Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chemistry IGCSE
(Dr.rathyADC\el uatuJ
Contents
Ef'~
Topic L
Topic 2.
. To.pic 3.
Topic 4.
Topic 5.
Topic 6
2
6
8
8
10
12
12
14
16
17
19
20
22
25
28
30
30
33
35
37
44
46
48
51
52
55
56
58
6D
62
67
Chemistry IGCSE
Topic 7.
Topic 8.
Topic9.
(Dr.FathyAbdel Galil)
69
69
71
72
73
77
79
90
91
Chemical changes
Production of energy ................................................................ .
Electricity from chemical reactions .............................................. .
95
97
81
81
83
88
89
99
99
106
106
108
108
109
116
118
120
111
ll2
113
117
- -
Topic 1:
- 1-
Chemistry IGCSE
. THEPARTICULATENATUREOFMATIER
All matter is made .up of tiny particles, These may be atoms, mole_cules
or ions. Using the idea of parti?les, we can explain the way matter behaves.
States of-Matter
All matter can exist in three states- solid, liquid or gas. Solids have a
fixed shape. Liquids have no fixed shape, but their volume is fixed. Gases
have no fixed shape or volume. They spread out (diffuse) to fill all the
available space. Unlike solids ang liq~ids, gases are easy to compress into
smaller size.
The state of a substance can be changed by heating or cooling.
6Jt.eez.i.ttg
c.onde.Jt6.Wg
me..Wng
so LID
f
W.r
)-
f"i
bo-U-Wg
0
0
.JDI
0
0
LIQUID
0..
GAS
iodina
cry<tal$
reform
. on cool
test~tube
Sublimation
This is the change of state from solid to
vapour and back from vapour to solid
without passing through the liquid state.
Iodine, for instance, behaves like this
purple
Iodine
vapour.
lodine
crytal ---.JS''fK.I
gentle
heat
heat
solid iodine
[dark grey solid]
allow to cool
iodine gas ------+solid iodine
[purple vapour]
-2-
Chemistry IGCSE
:.':
SOLIDS
-
LIQUIDS
GASES
')( )()J )(
T)ll
'l. X
!()"(
;-.... ..:=:
>--(-' :>--<
--'.r"[
( )[ " J: "'[_ J:
J[
0
0
0
..
.'
Arrangement
of Particles
close together
in a regular
arrangement
particles far
apart
Movement
of Particles
only vibrate
in their places
free moving
rapidly
.J
4. In a gas, there is relatively large distance between the particles. They are free to
move anywhere [i.e. a gas can fill any v.olume].
Using the idea of particles and kinetic theory, we can explain the changes
of states of matter and diffusion .
...
;..
- 3 -
Chemistry IGCSE
Changes of State
Mel.:thtg
When a sol~d ~s heated, ~ts part~cles ge~more ene,gy and
v~brate more. Th~s makes the sol~d
expand.
nrraana
o'
" ........ ".,
'offifi8.
heat
heat at
O:ffil..DOG
DQO:
"0'0' .
:a.:
'G '
.........
melting point
........
a liquid is formed
Mel.:thtg Po.zn.t
~s
~nto
the temperature at
wh~ch
the
sol~d
melts,
~.e.
changes
l~quid.
Bo.<.Ung
When a
liqu~d
move faster.the
part~cles
Th~s
liqu~d
liqu~d
po~nt,
hold~ng
and form a
heat
boilino point
slow-moving particles
in liquid
the particles
move faster
Bo.<.Ung Po.ln.t
is the temperature at which
the
l~uids
bo~l,
i.e. changes
into a gas.
- 4 -
Chemistry l GCSE
Evaporation
When left open to the atmosphere, even
b~W
when a
~quid ~
Well
increasing temperature
increasing surface area.
Compressing a Gas
plunoer pushed in
0
oas particles
0
0
lL_
0
0
o o
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
inlo a smaller
I'Oiume
bq ptUhlng bt the
p./'.ung Vt. The gM g ei:..6
<.queezed oJr. c.omplr.e<..6ed
.into a_ <.maUVt vo./'.ume.
:.
....
- 5 -
Chemistry I GCSE
t
'Temperature
boiling _
point
}i____________
}!
~
boiling
melting
point
T
I. "3 -- -
'------y----'
melting
I
I
'
Time~
Qu.e.ction
Look at the table.
substance
state at room
. temperature
carbon dioxide
gas
iron
solid
w.ater
liquid
\\
q('
one substance which consists of particles which are far apart at room temperature,
Chemistry IGCSE
- 6 -
Diffusion
This is J,piteac:Ung oat and m.Lxhtg pMeeM, seen mainly in gases
and liquids. The particles of one substance mix with and move
through the particles of another. Diffusion goes until the mixture
is uniform.
bromine
vapour
.U, pu.t
06
0 66
solid o6 ammonium
calion wool
soaked In
glass
tubing
eolian wool
soaked In
ammonia
hydrochloric
solution
acid
Mr
white solid
forms here
17
HCI(g)
->
NH CI (s)
4
36.5
Ammonia deffuses faster than hydrogen chloride. Why? . :~'.' ;': '..... ' ...
- 7 -
li
I!
U
~.
:;
i;,. . ~
lI
t\O/
1-.
- 1-t
u;
1
!
'-~--.-'
l'-------~--)
"-----'
,f
::.:<~t:.A
f
1
The dia~ilaiiV':T'hows the diffusion of the exhau~ ..t gases from a car~ol!~;/
~
;\!Lt'JJ..~-!:l..B~!:>
.L~D.tOO:)
)/a!LL1
.,a.SaJiv,::
;.:.'.; (l'lJJd
i . - -. r~.-----./
i\) ~
/~.
'
q:n:;!~:r
.,,...~~,
.,,,
.....
-~,;..,
;~~
(j
\= / '' ;/.
"~t- ~~~"f""'t
.. , .OJfo~o
. G]/.(1,:, 1{:-,
ct~s i:of f!"" r:><h"">i
<i.V
* " *
* t\ "j-*<'
..
,_, Jo
".'
""oro o
''
bOtJhl
ll
/;'!I.f
'
. ;/
. . //. .........
'.'/
,'If
'I
....Ji!
'<--....._
;;;li 9
o o
"" o
.,,_~
1_,-~- -~--.
;..;:.:...:
o o
'-,. ' ..
h),
;~.e;!,a~!ll
"'-":"''1
;l l
.
""'lUI!!O?.
.
......~
~
iQ! 1\ 1'~ri:f;:<.i
.
'.!.--~.-:---.. ...,........................... .
-----
-~
_)
= --"
1-<"
-.:-----~
i!t
-..l
\1
-----
riJiw biup-:1
'-!iizn!}b ;srlairi
.c-~r--
/-
4.
( \---Ll \
1,___,__ _ _ _ _ _.
o o
Topic 2.
- 8 -
Chemistry fGCSE
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
Laboratory apparatus
:.
tap
beaker
conicnl flask
measuring
cylinder
pipet to
~rette
mo~Lta.~L
~
watch glass
evaporating
baa in
~'"'""
funnei
6
6
.bunae.n
burner
thermometer
--li<luld with
Iowa: density
liquid with
. hlohor density
{Oi!QS
balance
Chemisty IGCSE
water Is a
more
copper.
ulphate
cry :;tal,
~
copper
sulphate
Is a solute
solvent
A solvent is the
solute
saturated
solution
solution
A solute IS the
substance that
the dissolving.
is dissolved.
A saturated
A $Oiution is
fonned when a
rolute is
dissolved by
a solvent.
D1
~/- 1 -Jute
'.
,(
25 0
.g' 200
2m
;:
0>
/ .............
150
"
!)
ll
trate
~\UI1'\~
100
r,;..
50
'-
)f:-'' '
..--e / /
<..(0'\J
f. \\\
?'<$9\1}~.,.......,!'V~'
l:l
m
::;:
---:;
...:
...
20
40
60
Temperature/"C
80
100
~~-p""!v:"
,h?::-4
I' /1
D~~<"t:>I~~.L
L.-
c.cf_
L)
Chemistry IGCSE
- 10 -
.............
~articularly
{a)
:tauc.
chlorine, bromine,
carbon monoxide
{b)
C.OIVW.f.V e
concentrated solutions
of acids ~nd alkalis such as
concentrated sulphuric acid
{c)
oucU.o.i.ng
agent
potassium dichromate~
potassium manganate.:
{d)
..i'.ammable
Chemistry I GCSE
- 11 -
DON'T
DO
....
,
~~~-~~i~El_EE~~~~E~~~~-~
1- Carrying out the experiments which involve toxic gases and strong
smelling gases in fume cupboard or' in we'fl-ve'rlfilated laboratory.
2-
3-
,?~
! - ,
~-,.
\.
l_
\_
urr>.
'C'.'k\0
.................................................................................................................................................................... [1 1
'
.'
-"
..................................................................................................................................................................... [ 1]
- lZ -
Chemistry IGCSE
Methods of Purification
17'--filter paper
fimnel
residue.
a) To .5epaJta..te a.
6Mm a. Uqr.Ud
Filtration
The solid is left on the
filter paper as the residue
while the liquid passes
through.
b)
To
ob~
substance
t:===::J-..J-salt solution
A solution consists of a
solut.e dissolved in a solvent, Sea water is a solution
/
gauze
---
K~~r
! -----
c ..... -
'%?~~~-
:C,c;eifc!c"(
I
~
__.- ~'~ I
tripou
.f1__/
/
,
What method could be used to show the crystallising point had been reached
'I'
'
........... t
- 13 -
Chemistry IGCSE
c)
To
a 6olvent
4epaAaXe
6~om
a 4otution
Distillation
------------
tharmometor
sea
water
d}
To
6 epaAaXe
cold W;ttcr in
pun distilled
HEAt
:iJJJo .Uqu).cL6
water
Fractional distillation
----------------------Miscible liquids (i.e. ones that
mix together completely) may be
separated by fractional
distil~
thermometer
Cr;Jolest paQ:
of column---
cold water In
fractionating ---W~
column
filled with
tilc:ss rods
Frt~ctlons
collected at
lower
temperatures.
~8
broka_n Porcelain
HEAT
first.
Ant-bump.i.ng gMnui.e6 [alL bMk.en polLc.eta.i.n} alLe. added .to .the. m!.xJwc.e.
.to acfU..eve 6.teady bo-UJ..ng.
Important appli<;:ations of fractional distillation :
a)
b)
- 14 -
Chemistry lGCSE
e.)
Clvr.omCLtogJutphq
'
0
:
- Filter paper
small .spot
Solvcnl
one. .opa.t.
Chromatography can also be used to separate calaunle46 substances,
but .in this case the paper must be sprayed with another chemical
movement
of solvent
1---------------f
C1 and
D'.
ED
U!.l e.d .
., e. be. dlurWn.
V<-"
.w
~--~--
........................................ ~ ................................... .
15 -
Chemistry IGCSE
The diagram shows a chromatogram used to find out which colourings are in a fruit drink.
'
'
fruit drink
f
2 3 4
colourings
1 and4
1 andS
2 and3
2and5
puJLe substance has nothing else mixed with it. A substance is not
pure when it has other things mixed with it; these are called irup~e6.
Chemists often need to know if a substance is pure. For example, drugs
must be tested for purity before they are sold. Impurities might harm the
patient.
8'--~>
\:;u_\::\::::"<>"
J.o \'__
~'y.,
az
~o\__
eo'"
-to
\\c-.~
0"-fl"'--'
'l. . . . . . ~ ~--u::.tI
<2Y'-
\\.:::
, ",
~ v.'\"
2. Ano.:the1t wa.y o 6 :te<>:ti.ng puJLUy i;, :to meMuJte :the .>ub.6:ta.nc.e' .6 me-tUng
po-i.n:t otr_ ba.i..Ung po.i.11-t. PuJLe .6ub.6:ta.n,c.e<> have de6-Lnile me.Uhtg po~
a.nd bo.LU.ng po~. I o a. .>ub.6.ta.nc.e -i..6 no:t puJte, m me..U.Utg po.ill:t otr_
bo.LUng po-Ln:t w.U.t be d.i.o oe1len:t 6Jtam :the known.
Impurities make melting points lower and boiling points higher.
The WCLte1t .ta.R.en 6Jtom ;the .6ea. 6Meze<> at a.bou:t -2'C a.nd boili at 70 1"C.
I.6 U pWLe ? No 1
..................................................................
Why ?
Gu:."-'-'S':
-,~
s"""'"\.1\ : ~f'~::ze
:C,L
c- ) ".
~--~
.......... .
- 16 ..
Chemist1y I GCSE
Topic 3.
perties.
Metal
Non-metal
state at room
temperature
solid except
mercury (liqu1.d)
melting point
appearance
shiny
dull
.
Compound
easily shaped
electrical and
heat conductivity
good
graphite
Mixture
- 17 -
Chemistry IGCSE
Atomic Structure
Atoms consist of a minute nucleus, where allthe positive charge
and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated, surrounded by
electrons.
The nucleus is made up of two types of particles
auiL-a:LomLc.
Rela.ti.v e. Ma.M
Pa.Jt.tic.te.
Cha.Jr.g e.
+1
1
1
PILO.tort
Neu.bwn
-1
1/1810
Etec.tJton
(Z)
Ma..6c, (IU.Lcteon)
nu.mbe.~t : (A)
No.
(p + n)
Atomic No.
(p)
(symbol of
the element)
Ato~e nu.mbe.~t =
nu.mbeJt
on
pM.tono
MM<l numbe.~t
.=
nu.mbeJt
p!W.tono
nu.mbe.li.
o6
o6
neu..t.li.ono
Question ;
Work out the numbers of sub-atomic particles [protons, neutrons and electron J
of the atoms of the following element.i.
12c
6 ,
56
26Fe,
......................................... .
e =
.......... .......................... .
n =
- 18 -
Chemistry !GCSE
Isotopes
I<> o:to p eo aJt.e a.tom<> o6 the <1 am.e. el-ement, ULU:h the <. ame numb eM
nutM
numb Vt6
I<>o:topeo o6 hydJwgen
Hydrogen has 3 isotopes
()
Most hydrogen atoms are like
this, l H. It is an orcl.inarj
hydrogen atom with no
neutron.
,.
IM:topu o6 c.a.Jtbon
Carbon has 3 isotopes
f.!a..66 nwnbvr.
Nwnbvr. o6 plto.toJU
Nwnbvr. o6 dec.bta JU =
Nwnbvr. o6 neu:tJr.o JU
[AJ
is called
[A]
( B]
..............
................
..... . .. ..... ..
. .... . . . ... ...
"
[C]
.............. .
. ........... .
..
