The Geometry of a Large-Scale Nitrogen Gas Hydraulic Fracture Formed in Devonian Shale: An Example of Fracture Mapping With Tiltmeters Keith Evans,* MD. Wood Ine Gary Holzhausen,** SD. Wood Ine D.M. Wood,# M.D. Wood inc Abstract Ground deformations occurring, around a well undergo- ing hydraulic fracturing stimulation are analyzed to ob- tain a description of the geometry and the development of the resulting fracture. Significant upward and lateral growth of a near-vertical fracture aligned with the pro- posed direction of maximum tectonic compression is in- ferred to take place initially. However, after six-tenths of the nitrogen gas fracturing fluid had been injected, frac- ture growth in a horizontal plane abruptly began, and vertical growth ceased. No indication of this breakout is evident in the wellhead pressure or flow rate records. The state of stress in the vicinity of the well is estimated, and implications of the inferred fracture development behavior are discussed. Introduction Production enhancement of gas from wells draining low- Permeability formations such as the Devonian shale series of the eastem U.S. commonly is attempted by use of hydraulic fracturing. The problem of designing such fractures to optimize the resulting yield has underlined the need for a more thorough understanding of the frac ture process. To this end, several wells penetrating Devonian shale have been selected for intensive study during the fracturing treatments.! The studies involve application of a wide variety of diagnostic technologies capable of supplying information pertinent to establishing the behavior of the fracture during the treat- ment andthe principal factors that influence this behavior, OCTOBER 1982 ‘This paper presents the results of applying the tiltmeter technique of fracture mapping to determine geometrical characteristics of the fracture resulting from injection of nitrogen gas into the 335 m (1,100 ft) deep Black No. 1 well, which penetrates the Devonian shale in Knox County, OH (Fig. 1). During treatment, which lasted from 16:47 to 17:15 hours (local time) on Oct. 22, 1979, 4 total of 2.59 10° std m? (9.68% 108 sef) of nitrogen gas at a wellhead temperature of 46°C (115°F) and pressure of 9.0 MPa (1,300 psi) was administered to the well. No proppant was used. The well was offered to the research program by its owners after production had declined from an initial 8.6% 10* std md (3.2% 104 sef fUD) after drilling in 1975 to essentially zero by the end of 1977. During this period of production, the well \was openhole for the entire Devonian shale section (Fig, 2) and had suffered neither explosive nor hydraulic stimulation treatments. It is not known whether the bulk of produetion came from the shale matrix or from sets of high-angle natural fractures that intersected the well.” Before the experiment, the well was recased as shown in Fig. 2 Other diagnostic technologies involved in the stimula- tion experiment included borehole seisviewer imagery,? extensive logging’ and coring,* lineament analysis,> downhole television.® nitrogen analysis,” and “a downhole three-component geophone system, which, like the tiltmeter array, was operated continuously throughout the treatment period, The results of these analyses are cited freely to support the interpretation presented, Theory ‘The underlying principle of the tltmeter technique is to determine the deformation field atthe earth's surface that results from growth of the fracture structure at depth, This time-evolving deformation field then can be used in conjunction with models derived from elastic continuum 185UNITED STATES TioHT GAS BASIN Fig. 1—Location ofthe Ever Black Well Lot 2N, Clinton Township, Knox County, OH. theory to resolve geometric features of the fracture—the so-called inverse problem. The technique is similar to that used in tectonophysics t0 infer buried slippage on faults, from observations of the surface deformation field. The extent to which fracture geometry is recoverable from the data depends principally on com= pleteness of the data in describing the actual surface ‘deformation field and the degree to which the well en- Vitons conform to a homogeneous linear-lastic half space of known Poisson's ratio. A well-chosen array of about eight deformation field sample points is often ade- quate 10 resolve (in order of decreasing resolvability), fracture orientation, dip, depth-to-center, and height. The deformation field is sampled with an