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Emergence of the Americas in Global Affairs, 18801929

I. United States expansionist foreign policies


A.Political Reasons
1) Influential minority sought international status for
U.S. like Great European Powers.
2) Between 1870 and 1900, Europeans had taken
over 1/5 of land and 1/10 of population of the
world.
3) Germany became Americas biggest imperialist
foe and largely spurred U.S. into imperialism;
sought colonies in Africa, Asia, Latin America &
Caribbean.
B.Economic Reasons
1) Panic of 1893 and subsequent depression (RRs)
convinced some businessmen industry had over
expanded resulting in overproduction &
underconsumption
2) Foreign trade becoming increasingly important to
American economy in late 19th cent.Americans
considered acquiring new colonies to expand
markets further.
3) Desire to compete with Europe for overseas
empires.
C.Social Reasons
1) End of frontier: 1890 report from Superintendent
of Census (Historian Frederick Jackson Turners
Frontier Thesis)
2) America needed New Frontier

3) Many Americans believed U.S. had to expand or


explodeIncrease in population, wealth, and
industrial production demanded more resources
and markets. Some feared existing resources in
U.S. might eventually dry up.
4) Labor violence and agrarian unrest
(Populism) rampant due to industrialism and
depression. Overseas markets a possible safety
valve for U.S. internal pressures
D.Ideological Reasons
1) Social Darwinism (Charles Darwinnatural
selection) meant earth belonged to the strong & fit
this idea had strong appeal with politicians as
well as many common people
a. Gives explanation of why US still in
existence
b. Provides justification to idea of continued
conquest and growth
2) Josiah Strong: Our Country (1885)
a. Advocated superiority of Anglo-Saxon
Christian civilization
b. Therefore must spread religion & democratic
values to backward peoples to become his
brothers keeper (White Mans Burden).
c. Stronger nations dominating weak ones was
part of natural lawUS needs to create
imperialism of righteousness
d. If U.S. was to survive in competition of
modern states, it too would have to become
an imperial power

e. Senator Albert Beveridge: [God] has marked


the American people as His chosen nation to
finally lead in the regeneration of the world . .
. [God] has made us adept at government that
we may administer governments among
savages and senile peoples.
3) Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of
Sea Power upon History, 1660-1873 (1890)
a. Thesis: Control of the sea was the key to
world dominance and empire.
b. U.S. should build large navy and build
defensive bases and refueling stations
strategically placed on worlds oceans.
c. Take Hawaii and other Pacific islands
d. Advocated U.S. build a canal across the
isthmus of Central America to link Atlantic &
Pacific Oceans.
e. Helped stimulate naval race among the great
powers.
f. Persuaded yellow journalists to push for
modern navy of steel ships.
g. By 1898, the U.S. had fifth most powerful
navy; third by 1900

II. The Spanish American War (1898)


A. Causes
1) US hungry for New Frontier and economic,
political, religious expansion
2) US had always wanted control of Cuba even
before Civil War
a. Wanted as slave state pre-Civil War
b. Americans had heavy investments in sugar,
tobacco ($50 million of property in 1890s)
c. 1894 Wilson-Gorman Tariff placed restrictions
on Cuban imports of sugar to US (cut Cuban
trade by half)
d. Cuban economy, US investments sank causing
unemployment, poverty and unrest in Cuba
3) Cuban Independence movement
a. Began 1868 when Cuban rebels declared
independence and began guerilla war against
Spanish. Failed and many went to exile in US.
b. Nationalist leader Jose Marti declared Cuba
must be free from Spain and the US
c. Spanish assassinate Martibecomes martyr and
rallying point for new rebellion
d. 1895 new rebellion seized eastern Cuba and
declared Republic of Cuba
4) American Support
a. Traditional US claim for Cuba (Pierce, $100mil)
b. Economic interests (rebels attacked and
destroyed US property hoping for US
intervention)
c. Yellow journalism creates sympathy for Cubans
i. New York Journal, William Randolph Hearst

ii. New York World, Joseph Pulitzer


iii. Publish exaggerated stories of Spanish
atrocities v. Cubans
iv. Journal published private letter of Spanish
ambassador to US, described President
McKinley as weak and sycophantic
d. USS Maine
i. Stationed in Havana harbor to evacuate
American citizens living in Cuba
ii. Unexpectedly explodes and sinks killing over
250 Americans
iii. Yellow press blames on Spanish mine
(Remember the Maine and to Hell with
Spain!)
e. McKinley asks for and receives Congressional
declaration of war v. Spain
B. Effects
1) Cuba independent (US protectorate)
2) American business tightened control of sugar
plantations
3) Platt Amendment (Cuban-American Treaty after
war)
a. Cuba to provide land for American bases
b. National revenues to pay back debts to US
c. Sign no treaty detrimental to US interests
d. Acknowledge right of US to intervene in Cuba
to protect US interests
e. Anti-American feelings among Cuban
nationalists

