U S Military Aircraft

Contents
Air superiority ghter
1.1
Evolution of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Lessons in combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Air superiority ghters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anti-submarine warfare
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Inter-war period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4
Post-war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modern warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.2.1
Current technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.2.2
Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.4
References & notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2
Attack helicopter
13
3.1
Background and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.1.1
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.1.2
Soviet Union and its successor states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.1.3
Peoples Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.1.4
France, Germany and Spain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.1.5
India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.1.6
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.1.7
South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.2
In action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.3
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
ii
CONTENTS
3.4
Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.4.1
Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.4.2
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6.1
20
Bell AH-1 SuperCobra
22
4.1
Design and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.2
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.1
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.2
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.3
Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.2.4
Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.3.1
Single-engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.3.2
Twin-engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.4
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.5
Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6
Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6.1
AH-1J SeaCobra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6.2
AH-1W SuperCobra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
4.3
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bell AH-1Z Viper
29
5.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.1.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.1.2
H-1 upgrade program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
5.3
30
5.3.1
Foreign interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.4
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.5
Specications (AH-1Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey
34
6.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
6.1.1
34
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
6.1.2
Flight testing and design changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
6.1.3
Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
6.1.4
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
6.2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
6.2.2
Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6.2.3
Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6.2.4
Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.2.5
Refueling capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
40
6.3.1
U.S. Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
6.3.2
U.S. Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
6.3.3
Potential operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
6.4
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.5
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.6
Notable accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.7
45
6.8
Specications (MV-22B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.9
Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
6.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
6.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
6.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
6.11.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
6.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
Bell OH-58 Kiowa
54
7.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.1.1
Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.1.2
Advanced Scout Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.1.3
Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.2.1
Mast mounted sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.2.2
Wire Strike Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
56
7.3.1
Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3.2
Operation Prime Chance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3.3
RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3.4
Operation Just Cause and action in the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.3.5
Afghanistan and Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.3.6
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.1
58
6.2
6.3
iii
7.2
7.3
7.4
Design
OH-58A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
CONTENTS
7.4.2
OH-58B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.3
OH-58C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.4
OH-58D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.5
OH-58F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.4.6
OH-58F Block II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.4.7
Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.5.1
Former operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.6
61
7.7
Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.7.1
OH-58A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.7.2
OH-58D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.7.3
OH-58F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.1
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.2
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.3
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
67
8.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.1.1
Model 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.1.2
Model 205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.1.3
Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.1.4
Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.1.5
Twin engine variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.3
70
8.3.1
U.S. Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
8.3.2
U.S. Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.3.3
U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.3.4
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.3.5
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.3.6
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.7
El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.8
Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.9
Rhodesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.10 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.11 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.12 Operation Enduring Freedom (2001present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Variant overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
7.5
8.4
CONTENTS
8.4.1
U.S. Military variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
8.4.2
Other military variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
8.5
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
8.6
76
8.7
Specications (UH-1D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
8.8
77
8.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
Boeing AH-64 Apache
81
9.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.1.1
Advanced Attack Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.1.2
Into production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
9.2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
9.2.2
Avionics and targeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
9.2.3
Armaments and congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
84
9.3.1
United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
9.3.2
Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
9.3.3
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
9.3.4
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
9.3.5
Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
9.3.6
Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
9.3.7
Other users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.3.8
Future and possible users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.4.1
AH-64A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.4.2
AH-64B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.3
AH-64C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.4
AH-64D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.5
AH-64E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.6
AH-64F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.4.7
Sea Apache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.4.8
Export Apaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.4.9
Block modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.5
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.6
Specications (AH-64A/D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.2
9.3
9.4
vi
CONTENTS
9.7
92
9.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
9.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
10 Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
100
10.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

10.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.1.2 Design eort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.1.3 Pre-production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.1.4 Production and improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2.2 Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2.3 Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2.4 Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2.5 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3.2 Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.3 Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.4 Post Vietnam service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.3.5 Gulf War and later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.3.6 Continued service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
10.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
10.6 Notable accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.7 Survivors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.8 Specications (B-52H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.9 Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.11.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
10.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11 Boeing C-17 Globemaster III
125
11.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

11.1.1 Background and design phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.1.2 Development diculties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
11.1.3 Production and deliveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
CONTENTS
vii
11.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

11.3.1 United States Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
11.3.2 Royal Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
11.3.3 Royal Australian Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
11.3.4 Royal Canadian Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
11.3.5 NATO (Strategic Airlift Capability Program) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
11.3.6 Indian Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
11.3.7 Others
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
11.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

11.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11.6 Accidents and notable incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11.7 Specications (C-17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
11.9.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
11.9.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12 Boeing C-32
142
12.1 Development and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

12.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
12.3 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
12.4 Specications (C-32A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13 Boeing CH-47 Chinook
145
13.1 Design and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

13.1.1 Early development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.1.2 Improved and later versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.2.1 Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.2.2 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.2.3 Falklands War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.2.4 Afghanistan and Iraq wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.2.5 Disaster relief and other roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.3.1 HC-1B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.3.2 CH-47A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.3.3 ACH-47A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
viii
CONTENTS
13.3.4 CH-47B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.3.5 CH-47C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.3.6 CH-47D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.3.7 MH-47D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3.8 MH-47E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3.9 CH-47F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3.10 MH-47G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.3.11 CH-47J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.3.12 HH-47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.3.13 Other export models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.3.14 Civilian models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.3.15 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
13.6 Specications (CH-47F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14 Boeing E-4
159
14.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

14.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.2.1 Middle and Upper decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.2.2 Lower Lobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
14.3.1 September 11, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
14.3.2 Recent history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
14.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
14.5 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
14.6 Specications (E-4B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
14.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
14.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
14.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

15 Boeing E-6 Mercury
165

15.3 Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
CONTENTS
ix
15.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

15.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
16 Boeing VC-25
167
16.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

16.2 Design and conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
16.2.1 The White House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
16.3.1 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.5 Specications (VC-25A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
17 Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight
172
17.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

17.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
17.1.2 Further developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
17.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
17.3.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
17.3.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
17.3.3 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
17.3.4 Civilian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
17.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
17.4.1 American versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
17.4.2 Canadian versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.4.3 Swedish versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.4.4 Japanese versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.5.1 Military and Government operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.5.2 Civilian operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.5.3 Former operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.6 Notable accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.7 Specications (CH-46E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.8 Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
CONTENTS
18 Close air support
184
18.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

18.1.1 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
18.1.2 Inter-war period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
18.1.3 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
18.1.4 Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.1.5 Vietnam and the CAS role debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.2 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.3 Technological enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
19 Delta IV
194
19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

19.1.1 Recent history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.1.2 2012 upper stage anomaly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.1.3 Planned successor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.2 Vehicle description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.2.1 Delta IV rst stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.2.2 Delta Cryogenic Second Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.2.3 Guidance, navigation, control and communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.2.4 Payload encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.3.1 Delta IV Small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.3.2 Delta IV Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.3.3 Delta IV Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
19.3.4 RS-68A upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
19.3.5 Future variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
19.4 Launch sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
19.5 Vehicle processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
19.6 Delta IV launches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
19.6.1 Notable past launches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
19.6.2 Planned launches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
19.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
19.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
20 Electronic-warfare aircraft
202
20.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
CONTENTS
21 Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin
xi
203
21.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

21.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
21.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
21.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
21.6 Specications (MH-65C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
21.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
21.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
21.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
22 Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota
207
22.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

22.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
22.1.2 LUH Program and UH-145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
22.1.3 Proposed uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
22.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
22.3.1 Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
22.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
22.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
22.6 Specications (UH-72A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
22.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
22.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
22.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
23 Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II
213
23.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

23.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
23.1.2 A-X program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
23.1.3 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
23.1.4 Other uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
23.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
23.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
23.2.2 Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
23.2.3 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
23.2.4 Modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
23.2.5 Colors and markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23.3.2 Gulf War and Balkans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23.3.3 Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and recent deployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
xii
CONTENTS
23.3.4 Proposed retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
23.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.7 Specications (A-10A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
23.9 Nicknames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
23.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
23.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
24 General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
230
24.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

24.1.1 Lightweight Fighter program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
24.1.2 Air Combat Fighter competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
24.1.3 Into production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
24.1.4 Improvements and upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
24.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
24.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
24.2.2 General conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
24.2.3 Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
24.2.4 Negative stability and y-by-wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
24.2.5 Cockpit and ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
24.2.6 Fire-control radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
24.2.7 Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
24.3.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
24.3.2 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
24.3.3 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
24.3.4 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
24.3.5 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
24.3.6 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
24.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
24.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
24.6 Notable accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
24.8 Specications (F-16C Block 50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
CONTENTS
xiii

24.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
24.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
24.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
24.11.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
24.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
24.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
25 Global Positioning System
253
25.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

25.1.1 Predecessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
25.1.2 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
25.1.3 Timeline and modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
25.1.4 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
25.2 Basic concept of GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
25.2.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
25.2.2 More detailed description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
25.2.3 User-satellite geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
25.2.4 Receiver in continuous operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
25.2.5 Non-navigation applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
25.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
25.3.1 Space segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
25.3.2 Control segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
25.3.3 User segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
25.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
25.4.1 Civilian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
25.4.2 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
25.5 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
25.5.1 Message format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
25.5.2 Satellite frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
25.5.3 Demodulation and decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
25.6 Navigation equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
25.6.1 Problem description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
25.6.2 Geometric interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
25.6.3 Solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
25.7 Error sources and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
25.8 Accuracy enhancement and surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
25.8.1 Augmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
25.8.2 Precise monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
25.8.3 Timekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
25.8.4 Carrier phase tracking (surveying) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
25.9 Regulatory spectrum issues concerning GPS receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
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25.10Other systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
25.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
25.12Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
25.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
25.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
25.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
26 Light Observation Helicopter

26.1 History
275
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
26.1.1 LOH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

26.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
26.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
27 Lockheed AC-130
277
27.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

27.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
27.1.2 Recent and planned upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
27.1.3 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
27.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
27.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
27.2.2 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
27.3.1 Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
27.3.2 Cold War and later action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
27.3.3 Gulf War and the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
27.3.4 Operations since 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
27.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
27.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
27.7 Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
27.7.1 Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
27.7.2 Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
27.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
27.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
27.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
27.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
28 Lockheed C-130 Hercules
289

28.1.1 Background and requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
28.1.2 Design phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
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28.1.3 Improved versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

28.1.4 Refueling versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
28.1.5 More improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
28.1.6 Later models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
28.1.7 Next generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
28.1.8 Upgrades and changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
28.1.9 Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
28.2.1 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
28.2.2 Civilian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
28.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
28.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
28.5 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
28.6.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.6.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.6.3 Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.6.4 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.6.5 Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.6.6 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.6.7 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.7 Specications (C-130H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
28.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
28.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
28.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
29 Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
305
29.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

29.1.1 CX-X and Heavy Logistics System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
29.1.2 Into production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
29.1.3 Continued production and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
29.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
29.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
29.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
29.4.1 C-5A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
29.4.2 C-5B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
29.4.3 C-5C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
29.4.4 C-5 AMP and C-5M Super Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
29.4.5 L-500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
29.4.6 C-5 Shuttle Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
29.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
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29.6 Incidents and accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
29.6.1 Notable accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
29.8 Specications (C-5B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
29.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
29.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
30 Lockheed EC-130H Compass Call

30.1 Development
30.2 Design
318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
30.2.1 Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

30.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
30.5 Specications (EC-130H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
30.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
30.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
30.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

31 Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules
320

31.1.1 Harvest HAWK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
31.2.1 Civilian use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
31.3 Orders and deliveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
31.3.1 International orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
31.3.2 Deliveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
31.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
31.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
31.6 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
31.7 Specications (C-130J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
31.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
31.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
31.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
31.9.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
31.9.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
31.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
32 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
330
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32.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

32.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
32.1.2 Production and procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
32.1.3 Ban on exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
32.1.4 Production termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
32.1.5 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
32.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
32.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
32.2.2 Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
32.2.3 Cockpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
32.2.4 Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
32.2.5 Stealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
32.3.1 Designation and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
32.3.2 Introduction into service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
32.3.3 Deployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
32.3.4 Maintenance and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
32.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
32.4.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
32.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
32.6 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
32.8 Specications (F-22A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
32.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
32.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
32.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
32.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
32.11.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
32.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
33 Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
351
33.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

33.1.1 JSF program requirements and selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
33.1.2 Design phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
33.1.3 Program cost increases and delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
33.1.4 Concerns over performance and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
33.1.5 PentagonLockheed Martin relation issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
33.1.6 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
33.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
33.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
33.2.2 Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
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33.2.3 Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
33.2.4 Stealth and signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
33.2.5 Cockpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
33.2.6 Sensors and avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
33.2.7 Helmet-mounted display system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
33.2.8 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

33.3.1 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
33.3.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
33.3.3 Basing plans for future US F-35s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
33.4 Procurement and international participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
33.4.1 Procurement costs
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
33.5 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

33.5.1 F-35A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
33.5.2 F-35B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
33.5.3 F-35C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
33.5.4 Other versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
33.6 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
33.6.1 Planned purchases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
33.7 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
33.8 Specications (F-35A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
33.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
33.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
33.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
33.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
33.11.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
33.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
34 McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II
394
34.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

34.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
34.1.2 Designing and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
34.1.3 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
34.1.4 End of production and further improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
34.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
34.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
34.2.2 Airframe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
34.2.3 Dierences between versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
34.3.1 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
34.3.2 Italian Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
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34.3.3 Spanish Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

34.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
34.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
34.6 Incidents and accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
34.8 Specications (AV-8B Harrier II Plus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
34.9 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
34.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
34.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
34.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
34.13Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
34.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
35 McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
412
35.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

35.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
35.1.2 Smaller, lighter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
35.1.3 Focus on air superiority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
35.1.4 Final design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
35.1.5 Further development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
35.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
35.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
35.2.2 Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
35.2.3 Weaponry and external stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
35.2.4 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
35.3.1 Introduction and early service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
35.3.2 Gulf War and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
35.3.3 Structural defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
35.3.4 Recent service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
35.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
35.4.1 Basic models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
35.4.2 Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
35.4.3 Research and test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
35.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
35.7 Specications (F-15C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
35.8.1 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.8.2 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.8.3 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.8.4 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
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35.8.5 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.8.6 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
35.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
35.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
35.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
36 McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle
432
36.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

36.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
36.1.2 Enhanced Tactical Fighter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
36.1.3 Upgrade programs and replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
36.1.4 ALASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
36.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
36.3.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
36.3.2 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
36.3.3 Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
36.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
36.4.1 F-15E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
36.4.2 F-15I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
36.4.3 F-15K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
36.4.4 F-15S and SA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
36.4.5 F-15SG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
36.4.6 Proposed variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
36.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
36.6 Accidents and losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
36.7 Specications (F-15E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
36.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
36.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
36.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
36.9.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
36.9.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
36.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
37 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
449
37.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

37.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
37.1.2 Redesigning the YF-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
37.1.3 Northrops F-18L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
37.1.4 Into production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
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37.1.5 Improvements and design changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

37.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
37.3.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
37.3.2 Non-U.S. service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
37.3.3 Potential operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
37.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
37.4.1 A/B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
37.4.2 C/D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
37.4.3 E/F Super Hornet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
37.4.4 G Growler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
37.4.5 Other US variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
37.4.6 Export variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
37.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
37.7 Notable Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
37.8 Specications (F/A-18C/D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
37.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
37.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
37.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
37.11.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
37.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
38 MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird
469
38.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

38.2.1 Task Force 160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
38.2.2 Operation Credible Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
38.2.3 Operation Urgent Fury (Grenada) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
38.2.4 Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
38.2.5 Operation Prime Chance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
38.2.6 Operation Just Cause (Panama) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
38.2.7 Operation Gothic Serpent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
38.2.8 Operation Iraqi Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
38.2.9 Operation Celestial Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
38.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
38.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
38.5 Specications (MH-6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
38.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
38.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
38.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
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39 Military helicopter
474
39.1 Types and roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

39.1.1 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
39.1.2 Attack helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
39.1.3 Transport helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
39.1.4 Observation helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
39.1.5 Maritime helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
39.1.6 Multi-mission and rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
39.1.7 Training helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
39.2 Tactics and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
39.2.1 High intensity warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
39.2.2 Low intensity warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
39.3 Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
39.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
39.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
39.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
39.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
39.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
40 Military transport aircraft
480
40.1 Fixed-wing transport aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

40.1.1 Active xed-wing transport aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
40.1.2 Active xed-wing tanker aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
40.1.3 Commercial aircraft used in military role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
40.2 Transport helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
40.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
41 Multirole combat aircraft
483
41.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

41.2 Multirole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
41.3 Swing-role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
41.4 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
41.4.1 Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
41.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
41.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
42 Next-Generation Bomber
485
42.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

42.1.1 2018 Bomber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
42.1.2 Long-range strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
42.1.4 Competitive phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
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xxiii
42.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

42.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
42.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
42.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
42.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
43 Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
492
43.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

43.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
43.1.2 ATB program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
43.1.3 Secrecy and espionage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
43.1.4 Program costs and procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
43.1.5 Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
43.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
43.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
43.2.2 Armaments and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
43.2.3 Avionics and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
43.2.4 Flight controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
43.2.5 Stealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
43.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
43.5 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
43.7 Specications (B-2A Block 30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
43.8 Individual aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
43.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
43.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
43.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
43.11.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
43.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
43.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
44 Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
508
44.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

44.1.1 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
44.1.2 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
44.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
44.2.1 Radar and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
44.2.2 Battle management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
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44.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

44.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.6 Specications (E-8C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
45 Rockwell B-1 Lancer
514
45.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

45.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
45.1.2 Design studies and delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
45.1.3 B-1A program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
45.1.4 New problems and cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
45.1.5 Shifting priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
45.1.6 B-1B program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
45.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
45.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
45.2.2 Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
45.2.3 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
45.3.1 Strategic Air Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
45.3.2 Conventional role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
45.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
45.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
45.7 Accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
45.7.1 Crashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
45.7.2 Other accidents and notable incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
45.8 Specications (B-1B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
45.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
45.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
45.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
45.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
45.11.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
45.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
46 Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion
534
46.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

46.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
46.1.2 H-53E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
46.1.3 CH-53K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
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xxv
46.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

46.3.1 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
46.3.2 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
46.3.3 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
46.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
46.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
46.6 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
46.7 Specications (CH-53E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
46.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
46.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
46.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
47 Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk
542

47.2.1 Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
47.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
47.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
47.5 Specications (HH-60G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
47.5.1 Onboard systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
47.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
47.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
47.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
48 Sikorsky MH-60 Jayhawk
548
48.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

48.1.1 MH-60T upgrade program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
48.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
48.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
48.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
48.6 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
48.7 Specications (HH-60J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
48.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
48.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
48.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
49 Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk
553

49.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
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49.1.2 SH-60B Seahawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
49.1.3 SH-60F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
49.1.4 HH-60H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
49.1.5 MH-60R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
49.1.6 MH-60S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555

49.2.1 U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
49.2.2 Other and potential users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
49.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
49.3.1 U.S. versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
49.3.2 Export versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
49.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
49.5 Specications (SH-60B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
49.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
49.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
49.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
50 Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk
563
50.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

50.1.1 Initial requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
50.1.2 Upgrades and variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
50.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
50.3.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
50.3.2 Peoples Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
50.3.3 Taiwan (Republic of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
50.3.4 Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
50.3.5 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
50.3.6 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
50.3.7 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
50.3.8 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
50.3.9 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
50.3.10 Other and potential users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
50.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
50.4.1 Utility variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
50.4.2 Special purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
50.4.3 Export versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
50.4.4 S-70A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
50.5 Military operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
50.6 Specications (UH-60L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
50.7 Accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
50.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
CONTENTS
xxvii
50.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

50.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
50.9.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
50.9.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
50.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
51 Special operations
579
51.1 Use and eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

51.1.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
51.2 Special operations forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
51.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
51.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
51.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
52 Utility aircraft
581
52.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

52.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
52.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
52.3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
52.3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
52.3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Chapter 1
Sukhoi Su-27
F-22 Raptor, a fth generation stealth ghter jet featuring
supercruise and thrust vectoring.
Shenyang J-11
1.1 Evolution of the term

During World War II and through the Korean War, ghters were classied by their role: heavy ghter, interceptor,
escort ghter, night ghter, and so forth. With the development of guided missiles in the 1950s, design diverged
between ghters optimized to ght in the beyond visual range (BVR) regime (interceptors), and ghters optimized to ght in the within visual range (WVR) regime
(air superiority ghters). In the United States, the inuential proponents of BVR developed ghters with no
forward-ring gun, such as the original F-4 Phantom II,
as it was thought that they would never need to resort
to WVR combat. These aircraft would sacrice high
maneuverability, and instead focus on remaining performance characteristics, as they presumably would never
Euroghter Typhoon, Western Europes rst air superiority

ghter.
An air superiority ghter, also spelled air-superiority

ghter, is a type of ghter aircraft designed for entering
and seizing control of enemy airspace as a means of establishing complete dominance of one sides air forces over
the other sides (air supremacy). Air superiority ghters
are designed to eectively engage enemy ghters, more
than other types of aircraft. They are usually more expensive and procured in smaller numbers than multirole
ghters.
1
CHAPTER 1. AIR SUPERIORITY FIGHTER
engage in a dogght with enemy ghters.
1.1.1
Lessons in combat
Combat experiences during the Vietnam War proved

BVR proponents wrong. Owing to restrictive rules of engagement and the failings of 1960s missile and radar technology, air combat often devolved into close-range dogghts, one for which American ghters and pilots were
unprepared. The lessons from this conict spurred a rethinking of design priorities for ghter aircraft, in which
the U.S. Navys TOPGUN and the U.S. Air Forces Red U.S. F-16C Fighting Falcon and Polish Mikoyan-Gurevich MiGFlag programs, developed specically to teach pilots the 29A over Krzesiny air base, Poland - 20050615
lessons of dogghting, were created.
In order to maximize their combat eectiveness and
strategic usefulness, air superiority ghters usually operate under the control/co-ordination of an Airborne early
warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft.
Sukhoi Su-27
1.1.2
Shenyang J-11B
Air superiority ghters
Sukhoi Su-33
Sukhoi Su-30MKI
Shenyang J-15
1.3 See also