array of shallow borehole tiltmeters. Measurement of the spatial gradients of the displacements is the most practical ‘method of accurately sampling the deformation field; therefore, borehole tltmeters, which are more rapid t0 install and faster to settle than are strainmeters, are used, The noise level of the instruments is determined prin- cipally by disturbances occurring in the earth's shallow surface layers in response 1o meteorologic stimulation. A rigorous study of the character of the noise to which shallow borehole tiltmeters are prone has been presented by Wyatt and Berger.!" It is unfortunate that com- paratively low-noise sites cannot be selected easily by Visual inspection of the surface terrain. Nonetheless, a ‘well-coupled instrument is capable of resolving the prin- cipal solid earth tide (about 3x 10~* rad), although it may not be immediately obvious from simple inspection of raw data, More often than not, an estimate of ther ‘moelastic tilting must be removed from the data to recover the required fracture-related tilt signal 136 Site Geology and Rock Elastic Parameters The shallow lithology around the wellbore is shown in Fig. 2. Bedding of all formations is approximately horizontal. The surface layer, about 61 m (200 ft) thick, is composed of a dark sandy loam of glacial origin. This is underlain by a sequence of Mississippian sandstones, siltstones, and shales, extending down to Devonian shale ata depth of 168 m (550 fe). The deepest two members of the Mississippian section are (1) Berea, which con- sists of fairly well cemented fine-to-medium-grain sandstone, and (2) the mechanically weaker Bedford shale, whose notoriety springs from its tendency to cave during drilling. Beneath the Bedford lie the Devonian shales, consisting of alternating layers of organically rich black shale and slightly softer gray shale of various thicknesses, There is clear evidence that the shale con- tains high-angle natural fractures of predominant orienta- sion NT0°E.* The matrix permeability of the shale is generally on the order of microdarcies or less, although pore pressure is approximately hydrostatic.'" Shale density, as in- dicated by a compensated density log,” is fairly consis tent throughout the shales at 2.65%10° kg/m? (165 Ibmicu ft). Although n0 core was collected from the Black No. 1 well for determination of formation ‘mechanical propemtes, extensive analyses were perform ed on core taken from the neighboring Beckholt well (EGSP OH Well No. 3), about | km (0.6 mile) to the southeast. Results of mechanical testing of these samples revealed a somewhat variable Poisson's ratio between 0.17 and 0.24 and a statie shear thodulus of about SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL2x107 kPa (3X 10® psi), measured parallel to bed- ding." Estimates of shear modulus measured perpen- dicular to bedding are invariably less than this because of the mechanical anisotropy of the shale. Injection Well Characteristics and Surface Tiltmeter Array Configuration ‘The injection well was 17.8 em (7 in.) in diameter and extended to a depth of 341 m (1,120 ft; the upper 322 m (1,055 f) was cased, Additionally, the casing was per- forated in the 30S- to 314-m (1,000- to 1,030-f) inter val. Both openhole and perforated intervals of the well exposed only black shale sections to the wellbore (Fig. 2), Eight tiltmeters circumscribed the wellbore, each at 2 radial distance of approximately 119 m 390 f). A plan view of the site showing tiltmeter locations and. neighboring wells is presented in Fig. 3. The tiltmeter locations were chosen primarily to maximize sensitivity of the array t0 the anticipated tilt field from a fracture centered at a depth of 335 m (1,100 ft). Unfortunately. rigorous adherence to this principle resulted in siting several instruments where @ high ambient noise level was sufficient to preclude extraction of meaningful fracture related signals from the records. Instruments 6, 7, and 8 suffered in this way, and consequently their records are rot used in the analysis. A schematic of a typical tiltmeter installation used to collect the data is shown in Fig. 4 Data The data used in the analysis are presented in Fig. 5. Specifically, Figs. Sa through Se represent the actual sur face tilts recorded at Instrument Sites 1 through 5, respectively, during a 2.5-hour time window containing the injection operation. The two vertical dashed lines ‘mark the time of formation breakdown and shut-in, Each instrument