of ac. corse ecrray almost invariably involves the use of three phase net works. The voltage transformation in a $ phase netwack caa be obtained by using ¢ (i) three si tanslormers conngcted.to form a S-phase bank, Boece" ‘oe‘TRANSFORMERS, 335 A transformer bank used on 3 phace systems consists of thre I-phase transformers with their primary and sccondary windings connected e:th in delta, The 3-phase uansformation is also posible through the medium of one S-phase transformer having a magnetic circuit common to all the three phases. A three phase magnetic circuit for transformation of three phase voltages may be obtained by combining three individual single phase core or shell type magnetic circuits into a common magnetic circuit with suitable changes in the configuration. Fig. 7-4(a) shows a 3 phase core type of tansfermer. The core consists of three legs with the magnetic circuit completed through two yorks, one at the top and the othcr at the bottom. A primary and a secondary windir g of one phase are wound on one leg. Flux flows up each Teg in turn and down the other two legs in general, so that the magnetic circuits of different phases are in scric d therefore independent. Fig. 7°4(6) shows the instant where the flux in the leg carrying the winding of phase R is positive (upwards) Windings Windows Top yoke ELL Bottom yoke @ maximum while the flux in the other two legs carcying windings phases Y and Bis half of the negative (downwards) maximum. It should be noted that the transformer has only two windows. Each of tw. windows contains two primary and two secondary windings. “o Fig. 7'5 shows the less commonly used 3 phase shell typ: transformer whose construction ° ° appears like three L-phase shelletype cores built on 120 120 top of one another. ‘The windings of the middle core, phase Y, 120° are reverted so that the parts of the core 21 carry flux ©x/2-+ 07/2 of Or/2+O,/2 instead of flux ©x/2—97/2 or O/2—@p/2 in order to affect Fy ‘economy in core cross-section since Ox/24 Or/2 smaller than @x/2—97/2 and also ®/2. 0°85 m ‘he cores have the relatively small surface/ volume ratio so that the temperature ‘gradient in the core is excessive. In such cases the cooling must be augmented by dividing the core into different stacks with longitudinal oil ducts (usually 6 mm wide) running parailel to the laminations as shown in Fig. 7°23 (a). = (a) longitudinal ducts. (0) longitudinal end trans- eres ducts. . Fig. 7°23. Cove ducts,8 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In transformers of very high capacity (D > 0°8 m) longituuinal ducts may not be sufficient and as heat flows more readily along the laminations, than between insulated laminations, it is necessary to increase the area of lamination edges by using transverse duct: which may be 10-12 mm wide as shown in Fig. 7°23 (b). The magnetic circuit is therefore, divided into packets insulated from each other an to ensure good electrical continuity between packets, tinned copper strip bridging pieces ai: used. 714, Core Earthing. With the exception of individual laminations and core holts, all internal metal parts of the transformer require earthing. . ‘Due care must be taken in the design of the earthing system to avoid multiple paths which may initiate partial discharges because of the circulating currents inducing relatively high voltages across high impedance sections of an earth path. 715, Transformer Windings, The windings used in transformers are of ‘different types and employ different arrangements for coils, Shell type transformers use sandwich type of winding with coils shaped as pancakes. In this type of winding both low and high voltage windings are split up into a number of coils. Each high v. Itage coil lies (or is sandwiched) between two low voltage coils as shown in Fig. 730). The two low voltage coils at the ends have hall the turns of a normnal low voltage coil and therefore these coils are called half coils. The subdivision of low and high voltage windings into a number of coils gives a better coupling betwcen the two windings and therefore results in lower Irakage flux thereby reducing the leakage reactance. The leakage flux and leakage reactance of the windings depends upon the number of sections in which the windings are divided ; the larger the number of coils (and hence sections), the lower is the leakage reactance. Therefore, the advantage of sandwich coil is that with their use the leakage reactance of the transformer can be controlled to any desired value with a suitable division of windings. Core type of transformers use concentric type uf windings. Each limb 1s wound with a group of coils consisting of both primary and secondary windings which are con- centric to each other as shown in Fig. 73(a). The low voltage winding is placed next to the core (which is at the earth potential) and the high voltage winding is placed on the outside. However, the low voltage and the high voltage windings can be alternately interlaced s0 as to reduce the leakagé reactance. ‘The type and arrangement used for windings used for core type of transformers de- pends upon many factors. Some of these factors are : (6) current rating, (Gs) short circuit strength, (is) temperature rise, (jo) impedance, () surge voltage and (vi) transport facilities, ‘The windings used for core type of transformers are of the following types : 1, Cylindrical windings 2. Helical windings 3. Double helical windings 4. Multi-layer helical windings. 5. Crossover windings 6, Disc and continuous disc windings 7- Aluminium foil windings.TRANSPORMERS 349 1, Cylindrical windings, These windi rectangular or round conductors, A cylindrical wi s are layered type and use either ing using rectangular conductor is (a) (b) (@) on the fiat side (0) on the rib aide Fig. 724, Cylindrical windings, Fig. 7-25. Positions of rectangular conductors, shown in Fig. 7°24. The conductors are wound on the flat side wi parallel to the core axis as shown in Fig. 7°25 (a). However, some on the rib side i.e. their longer sides are perpendicular to the core axis asshown in Fig. 7°25(6). The winding using rectangular conductors may be simultaneously wound from one or more parallel conductors placed flatwise or edgewise. . their longer sides es they are wound The layered winding may have to conductors wound in one, two or more layers and is, therefore, accordingly called the one, two or multilayer winding. The windings layered type because in this case it is easier to secure the ado ends. The two layers are ated by an oil duct. ‘The windings de- figeed for heavy currents are wound with a number of conductors connected in paralllel located side by side in one layer. The parallel conductors have the same length and are loca- ted in the magnetic field of leakage flux of . f SN not necessary to make any