"
..................
...............
carbon~l2.
[BJ and
[CJ
are called ?
.......... ................................................................................ .
.,
- 19 -
Chemistry !GCSE
Radioactive Isotopes
37 X 25/100'= '--
. ..
1M e.A :
--------------.
1-
e.. g.
Cance-r treatment :
2-
.. )
( 235u as a source of_ ener!iJ)'
Nuclear fission
;.
- 20 -
Chemistry IGCSE
The first twenty eLements in the Periodic Table and their electronic structures
~~e
H
I
Li
Be
B:
Ne
2,1
2,2
2,3
2,4
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,8
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
2,8,1
2,8,2
2,8,3.
2,8,5
2,8,6
2,8,7
2,8,8
Ca
2,8,8,1
2,8,8,2
.. ,:2,.8,4
The outer shell is called the valency shell and the electrons of the outer shel! are the
valency electrons.
Elements of the same group in the periodic table contZin the same number ofelectrons iii
their outer shelL For example; Jithiunl; sodium and potassium-(group I) have one electron
in their outer shell. Fluorine, chlorine and bromine (group VII) have 7 electrons in their
outer shell.
_.
What is special about the- nobel gases 7
The nobel gMeo Me; ve:Jty (Uillea.c.tl.ve. They w.i.U not joht up wi..tft ea.clt
o.theJr. ;to 6oJUn mo.tec.ul.eo NoJt wLU .they Jtea.d ea..ll.U.y w.U:h . o.theJr. e.temen..to
to {,oJUn c.ompound.o. The nobel gM eo Me .6.ta.b.te (ullltea.c.tl.ve) bec.auJ, e
.they ha.v e n uU ou.:teJr. .6 heW.
We c.oul.cl' c.onctude .tha..t o.theJr. e.t.eme.n.U Me Jtea.c:Uve bec.a.u.!Je .they do not
ha.ve {,u.tt llheUb. 'Lt <1 eemb .tha.::t e.f.!'llleJJb, Jtea.d :to f:.Jty a.nd get onf.y
6uU <>hellll.
.
:.: ~ .: :
"'
l)
Helium
He
atomic no. 2
<11
1J
.0
-<
>-
.c
....
"'
u.
'0
Lithium
a10mic no. 3
Li
2,1
Sodium
atomic no. 11
\.U
N'
Nitrogen
atomic no. 7
atomic no. 6
N Oxygen
atomic no. 8
Fluorine
atomic no. 9
atomic no. 10
@ @ @ @ @ @
I
Mg
2,3
Aluminium
atomic no. 13
AI
2,4
Silicon
atomic no; 14
j
Si
Phosphorus
atomic no, 15
. 2, 7
2,6
2,5
Sulphur
atomiC no. 16
Chlorine
atomic no. 17
2,8
Cl
....'-V\
Ar
Argon
atomic no, 18
2,B,2
2, 8, 1
2,8,3
2, B, 4
2,8,5
2,8,6
2, 8, 7
l)
>-
Ne
Neon
(/)
Carbon
atomic no. 5
2,2
Magnesium
atomic no. 12
Boron
@
.....
Be
BeryJlium
atomic no. 4
Potassium
atomic no. 19
Calcium
.1tomic no, 20
Ca
The numbers under each atom show the way the electrons are orranged for that element.
This is called its electronic connguratlon.
E
Q)
.c
The electronic coftfigura!ion of aluminium is 2, 8, 3. This means it has two electrons in the
first shell, eight electrons In the second shell and lhree electrons In the th'~rd shell.
2,
o. n. 1
2, 0, 0, 2
2, 8, 8
22
Chemistry IGCSE
Chemical Bonding
Ions and Ionic Bonds
An ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons is transferred from
.+
(atom)
Cl
(a tom)
2' 8' 7
2' 8' 1
sodium atom
chlorine atom
{Na)
{q)
+
Cl- (ion)
2' 8' 8
11 protons
11 +
electrons u 1 aOverall charge = + 1
10
17 protons
18 electrons
- 17+
180verall charge -1
chloride ion
{CI-)
sodium ion
{Na)
Be.c.a!Ue :the ;,odJ..wn a:tom lw..o LoU:. one. ne.ga..t<.ve. de.c.:t!ton, U be.c.ome.;, a.
po<..<.tive. .<.on.
Be.c.aLU e. .the c.h'-o!Une. a:tom lw..o ga.J..ne.d one de.c..tJwn. J...t ga.J..n;, a. ne.ga.Uve.
c.hM.ge a.nd be.c.ome.;, a. ne.ga..Uve. .Lon .
SodJ..wn c.h'-oJt.l.de. .(.;, ma.de. ofJ IJodJ..wn .<.on;, a.nd c.hloJt.l.de. .Lon;, held .toge:theJL
b!f a.n e.!_e.c.Vto.;.ta..t<.c. a.:t.:Ow.c..t.Lon be..tvJe.e.n oppa.;Ue.'-!f chM.ge.d .Lon;,.
Ion :
The. a.Ma.nge.men.t o6 .the. va.J..e.nc.q e.!_e.c..tJt.on;, [.L. e. e!_ecVwn;, o 6 :the ou.teJL.;he.U) i.n :the. .<.o!Uc. compound .;od.f.wn ch'-oJt.l.de. ca.n be Jr.e.pl(.e.;,e.n.te.d a..; 6oUow.;
X X.
(2.8.1)
Sodium atom
(2,8, 7)
(2,8)
Chlorine atom
Sodium ion
(2,8, 8)
Chloride ion
- 23 -
Chemistry IGCSE
XX
Mg:~o~
~ -xx
(2,8,2)
(2,6)
. (2,8)
(2,8)
x)(
K
FX
~('
Mg:
(2, 7)
[Mg] 2+
<:x
~ ~F~
(2,8,2)
Magnesium
atom
(2, 7)
(2, 8)
2 Fluorine
Magnesium
atoms .
ion
(2, 8)
2 Fluoride
ions
Cl
~~~
- ++- +
1. They are s.olids and have high m~Iting poi~ts ~nd b~gng points,
e.g. the melting point of pure sodium chlonde rs 8 0 .
2 . Solid compounds do not conduct electricity. They[' conducfrt t
electricity when melted or dissolved in water, wns are ee o
move and carry the electric current].
3. They are usually soluble in water.
- 24 -
Chemistry IGCSE
H- H
Hydrogen (Hzl
a hydrogen molecule, H2
Cl
- Cl
a chlorine molecule, Cl 2
88
Similarly,
. Br2'
12,
Fz
Hydrogen chloride (HCI)
XX
H-0-H
H- Cl
xx
H
\
Similarly,
PC1
I
H
- 25 -
Chemistry IGCSE
H
I
H-C-H
-
H
I
H-C-0-H
Methanol ( CH 0H)
3
0=0
Oxygen (0 2 )
Carbon dioxide ( C0 )
2
O=C=O
H
Ethene (C H )
2 ~
c=c
Chemistry lGCSE
- 26 -
sha:red~
Ethyne [Acetylene}
H-C==C-H
c2 Hz
2.
3.
4.
5.
Diatomic Molecules
The molecule consists of 2 atoms such as H ,
2
o2 ,
N21 Cl , Br ,
2
2
rz, Fz.
Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon occuts in tw0 solid forms, diamond and graphite. These
are very different, even though they both contain carbon atoms.
Pure diamond is a l1ard, colourless solid, that sparkles in the
light, while graphite is a dark grey greasy solid with a dull
shine,
When an element has more than one form, it shows allotropy. The
different forms are called allotropes of carbon.
Chemistr:y IGCSE
- 27 -
...
the centre atom
forms lour bonds
2.
Graphite
I
1-weak
forces
CaJtbon a.to111<1 aJte aiWl:nge.d J.n hex.a.gonb J.n pa.JrJul..(_el. .lay eM. The
.layeM ctl!-e hel.d :toge;thur. by wea.k 6oJtc.u.
- 28 -
Chemistry IGCSE
(Dr~
2.
Bo-th d.i.amond a.nd gJta.ph.Ue. have. veJr.y IU.gh meLUng po.w..t. ThM
be.c.a.u.6e. bo-th eoitOJJ,.:t o6 g.la.n.t <>bw.e.twr.e. o6 a..:tom4.
Silicon (IV) Oxide
}J,
(Silicon Dioxide}
u.ke d.i.amond, <>ilieon d..i.ox.i.de .U, luvuf., Ita<> a. IU.gh me..tti..ng po.I.n.:t
a.nd dau no-t c.ond!Le.:t e..te.c..tJr.lc.Uy.
properties ofMacromolecules:
1. High m.p. and b.p.
2. Hard [graphite is exception which is soft 1
3. Do not conduct electricity [graphite is exception 1
4. Insoluble in wat~r
Chemistry IGCSE
-29-
Metallic Bond
Giant metallic lattice - (In metals)
+ nucleus
electron
Summary of Bonding
Ionic
(be-tween metals
and no~-metals)
Bonding
1'------
Structures
Giant ionic
Melting point
Conduct
electricity ?
Examples
Covalent
(between non-metals)
High
Not when solid, but
they do when m:o!ten
! or dissolved in water
I
I (when i'ons are free
I
I
to move)
:'
\.
.,
..
T~
'
Very high
Usually high
No
Yes
(has free
.electrons)
8CB8
~~~
8+8+
~-J:
>~
Water
I
f
Giant metallic
Metallic
(in metals)
diamond,
graphite, Si0 2
I
~I
!.C ~
~~~
"v~
v'l,
Diamond
Fe, Cu, Mg
( irr
XX
- 30 -
Chemistry. IGCSE
Topic 4.
1)
Symbol
Va1.enc'y
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulphur.
Hydrogen
'H
Chlorine
Cl
Bromine
Br
Ee.emen.t
Hydrogen chlorid.e
........ ......... .
~
Bromine
...................
Chemistry IGCSE
- 31 -
._;_;
2)
----------------Some elements can lose or gain electrons and change into atoms
with positive. or negative charges. These atoms are called ions.
Some examples are :
Na+
Ca
2+
Cl.,..
..
sodium ion
)(+
potassium ion
calcium ion
A13+
aluminium ion
02-
oxide ion
. cnlorid~. ion
2-
No 3 - ,
co 3 2- ,
and the
Valency
Positive ions
Negative ions
H+.
u+
Na+
K+
Ag+
NH 4.+
Ca 2+
" .. 2+
Mg.
Bal+
Pb2+
Cu-7~.
Zn2+
Fea
hydrogen ion
lithium ion
sodium ion
potassium ion
silver lqn
ammonium ion
hydroxide ion
chlo'ride ior,
bromide ion
iodide ion
F- fluoride ion
Nol- nitrate ion
calcium ion
magnesium ion
barium ion
iead,,ion
copper(II) ion
zinc ion
irori(II) ion
S2~
FeH
Al 3+
iron(III) ion
aluminium ion
oHcrBrI-
o2-
so/-
sulphide ion
oxide ion
sulphate ion
..
- 32 -
Chemlstr)' IGCSE
+ charg.es
is alYays
ammonium sulphate
aluminium oxide
magnesium oxide
Remember
i) Compounds ending in 1 ide 1 are made of just 2 elements only.
ii) Compounds ending in 'ate' have a third element, 'oxygen'.
Question:
Write down the formula for each ofthese ionic compounds:
1. sodium chloride
2. aluminium nitrate
3. zinc chloride
4. sodium sulphate
5: copper (II) sulphate
6. zirlc carbonate
7. alllrniniurn carbonate
8. pctassium iodide
9 Cll!ciurn oxide
... ... .. .. ..
10. amrnonium.carbOnate
............
.............
... ... ... ...
.............
...............
.. ..........
............
... ... ... ...
1Liron (JII)..oxide.
...............
............
... -.........
.............
.............
.:. ...........
.... - - .....
.............
............
Chemistry IGCSE
- 33 -
z~
Now write the equation using symbols. Make sure the all
correct~
formulae are
3-
th~
Make
b~e
you do
no~
Example l.
When hydrogen burns in oxygen or air, it forms water
oxygen
H2
02
2 H
02
hydrogen
water
>
2
H
H
Example 2.
IVfaoonesium burns brightly in oxygen or air, it forms magnesium oxide [white powder}:
magnesium
Mg
2Mg
2Mg0
- 34.-
Chemistry IGCSE
sodium
water
sodium
hydroxide
hydrogen
2Na(~
2H 2 0(1)
2NaOH(aq).
Hz(g)
Na
C[z
-----'?- Na C!
COz
-----'?- CO
A1
Clz
-----'?- .. A!CI,
NO
Oz
-----'?- N.Oz
AI
Oz
-----'?- .. Alz O,
-----'?-. ... KC!
Mg
SOz
C!!t
2.
COz
Ca(OH)
+ ... 0z
+ ... HzO
. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . . . ... . .. .. . .. . . . .
---'.;>-
+ ........... +
.. .. ..
..................... -........................ .
water
- 35 -
Chemistry IGCSE
Chemical Calculations
23
35.5
58.5
40
7I
111
.65
28
96
189
3.
Carbon dio:cide,
co 2
Sodium carbonate, Na C0
2 3
Chemistry IGCSE
- 36 -
The % of an element by
mass a compound in
Mr of the compound
40 %
---==---
35%
X 100
........ .... ,, ..
~
- 37-
Chemistry !GCSE
THE MOLE
r o6
Jr.e-
For Elements :
1.
.2.
For Compounds
1.
- 2 + 16
2.
1 mole of Caco
- 18 g
Ca + C + 3 X 0
= 40 + 12 +'48
= 100
mass
No. of
Ar
moles
Mr
or
Questions:
Mg
.................... .
b) copper(II) oxide
CuO
..............
c) sodium chloride
NaCl
............... .
- 38 -
Chemistry !GCSE
a)
b)
c)
in:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Avogadro constant [ LJ
. is the number of
part~cles
23
iron atoms.
23
carbon (12 g) contains 6 X 10
carbon atoms.
~
23
sulphur (32 g) tontains 6 X 10
sulphur atoms.
23
oxygen atoms (16 g) contains 6 X 10
oxygen atoms.
.
23
oxygen mole~ules (32 g) contains 6 X 10
oxygen molecules.
23
carbon dioxide (44 g) contains 6 X 10
carbon dioxide molecules.
23 ..
water (18 g) contains 6 X 10
water molecules.
..... . --..
- 39 -
Chemistry IGCSE
Example I
magnesiUm
+ hydrochloric
.magnesium
_...,.. chloride
acid
+h
d
y regen
Mg(s)
2HCI(aq)
MgCiz(aq).