has two channels, representing (it in a direc tion toward the wellbore (radial axis) and tilt perpen- dicular to this direction (tangential axis). Each channel is sampled by the data logger once every 30 seconds. Fig. 5f shows the wellhead gas pressure, and Fig. 5g shows, the volume flow rate oF gas at 46°C (15°F) into the wellbore, both of which were obtained from sensors located at the wellhead. For purposes of calculating the effective fracture- forming gas volume injected, the wellhead flow data must be corrected for the difference between wellbore and in-fracture temperatures and pressures. We assumed that at some short distance from the injection point, the ‘gas had cooled to the formation temperature of about 10°C (50°F). The in-fracture pressures are more dif- ficult to estimate because of dynamic pressure gradients within the fracture system. We took the in-fracture pressure as essentially equal to the minimum principal horizontal stress as given by the initial shut-in pressure ‘of 7.4 MPa (1,080 psi) In doing so, we assumed thatthe fracture was both vertical and parallel o the maximum principal stress near the wellbore, an assumption justified later, and also that high pressure gradients inthe fracture system ae restricted to the immediate vicinity of| the wellbore, The resulting total fracture-forming gas volume corrected inthis way is 396 m? (1.4% 10 cu ft). BLACK #1 WELL: nr MOUNT VERNON, OHIO one Gr Sentinel Senere a Sonne Brodford Shale MISSISSIPPI Cleveland Shote + Cchagrin Shale (Upper) Huron Shale UPPER OFVONIAN ‘Olentangy Shale Legend Bards of black (organically rich shote exposed 10 thew py cpm ape, Uneased section Fig. 2—Svatigraphic section through the wellbore. ce * * Tome \ th fisnw meee, / kg \ so wees wgee erers Fig. 3—Pian of the welste showing the location oti (Mand neighboring wols (8) 157DATA LoscER. (see Same ‘oaPPED ‘CASING 12") Hy caste {sano (Tampea) Hi—sensor Fig. 4—~Schematc o @ typical titmeter instalation Analysis Inspection of the suite of tilt waveforms presented in Fig. 5 reveals that development of the tilt field associated with treatment involves three distinct phases. Within each phase, the evolution of the tilts is gradual and consistent (constant rate tilting), whereas between phases, there is a sudden change in the development pat- tem. This behavior suggests that the major changes in the geometry of fracture growth take place between phases but not during each specific phase, Transitions between phases are identified in Fig. 5 by vertical solid Tines. Phase 1 begins at breakdown (16:49) and is suc- ‘ceeded by Phase 2 at 17:07. Phase 2 terminates at shut in, and the postshut-in response is called Phase 3 for con- sistency. Six-tenths of the total fluid volume was dramatic change in fracture development that marks the tend of the phase. In the analysis, each of the three phases is examined separately, During this period, a fracture-forming gas volume of 237 1m? (8.3% 10° cu ft) was injected into the formation. For the purpose of specilying injection rate, a downhole pressure of 9.0 MPa (1,300 psi) and a temperature of 32°C (90°F), as indicated by a bottomhole thermistor, ‘were used. The initial rate of 22.6 dm?/s (48 cu ft/min) was maintained until formation breakdown, after which the rate was increased to 170 dm/s (360 cu fi/min) and then 249 dm3/s (528 cu ft/min), as shown in Fig. Se. ‘The wellbore pressure rose in proportion to the step in- crements and maintained a constant level until shut-in at IAS. Inspection of the raw tilt records (Fig. 5) shows that the tilt rate at all sites (with the exception of No. 5) re ‘mained essentially constant throughout the phase, after which a new trend in tilting began to develop, A plot of 188 aw i zy A ean 4 Fig. 5—Uneditod tit and injoction parameter data colected uring the treatment. residual tilt vectors accumulated at each site at the end of| Phase | is presented as Fig. 6a. The plot may be regard- ced as a sample snapshot ofthe tilt field, developed from the start of injection until the end of Phase 1. Several geometric properties of the fracture can be deduced from inspection ofthe tilt pattern. First, the striking alignment ofthe tilt vectors at Sites 1, 2, 3, and 4 may be taken as indicating the development of a near-vertical fracture oriented perpendicular to the direction of tilting. With this tlt vector direction of N28°W, a near-vertical fra ture of strike N62°E is implied. Second, the resulting implication that tilting in a direction perpendicular to the facture strike was prevalent across the area of the array suggests thatthe fracture, by the end of Phase 1, extend SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNALFig. 