Interceptor aircraft
Fighter aircraft
1.4 Notes
F-15 Eagle
After lessons learned from combat experiences involving modern military air capacity, the U.S. Navys
VFAX/VFX and U.S. Air Forces F-X (Fighter Experimental) reassessed their tactical direction which resulted
in the U.S. Navys F-14 Tomcat and US Air Forces F-15
Eagle.[1] The two designs were built to achieve air superiority and signicant consideration was given during the
development of both aircraft to allow them to excel at the
shorter ranges of ghter combat.[2][3]
[1] Davies, Steve. (2005). F-15C Eagle Units in Combat. Osprey Publishing Ltd. pp. 6-9. ISBN 978-1-84176-730-7.
[2] Spick, Mike. (1985). Modern Fighting Aircraft: F-14.
Arco Publishing Inc. p. 8. ISBN 0-668-06406-4.
[3] Gillcrist, Paul T. (1994). Tomcat! The Grumman F-14
Story. Schier Publishing Ltd. pp. 10, 195. ISBN 088740-664-5 .
1.5 External links

Glossary of Nato Denitions
1.2 Examples
Euroghter Typhoon
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
Mikoyan MiG-29
Rand: Revival of the Air-Superiority Fighter
Chapter 2
Anti-submarine warfare
start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were
in service. Some warships were tted with an armoured
belt as protection against torpedoes.
There were, however, no means to detect submerged Uboats, and attacks on them were limited at rst to eorts
to damage their periscopes with hammers.[1] The Royal
Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps; these sank four or ve U-boats
in the First World War.[2] A similar approach featured a
string of 70 lb (32 kg) charges on a oating cable, red
electrically; an unimpressed Louis Mountbatten considered any U-boat sunk by it deserved to be.[3]
Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb (8.4 kg) hand-thrown
guncotton bombs.[4] The Lance Bomb was developed,
also; this featured a 3540 lb (1618 kg) cone-shaped
steel drum on a 5 ft (1.5 m) shaft, intended to be thrown
at a submarine.[5] Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench
mortars, was tried.[6] Use of nets to ensnare U-boats was
also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starsh, tted
with a spar torpedo.[7] To attack at set depths, aircraft
bombs were attached to lanyards which would trigger
their charges; a similar idea was a 16 lb (7.3 kg) guncotton charge in a lanyarded can; two of these lashed together became known as the Depth Charge Type A.[8]
Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger
as the Type B.[9] These were eective at a distance of
around 20 ft (6.1 m).[10]
Royal Navy ocers on the bridge of a destroyer on convoy escort

duties keep a sharp look out for enemy submarines during the
Battle of the Atlantic, October 1941
Anti-submarine warfare (ASW, or in older form A/S)

is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface
warships, aircraft, or other submarines to nd, track and
deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines.
Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of

sensor and weapon technology, training, experience and
luck. Sophisticated sonar equipment for rst detecting,
then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both
the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface
and underwater platforms. Other means of destruction
have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW
The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School
also involves protecting friendly ships.
report, describing a device intended for countermining, a
dropping mine. At Admiral John Jellicoe's request, the
standard Mark II mine was tted with a hydrostatic pistol
(developed in 1914 by Thomas Firth & Sons of Sheeld)
2.1 History
preset for 45 ft (14 m) ring, to be launched from a stern
The rst attacks on a ship by an underwater vehicle are platform. Weighing 1,150 lb (520 kg), and eective at
generally believed to have been during the American Rev- 100 ft (30 m), the cruiser mine was a potential hazard
[11]
olutionary War, using what would now be called a naval to the dropping ship, but was also on the right track.
mine but what then was called a torpedo, though various
attempts to build submarines had been made before this.
The rst self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and
launched from surface craft. The rst submarine with a
torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, though it
had been proposed earlier. In the Russo-Japanese War
of 1904-5, the submarine was a signicant threat. By the
2.1.1 World War I

During the First World War, submarines were a major menace. They operated in the Baltic, North Sea,
Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North At3
CHAPTER 2. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE

Ireland 22 March 1916.[13] By early 1917, the Royal
Navy had also developed indicator loops which consisted
of long lengths of cables lain on the seabed to detect the
magnetic eld of submarines as they passed overhead. At
this stage they were used in conjunction with controlled
mines which could be detonated from a shore station once
a 'swing' had been detected on the indicator loop galvanometer. Indicator loops used with controlled mining
were known as 'guard loops. By July 1917, depth charges
had developed to the extent that settings of between 50
200 ft (1561 m) were possible.[14] This design would
remain mainly unchanged through the end of World War
II.[15] While dipping hydrophones appeared before wars
end, the trials were abandoned.[16]
An example of an anti-submarine net, once protecting Halifax

Harbour, Canada.
lantic. Previously they had been limited to relatively calm

and protected waters. The vessels used to combat them
were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns and
good luck. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine
of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, such as charging batteries or crossing long distances.
The rst approach to protect warships was chainlink nets
strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against
torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of
a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to
stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type red against ships.
British warships were tted with a ram with which to sink
submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914.
Seaplanes and airships were also used to patrol for submarines. A number of successful attacks were made,[17]
but the main value of air patrols was in driving the U-boat
to submerge, rendering it virtually blind and immobile.[18]
However, the most eective anti-submarine measure was
the introduction of escorted convoys, which reduced the
loss of ships entering the Germans War Zone around the
British Isles from 25% to less than 1%.
To attack submerged boats a number of anti-submarine

weapons were derived, including the sweep with a
contact-fused explosive. Bombs were dropped by aircraft
and depth charge attacks were made by ships. Initially
these were simply dropped o the back of a ship but then
depth charge throwers were introduced. The Q-ship, a
warship disguised as a merchant ship, was used to attack
surfaced U-boats while the R1 was the rst ASW submarine. A major contribution was the interception of GerRN in June 1915 began operational trials of the Type
man submarine radio signals and breaking of their code
D depth charge, with a 300 lb (140 kg) charge of TNT
by Room 40 of the Admiralty.
(amatol, as TNT supplies became critical) and a hydrostatic pistol, ring at either 40 or 80 ft (12 or 24 m), and 178 of the 360 U-boats were sunk during the war, from
believed to be eective at a distance of 140 ft (43 m); the a variety of ASW methods:
Type D*, with a 120 lb (54 kg) charge, was oered for
smaller ships.[12]
Mines 58
In July 1915, the British Admiralty set up the Board of
Depth charges 30
Invention and Research to evaluate suggestions from the
Submarine torpedoes 20
public as well as carrying out their own investigations.
Gunre 20
Some 14,000 suggestions were received about combating
submarines. In December 1916, the RN set up its own
Ramming 19
Anti-Submarine Division (from which came the term
Unknown 19
Asdics) but relations with the BIR were poor. AfAccidents 7
ter 1917 most ASW work was carried out by ASD. In
the U.S., a Naval Consulting Board was set up in 1915
Sweeps 3
to evaluate ideas. After American entry into the war
Other (including bombs) 2[19]
in 1917, they encouraged work on submarine detection.
The U.S. National Research Council, a civilian organization, brought in British and French experts on underwa2.1.2 Inter-war period
ter sound to a meeting with their American counterparts
in June 1917. In October 1918, there was a meeting in This period saw the development of active sonar
Paris on supersonics, a term used for echo-ranging, but (ASDIC) and its integration into a complete weapons systhe technique was still in research by the end of the war. tem by the British, as well as the introduction of radar.
The rst recorded sinking of a submarine by depth charge During the period there was a great advance due to the inwas U-68, sunk by Q-ship HMS Farnborough o Kerry, troduction of electronics for amplifying, processing and
2.1. HISTORY
display of signals. In particular the range recorder

was a major step that provided a memory of target position. New materials for sound projectors were developed. Both the Royal Navy and the US Navy tted their
destroyers with ASDIC. In 1928 a small escort ship was
designed and plans made to arm trawlers and to massproduce ASDIC sets. Depth sounders were developed
that allowed measurement by moving ships and an appreciation obtained of the properties of the ocean aecting
sound propagation. The bathythermograph was invented
in 1937, which was soon tted to ASW ships.
There were few major advances in weapons. However,
the performance of torpedoes continued to improve.
2.1.3
World War II
Battle of the Atlantic

Main article: Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)
During the Second World War, the submarine men-
A Leigh Light tted to a Liberator of Royal Air Force Coastal

Command, 26 February 1944.
A depth charge thrower being loaded, aboard corvette HMS Dianthus, 14 August 1942.
ace revived, threatening the survival of island nations like

Britain and Japan which were particularly vulnerable because of their dependence on imports of food, oil, and
other vital war materials. Despite this vulnerability, little
had been done to prepare sucient anti-submarine forces
or develop suitable new weapons. Other navies were sim- Hedgehog, a 24-barreled anti-submarine mortar, mounted on the
ilarly unprepared, even though every major navy had a forecastle of the destroyer HMS Westcott.
large, modern submarine eet, because all had fallen in
the grip of Mahanian doctrine which held guerre de course
could not win a war.
of long lengths of cable lain on the oor of the harbour.
At the beginning of the war, most navies had few ideas Indicator loop technology was quickly developed further
how to combat submarines beyond locating them with and deployed by the US Navy in 1942. By then there were
sonar and then dropping depth charges on them. Sonar dozens of loop stations around the world. Sonar was far
proved much less eective than expected, and was no use more eective and loop technology died straight after the
at all against submarines operating on the surface, as U- war.
boats routinely did at night.[20] The Royal Navy had continued to develop indicator loops between the wars but
this was a passive form of harbour defense that depended
on detecting the magnetic eld of submarines by the use
The use and improvement of radar technology was one

of the most important proponents in the ght against submarines. Locating submarines was the rst step in being able to defend against and destroy them. Throughout

huge range of new technologies, weapons and tactics to
counter the submarine danger. These included:
Vessels
Allocating ships to convoys according to speed, so
faster ships were less exposed.
Adjusting the convoy cycle. Using operations research techniques, analysis of convoy losses over the
rst three years of the war showed that the overall
size of a convoy was less important than the size of
its escorting force. Therefore, escorts could better
protect a few large convoys than many small ones.
A Vought SB2U Vindicator from the USS Ranger (CV-4) ies

anti-submarine patrol over Convoy WS12 en route to Cape Town,
27 November 1941.
Huge construction programmes to mass-produce the

small warships needed for convoy defense, such as
corvettes, frigates, and destroyer escorts. These
were more economical than using destroyers, which
were needed for eet duties. Corvettes were small
enough to be built in merchant shipyards and used
triple expansion engines. They could be built without using up scarce turbine engines, reduction gears
and thus not interfering with larger warship production.
Ships that could carry aircraft, such as the CAM
ships, the merchant aircraft carrier, and eventually
the purpose-built escort carriers.
The USS Mission Bay (CVE-59) operated primarily as an ASW

carrier in the Atlantic. She is shown in August, 1944 o the
East Coast, wearing Measure 32 Design 4A camouage. Note
the Grumman F6F Hellcats on deck and the large SK air search
radar antenna on the mast.
Support groups of escort ships that could be sent

to reinforce the defense of convoys under attack.
Free from the obligation to remain with the convoys,
support groups could continue hunting a submerged
submarine until its batteries and air supplies were
exhausted and it was forced to surface.
the war, Allied radar technology was much better than

Hunter-killer groups, whose job was to actively seek
their German counterparts. German U-Boats struggled
out enemy submarines, as opposed to waiting for the
to have proper radar detection capabilities and keep up
convoy to come under attack. Later hunter-killer
with the successive generations of Allied airborne radar.
groups were centered around escort carriers.
The rst generation of Allied airborne radar used a 1.7
meter wavelength and had a limited range. By the sec Huge construction programmes to mass-produce
ond half of 1942 the "Metox" radar detector was used by
the transports and replace their losses, such as the
U-boats to give some warning from airborne attack. In
American Liberty Ships. Once shipbuilding had
1943 the Allies began to deploy aircraft equipped with
ramped up to full eciency, transports could be
new cavity magnetron-based 10-centimeter wavelength
built faster than U-boats could sink them, playing a
radar (ASV III), which was undetectable by Metox, in
crucial role in the Allies winning the "Tonnage war".
sucient numbers to yield good results. Eventually the
Naxos radar detector was elded that could detect 10Aircraft
cm wavelength radar, but it had a very short range and
only gave a U-Boat limited time to dive.[21] From 1943 Air raids on the German U-boat pens at Brest and
1945 radar equipped aircraft would account for the bulk
[22]
La Rochelle.
of Allied kills against U-Boats. Allied anti-submarine
tactics developed to defend convoys (the Royal Navy's
Long-range aircraft patrols to close the Mid-Atlantic
preferred method), aggressively hunt down U-boats (the
gap.
U.S. Navy approach), and to divert vulnerable or valuable
ships away from known U-boat concentrations.
Escort carriers to provide the convoy with air cover,
as well as close the mid-Atlantic gap.
During the Second World War, the Allies developed a
2.1. HISTORY
High frequency direction nding (HF/DF), includ- Tactics

ing shipborne sets, to pinpoint the location of an enemy submarine from its radio transmissions.
Many dierent aircraft from airships to four-engined sea The introduction of seaborne radar which could en- and land-planes were used. Some of the more successful
were the Lockheed Ventura, PBY (Catalina or Canso, in
able the detection of surfaced U-boats.
British service), Consolidated B-24 Liberator (VLR Lib Airborne radar.
erator, in British service), Short Sunderland, and Vickers
The Leigh light airborne searchlight, in conjunction Wellington. As more patrol planes became equipped with
with airborne radar to surprise and attack enemy radar, U-Boats began to be surprised at night by aircraft attacks. U-Boats were not defenseless, since their
submarines on the surface at night.
deck guns were a very good anti-aircraft weapon. They
Magnetic anomaly detection
claimed 212 Allied aircraft shot down for the loss of 168
U-boats to air attack. The German naval command strug Diesel exhaust sniers
gled to nd a solution to the aircraft attacks. 'U-Flak' submarines, equipped with extra anti-aircraft weapons, were
Sonobuoys
tried unsuccessfully. At one point in the war, there was
even a 'shoot back order' requiring U-boats to stay on the
Weaponry
surface and ght back, in the absence of any other op Depth Charges, the most used weapon, were im- tion. Some commanders started charging batteries durproved during the course of the war. Starting with ing the day to gain more warning from air attack, and
WW1 vintage 300 lb depth charges, a 600 lb ver- perhaps gain time to submerge. One solution was the
sion was developed. Torpex explosive, which is a snorkel, which allowed a U-boat to stay submerged and
50% more powerful explosive than TNT, was intro- still charge its batteries. A snorkel made a U-boat more
duced in 1943. Y-guns and K-guns were used to survivable and losses to aircraft went down. However the
throw depth charges to the side of the escort vessel, low snorkeling speeds of 5 to 6 knots greatly limited the
augmenting the charges rolled o the stern and let- mobility of the U-Boats.[23]
ting the escort vessel lay a pattern of depth charges The provision of air cover was essential. The Germans
at the time had been using their Focke-Wulf Fw 200
Condor long range aircraft to attack shipping and provide reconnaissance for U-boats, and most of their sorties occurred outside the reach of existing land-based
aircraft that the Allies had; this was dubbed the Mid The FIDO (Mk 24 'mine') air-dropped homing tor- Atlantic gap. At rst, the British developed temporary
pedo.
solutions such as CAM ships and merchant aircraft carri When the German Navy developed an acoustic ers. These were superseded by mass-produced, relatively
homing torpedo, torpedo countermeasures such as cheap escort carriers built by the United States and operated by the US Navy and Royal Navy. There was also
the Foxer acoustic decoy were deployed.
the introduction of long-ranged patrol aircraft. Many Uboats feared aircraft, as the mere presence would often
Intelligence
force them to dive, disrupting their patrols and attack
One of the best kept Allied secrets was the break- runs.
ing of enemy codes including some of the German The Americans favored aggressive hunter-killer tactics
Naval Enigma codes (information gathered this way using escort carriers on search and destroy patrols,
was dubbed Ultra) at Bletchley Park in England. whereas the British preferred to use their escort carriers to
This enabled the tracking of U-boat packs to allow defend the convoys directly. The American view was that
convoy re-routings; whenever the Germans changed defending convoys did little to reduce or contain U-boat
their codes (and when they added a fourth rotor to numbers, while the British were constrained by having to
the Enigma machines in 1943), convoy losses rose ght the battle of the Atlantic alone for the early part of
signicantly. By the end of the war, the Allies were the war with very limited resources. There were no spare
regularly breaking and reading German naval codes. escorts for extensive hunts, and it was only important to
To prevent the Germans from guessing that Enigma neutralize the U-boats which were found in the vicinity
had been cracked, the British planted a false story of convoys. The survival of convoys was critical, and if
about a special infrared camera being used to locate a hunt missed its target a convoy of strategic importance
U-boats. The British were subsequently delighted to could be lost. The British also reasoned that since sublearn that the Germans responded by developing a marines sought convoys, convoys would be a good place
special paint for submarines that exactly duplicated to nd submarines.
The development of forward-throwing antisubmarine weapons such as Hedgehog and the
Squid. This allowed the escort vessel to stay in
contact with the submarine during an attack.
the optical properties of seawater.
Once America joined the war, the dierent tactics were
8
complementary, both suppressing the eectiveness of and
destroying U-boats. The increase in Allied naval strength
allowed both convoy defense and hunter-killer groups to
be deployed, and this was reected in the massive increase
in U-boat kills in the latter part of the war. The British
developments of centimetric radar and the Leigh Light,
as well as increased numbers of escorts, reached the point
of being able to support U-boat hunting towards the end
of the war, while earlier on, the advantage was denitely
on the side of the submarine. Commanders such as F. J.
Johnnie Walker of the Royal Navy were able to develop
integrated tactics which made the deployment of hunterkiller groups a practical proposition. Walker developed
a creeping attack technique, where one destroyer would
track the U-boat while another attacked. Often U-boats
would turn and increase speed to spoil the depth charge
attack, as the escort would lose sonar contact as it steamed
over the submarine. With the new tactic, one escort vessel
would attack while another would track the target. Any
course or depth change could be relayed to the attacking
destroyer. Once a U-boat was caught, it was very dicult
to escape. Since Hunter-Killer groups were not limited
to convoy escort, they could continue an attack until a UBoat was destroyed or had to surface from damage or lack
of air.
The earliest recorded sinking of one submarine by another while both were submerged occurred in 1945
when HMS Venturer torpedoed U-864 o the coast of
Norway. The captain of Venturer tracked U-864 on hydrophones for several hours and manually calculated a
three-dimensional ring solution before launching four
torpedoes.
Mediterranean