H2(g)
this means
1 mole
2 moles
1 mole
1 mole
and in grams
24g
73 g
95 g
2g
Example2,
Consider the reaction between magnesium and oxygen.
magnesmm
2Mg (s)
+ oxygen
+
02 (g)
-7
magnesium oxide .
2Mg0 (s)
2x24
=48g
2Mg0 (s)
1 mole
lx (16x2)
=32g
2 moles
2x (24+16)
=80crh
...
Chemistry IGCSE
40
Example 3
Lime (calcium oxide) is formed by strongly heating limestone
(calcium carbonate) until it is completely decomposed.
The equation for the process is:
CaC03 (s)
CaO (s)
1 mole
I mole
=IOOg
1 mole
40 + 16
=56g
[40 + 12 + (3x16)]
)>
12 + (2x16)
=44g
1 mole
1 mole
mass
= -
0.05
100
Mr
why?
= number of moles x Mr
0 o.,:05
=2.8 g
=
56
. .. ..
. . : .
41
Chemistry IGCSE
Percentage Yield
Some reactions do not go to completion, i.e. not all of the reactants are converted
to products.
The amount of product formed in a non-complete reaction is known as the actual
yield of the reaction. The amount of product that would be formed if the reaction
goes to completion is known as the theoretical yield.
100
theoretical yield
(calculated)
Example:
On heating 5 g of calcium carbonate, 2.1 g of calcium oxide are formed.
Using the information in example 3; what is the percentage yield of the
reaction?
(ii)
= ................... g
(iii)
(iv)
[4]
, ..
. .- '/
Chemistry IGCSE
42
Volume
of gas (dml)
No. of
moles
(of gas)
24 dm 3
The equaiion for the complete combustion of propane is given below. Insert the two
missing volumes.
volume of gas/cm 3
1o
.l> An excess of hydrochloric acid was added to 1.23 g of impure barium carbonate. The
volume of carbon dioxide collected at r.t.p. was 0.120dm 3 . The impurities did not reactwith the acid. Calculate the percentage purity of the barium carbonate.
BaC0 3 + 2HCl
---i-
Baetz + C0 2 + H2 0
...................
[1)
(ii)
...................
[1)
(iii)
................... g
[ 1)
(iv)
................... g
[1]
(v)
...................
[ 1)
percentage purity
1oo
...
- ....
------~---
......
Chemistry IGCSE
43
Concentration of solutions
The term concentration means the mass of solute dissolved in a certain volume of the solvent.
The concentration of solutions is expressed in g I dm 3 or mol I dm 3
For example, the concentration of a solution prepared by dissolving 58.5 g ofNaCl (1 mole) in
3
water to give a total volume of 1 dm3 is 1 mol I dm
On dissolving 2 x 58.5 g (i.e. 2 moles), the concentration is 2 mol I dm3
On dissolving 5.85 g (i.e. 0.1 mole), the concentration is 0.1 mol I dm3
Remember that 1 dm3 = I litre = 1000 cm3
. )>
No. of
moles
Cone.
(mol I dml)
Volume
tdm 3 J
Questions:
3
1. How many moles are present in 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol I dm sulphuric acid (H2S04)?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
[0.0025 moles I
2. What is the concentrations of a solutio~ which contains 0.1 mole of solute in 102 cm of
solution? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[1 mol I dm I
3
)>.
- ...........................
Therefore number of moles of HCt in 20 cm 3 = ...........................
Concentration of HCL = .......................... .
= ........................... mol/dm 3
[4]
-44-
Chemistry IGCSE
C2H,;
C2H402
..
CH3
CH20
_ICH3C02Hl
methane
CH4
CH4
80
20 .
80
20
1. 0.-i.v.<.de.
biJ .the.
number
12
6.67
2o
6.67
6.67
20
6.67
CH3
12 + 3
15 } M, is twice mass of
30 empirical formula
""
;._;__
. .. ... .. : .
Chemistry IGCSE
- .4-5-
Questions __:
c:::--...:c;_..,...,
hydrogen =2.2%
oxygen= 71.1%
'
-~:-[1]
2.
The hydrocarbon benzene has an empirical formula CH and Its relative molecular.
mass Is 78. What Is its molecular formula?
.....................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................:....................................................[2]
-46-
Chemistry IGCSE
Topic 5.
GrCKlp1
11;
Ill
en
""'
""'
''
VI!
0
,----,
f'
Ne
AI
Sl
C!
Ar
Zn
Gt
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xc
""
Hg
T!
Pb
Bl
Po
"'
Rn.
Be
Mg
G.
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Nl
Cu
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nh
Mo
,.
Ru
Rh
Pd
c.
n.
u.
Hf
T,
Re
Os
lr
Pt
f'r
R2
Ac
,,
VI
Ll
l!e
tundtlon ttit.tlh
"d
_.,;
IV
Metals take up tlte part of the periodic table to the left of the hefiVJ' line.
1.
The periodic table showing the division into metals and non-metals.
The clnsa of eiernents whi"ch lies on the borderline batween me!=als
and non-metals is often classified as .o_em.(.-me;ta.t6 or me;tallo.{.dh 1
e.g. silicon, arsenic, germanium.
Fait examp.te,
aJr..~>e!U.c. {M l
"_:It,._,_
.,.<.'1 o.z
Non - > -
~~ o-'0::: melols
o r
'a;q.. q.~ ~
~------c--Melols---------1>-
.t~
?J,..:
'>j.. ".>0
\
~01.
~oy.. :.r
2.
Elements of the same group have similar properties (the same no.
of electrons in the o.utershell).
-47-
Chemistry IGCSE
3.
4.
Group number
Valency
5.
> K > Na
'
> Br > I
F > Cl
6.
> Li
:C{)I!.!I.te:n;t.
II
Be
0
,.---
N M~
c.'
Fe1+
He
III
IV
VI
VII
o'-
p-
Ne
!Jl+
Si
s'- a-
Ar
Br-
Kr
.Cu2+ Znl+
I-
Ag
Ba 2 +
Pbl+
-~
fUI their
shell~. They
form 2- ions:.
'
-48-
Chemistry IGCSE
Melting point
Name
Symbol
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Caesium
Li
Na
1.
Rb
Cs
rc
fgcm-J
180
0.53
98
Group lions
Lithium ion
u+
0.97
Sodium ion
Na+
64
0.86
Potassium ion
K+
39
!.53
29
1.90
Rubidium ion
Rb+
Caesium ion
cs+
They are called th!'. alkali metals because they react with water
to form alkaline solutions.
2.
PhysiCal Properties
Conduct
electricity
rodium.
Low density
'
r
The metals all have low densities.
Lithium is the lightest metal known.
Lithium,. sodium and potassium. all float on
water. This is because tliey are less - dense than water.
-49-
Chemistry l GCSE
ssdium
4Na(s)
+ 0 2 (g)
potassium
Reaction
\vith water
OJeygen
sodium oxide
oxygen
--->-potassium oxide
sodium
water
-+
sodium
hydroxide
hydrogen
2Na(s)
2H 2 0(!)
-+
2NaH(aq)
Hz(g)
potassium
water
-+
potassium
hyclraxide
hydrogen
2K(s)
2H 2 8(!)
--+
2K@H(a<'J)
H2(g)
The ob<. vr.va.:t.i.ort.O .tha/: c.a.n be ma.de when a. <>mill )!li.ec.e o 6 .the a.tka..U. meta.t i.<>
a.dded .to a. :t:Jta U!J h 0 n wa:;{:eJt :
1. UthWm fi.tow a.nd a. ga.<> 6/-zze<> Mound d.
Z. SocLWm 6.tow, meW 1J..!> d ;,hoot<> a.c.Jr.OM .the wa;tvr. a.nd a. ga.<> (i.zzu 6a.<>.t.
3. Po.tM<.i.um Jtea.W v.<.o.ten:Uy .tha/: d me.t.t<> .<.mmedi.a..te.ty a.nd c.a..tc.hu 6.0te.
-50-
Chemistry !GCSE
~
chlorlne---->-gas
1"'~~'--~_,\.:>.~-CQ-";...n_..,..IL._ __...,l$j~
~
_,_tofume
cupboard
..
heat
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
lithium
2Li(s)
+
+
chlorine
Cl 2 (g)
-+
-+
lithium chloride
2LiCI(s)
sodium
2Na(s)
+
+
chlorine
-+
Cl 2 (g)
-+
sodiuni chloride
2NaCI(s)
potassium
2K(s)
+
+
chlorine
Cl 2 (g)
-+
Rubidium
Caesium
potassium chloride
-+
2KCI(s)
Group I compounds
Metal
Chloride
Bromide
Nitrate
Sulphate
Carbonate
Lithium
LiCI
LiBr
LiN0 3
Li 2 S0 4
Li2 C03
Sodium
NaO
NaBr
NaN0 3
Na 2 S0 4
Na 2 C0 3
Potassium
KC)
KBr
KN0 3
K2 S0 4
K2 C03
metals
get
more
reactive
Chemistry IGCSE
- 51 -
Transition Elements
e.g.
They
.~re
(hard, strong).
2.
:;,
4.
2+
2+
b)
V~nadium
(bw.tt.~>.uion
Potassium
me.ta.e.l.
Vanadium
- 52-
Chemistry IGCSE
D
c.o.e.oUJr.
bec.ome..t.
daltkvc.
Colour
room
temperature
Pale yellow
Symbol of
Halide ion
CI
Fluorine Fz
Gas
Chlorine Cl 2
Gas
Green
Cl
Bromine .Br2
Liquid
Red-brown
Br
Iodine
12
Solid
Dark gr.ey
Astatine
At
...
...
Br
I
. ..
+
'=fry
mcreaszng
>-Bromine is very volatile [has low b;p. 59C}. This means ihat it easily
turns into a gas.
>-
Iodine is a dark grey solid, when warmed, it turns into a purple vapour
[it sublimes]-
>-
- Cl
Uses of Chlorine:
Making bleach
.. In water purification [kills bacteria]
"' Maldn;; PVC (insulation for electric wires)
..
-53-
Chemistry !GCSE
Chemical Properties
.
+
+
sodium
2Na(s)
Reaction with.indicators:
-+
-+
sodium chloride
2NaCJ(s)
Displacement reactions:
chlorine
Cl 2 (g)
gas :
Chlorine can displace bromine and iodine from a solution of their salts:
chlorine gas-===\\
chlorine
Clz(g)
potassium -+
iodide
2KI(aq) __,.
[colourless]
Ionic equation:
Clz
. chlorine
Cl 2 (g)
zr
In o:thvr.
WOJtd.l,,
Clz
potassium -+
bromide
2KBr(aq). -+
[colourless]
ionic equation:
->
2 Br
->
7
iodine
I,(aq)
potassium
chloride
2KCI(aq)
[.brown]
Iz
zcr
bromine
Br,(aq)
potassium
chloride
2KCl(aq)
[red]
Brz
zcr
Halogens have similar properties because their atoms all have 7 electrons in. the
outer shell.
-54-
Chemistry I GCSE
Nobel Gases :
2.
neon etomi"::\\\
~((G
HqdJtogen
hqdJtogen
WCL6
601t
v ..
2.
Argon
i~
for
fil1~ng_electric
tung5ten
filament
3.
argon
-55-
Chel)listry I GCSE
Test
Result
Hydrogen
Lighted splint
Oxygen
Glowing splint
Relight:s
Carbon dioxide
Limewater
Turns milky
Chlorine
Colour
Yellow-g'reen
Bleached
Ammonia
Smell
Pungent
[ttlkq.Une gcw l
Turns blue
Formula
Gas
paper
Collection of Gases
gas
l.
-l-i>'
2.
o2 and N2
Downward delivery :
For gases which are soluble
in water and denser than air
3.
Upward delivery
For gases which are soluble
in water and less dense than
air such as NH .
gas __,.._
gcw-jM
-56-
Chemistry IGCSE
Drying of Gases
1.
co 2 , so 2
may be dried
[dAy.i.ng agent].
11uestion :
~-""""'""'""'""'-=--
W/Uch o6 .the. 6o.UoW-Wg cuur.angeme.n.tl> 6oiL dJty,~ng a. gaJ, w.Uh concen:tJur;te.d a.cJ.d )!, co!LILe.c.t f
2
~===:;, r;=='d=r=y==~
concentrated
sulphuric acid
concentrated
sulphuric acid
2. Ammonia gas is dried by passing it over solid calcium oxide [drying agent]
ca.nno.t be.
tt<1 rid
be.ca.W, e. U 1r.e.aw
+ sulphuric add
-----+-
nmmonlum sulphate
-57-
Chemistry IGCSE
excess hydrogen
burning in air
[black]
ice
water
When hydrogen is passed over black copper(II) oxide in the apparatus
above, the blnck powder turns pink~brown (copper)
reduced.
oxidised.
CuO(s)
-7-
copper + water
Cu(s)
H (g)
2
H .0(g)
2
Re.due-Utg ,a.ge.n.t
----7 2Fe
hydrogen, carbon,
+ 3CC)z
carbon monoxide,
reactive metals
-58-
Chemistry IGCSE
B
nitrogen, N2
~----------~
N02
[RIG]
Oxidation
Reduction
Is
Is
Leiss of electrons
Gain of electrons
oxygen
--+
magnesium oxide
2 Mg
02
2 MgO
The ma.gne;,.I.wn ).), oudA.ud a.nd .the axyge.n ).), Jte.du.cvi. Vwring .tw
Jt.e.a.Ul.ott, .two el.ecbw 111> a.Jt.e. .til.aiU 6e.Med filtom ma.g lteJ>.i.wn .to oxyg e.n.
Ma.gne;,.f.wn I.on a.nd oude ion aM 6oJtmed.
0 +
Mg
2+
Mg.
2 e
oz-
+ 2 e
-59-
Chemistry IGCSE
)>
oxidation
addition of oxygen
removal of hydrogen
I loss of electrons [OILJ .
increase in oxidation state
reduction
removal of oXygen
addition of hydrogen
gain of electrons [RIG] .
decrease in oxidation state
-
- 60-
Chemistry IGCSE
Topic 6.
ar~
c,Wc.on.
.-----1
a battery
A lamp. If it glows,
electricity must be
flowing through the liquid.
electrodes. Generally
made of graphite or :::::::H-+--1
unreactive metal like
platinum
.:.
-61-
Chemistry IGCSE
Typ~:
free
moving
wns
)>
of su~srtmce _
Electrolyte
solutions of acids
and alkalis in water
,J
solutions of salts
in water
,J
molten salts
,J
Non-electrolyte
ethanol
petrol
sugar solution
pure water
,J
,J
,J
oil
,J
,J
Electrolysis :
Can you suggest why -ve ions are called anions and +ve ions are
called cations? ........................................... .