4) US becomes global empire


a. Hawaii annexed (supply route to Philippines)
b. After war Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines
ceded by Spain (US territories; naval bases,
markets, route to China)
c. Philippine resistance to US control decreased
with education, transportation, health care
reforms
d. Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark
e. Critics of empire (Anti-Imperialist League,
Democrats)
i. Countries should have right of national selfdetermination (democratic)
ii. Nonwhites not worthy of US citizenship
(racist)
iii. Harmful to US labor, working-class families
III. United States foreign policies: the Big Stick; Dollar
Diplomacy; Moral Diplomacy; applications and impact
on the region
A.The Big Stick
1) 1901 President McKinley assassinated; VP
Theodore Roosevelt to become youngest US
president (42)
2) TR believed in White Mans Burden; believed
US had duty to shape less civilized parts of the
worldUS to become world power.
3) TRs view on imperialism in Western Hemisphere:
Speak softly but carry a big stick [and] you will
go far.

B.Big Stick in Caribbean


1) US must be militarily strong and show strength
around world to maintain position.
2) To be global power, must have global military
(canal through Panamanian isthmus)
3) Columbia rejected US lease offers, TR resort to
force
4) Conspired with Panamanian nationalists (Philippe
Bunau-Varilla), sent warships to support, and were
first to recognize declaration of independence from
Columbia 1903.
5) Bunau-Varilla, now ambassador to US, granted US
perpetual sovereignty of proposed canal zone in
trade for US guarantee of Panama independence.
6) US to pay $10 million up front for canal +
$250,000 per year for zone. When completed, US
pay Columbia $25 mil.
7) Canal huge success for US; give them huge
commercial and strategic advantage in Western
Hemisphere.
8) Problem: Canal zone vulnerable to blockade or
other intervention by rival powersUS must
police area to prevent foreign intervention
9) Solution: Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine
a. policy of preventive intervention
b. In future crises concerning Latin American
debt U.S. would intervene, pay off debts, and
keep European powers out of
Western Hemisphere.

C. Big Stick in Asia


1) US interests in China reflected in Open Door
Policy (1899)
a. All countries had equal access to trading rights
in China
b. Recognized internationally
2) Russo-Japanese War (1905) threatened Open Door
since winner could become dominant (upset
balance of powers, threaten Philippines)
3) Japan looking like potential victor, dominant
power in East.
4) TR to intervene with mediation; Treaty of
Portsmouth ends war, earns TR Nobel Peace Prize.
5) As result of Russo-Japanese war, many Japanese
immigrants come to CA; face racism and
segregation.
6) Japan protested, TR urged CA School board to
reintegrate Japanese students; Japan promised to
cease issue of passports.
7) TR feared this would be interpreted as weakness;
sailed Great White Fleet to Japan as intimidation
tactic.
8) As result, Root-Takahira Agreement
a. Affirms status quo in Asia
b. Mutual respect for territorial possessions in
Pacific
c. Affirms Open Door policy in China

D.Dollar Diplomacy
1) William Howard Taft to succeed TR as president
2) Felt he could replace militarism (Big Stick) with
more subtle and effective business investment
(replace dollars for bullets)
a. Use foreign policy to protect Wall Street
investments abroad
b. Use Wall Street investments abroad to finance
foreign policy
3) Pump US $ into Caribbean to decrease reliance on
European $
4) Political influence to follow the money
E. Dollar Diplomacy in Caribbean
1) US investments in Cent. Amer.:
a. $41 mil. in 1908
b. $93 mil. in 1914
c. Money went to RR, mining, plantations
2) Failure: had to send military to support US
business interests in Honduras and Nicaragua
against political resistance.
3) Both Dollar and Big Stick Diplomacy were needed
in two countries
F. Dollar Diplomacy in China
1) Plan to extend US influence of Open Door Policy
(want to gain at expense of everyone else)
2) Secretary of State Philander Knox secured US
financing of large new RR in China
3) Knox tried to neutralize other (Russia and Japan
built and owned) RRs already existing
a. US and international banks to buy RRs
b. Banks to turn them over to China

c. China to liquidate them in favor of new USfinanced RRs


4) Failure: Russia and Japan refused to sell (against
TRs Treaty of Portsmouth, US trying to muscle in
on China)
5) Japan and Russia sign new friendship treaty and
ally to block US interests in China
6) Begins deterioration of US-Japan relations
G.Moral Diplomacy
1) Woodrow Wilson takes office 1913
2) Entire political career dealt with progressive
domestic reforms; had no experience with
international relations
3) Had to rely on faith in American Democracyfelt
it was most moral political, economic system
(wanted to convert [other countries] to the
principles of America)
4) Theoretically against imperialism, but agreed with
idea that US industry needed foreign markets or
else US industries would burst their jackets
H.Moral Diplomacy in Mexico
1) Wilson supported democracy and saw it as way to
create world without revolution and war.
2) 1911 revolution in Mexico forced corrupt leader
Porfirio Diaz to flee country. New leader,
Francisco Madero, was popular among people
because promised economic reforms and land for
peasants
3) Makes American business nervous (more invested
in Mexico than Mexico and all other countries
combined). Was poor administrator and was