Pacic Theatre
Main articles: World War II and Pacic War
Main article: Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy
Japanese submarines pioneered many innovations, being
some of the largest and longest range vessels of their type
and were armed with the Type 95 torpedo. However, they
ended up playing little impact, especially in the latter half
of the war. Instead of commerce raiding like their U-boat
counterparts, they followed the Mahanian doctrine, serving in oensive roles against warships, which were fast,
maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant
ships. In the early part of the Pacic War, Japanese subs
scored several tactical victories, including two successful
torpedo strikes on the US eet carrier Wasp, the latter of
which was sunk abandoned and scuttled as a result of the
attack.[24] However, these are mostly considered incidental successes, due to limited resources in the US Navy at
the time.
Once the US was able to ramp up construction of destroyers and destroyer escorts, as well as bringing over
highly eective anti-submarine techniques learned from
the British from experiences in the Battle of the Atlantic,
they would take a signicant toll on Japanese submarines,
which tended to be slower and could not dive as deep
as their German counterparts. Japanese submarines, in
particular, never menaced the Allied merchant convoys
and strategic shipping lanes to any degree that German
U-boats did. One major advantages the Allies had was
the breaking of the Japanese Purple code by the US,
so allowing friendly ships to be diverted from Japanese
submarines and allowing Allied submarines to intercept
Japanese forces.
In 1942 and early 1943, US submarines posed little threat
to Japanese ships, whether warships or merchant ships.
They were initially hampered by poor torpedoes, which
often failed to detonate on impact, ran too deep, or even
ran wild. As the US submarine menace was slight in
the beginning, Japanese commanders became complacent and as a result did not invest heavily into ASW measures or upgrade their convoy protection to any degree
to what the Allies in the Atlantic did. Often encouraged
by the Japanese not placing a high priority on the Allied
submarine threat, US skippers were relatively complacent
and docile compared to their German counterparts, who
understood the life and death urgency in the Atlantic.
Italian and German submarines operated in the Mediterranean on the Axis side while French and British submarines operated on the side of the Allies. The German Navy sent 62 U-Boats to the Mediterranean, all were
lost in combat or scuttled. German subs rst had to pass
through the highly defended Straits of Gibraltar, where
9 were sunk, and a similar number damaged so severely
they had to limp back to base. The Mediterranean is
calmer than the Atlantic, which made escape for U-Boats
more dicult and was ringed with Allied air bases. Similar ASW methods were used as in the Atlantic but an
additional menace was the use by Italians of midget sub- However, US Vice Admiral Charles A. Lockwood presmarines.
sured the ordnance department to replace the faulty torpeOperating under the same clear-water conditions in does; famously when they initially ignored his complaints,
the Mediterranean - such that British submarines were he ran his own tests to prove the torpedoes unreliability.
painted dark blue on their upper surfaces to make them He also cleaned out the deadwood, replacing many cauless visible from the air when submerged at periscope tious or unproductive submarine skippers with younger
depth - the Royal Navy, mostly operating from Malta, (somewhat) and more aggressive commanders. As a relost 41 submarines to the opposing German and Italian sult, in the latter half of 1943, US subs were suddenly
forces, including HMS Upholder and HMS Perseus.
sinking Japanese ships at a dramatically higher rate, scor-
2.1. HISTORY
ing their share of key warship kills and accounting for almost half of the Japanese merchant eet. Japanese naval
command was caught o guard, as they had not the antisubmarine technology or doctrine, nor did the production
capability to withstand a tonnage war of attrition, nor did
they develop the organizations needed (unlike the Allies
in the Atlantic).
9
Zulu classes. Britain tested hydrogen peroxide fuels in
Meteroite, Excalibur, and Explorer, with less success.
To deal with these more capable submarines new ASW
weapons were essential. This new generation of diesel
electric submarine, like the Type XXI before it, had
no deck gun and a streamlined hull tower for greater
underwater speed, as well as more storage battery capacity than a comparable WW2 submarine; in addition, they recharged their batteries using a snorkel and
could complete a patrol without surfacing.[29] This led to
the introduction of longer-ranged ATWs, such as Ikara,
Weapon Alpha, ASROC, and to improved homing torpedoes. Nuclear submarines, even faster still, and without the need to snorkel to recharge batteries, posed an
even greater threat; in particular, shipborne helicopters
(recalling the blimps of World War I)[30] have emerged
as essential anti-submarine platforms. A number of
torpedo carrying missiles were developed, combining
ahead-throwing capability (or longer-range delivery) with
torpedo homing.
Japanese antisubmarine forces consisted mainly of their

destroyers, with sonar and depth charges. However,
Japanese destroyer design, tactics, training, and doctrine
emphasized surface nightghting and torpedo delivery
(necessary for eet operations) over anti-submarine duties. By the time Japan nally developed a destroyer escort which was more economical and better suited to convoy protection, it was too late; coupled to incompetent
doctrine and organization,[25] it could have had little effect in any case. Late in the war, the Japanese Army
and Navy used Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD) gear
in aircraft to locate shallow submerged submarines. The
Japanese Army also developed two small aircraft carriers
and Ka-1 autogyro aircraft for use in an antisubmarine Since the introduction of submarines capable of carrywarfare role.
ing ballistic missiles, great eorts have been made to
The Japanese depth charge attacks by its surface forces counter the threat they pose; here, maritime patrol airinitially proved fairly unsuccessful against U.S. eet sub- craft (as in World War II) and helicopters have had a large
marines. Unless caught in shallow water, a U.S. sub- role. The use of nuclear propulsion and streamlined hulls
marine commander could normally escape destruction, has resulted in submarines with high speed capability and
sometimes using temperature gradients (thermoclines). increased maneuverability, as well as low indiscretion
Additionally, IJN doctrine emphasized eet action, not rates when a submarine is exposed on the surface. This
convoy protection, so the best ships and crews went has required changes both to the sensors and weapons
elsewhere.[26] Moreover, during the rst part of the war, used for ASW. Because nuclear submarines were noisy,
the Japanese tended to set their depth charges too shal- there was an emphasis on passive sonar detection. The
low, unaware U.S. submarines could dive below 150 feet torpedo became the main weapon (though nuclear depth
(45m). Unfortunately, this deciency was revealed in a charges were developed). The mine continued to be an
June 1943 press conference held by U.S. Congressman important ASW weapon.
Andrew J. May, and soon enemy depth charges were In some areas of the ocean, where land forms natural
set to explode as deep as 250 feet (76m). Vice Admi- barriers, long strings of sonobuoys, deployed from surral Charles A. Lockwood, COMSUBPAC, later estimated face ships or dropped from aircraft, can monitor marMays revelation cost the navy as many as ten submarines itime passages for extended periods. Bottom mounted
and 800 crewmen.[27][28]
hydrophones can also be used, with land based processMuch later in the war, active and passive sonobuoys were
developed for aircraft use, together with MAD devices.
Toward the end of the war, the Allies developed much
better ATWs, such as Squid, Limbo and Mousetrap, in
the face of new, much better German submarines, such
as the Type XVII and Type XXI.
ing. A system like this SOSUS was deployed by the USA

in the GIUK gap and other strategically important places.
Airborne ASW forces developed better bombs and depth

charges, while for ships and submarines a range of towed
sonar devices were developed to overcome the problem
of ship-mounting. Helicopters can y courses oset from
British and Dutch submarines also operated in the Pacic, the ships and transmit sonar information to their combat
mainly against coastal shipping.
information centres. They can also drop sonobuoys and
launch homing torpedoes to positions many miles away
from the ships actually monitoring the enemy submarine.
2.1.4 Post-war
Submerged submarines are generally blind to the actions
of a patrolling aircraft until it uses active sonar or res a
In the immediate postwar period, the innovations of the weapon, and the aircrafts speed allows it to maintain a
late war U-boats were quickly adopted by the major fast search pattern around the suspected contact.
navies. The United States studied the German Type XXI
Increasingly anti-submarine submarines, called attack
and used the information to modify WW2 eet boats
submarines or hunter-killers, became capable of destroywith the GUPPY program. The Soviets launched new
ing, particularly, ballistic missile submarines. Initially
submarines patterned on Type XXIs, the Whiskey and
10
these were very quiet diesel-electric propelled vessels but 2.2.1 Current technologies
they are more likely to be nuclear-powered these days.
The development of these was strongly inuenced by the There are a large number of technologies used in modern
duel between Venturer and U-864.
anti-submarine warfare:
A signicant detection aid that has continued in service
is the Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD), a passive de- Sensors
vice. First used in World War II, MAD uses the Earths
magnetosphere as a standard, detecting anomalies caused
Acoustics particularly in active and passive sonar,
by large metallic vessels, such as submarines. Modern
sonobuoys, and xed hydrophones aid in the detecMAD arrays are usually contained in a long tail boom
tion of radiated noise. Sonar can be mounted on the
(xed-wing aircraft) or an aerodynamic housing carried
hull or in a towed array.
on a deployable tow line (helicopters). Keeping the sensor away from the planes engines and avionics helps elim Pyrotechnics in the use of markers, ares and
inate interference from the carrying platform.
explosive devices
At one time, reliance was placed on electronic warfare
detection devices exploiting the submarines need to perform radar sweeps and transmit responses to radio messages from home port. As frequency surveillance and
direction nding became more sophisticated, these devices enjoyed some success. However, submariners soon
learned not to rely on such transmitters in dangerous waters. Home bases can then use extremely low frequency
radio signals, able to penetrate the oceans surface, to
reach submarines wherever they might be.
2.2 Modern warfare
Searchlights
Radar, for surfaced parts
Hydrodynamic pressure wave (wake) detection
Laser detection and ranging of surfaced vessels; airborne and satellite
Electronic countermeasures and acoustic countermeasures such as noise and bubble makers
Passive acoustic countermeasures such as concealment and design of sound-absorbing materials to
coat reecting underwater surfaces
Magnetic anomaly detection (MAD)
Active and (more commonly) passive infra-red detection of surfaced parts.
Royal Navy Type 23 frigate is an anti-submarine vessel.
The military submarine is still a threat, so ASW remains

a key to obtaining sea control. Neutralizing the SSBN has
been a key driver and this still remains. However, nonnuclear-powered submarines have become increasingly
important. Though the diesel-electric submarine continues to dominate in numbers, several alternative technologies now exist to enhance the endurance of small submarines. Previously the emphasis had been largely on
deep water operation but this has now switched to littoral
operation where ASW is generally more dicult.
An MH-60R conducts an airborne low frequency sonar (ALFS)

operation during testing and evaluation.
In modern times forward looking infrared (FLIR) detectors have been used to track the large plumes of heat that
fast nuclear-powered submarines leave while rising to the
surface. FLIR devices are also used to see periscopes or
snorkels at night whenever a submariner might be incautious enough to probe the surface.
2.4. REFERENCES & NOTES

The active sonar used in such operations is often of midfrequency, approximately 3.5 kHz. Because of the quietening of submarines, resulting in shorter passive detection ranges, there has been interest in low frequency active for ocean surveillance. However, there have been
protests about the use of medium and low frequency highpowered active sonar because of its eects on whales.
Others argue the high power level of some LFA (Low
Frequency Active) sonars is actually detrimental to sonar
performance in that such sonars are reverberation limited.
Weapons
11
Naval tactics in the Age of Steam
Anti-submarine weapon
2.4 References & notes

[1] McKee, Fraser M. An Explosive Story: The Rise and Fall
of the Depth Charge, in The Northern Mariner (III, #1,
January 1993), p.46: citing a letter by Stanley M. Woodward.
[2] McKee, p.48.
Mines,
[3] McKee, p.48.
Torpedoes, acoustic, wire-guided, and wake homing.
[4] McKee, p.47.
Depth charges
[6] McKee, p.48.
Rockets
[7] McKee, p.47.
Missiles
[8] McKee, p.49.
Anti-submarine net
[9] McKee, p.49.
Ramming
[5] McKee, p.48.
[10] McKee, p.49.

[11] McKee, p.49.
2.2.2
Platforms
Satellites have been used to image the sea surface using

optical and radar techniques, and it is claimed these might
be used for indirect detection of submarines, as could
thermal imaging. Fixed-wing aircraft, such as the P-3
Orion & Tu-142 provide both a sensor and weapons platform similar to some helicopters like the SH-60 Seahawk,
with sonobuoys and/or dipping sonars as well as aerial
torpedoes. In other cases the helicopter has been used
solely for sensing and rocket delivered torpedoes used as
the weapon. Surface ships continue to be a main ASW
platform because of their endurance, now having towed
array sonars. Submarines are the main ASW platform because of their ability to change depth and their quietness,
which aids detection.
[12] McKee, p.49.

[13] McKee, p.50.
[14] McKee, p.49.
[15] McKee, p.49.
[16] Price, Alfred. Aircraft versus the Submarine
[17]
French Foucault bombed and sunk by Austrian aircraft,15 Sept 1915.

British B 10 sunk at moorings by Austrian aircraft,
9 August 1916.
German UC 32 bombed and sunk by RNAS seaplane, 22 September 1917.
British D 3 bombed in error by French airship, 12
March 1918.
In the future unmanned vehicles may be used in the ASW

role. In early 2010 DARPA began funding the ACTUV [18] Price, Alfred, Aircraft versus the Submarine (William
Kimber, 1973)
programme to develop a semi-autonomous oceangoing
unmanned naval vessel.
[19] Preston, p134
Today some nations have seabed listening devices capable [20] In fact, Otto Kretschmer expressly forbade diving to avoid
of tracking submarines. It is known to be possible to debeing detected by sonar. See The Golden Horseshoes.
tect man-made marine noises across the southern Indian
Ocean from South Africa to New Zealand. Some of the [21] Gordon Williamson Wolf Pack - the story of the U=boats
in World War II p.216-217 Osprey Publishing 2005
SOSUS arrays have been turned over to civilian use and
[31]
are now used for marine research.
[22] Langford, Thomas, and Spencer C. Tucker. Anti-
2.3 See also

Modern Naval tactics
Submarine Warfare.in Encyclopedia of World War II: A

Political, Social, and Military History, edited by Spencer
C. Tucker, 105-108. Oxford : ABC-CLIO,2005.
[23] Hutchinson, Robert Janes Submarines: War Beneath the
Waves page 100, 110, Harper Collins 2001
12
[24] http://www.combinedfleet.com/type_b1.htm
[25] Masahaya, Pearl Harbor Papers, himself calls IJN ASW
eorts shiftless.
[26] Parillo, Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II. U.S.
Naval Institute Press, 1993
[27] Blair, Clay, Silent Victory (Vol.1), The Naval Institute
Press, 2001
[28] Lanning, Michael Lee (Lt. Col.), Senseless Secrets: The
Failures of U.S. Military Intelligence from George Washington to the Present, Carol Publishing Group, 1995
[29] Hutchinson, Robert Janes Submarines: War Beneath the
Waves page 114-115 Harper Collins 2001
[30] Price, Alfred. Aircraft versus the Submarine. (London:
William Kimber, 1973).
[31] National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration VENTS
project Website
Abbbatiello, John, ASW in World War I, 2005.

Blair, Clay, Silent Victory . Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975.
Compton-Hall, Richard, Submarine Boats, the beginnings of underwater warfare, Windward, 1983.
Franklin, George, Britains ASW Capability, 2003.
Lanning, Michael Lee (Lt. Col.), Senseless Secrets: The Failures of U.S. Military Intelligence from
George Washington to the Present, Carol Publishing
Group, 1995.
Llewellyn-Jones, Malcolm, The RN and ASW
(1917-49), 2007.
Parillo, Mark. Japanese Merchant Marine in World
War II. Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1993.
Preston, Anthony, The Worlds Greatest Submarines,
2005.
Price, Alfred. Aircraft versus the Submarine. London: William Kimber, 1973.
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) VENTS Website
2.5 External links

Bob Zimmerman, Antisubmarine Warfare, September 1969
Innovation in the U.S. Navys Silent Cold War Struggle with Soviet Submarines
Chapter 3
Attack helicopter
A British Apache res rockets at insurgents in Afghanistan in

2008.
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and
armoured ghting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament
they are sometimes called helicopter gunships.
Weapons used on attack helicopters can include
autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided
anti-tank missiles such as the Hellre. Many attack helicopters are also capable of carrying air-to-air missiles,
though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays
attack helicopter has two main roles: rst, to provide
direct and accurate close air support for ground troops,
and the second, in the anti-tank role to destroy enemy
armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also used
to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role.
In combat, an attack helicopter is projected to destroy
around 17 times its own production cost before it is
destroyed.[1]
3.1 Background and development

Low-speed, xed wing Allied aircraft like the Soviet
Polikarpov Po-2 training and utility biplane had been
used as early as 1942 to provide night harassment attack
capability against the Wehrmacht Heer on the Eastern
Front, most eectively in the Battle of the Caucasus as
exemplied by the Night Witches all-female Soviet air
unit.[2] Following Operation Overlord in 1944, the military version of the similarly slow-ying Piper J-3 Cub
high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, begun to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S.
Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft
were eld-outtted with either two or four bazooka rocket
launchers attached to the lift struts,[3] against German armored ghting vehicles. During the summer of 1944,
U.S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to successfully take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed
Piper L-4. His L-4, named Rosie the Rocketeer, armed
with six bazookas, had a notable anti-armor success during an engagement during the Battle of Arracourt on
September 20, 1944, knocking out at least four German
armored vehicles,[4] as a pioneering example of taking
on heavy enemy armor from a slow-ying aircraft.[5] This
role was something that was also likely to be achievable
after World War II, from the increasing numbers of postwar military helicopter designs. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4,
was only being used for rescue and were still very much
experimental in nature.
In the early 1950s various countries around the world
started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was
realised that these helicopters, successors to the World
War II-era Sikorsky R-4, could be armed with weapons
in order to provide them with limited combat capability.
Early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service
with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service
with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into
the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and
Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, to this day the pair
of most produced helicopter designs in aviation history.
These helicopters proved to be moderately successful in
these congurations, but due to a lack of armor protection
and speed, they were ultimately ineective platforms for
mounting weapons in higher-threat ground combat environments.
Since the 1960s various countries around the world
started to design and develop various types of helicopters
with the purpose of providing a heavily armed and protected aerial vehicle that can perform a variety of combat
roles, from reconnaissance to aerial assault missions.
By the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter
evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly
13
14
CHAPTER 3. ATTACK HELICOPTER
move about the battleeld and launch eeting pop-up attacks, helicopters presented a major threat even with the
presence of organic air defenses. The helicopter gunship
became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the
antitank mission.[6]
completed its rst ight and initial ight evaluations. And

while the Cheyenne program suered setbacks over the
next few years due to technical problems, the Cobra was
establishing itself as an eective aerial weapons platform,
despite its performance shortcomings compared to the
AH-56[7] and design issues of its own. By 1972, when
the Cheyenne program was eventually cancelled to make
way for the Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH),[7] the
interim AH-1 Snake had built a solid reputation as an
3.1.1 United States
attack helicopter. In June 1972 the USMC began deployIn the mid-1960s the U.S. Army concluded that a ing AH-1J SeaCobra Attack Helicopters for combat oppurpose-built attack helicopter with more speed and re- erations in South Vietnam.
power than current armed helicopters was required in the During the late 1970s the U.S. Army saw the need of
face of increasingly intense ground re (often using heavy more sophistication within the attack helicopter corps,
machine guns and anti-tank rockets) from Viet Cong and allowing them to operate in all weather conditions.[8]
NVA troops. Based on this realization, and with the With that the Advanced Attack Helicopter program was
growing involvement in Vietnam, the U.S. Army devel- started.[9] From this program the Hughes YAH-64 came
oped the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter, out as the winner. The prototype YAH-64 was rst own
the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System (AAFSS). The on 30 September 1975. The U.S. Army selected the
aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, and later apLockheeds AH-56 Cheyenne.[7]
proved full production in 1982. After purchasing Hughes
Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U.S. Army service in April 1986.
Today, the US attack helicopter has been further rened,
and the AH-64D Apache Longbow demonstrates many
of the advanced technologies being considered for deployment on future gunships. The US Marine Corps also
continued to employ attack helicopters in the direct re
support role, in the form of the AH-1 Super Cobra. While
helicopters were eective tank-killers in the Middle East,
attack helicopters are being seen more in a multipurpose
role. Tactics, such as tank plinking, showed that xedPrototype of the AH-1, the rst dedicated attack helicopter, and wing aircraft could be eective against tanks, but helicopters retained a unique low-altitude, low-speed caa canonical example to this day
pability for close air support. Other purpose-built heliAs the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack copters were developed for special operations missions,
helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over including the MH-6 for extremely close support.
the continued use of improvised interim aircraft (such as
the UH-1B/C). In late 1965, a panel of high-level ocers was selected to evaluate several prototype versions 3.1.2 Soviet Union and its successor states
of armed and attack helicopters to determine which provided the most signicant increase in capability to the
UH-1B. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky
S-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 Cobra, were selected to compete in ight trials conducted
by the Armys Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion
of the ight evaluations, the Test Activity recommended
Bells Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was elded. On 13 April 1966, the U.S.
Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production
contract for 110 AH-1G Cobras.[7] The Cobra had a tandem cockpit seating arrangement (vs UH-1 side-by-side)
to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, increased armor protection, and greater speed.
In 1967, the rst AH-1Gs were deployed to Vietnam, Mil Mi-24P, a later production variant of the Mi-24. These heli[10]
around the same time that the Cheyenne successfully copters were used extensively in the Soviet war in Afghanistan.
3.1. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT
15
During the early 1960s, Soviet engineers started experimenting with various designs aimed at producing an
aerial vehicle that can provide battleeld mobility for infantry and provide re support to army forces on the
ground. The rst of these concepts was a mock-up unveiled in 1966 in the experimental shop of the Ministry
of Aircrafts factory number 329 where Soviet designer,
Mikhail Leont'yevich Mil, was head designer. The mockup, which was designated V-24, was based on another
project, the V-22 utility helicopter, which itself never entered production. The V-24 had an infantry transport
compartment that could hold eight troops sitting back to
back, and a set of small wings positioned to the top rear
of the passenger cabin, capable of holding up to six mis- A Russian Mil Mi-28N. The Mil Mi-28 along with the Ka-50
represented the rst dedicated attack helicopter of the Soviet Air
siles or rocket pods and a twin-barrel GSh-23L cannon
Forces in the 1980s.
xed to the landing skid.
These designs were proposed by Mil to the Soviet armed
forces, and while he had the support of a number of
strategists, he was opposed by several more senior members of the armed forces who believed that conventional
weapons were a better use of resources. Despite the opposition, Mil managed to persuade the defence ministers
rst deputy, Marshal Andrey A. Grechko, to convene an
expert panel to look into the matter. While the panels
opinions were mixed, supporters of the project eventually held sway and a request for design proposals for a
battleeld support helicopter was issued.[11]
sign work on the Mi-28 began under Marat Tishchenko

in 1980.[13] In 1981, a design and a mock-up were accepted. The prototype (no. 012) was rst own on 10
November 1982.[13] In this same time frame, Kamov was
also attempting to submit its own designs for a new helicopter to the military, which they had designed throughout the early and mid 1980s. In 1984, the Mi-28 completed the rst stage of state trials, but in October 1984
the Soviet Air Force chose the more advanced Kamov
Ka-50 as the new anti-tank helicopter. The Mi-28 development was continued, but given lower priority. In December 1987 Mi-28 production in Rosvertol in Rostov on
Don was approved. After several prototypes were built,
production ceased in 1993 with additional development
continuing into the 21st century. Changes in the military
situation after the Cold War made specialized anti-tank
helicopters less useful. The advantages of the Mi-28N,
like all-weather action ability, lower cost, and similarity
to the Mi-24, have become more important. In 2003, the
head of Russian Air Force stated that the Mi-28N and
Ka-50 attack helicopters will become the standard Russian attack helicopter.[14] The rst serial Mi-28N was delivered to the Army on 5 June 2006.
The development of gunships and attack helicopters by

the US Army during the Vietnam War convinced the Soviets of the advantages of armed helicopter ground support doctrine, which had a positive inuence on moving
forward with the development of the Mil Mi-24. After
several mock-ups were produced, a directive was issued
on 6 May 1968 to proceed with development of a twinengine design of the helicopter. Work proceeded under
Mil until his death in 1970. Detailed design work began
in August 1968 under the codename Yellow 24. A fullscale mock-up of the design was reviewed and approved
in February 1969. Flight tests with a prototype began on
15 September 1969 with a tethered hover, and four days
later the rst free ight was conducted. A second prototype was built, followed by a test batch of ten helicopters. 3.1.3
A number of other design changes were made until the
production version Mi-24A entered production in 1970,
obtaining its initial operating capability in 1971 and was
ocially accepted into the state arsenal in 1972.
Peoples Republic of China
In 1972, following completion of the Mi-24, development

began on a unique attack helicopter with transport capability. The new design had a reduced transport capability
(3 troops instead of 8) and was called the Mil Mi-28, and
that of the Ka-50 attack helicopter, which is smaller and
more maneuverable and does not have the large cabin for
carrying troops.[12]
In 1977, a preliminary design of the Mil Mi-28 was chosen, in a classic single-rotor layout. Its transport capability was removed and it lost its similarity to the Mi-24. De- A CAIC WZ-10 attack helicopter at the 2012 Zhuhai Airshow
16

on the light helicopters then in service. The 602nd and
608th Research Institutes started development of the 6ton class China Medium Helicopter (CHM) program[15]
in 1994. The program was promoted as a civilian project,
and was able to secure signicant Western technical assistance, such as from Eurocopter (rotor installation design consultancy), Pratt & Whitney Canada (PT6C turboshaft engine) and Agusta Westland (transmission).[16]
The Chinese concentrated on areas where it could not obtain foreign help. The 602nd Research Institutes called
its proposed armed helicopter design the WZ-10 (Wu Zhi
( , literally Armed Helicopter)10).
A Harbin Z-19 at the China Helicopter Exposition, Tianjin 2013
In 1979, the Chinese military studied the problem of

countering large armor formations. It concluded that the
best conventional solution was to use attack helicopters.
Eight Arospatiale Gazelle armed with Euromissile HOT
were procured for evaluation. By the mid-1980s, the Chinese decided a dedicated attack helicopter was required.
At the time, they used civilian helicopters converted for
the military; these were no longer adequate in the attack
role, and suitable only as scouts. Following this, China
evaluated the Agusta A129 Mangusta, and in 1988 secured an agreement with the USA to purchase AH-1 Cobras and a license to produce BGM-71 TOW missiles;
the latter was cancelled following the Tiananmen Square
protests of 1989 and the resulting arms embargo. The
color revolutions prevented the purchase of attack helicopters from Eastern Europe in 1990 and 1991; Bulgaria
and Russia rejected Chinese oers to purchase the Mil
Mi-24.
While attempting to import foreign designs failed, war
games determined that attack helicopters had to be commanded by the army, rather than the air force. This led
to the formation of the Peoples Liberation Army Ground
Force Aircraft (PLAGFAF), with an initial strength of 9
Harbin Z-9s. The PLAGFAF conducted tactical experiments that would help dene the future Z-10s requirements. Research also decided that anti-tank missiles like
the BGM-71 TOW were inadequate, and favored an analogue to the AGM-114 Hellre.
The 602nd Research Institute was assigned as the chief

designer, while Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (HAMC) of China Aviation Industry Corporation
II (AVIC II) was assigned as the primary manufacturer.
Nearly four dozen other establishments participated in
the program. According to Chinese sources, the initial test ights were concluded on December 17, 2003,
whereas according to other sources they were completed
nine months earlier in March 2003. According to Janes
Information Group, a total of 3 prototypes had completed
over 400 hours of test ights by this time. By 2004, 3
more prototypes were built, for a total of 6, and a second stage of test ights were concluded on December 15,
2004. In one of the test ights the future commanderin-chief of the Peoples Liberation Army Ground Force
Air Force (PLAGAF), Song Xiangsheng (
), was on
board the prototype. A third stage of intensive test ights
followed, taking place during both day and night. By January 2006 weaponry and sensor tests, including ring of
live ammunition, had taken place. The helicopter was
introduced to the general public in December 2010 and
subsequently entered service with the Peoples Liberation
Army.[17]
3.1.4 France, Germany and Spain