.. ! .
'
....
Chemical changes take place at the electrodes. At the cathode, +ve ions gain electrons and become -atoms or molecules. At the anode,. -ve :!:ons
lose electrons and become atoms or molecules.
The electrons flow in the external circuit from the anode into the cathode.
a battery
r-~--t'I t------,
electron
flow
electron
flow
cathode .
:_anode
()
negative
ions lose
electrons
at tho"
anode
electrolyte
.,
-62-
Chemistry IGCSE
(Dr.FathyAbdel Gali!)
At the anode +
Non-metal
a battery
;.
carbon anode +
carbon cathode -
bubbles ~F
brown gas
{bromine)
~.
heat
At the anode +
2Br- ~ Brz + 2e
Product at anode
bromine
t-
...................
..................
...................
-63-
Chemistry IGCSE
At the cathode -
Electrolyte
2W (aq) +
Hydrochloric acid,
HCI (aq)
Atanode +
,___
__.---,
LNa+ - - - - - _ --- \ __
d-;
FromNaCL
-- oH_.,
/
-~
1r
'
~-,--
..-.+ ' ,
~
-- --
---
--"
Only F takes part in
electrolysis [H being
lower in the reactivity
series than Naj
I2 F
(aq) + 2 e -7 H 2 (g)
-- --J
Only Cr takes part in
electrolysis because it
is present in much greater
concentration than OH
-64-
Chemistry IGCSE
chlorine
lui~_____;
...
..... ...
...
~
pos!Uve
eleclrodo
neg alive
elec[rode
)>
)>
Na
Ca
Mg
AI
Zn
above hydrogen,
so hydrogen gas
is evolved at the
cathode
Fe
Pb
Cu
Ag
least reactive
Au
below hydrogen so
metal deposited
at the cathode
)>
)>
At the anode +
For concentrated
solutions of chlorides,
chlorine gas is produced
For sulphates and nitrates,
oxygen gas is produced
-65-
Chemistry IGCSE
-{ Cu +)
....
--so
- -- ----'
- ..:- 1
....
--
-
-
FromCuS04
Atanode +
Atcathode
... -
2- I
\.-- /
1-
....
,rr\--
FromHzO
/
10Ir'
'r
-----
Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e -7 Cu (s)
Copper deposited on the
cathode (as brown deposit)
2)
-
cathode
anode
..
b~r.own
0
de.po.oU
6 c.o ppe.IC.
'
'
bubbles of
oxygen
6Oc_
c.oppe.IC. (II) .;ul..pha..te.
M.fu:ti..o n
Summary:
Electrolysis of :;:tqueous copper-(II) sulphate:
atcathode copper
atanode +
oxygen
-66-
Chemistry IGCSE
';
Types of electrodes :
. Inert electrodes: Carbon (graphite) or platinum,.
They do not take part in the electrolysis..
Active electrodes: e.g. copper, silver, zinc, nickel.
They take part in the electrolysis and the active metal anode dissolves,
(i.e. passes into solution as ions. In other words, the mass of the active
metal anode decreases).
I,
ll
~
copp er
caih ode -
copper
anode +
1...
-7 Cu2+
-7
-7 Cu 2;-
vaqueo us copper(II)sulpltate
"""~........
(blue)
Atanode +
Atcathode -
Cu + (aq) + k
Copper deposited
[cathode: increases in mass]
Cu (s)
-67-
Chemistry IGCSE
Application of Electrolysis:
1} Refining of Copper:
Copper can be refined by electrolysis
using a block of impure copper as the
anode and thin sheet of the pure copper
as the cathode. The electrolyte is aqueous
copper(II)sulphate. Impurities sink to the
bottom of the container as anode sludge.
The overall result is the transfer of
copper atoms from the impure copper
to the cathode.
);>
EB
an. ode.
cathode.
pU/tl!.
CO(I(Il!./t
cop.fll!./t( I I ).out.phai.e.
.oot.uil.on.
2) Electroplating:
Many metal objects are electroplated for:
a) Protecting them from corrosion and rust
b) Making them look attractive
anode: _ _:::,-
cathode:
(object to
be plated)
(metal used to
plate the ::>bject)
='='""='!-electrolyte:-
aqueous solr.{tion
contairzing.ions of
the plating metal
if the object is to
be plated with
copper
silver
.nickel
Chemistry IGCSE
-68-
3) Extraction of metals
Reactive metals above Zn in the reactivity series such as Na, Mg,
Ca, AI can be. extracted only by electrolysis.
Extraction of Aluminium
Ore: Bauxite.
The purified bauxite (aluminium oxide, Al 20 3) is electrolysed in
molten cryolite (Na3A1F6).
Aluminium oxide has too high melting point to be used on its
own, so it dissolves in molten cryolite at 900C (i.e. cryolite is
used to lower the m.p. ofAl1 0J)
....
Carbon
anodes
(";),
--~,;,.,o."'l"""___ 1/
fil!.-l~carbon
lining
.ofccll(cathodc)
dissolved in
cryolite)
At cathode-
8.
..
AI
At anode +
.> As the hot oxygen escc.pes, it burns away the graphite anode
( C + 0 2 7 C0 2), ard so they have to be replaced from time to time.
.> Making aluminium is an expensive process because large amounts of
electricity are needed.
(Dr.FathyAbdel Galil)
-69-
Chemistry IGCSE
Topic 7.
Acids:
An acid is a substance giving hydrogen ions, II'" (aq), in aqueous solutions.
Aqueous solutions of acids tUrn the colour of litmus red.
It is the hydrogen ions that cause the change of colour.
Remember that the hydrogen ion is simply a proton.
. In other w.ords, an acid is a proton donor.
.. common acids:
strong
Acid
Formula
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
Nitric acid
HN0
Sul.phur:Lc acid
{
weak <-- Ethanoic acid
(Ace tic acid)
--
[ehto.!UdeJ
H+
Cl
H+
NO;
[ JU.:tJut.te l
H so
2 4
2H+
so 2 -
CH COOH
3
H+
CH COO
3
[ e..t!ta.noa.te J-
Basicity of acids:
Reaction of acids
l.
acid
metal
salt
'+
hydrogen
dilute
sulphUiic acid
magne>lum ribbon
magnesium
Mg (s)
+ ,sulphuric acid
+
H2SO.~
(aq)
--r.
magnesium sulphate
ionic equation:
Mg (s)
+ 2H+ (aq)
------'Jr
+ -hydrogen
- ro-
Chemistry IGCSE
2.
Acid
Salt
Base
Water
dilute
rulphuric acid
:.
heat
sulphuric
acid
H 2 SO,(aq)
ccpper(ll)
--+-
oxide
CuO(s)
--+-
b.t.a.ck
b.fue
3.
so 4 (aq)
copper(ll)
sulphate
CuSO,(aq)
+ 2 NaOH(aq)
Na
water
H2 0 (I)
so 4 (aq)
+ 2 H 0 (.f)
2
carbonate
--+
salt
water
carbon
dioxide
calcium
carbonate
CaCO,(s)
--+
calcium
chloride
CaCl 2 (aq)
water
H 2 0(!)
carbon
dioxide
C0 2 (g)
dilute
hydrochloric
acid
2HC!(aq)
>-
'
--+
:':
-71-
Chem_istry JGCSE
Bases
A base is a substance that can accept hydrogen ions, i.e. a proton acceptor.
1.
Bases react ,;ith acids to form a salt and ,;ater only (see properties of acids), This reaction is called neutralization reaction.
2.
'
Common alkalis :
Alka-li
,crong {
weak
Formula
Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
Na+
'"'"'''= "''""""'
KOH
K+
Calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)
NH (aq) or
3
NH 0H
(often called
ammonium hydroxide)
3.
OH
20H OH
Ca 2 +
NH+
OH
Solutions of alkali turn the colour of lit"mus ~~~It is the hydJr.ox..i..de. ~OM that cause the chang.e of colour.
we k
alkatl
is produced;
e.g.
we.a.k.
-72~
Chemlstiy IGCSE
nre pH scale
The strength of an acid or an alkali Is shown using a scale of numbers called the pH scale.
On this scale :
~r~;n
'
'
'
unlversal!ndlcator colours
pH numbers
2...___
.....
...___
e.g. hydro-
o.g. otha-
chlol1c acid
nolc acid
11\
g 10 11 12 13 14
-"""'<trona alkall,
MUiral,
'-...
weak alkali.
a.g.water
e.g.aq.l.!TliTlOllla
pH meter.
o.g.&Od!um
hydro>:ida
Salts
A salt is a compound made from ari acid when
a metal takes the place of the hydrogen in the acid
Soluhle
Insoluble
All nitrates
except
Chlorides
except
Sulphates ...
lead sulphate
Chemistry I GCSE
- 73-
1.
. 2.
wil~
....................~.~'"
3.
4.
5.
dilute
sulphuric- -111/
acid
"-=Cd=_,
'
~zinc sulphate
solution
/,zinc sulphate
/
crystals of
, solution
~~2~;;;----e:Vaporating
'i
basin
zi:!:
Zinc sulphate-. could also have been made using zinc carbonate instead
. of zinc. The sam>;! method and apparatus would. be use<;!, but the gas given
off would be carbon dioxide and not hydrogen.
Similarly, zinc oxide could have been used instead of zinc. No gas .would
be given off and warming is necessary,
- 74 -
Chemistry IGCSE
2.
N.a OH (aq)
-->
d.Uu:te.
n.U!Uc.
Cl.c).d
- - - p.{.pe.tie.
<.ocU.wn
/--'---\/ hyd.JW x.J..de.
&oWtion
bwr.e.tie.
'-----"Z.
phena.tph:dut.te..&!
<.odW.m
rU..i::Jr.JLt e.
<.olu.:Uan
Cl.ci.d.
l.
2.
3.
4.
u. eel C1.6
5. The experiment is now repeated, using the same volume of alkali and the same
volume of acid, that has been added, but without indicator.
6. Finally, the salt solution is evaporated to the crystallising point, allowed to cool
- 75 -
Chemistry IGCSE
Salts which do not dissolve in water have to be made by the process ofprecipitation.
Precipitation is the formation of it solid when two solutions
)>
scilution
Je3d nitrate
solution
sodium
nitrate
solution - - - I t
precipitate of
lead sulphate-----.;:;_,_:_"'-'-~'-'
General
reaction:
soluble
salt
Word
lead .. + .. .-"sodium
.
,
ul h
rntrate s p ate
equation:
soluble
salt
-+
-+
insoluble . +
salt
soluble
salt
lead
sulphate
sodium
nitrate
Symbol
equation: Pb(N0 3 ),(aq) + Na 2 S0 4 (aq)-+ PbSO,(s)
+ 2NaN0 3 (aq)
i
(aq) means in aqueous
solution
(aq)
(aq)
(s) means an
insoluble solid
-+
(s)
(aq)
}>
ionic equation:
Ag+
NaCI (aq)
-7
AgCI (s)
cr
-7
AgCI
. . .
~
NaN03 (aq)
Chemistry !GCSE
- 76 -
Water of cryst:z!lisation
Some salts contain water molecules in their crystal lattice. These salts which
contain water of crystallization are called hydrated salt.
Here are some exampl~s of hydrated salts :
Name
EalUE~
Magnesium sulphate
HgS0 4 7 H2o
CoClz 6 H20
c~so~:s-H;o
carr~~<rr)~~irh;t~
Cobalt chloride
_____ _
1 /~'
I r: ,..
--
.1/1' - - - 7.----
3.
S~eam ~ g~ven
2. Canden.;atian a.t
a6
copper(II)sulphate
crystals (hydrated},_~~::_-
a66
~he ~ap
~e ~ube
de.hydnttion
CuS0 5 H 0(s)
4
hydnttion
Wh_-n
these. blue- crystals are heated, steam is given off and the
crystals change to a white powder called anhydrous copper(II)sulphate.
If water is added to the anhydrous powder, it gets very hot and
changes back into blue copper(II)sulphate (hydrated}.
This is a reversible. reaction. Anhydrous copper(II)sulphate can be
used in this way to test for water.
Test for Water [chemical testJ
Add anhydrous .copper(II)sulphate, the colour changes from white into blue.
ooc
.-
Chemistry lGCSE
- 77
TYPES OF OXIDES
1.
~he
oxides of non-metals
Ac.l.d.ic. oxide.
. co 2
so 2
(arbon dioxide
Sulphur .d__ioxide
Sulphur trioxide
S0
Phosphorus(III) oxide
P203
NQ
2
Si0
2
Nitrogen
qxide.
I~:>
dioxid~
Silicon dioxide
~e4-l:>otuble
yes
pH 6
yes
p~ l
yes
pH l
yes
pH l
-..PH l .
yes
no
1.)
2.)
(vu~rbon
-y co
-7
. .
...
Calcium carbonate
+ Ca(OH) 2 (aq)
(g)
(lime water)
o..
K 0
2
Sodium oxide
Na
yes
pH 14
yes
pH 14
pH. 12
Calcium oxide
2
CaO
Magnesium oxid e
MgO
no
Copper(II) oxide
CuO
no
Iron(III) oxide
Fe
1.)
nci
2 3
CuO + .H2S04
2.)
yes
-) C)lS0 4
+ H20
H20(l)
alkalin~
2 NaOH (aq)
solutions
Chemistry IGCSE
- 78 -
;.
3.
e.e.
aluminium, zinc
\e.c:J
Ampho.tvr.J..c. oudu
'a.Jte.
6HCI
2 AJCh
Sodium aluminate
+ water
:.::
basic. oxides
(oxides of metals)
acidic oxides
(oxides of-non-metals)
alka~~--r-~
salt+ water
'r"-
acid
or alkali
amphoteric oxides
(Ah0 3 and ZnO)
Question: Complete the table that shows the reaction, if any, of the oxides with acid and
alkali. Indicate a reaction with "R" and no reaction with "NR".
oxide
type of oxide
magnesium oxide
basic
aluminium oxide
amphoteric
silicon(IV) oxide
acidic
-(3)
Chemistry IGCSE
- 79 -
:-
Identification of Ions
Test for Anions
Anion
Test
Carbonate
ceo;
Result
-
Effervescence, co
produced
2
(turns limewater milky).
(e g. dil. hydro-
chloric acid)
Chloride (CI-)
[In sol.ut!on]
Ag+ + Cl- -+
AgCl
2
Iodide ( I )
[In solution]
(or Pbi )
2
Sulphate (S0
2-
[In solution]
Ba 2+ + S0 2"4
-+
naso4
..
