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GraphTheoryLectureNotes6
ChromaticPolynomials
ForagivengraphG,thenumberofwaysofcoloringtheverticeswithxorfewercolorsisdenotedby
P(G,x)andiscalledthechromaticpolynomialofG(intermsofx).
Examples:
G=chainoflengthn1(sotherearenvertices)

P(G,x)=x(x1)n1
G=K4

P(G,x)=x(x1)(x2)(x3)=x(4)
G=Star5

P(G,x)=x(x1)5
G=C4(orZ4)

P(G,x)=x(x1)2+x(x1)(x2)2=x44x3+6x23x
P(Kn,x)=x(n)=x(x1)(x2)...(xn+1)
P(In,x)=xn,whereInisthegraphonnisolatedvertices(noedges,calledtheemptygraph).
Theorem:IfGdecomposesintokconnectedcomponents,G1,G2,...,Gkthen
P(G,x)=P(G1,x)P(G2,x)...P(Gk,x).
Def:Reducedgraph,Condensedgraph
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Theorem:(FundamentalReductionTheorem)LetbeanedgeofG,G'thereducedgraphat,andG"
thecondensedgraphat,then
P(G,x)=P(G',x)P(G",x).
Example:ConsiderC4,andletbeanyedge.Thereducedgraphatisachainoflength3andthe
condensedgraphatisaK33,sobythetheorem:
P(C4,x)=x(x1)3x(x1)(x2)=(x43x3+3x2x)(x33x2+2x)=x44x3+6x23x.
Note:Youcanusethereductiontheoremtoeitheraddorremoveedges.