In 1984, the French and West German governments issued a requirement for an advanced multirole battleeld
helicopter. A joint venture consisting of Arospatiale
and MBB was subsequently chosen as the preferred
supplier.[18] According to statements by the French
Defence Minister Andr Giraud in April 1986, the collaborative eort had become more expensive than an individual national programme and was forecast to take
longer to complete as well. In July 1986, a government
report into the project alleged that the development had
become distanced from the requirements and preferences
of the military customers the Tiger was being developed
for.[18]
The Gulf War highlighted the urgent need for attack helicopters, and revalidated the assessment that a purposebuilt design was needed. (At the time, the Chinese military depended on armed utility helicopters such as the
Changhe Z-11 and Harbin Z-9.) Also, it demonstrated
that the new attack helicopter would need to be able to
defend itself against other helicopters and aircraft. The
military perceived that once the new attack helicopter en- Both France and Germany reorganised the programme.
tered service, the existing helicopters would be used as Thomson CSF also took over the majority of the Tigers
scouts.
electronic development work, such as the visual systems
The Armed Helicopter Developmental Work Team and sensors.[18] Despite the early development problems
(
) was formed to develop a new medium and the political uncertainty between 1984 and 1986, the
helicopter design, as opposed to basing the new design program was formally relaunched in November 1987; it
3.1. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT
17
was at this point that a greater emphasis on the attack helicopters anti-tank capabilities came about.[19] Much of
the projects organisational framework was rapidly redeveloped between 1987 and 1989; such as the installation
of a Franco-German Helicopter Oce to act as a program executive agency in May 1989.[20]
Indias HAL Light Combat Helicopter under development
Air Force and the Indian Army found that there was a
need for helicopters that can operate at such high-altitude
conditions with ease.[28] Limitations from operating with
high payloads and restricted maneuverability of Mil Mi35 led India to the develop the HAL Light Combat Helicopter and HAL Rudra for multi-role high-altitude combat operations.[29] These helicopters will be used by the
Indian Air Force and the Indian Armys Aviation Corps.
A
French
Eurocopter
(Panzerabwehrhubschrauber)
Tiger
attack
helicopter
Due to the end of the Cold War and subsequent defence

budgets decreases in the 1990s, nancial pressures led
to further questions regarding the necessity for the entire
program. In 1992, Arospatiale and MBB, among other
companies, merged to form the Eurocopter Group; this
led to considerable consolidation of the aerospace industry and the Tiger project itself.[21] A major agreement was
struck in December 1996 between France and Germany
that cemented the Tigers prospects and committed the
development of supporting elements, such as a series of
new generation missile designs for use by the new combat
helicopter.[22]
3.1.6 Italy
In 1972, the Italian Army began forming a requirement for a light observation and anti-tank helicopter.
Agusta had initially studied the development of a combatorientated derivative of their existing A109 helicopter,
however they decided to proceed with the development of
a more ambitious helicopter design.[30] In 1978, Agusta
formally began the design process on what would become the Agusta A129 Mangusta.[31] On 11 September
1983, the rst of ve A129 prototypes made the types
maiden ight; the fth prototype would rst y in March
1986. The Italian Army placed an order for a total of 60
A129s.[30]
On 18 June 1999, both Germany and France publicly

placed orders for an initial batch of 160 Tiger helicopters, 80 for each nation, valued at 3.3 billion.[23] 3.1.7
On 22 March 2002, the rst production Tiger was rolled
out in a large ceremony held at Eurocopters Donauworth factory; although production models began initial acceptance trials in 2003, the rst ocial delivery
to the French Army took place on 18 March 2005; the
rst ocial Tiger delivery to the Germany followed on
6 April 2005.[24] Germany reduced its order to 57 in
March 2013.[25] In 2008 OCCAR estimated the project
cost at 7.3 billion.[26] Frances FY2012 budget put
their share of the project at 6.3bn (~US$8.5bn),[27] implying a programme cost of 14.5bn (~US$19.5bn) to
the three main partners. At FY2012 prices, their 40
HAP cost 27m/unit (~US$36m) and their 40 HAD
35.6m/unit (~US$48m), including development costs
the French Tigers cost 78.8m (~US$106m) each.[27]
3.1.5
India
South Africa
A Denel Rooivalk attack helicopter, in service with the South

African Air Force
The Indian Army deploys the Mil Mi-35 and HAL Rudra The Rooivalk project began in early 1984 under the ausas of 2014. During the Kargil War in 1999, the Indian pices of the Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a predecessor
18
of Denel Aviation. Faced with the increasingly conventional nature of the South African Border War, the South
African Defence Force recognised the need for a dedicated attack helicopter and accordingly set along the process of developing a suitable aircraft.
The Atlas XH-1 Alpha was the rst prototype to emerge
from the program. It was developed from an Arospatiale
Alouette III airframe, retaining that helicopters engine
and dynamic components, but replacing the original
cockpit with a stepped tandem one, adding a 20 mm cannon on the nose and converting the undercarriage to taildragger conguration. The XH-1 rst ew on 3 February
1985. The results were ultimately good enough to convince Atlas and the SAAF that the concept was feasible, Above, a U.S Army's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter and below,
opening the door for the development of the Rooivalk.
an OH-58D armed scout helicopter
During the Rooivalks development it was decided to
base the aircraft on the dynamic components of the
Arospatiale Super Puma,[32] a larger and more powerful helicopter. These components were already used on
the Atlas Oryx, a local upgrade and modication of the
Arospatiale Puma.[33]
troops. Hellre missile and cannon attacks by Apache helicopters destroyed many enemy tanks and armored cars.
The deep attack role of independently operating attack

helicopters came into question after a failed mission, dur[39]
Unfortunately the development of the Rooivalk contin- ing the 2003 Gulf War attack on the Karbala Gap. A
but coorued until after the conclusion of the South African Bor- second mission in the same area, four days later,
[40]
dinated
with
artillery
and
xed-wing
aircraft,
was far
der War and defence budgets were slashed due to parmore
successful
with
minimal
losses.
liamentary changes to the requirements of the national
air force. This resulted in an extensive development and
production period beginning in 1990 until 2007, during
which 12 aircraft were produced for use by the South
African Air Force. These aircraft were subsequently upgraded to the Block 1F standard by 2011. The upgrade
involves improved targeting systems and other avionics
which enable the helicopter to use guided missiles for the
rst time. The Mokopa ATGM was qualied as part of
the upgrade process.[34] Gearbox components were improved and cooling problems with the F2 20 mm cannon
were also addressed.
On 1 April 2011, the South African Air Force received
the rst ve of eleven (one of the twelve aircraft originally
delivered to the SAAF was written o after an accident)
Block 1F upgraded Rooivalk.[35][36] The ninth and tenth
Rooivalk attack helicopters were delivered in September
2012 following their upgrade to the Block 1F initial operating standard.[37] The eleventh and nal Rooivalk was
delivered on 13 March 2013.[38]
European Eurocopter Tiger of the German Army
In 2011, France and Britain sent Eurocopter Tiger and

AgustaWestland Apache attack helicopters to Libya. The
primary objective of the 2011 military intervention was
to protect civilians in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Within days of the Apaches deployment, it had completed a variety of tasks such as destroying tanks, checkpoints held by pro-Gadda forces and ve3.2 In action
hicles carrying ammunitions loyal to Muammar Gadda.
The 1990s could be seen as the coming-of-age for the The attack helicopters were reported to be far more eecU.S. attack helicopter. The AH-64 Apache was used ex- tive than the ghter jets which had previously been given
tensively during Operation Desert Storm with great suc- the task of completing the aforementioned tasks.
cess. Apaches red the rst shots of the war, destroy- In 2013, the South African National Defence Force aning enemy early warning radar and SAM sites with their nounced that it would deploy Denel Rooivalk attack heliHellre missiles. They were later used successfully in copters to the Democratic Republic of the Congo to supboth of their operational roles, to direct attack against port the United Nations Organization Stabilization Misenemy armor and as aerial artillery in support of ground sion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This
3.4. COMPARISON
was the rst combat deployment for the helicopter.[41]
Three helicopters from 16 Squadron SAAF were deployed to the region and since November 2013 it was
involved in heavy ghting alongside the United Nations
Force Intervention Brigade, against rebels operating in
North Kivu, in particular the M23 militia, which consisted of hardened former government troops equipped
with relatively heavy weaponry such as main battle tanks
and anti-aircraft weaponry. During its rst ever combat mission it proved to be instrumental in routing the
rebels from their hilltop strongholds during an oensive
by the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade and the
Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[42][43]
3.3 Types
19
Boeing AH-64 Apache
AgustaWestland Apache
CAIC WZ-10
Denel Rooivalk
HAL Light Combat Helicopter
Harbin Z-19
Kamov Ka-50/Ka-52
Mil Mi-28
Eurocopter Tiger
Mil Mi-24 Hind
3.4 Comparison
3.4.1 Dimensions
3.4.2 Performance
3.5 See also

Armed helicopter
Army aviation
Gunship
A Russian Ka-50
3.6 References
[1] Frank
Barnaby
(2010).
main+battle+tank"#v=onepage&q="main
battle
tank"&f=false The role and control of weapons in the
1990s. Psychology Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-203-16831-3.
Retrieved 14 February 2011.
[2] Noggle, Anne; White, Christine (2001). A Dance with
Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. Texas A&M
University Press. pp. 2021. ISBN 1-58544-177-5.
Above, an Indian HAL Light Combat Helicopter at Aero India

show 2011
Modern examples include:
AgustaWestland AW129
TAI/AgustaWestland T129
Bell AH-1 Cobra
Bell AH-1Z Viper
[3] Francis, Devon E., Mr. Piper and His Cubs, Iowa State
University Press, ISBN 0-8138-1250-X, 9780813812502
(1973), p. 117.
[4] Gantt, Marlene, Riding His Piper Cub Through The Skies
Over France, Bazooka Charlie Fought A One-man War,
World War II Magazine, September 1987
[5] Fountain, Paul, The Maytag Messerschmitts, Flying Magazine, March 1945, p. 90
[6] Mazarella, Mark N. Adequacy of U.S. Army Attack Helicopter Doctrine to Support the Scope of Attack Helicopter Operations in a Multi-Polar World. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Sta
College, 1994. Accessed on 12 December 2007.
20
[7] An Abridged History of the Army Attack Helicopter

Program. Oce of the Assistant Vice Chief of Sta of
the Army (Department of the Army). 1973.
[8] ADVANCED ATTACK HELICOPTER OPERATIONS
IN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS - Ocial US Army
video at Real Military Flix
[9] Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) (1970-1981). Global
Security
[10] Glantz, David M. The Triumph of Maneuver War - Soviet Operational Art Since 1936. US Army Center of
Military History. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
[11] Culhane, Kevin V. (1977). Student research report: The
Soviet attack helicopter (PDF). DTIC. Retrieved 1 July
2011.
[12] Yem Gordon & Dmitry Komissarov (2001). Mil Mi-24,
Attack Helicopter. Airlife.
[13] Frawley, Gerald. Mil Mi-28. The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003, p. 128. Aerospace
Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[14] " " 28 October 2004.
Lenta.ru
[15] Hewson, Robert, Chinas Z-10 helicopter built on Western expertise, Janes Defence Weekly, 13 April 2005
[16] Janes Helicopter Markets & Systems.
[17] Chinas 1st attack helo goes operational? - The DEW Line
[31] Frawley, Gerald. AgustaWestland A129 Mangusta.

The International Directory of Military Aircraft,
2002/2003. Aerospace Publications, 2002. ISBN
1-875671-55-2.
[32] Dely, Frans (2004). Soaring with Eagles (no page numbers, section on 16 Sqdn). Avpix Publishing Pty Ltd. ISBN
0-620-32806-1.
[33] Campbell, Keith (2007-06-08). What went wrong with
the Rooivalk?". Engineering News.
[34] Denels Mokopa PGM ready for market. DefenceWeb.
2011-01-26. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[35] SAAF ceremonially receives Rooivalk. DefenceWeb.
2011-04-01. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[36] First ve Rooivalk now in service. DefenceWeb. 201104-04. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[37] David Donald (2012-09-28). Gripen, Rooivalk Deliveries Bring SAAF up to Strength | Aviation International
News. Ainonline.com. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[38] Final Rooivalk Handover Cements Relationship Between
Denel and SAAF. defenceweb.co.za. Retrieved 201303-15.
[39] Scarborough, Ryan (April 2003). Apache operation a
lesson in defeat; Army choppers hit without air cover.
Washington Times
[40] O'Rourke, Ryan (June 4, 2003). Iraq War: Defense Program Implications for Congress (PDF). Congressional
Research Service. p. CRS36. Retrieved 2007-12-12
[18] Krotz 2001, p. 130.

[19] Krotz 2011, p. 131.
[20] Krotz 2011, p. 133.
[21] Krotz 2011, pp. 133-135.
[22] Krotz 2011, p. 147.
[23] Krotz 2011, pp. 132, 149.
[41] Exclusive: Rooivalk is going to DRC. DefenceWeb.

2013-10-11. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
[42] Mohlaoli, Tumaole. ""It was clear that the rebels didn't
expect us -- SANDF pilot. eNCA report. eNCA. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
[43] Olivier, Darren (2013-11-05). Rooivalk attack helicopters perform well in rst combat action against M23.
African Defence Review. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
[24] Krotz 2011, p. 154.

[25] Germany nalises cuts to NH90, Tiger helicopter orders. Flightglobal.com, 18 March 2013.
[26] Tran, Pierre. Eurocopter: Despite Slow Economy, Tiger
Helo Deliveries On Track. Defense News, 29 Jan 2013.
[27] Projet de loi de nances pour 2013 : Dfense :
quipement des forces (in French). Senate of France. 22
November 2012. Retrieved 2013-11-07.
3.6.1 Further reading

Duke, R.A., Helicopter Operations in Algeria [Trans.
French], Dept. of the Army (1959)
France, Operations Research Group, Report of the
Operations Research Mission on H-21 Helicopter
(1957)
[29] Aero India: Indias indigenous combat chopper
Leuliette, Pierre, St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper, New York:Houghton Miin
(1964)
[30] Donald, David, ed. Agusta A 129 Mangusta. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Noble
Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
Riley, David, French Helicopter Operations in Algeria Marine Corps Gazette, February 1958, pp. 21
26.
[28] Light combat copters maiden ight a success
3.6. REFERENCES
Shrader, Charles R. The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962 Westport,
CT: Praeger Publishers (1999)
Spenser, Jay P., Whirlybirds: A History of the
U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, Seattle, WA: University of
Washington Press (1998)
21
Chapter 4

This article is about the twin-engine models of the Bell
Cobra family. For the single-engine models, see Bell
AH-1 Cobra.
For an overview of the whole Huey family of aircraft,
see Bell Huey family.
The Bell AH-1 SuperCobra is a twin-engine attack helicopter based on the United States Army's AH-1 Cobra.
The twin Cobra family includes the AH-1J SeaCobra,
the AH-1T Improved SeaCobra, and the AH-1W SuperCobra. The AH-1W is the backbone of the United
States Marine Corps's attack helicopter eet, but it will
be replaced in service by the Bell AH-1Z Viper upgrade. An AH-1T Sea Cobra prepares to land aboard the amphibious
assault ship Iwo Jima.
4.1 Design and development
with an upgraded transmission and engines from the 309.

Bell designed the AH-1T to be more reliable and easier
to maintain in the eld. The version was given full TOW
missile capability with targeting system and other sensors.
An advanced version, known as the AH-1T+ with more
powerful T700-GE-700 engines and advanced avionics
was proposed to Iran in the late 1970s, but the overthrow
of the Shah of Iran resulted in the sale being canceled.[4]
The AH-1 Cobra was developed in the mid-1960s as an

interim gunship for the U.S. Army for use during the
Vietnam War. The Cobra shared the proven transmission, rotor system, and the T53 turboshaft engine of the
UH-1 Huey.[2] By June 1967, the rst AH-1G HueyCobras had been delivered. Bell built 1,116 AH-1Gs for
the U.S. Army between 1967 and 1973, and the Cobras In the early 1980s, the U.S. Marine Corps sought a new
chalked up over a million operational hours in Vietnam.[2]
navalized helicopter, but it was denied funding to buy
The U.S. Marine Corps was very interested in the AH-1G the AH-64 Apache by Congress in 1981. The Marines
Cobra, but it preferred a twin-engine version for improved in turn pursued a more powerful version of the AH-1T.
safety in over-water operations, and also wanted a more Other changes included modied re control systems to
potent turret-mounted weapon. At rst, the Department carry and re AIM-9 Sidewinder and AGM-114 Hellre
of Defense had balked at providing the Marines with a missiles. The new version was funded by Congress and
twin-engine version of the Cobra, in the belief that com- received the AH-1W designation.[4] Deliveries of AHmonality with Army AH-1Gs outweighed the advantages 1W SuperCobras totaled 179 new-built helicopters plus
of a dierent engine t. However, the Marines won out 43 upgrades of AH-1Ts.[5]
and awarded Bell a contract for 49 twin-engine AH-1J The AH-1T+ demonstrator and AH-1W prototype was
SeaCobras in May 1968. As an interim measure, the U.S. later tested with a new experimental composite four blade
Army passed on 38 AH-1Gs to the Marines in 1969.[3] main rotor system. The new system oered better perforThe AH-1J also received a more powerful gun turret. It mance, reduced noise and improved battle damage tolerfeatured a three barrel 20 mm XM197 cannon that was ance. Lacking a USMC contract, Bell developed this new
based on the six barrel M61 Vulcan cannon.[4]
design into the AH-1Z with its own funds. By 1996, the
The Marine Corps requested greater load carrying capability in high temperatures for the Cobra in the 1970s.
Bell used systems from its Model 309 to develop the AH1T. This version had a lengthened tailboom and fuselage
Marines were again not allowed to order the AH-64.[4]

Developing a marine version of the Apache would have
been expensive and it was likely that the Marine Corps
would be its only customer.[2] They instead signed a con-
22
4.2. OPERATIONAL HISTORY

tract for upgrading 180 AH-1Ws into AH-1Zs.[4]
The AH-1Z Viper features several design changes. The
AH-1Zs two redesigned wing stubs are longer with each
adding a wing-tip station for a missile such as the AIM-9
Sidewinder. Each wing has two other stations for 70 mm
(2.75 in) Hydra rocket pods, or AGM-114 Hellre quad
missile launcher. The Longbow radar can be mounted on
a wing tip station.[2]
23
losses. However, three AH-1s were lost to accidents during and after the combat operations. The AH-1W units
were credited with destroying 97 tanks, 104 armored personnel carriers and vehicles, and two anti-aircraft artillery
sites during the 100-hour ground campaign.[4]
4.2 Operational history