Nitrate (NO;)
Tin solution]
Ammonia produced
aluminium powder),
paper blue).
warm carefully
)> Complete the following table to differentiate between hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid
HCI (aq)
H 2S04 (aq)
HN03 (aq)
Chemistry IGCSE
- 80 -
~:.
Result ofadding
aqueous ammonia
Result of adding
aq: sodium hydroxide
'
Cation
.
Copper (II) [ Cu
'
[Fe 2 +J
'
Fe(OH)
excess
insoluble in
{tuAno
--
.
- - .. ------ - . -
in excess
-~ed-b~own
[Fe 3+]
in excess
2
Zinc [ Zn +J
. ----- - -- -
3
Alumlnlum [A! +]
'
\ a. c.o.towU'.e.o.o .o o.e.u.ti.o n J
...
- - - -----_....
--
---- of
White ppt.
, t
I
-Al(OH) 3
I
I
'
a. c.o.towU'.e.o.o 6otuton)
'
- ---
- -
- - -- -White
ppt.
- -
soluble '
\
in excess {g-iving
I
I
( a. c.a.to u4e.e.o.o .o o.e.u..ti.o n) ,
'
... /
- - - - -
excess
-- /
Calcium [ ca2+]
No ppt.
insoluble in excess
Ammonium [NH:]
Ammonia is produced
on warming with uq.
sodiu1u hydroxide
-'
excess~
Dirty-ereen ppt. of
'
Iron ( II l
2+
...
..
- 81 -
Chemistry I GCSE
Topic 8.
2.
3,
4.
5.
They are
malt~bte
(can be ham-
la~Jars
...............................
.
. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . ..... .. ... ... . . . .." ......................................... .
~--y~~
Alloys
1.
2.
Chemistry I GCSE
- 8 2-
me,.ta. a.to m6
o;thvr. metal dom6
Aluminium
high electrieal
conducllimy
yens;cy
(ov/
overhead
C<l.b!es
aircraft
(aeroplanes)
carengihes
Ov e.Jthea.d a1.wrU.iU.wn
el.ec..tlr)_c.al. c.a.b.te6
ha.ve a. L>.tee1. co11.e.
window frames
cans
Food containers
aluminium
gEE0_.:
I.t L6 u.oed e.g. : 1. In el.ec:tiUc w.Ute6 bec.a.u.oe c.oppeJr. L6 du.c.t.Ue, a: good .c.andu.c.tolt
o6 el.ec;tJUcA.:ty, on .tow Jtea.di..vU!f a:nd haL> a. IU.gh m.p.
2. In c.oo!U.ng u;tert.6ili beCJJ.LL6e c.oppvr. L6 a. good c.ondu.c.tolt o6 hea-t.
3.
- 83 -
Chemistry I GCSE
Reactivity series
.l
::;
extracted by
electrolysis
a..tta.c.k
Lll:lteJL --r hy d!to :Ude.
+
Hz
Jtea.c.t.
Mg
C-+
A.t
Zn
.....-.._,. ->a..U + Hz
..
Hz
Fe
o:Udu
a.Jte. Jte.duc ed
w.Uh c.Mbo rt
w.Uh
d.Uu..te. a.cJ.do
Pb
(H)
Cu
Ag
Au
Action of Water on Metals
a)
--------------------------
+----+-Hydrogen
Water
Calcium reacts
steadily wi!h walet.
Ca(O~
(aq)
+ H2 (g)
St~te two observations you could make when a small piece_ ofcalciu~ Is added to cold' water.
Observation 1 ---------.--........... - ................- ................................................ ..
Observation 2 -----------................................................................................................................... [2]
- 84-
Chemistry IGCSE
Magnesium
rI
Heal
Magnesium
+ _Steam
Magnesium oxide
Hydrogen
Mg(s)
. . ( s)
(g)
-->
H O(g) ->
2
Hydrogen
burn1ng
ri nc
Zn(s) +
zinc
+ hydrogen
- - 7 .......... ..
sulphuric acid
hydrogen
Zn(s) +
)>
)>
)>
- 85-
Cherr:lstry IGCSE
hydrogen
water
zinc
carbon
.; c
---~
iron
~Fe_
+ carbon dioxide
+ .. co
A metal oxide can be reduced tr:_ .:he metal by heating it with another
metal which is above it ir, <.:i)e reactivity series, i.e. more reactive.
+ aluminium-+ Iron
+2 AI
r~active
-------7 2 Fe
+ aluminium oxide
+ A! 2 0
3
:;.:
- 86 -
Chemistry !GCSE
:.
Displacement Reactions
Any metal will displace one lower in che reactivity series from aqueous
solutions containing its ions.
If a piece of iron is placed in copper(II) sulphate solution (blue), a
reddish-brown deposit of copper forms on the"iron and the blue colour of
che solution fades.
This is a Jr.edox reaction in which iron atoms are oxidised by loosing
2+
2+
two electrons and going into solution as Fe
ions; Cu
ions are reduced by gaining tWO electrons and forming a solid deposit of Cu atoms.
Fe(s)
ionic equation: Fe ( s)
Cu
2+
(aq)
----7 Fe
2+
(aq)
Cu(s)
Cu(s)
aqueous solution
Iron
zinc
copper
sliver
zinc sulphate
Iron (II) sulphate
__,_______
-p~~~~ry/.07/,ry~--------4
r.eaction occurred
no reaction
.. .
...... ..
2.
3.
. ......... .
4.
- 87 -
Chemistry IGCSE
..:
S~ only copper, silver and gold. are ever found as elements, i.e.
II
Hydroxide
Nitrate
II
do not decompose
K
KOH
Na
NaOH
Ca
Mg
AI
Zn
Fe
heat
heat
heat
Ca(OHh
heat
.
I no reactwn
ZKN03(s)
i no reaction
heat
Pb
Cu
Cu(OH)2
blue
heat
CuO+ H2 0
black
2Cu(N03)2
blue
Extraction of Metals:
Metal
Ore
Compound
Formula
Method of Extraction
A!
Bauxite
Aluminium oxide
Al203
Fe
Haematite
Iron(III)oxide
Fe203
Zn
Zinc blende
Zinc sulphide
ZnS
Ore: minenil found in the earth's crust from which metal is extracted
Chemistry I GCSE
- 88-
Extraction of Iron
iron(III)oxide; fe 2 o ; in
3
large quantities, by reduction in a blast furnace.
Iron is extracted from iron ore, haematite;
1.
Iron ore, coke and limestone are added at the top of the blast
furnace. A blnst of hot air causes the coke to burn.
2.
carbon
oxygen
carb.on dioxide
C(s)
o 2 (g)
C0 (g)
2
carbon dioxide
+
+
irori oxide
.;.
carbon
C(s)
carbon monoxide
2 CO(g)
----;>->-
carbon monoxide
Iron
2 Fe
+ carbon dioxide
+ 3 Co
As iron reaches the lower part of the furnace it melts and runs
3.
s~ndy
impurities,
a)
calcium carbonate
____,..
calcium oxide
CaO
b)
Th~
!1
+ carbon dioxide
co .
2
liquid slag which runs down to the bottom and floats on top
of iron.
..
--,.~)
----;>
Ca')
SI0
CaSJo
- 89 Chemistry IGCSE
Cast Iron
The iron produced in a blast furnace is .called cast iron. It is brittle
and impure [contains about 3 -
4~
into steel.
Making Steel
Oxyg~n
molten iron
containing
. imr:>urities
/,
~~-~~~~-1~~-~2~-~~~~lL-l~~q-~~2~1
contains about 0.25;1; carbon, used for car
bodies and machinery.
car body
percentage of carbon.
z.
!i~a!!-_!.E2!!_~~g.!?:f
contains about 1% carbon, used for railwey lines and _bridges and building construction
3.
e.g.
~.
cutlery
- 90-
Chemistry lGCSE
.,.
Extraction of Zinc
Zinc occurs as the sulphide, zinc blende; ZnS.
l.
2;
----') 2 ZnO(s)
Zinc oxide is then reduced with carbon (coke) 'in a blast furnace.
zinc oxide + carbon - - - 7 zinc
2 ZnO(s)
+ C(s)
+ carbon dio;x:ide
2 Zn(s) +
co 2 (g)
Uses of Zinc
l.
~~!~~~!~!~g-~
.2.
..
~~!~~-~E~~~-~
Brass is an alloy of copper (60%) and zinc (40%).
~
RecyCling Metals
All metal'S can be recycled, that is, to melt down used metals and
use them again rather thac throw them nway.
R~cycling
makes sense
because :
l.
2.,
3.
<.:.
o.e.d g!.a.o.6 bo.tte.u can be. meLted dawn :to ma.k.e. neW bo:t:Uu. T!Uo
-"a.ve.-0 Jr.e.haUJi_ce.-6 a.nd .oo.tvu paUu.tion pltob.te.m-6.
.,:
- 91 -
Chemistry IGCSE
Rusting
The. corrosion of iron and steel is .called IULbWrg ,
l.
-2..
Rust is the red-brown flaky nolid which forms ons iron and steel.
3.
4.
Both
nnd
waXe4
(rust)
Rusting occurs .rnrticularly quickly in water containing dissolved ionic impurities - such as sea water.
.........................................
~ . ~ . ,. ........ .
Z. _conde.Ma..Uon
TUBES
Boiled water
Dry air
TUBEC .
TUBED
oil to slop
air dissolving
In the water
distilled
water
sea
water
boiled
nails
heavily
rusted
naUs
rusted
no
no
rusting
rusting
'
Chemistry IGCSE
-92-
2,
s~~6icial p4ote~on
: Block of
to the iron, e.g. ships' hull or underground pipes. The magnesium or zinc (being !!lOre reactive than iron) ar~ oxidised in
preference to the iron.
,..
)> Zinc blocks are attached to the steel legs of oil platforms (oil rigs)
. -
sea
(i.) Explain why the zinc blocks prote.ct the steel legs
from rusting.
[2]
(ii) From the reactivity series name ariother metal that
could be used for the blocks in place of zinc: [1]
-93-
Chemistry IGCSE
Topic 9. CHEMICAL CHANGES
ENERGETICS OF A REACTION
All chemical reactions involve an energy change (ll. H). This energy is
in the form of heat.
An exothermic reaction is a reaction, which releases energy to the
surrounding, i.e. heat is given out (the reaction mixture becomes hot).
An endothermic reaction is a reaction, which absorbs energy from the
surrounding, i.e. heat is taken in (the reaction mixture becomes cold ).
exothermic reaction:
endothermic reaction:
HEAT
/
t
HEAT
HEAT
>- the following is equation for the combustion of methane (natural gas)
CH 4
H
I
I
2 02
o=o
H-C-H
H
.->-
and 2 x 0=0
o=c=o
o=o
4xC-H
and 4 x H-0
- - -
Explain using the idea of bonds forming and breaking, why the above reaction
is exothermic .................................................................. . ...... -.---........................................................................................................
-94-
Chemistry IGCSE
water
HiO(l)
NaOH(aqj
--+
NaCl(aq)
fmal
temperature= 34C
initial
temperature = 21 C
ZnS04 (aq)
+ H 2 (g)
Chemistry IGCSE
- 95-
1.
2.
Thermal decomposition..
Melting of ice and evaporation of water.
3.
PRODUCTION OF ENERGY
,,>1
Burning Fuels
Fuels release heat energy when they burn in air or oxygen.
i~
methane + oxygen
CH
z 02.
~carbon
------1-
diox1de + water
J
)
)
co 2
he.a..t .{;,
given 'ocU
ethanol
--72C0 .
2
+3H 0
2
) he.a..t .{;,
J given aU-t
)
Hydrogen as a Fuel
Hydrogen is a possible energy source of the future. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for cars.
It causes no pollution because the only product of combustion is water.
Nuclear Energy
Uranium- 235 as a source of energy [see page !9].
-.----~----
~-
,_
- ..
..
Chemistry IGCSE
-96-
Comparing the amount of energy produced by the burning of different liquid fuels:
The apparatus below could be used. The same mass of each fuel is burnt in turn.
The initial and final temperature of the same v-;iume of water is recorded
metal
container
f--
thermometer
clam p
:.
water
i)
wick
draught
shield
0:,
:~:~
......"r.
r----
-----
spi rit
bu mer
l iquid
.:.-
fuel
Questions:
Suggest how you could work out which fuel produced more energy .
. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.
-97-
Chemistry IGCSE
-.-.
Electrical energy
----------__:~
Cell (exothermic)
Chemical reaction
Simple cells
Two metals
voltmeter
Mg
AI
copper - - - l l l
Zn
Fe
Pb
H
Cu
Ag
Au
dilute acid
:>
.,-.,-.-.-- "''"'"~'-.-..----,-----:-..-.-;-
--
-- -- ....
Chemistry !GCSE
- 98-
The simple cell can be used to compare the reactivity of two metals
l.
The more reactive metal is the one which loses electrons and
i~e.
2.
becomes thinner;
Question :
:::::=========
How could the simple cell shown below be used to find out if zinc
is more reactive than cadmium ?
voltmeter
zinc
cadmium
electrode
electrod.:;
...............................................................................
..
.......................................
....................
..............
-99-
Chemistry IGCSE
Topic 10.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
-Rate of Reaction
The rate
l.
2.
j:
4.
5.
IUJ.;te
Take for example the reaction between magnesium and excess dilute
hydrochloric acid :
2 HCI(aq)
---+
MgCI (aq)
2
gas s.yringe
stop clock
...........................................................................
- 100-
Chemistry I GCSE
ll
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
Volume of hydrogen/em'
14
20
25
29
33
36
38
39
40
40
4D
40
'.
curve llal,
raacllon over
, 2.
curve steepesl,
teacllon fastest
The reaction is which a gas given off, e.g. an acid and Ciirbonate, the rate of reaction
can be followed up by measuring the decrease in mass of reactants .with time.
i.e. the balance reading decrease as the reaction takes place.
fast
add
, ..
ca.f.uwn
cMbona..te.
slow
time (s)
Chemistry IGCSE
- !Ol -
of a Reaction
The volume
~f.
th; _produced
co 2
a_~as
syringe
U<Sing c.ha...11.
powde;t
U<Sing maJtb.te.
chip~
gas syringe
2
3
Time/minutes
...... .....
................................................................... .
Chemistry I GCSE
- 102-
,.'.
Effect of concentration
A reaction can be made to go faster by increasing the concentration
of a reactant.
(ii)
The effect of "concentration can be shown by doing several experiments using equal masses of magnesium ribbon and hydrochloric
acid of different concentrations.
The effect of concentration can be also shown by investigating
the rate of the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid :
view from
above the
flask
sodium
thiosulphate
solution
....
...........
'
........'.