ousted by General Victoriano Huerta (had Madero


killed)
4) Wilson refused to recognize new government (GB
and Japan did) and prevented weapons from
reaching Huerta
5) Wilson sent marines to attack Veracruz (port where
Huerta received arms shipments), caused antiAmerican riots in country and forced international
mediation of situation. Venustiano Carranza, who
had denounced Wilsons intervention, Mexicos
new president.
6) Carranza unpopular with many Mexicans and
forces opposed to him supported by Wilson.
7) One group led by Pancho Villa and many
guerrillas conducted raids into US territory hoping
to draw US into war with Carranzas Mexico
8) Pancho Villa goes from freedom fighter to outlaw
and Wilson finally sent General John J. Pershing
with troops into Mexico to find Villa but was
unsuccessful.
9) Villas hit-and-run tactics and defiance of US
made him national hero.
10) With war looming in Europe, Wilson forced to
recognize Carranza regime to wash hands of
situation.
11) Wilsons Mexican policy damaged US foreign
relations. Attempts at guiding revolution to fit his
moral agenda and protect US investments left
bitter legacy of suspicion and distrust in Mexico.
12) Wilson still determined to use Moral Diplomacy
to intervene and solve problems of WWI Europe.

I. United States and Canada and the First World War:


From neutrality to involvement
1) American neutralitymany Americans shocked
that Europeans would fight war over minor
incident
2) Felt Europeans fighting over something petty and
wanted to stay above folly of war and stay
impartial.
3) Wilson especially advocated impartialityfit in
with Moral Diplomacy
4) Practically impossible due to many ethnic groups
favoring one side or the other
a. many Anglo-Americans supported Allies
(democratic governments, Germany invaded
neutral Belgium, language, traditions, etc.)
b. many German-Americans, Irish-Americans
supported Central powers (against English
tyranny over Ireland)
5) Both sides courted American support (GB pictured
Germans as blood-thirsty; Germans blamed war on
Russian, French imperialism)
6) US had greater economic ties to Allies
a. GB had better navy and blockaded German
ports
b. GB and French orders for war materials almost
4x, loans increased 10x.
c. Economic prosperity spread and many
Americans rooting for Allies.
d. Central powers protested, but not against
international law

7) Germany tried to end GB blockade by submarine


warfare
a. Declared areas around GB a war zone
b. no pre-existing international laws
c. difficulties involved in unrestricted sub warfare
d. advertised that neutral countries ran risk of ships
being sunk
e. Wilson threatened to hold Germany responsible
if USs neutral rights violated
8) HMS Lusitania sunk by German U-Boat in War
Zone128 US citizens dead, Americans outraged.
9) Public opinion officially against Germany; Wilson
threatened to break off diplomatic relations with
Germany if did not abandon unrestricted sub
warfare
10) Germany agreed. However, U.S. would have to
persuade Allies to modify what Germany
saw as illegal blockade.
11) Wilsons diplomatic victory precarious; Germany
could renounce agreement if blockade continued to
inflict damage.
12) Wilson felt it necessary to prepare for war
a. Universal military training
b. More military spending (battleships, cruisers,
destroyers)
c. National Defense Act (1916) more than 2x size
of army
13) December 1916 Wilson unsuccessfully offered to
mediate peace.
a. As preliminary he asked both sides to state
minimum terms necessary for "future security.

b. Central Powers replied that victory was certain,


and Allies required dismemberment of enemies'
empires.
c. No desire for peace or common ground existed,
offer lapsed
14) Wilson breaks off diplomatic relations with
Germany and allows merchant ships to arm
themselves
15) Zimmerman telegram
a. German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman
sent message to German ambassador in Mexico
b. Proposed alliance between Germany and
Mexico if US entered war
c. If Mexico/Germany win, Mexico would get AZ,
TX, NM (territory lost in Mexican War (18461848)
d. Thought it would work due to Pancho
Villa/Pershing skirmishes
e. Created outrage and increased anti-German
sentiment in US
16) Continuation of unrestricted submarine warfare
continues: March 1917 U-Boats sink 7 US
merchant ships
17) Wilson asks Congress to declare war: April 6
Wilson signs legislation declaring war on
Germany
J. Reasons for US entry into the First World War
1) Economics: Trade w/Allies, freedom of seas
(unrestricted submarine warfare), Russian Rev.
2) Democracy: fighting with other representative
govts against authoritarians, communists