4.2.1
United States
U.S. Marine AH-1W SuperCobras refuel in April 2003, during

the invasion of Iraq.
A Super cobra ies past the USS Fort McHenry during a Search
and Seizure (VBSS) drill
During the closing months of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War, the Marine Corps embarked the AH-1J SeaCobra assigned to HMA-369
(now HMLA-369) aboard Denver, Cleveland, and later
Dubuque, for sea-based interdiction of the Ho Chi
Minh Trail in North Vietnam in the vicinity of Hon La
(Tiger) Island. These were termed Marine Hunter-Killer
(MARHUK) Operations and lasted from June to December 1972.[6]
Marine Cobras took part in the invasion of Grenada, during Operation Urgent Fury in 1983, ying close-support
and helicopter escort missions. Two Marine AH-1Ts
were shot down and three crew members killed.[4] The
Marines also deployed the AH-1 o the coast of Beirut,
Lebanon in 1983, during that nations civil war. The AH1s were armed with Sidewinder missiles and guns as an
emergency air defense measure against the threat of light
civil aircraft employed by suicide bombers.[7]
Marine Cobras provided support for the US humanitarian

intervention in Somalia, during Operation Restore Hope
in 1992-1993. They were also employed during the U.S.
invasion of Haiti in 1994. USMC Cobras were used in
U.S. military interventions in the former Yugoslavia in
the 1990s, and assisted in the rescue of USAF Captain
Scott O'Grady, after his F-16 was shot down by a SAM
in June 1995.
AH-1 Cobras continue to operate with the U.S. Marine Corps. USMC Cobras were also used in operations
throughout the 1990s.[4] USMC Cobras have also served
in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and in
Operation Iraqi Freedom in the conict in Iraq. While
new replacement aircraft were considered as an alternative to major upgrades of the AH-1 eet, Marine Corps
studies showed that an upgrade was the most aordable,
most supportable and most eective solution for the Marine Corps light attack helicopter mission.[9]
During the March 2003 Iraq campaign, 46 of 58 USMC
Cobras took battle damage, mostly from infantry-type
weapons.[10]
On 19 September 2011, an AH-1W crashed during training exercises at Camp Pendleton, California, killing the
two Marine crewmembers on board.[11] An investigation into the crash determined that it was caused by bird
strike.[12] The aircraft collided with a Red-tailed Hawk,
the impact damaging the pitch change link which in turn
USMC Cobras provided escort in the Persian Gulf in the produced vibrations to the rotors so erce that they caused
and rotors to break o from the helilate 1980s while the IranIraq War was ongoing. The Co- the transmission
[12]
copter
body.
bras sank three Iranian patrol boats while losing one AH1T to Iranian anti-aircraft re.[4] USMC Cobras from
Saipan ew top cover during an evacuation of Amer4.2.2 Iran
ican and other foreign nationals from Liberia in 1990.[4]
During the Gulf War, 78 Marine SuperCobras deployed, In 1971, Iran purchased 202 of an improved AH-1J,
and ew a total of 1,273 sorties in Iraq[8] with no combat named AH-1J International, from the United States.[13]
24
CHAPTER 4. BELL AH-1 SUPERCOBRA

public of Iran Army and have undergone indigenous upgrade programs.
4.2.3 Taiwan
Iranian AH-1Js during the 1970s
In 1984, the Republic of China (Taiwan) announced

a requirement for attack helicopters and evaluated the
MBB Bo 105 and MD 500 helicopters. The requirement formed into an order for 42 AH-1W SuperCobras
by 1992. Deliveries of these went from 1993-1997. Another 21 AH-1Ws was ordered in 1997. The Ministry
of National Defense assigned the helicopters to the ROC
Army Aviation Training Centre and two Army Aviation
attack helicopter brigades.[21]
This improved Cobra featured an uprated P&WC T400WV-402 engine and stronger drivetrain. Recoil damping
gear was tted to the 20 mm gun turret, and the gunner
was given a stabilized sight and even a stabilized chair. 4.2.4 Turkey
Of the AH-1Js delivered to the Shahs Imperial Iranian
Army, 62 were TOW-capable.[14]
Turkey bought ten AH-1W SuperCobras in the early
1990s, and supplemented with 32 ex-US Army AH1 Cobras.[21] The AH-1s have been used against the
Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) rebels.[22] In late 2011,
Turkey requested the purchase of three AH-1Ws from
the USMC inventory.[23][24]
4.3 Variants
4.3.1 Single-engine
An AH-1J of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army in ight
For AH-1G, AH-1Q through AH-1S/P/E/F

and other single-engine variants, see Bell AH-1
Cobra.
Iranian AH-1Js participated in the IranIraq War. The

helicopters engaged in air-to-air combat with Iraqi Mil 4.3.2 Twin-engine
Mi-24s on several, separate occasions during the war.
The results of these engagements are disputed. One document cited that Iranian AH-1Js took on Iraqi Mi-8 and
Mi-24 helicopters.[15] Sources report that the Iranian AH1 pilots achieved a 10:1 kill ratio over the Iraqi helicopter
pilots during these engagements (1:5). Additionally, Iranian AH-1 and Iraqi xed-wing aircraft engagements also
occurred. One source states that 10 Iranian AH-1Js were
lost in combat, compared to six Iraqi Mi-24s during the
eight-year war. The skirmishes are described as fairly
evenly matched in another source.[16] Iranian AH-1Js destroyed hundreds of Iraqi armored vehicles and other
targets in the war.[17] AGM-65 Maverick missiles were
used in some operations.[18][19] Ali Akbar Shiroodi and
Ahmad Keshvari were two distinguished SeaCobra pilots AH-1W on a training mission at the Mojave Spaceport
during Iran-Iraq War and are considered wartime heroes
in Iran.
In 1988, two Soviet MiG-23s shot down a pair of Iranian AH-1J SeaCobra Original twin engine version.
AH-1Js[20] that had strayed into western Afghan airspace. AH-1J International Export version of the AH-1J SeaIranian AH-1Js are in service today with the Islamic ReCobra.
4.5. AIRCRAFT ON DISPLAY
25
AH-1T Improved SeaCobra Improved version with For operators of AH-1G, AH-1Q through AH-1S/P/E/F
extended tailboom and fuselage and an upgraded and other single-engine variants, see Bell AH-1 Cobra.
transmission and engines.
AH-1W SuperCobra (Whiskey Cobra), day/night
version with more powerful engines and advanced
weapons capability.
AH-1(4B)W Viper Four-Bladed Whiskey test version
with a 4-bladed bearingless composite main rotor
based on Bell 680 rotor. A prototype was converted
from AH-1T 161022.[25]
AH-1Z Viper A new variant nicknamed Zulu Cobra,
and developed in conjunction with the UH-1Y
Venom for the H-1 upgrade program. The variant
includes an upgraded 4-blade main rotor and adds
the Night Targeting System (NTS).
Model 309 King Cobra Experimental all-weather version based on the AH-1G single-engine and AH1J twin-engine designs.[26] Two Bell 309s were produced; the rst was powered by a PW&C T400-CP400 Twin-Pac engine set and the second was powered by a Lycoming T-55-L-7C engine.[27]
CobraVenom Proposed
Kingdom.[2]
version
for
the
United
AH-1RO Dracula Proposed version for Romania.[28]

AH-1Z King Cobra AH-1Z oered for Turkeys
ATAK program; selected for production in 2000,
but later canceled when Bell and Turkey could not
reach an agreement on production.[29]
Panha 2091 Unlicensed Iranian upgrade of the AH-1J
International.
IAIO Toufan (Iran Aviation Industries Organization),
Iranian copy / re-manufactured AH-1, with locally
sourced avionics, and weapons.
4.4 Operators
Iran
Imperial Iranian Army (former operator)[30]
Islamic Republic of Iran Army[31]
Republic of China (Taiwan)
Republic of China Army[31]
Turkey
Turkish Army[31]
United States
United States Marine Corps[31]
HMLA-167[32]
HMLA-169[33]
HMLA-269[34]
HMLA-367[35]
HMLA-369[36]
HMLA-467[37]
HMLA-469[38]
HMLA-773[39]
HMLAT-303[40]
4.5 Aircraft on display

An AH-1J Sea Cobra is on display at the Prairie Aviation Museum, Bloomington, Illinois.[41]
4.6 Specications
4.6.1 AH-1J SeaCobra
Data from Verier,[42] Modern Fighting Aircraft,[43]
General characteristics
Crew: 2: pilot, co-pilot/gunner (CPG)
An AH-1W Super Cobra with the Taiwanese Army
Length: 53 ft 5 in (16.3 m) (with both rotors turning)
26
Rotor diameter: 43 ft 11 in (13.4 m)

Height: 13 ft 5 in (4.1 m)
Empty weight: 6,610 lb (2,998 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 10,000 lb (4,540 kg)
Powerplant: 1 Pratt & Whitney Canada T400CP-400 (PT6T-3 Twin-Pac) turboshaft, 1,800 shp
(1,342 kW)
Total engine output: 1,530 shp (1,125 kW) limited by helicopter drivetrain[4]
Rotor systems: 2 blades on main rotor, 2 blades on
tail rotor
Fuselage length: 45 ft 9 in (13.5 m)
Stub wing span: 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m)
Performance
Head-on view of a USMC AH-1W carrying full armament
Never exceed speed: 190 knots (219 mph, 352

km/h)
4.6.2 AH-1W SuperCobra
Maximum speed: 152 knots (175 mph, 282 km/h)
Data from Verier,[42] Modern Fighting Aircraft,[43] International Directory of Military Aircraft [44]
Range: 311 nmi (358 mi, 576 km)
Service ceiling: 10,500 ft (3,215 m)

Rate of climb: 1,090 ft/min (5.54 m/s)
Armament

Length: 58 ft (17.7 m) (with both rotors turning)
Rotor diameter: 48 ft (14.6 m)
20 mm (0.787 in) M197 3-barreled Gatling cannon

in the M97 turret (750 rounds ammo capacity)
2.75 in (70 mm) Mk 40, or Hydra 70 rockets - 14
rockets mounted in a variety of launchers
Disc area: 1809 ft (168.1 m)

5 in (127 mm) Zuni rockets - 8 rockets in two 4round LAU-10D/A launchers
Powerplant: 2 General Electric T700-401

turboshaft, 1,690 shp (1,300 kW) each
AIM-9 Sidewinder anti-aircraft missiles - 1

mounted on each hardpoint

tail rotor
4.8. REFERENCES
27
Eurocopter Tiger
Stub wing span: 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m)
TAI T-129
Performance
Range: 317 nmi (365 mi, 587 km)
Armament
CAIC WZ-10
Harbin WZ-19
Related lists
List of attack aircraft
List of helicopters
List of active military aircraft of the United States
20 mm (0.787 in) M197 3-barreled Gatling cannon

in the A/A49E-7 turret (750 rounds ammo capacity)
4.8 References
2.75 in (70 mm) Hydra 70 or APKWS II[45] rockets

- Mounted in LAU-68C/A (7 shot) or LAU-61D/A Notes
(19 shot) launchers
5 in (127 mm) Zuni rockets - 8 rockets in two 4round LAU-10D/A launchers
[1] AH-1W Cobra, USMC HQ, retrieved 2007-09-11.

[2] Donald 2004.
TOW missiles - Up to 8 missiles mounted in two

4-round XM65 missile launchers, one on each outboard hardpoint
[3] Marine AH-1J SeaCobra. vectorsite.net,
AGM-114 Hellre missiles - Up to 8 missiles

mounted in two 4-round M272 missile launchers,
one on each outboard hardpoint
[5] Eden, Paul, ed. Bell AH-1 HueyCobra. Encyclopedia of

Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books, 2004.
ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
AIM-9 Sidewinder anti-aircraft missiles - 1

mounted on each outboard hardpoint (total of 2)
[6] Verier 1990, pp. 104111.
4.7 See also
[4] Bishop 2006.
[7] John Pike (1992-04-06). AH-1W Air Combat Maneuver Training - Why It Must Be Reinstated. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
[8] AH-1 Super Cobra, U.S. Navy. Retrieved 2 January 2008.
U.S. Helicopter Armament Subsystems, AH-1

Related development
Bell AH-1 Cobra
Bell AH-1Z Viper
Bell 309
Bell YAH-63
Bell UH-1N Twin Huey
Bell UH-1Y Venom
Panha 2091
Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
Boeing AH-64 Apache
[9] PMA-276 - USMC Light/Attack Helicopter Upgrade

Program. Headquarters Marine Corps. Retrieved 200711-18.
[10] John Gordon IV et al. Assessment of Navy Heavy-Lift
Aircraft Options p87. RAND Corporation, 2005. Accessed: 18 March 2012. ISBN 0-8330-3791-9 Quote:
46 of 58 USMC Cobras) took battle damage, mostly
from infantry-type weapons, such as machine guns, RPGs,
and small arms re.
[11] Loewy, Tom. Galesburg Marine killed during training
exercise - Peoria, IL. pjstar.com. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
[12] Bird strike caused fatal US Marine helicopter crash in
California: investigators. NYPOST.com. 18 May 2012.
Retrieved 2012-05-25.
[13] John Pike. Iranian Ground Forces Equipment. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
[14] Pike, John. . globalsecurity.org
28
[15] Major R.M. Brady, AH-1W Air Combat Maneuver

Training Why It Must Be Reinstated, 1992.
[16] Arabian Peninsula & Persian Gulf Database, ACIG
Journal.
[40] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Training Squadron 303

HMLA/T-303 Atlas"". tripod.com. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[41] Bell AH-1J SeaCobra display. prairieaviationmuseum.org
[17]
[42] Verier 1990, p. 184.
[18]
[43] Richardson 1987, p. Appendix.
[19]
[44] Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of Military

Aircraft, p. 148. Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002.
ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[20] Soviet Air-to-Air Victories of the Cold War ACIG Journal, 23 October 2008.
[45] Marine helicopters deploy with laser-guided rocket NAVAIR.Navy.mil, 17 April 2012
[21] Donald 2004, p. 195.

[22] Bishop 2006, p. 42.
Bibliography
[23] U.S. giving Turkey 3 helicopters. UPI

[24] Allport, Dave. Turkey To Acquire Three ex-USMC AH1W Super Cobras. Key Publishing, 31 October 2011.
Bishop, Chris. Huey Cobra Gunships. Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-84176-984-3.
[25] Bell AH-1(4B)W Viper (United States), Aircraft Rotary-Wing - Military. Janes Information Group, 15
July 1992. Retrieved: 9 August 2011.
Donald, David: Modern Battleeld Warplanes.

AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. ISBN 1-880588-765.
Gunston, B.; Spick, M. (1986). Modern Fighting
Helicopters. New York: Crescent Books. pp. 104
05. ISBN 0-517-61349-2.
[26] Verier 1990, p. 57.

[27] Richardson 1987, pp. 89.
[28] IAR (BELL) AH-1RO DRACULA (Romania). Janes
Information Group, 15 June 2000.
[29] Back to square one in attack helicopter plan. Turkish
Daily News, 2 December 2006.
[30] World Air Forces 1977 pg. 52. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
[31] World Air Forces 2014 (PDF). Flightglobal Insight.
2014. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
[32] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 167 HML/A167 Warriors"". tripod.com. Retrieved 12 February
2013.
International Air Power Review, Volume 12. AIRtime Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1-880588-77-3.
Nolan, Keith, W. Into Laos, operation Lam Son
719 and Dewey Canyon II. 1986. Presidio Press.
(An account of the US Armys nal oensive of the
Vietnam War, in 1971.)
Richardson, Doug. Modern Fighting Aircraft, Volume 13, AH-1 Cobra. New York: Prentice Hall,
1987. ISBN 0-13-020751-9.
Verier, Mike. Bell AH-1 Cobra. Osprey Publishing,
1990. ISBN 0-85045-934-6.
[33] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron-169 [HMLA169]". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[34] Marine Light/Attack Helicopter
[HML/A-269]".
globalsecurity.org.
February 2013.
Squadron-269
Retrieved 12
[35] MARINE
LIGHT
ATTACK
HELICOPTER
SQUADRON 367 HMLA-367 Scarface"". tripod.com.
[37] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 467 HMLA467 Sabers. tripod.com. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
4.9 External links

AH-1 Super Cobra on Navy.mil
AH-1 Cobra page and AH-1W Air Combat Maneuver Training on GlobalSecurity.org
AH-1W/AH-1Z
Technology.com
SuperCobra
on
Army-
AH-1W Super Cobra page on fas.org

AH-1 Cobra page on GlobalAircraft.org
[38] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 469 HMLA469 Vengeance"". tripod.com. Retrieved 12 February
2013.
AH-1 Cobra brieng room on AirCav.com
AH-1 Cobra Photo Galleries on MidwaySailor.com
AH-1 HueyCobra page on Rotorhead.org
Chapter 5
Bell AH-1Z Viper

For an overview of the whole Huey family of aircraft, The AH-1Z and UH-1Y share a common tail boom, ensee Bell Huey.
gines, rotor system, drive train, avionics architecture,
software, controls and displays for over 84% identical
components.[7]
[3]
The Bell AH-1Z Viper is a twin-engine attack helicopter based on the AH-1W SuperCobra, that was devel- Bell participated in a joint Bell-Government integrated
oped for the United States Marine Corps. The AH-1Z test team during the engineering manufacturing developfeatures a four-blade, bearingless, composite main rotor ment (EMD) phase of the H-1 program. The AH-1Z prosystem, uprated transmission, and a new target sighting gram progressed slowly from 1996 to 2003 largely as a
system.[4] The AH-1Z is part of the H-1 upgrade pro- research and development operation.[5] The existing twogram. It is also called Zulu Cobra in reference to its blade semi-rigid, teetering rotor system is being replaced
with a four-blade, hingeless, bearingless rotor system.
variant letter.
The four-blade conguration provides improvements in
ight characteristics including increased ight envelope,
maximum speed, vertical rate-of-climb, payload and re5.1 Development
duced rotor vibration level.[8]
5.1.1
Background
Aspects of the AH-1Z date back to the Bell 249 in

1979, which was basically an AH-1S equipped with the
four-blade main rotor system from the Bell 412. This
helicopter demonstrated Bells Cobra II design at the
Farnborough Airshow in 1980. The Cobra II was to be
equipped with Hellre missiles, a new targeting system
and improved engines. Later came the Cobra 2000 proposal which included General Electric T700 engines and
a four-blade rotor. This design drew interest from the US
Marine Corps, but funding was not available. In 1993,
Bell proposed an AH-1W-based version for the UKs new
attack helicopter program. The derivative design, named
CobraVenom, featured a modern digital cockpit and could
carry TOWs, Hellre or Brimstone missiles. The CobraVenom design was altered in 1995 by changing to a
four-blade rotor system. The design lost to the AH-64D
later that year however.[5]
5.1.2
H-1 upgrade program
The AH-1Z rst ew on 8 December 2000.[9] Bell delivered three prototype aircraft to the United States Navy's
Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) at Naval Air
Station Patuxent River in July 2002, for the ight test
phase of the program. Low-rate initial production began in October 2003,[5] with deliveries to run through
2018.[10] In late 2006 NAVAIR awarded a contract to
Meggitt Defense Systems to develop a new linkless 20
mm ammunition handling system to improve on the
gun feed reliability of the existing linked feed system.
These systems are now being retrotted into the AH1W and AH-1Z eets with good results during combat
in Afghanistan.
In February 2008, the U.S. Navy adjusted the contract
so the last 40 AH-1Zs are built as new airframes instead of the previously planned rebuild of AH-1Ws.[11]
In September 2008, the Navy requested an additional
46 airframes for the Marine Corps, bringing the total
number ordered to 226.[12] In 2010, the Marine Corps
planned to order 189 AH-1Zs with 58 of them being new
airframes,[13] with deliveries to continue until 2019.[14]
On 10 December 2010, the Department of the Navy approved the AH-1Z for full-rate production.[15][16]
In 1996, the USMC launched the H-1 upgrade program

by signing a contract with Bell Helicopter for upgrading
180 AH-1Ws into AH-1Zs and upgrading 100 UH-1Ns
into UH-1Ys.[5][6] The H-1 program created completely
modernized attack and utility helicopters with considerable design commonality to reduce operating costs.
29
30
CHAPTER 5. BELL AH-1Z VIPER

navigation suite includes an embedded GPS inertial navigation system (EGI), a digital map system and Meggitts
low-airspeed air data subsystem, which allows weapons
delivery when hovering.[8]
An AH-1Z at an air show displaying four-blade rotors and longer

stub wings.
The crew are equipped with the Thales Top Owl

helmet-mounted sight and display system.[4] The Top Owl
has a 24-hour day/night capability and a binocular display with a 40 eld of view. Its visor projection provides forward looking infrared (FLIR) or video imagery.
The AH-1Z has survivability equipment including the
Hover Infrared Suppression System (HIRSS) to cover engine exhausts, countermeasure dispensers, radar warning,
incoming/on-way missile warning, and on-fuselage laser
spot warning systems.[7]
The Lockheed Martin target sight system (TSS) incorporates a third-generation FLIR sensor. The TSS provides
5.2 Design
target sighting in day, night, or adverse weather conditions. The system has various view modes and can track
The AH-1Z incorporates new rotor technology with up- with FLIR or by TV.[7] The same system is also used on
graded military avionics, weapons systems, and electro- the UH-1Y Venom and the KC-130J Harvest HAWK.[18]
optical sensors in an integrated weapons platform. It
has improved survivability and can nd targets at longer
ranges and attack them with precision weapons.[7]
The AH-1Zs new bearingless, hingeless rotor system has
75% fewer parts than that of four-bladed articulated systems. The blades are made of composites, which have
an increased ballistic survivability, and there is a semiautomatic folding system for storage aboard amphibious
assault ships.[7] Its two redesigned wing stubs are longer,
with each adding a wing-tip station for a missile such as
the AIM-9 Sidewinder. Each wing has two other stations
for 2.75-inch (70 mm) Hydra 70 rocket pods, or AGM114 Hellre quad missile launchers. The AN/APG-78
Longbow re control radar can also be mounted on a wing
tip station.[5][17]
A U.S. Marine AH-1Z lands on the USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

in 2010.
The AH-1Z completed sea-trial ight testing in May

2005.[19] On 15 October 2005, the USMC, through the
Naval Air Systems Command, accepted delivery of the
rst AH-1Z production helicopter to enter the eet.[20]
The AH-1Z and UH-1Y completed their developmental
AH-1Z pilots wear helmet mounted displays.
testing in early 2006.[21] During the rst quarter of 2006
The Z-models integrated avionics system (IAS) has been the aircraft were transferred to the Operational Test Unit
they began operational
developed by Northrop Grumman. The system includes at the NAS Patuxent River, where
[22]
evaluation
(OPEVAL)
testing.
two mission computers and an automatic ight control
system. Each crew station has two 86-inch multi- In February 2008, the AH-1Z and UH-1Y began the secfunction liquid crystal displays (LCD) and one 4.24.2- ond and nal portion of OPEVAL testing.[23] AH-1Z testinch dual function LCD display. The communications ing was stopped in 2008 due to issues with its targeting
suite combines a US Navy RT-1824 integrated radio, systems.[12] The AH-1Z was later declared combat-ready
UHF/VHF, COMSEC and modem in a single unit. The in September 2010.[24]
5.5. SPECIFICATIONS (AH-1Z)
5.3.1
31
Foreign interest
On 21 September 2012, the U.S. Congress was notied

of the possible Foreign Military Sales (FMS) for 36 AH1Z Vipers by South Korea. The request included 84 engines, 288 AGM-114K3 Hellre missiles, 72 AIM-9M8 Sidewinder missiles, integrated missiles launchers, targeting systems, and radar jammers. The order would
be worth a maximum of $2.6 billion.[25] The Viper was
competing against the Boeing AH-64 Apache and the
TAI/AgustaWestland T-129 for the order; a decision was
expected by the end of 2012.[26] In April 2013, South Korea announced they had selected the AH-64E Apache.[27]
In April 2015, the U.S. State Department approved a possible FMS sale to Pakistan for 15 AH-1Z Vipers with
Hellre missiles, associated equipment and support worth
up to $952 million.[28][29]
5.4 Operators
United States
5.5 Specications (AH-1Z)
Front view of AH-1Z at the MCAS Miramar Air Show