The c.tou.fuec,.o
if, due
to the
pJr.eup~on
on .wlphu.Jr., (yellow)
\'
t=.
Chemistry IGCSE
- 103-
Effect of catalyst
A catalyst is a substance vhich speeds up the reaction but remaitls
.chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts. [protein innnturc
washed, dried, and reweighed, it will be found that its miss has not
changed.
ifuy 1
9tw;~'OOOOOOOPO'oooot
gas syringe
with catalyst
without
catalyst
hydrogen peroxide
lr---solution
manganese (b.Utck )
time
(IV) oxide
nuestion :
daa=-="a.::
........ ........................................................................ .
... ... .. .. ..... .......... . ... .... . ... ..... " ........... ' .. ' ............... .
...-
" "
........................................................................ , ................. .
.. " ................................................................................... .
Chemistry I GCSE
- 104-
Effect of temperature :
A reaction goes faster when the temperature is raised. When the
temperature increases by
1oc,-
Uu. .the .Ldea. o6 .the c.o.U.U.Lon :theoJty :to ex.p.&Un .the e06 ec.t; o6 <>uJL6a.c.e
Mea., c.onc.ell-tlt.a.-Uon, a.nd :tempeJta.:tu!te on .the ;w;te o6 !tea.c.tion ... .
0
o 0
o 0
o o 0 0
o o o o o o
~ 0
o 0
o o o o o 0 o o o o o o o 0 o 0 o o o
o o o o
o o o o o o o 0
o 0 o o o o
.. o 0
fre~uency
of.
collis~Qn
_goes faster.
;Uver chlorid~.t
.suspension.
Exposed to light
REMOVE
FOil
effect of decomposition of
silver chloride.
2 AgCI
>2
Ag + CI
TUBE A:
still while when
foil removed
TUBES:
darkens
Chemistry IGCSE
-105-
Photography
The deco"mposition of silver bromide (AgBr) to silver is the basis of
photography. The film is covered with silver bromide. When light shines
on the film, silver is formea. This is the black part of the negative.
The unexposed silver bromide stays white.
>
2 AgBr
2 Ag
white
Br
black
unexposed
Jt
photographic film
grey
black
remains white
Photosynthesis:
Photo.synthesis is one of the most important reactions involving light.
Chlorophyll is the catalyst. The; ,green chlorophyll in the leaves absorbs
light energy from the. sun and uses it to make(synthesise) sugars from.
carbon.dioxide and water..
sunlight
carbon dioxide + water
glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
carbon dioxide
+ water +
energy
- 106-
Chemistry l GCSE
Reversible Reactions
A Jtevvu.i.b.t~ Jtea.c:Uon, is one which can proc~ed in either direction
depending on the conditions under which it is carried out.
A
reactants
o/W!a)td Jte.a.c:Uon ,
ba.dwxvr.d Jtea.c:Uo n
products
For example
ammonium chlaride
:;;::::=:::: ammonia
+ hydrogen chloride
NH3 (g) _+
NH4Cl (s)
( w:tiite solid)
HCl (g)
.. {cptilourless gases).
Hydrated
copper(.(!) sUlphate
(+ heat energy ]
-7
f-
anhydrous
copper(m sulphate
+water
chemical Equilibrium __ _
When the rate offorward reaction = rate of backward reaction, the reaction is said be
at equilibrium.
.
At equilibrium, the concentration of reactants and products does not change, - tn fact,
both the forward and backward reactions are stilhaking place.
Change In concentration
.A +
ofsubstano/
'
+ D
1ncrease in concentration
of AorB
Increase In concentration
of
Cor 0
to left
,,
i
Chemistry !GCSE
-107-
N2
2 502
3 H
02
<-T
2
so 3
T-=:==j">
2 NO
3,
.. 2 N.H 3
a:::z:::z:::=m:a=:a::JZJ;:;::.:u::;::::c=a:~at====c.-:Sit.c-=e=-===*'!'.*"':::.:;:a:::;J:..t;:ia;::c;;r:xi2~=~~::t=ti=:Q::=az::.;=x:=o:::.:a:J::=c:
;;:==z
NH (g)
2mol
)> .Predict how the position of equilibrimii might change i f there were
CO (g)
)>
__ 02
+ 2 H2 (g)
Why an increase in pressure does not affeCt the position of fhe following
equilibrium :
2NO(g)
~-~~- .. ~
;::'.
.-.
Ch~mistry
-108-
IGCSE
Topic
11.
Filtration :
===:;::========
It is filtered through heds of fine sands to remove suspended (insoluble)
solids.
2-
Chlorination :
:ell:====-=-======
Then it is treated with chlorine to kill bacteria.
U.6eo
.6e1t
expe.JU.<.ve p!toc.eo.6.
o6 wa.:teJL
har~ful
solu~ion,,
In the. home . :
===.==========
1- Drinking
2- Washing
3- Cooking
Much water is used for cooling. Power stations are built near
i:ivers or coasts so that they cart. have continuous supplies of.
water for the cooling. towers;
2-
3~
Electrolysis of water
Pure. water is a very poor conductor ofelectricity. To enqble water to
conduct eiectricity better, some dilute sulphuric acid is added
Hydrogen gas is fonned at the cathode and oxygen gas is collected at
the anode.
l :.
i":
-109-
Chemistry 'IGCSE
Composition of air
nitrogen 78%
(nearly 'A)
oxygen 21%
Gust over \1;)
----=====:;;;:tt----the remainidg 1%
I_s~n.e~.riY:.?iu:ugon (a,.8~ble gc
..
1-
2-
3-
(1) nitrogen .
. (b.p. -: 196"C)
(2). argon
(b.p. -186"C)
(3)
oxygen
. (b.p. -183"C)
U<> e.6
l-
- 110-
Chemistry IGCSE
o 6 o x_ygen :
Pure, 'medical grade' oxygen is used in oxygen tents in hospitals
for persons having difficu+ty in breathing normally because of
illness or unconsciousness.
2- In welding :
.
. .
Acetylene (which is an unsaturated hydrocarbon) burns m oxygen to
give a very hot flame "oxyacetylene flame"
welding torch
c:
Q)
.i
--'
UJ
z
w
__J
Ol
>-
r::w
--'
3-
()
<{
In making steel
CH
+ 2
o2 ,
~ C0
+2 H 20
methane
(natural gas)
C H 0H
2 5
+ 3 0 .
2
- 7 2 C0
+ 3 H2 0
(ethanol) .
2-
As a product of respiration :
During breathing, some of the oxygen in the air is used up, and
-111-
Chemistry I GCSE
~yn.theo.U,
combined together.
1.
2.
CO(g)
3 H (g)
2
+
i.
1NH3 (g)
)>
Conditions:
temperature: 450C
pressure: 200 atmosphere
catalyst: .iron
:>
1.
11.
Uses of ammonia
Making fertilizers
Making nitric aCid
. Chemistry IGCSE
- 112-
+ NaCl(aq) + H 20(1)
~p
sodium
chloride
water
:unmonium _ _____:~,.y
chloride
warm
2.
NH (g) +
3
>-
~---these
nitric acid
---+
ammonium nitrate
Fertilisers
NB4N03
(NB4)2S04
(NB4)3P04
CO(NH2)2
16.8.24
NPK
FERTILIZER
- 113-
Chemistry .!GCSE
AIR. POLLUTION
Apart from the gases normally _found in air, other gases such as
sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide can be present. These gases can cause air pollution and are called po~.
Carbon monoxide, CO :
Carbon monoxide is produced by the .incomplete combustion of carbon
con~aining
2.
on
-U:.-6 pJtUenc.e~
Sulphur- dioxide,
so 2
Fossil fuels (coal and oil) always contain sulphur. When burned,
sulphur dioxide is formed. Factories and power stations burn coal,
which contains sulphur. They send sulphur dioxide int-o the air.
Sutphwt d.<.o xide. c.a.Ub u bJr.a nc.hd.u a.nd .tung d.<.<> ea.<> u In .the. uppeJt
a..tmo.opheJte., i l -Jtea.W wd.h. wa.teJt :to 6oJun a.dd JuU.n.
3.
Oxides of nitrogen :
When fuels are burned in the oxygen of the air, nitrogen is also
present. At high temper-ature, the result_, some nitrogen
with oxygen.
Nitrogen + oxygen
--l>-
nitrogen monoxide
2 NO(g)
combines
- I 14-
Chemistry IGCSE
exhaust
from
of car
eng ina
' ..
~\
catalytic
converter
Nitrogen
monoxide
2 NO(g)
carbo~ ~nitrogen +
monoxide
carbO:n
dioxide
4.
Lead compounds
A lead compound called tetraethyl leadis added in small quantities
to petrol to increase the octane numberof petrol. When the-petrol
burns in the engine, lead compounds are released from car exhaust.
Lead c.ompou.nd!.. Me. n.Vtve. po.Won.~>. In. pa!L:Uc.ulM., :the.y c.an. eaMe.
b/W.{_n. damage .i.n. young c.hild!r.e.n..
The main way of preventing pollution from compounds of lead is
the use of lead-free petrol (unleaded petrol).
Chemistry I GCSE
- 115-
Acid Rain
Acid
roln 1
I
2.
the soil.
3.
4.
I.
2.
3.
4.
- ll6-
Chemistry IGCSE
!;
[:
Topic 12.
SULPHUR
amoun~s
Sources :
a-
b-
c-
Sulphurdioxide, S0
2
=======a==============
Acidic :gas. produced by burning sulphur in air
S(s)
1-
As a. food presecvative
2-
3-
When wood has been broken down to a pulp it has a brown colour.
In order to make. white. paper from the pulp it has to be bleached
by passing sulphur dioxide through it.
'
-117-
Chemistry IGCSE
I
b)
S(s)
i>ul.phwr.
cU..ox.J..de
. c)
o2 (g)
01(g)
so
(g).
;,Ul.phliJr. .
.oxygen
6iWm tWt.
ruo x.J..de
1/t :tfieblly, 46 i>ul.phwr. :tJ;;;l_ux.J..de 6 rUbi>ol.ved .:l.ll. Wod:eJL, L>u1.plu.vc.tc. a.c:id .U pJwduced. Ba:t .thU .U. no.t dime in p}(O.c.tic.e .
. ....
.6 u.tphwr.
..tliJ..o x.J..d.e
..U-
a.eld
-.- .->
0-<.-eunl
ol.eum
H 0(0
2
wa.teJL.
-~>
2 H so (!}
2 4
.6 ul.phwr..Le a.c.f..d
Since all three of these reaC:tiona are. exothermic, the whole process
prod~ces heat
en.e.rgy, The fact that enetgy is produced rather than
. '
;
'
Chem!.~try
IGCSE
-11&-
Topic 13
CARBONATES
l.
ammonium
carbon~te.
All cubonates .react wfth dilute aciqs, they all fizz and dissolve,
2.
Carbonate
+ acid
salt;+- .water
+ 2 HCI(aq)
CaC0 3(s)
+ Cl!rbon.dioxide
--......,-.;:.
+ cbtfg}'
C\iO(s}
bia.c.li.
Sodium and potassiurrt carbonate, however,~aretoo st<>bf~ to decompose ..
....
Name
Fonn!Jl?
'.
caco
3
Limes. tone
Lime [Quick Lime.]
.
Ca{CF!l
. ,. . 2
Slaked Lime
A solution of
CaO
..
'
Chemical
.. . .
Colour
Nam_e.~
Ca.rbOh~te
.(alcium
...
.
.. Calc(um OXid~
Wh!~e
--
..
.ca:icium
..
Hy'droiddet
.. . . ..
..
White
i:hrou~h 1i1!),i::.<'w~~~;~~-:ti\:~_-~@i'iihi~J.b;,;.~(;&um
..-. .-
WJ:tlte
..
'.
Chemistry I GCSE
Usee :
~1
- 119-
CaC0 3
M~nu6Q~~
o6
cement.
d)
.......... .
Calciuin oxide has important
u~ea.
water
.. ...... .
,
---+
"---'-'r
. .
calcium hydroXide
(slaked lime)
Ca ( 0 H) 2
X
A
.lime
lime
slaked lime
limestone
lime
slaked lime
lime
limestone
heat
heat
heat
i:.
Chemistry IGCSE
- 120-
Topic 14.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
co 2 ,co
and carbonates.
HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing hydrogen and carbon and no
other elements. They are classified into alkanes
[saturated] and
alkenes [unsaturated).
ALKANES
They have single bonds between their carbon atoms, i.e. 6~ed
Name
N!-imberof
Mol<C!!LUVL
carbon aroms 6o1Umlltz.
methane
H
I
CH,
.s.cw.o.tuJuiL !P;ynul.a.
H-C-H
H
H
ethane
C,H,
propane
butane
pentane
hexane
heptane
octane ...
Gen eJ!a1.
6oJUnul.a
6
7
H
H H H
c,H,
.I I
H-C-C-H
I I
I
B-c-c~c-H
I I I
H H H
H H H H
I. I . I I
H-c~c-c-c-H
I I I I
H H H H
C,HIO
. ..
[n
= no,
of carbon atoms]
- l2l-
Chemistry IGCSE
::.
ALKENES
Name
e,thene
. C2H4
StJw.ctWLa.
H-C=C-H
propene
C3H6
6Ollmula
.I
H- C- C=C-H
I
H
but-1-ene
but-2-ene
C4H8
C4H8
I!
I
H
!I
H- C-C-C=C.,- H
H-C-C=C-C-H
I!
Alkenes are characterized by. the presence of the double bond, which
is called the 6un.c.:ti.pna. g/f.oup.
ISOMERISM
The alkene
c4a 8
Chemistry IGCSE
-122-
ALKANOLS
[ALCOHOLS}
[OHJ,
6unctidnal
g4oup. They are named after the alkane (with the same number of carbon
atoms) [AN. -> 0 L].
No. o6 caJrbon
a;tonu,
Name.
FoJrmul.a.
Sbw.e:tu!r.e.
H
methanol
CH 0H
3
H-C-0-H
I
ethanol
C H 0H
2 5
H H
I
I
H-y-y-Cl--H
H H
H
propan-1-ol
c3H70H
H-C-C-"-C-0-H
I f I
!l H H
H .0-H
propan-2-ol
c3H70H
H
I
H-C-C-C-H
f
H
f . I
H R
ihom~.
...................................
. .................................... .
butan-1-ol
butan-2-ol
- 123-
Chemistry IGCSE
ALKANOIC ACIDS
[CARBOXYLIC ACIDS]
II
[ -G-0-H]
X -->
0 I C
ACID].