transposition of the SHI) conductors, A wedge-shaped packing ic wed Y SS ateach of the two extreme ends of winding in order to level it. The packing is made of either pressboard strips or rings cut from a bakelite cylinder. toy indrical windings employing rect- angular ‘conductor’ are used mainly as low voltage windings upto 66 RV for kVA. ratings using rectangular conductors are usually two | almost the same flux density, and hence it is | S | upto 600-750. However, their main use is or vole delcal windin ireul 726, Inmalation between layers ond. circular conducters re melilayerell a Was, inhi, "Wbvattend ofthe eyliniraal ating of” 1-26. They are wound on a solid paper bakelite circular conductors. .,350 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In order to improve the cooling conditions of the inner layer, the cylindrical wind- ings using circular conductors are often wound on vertical strips forming an oil duct een winding and the insulating cylinder as shown in Fig. 7°27(b). Sometimes the winding is divided into two parts by an additional oil duct. This oil duct is. usually located nearer to the inner winding as shown in Fig. 7:27(c). (@) CO) @ Fig. 727. Arrangements of the cylindrical windings with circular conductors The cylindrical windings employing circular conductors are mainly used for high voltage windings with voltages 6°6, 11, and 33 kV for ratings upto 600—100 kVA 2, Helical windings, The helical windings are of two types (i) single helical winding. __ (i) double helical winding. Single helical windings. The single helical or simply # helical winding has its turns wound in an axial direction along a screw line with an inclination corresponding to the height of a conductor and an oil duct between turns. There is only one turn in each witiding layer as shown in Fig. 7:28(a). The winding consists of a single section conductor ‘or a number of strands in parallel wound in the form of a continuous helix, The con:juctor in rectangular in cross-section and is paper covered. The oil it mounted on a thick press- board or s.r.b.p. cylinder. Helical windings are used for low voltage winding medium and high capacity trans: formers where the number of winding turns is small but the current is high. Therefore, Tow Voltage windings of medium and high . capacity transformers require the use of conductor made of connected strips in a radial direction so that each conductor the total radial depth of the wind. ing to form a Dige-helioal winding as shown in’ Fig. 7°28 (3). The individual strips can be auembled in a radial pack, either Sea single column oF a* two columns in Mel.TRANSPORMERS: 351 Helical windings are usually wound on the battens around the bakelite cylinder with insulating cylinde's placed between the turns’ The continuous helical winding exhibits high axial mechanical strength and therefore fin¢s wide application in low volt windings of large size power transformers. A distinguishing feature of the helical winding ia the use of transposed conductors by changing the relative position of individual conductors or groups of couductors. The transposition is ewential for equalizing the resirtance and leakage reactance of each of parallel conductors. In the absence of transposition these conductors will be of different length and, being situated in the leakage field. having unequal ‘ux densities, will have different resistance and leakage reactance. This would lead to non-uniform distribution of current in parallel conductors thereby overloading of portions of conductors and causing additional eddy current losses in conductors, The transpositions in this winding sre made in the following manner. The whole of the winding turns along axial length are subdivided into four equa! sections. The tran [Standard (Transpositionsz ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN positions are made between these sections, at three different points of the winding. The n_and two partial transpositions as indard transposition is done in the middle of winding with each ‘conductor varying its position symmetrically relative to the middle point i.e. the conductor on the extreme right transposed to the extreme left, the second conductor from right being transposed to second position from left and so on. The two partial transposi- tions are done at a distance of ¢ ueight from top and bottom ends of the windings. In partial transpositions two halves of parallel conductors are interchanged in positions with the right half the conductors being transposed to left half positions and vice-veraa, ‘The disadvantage of the simplex helical winding is that ampere turns are as if thinned out at the points of transpositions, which leads to unequal distribution of mmf throughout the height of winding. 3, Double-helical windings. The doubie-helical winding is used in low voltage windings of high power ratings where the number of winding turns is small and a single Cyinaer: Baten @ ® Fig. 730. Crosssection of helical windings. helical winding with normal width of oil ducts does not tfill up properly a window height, while the current and the number of parallel conductors required are very large. Fig. 7'30 (a) shows a single helical winding. All the conductors forming one turn are situated side by side in one layer, the adjacent turns separated by spacers along the axial length. In contrast, the parallel conductors of a double helical winding are divided to two parallel circuits and are situated in two layers shifted mn axial direction as shown in Fig. 7°30 (6). The advantage of double helical winding is the reduced eddy current los in conductors. This is on account of the reduced number of parallel conductors situated in radial direction. ‘This ean be illustrated by a simple example. Suppose there are 8 parallel conductors which form one turn. If asingle helical winding is used, there will be 8 conductors placed radially, while there will be only 4 conductors in the radial direction if doublehexial wind.ing is employed. ‘The magnetic field is non-uniform in the radial direction and, therefore, (here is greater magnetic assemetry between the conductors when the single helix winding is employed, resulting in greater I*R loss and increased leakage reactance, In double-helix winding the transposition is obtained without using an axial space on inverchanging the coeductorn because the turn ia. its eromscction canabts of two groupe of conductors. The transpotition in this. winding is termed uniformly distributed and is made in the following way. ‘The entire winding (turns) is sub divided into equal sections. The number Of these sections should be equal to the total number of parallel conductors. ‘The conductorsFig. 7°32, Transposed conductors according ‘to equally distributed transposi- tion diagram, HTT Fig, 733, Multi-layer helical winding»