Useful load: 5,764 lb (2,620 kg)
Powerplant: 2 General Electric T700-GE-401C
turboshaft, 1,800 shp (1,340 kW) each
tail rotor
Performance
km/h) in a dive
Data from Bell Specications,[7] The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 20022003,[31] Modern Battleeld Warplanes[5]
Capacity: 6,661 lb (3,021 kg)
Length: 58 ft 3 in (17.8 m)
Cruise speed: 160 kn (184 mph, 296 km/h)

Range: 370 nmi (426 mi, 685 km)
Combat radius: 125 nmi (144 mi, 231 km) with
2,500 lb (1,130 kg) payload
Service ceiling: 20,000+ ft (6,000+ m)
Armament

Disc area: 1,808 ft (168.0 m)
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M197 3-barreled

Gatling cannon in the A/A49E-7 turret (750 round
ammo capacity)
32
CHAPTER 5. BELL AH-1Z VIPER
Hardpoints: Up to 6 pylon stations on stub wing

Rockets: 2.75 in (70 mm) Hydra 70 or APKWS
II[32] rockets Mounted in LAU-68C/A (7 shot) or
LAU-61D/A (19 shot) launchers
Missiles:
AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles 1
mounted on each wing tip station (total of 2)
AGM-114 Hellre air-to-surface missiles
Up to 16 missiles mounted in four 4-round
M272 missile launchers, two on each wing
5.6 See also

U.S. Helicopter Armament Subsystems, AH-1
Related development
Bell YAH-63
Bell UH-1Y Venom
[3] 4120-15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace

Vehicles (PDF). USA: DoD. 12 May 2004.
[4] Bell AH-1Z page. Bell Helicopter. Retrieved 3 January
2008.
[5] Donald, David. Modern Battleeld Warplanes. AIRTime
Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-880588-76-5.
[6] Bishop, Chris. Huey Cobra Gunships. Osprey Publishing,
2006. ISBN 1-84176-984-3.
[7] . Bell Helicopter, Retrieved: 16 July 2012.
[8] AH-1W/AH-1Z Super Cobra Attack Helicopter, USA.
Airforce-Technology.com. Retrieved: 14 January 2008.
[9] AH-1Z completes rst ight. Bell Helicopter, 7 December 2000.
[10] AH-1Z/UH-1Y complete developmental testing. US
Navy, 6 March 2006.
[11] Warwick, Graham. Bell AH-1Z upgrade to switch to new
airframes. Flightglobal.com, 15 February 2008.
[12] Trimble, Stephen. US Navy proposes more UH-1Ys,
AH-1Zs despite test phase setback. Flight International,
22 August 2008.
[13] Butler, Amy. U.S. Marines Propose AH-1Z Production
Boost Aviation Week, 13 October 2010. Retrieved: 13
October 2010.
[14] Bell Helicopter AH-1Z Earns Navy Recommendation for

full Fleet Introduction. Bell Helicopter, 4 October 2010.
A129 International/TAI/AgustaWestland T-129
[15] Bell Helicopter AH-1Z earns Navy approval for full rate
production. Shephard Group Limited. 10 December
2010. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
Boeing AH-64 Apache

CAIC WZ-10
Eurocopter Tiger
Harbin WZ-19
Mil Mi-28
Related lists
List of helicopters
[16] Snakes and Rotors: The USMCs H-1 Helicopter Program. Defense Industry Daily. 30 December 2010.
Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
[17] AN/APG Equipment Listing. designation-systems.net
[18] Cpl. Samantha H. Arrington. From Hueys to Harvest
Hawk: Ordnance Marine arms aircraft in Afghanistan.
DVIDS. 19 May 2011.
[19] AH-1Z/UH-1Y complete rst sea trials, US Navy, 13
June 2005.
[20] Bell 449 SuperCobra and KingCobra. Janes Information Group, 7 December 2005.
[21] Milliman, John. AH-1Z/UH-1Y complete developmental testing. US Navy, 1 March 2006.
[22] AH-1Z/UH-1Y Start OPEVAL. US Navy, 6 May 2006.
5.7 References
[1] AH-1Z Viper enters production as substantially new aircraft (article). Flight global. 2010-12-20.
[2] Fiscal Year (FY) 2011 Budget Estimates, Aircraft Procurement, Vol. I, BA 14 (PDF). USA: Department of
the Navy. February 2010. p. 27.
[23] Warwick, Graham. US Marine Corps Bell AH-1Z

and UH-1Y enter nal test phase. Flightglobal.com, 20
February 2008.
[24] Trimble, Stephen (30 September 2010). USMC declares AH-1Z Viper combat ready. Flight International.
Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved
1 October 2010.
5.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
[25] Korea 36 AH-1Z Cobra Attack Helicopters. Pacicsentinel.com, 26 September 2012.

[26] Korea helicopter bids. Flightglobal.com, 26 September
2012.
[27] Song, Sang-ho (17 April 2013). Seoul to Purchase 36
Apache Helicopters. Korea Herald.
[28] http://www.defensenews.com/story/
defense/air-space/strike/2015/04/07/
pakistan-ah-1z-deal-dsca-hellfire-taliban-tribal-area-waziristan/
25409157/
[29] US okays attack helicopters, hellre missiles for Pakistan
under $1 billion sale. Daily Times. 2015. Retrieved 7
April 2015.
2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[31] Frawley, Gerard: The International Directory of Military
ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[32] BAEs APKWS rockets integrated on Bells new Model
407GT - Flightglobal.com, March 5, 2013
5.8 External links

AH-1Z page on Bell Helicopter Textron web site
AH-1Z Viper page on US Navy RDA site
AH-1Z page on GlobalSecurity.org
Bell AH-1Z Super Cobra Bell 449 on helis.com
First Production H-1 Helicopters Rollout, Bell
Helicopter, 27 September 2006
" AH-1Z Super Cobra Completes Envelope Expansion Testing, U.S. Navy, 9 January 2003.
33
Chapter 6
Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey

V-22 redirects here. For other uses, see V22 (disambiguation).
The Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey is an American multimission, tiltrotor military aircraft with both a vertical
takeo and landing (VTOL), and short takeo and landing (STOL) capability. It is designed to combine the
functionality of a conventional helicopter with the longrange, high-speed cruise performance of a turboprop aircraft.
The V-22 originated from the United States Department
of Defense Joint-service Vertical take-o/landing Experimental (JVX) aircraft program started in 1981. The
team of Bell Helicopter and Boeing Helicopters was
awarded a development contract in 1983 for the tiltrotor aircraft. The Bell Boeing team jointly produce the
aircraft.[5] The V-22 rst ew in 1989, and began ight
testing and design alterations; the complexity and diculties of being the rst tiltrotor intended for military service
in the world led to many years of development.
The United States Marine Corps began crew training for
the Osprey in 2000, and elded it in 2007; it supplemented and then replaced their Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea
Early concept illustrations of V-22
Knights. The Ospreys other operator, the U.S. Air Force,
elded their version of the tiltrotor in 2009. Since entering service with the U.S. Marine Corps and Air Force, the
Osprey has been deployed in transportation and medivac perform an amphibious landing, and they were particularly interested in the JVX program. They realized that
operations over Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya and Kuwait.
a concentrated strike force was vulnerable to a single
nuclear weapon, airborne solutions with good speed and
range allowed for signicant dispersal;[10] and their CH6.1 Development
46s were wearing out;[11] without replacement, the threat
of a merger between the Marine Corps and the Army
lingered,[12][13] similar to President Truman's proposal
6.1.1 Origins
following World War II.[14] The OSD and Navy adminisThe failure of the Iran hostage rescue mission in 1980 tration were against the tiltrotor project, but congressional
demonstrated to the United States military a need[6][7] pressure eventually proved persuasive.[15]
for a new type of aircraft, that could not only take o The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps were given the lead in
and land vertically but also could carry combat troops, 1983.[9][16][17] The JVX combined requirements from the
and do so at speed.[8] The U.S. Department of Defense U.S. Marine Corps, Air Force, Army and Navy.[18][19]
began the Joint-service Vertical take-o/landing Experi- A request for proposals (RFP) was issued in Decemmental (JVX) aircraft program in 1981, under U.S. Army ber 1982 for preliminary design work. Interest was exleadership.[9]
pressed by Arospatiale, Bell Helicopter, Boeing Vertol,
The dening mission of the Marine Corps has been to Grumman, Lockheed, and Westland. Contractors were
34
6.1. DEVELOPMENT
35
encouraged to form teams. Bell partnered with Boeing

Vertol to submit a proposal for an enlarged version of the
Bell XV-15 prototype on 17 February 1983. Being the
only proposal received, a preliminary design contract was
awarded on 26 April 1983.[20][21]
The JVX aircraft was designated V-22 Osprey on 15
January 1985; by that March, the rst six prototypes
were being produced, and Boeing Vertol was expanded
to deal with the project workload.[22][23] Work has been
split evenly between Bell and Boeing. Bell Helicopter
manufactures and integrates the wing, nacelles, rotors,
drive system, tail surfaces, and aft ramp, as well as integrates the Rolls-Royce engines and performs nal assembly. Boeing Helicopters manufactures and integrates the
fuselage, cockpit, avionics, and ight controls.[5][24] The
USMC variant of the Osprey received the MV-22 designation and the U.S. Air Force variant received CV-22;
this was reversed from normal procedure to prevent Marine Corps Ospreys from having a conicting designation
with aircraft carriers (CV).[25] Full-scale development of
the V-22 tilt-rotor aircraft began in 1986.[26] On 3 May
1986, the Bell Boeing partnership was awarded a $1.714
billion contract for V-22 aircraft by the U.S. Navy. At
this point, all four U.S. military services had acquisition
plans for V-22 versions.[27]
The rst V-22 was rolled out with signicant media attention in May 1988.[28][29] The project suered several blows. That year, the U.S. Army left the program,
citing a need to focus its budget on more immediate
aviation programs.[9] In 1989, the project survived two
separate votes in the Senate that could have resulted in
cancellation.[30][31] Despite the Senates decision, the Department of Defense instructed the U.S. Navy not to
spend more money on the V-22.[32] When the V-22s
projected development budget greatly increased in 1988,
Defense Secretary Dick Cheney tried to remove funding
from 1989 to 1992 in an eort to cancel it. He was eventually overruled by Congress,[16][33] which provided unrequested funding for the program.[34] Multiple studies
of alternatives found the V-22 provided more capability
and combat eectiveness with similar operating costs.[35]
The Clinton Administration was supportive of the V-22
and helped it attain funding.[16]
6.1.2
Flight testing and design changes
The rst of six MV-22 prototypes rst ew on 19 March

1989 in the helicopter mode,[36] and on 14 September
1989 in xed-wing mode.[37] The third and fourth prototypes successfully completed the Ospreys rst sea trials on USS Wasp in December 1990.[38] The fourth and
fth prototypes crashed in 199192.[39] From October
1992 April 1993, Bell and Boeing redesigned the V22 to reduce empty weight, simplify manufacture, and
reduce production costs. This redesigned version became the V-22B model.[40] V-22 ights resumed in June
1993 after safety improvements were incorporated in the
U.S. Marines jump from an Osprey.
prototypes.[41] Bell Boeing was awarded a contract for the

engineering manufacturing development (EMD) phase in
June 1994.[40] The prototypes also received changes to
better match the B-model conguration. Flight testing
at the stage focused on expanding the ight envelope,
measuring ight loads, and supporting the EMD redesign.
This and further ight testing with the early V-22s continued into 1997.[42]
Flight testing of four full-scale development V-22s began in early 1997 when the rst pre-production V-22 was
delivered to the Naval Air Warfare Test Center, Naval
Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. The rst EMD
ight took place on 5 February 1997. Testing fell behind schedule.[43] The rst of four low rate initial production aircraft, ordered on 28 April 1997, was delivered on 27 May 1999. Osprey number 10 completed the
programs second sea trials, this time from USS Saipan
in January 1999.[26] During external load testing in April
1999, Boeing used a V-22 to lift and transport the lightweight M777 howitzer.[44][45]
In 2000, there were two further fatal crashes, killing a
total of 19 marines, and the aircraft was again grounded
while the cause of these crashes was investigated and various parts were redesigned.[33] As of 2012, changes have
been made to the V-22s hardware, software, and procedures in response to hydraulic res in the nacelles, vortex
ring state control issues, and opposed landings.[46]
The V-22 completed its nal operational evaluation in
June 2005. The evaluation had included long range
deployments, high altitude, desert and shipboard operations, and was deemed successful. The problems
identied in various accidents had reportedly been
addressed.[47]
U.S. Naval Air Systems Command worked on software
upgrades to increase the maximum speed from 250 knots
(460 km/h; 290 mph) to 270 knots (500 km/h; 310 mph),
increase helicopter mode altitude limit from 10,000 feet
(3,000 m) to 12,000 feet (3,700 m) or 14,000 feet (4,300
m), and increase lift performance.[48] Implementation of
36
CHAPTER 6. BELL BOEING V-22 OSPREY
these upgrades began in September 2011[49] and proved eld of aircraft.[56] In 2011, it was reported by the conlargely eective.[50]
troversial defense industry supported Lexington Institute[57][58][59] that the average V-22 mishap rate per ight
hour over the past 10 years was approximately half of the
6.1.3 Controversy
average accident rate for the USMC eet; the V-22s accident rate was the lowest of any Marine rotorcraft.[60] In
The V-22s development process has been long and con- 2011 Wired Magazine reported that the safety record was
troversial, partly due to its large cost increases.[51] The achieved by excluding ground incidents;[61] the USMC
development budget was rst planned for $2.5 billion responded that MV-22 reporting were to the same stanin 1986, which increased to a projected $30 billion in dards as other aircraft in the Department of the Navy.[62]
1988.[33] By 2008, $27 billion had been spent on the
By 2012, the USMC reported eetwide readiness rate
program and another $27.2 billion was required to comhad risen to 68 percent;[63] however, the DODs Inspector
plete planned production numbers.[26] Between 2008 and
General later found 167 of 200 reports had improperly
2011, the estimated lifetime cost for maintaining the Vrecorded information.[64] Captain Richard Ulsh blamed
22 grew by 61 percent, mostly allocated to maintenance
these errors on incompetence and said that they were not
and support.[52]
malicious or deliberate.[65] The required mission capable rate was 82%, but the average was 53% from June
Its [The V-22s] production costs are
2007 to May 2010.[66] In 2010, Naval Air Systems Comconsiderably greater than for helicopters with
mand aimed for an 85% reliability rate by 2018.[67] From
equivalent capabilityspecically, about
2009 to 2014, readiness rates rose 25 percent to the high
twice as great as for the CH-53E, which has a
80s, while cost per ight hour had dropped 20 percent
greater payload and an ability to carry heavy
to $9,520 through a rigorous maintenance improvement
equipment the V-22 cannot... an Osprey unit
program that focused on diagnosing problems before failwould cost around $60 million to produce, and
ures occur.[68] As of 2015, although the Osprey requires
$35 million for the helicopter equivalent.
higher maintenance and has lower availability (62%) than
Michael E. O'Hanlon, 2002.[53]
traditional helicopters, it also has a lower incidence rate.
The average cost per ight hour is US$9,156.[69]
While technically capable of autorotation if both engines
fail in helicopter mode, performance is poor and a safe
landing is dicult.[70] In 2005, a director of the Pentagons testing oce stated that in a loss of power while
hovering below 1,600 feet (490 m), emergency landings
"...are not likely to be survivable. V-22 pilot Captain
Justin Moon McKinney stated that: We can turn it into
a plane and glide it down, just like a C-130.[55] A complete loss of power requires the failure of both engines,
as one engine can power both proprotors via interconnected drive shafts.[71] Though vortex ring state (VRS)
contributed to a deadly V-22 accident, ight testing found
the aircraft to be less susceptible to the condition than
conventional helicopters.[6] A GAO report stated that
the V-22 is less forgiving than conventional helicopters
[72]
Several test ights to explore
A V-22 in a compact storage conguration during the navys during this phenomenon.
the V-22s VRS characteristics in detail were canceled.[73]
evaluation, May 2002
The USMC trains pilots in the recognition of and reIn 2001, Lieutenant Colonel Odin Lieberman, comman- covery from VRS, and has instituted operational enveand instrumentation to help pilots avoid VRS
der of the V-22 squadron at Marine Corps Air Station lope limits [33][74]
conditions.
New River, was relieved of duty after allegations that he
instructed his unit to falsify maintenance records to make As of 2015, opinions dier on the combat survivability
the aircraft appear more reliable.[26][54] A total of three and resilience to bullet impacts.[69]
USMC ocers were later implicated as having played a
role in the falsication scandal.[51]
In October 2007, Time Magazine ran an article condemning the V-22 as unsafe, overpriced, and completely
inadequate;[55] the Marine Corps responded by arguing
that parts of the articles data were dated, obsolete, inaccurate, and reected expectations too high for any new
6.1.4 Production
On 28 September 2005, the Pentagon formally approved
full-rate production for the V-22,[75] from 11 a year to between 24 and 48 a year by 2012. Of the 458 total planned,
6.2. DESIGN
37
A CV-22 o the coast of Greenland receiving fuel from a MC130H
360 are for the U.S. Marine Corps, 48 for the Navy, and
50 for the Air Force at an average cost of $110 million per
aircraft, including development costs.[26] The V-22 had
an incremental yaway cost of $67 million per aircraft in
2008,[76] The U.S. Navy had hoped to shave about $10
million o that cost after a ve-year production contract
in 2013.[77] The cost for each CV-22 was $73 million in
the FY 2014 budget.[78]
On 15 April 2010, the Naval Air Systems Command
awarded Bell Boeing a $42.1 million contract to design
an integrated processor in response to avionics obsolescence and add new network capabilities.[79] By 2014,
Raytheon will provide an avionics upgrade that includes
Situational awareness and Blue Force Tracking.[80] In late
2009, a contract for Block C upgrades upon the V-22 was
awarded to Bell Boeing.[81] In February 2012, the Marine
Corps received the rst Block C Ospreys; these aircraft
feature a new radar, along with additional mission management and electronic warfare equipment.[82]
Closeup of rotor and engine of a MV-22B
6.2.1 Overview
The Osprey is the worlds rst production tiltrotor aircraft, with one three-bladed proprotor, turboprop engine,
and transmission nacelle mounted on each wingtip. It is
classied as a powered lift aircraft by the Federal Aviation Administration.[90] For takeo and landing, it typically operates as a helicopter with the nacelles vertical
and rotors horizontal. Once airborne, the nacelles rotate forward 90 in as little as 12 seconds for horizontal
ight, converting the V-22 to a more fuel-ecient, higher
speed turboprop aircraft. STOL rolling-takeo and landing capability is achieved by having the nacelles tilted
forward up to 45.[91][92] Other orientations are possible,
such as the 80 Jump takeo which uses nacelles at 80
to quickly achieve high altitude and speed.[93]
Composite materials make up 43% of the airframe, and

the proprotor blades also use composites.[91] For storage,
the V-22s rotors fold in 90 seconds and its wing rotates
to align, front-to-back, with the fuselage.[94] Due to the
requirement for folding rotors, their 38-foot diameter is
5 feet less than optimal for vertical takeo, resulting in
high disk loading.[93] Most missions use xed wing ight
75% or more of the time, reducing wear and tear and
operational costs. This xed wing ight is higher than
In 2013, the U.S. was reportedly hoping to sell up to typical helicopter missions allowing longer range line-ofcommunications for improved command and con100 V-22s internationally with up to 15 interested na- sight[26]
trol.
tions identied; prospective customers included Israel,
the United Arab Emirates, and Japan.[86][87] In 2013, Bell Heat from the V-22s engines can potentially damage
began to lay o workers on the V-22 production line fol- the ight decks of ships. Naval Air Systems Comlowing the implementation of defense cuts, which had remand (NAVAIR) devised a temporary x of portable
duced the US order to about half the originally planned heat shields placed under the engines, and determined
number of aircraft.[2][88] Production rate went from 40 in that a long-term solution would require redesigning decks
2012 to 22 planned for 2015.[89]
with heat resistant coating, passive thermal barriers, and
ship structure changes. Similar changes are required
for F-35B operations.[95] In 2009, DARPA requested
solutions for installing robust ight deck cooling.[96] A
heat-resistant anti-skid material called Thermion is being
6.2 Design
tested on USS Wasp.[97]
On 12 June 2013, the U.S. DoD awarded a $4.9 billion
contract to Bell and Boeing for 99 V-22s in production
Lots 17 and 18, including 92 MV-22s for the Marine
Corps. Work is expected to be completed in September
2019.[83] A provision gives NAVAIR the option to order
23 more Ospreys.[84] The combined cost of the June 2013
contract and other associated contracts for the order totaled $6.5 billion.[85]
In March 2014, Air Force Special Operations Command
38
(AFSOC) issued a Combat Mission Need Statement to

develop armor plates to protect passengers. NAVAIR
worked with a Florida-based composite armor company
and the Army Aviation Development Directorate to develop an armor solution and begin deliveries in October
2014. The Advanced Ballistic Stopping System kit consists of 66 plates sized to t along the V-22s interior bulkheads and deck, adding 800 lb (360 kg) of weight to the
aircraft, aecting payload and unrefueled range, so it can
be installed or removed when needed in hours and partially assembled in pieces to only protect certain areas. A
full kit costs $270,000. As of May 2015, 16 kits had been
delivered to the USAF.[98][99]
6.2.2
Propulsion
power by up to 26 percent, producing close to 10,000 hp,

and improve fuel consumption.[104]
In August 2014, the U.S. military issued a request for information (RFI) for a potential drop-in replacement for
the AE-1107C engines. Submissions must have a power
rating of no less than 6,100 shp (4,548.78 kW) at 15,000
rpm, operate at up to 25,000 ft (7,600 m) at up to 130
degrees Fahrenheit (54.4 degrees Celsius), and t into
the existing nacelles on the wings with minimal structural or external modications.[105] In September 2014,
the US Navy was considering contracting for an alternative engine supplier in order to reduce costs. In the V-22
program, the Navy purchases engines separately from the
aircraft themselves.[106] The General Electric GE38 has
been considered as a replacement, providing commonality with the CH-53K King Stallion.[107]
The V-22s two Rolls-Royce AE 1107C engines are connected by drive shafts to a common central gearbox so
that one engine can power both proprotors if an engine 6.2.3
failure occurs.[71] However, if a proprotor gearbox fails
that proprotor cannot be feathered, and both engines must
be stopped before an emergency landing.[70] The aircrafts autorotation characteristics are poor partly because
the rotors have low inertia.[70]
Avionics
A MV-22 Osprey cockpit on display at 2012 Wings Over Gillespie
V-22 with rotors tilted, condensation trailing from propeller tips
The V-22 has a maximum rotor downwash speed above