---'---------------------------Name
No. o6 c.aJLbon
a..tom6
methanoic acid
0
II
H-C-0-H
H
I
ethimo:i.c. acid
[acetic acid]
propanoic acid
II
H-,C- C-O__:_H
I'
H H 0
I
1 II
H-C-C-C-0-H
. j
H li
Question :
==:.:::======
Draw the structure of
butanoic. acid
-124-
Chem!s_try IGCSE
chloromethane
chloroethane
'I 7
8 8
H
I
Br
H-f-C-C-Br
H
I
H-f-9-y-H
H H H
1-bromopropane
2 -bromopropane
FOSSIL FUELS
'
Fossil fuels [coal, crude oil, natural gas] have be,;n formed as
a result of the decay of plants and animals that lived long time ago.
Fossil fuel
Appearance
What it contains
Natural gas
Colourless gas
A miXture of hydrocarbons,
mostly alkanes
Coal
Black solid
Mainly carbon
ac~d rain).
co, is produced from burning fossil fuels, co, is a green house gas leading to
global warming.
- 125-
Chemistry lGCSE
(Kerosine)
c 10 J
crude
oil
__...,_
heater
Bitumen
Cracking
The process of breaking longchained hydrocarbon molecules into
shorter ones is called
c.Jt~Leking.
e~Lt~L./'.y;,t.
Al.kenes are
Chemistry IGCSE
long hydrocarbon
molecule
Octane
-126-
~.temp. >
c
y;,J; .
_CJUl~-'-cl"-u'-"'"ng-->
shorter alkane
molecules
hexane
ethene
------>
catalyst
delivery
tube
ethene
heal
heat
water
)>
)>
The delivery tube is removed from the water before stop of heating.
Suggest why this is done? ................................. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .............. - ... - .... - -
- 127-
Chemistry IGCSE
ALKANES
Properties of Alkanes
1.
The first four alkanes are gases, the next fifteen are colourless
liquids and the rest are solids.
2.
CH (g)
4
o 2 (g)
(methane)
--)
C H (g) + 5 0 (g)
3 8
2
(propane)
3.
4.
ehta~e
gab
in presence of
!Lght.
I
H-c-H + Cl 2
I .
LL h't.
g
>
H-C-Cl
[,{
mc:thanc
chloromethane
Similarly,
+
ethane
Cl
<.ght
2
HCl
) C H CI
2 5
HCI
chloroethane
Chemistry IGCSE
- 128-
f:~;
ALKENES
Alkenes (e.g. ethene, propene) are produced in large quantities
in industry from the larger molecules in oil fractions by the process of cna~g.
Properties of Alkenes
Alkanes are members of a homologous series, so they all show
similar che"in.ical properties ..
l.
-->
:: ..
The double bond in alkenes make them Ve.JUj Jte.a.c.:ti.ve. They undergo
2.
a.dcU..:Uan Jte.a.c.:ti..!J no
[A]
+
ethene ,
H;
Nl
"'"'"' H-C-C-H
c2 H 11
ethane ,
unsaturated
(double bonds present)
c 2 H6
saturated
(all singie bonds present)
Similarly,
+
propene
propane.
Generally,
Alkene
(unsaturated)
hydrogen
Alkane
(saturated)
-129-
Chemistry !GCSE
Making Margarine
The molecules of the vegetable oils contain several double
bonds; L e. they are poiywua..:tww..ted~ By reacting them
with hydrogen and a catalyst (nickel), they are made
o6 oilh.
Vegetable oil
Ni
hydrogen
catalyst
>
margarine
ethene -
H
C=C-/
""'
H/
bromine
1,2-dibromoethane
--+
H H
I I
H-C-C-H
I I
Br-Br
""'H
Br Br
red,--orange
colourless
colour
)
C 3 ~Br 2
1,2-dibromopropane
Similarly, ethane adds chlorine to form dichluroethane.
Aqueous bromine (bromine ~ater) is used to test for a do~bf.e
bond. It works
~ith
lzo- Row would you show by a chemical test that olive oil is
unsaturated 1
-130-
Chem.istry lGCSE
(C]
H..._
c.a.:ta.tyb;t )
water
(steam)
/H
C= C
/
'-...
H H
H-0-H
C2H4
ethanol
->
I I
H-C-G-0-H
l l
HH
H 0
2
>
>
C H 0H
2 5
Similarly,
i
C3H6
'
-,
ptop<mol
steam
propene
C H 0H
3 7
Generally,
catalyst
Alkene
water
Alcohol
(steam)
---::> c 2H 4 +
H 20
ethene
Dehydration can be achieved by :
(a-)
[D]
H H
+
HCI
------,)
H -'-C--C- Cl
H H
chloroetnane
ethene
HCt
. ..
-131-
Chemistry I GCSE
E]
F'o.tymvt-lb!Ltiott
molecule)
(macro-
which is called-pa.tym~.
cata!.yJt.
C=C
C=C
-->- ...
C=C
~-~-t-6-d-d ...
I
H- Pi H H H H
ethene
[monomer]
11.6
Pa.ty (ethene)
H H H
poly(ethene)
[polymer]
b-~iI
HCIHCIHCl
H,
n
H/
c=c
_,...CI
'H
_____,. .. c-c-c-c-c-c .
H H H H H H
chloroethene
(vinyl chloride)
poly( chloroethene)
(PVC)
I -Ht
l
CHJ
c_:_c
I. I
propene
H.
poly (propene)
-132-
Chemistry IGCSE
Polymer
Monomer
formula/Name
H
I
c=c
I
. \
Name
C 6H 5
poly(phenylethene)
(polystyrene)
formula
f "t
I
..
STYRENE
(PHENYLETHENE)
CN
\
I
c=c
I
\
Poly(acrylonitrile)
+r 'tt
c-c
pacKaging
c-c
c!H5
Uses
Synthetic fibre
ACRYLONITRILE
F
\
I
c=c
\
I
poly{tetrafluroethene)
or PTFE
tf-11
F
non-stick coating
in frying pans
mRAFLUOROETHENE
P.ta.L>.UC-6 :
good
oJi
bad ?
i]QQ!!_t!Q{~
1 Qu.de cheap 1 and eM ;i.y made
2
3.
4.
s.
-Utbu1a.tolt.6
~!!_t!Q~
P.ta.L>tie-6 ca.lL6e pou.u.ti.on pJr..Ob.tem.; beC1UL6e: 1
2.
. i.'
;.
- 133-
Chemistry IGCSE
.ETHANOL
Making Ethanol for Industry
-1- Hydration ofethene
_
Addition of steam to ethene [obtained by the process of cracking]
at'high temperature in pr~sence of a catalyst [see page 130]
2- Makin<>
ethanol by fermentation:
.
b
FeJutre.IU:ation
~s
d~ox~de
gluco~_e)
by enzymes present
~n
a.re con-:'
yeast:.
-::
Sugar solution
(e.g. glucose)
C6Hli 0 6
37~C.
---,) . ethanol
+ carbon dioxide.
I.t .U, hlrpolda.nt :to plte;.ve.nt aA.Jt 6Jtom. e.n:teJU.ng .the. Ji.~d.t.or~- vv,,; eL,
e.:tlutno.i.c. add wUJ. be. 6oJtme.d.
Ye.a.i>:t -c.an ortl..if pl(.odu.c.e. a .6o.tu.tion c.o~g I 0% e.tfutno.f... k6:teJt :tha:t,
:the. ife.M:t d.i.v, 6Jtom atc.aho.f. po.i.,;ort.{.ng.
o:th~e.
yeast
glucose.
--1~::;:::::::;::::::~
+
.water
>
Dur~ng
s~nce
a fermentation process,
the reaction is
exotherm~c.
r~se
in temperature is observed
(Dr.FathyAbdel Galil)
- 134-
Chemistry IGCSE
A laboratory experiment to
demonstrate the fermentation:
sugar solution
andyeast -~
limewater
2. Ethanol burns in air with a blue flame to form C02 and H 2 0 and heat
is given out.
Uses of Ethanol
1. As a: solvent
2. As a fuel
3. In alcoholic drinks
1. As a solvent
2. As a: fuel
- 135-
Chemistry IGCSE
Ethanoic acid
>
H Q'
I II
H-C-C-0-H
I
H
Ethano-ic acid is usually called acetic acid . (from the Latin word for
vinegar -
L~xi~~!::!:~:;-~:!,_t:!!_~tmosEheric ~?.'X~:;__:
~ ~
H-C-C-0-H
I
I
H H
Wta.noi.
0
II
H-C-C-0-H
e.tha.no.i.c. o.c..i..d
~~g~1=~g=,;,
Suggest a reasonwhy wine goes 'sour' when .left open in air?
b)
agent
such as potah~ium
d.i.c.hAomo.te{VT}
o.lta.n.ge
dichromate (VI) is
Jteduc.ed,
to ................... .
Generally:
alcohol
[alkanol]'
oxidation
carboxylic ac~d
Chemist1y IGCSE
- 136-
.. :
~~~~;!;-liH~=,;
The pH value of ethanoic acid is .... ; .
What is the colour produced on adding drop of universal indicator to
ethanoic acid ?
.................... ..................................................... .
Ethano.i..c. a.c.i..d .i..b juJ.:t Uke_ MCJ o.theJt a.c.i..d. It reacts with
* Metals to form a salt + hydrogen
*
*
+ water
Examples_:
1>- ethanokacid
However, the reaction of ethanoic acid is slower than of other acids such as hydrochloric acid or
sulphuric acid.
Why? ...... ............................................................................................
);>
test
);>litmus paper
);> sodium carbo-nate
>potassium dichromate
);>lighted splint
ethanol
ethanoic acid
no colour change
no reaction .
orange -7 green
catches fire
turns red
effervescence -7 C02
no colour change
does not catch fire
Chemistry IGCSE
- 137-
Esters:
Organic acids like ethanoic.acid react with alcohols to form
compounds called eh~ in a reaction co~~only called an
organic acid
+
[carboxylic acid]
'
alcohol
ehte4i6ieation.
ester
water
e.tha.no.t is heated with e.tha.no.Lc. a.c..Ld in the presence of .Ou.tphuh.Lc. a.c..Ld as a catalyst, the ester ethy.t etha.noa.e is formed.
When
ethanoic acid +
ethanol
1;0
~ ~
.. -.
+: H;O-C-C-H
\~ .. " .......
I I.
;oH::
H
H
H-C-C
....
1/
H-C+C
I
\
H\
'
H
I
I
'o-+c-c-H + H2o
\..........J I
I
Similarly:
ethanoic acid + methanol
j ester + water
--:t
Soa.p
alka.tine
-.-
hy~d.tybib).
soap + glycerol
Chemistry IGCSE
- !38-
Carbohydrates
1-
2-
wa.ter.
3-
glucose rolecules .
li
(monomers)
condensation
polymerisation
hydrolyh
Ac.JJJ. hyd.Jw.tif.6.U
o6 c.a.JWohydJw.;tu,,
e.g. starch :
hydrochloric acid
boiling
Chemistry lGCSE
- 139-
Proteins
Proteins are natural macromolecules. Amino acids are the monomers from which proteins
are made.
Formation of a p;lrt of protein chain :
When proteins are formed, an amino group from one amino add reacts Vlith the carboxyl
group from another (VIith elimination of water). This-process can continue repeatedly tc
produce long chain (i.e. macromolecule).
II
Ii.
.. .:- ... \
II
H-N-i=t-c<oH.: + ~-H~N-~C-OH
.
..
..
....
amino acid
condensation
polyrner!satlon
protein.
amino ac~d
l1
hydrolysis
II
H-N-c::J-C-N---~- C~OH
~~
amide linkage
The linkage between the amino acids in a protein is called amide (peptide) linkage.
Proteins are broken down by hydrolysis into their ?mino acids. This process. occurs VI hen
protein foods are digested. This needs enzymes (biological catalysts).
)> In laboratory,- proteins can be hydrolysed into their amino acids by heating with dilute
acids (e.g; HCL or HiS04).
!>-- The products of the hydrolysis of proteins and carbohydrates can be separated
and identified by chromatography. The products. are colourless so need
spraying a locating agent to be seen on the chromatogram.
)>
)>
These constituents of food can all be hydrolysed by boiling with acid or alkali.
linkage
consliluent of food
protein
product of hydrolysis
fat
complex
carbohydrate
[5]
Chemistry IGCSE
- 140-
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
Occurs when a small molecule such as ><ate.r is eliminated <1hen
the monomer unlts link together . .
syuthetit Macromolecule~
Polyesters
Polyesters (e.g.
~~ylene,
a man-made
HO-
)(
? ..--c.---....--.
c----[B- c-:mr
+
: .H.P
OH
. ..
. -Q.
.
nylon.,
a.m{.de UnfW.g V>.
Polyamides (e.g.
contain
man~ made
H .
........~. I
. .
H
i
(H-;- N-0~N- II
--
H
I _l_
.
c~I22Ld:....C-N-: 0 -N)"
~ II
..
P:W::l
.
CUte
Me
0
.11
. .
H
I
. .
1. Introduction ..................................................................................... 2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Aims
Assessment objectives
Scheme of assessment
Weightings
Exam combinations
Conventions
6. Appendix ....................................................................................... 36
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6. 7
6.8
Grade descriptions
Periodic Table
Notes for use in qualitative analysis
Safety in the laboratory
Glossary of terms
Mathematical requirements
Resource list
Forms
----------------------------------
Recognition
Cambridge IGCSE is internationally recognised by schools, universities and employers as equivalent to UK
GCSE. Cambridge IGCSE is excellent preparation for A/AS Level, the Advanced International Certificate of
Education IAICEJ, US Advanced Placement Programme and the International Baccalaureate (I B) Diploma.
Learn more at www.cie.org.ul</recognition.
Support
CIE provides a world-class support service for teachers and exams officers. We offer a wide range of
teacher materials to Centres, plus teacher training (online and face-to-face) and student support materials.
Exams officers can trust in reliable, efficient administration of exams entry and excellent, personal support
from CIE Customer Services. Learn more at www.cie.org.uk/teachers.
Excellence in education
Cambridge qualifications develop successful students. They not only build understanding and knowledge
required for progression, but also learning and thinking skills that help students become independent
learners and equip them for life.
better understand the technological world in which they live, and take an informed interest in science
and scientific developments
learn about the basic principles of Chemistry through a mix of theoretical and practical studies
develop an understanding of the scientific skills essential for further study at A Level, skills which are
useful in everyday life
learn how science is studied and practised, and become aware that the results of scientific research can
have both good and bad effects on individuals, communities and the environment.
Paper 4
Coursework
weighted at 20% of total
available marks
Paper 5
1 hour 15 minutes
Practical test
weighted at 20% of total
available marks
1 hour
Paper 6
Alternative to Practical paper
weighted at 20% of total
available marks
Alterations in the syllabus assessment. content and practical assessment sections for 2011 are indicated by
black vertical lines on either side of the text.