PropertiesoftheChromaticPolynomial
Theorem:
a)degreeofP(G,x)=n=|V|(thenumberofverticesofG).
b)coefficientofxnis1.(amonicpolynomial)
c)theconstanttermofP(G,x)is0.
d)eitherP(G,x)=xnorthesumofthecoefficientsis0.
Pf:LetP(G,x)=apxp+ap1xp1+...+a1x+a0.
c)ConsiderP(G,0)=a0=thenumberofwaystocolorGwithnocolors,butthiscan'tbedone,soa0=0.
d)ConsiderP(G,1)=ap+ap1+...+a1=thenumberofwaystocolorGwith1color.IfGcontainsan
edge,thenitcannotbecoloredwith1colorsothissummustbe0.IfGcontainsnoedge,thenitisthe
emptygraphIn,whichhaschromaticpolynomialxn.
ReviewInductionProofs.
a)andb).SupposethatGhasnvertices.Wewillproceedbyinductiononthenumberofedges.
First,considerthebasecase,whereGhasonlyoneedge.Thenthen2isolatedverticescanbecoloredin
anyway,andthetwoverticesontheedgecanbecoloredinx(x1)ways,so,P(G,x)=xn2(x)(x1)=xn
xn1.So,thedegreeofP(G,x)inthiscaseisnandthepolynomialismonic.
Wenowimposetheinductionhypothesisandassumethatthestatementistrueforallgraphswithfewer
thankedges(strongformofinduction).AssumethatGhaskedgesandletbeoneofthem.Bythe
fundamentalreductiontheorem,
P(G,x)=P(G',x)P(G",x).
Now,sinceG'hasfewerthankedges,bytheinductionhypothesis,P(G',x)ismonicofdegreen.Since
G"hasfewerthankedgesandonlyn1vertices,P(G",x)ismonicofdegreen1.Uponsubtractionof
thesepolynomials,weseethatthereisnoterminP(G",x)thatcanremovethexnterminP(G',x),so
P(G,x)willbemonicofdegreen.
Byinduction,thestatementistrueforallgraphswithnverticesandanynumberofedges.
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Theorem:(Whitney,1932):Thepowersofthechromaticpolynomialareconsecutiveandthe
coefficientsalternateinsign.
Proof:WewillagainproceedbyinductiononthenumberofedgesofG.Asintheproofoftheabove
theorem,thechromaticpolynomialofagraphwithnverticesandoneedgeisxnxn1,soourstatement
istrueforsuchagraph.
Now,assumetrueforallgraphsonnverticeswithfewerthankedges.LetGbeagraphwithkedgesand
considerthefundamentalreductiontheorem.SinceG'andG"bothhavefewerthankedges,bythe
inductionhypothesiswemayassumethattheirchromaticpolynomialshavetheform:
P(G',x)=xnan1xn1+an2xn2+...and
P(G",x)=xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+....
Now,bythefundamentalreductiontheorem,
P(G,x)=P(G',x)P(G",x)
=(xnan1xn1+an2xn2+...)(xn1bn2x2n+bn3xn3+...)
=xn(an1+1)xn1+(an2+bn2)xn2+...
andso,thesignsalternateandnoneofthecoefficientsarezero.
Byinduction,thestatementistrueforallgraphswithnverticesandanynumberofedges.
Theorem:|an1|=|E|(thenumberofedgesofG).
Proof:WewillagainproceedbyinductiononthenumberofedgesofG.
Asintheproofsoftheabovetheorems,thechromaticpolynomialofagraphwithnverticesandoneedge
isxnxn1,soourstatementistrueforsuchagraph,|1|=1.
Now,assumetrueforallgraphsonnverticeswithfewerthankedges.LetGbeagraphwithkedgesand
considerthefundamentalreductiontheorem.SinceG'andG"bothhavefewerthankedges,bythe
inductionhypothesiswemayassumethattheirchromaticpolynomialshavetheform:
P(G',x)=xnan1xn1+an2xn2+...and
P(G",x)=xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+...,
wherean1isthenumberofedgesinG'andbn2isthenumberofedgesinG".
Now,bythefundamentalreductiontheorem,
P(G,x)=P(G',x)P(G",x)
=(xnan1xn1+an2xn2+...)(xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+...)
=xn(an1+1)xn1+(an2+bn2)xn2+...
andso,sinceG'isobtainedfromGbyremovalofjustoneedge,an1=k1,soan1+1=k,andthe
statementistrue.
Byinduction,thestatementistrueforallgraphswithnverticesandanynumberofedges.
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Theorem:Thesmallestexponentinthechromaticpolynomialisthenumberofconnectedcomponentsof
G.
Proof:IfGhaskconnectedcomponents,G1,G2,...,GkthenP(G,x)=P(G1,x)P(G2,x)...P(Gk,x).
Thus,thesmallestexponentinthechromaticpolynomialofGisthesumofthesmallestexponents
appearingineachoftheP(Gi,x)'s.Asthesecanbenosmallerthan1,wehavethatthesmallestexponent
ofP(G,x)>=k.
Toshowthatthisexponentmustbek,weneedtoshowthatthechromaticpolynomialofanyconnected
graphhasanx1term.WeproceedbyinductiononthenumberofedgesofG.
Asintheproofsoftheabovetheorems,thechromaticpolynomialofagraphwithnverticesandoneedge
isxnxn1.Ifthegraphisconnected,thenn=2andourstatementistrue.
Now,assumetrueforallconnectedgraphsonnverticeswithfewerthankedges.LetGbeaconnected
graphwithkedgesandconsiderthefundamentalreductiontheorem.Wehavetwocasestoconsider:
CaseI:TheremovalofleavesG'connected.
SinceG'andG"bothhavefewerthankedgesandareconnected,bytheinductionhypothesiswemay
assumethattheirchromaticpolynomialshavetheform:
P(G',x)=xnan1xn1+an2xn2+...+/a1xand
P(G",x)=xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+.../+b1x.
Now,bythefundamentalreductiontheorem,
P(G,x)=P(G',x)P(G",x)
=(xnan1xn1+an2xn2+...+/a1x)(xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+.../+b1x)
=xn(an1+1)xn1+(an2+bn2)xn2+...+/(a1+b1)x
andso,thestatementistrue.
Byinduction,thestatementistrueforallgraphswithnverticesandanynumberofedges.
CaseII:TheremovalofdisconnectsG'.
G'breaksupintotwoconnectedcomponents,butG"remainsconnectedandbothhavefewerthank
edges,so,bytheinductionhypothesiswemayassumethattheirchromaticpolynomialshavetheform:
P(G',x)=xnan1xn1+an2xn2+.../+a2x2and
P(G",x)=xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+.../+b1x.
Now,bythefundamentalreductiontheorem,
P(G,x)=P(G',x)P(G",x)
=(xnan1xn1+an2xn2+.../+a2x2)(xn1bn2xn2+bn3xn3+.../+b1x)
=xn(an1+1)xn1+(an2+bn2)xn2+...+/b1x
andso,thestatementistrue.
Byinduction,thestatementistrueforallgraphswithnverticesandanynumberofedges.
Thesepropertiesdonotcharacterizethechromaticpolynomialsamongstallthepolynomialswithinteger
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coefficients.Forexample,
P(x)=x44x3+3x2isnotthechromaticpolynomialofanygraph.

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