6—Snapsnots of the tit fle developed during the three ‘phases incieated in ed a considerable distance beyond the bounds of the ar- ray—otherwise, the three-dimensional nature of the tilt field (i.e., finite extent of tilting) would be expected 10 result in Significant rotations of the tilt vectors away from the normal-to-strike direction because of the prox- imity of the lateral boundaries of the fracture. Bearing these qualitative statements in mind, we now attempt to reproduce quantitatively the tilt pattem shown in Fig. 6a with an appropriate elastic continuum representation of the fracture discontinuity. The model used was that of Davis®; specifically, the model gives the surface defor- mation field resulting from the appearance of a plane rec~ tangular dipping dislocation ina uniform, homogeneous, linear elastic half-space of arbitrary Poisson's ratio. Within the model's framework, the fracture is represented as a constant-width slab-like displacement discontinuity. A discussion of the relative merits of dislocation vs. crack representations of hydraulic frac tures as they apply to quantitative interpretation of sur- face tilt field data has been given by Evans. A satisfactory data fit was obtained by prescribing these parameters to the fracture: a strike of N62°E, dip of 87° 10 the nonhwest; lateral propagation of 170 m (558 ft) to the southwest and beyond 300 m (984 ft) to the northeast; upward propagation to 2 depth of between 125 and 170 m (410 and 550 ft) below the surface and downward extension below 300 m (984 fof depth; and, finally, a dislocation width of 0.6 mm (0.024 in.). Nore that the lower edge of the fracture is not constrained by the data, other than to lie at or below the depth of injec- tion, Similarly, the northeastem extent of the fracture is ‘constrained only to lic farther than 300 m (984 ft) from the wellbore, The tlt vectors predicted with this mode! geometry are shown as the dotted arrows alongside the observed tilt vectors in Fig. 6. Clearly, the fit is good (to within 4%) on all instruments, with the exception of Site 5, where there isa considerable diserepaney in tle direc tion. Note, however, that Site 5 is very close to the nodal plane of the surface deformation field where the signal OCTOBER 1982 Fig. 5. strength is very low; consequently, the signal-to-noise ratio’ is poor. In Such situations, small errors. in estimating fractute-related tilting on each component of instrument output can transform into large errors in estimating tilt vector orientation, although amplitude cestimates are generally more reliable, The observed and predicted tilt amplitudes at Site $ agree to within 11%. Tn view of the comparatively few data points used 10 constrain the fracture geometry, its useful to discuss the reliability of these parameter estimates, From the outset ‘we suggest thatthe outstanding alignment of the tlt vec~ tors at Sites 1, 2, and 3 permits some confidence to be placed in these data points as quantitative indicators of the broad- 10 the minimum horizontal principal sttess, dyins the breakdown pressure, py, the formation pore pressure, P., and the tensile strength of the rock matrix, T. Pore pressure measurements on core taken from the rncighboring Beckholt well indicate a value equal to the hydrostatic head. Thus, we take P,=3.2 MPa (457 psi). A suite of cross-axial directional tensile strength deter- ‘minations also was made on the core, and a mean value ‘of 7.5 MPa (1,070 psi) was found for failure in a N6O°E direction.* The results, however, show considerable scatter. Fortunately, for our purposes, the absolute value of tensile strength, as seen in the following, was unig portant, so we denote it simply as 7. Thus, applying Eq, gives 761ay (320 m) 2.947 MPa (psi) The overburden pressure, gy. at a depth of 320 m (1,050 fh) can be estimated” from the density log.” Adopting the measured and reasonably consistent value of 2.65 g/cm? (165 Ibmicu ft) gives Bp (320 m)=8.5 MPa (1.214 psi ‘The relative values of the three principal stresses, dmuys nin ANA 8 yy. at the depth of injection indicate that the region constitutes a strike-slip faulting stress regime, as hhas been noted by other workers." Furthermore, itis clear that the minimum principal stress