80 knots, more than the 64 knots lower limit of a
hurricane.[100][101] The rotorwash usually prevents usage
of the starboard door in hover, instead the rear ramp is
used for rappelling and hoisting.[70][102] Boeing has stated
the V-22 design loses 10 percent of its vertical lift over
a tiltwing design when operating in helicopter mode because of airow resistance due to the wings, but that
the tiltrotor design has better short takeo and landing
performance.[103]
In September 2013, Rolls-Royce announced it had increased the AE-1107C engines power by 17 percent via
the adoption of a new Block 3 turbine, an increase in
fuel valve ow capacity, and accompanying software updates. The upgrade should increase the reliability in highaltitude, high-heat conditions and boost maximum payload limitations from 6,000 ft to 8,000 ft. A Block 4 upgrade is reportedly being examined, which may increase
The V-22 is equipped with a glass cockpit, which incorporates four Multi-function displays (MFDs, compatible
with night-vision goggles)[70] and one shared Central Display Unit (CDU), to display various images including:
digimaps, imagery from the Turreted Forward Looking
Infrared System[108] primary ight instruments, navigation (TACAN, VOR, ILS, GPS, INS), and system status. The ight director panel of the Cockpit Management
System (CMS) allows for fully coupled (autopilot) functions that take the aircraft from forward ight into a 50
ft (15 m) hover with no pilot interaction other than programming the system.[109] The glass cockpit of the canceled CH-46X was derived from the V-22.[110] The fuselage is not pressurized, and personnel must wear on-board
oxygen masks above 10,000 feet.[70]
The V-22 has triple-redundant y-by-wire ight control
systems.[111] With the nacelles pointing straight up in conversion mode at 90 the ight computers command the
aircraft to y like a helicopter, with cyclic forces being applied to a conventional swashplate at the rotor hub. With
the nacelles in airplane mode (0) the aperons, rudder,
6.2. DESIGN
and elevator y the aircraft like an airplane. This is a
gradual transition and occurs over the rotation range of
the nacelles. The lower the nacelles, the greater eect of
the airplane-mode control surfaces.[112] The nacelles can
rotate past vertical to 97.5 for rearward ight.[113][114]
The aircraft also has computerized damage control that
automatically isolates damaged elements.[115] The controls so automate and simplify aspects of the V-22s ight
that without wind it can hover with no hands on the controls; according to some who have own the aircraft, former xed-wing pilots may be preferable because they, unlike those with helicopter experience, are not trained to
constantly adjust the controls while hovering.[93][70]
6.2.4
Armament
39
to provide an all-quadrant defensive weapon system including nose guns, door guns, and nonlethal countermeasures to work with the current ramp-mounted machine
gun and the IDWS.[121]
In 2014, the USMC revealed plans for new V-22 weapons
to increase all-axis, stand-o, and precision capabilities, which may be potentially operated by additional crew members. Armament increases are for enhanced oensive capabilities to special purpose Marine
rapid crisis response task forces, rather than as an attack platform. The V-22 could be adapted for various precision weapons, including the AGM-114 Hellre, AGM-176 Grin, Joint Air-to-Ground Missile, and
GBU-53/B SDB II. Fuselage-based hardpoints for the
weapons would be used to clear the proprotors.[122] In
November 2014, Bell and Boeing conducted self-funded
weapons tests using a V-22 equipped with a small pylon on the front port-side fuselage and the AN/AAQ27A EO camera replaced with an L-3 Wescam MX-15
sensor/laser designator. 26 unguided Hydra 70 rockets,
two guided APKWS rockets, and two Grin B missiles
were red over ve ights. The USMC and USAF seek a
traversable nose-mounted weapon connected to a helmetmounted sight; recoil would complicate integrating a desired forward-facing gun.[123] A weapons pylon on either side of the fuselage can carry 300 lb (140 kg) of
munitions.[124]
The Osprey can be armed with one 7.62x51mm NATO

(.308 in caliber) M240 machine gun or .50 in caliber
(12.7 mm) M2 machine gun on the loading ramp, that
can be red rearward when the ramp is lowered. A .50
in GAU-19 three-barrel Gatling gun mounted below the
V-22s nose was studied for future upgrade.[116] BAE
Systems developed a belly-mounted, remotely operated
gun turret system for the V-22,[117] named the Interim
Defense Weapon System (IDWS).[118] The IDWS is remotely operated by a gunner inside the aircraft, who acquires targets via a separate pod using color television and
forward looking infrared imagery.[119] The IDWS was installed on half of the rst V-22s deployed to Afghanistan 6.2.5 Refueling capability
in 2009,[118] but found limited use due to its 800 lb (360
kg) weight and restrictive rules of engagement.[120]
Boeing is developing a roll-on/roll-o aerial refueling kit,
which would give the V-22 the ability to refuel other
aircraft. Having an aerial refueling capability that can
be based o Wasp-class amphibious assault ships would
increase the striking power of Marine F-35Bs, as they
would not rely on refueling assets that could only be
based on full-sized Nimitz-class aircraft carriers or from
land bases. The roll-on/roll-o kit can also be applicable to intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
functions.[125] Boeing funded a non-functional demonstration on a VMX-22 aircraft; a prototype kit was successfully tested with an F/A-18 on 5 September 2013.[126]
M240 machine gun mounted on V-22 loading ramp
As of June 2012, 32 IDWSs were available to the Marine

Corps. The system had not been red in combat as V-22s
were routinely escorted by helicopter gunships and close
air support aircraft, allowing them to focus on their transport role; squadrons also often ew without the belly gun,
as the added weight reduced its cargo-carrying capacity.
The Ospreys speed means it can outrun supporting conventional helicopters, requiring a self-defense capability
on long-range missions and operate independently. The
infrared gun camera has proven valuable for reconnaissance and surveillance. Other weapons are being studied
The high-speed version of the hose/drogue refueling system is designed to be deployed at 185 kn (213 mph; 343
km/h) and function at up to 250 kn (290 mph; 460 km/h).
Onboard tanks and a roll-on/roll-o bladder can contain
up to 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) of fuel. The operator must
open the ramp to extend the refueling hose, then raise the
ramp once extended, with the top ramp door left open.
The V-22 could refuel rotary-wing aircraft, but it would
require a separate drogue used specically by helicopters
and a partially converted nacelle. Bell and Boeing are
hoping for funding for additional testing to include contact between the refueler and receiver and eventually the
passage of fuel.[127] Since many Marine Corps ground vehicles can run on aviation fuel, a refueling V-22 could also
service them. In late 2014, it was stated that such tankers
40
could be operational by 2017.[128] As of 2015, the Navy

has no immediate plans to use the V-22 Aerial Refueling
System (VARS) on its planned COD eet, but it may be
leveraged in the future.[129]

6.3.1
U.S. Marine Corps
visit troops around Iraq on Christmas Day 2007;[139] as

did then-presidential candidate Barack Obama during
his 2008 tour of Iraq.[140] Obtaining spare parts proved
problematic.[141] By July 2008, the V-22 had own 3,000
sorties totaling 5,200 hours in Iraq.[142] General George
J. Trautman, III praised the V-22s increased speed and
range over legacy helicopters, stating that it turned his
battle space from the size of Texas into the size of Rhode
Island.[143] Through 2009, V-22s had been red upon
several times by man-portable air-defense systems, and
small arms with none lost to enemy re.[144]
Crew members refuel an MV-22 before a night mission in Iraq,

2008
Since March 2000, VMMT-204 has conducted Marine

Corps crew training for the V-22. On 3 June 2005, Marine Corps helicopter squadron Marine Medium Helicopter 263 (HMM-263) stood down to transition to the
MV-22.[130] On 8 December 2005, Lieutenant General
James Amos, commander of II Marine Expeditionary
Force, accepted delivery of the rst eet of MV-22s, delivered to HMM-263. The unit reactivated on 3 March
2006 as the rst MV-22 squadron, redesignated as VMM263. On 23 March 2007, HMM-266 became Marine
Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 266 (VMM-266) at Marine
Corps Air Station New River, North Carolina.[131]
A MV-22 of VMM-162 in Iraq, 2008
On 13 April 2007, the Marine Corps announced the

rst V-22 combat deployment at Al Asad Airbase,
Iraq.[136][137] On 17 September 2007, 10 MV-22Bs of
VMM-263 left for Iraq aboard USS Wasp. The decision
to use a ship instead of self-deploying was made because
of concerns over icing during the North Atlantic portion
of the trip, lack of available KC-130s for mid-air refueling, and the Wasp's availability.[138]
Province in southern Afghanistan to disrupt Taliban communication and supply lines.[118] On 18 February 2011,
Marine Commandant General James Amos indicated
MV-22s deployed to Afghanistan had surpassed 100,000
ight hours and were noted as the safest airplane, or close
to the safest airplane in the Marine Corps inventory.[149]
A Government Accountability Oce study reported that

by January 2009, 12 MV-22s were operating in Iraq
and they completed all assigned missions; mission capable rates averaged 57% to 68%, and an overall full
mission capable rate of 6%. The report also stated that
the aircraft had shown weakness in situational awareness, maintenance, shipboard operations and transport
capability.[145][146] The study concluded that "...deployments conrmed that the V-22s enhanced speed and
range enable personnel and internal cargo to be transThe MV-22 reached initial operational capability (IOC) ported faster and farther than is possible with the legacy
with the U.S. Marine Corps on 13 June 2007.[1] The helicopters it is replacing.[145]
Osprey has been replacing the CH-46 Sea Knight
The MV-22 deployed to Afghanistan in November 2009
since 2007; the Sea Knight was retired in October with VMM-261,[147][148] and saw its rst oensive com2014.[132][133][134] On 10 July 2007, an MV-22 landed
bat mission, Operation Cobras Anger, on 4 December
aboard the Royal Navy aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious, 2009. Ospreys assisted in inserting 1,000 Marines and
the rst time a V-22 had landed on a non-U.S. vessel.[135] 150 Afghan troops into the Now Zad Valley of Helmand
In January 2010, the MV-22 was sent to Haiti as part of

Operation Unied Response relief eorts after the earthOn arrival, they were used in Iraqs western Anbar quake there, the types rst humanitarian mission.[150] In
province for cargo and troop movements, as well as March 2011, two MV-22s from Kearsarge participated in
riskier aero-scout missions. General David Petraeus, a mission to rescue a downed USAF F-15E crew memthe top U.S. military commander in Iraq, used one to ber during Operation Odyssey Dawn.[151][152] On 2 May

2011, following Operation Neptunes Spear, the body
of Osama bin Laden, founder of the al-Qaeda terrorist
group, was own by a MV-22 to the aircraft carrier Carl
Vinson in the Northern Arabian Sea, prior to his burial at
sea.[153]
Marines boarding an MV-22 at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in 2010
41
From 25 August 2013, two MV-22s completed the
longest distance Osprey tanking mission to date. Flying from Marine Corps Air Station Futenma in Okinawa
alongside two KC-130J tanker aircraft, the Ospreys ew
to Clark Air Base in the Philippines on 2 August, then
to Darwin, Australia on 3 August, Townsville, Australia
on 4 August, and nally rendezvoused with Bonhomme
Richard on 5 August.[163]
In 2013, the USMC formed an intercontinental response
force, the Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task
Force for Crisis Response (SPMAGTF-CR-AF),[164]
equipped with V-22s outtted with specialized communications equipment.[165] In 2013, following Typhoon
Haiyan, 12 MV-22s of the 3rd Marine Expeditionary
Brigade were deployed to the Philippines for disaster
relief operations.[166] The V-22s capabilities were described as uniquely relevant, being able to y faster and
with greater payload while moving essential supplies to
remote sites throughout the island archipelago.[167]
The V-22 deployment to Afghanistan was set to conclude
in late 2013 with the drawdown of combat operations;
however VMM-261 was directed to extend operations for
a new role, casualty evacuation, for which it was better
suited than helicopters as its speed better enabled casualties to reach a hospital within the 'golden hour'; they were
tted with medical equipment such as heart-monitors and
basic triage supplies.[168]
In 2014, the SPMAGTF-CR-AF supported the timecritical eort against the Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia,
ying 1,200 people and 78,000 lb (35 t) of cargo in V22s.[69]
Marine Corps MV-22B Ospreys arrive at Tribhuvan International Airport in Kathmandu, Nepal, May 3, 2015 as a part of
the U.S. response to the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
In November 2014, three MV-22Bs were placed on alert

at Al Jaber Air Base in Kuwait to be ready within 30 minutes to recover downed pilots during the Military intervention against ISIL. On 29 occasions between 1 November and 24 April 2015, two Ospreys and a KC-130J aerial
tanker assigned to this Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and
Personnel (TRAP) mission spent 145 ight hours loitering, ready to perform rescue missions if required. The
only pilot that was downed was a Jordanian, but he did
not have a radio on him when he ejected and landed too
close to ISIL forces.[169]
In 2013, several MV-22s received communications and

seating modications to support the Marine One presidential transport squadron due to the urgent need for CH53Es in Afghanistan.[154][155] On 11 August 2013, two
MV-22s from Marine Helicopter Squadron One (HMX1) made their debut ferrying Secret Service agents, White
House sta, and press members from CGAS Cape Cod to
Marthas Vineyard during the Presidents vacation.[156] In
May 2010, Boeing announced plans to submit the V-22
6.3.2
for the VXX presidential transport replacement.[157]
Several Japanese politicians and Okinawa residents opposed a V-22 deployment to Japan in July 2012, mainly
due to several high-prole accidents.[158][159] On 14 June
2013, an MV-22 landed on the JDS Hyga o the coast
of California, the rst time a V-22 had landed on a
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force vessel.[160] In January 2014, a MV-22 landed aboard the French Mistralclass amphibious assault ship Dixmude.[161] A Marine
MV-22 landed on the ROKS Dokdo (LPH-6111) on 26
March 2015, marking the rst landing of an Osprey on a
Republic of Korea Navy amphibious ship.[162]
U.S. Air Force
The Air Forces rst operational CV-22 was delivered

to the 58th Special Operations Wing (58th SOW) at
Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico on 20 March 2006.
This and subsequent aircraft became part of the 58th
SOWs eet of aircraft used for training pilots and crew
members for special operations use.[170] On 16 November 2006, the Air Force ocially accepted the CV-22 in
a ceremony conducted at Hurlburt Field, Florida.[171] The
Air Force rst used the V-22 on a non-training mission to
perform search and rescue from Kirtland Air Force Base
on 4 October 2007.[172]
42

hit 119 times, causing ight control failures and hydraulic
and fuel leaks on all three aircraft. Due to fuel leaks, multiple air-to-air refuelings were performed en route.[179]
Following the South Sudan incident, AFSOC developed
optional armor oor panels for the V-22.[98]
Two USAF CV-22s, landing at Holloman AFB, New Mexico in

2006.
The U.S. Air Forces rst operational deployment of

the Osprey sent four CV-22s to Mali in November
2008 in support of Exercise Flintlock. The CV-22s
ew nonstop from Hurlburt Field, Florida with in-ight
refueling.[6] AFSOC declared that the 8th Special Operations Squadron reached Initial Operational Capability on
16 March 2009, with six CV-22s in service.[173]
On 3 July 2014, V-22 aircraft carried Delta Force commandos to a campsite in eastern Syria where Islamic State
militants had held American and other hostages. The
commandos quickly eliminated the militants at the site,
but found that the hostages had been moved elsewhere
and returned home empty handed.[180]
The Air Force is looking to congure the CV-22 to perform combat search and rescue in addition to its primary
long-range special operations transport mission. The Osprey would act as a complement to Air Force HH-60G
Pave Hawk and planned HH-60W rescue helicopters, being employed in scenarios were its ability to cover more
ground quickly would be better suited to search and rescue than more nimble but slower helicopters.[181]
In June 2009, CV-22s of the 8th Special Operations

Squadron delivered 43,000 pounds (20,000 kg) of hu- 6.3.3 Potential operators
manitarian supplies to remote villages in Honduras that
were not accessible by conventional vehicles.[174] In U.S. Navy
November 2009, the 8th SO Squadron and its six CV22s returned from a three-month deployment in Iraq.[175]
V-22 Osprey USAF video
In August 2012, the USAF found that CV-22 wake modeling is inadequate for a trailing aircraft to make accurate estimations of safe separation from the preceding
aircraft.[176]
On 21 December 2013, three CV-22s came under small
arms re while on a mission to evacuate American civilians in Bor, South Sudan during the 2013 South Sudanese political crisis. The three aircraft were damaged
and four crew wounded; the mission was aborted and
the aircraft ew 500 mi (800 km) to Entebbe, Uganda.
South Sudanese ocials stated that the attackers were
rebels.[177][178] The CV-22s, of the 8th Special Operations Squadron, had own to Bor over three countries
across 790 nmi (910 mi; 1,460 km). The formation was
A U.S. Marine MV-22 landing on the ight deck of aircraft carrier Nimitz
The United States Navy could potentially employ the V22 in search and rescue, transport and anti-submarine
43
warfare roles.[182][183] The V-22 program included navy

48 HV-22s, but none have been ordered.[26] One proposal is to replace the C-2 Greyhound with the V-22
for Carrier Onboard Delivery duties. One specic advantage of the V-22 in this role is the ability to deliver
supplies and people between non-carriers ships beyond
helicopter range.[184][185] A MV-22 landed and refueled
onboard Nimitz as part of an evaluation for COD in October 2012.[186] Further cargo handling trials took place
in 2013 on Harry S. Truman.[187]
Israel
V-22 proponents have said that it is capable of similar

speed, payload capacity and lift performance as the C2, the V-22 can also carry greater payloads over short
ranges; up to 20,000 lb, and can also carry suspended external loads. The C-2 can only land on carriers, requiring
further distribution to smaller vessels via helicopters; the
Osprey has been certied for operating upon amphibious ships, aircraft carriers, and logistics ships. The V22 could also take the roles of some helicopters, with a
600 lb hoist tted to the ramp and a cabin conguration
for 12 non-ambulatory patients and ve seats for medical
attendants.[188] Boeing designed a special frame for the V22 to carry the Lockheed Martin F-35's F135 engine to
ships.[189] Bell and Boeing have pitched the V-22 to the
Navy as a platform for various missions, such as communications, electronic warfare, or aerial refueling; the
Navy have a known gap in tactical aerial refueling, currently handled by Marine KC-130s, Air Force KC-10 Extenders, and KC-135 Stratotankers with hose-and-drogue
delivery systems.[87]
On 22 April 2013, an agreement was nalized to sell the

V-22 to the Israel Air Force.[201] The Israeli aircraft are to
be moved to the front of the production queue, jumping
ahead of some USMC deliveries.[202] They were expected
to arrive as early as 2015.[203] These aircraft are to be
optimized for special operations and rescue missions.[204]
Israel is interested in doubling the purchase from six MV22B Ospreys to 12 aircraft.[189] The initial order of six
aircraft could cost up to $1.13 billion including additional
equipment and support.[205] In October 2014, media reports indicated that Israel is deferring or canceling its procurement of the V-22 due to budget restraints and changing policies.[206][207][208][209] However, although the Letter of Agreement oering a $400 million discount[210]
and early delivery formally expired, the deal is still on
and the Defense Minister decided to wait until elections
form a new cabinet in March 2015 to push for cabinet
approval for it.[211]
On 5 January 2015, the Navy and Marines signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to buy the V-22 for
the COD mission, and was conrmed in the Navys FY
2016 budget.[190] Designated HV-22, four aircraft would
be initially bought each year from 2018-2020.[191][192]
The Navys variant will incorporate an extended-range
fuel system, a high-frequency radio for over-the-horizon
communications, and a public address system to communicate with passengers. While the MV-22 has a range of
428 nmi (493 mi; 793 km) when carrying 24 Marines,
the Navy has a requirement for an 1,150 nmi (1,320 mi;
2,130 km) unrefueled range a lower passenger/payload
capacity.[193]
India
The Indian Aviation Research Centre (ARC) is interested
in acquiring four V-22 Ospreys for the purposes of personnel evacuation in hostile conditions, logistic supplies,
and deployment of the Special Frontier Force (SFF) on
the border. India had seen the Ospreys utility in relief
operations of the 2015 Nepal earthquake. The deal could
be worth some $300 million.[194] Elements of the Indian Navy also look at the V-22 rather than the E-2D for
Airborne early warning and control to replace the shortrange Kamov Ka-31.[195]
Israel has shown interest in the V-22.[196][197] In 2009,