3.1 Aims
The aims of the syllabus listed below describe the educational purposes of this examination. The aims of
the syllabus are the same for all students and are not listed in order of priority.
The aims are:
1.
to provide a worthwhile educational experience for all candidates, through well-designed studies of
experimental and practical science, whether or not they go on to study science beyond this level
2.
3.
become confident citizens in a technological world, able to take an informed interest in scientific
matters
recognise both the usefulness and the limitations of scientific method, and appreciate its applicability
in other disciplines and in everyday life
be suitably prepared for studies beyond IGCSE in pure sciences, in applied sciences or in sciencedependent vocational courses
objectivity
integrity
enquiry
initiative
inventiveness
scientific theories and methods have developed, and continue to do so. as a result of co-operative
activities of groups and individuals
the study and practice of science are subject to social. economic. technological, ethical and cultural
influences and limitations
the applications of science may be both beneficial and detrimental to the individual, the community
and the environment
science transcends national boundaries and that the language of science, correctly and rigorously
applied, is universal.
--
A:
2.
scientific vocabulary, terminology and conventions (including symbols, quantities and units)
3. scientific instruments and apparatus, including techniques of operation and aspects of safety
4. scientific quantities and their determination
5. scientific and technological applications with their social, economic and environmental implications.
Curriculum content defines the factual material that candidates may be required to recall and explain.
Candidates will also be asked questions which require them to apply this material to unfamiliar contexts and
to apply knowledge from one area of the syllabus to knowledge of a different syllabus area.
Questions testing these objectives will often begin with one of the following words: define. state, describe,
explain or outline (see Glossary ofTerms).
B:
Students should be able, in words or using other written forms of presentation (i.e. symbolic, graphical and
numerical), to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Questions testing these skills may be based on information that is unfamiliar to candidates, requiring them
to apply the principles and concepts from the syllabus to a new situation, in a logical, deductive way.
Questions testing these skills will often begin with one of the following words: predict, suggest, calculate or
determine. (See the Glossary o!Terms.)
C:
know how to use techniques, apparatus and materials (including following a sequence of instructions
where appropriate)
2.
3.
4.
plan investigations, evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements (including the selection of
techniques, apparatus and materials).
Paper 1
45 minutes
A multiple-choice paper consisting of 40 items of the four-choice type.
This paper will test skills mainly in Assessment objectives A and B.
Questiolrs will be based on the Core curriculum and will be of a difficulty appropriate to grades C to G.
This paper will be weighted at 30% of the final total available marks.
Paper 2
1 hour 15 minutes
Paper 3
1 hour 15 minutes
80 marks
80 marks
1 hour 15 minutes
Paper 4*
Paper 5*
Coursework
Practical Test
Alternative to Practical
School-based
assessment of practical
skills.**
Questions covering
experimental and
observational skills.
Paper 6*
1 hour
This component tests appropriate skills in assessment Objective C. Candidates will not be required to
use knowledge outside the Core curriculum.
** Teachers may not undertake school-based assessment without the written approval of CIE. This is only
given to teachers who satisfy CIE requirements concerning moderation and who have to undergone
special training in assessment. CIE offers schools in-service training in the form of occasional faceto-face courses held in.countries where there is a need, and also through the CourseworkTraining
Handbook, avail~ble from CIE Publications.
3.4 Weightings
A: Knowledge with understanding
30%
20%
Teachers should take note that there is an equal weighting of 50% for skills (including handling information,
problem solving, practical, experimental and investigative skills} and for knowledge and understanding.
Teachers' schemes of work and the sequence of learning activities should reflect this balance, so that the
aims of the syllabus may be met, and the candidates fully prepared for the assessment.
25-30
48-52
47-54
10-15
27-32
26-33
40
20
10
Please note that IGCSE, Cambridge International Level 1/Level 2 Certificates and 0 Level syllabuses are at
the same level.
Litre/dm'
To avoid any confusion concerning the symbol for litre, dm' will be used in place of I or litre.
11
The Curriculum content below is a guide to the areas on which candidates are assessed.
It is important that, throughout this course, teachers should make candidates aware of the relevance of the
concepts studied to everyday life, and to the natural and man-made worlds.
In particular, attention should be drawn to:
the finite life of the world's resources and the need for recycling and conservation
economic considerations in the chemical industry, such as the availability and cost of raw materials and
..
energy
Specific content has been limited in order to encourage this approach, and to allow flexibility in the design
of teaching programmes. CIE provides schemes of work, which can be found on the CIETeacher Support
website.
Candidates may follow the Core curriculum only or they may follow the Extended curriculum, which includes
both the Core and the Supplement.
Core
Supplement
2.1 Measurement
Core
Supplement
12
Define isotopes
13
a-
Supple.ment
Supplement
Supplement
-------------- -------------------
14
--~--~--------------
Core
Supplement
Supplement
constant
15
Core
Supplement
6. 1 Energetics of a reaction
Core
Supplement
endothermic reactions
16
Supplement
235
U, as a
Supplement
17
'
7.2 Reversible reactions
Core
Supplement
Concept of equilibrium-
7.3 Redox
Supplement
Core
Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen
Supplement
on litmus
effect on litmus
Supplement
18
Supplement
aqueous cations:
aluminium. ammonium. calcium, copper(!!), iron(fl),
iron(lll) and zinc (using aqueous sodium hydroxide
and aqueous ammonia as appropriate) (Formulae of
complex ions are not required.)
anions:
carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then
limewater). chloride (by reaction under acidic
conditions with aqueous silver nitrate), iodide (by
reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver
nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with aluminium), sulfate
(by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous
barium ions)
gases:
19
Core
Supplement
Core
---~------
20
Supplement
water or steam
the oxides
Supplement
21
Supplement
Supplement
Core
distillation
22
Supplement
23
Core
Core
14.2 Fuels
Core
24
Supplement
isomerism
14.4 Alkanes
Core
Supplement
14.5 Alkenes
Core
Supplement
14.6 Alcohols
Core
25
14.7 Acids
14.8 Macromolecules
Supplement
Supplement
.,
Supplement
I .
-c~c-~-[]-~-c~c-~-[]-~-c~
H
26
Supplement
I
I
I
I
I
-N-C-C-N-C-C-N-C-C1
I
I
I
R
H
0
R
---~-
-o-D-o-D-o-D-o-
-----~
27
solve a problem involving more than one step, but with a limited range of
variables
solve a problem involving one step, or more than one step if structured help is
given
A Grade A
candidate
will be able
to:
A Grade C
candidate
will be able
to:
A Grade F
candidate
will be able
to:
36
A Grade A
candidate
will be able
to:
.,
A Grade C
candidate
will be able
to:
A Grade F
candidate
will be able
to:
solve a problem involving more than one step, but with a limited range of
variables
~-~-----------~----------~-----------
36
---
chloride (CrJ
(in solution}
white ppt.
iodide WI
lin solution}
yellow ppt.
nitrate (N0 31
[in solution}
ammonia produced
white ppt.
aluminium IAZ'I
ammonium (NH;J
calcium (Ca''l
ammonia (NH 3)
chlorine (CI,)
hydrogen
oxygen 10,1
38
Associations
CLEAPSS is an advisory service providing support in practical science and technology, primarily for UK schools.
International schools and post-16 colleges can apply for associate membership which includes access to the
CLEAPSS publications listed below
http:/ /www.cleapss.org.uk
Websites
http:/ /www.chemsoc.org/networks/learnnet/Safety.htm
http://www. ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/SAFETYI menu.html
http:/ /www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/safety.html
Publications
Safeguards in the School Laboratory, ASE, 11 <h Edition, 2006
Topics in Safety, ASE, 3" Edition, 2001
CLEAPSS Laboratory Handbook, updated 2005 (available to CLEAPSS members only)
CLEAPSS Hazcards, 2005 update of 1995 edition (available to CLEAPSS members only)
Safety in Science Education. DIES, HMSO, 1996
Hazardous Chemicals Manual, SSERC, 1997
Hazardous Chemicals. An interactive manual for science education, SSERC, 2002 (CD)
Ul< Regulations
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSH H) 2002
http:/ /www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si2002/20022677.htm, a brief guide may be found at
http:/ /www.hse.gov.uk{pubns/indg136.pdf
39
Define (the term(s) ... I is intended literally, only a formal statement or equivalent paraphrase being
required.
2.
What do you understand by/What is meant by (the term lsi .. I normally implies that a definition should
be given, together with some relevant comment on the significance or context of the term(s) concerned,
especially where two or more terms are included in the question. The amount of supplementary
comment intended should be interpreted in the light of the indicated mark value.
3.
State implies a concise answer with little or no supporting argument (e.g. a numerical answer that can
readily be obtained 'by inspection').
4.
List requires a number of points, generally each of one word, with no elaboration. Where a given
number of points is specified this should not be exceeded.
5.
Explain may imply reasoning or some reference to theory, depending on the context.
6.
Describe requires the candidate to state in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the main points
of the topic. It is often used with reference either to particular phenomena or to particular experiments.
In the former instance, the term usually implies that the answer should include reference to (visual)
observations associated with the phenomena.
In other contexts, describe should be interpreted more generally (i.e. the candidate has greater
discretion about the nature and the organisation of the material to be included in the answer). Describe
and explain may be coupled, as may state and explain.
7.
Discuss requires the candidate to give a critical account of the points involved in the topic.
8.
9.
Predict implies that the candidate is not expected to produce the required answer by recall but by
making a logical connection between other pieces of information. Such information may be wholly given
in the question or may depend on answers extracted in an earlier part of the question.
Predict also implies a concise answer with no supporting statement required.
10. Deduce is used in a similar way to predict except that some supporting statement is required,
e.g. reference to a law or principle, or the necessary reasoning is to be included in the answer.
11. Suggest is used in two main contexts, i.e. either to imply that there is no unique answer (e.g. in
Chemistry, two or more substances may satisfy the given conditions describing an 'unknown'), or to
imply that candidates are expected to apply their general knowledge of the subject to a 'novel' situation,
one that may be formally 'not in the syllabus'- rnany data response and problem solving questions are
of this type.
12. Find is a general term that may variously be interpreted as calculate, measure, determine, etc.
40
13. Calculate is used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working should be shown, especially
where two or more steps are involved.
14. Measure implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a suitable measuring
instrument (e.g. length, using a rule, or mass, using a balance).
15. Determine often implies that the quantity concerned cannot be measured directly but is obtained
by, calculation, substituting measured or known values of other quantities into a standard formula
e.g. relative molecular mass.
16. Estimate implies a reasoned order of magnitude statement or calculation of the quantity concerned,
making such simplifying assumptions as may be necessary about points of principle and about the
values of quantities not otherwise included in the question.
17. Sketch. when applied to graph work, implies that the shape and/or position of the curve need only be
qualitatively correct, but candidates should be aware that, depending on the context. some quantitative
aspects may be looked for (e.g. passing through the origin, having an intercept).
In diagrams, sketch implies that simple, freehand drawing is acceptable; nevertheless, care should be
taken over proportions and the clear exposition of important details.
41
understand the meaning of angle, curve, circle, radius, diameter, square, parallelogram, rectangle and
diagonal
solve equations of the form x = yz for any one term when the other two are known.
42
.J
'
'
II
Ill
IV
VI
VII
He
Heiiun1
Hydrogen
1
7
11
Li
Be
Beryllrum
Lrthrunl
,.
Boron
12
14
16
19
20
Ne
Nrtrogen
Carbon
'G
Oxvgcn
No~
fluonnu
10
23
24
27
28
31
32
35.5
40
Na
Mg
A/
Si
C/
Ar
Aluminium
Srflcon
Sod rum
lvld(l<lf!SIUm
11
12
13
"
39
Ca
C~ICrum
Potassrum
19
45
48
51
52
55
56
59
59
64
65
70
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Scandium
20
Titamum
22
21
Vanadrurn
23
Chromium
24
85
88
89
91
93
96
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Rubrdium
37
Yttrium
Strontium
38
Zircomum
39
Nrobium
41
40
Iron
Manganese
26
25
Tc
Molybdenum Technetium
42
43
I,Jrc~el
Cobalt
28
27
Znc
Copper
29
Gallrurll
31
30
101
103
106
108
112
115
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Ruthenium
44
190
Rhodium
45
Palladium
46
Silver
Cadmium
48
47
"
Sulfur
16
Argcn
Chlounc
18
17
73
75
79
80
84
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Gerrnar.,um
32
119
Arsemc
33
Krypton
36
35
122
128
127
131
Sb
Te
Xe
Antimony
';;n
51
50
Bromme
Selenli.Bll
34
Sn
tndrun1
49
Phosphorus
15
Xenon
lod'na
Teilunum
52
54
53
133
137
139
178
181
184
186
192
195
197
201
204
207
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
lr
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
c~esrum
Barium
Lanthanum
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tun(!sten
Rhenium
Osmum
l<idum
Plahnum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bsmulh
Polonum
A.stat"'~
Radl>'1
-7
56
55
Fr
froncum
87
ss-71
72
226
227
Ra
Ac
Radum
73
76
75
74
78
77
79
80
81
209
83
82
"
86
85
actmum
88
89
Lanthanoid series
Key0
140
141
144
Ce
Pr
Nd
Cerium
PraseO<jy<'ltum
58
X= atomic symbol
b =proton (atomic) number 90
Neodymium
60
59
232
Pm
Promethum
150
152
157
159
163
165
167
169
173
175
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Samanum
62
61
Europum
63
Tmb<um
GadolllliUm
64
65
Dysp<osium
66
Hoi mourn
Erb1um
68
67
Thuhum
Luleuum
Yumbium
71
70
69
238
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bl<
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Thorium
PrO!OCII!liUffi
Uranum
Neptumum
PlutOnium
Ameutum
Cunum
Berkelium
Calfornoum
Ensteu11um
Ferm1um
Mendelov1um
~lobelium
Lawrencoum
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm 3 at room temperature and pressure {r.t.p.)
101
102
---'--
103
test
test result
effervescence,
carbon dioxide produced
chloride (CZ-)
[in solution]
white ppt.
iodide (J)
[in solution]
yellow ppt.
nitrate (NO,l
[in solution]
ammonia produced
sulfate (SO/l
[in solution]
~cidify,
white ppt.
ammonium (NH;)
copper (Cu')
iron(I!I) (Fe 3)
zinc (Zn')
iron(II) (Fe
')
ammonia (NH3 )
chlorine ( C 12 )
hydrogen (Hz)
oxygen (0 2 )