3) Zimmerman Telegram
4) U.S. hope end war quickly, insure itself major role
in ensuing peace.
4) Wilsons idealism: make world safe for
democracy, war to end wars
K.Wilsons peace ideals: The Fourteen Points
1) Jan. 1918 Wilson goes to Congress and sets
ground rules for peace
2) First 13 points designed to remove causes of war
& boundary changes
a. freedom of seas
b. open diplomacy (end secret diplomacy)
c. reduction of armaments
d. return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
e. creation of independent Poland (previously
partitioned by Prussia, Russia, Austria)
f. National self-determination of peoples: right for
people to decide for themselves how and by
whom they would be controlled (self-rule)
Mainly for people of Austrian, Ottoman empires
g. Mediation of competing colonial claims
3) 14th Point: League of Nations = organization to
keep world peace (Wilsons most valued point)
L. Struggle for ratification of the Versailles Treaty in
United States
1) Wilsons mistake
a. 2/3 of Senate had to approve treaty and Senate
controlled by Republicans
b. excluded Republicans from peace negotiations
c. campaigned against them in 1919 elections

d. leader of Senate RepublicansHenry Cabot


Lodgepersonal and political enemy of Wilson
2) Senate divided:
a. IrreconcilablesRepublicans who wanted
nothing to do with League
b. Reservationists (Lodges group)
Republicans who wanted major changes,
especially to Article X (each member must
protect independence of other nations
Collective Security)
c. Democratssupported Wilson
3) Wilson takes message to people
a. gives 35 speeches in 22 days
b. exhausted, he returns to D.C. and suffers stroke;
no longer able to fight for ratification
4) Senate rejects Treaty (because of League), did not
join League of Nations; signs separate treaty with
Germany in 1921
M. Significance of the war for the United States
hemispheric status
1) Emerged as powerful economic, political state
2) Return to isolationism
N.Involvement and participation of Canada in the First
World War
1) As tensions between Ger and GB increased (naval
race) prior to 1914, GB pressured Canada to
assume larger role in imperial defense
2) Disagreement over Canadas role
a. French Canadians disagree with getting
involved in overseas troublescontribute to
defense of Canada only

b. English Canadians agree that Canada must


contribute to defense of Crown (also way to get
voice in imperial policy)
3) Canadian Parliament passed Naval Service Bill of
1910
a. Created Canadian Navy
b. If GB went to war, navy come under control of
Royal Navy
c. Very unpopular, denounced by most Canadians
(especially French)
4) As part of British Empire, Canada entered war
automatically August 1914
5) Parliament passed War Measures Act
a. Govt given powers to oversee economy
b. Place men and women in jobs govt deemed
critical for war effort
c. Oversee conscription of men
d. Power to restrict civil liberties
6) Army: increased from 3,000 to 600,000 by 1918
7) Navy: many serve, but mostly in convoy system to
supply GB
8) Air force: Canadian pilots supply about 25%
Royal Flying Corps
9) Home Fronttensions increase between French
and English Canadians
a. Govt under pressure to abandon bilingual
education (francophone v. Anglophone)
b. Conservatives felt instruction in English would
bring national unity
c. Ontario made English official language of
instruction 1916

d. Quarrel over schools bad enough, but placed


into context of war was major crisis
e. Controversy over conscription divides nation
f. By 1916 awareness of horrors of trench warfare,
mounting casualties led to decline in volunteer
enlistment
g. PM Borden refused to reduce troop commitment
h. 1917 Parliament passed Military Service Act
allowing for conscriptionled to domestic
unrest
i. French Canadians not inclined to support war
effort
i.
Few allowed to become officers
ii.
English official language of military
iii.
Antidraft riots broke out in Montreal and
Quebec City
j. Anglophones support British Empire at all costs
k. 100,000 drafted, only 25,000 made it overseas
10) Large number exempted mainly for agriculture or
family hardships
11) Conclusion: political consequences of
conscription far outweighed benefits of
replenishing depleted military forces
12) Home Front: other issues
a. Paying for war: Victory Bonds (80%, later
placed country in debt), national income tax,
business capital gains
b. RRs nationalized
c. Civil liberties restricted: 8,000 interned
(radicals, German immigrants), foreign
language press suppressed

d. Women: entered workforce at pay as men,


served as nurses in army, advances in suffrage
issue
e. Increase in manufacture (clothing, ships,
Halifax disaster)
f. Agriculture: grain prices increase 50%, farmers
borrow money to increase size of farm and
machinery to replace lost labor to war. Grain
prices drop after war, economic disaster,
rationing scarce products
13) Impact of the First World War
14)
United States
a. Economic
b. Political
c. Social
d. Foreign policies
15)
Canada
a. Economic
b. Political
c. Social
d. Foreign policies

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