direction is in- deed horizontal at the depth of injection. If we now assume laterally confined conditions, we cean estimate the depth at which the minimum principal stress changes from the horizontal plane to the vertical Such a transition within the fracture propagation interval ‘might be expected to facilitate breakout. Again, follow- ing the reasoning of Hubbert and Willis, * we may write s a=») (8 yp ~Ped+Pe +0 Q where sis the Poisson's ratio of the shale and ogc is the tectonic stress component of the minimum principal stress. In this formulation, we specifically are assuming that Poisson’s ratio of the shale does not change with depth, along with the contribution from any other localized stress-generating mechanisms. Thus, dye can be considered a lumped category. Solving Eq. 2 f0t ¢4. at a depth of 320 m (1,050 ft) with p- we obtain 0 0 =2.43 MPa (348 pi. ‘The depth at which the minimum principal stress changes from the horizontal tothe vertical plan is piven by the condition oyia(2)=8yp- Thus, rearranging Eq. 2 and writing ayy =o gives 8 where p is the density of shale and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Hence, for p=2.65%10° kg/m? (42,000 bunicu fe), g=9.81 mis? (32.19 fY/sec"), P, =3.2% 10° Pa (22,064 psi), aya. =2.43 x 10° Pa (16,755 psi), and 25, we obtain, 163 m (864 ft, 20% Because the upper edge of the fracture at breakout is con- strained to the depth range of 125 to 170 m (410 to 560 fi), vertical fracture propagation some 100 m (3,048 f) into a horizontal-fracture-favoring stress regime is im- plied. The breakout event most likely was prompted by the upward growing vertical fracture encountering either a stress barrier or a horizontal plane of weakness. An at- tractive candidate for the later is presented by the Bed. ford shale formation extending from 134 to 175 m (440 to 575 ft) deep and bounded above by the highly compe: tent Berea sandstone. Bands of reddish clay-rich shale within the Bedford are known from drillers’ report to be 702 exceptionally weak. These bands may have presented an effectively poorly bonded interface to the upward grow- ing fracture, thereby facilitating breakout. Alternative ly, the data are consistent with the arrest of upward crack growth at the Berea/Bedford interface. Unfortunately, the data are too few to resolve the depth of the horizontal fracture and, hence, to provide an answer tothe question ‘of whether breakout took place in the vicinity of the up- per boundary of the fracture. The use of larger arrays of tilt sensors and measurement of the vertical profile of ‘minimum horizontal stress about the well ate recom: mended for future experiments, Conclusions Analysis of ground tilts occurring both during and im- mediately following the nitrogen gas treatment of Black No. 1 Well revealed the following. I. During the first 16 minutes of injection, a subver- tical fracture of strike N62°E and dip 87° 10 the north- west grew bilaterally from the wellbore. Propagation to the southwest was limited to on the order of 200 m (650 £1), whereas that to the northeast was at least 300 m (980 fi), Fracture strike is aligned with the proposed orienta- tion of contemporary maximum compressive stress in the nontheastem U.S, 2. Breakout or rollover of fracture growth into the horizontal plane occurred after 16 minutes of injection. By this time, the initial verical fracture had grown up- ward more than 100 m (330 fi) to a point within the mechanically weak Bedford shale [extending from 134 t0 175 m (440 fe co 575 ft) deep]. Subsequent upward frac: ture growth was negligible. 3. ‘The depth of downward fracture extension is not resolved by the data. However, the depth of the lower edge of the fracture out to at least 100 m (330 ft) norh- east of the wellbore cannot be permitted to be shallower than 290 m (950 fi) 4. At depths shallower than 263 m (864 1), the ‘minimum principal stress is vertical. Hence, extensive vertical fracture propagation in a stress regime favoring horizontal fracturing is inferred. 5. Continued fracture activity for some 6 minutes following shut-in is suggested by the data 6. The maximum, minimum, and overburden prin- cipal stresses at a depth of 320 m (1,050 ft) are 12.9+7, 7.4, and 8.5 MPa (1,214 psi), respectively, where Tis the tensile strength of the shale. These values indicate the regional stress field at 320-m (1050-ft) depth to be strike-slip in character. ‘Nomenclature d= depth to center of fracture, m (ft) sp = vertical principal stress 'g = acceleration due to geavity G = shear modulus Ps = breakdown pressure, MPa (psi) Po = excess of in-fracture Muid pressure over total formation stress (matrix stress plus pore pressure) normal to the plane of fracture, MPa (psi) initial shut-in pressure, MPa (psi) pore pressure, MPa (psi) ry = half-height of fracture (measured along dip) SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNALtensile strength of the shale matrix dip of fracture, degrees Poisson's ratio density, kg/m? (Ibmicu f) ‘maximum principal formation stress ‘minimum principal formation stress Acknowledgments ‘The Black No. 1 Well was funded jointly by the U.S. DOE Morgantown Energy Technolcgy Center (METC) and the Gas Research Inst. We thank Mike Wilson of Halliburton Services and Chuck Komar of METC for providing data. Keith Evans also thanks Paul Davis and Fracture Technology Inc. (previously M.D. Wood Inc.) {or providing access to the dislocation model solutions, and Terry Engelder and Dov Bahat for reviews of the ‘manuscript. Credit is also due the staff of M.D. Wood Inc. for collecting the tilt data. Keith Evans acknowledges the suppor of a Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Postdoctoral Fellowship during the preparation of the paper. Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Contribution No. 3353. References 1, You, A.B, of a: “Techniques To Determine Natural an Inc ce Fracture Relationships a Devonian Shale." J. Per Tech. June 1982) 1371-77 2. ML Vernon, Ohio, Area Facute Analysis of Black No.1 UnlzingSeinvewer lage and Assad Carlton,” Shafer Explontion Co... Repor to US. DOE, Contact No. EW-78C.21-8386 (Doe 15, 1978) -13. "Suite of Logs Performed Blick 1 Wel, Clinon Towashin, Knox County, Ohio." Seismograph Services Cop. US. DOEMETC Unconventional Ges Recovery Program, Open File Report (199). 4, "Analysis of Core frm Reckholt #1 Well, Clinton Township, Knox County, Oni.” Clif Mineral Inc. U.S. DOEIMETC Un. conventional Gas Recovery Program. Open File Repon. No. 338 (hase? published June 1980; Prase 3 published in Aug. 1980), 5. "Lineament Analysis for Mt. Veron, Ohio Area,” Schafer Ex ploration “Co., Report to U.S. DOE, Contrast No. EW-75-0-21-8386 (ln 1979) 1-8 6. "Pre Tretmen and Pos Trextment Ssetring of Black #1 Well inzon Township. Knox County, Ohio With Downhole Televi ‘on Carers.” Deep-Sea Venies Ine. videotape avalble fn US, DOL METC, Morganoan, WY. OCTOBER 1982 7. “Nitsogen Analysis of Fluid Sample From Wells inthe Vicinity ‘of Black #1 Well, Knox County Ohio.” Analytical Research ‘Assoc. Ic. U.S. DOBMETC Unconventional Gas Recovery Progam. Open File Report 1979) #, "Gas Research Insitute: Improved Fracturing.” Sandia Nat Laboratories. Think Quareny Repor, SAND. 80.0591 (Feb, 1980). 9, Evans, K.P, Burford, RO,, ad King, G.C.P.: “Propagating Episodic Creep andthe Asismic Slip Bahuvie ofthe Cavers aul, Nonth of Holster, Cail” J Geophys Rex (1980) 6, 372138, 10, Wyat, F and Berger, J: “investigations of Tit Measurements Using Shallow Bore Titmeter, J Graph. Res. (1980) 85, 51a 11 Abed, U, Swan, G.C., and Schate,L: “Laboratory Bata Suppon of Hydrlisally Fractunng EGSP OH Well #3," U.S. DORIMETC Unconventional Gas) Recovery. Program, Fina Repon (Dee. 1980), 12. Evans, KF: The Growth and Consolidation Characteristics of yale Faces as Viewed Though he Susace Deformation Feld.” paper SPE 10881 preseoted atthe 1982 SPEIDOE Un ‘conventional Gas Recovery Syrposiom, Pitsburg, May 16-18 13, Pollan, DD. and Holehaasen, GR "On the Mechanial In teraction Between a FaniFled Fracture and the Faath's Sur face, Tecomophe (1999) 83, 27-57 14, Engeer "ts There» Relationship Between Regional Joins ‘nd. Contemporary Siess Within the Lithowphere of Noth ‘America Tectmts (Api! 1982) 1, 161-78 15, Hubber, MLK. and Wille, DG. "Mechanics of Hydric Frac turing." Tran. AIME (1957) 200, 133-66. 16, Zaback, ML. and Zobeck, MC "Sate of Stes in the Conte: ‘nino United States." J Geophys. Res. (1980) BS, 6113-56, 17, Teale L'W. and Clark, J.A "Hydraulic Fracture Propagation i Layered Rock: Faperimental Suis of Fracture. Conti ‘men paper SPE 9878 presented atthe 1981 SPE/DOF Law Permeability Symposium, Denver. May 27-28 SI Metric Conversion Factors in, x 2.54% E+0l = mm °K CR-32/18 °C fx 3.088" E-0l =m psi x 6.894 757 E+00 = kPa sef x 2.863 64 = E-02 = std m? SPEJ ‘org mance aan Sot of Parle Enger ice Jy 7.180 Papua pusctoe Mars To vant Pane eta My “le Paps SPC a rece te SP 100 Uncavercnal Os ‘cory Sys an abe y