Israel reportedly favored the Sikorsky CH-53K over the
V-22.[198] In 2011, Israel was interested in using the V22 to support special operations and search & rescue
missions.[199] In 2013, Israel was reportedly interested in
a possible lease of six to eight aircraft for special operations missions; the type is not to act as a replacement for
existing rotorcraft.[200]
Japan
In 2012, former Defense Minister Satoshi Morimoto ordered an investigation of the costs of V-22 operations.
The V-22 exceeds current Japan Self-Defense Forces helicopters in terms of range, speed, and payload. The ministry anticipates deployments to the Nansei Islands and
the Senkaku Islands, as well as in multinational cooperation with the U.S.[212] Japan is considering plans to
have V-22s in service in a maritime role by as early as
2015.[213] On 21 November 2014, the Japanese Ministry
of Defense ocially decided to procure 17 V-22s,[214]
with deliveries planned from FY 2014 to FY 2019.[215]
In January 2015, Japans parliament approved a defense
budget with funding for ve V-22s.[216]
South Korea
In February 2015, the South Korean Army showed interest in the V-22 for delivering special forces to islands in
the Yellow Sea near North Korean territory; talks are to
be held during 2015 on a possible Osprey buy.[217]
United Arab Emirates
In May 2012, it was reported that the United Arab Emirates was in the nal negotiation stages to purchase sev-
44
eral V-22s. The UAE intends to use the Osprey to sup- EV-22 Proposed airborne early warning and control
port special forces. Both UAE and the Pentagon seek a
variant. The Royal Navy studied this AEW variant
$58 million unit cost.[218][219]
as a replacement for its current eet of carrier-based
Sea King ASaC.7 helicopters.[227]
6.4 Variants
HV-22 The U.S. Navy considered an HV-22 to provide

combat search and rescue, delivery and retrieval
of special warfare teams along with eet logistic
support transport. It chose the MH-60S for this
role in 2001.[182] Naval Air Systems Commands
2011/2012 V-22 Osprey Guidebook lists the HV22 for the U.S. Navy with the USAF and USMC
variants.[228]
SV-22 The proposed anti-submarine warfare variant.
The U.S. Navy studied the SV-22 in the 1980s to
replace S-3 and SH-2 aircraft.[183]
A V-22 Osprey ies a test mission.
6.5 Operators
A CV-22 of 8th Special Operations Squadron ies over Floridas

Emerald Coast.
V-22A Pre-production full-scale development aircraft

used for ight testing. These are unocially conAn Osprey delivers a Humvee to the USNS Sacagawea
sidered A-variants after the 1993 redesign.[220]
CV-22B U.S. Air Force variant for the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). It conducts longrange special operations missions, and is equipped
with extra wing fuel tanks, an AN/APQ-186 terrainfollowing radar, and other equipment such as the
AN/ALQ-211,[221][222] and AN/AAQ-24 Nemesis
Directional Infrared Counter Measures.[223] The
fuel capacity is increased by 588 gallons (2,230 L)
with two inboard wing tanks; three auxiliary tanks
(200 or 430 gal) can also be added in the cabin.[224]
The CV-22 replaced the MH-53 Pave Low.[26]
MV-22B U.S. Marine Corps variant. The Marine
Corps is the lead service in the V-22s development.
The Marine Corps variant is an assault transport for
troops, equipment and supplies, capable of operating from ships or expeditionary airelds ashore;
replacing the Marine Corps CH-46E and CH-53D
eets.[225][226]
United States
United States Air Force[229]

7th Special Operations Squadron[230]
71st Special Operations Squadron[233]
418th Flight Test Squadron[234]
HMX-1[235]
VMX-22[236]
VMM-161[237]
VMM-162[238]
6.8. SPECIFICATIONS (MV-22B)

VMM-165[239]
45
6.8 Specications (MV-22B)
VMM-166
[240]
VMMT-204[241]
VMM-261[242]
VMM-263[243]
VMM-264[244]
VMM-266[245]
VMM-363[246]
VMM-365[247]
VMM-561[248]
6.6 Notable accidents

Main article: Accidents and incidents involving the V-22
Osprey
The V-22 Osprey has had seven hull-loss accidents with
a total of 36 fatalities. During testing from 1991 to 2000,
there were four crashes resulting in 30 fatalities.[33] Since
becoming operational in 2007, the V-22 has had three
crashes resulting in six fatalities, and several minor incidents. The aircrafts accident history has generated some
controversy over its perceived safety issues.[249]
Data from Norton,[252] Boeing,[253] Bell guide,[91] Naval

Air Systems Command,[254] and USAF CV-22 fact
sheet [221]
Crew: Four (pilot, copilot and two ight engineers/crew chiefs)
Capacity:
24 troops (seated), 32 troops (oor loaded), or
20,000 lb (9,070 kg) of internal cargo, or up
to 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) of external cargo (dual
hook)
1 Growler light internally transportable
ground vehicle[255][256]
Wingspan: 45 ft 10 in (14 m)
The V-22 Osprey on display at the American Helicopter Museum

& Education Center
The third of six V-22A prototypes is on display

at the American Helicopter Museum & Education
Center in West Chester, Pennsylvania.[250]
CV-22B 99-021 - National Museum of the United
States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in
Dayton, Ohio.[251]
Width with rotors: 84 ft 7 in (25.8 m)

Height: 22 ft 1 in/6.73 m; overall with nacelles vertical (17 ft 11 in/5.5 m; at top of tailns)
Disc area: 2,268 ft (212 m)
Wing area: 301.4 ft (28 m)
Loaded weight: 47,500 lb (21,500 kg)
46
6.10 See also
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce Allison T406/AE Related development

1107C-Liberty turboshafts, 6,150 hp (4,590 kW)
each
Bell XV-15
Performance
Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor
Maximum speed: 275 knots (509 km/h, 316

mph[257] ) at sea level / 305 kn (565 km/h; 351 mph)
at 15,000 ft (4,600 m)[258]
Cruise speed: 241 kn (277 mph, 446 km/h) at sea
level
Stall speed: 110 kn[70] (126 mph, 204 km/h) in airplane mode
Range: 879 nmi (1,011 mi, 1,627 km)
Combat radius: 390 nmi (426 mi, 722 km)
Ferry range: 1,940 nmi (2,230 mi, 3,590 km) with
auxiliary internal fuel tanks
Bell V-280 Valor

Canadair CL-84
LTV XC-142
Related lists
List of military aircraft of the United States
List of VTOL aircraft
6.11 References

Rate of climb: 2,3204,000[70] ft/min (11.8 m/s)
6.11.1 Notes
Glide ratio: 4.5:1[70]
[1] Osprey Deemed Ready for Deployment. U.S. Marine

Corps, 14 June 2007.
Disc loading: 20.9 lb/ft at 47,500 lb GW (102.23

kg/m)
[2] Berard, Yamil. "Bell to lay o 325 workers as V-22 orders

decline". Fort Worth Star-Telegram, 5 May 2014. Accessed: 8 May 2014.
Power/mass: 0.259 hp/lb (427 W/kg)

Armament
1 7.62 mm (0.308 in) M240 machine gun or 0.50

in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun on ramp,
removable
1 7.62 mm (.308 in) GAU-17 minigun, bellymounted, retractable, video remote control in the
Remote Guardian System [optional][119][259]
[3] Department of Defense, Fiscal Year (FY) 2013 Presidents Budget Submission, Aircraft Procurement, Navy,
Vol. 157. U.S. Department of the Navy, February 2012.
Retrieved: 10 May 2013.
[4] Department of Defense, Fiscal Year (FY) 2015 Presidents Budget Submission, Aircraft Procurement, Navy,
Vol. 1, p. 33. U.S. Department of the Navy, March 2014.
Retrieved: 11 January 2015.
[5] V-22 Osprey Backgrounder. Boeing Defense, Space &
Security, February 2010. Retrieved: 26 March 2010.
[6] Kreisher, Otto. Finally, the Osprey. Air Force magazine,
February 2009.
[7] Whittle 2010, p. 62.
6.9 Notable appearances in media

Main articles: Aircraft in ction V-22 Osprey and List
of ctional aircraft V-22 Osprey
(For V-22 appearances in ction, and for ctional V-22based aircraft, respectively.)
[8] Mackenzie, Richard (writer). Flight of the V-22 Osprey (Television production). Mackenzie Productions for
Military Channel, 7 April 2008. Retrieved: 29 March
2009.
[9] Norton 2004, p. 35.
[10] Whittle 2010, p. 55.
[11] Whittle 2010, p. 91.
6.11. REFERENCES
[12] Whittle 2010, p. 87: As Kelly saw it, the future of the
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[13] Whittle 2010, p. 155.
[14] Whittle 2010, pp. 53, 5556.
[15] Scroggs, Stephen K. Army Relations with Congress :
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47
[33] Berler, Ron. Saving the Pentagons Killer ChopperPlane. Wired (CondNet, Inc), Volume 13, Issue 7, July
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[34] Norton 2004, p. 49.
[35] Norton 2004, p. 52.
[36] Revolutionary plane passes rst test. Toledo Blade, 20
March 1989.
[16] Moyers, Al (Director of History and Research). The

Long Road: AFOTECs Two-Plus Decades of V-22 Involvement. Headquarters Air Force Operational Test and
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[37] Mitchell, Jim. V-22 makes rst ight in full airplane

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[17] Chapter 9: Research, Development, and Acquisition.

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[39] Navy halts test ights of V-22 as crash investigated. Fort

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[18] Norton 2004, pp. 2230.

[19] AIAA-83-2726, Bell-Boeing JVX Tilt Rotor Program. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA), 1618 November 1983.
[38] Jones, Kathryn. V-22 tilt-rotor passes tests at sea. Dallas Morning News, 14 December 1990.
[40] Norton 2004, pp. 5254.

[41] Norton 2004, p. 55.
[42] Norton 2004, pp. 5557.
[43] Schinasi 2008, p. 23.
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[27] Goodrich, Joseph L. Bell-Boeing team lands contract to
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[51] Bryce, Robert. Review of political forces that helped
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[52] Capaccio, Tony. Lifetime cost of V-22s rose 61% in

three years. Bloomberg News, 29 November 2011.
[29] Tilt-rotor craft ies like copter, plane. Milwaukee Sentinel, 24 May 1988.
[53] O'Hanlon 2002, p. 119.
[30] 2 Senators key to fate of Boeings V-22 Osprey.

Philadelphia Inquirer, 6 July 1989.
[31] Mitchell, Jim. Gramm defends Ospreys budget cost:
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[32] Pentagon halts spending on V-22 Osprey. Chicago Tribune, 3 December 1989.
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48
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[62] USMC Statement in Response to Article on the Safety
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[71] Norton 2004, pp. 9899.
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49
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[111] Landis, Kenneth H., et al. Advanced ight control
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[143] Department of Defense Bloggers Roundtable with Lieu- [160] US Marines land Osprey aircraft on Japanese ship.
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Navys Mistral Class LHD Dixmude Navyrecognition.com, 11 February 2014.
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[163] Two MV-22B Osprey tiltrotor aircraft completed longest
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[164] Marines, Army form quick-strike forces for Africa.
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McLeary, Paul. Trial By Fire. Aviation Week, March
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[167] Assistant commandant: MV-22 key to Marines PhilipSchanz, Marc V. V-22s Got Dirty in Anbar. Air Force
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[168] Casevac, the new Osprey mission in Afghanistan MV-22 Logs 100,000 Flight Hours. defensetech.org,
MarineCorpstimes.com, 17 May 2014
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[169] SP-MAGTF Commander Details ISIL Strikes; Notes 1st
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[170] CV-22 delivered to Air Force. Air Force Special OperMulrine, Anna. How an MV-22 Osprey rescued a
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[171] CV-22 arrival. Hulbert Field, United States Air Force, 20 [192] Navy and Marines Sign MOU for Bell-Boeing Osprey to
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[196] Alon, Ben-David. Israel considers V-22 acquisition
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[197] Israel conrms interest in Bell Boeing V-22 tiltrotor.
[176] AFSOC Crash Report Faults Understanding Of Osprey
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[198] Egozi, Arie. Israel drops interest in V-22, eyes CH-53K
[177] Gordon, Michael R. "Attack on U.S. Aircraft Foils Evacevaluation. Flight International, 12 November 2009.
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[199] Egozi, Arie. IAF ups pressure for V-22 buy. Flight
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[178] Four U.S. soldiers injured in South Sudan after their
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Flight,
[179] CV-22 crews save lives. Globalavaiationreport.com, 4
[201] Hagel, Yaalon Finalize New Israel Military Capabilities.
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U.S. DoD, 22 April 2013.
[180] Entous, Adam, Julian Barnes and Siobhan Gorman, Intelligence gaps crippled mission to rescue hostages, Wall [202] WEISGERBER, MARCUS (31 October 2013). Hagel:
US To Fast-Track V-22 Sale to Israel. defensenews.com.
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[181] Air Force looking at using Ospreys for search and rescue
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[203] Israel Could Receive V-22 Ospreys by 2015 Tamir Eshel,
[182] Norton 2004, pp. 2628, 48, 8384.
November 1, 2013, Defense Update
[183] Norton 2004, pp. 2830, 35, 48.
[204] Egozi, Arie (15 January 2014). Israel requests sixaircraft V-22 purchase. www.flightglobal.com. Flight
[184] Tilghman, Andrew. Tilt-rotor helicopter still looking for
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[205] Eshel, Tamir (January 15, 2014). Pentagon Details Is[185] Thompson, Loren B. "'V' For Versatility: Osprey Reaches
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[186] Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Renee Can[206] Purchase of the V-22 Boeing helicopter-plane is o for
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the moment. Globes, 28 October 2014.
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[187] Butler, Amy (18 April 2013). Osprey on the Truman,
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[188] The Future COD Aircraft Contenders: The Bell Boeing
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[189] Israel could double V-22 order size, Bell says Flightglobal.com, 25 February 2014
[210] "Heli Expo 2015 Preview", page 124. Helicopter International, Volume 38 Number 4 January - February 2015.
[190] Navy 2016 Budget Funds V-22 COD Buy, Carrier Refuel
ISSN 0143-1005. Archive
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[191] Whittle, Richard. "Navy Decides to Buy V-22 Ospreys [211] Israeli $800M V-22 Deal Not Dead: Just Hovering for Carrier Delivery" Breaking Defense, 13 January 2015.
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[212] Defense Ministry studies Osprey use by Self-Defense [238] VMM-165. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
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[241] VMMT-204. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
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[215] A lot of new equipment purchases in latest 5-year defense
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[217] Seoul Reportedly Plans to Buy US' Osprey V-22 Aircraft
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[218] UAE V-22 Deal Nears Closure. Aviation Week, 3 May [248]
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[249]
[219] United Arab Emirates Steps Up Arms Deals With US.
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[220] Norton 2004, p. 54.
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2006. Retrieved: 21 August 2013.
[252]
[222] Norton 2004, pp. 7172.
[253]
[223] Bell-Boeing V-22 Guidebook Bell Helicopter
NMUSAF CV-22. YouTube. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
[224] Norton 2004, pp. 10001.
Axe, David. General: My Career Was Done When I

Criticized Flawed Warplane. Wired, 4 October 2012.
Aircraft on display. American Helicopter Museum & Education Center, 2008. Retrieved: 24 April 2012.
Norton 2004, pp. 110111.

V-22 Osprey: Technical Specications. Boeing Defense,
Space and Security. Retrieved: 3 July 2011.
[254] V-22 Characteristics. Naval Air Systems Command. Retrieved: 25 November 2008.
[225] Norton 2004, p. 77.

[226] US Marine Corps retires CH-53D. Rotorhub, 24 February 2012.
[255] Pincus, Walter. Marines New Ride Rolls Out Years

Late. Washington Post, 3 February 2009.
[256] White, Andrew. USAF seeks special operations CSAR

[227] Richard Beedall (October 9, 2012). Maritime Airvehicle. Shephard Group, 24 June 2010.
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[257] Wall, Robert. U.S. Marines See MV-22 Improvements.
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[228] V-22 Osprey Guidebook. Naval Air Systems Command,
United States Navy, 2011/2012, p. 5.
[258] Norton 2004, p. 111.
[229] World Air Forces 2014, Flightglobal, January 2014.
[230] 352ND SPECIAL OPERATIONS GROUP.
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[259] Remote Guardian System (RGS) (United States), Guns

Integral and mounted. Janes Information Group, 28
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[231] Fact Sheet: 8 Special Operations Squadron. U.S. Air

Force, 8 August 2008.
[232] CV-22 commencement of operations ceremony held.
U.S. Air Force, 21 June 2010.
[233] Fact Sheet: 71 Special Operations Squadron. U.S. Air
Force, 3 January 2012.
[234] 418th FLTS tests CV-22 terrain-following radar in East
Coast fog. af.mil. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
[235]
[236] VMX-22 Argonauts. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
6.11.2 Bibliography
Markman, Steve and Bill Holder. Bell/Boeing V22 Osprey Tilt-Engine VTOL Transport (U.S.A.)".
Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight. Atglen,
Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 2000. ISBN 07643-1204-9.
Norton, Bill. Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, Tiltrotor Tactical Transport. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-85780-165-2.
O'Hanlon, Michael E. Defense Policy Choices for the
Bush Administration. Washington, D.C.: Brookings
Institution Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8157-6437-5.
6.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

Schinasi, Katherine V. Defense Acquisitions: Readiness of the Marine Corps V-22 Aircraft for Full-Rate
Production. Darby, Pennsylvania: Diane Publishing, 2008. ISBN 1-4289-4682-9.
Whittle, Richard. The Dream Machine: The Untold
History of the Notorious V-22 Osprey. New York:
Simon & Schuster, 2010. ISBN 1-4165-6295-8.
6.12 External links

Ocial Boeing V-22 site
Ocial Bell V-22 site
V-22 Osprey web
V-22 Osprey history on Navy.mil
CV-22 fact sheet on USAF site
V-22 page on GlobalSecurity.org
The V-22 Osprey, Documentary on the V-22 In
Iraq
Flight of the Osprey, U.S. Navy video of V-22 operations
Cutaway drawing of V-22 prototype
Newer cutaway drawing of V-22
53
Chapter 7
Bell OH-58 Kiowa

The Bell OH-58 Kiowa is a family of single-engine,
single-rotor, military helicopters used for observation,
utility, and direct re support. Bell Helicopter manufactured the OH-58 for the United States Army based on its
Model 206A JetRanger helicopter. The OH-58 has been
in continuous use by the U.S. Army since 1969.
adding 16 cubic feet (0.45 m3 ) of cargo space in the

process.[9] The redesigned aircraft was designated as the
Model 206A, and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named
it the JetRanger denoting an evolution from the popular
Model 47J Ranger.
The latest model, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, is primarily operated in an armed reconnaissance role in support
of ground troops. The OH-58 has been exported to Austria, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Taiwan, and Saudi
Arabia. It has also been produced under license in Australia.
7.1 Development
On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy asked 25
helicopter manufacturers on behalf of the Army for proposals for a Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). Bell
Helicopter entered the competition along with 12 other
manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool
Co., Aircraft Division.[3] Bell submitted the D-250 design, which would be designated as the YHO-4.[4] On 19
May 1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of
the design competition.[5][6]
YOH-4A LOH in ight.
In 1967, the Army reopened the LOH competition for

bids because Hughes Tool Co. Aircraft Division could
not meet the contractual production demands.[10] Bell
resubmitted for the program using the Bell 206A.[4]
Fairchild-Hiller failed to resubmit their bid with the
YOH-5A, which they had successfully marketed as the
FH-1100.[11] In the end, Bell underbid Hughes to win the
7.1.1 Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) contract and the Bell 206A was designated as the OH58A. Following the U.S. Armys naming convention for
Bell developed the D-250 design into the Model 206 airhelicopters, the OH-58A was named Kiowa in honor of
craft, redesignated as YOH-4A in 1962, and produced the Native American tribe.[12]
ve prototype aircraft for the Armys test and evaluation
phase. The rst prototype ew on 8 December 1962.[7]
The YOH-4A also became known as the Ugly Duckling 7.1.2 Advanced Scout Helicopter
in comparison to the other contending aircraft.[7] Following a yo of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller pro- In the 1970s, the U.S. Army began evaluating the need
totypes, the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse was selected in May to improve the capabilities of their scout aircraft. The
1965.[8]
OH-58A lacked the power for operations in areas that exWhen the YOH-4A was rejected by the Army, Bell went posed the aircraft to high altitude and hot temperatures,
about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft. In areas where the ability to acquire targets was a critical
in the tactical warfare capabilities of Army
addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked deciency
[13]
aviation.
cargo space and only provided cramped quarters for the
planned three passengers in the back. The solution was The power shortcoming caused other issues as the Army
a fuselage redesigned to be more sleek and aesthetic, anticipated the AH-64A's replacement of the venerable
54
7.2. DESIGN
AH-1 in the Attack battalions of the Army. The Army
began shopping the idea of an Aerial Scout Program to
industry as a prototype exercise to stimulate the development of advanced technological capabilities for night
vision and precision navigation equipment.[13] The stated
goals of the program included prototypes that would:
...possess an extended target acquisition

range capability by means of a long-range stabilized optical subsystem for the observer, improved position location through use of a computerized navigation system, improved survivability by reducing aural, visual, radar, and
infrared signatures, and an improved ight
performance capability derived from a larger
engine to provide compatibility with attack
helicopters.[13]
In early March 1974, the Army created a special task

force at Fort Knox to develop the system requirements for
the Aerial Scout Helicopter program,[14] and in 1975 the
task force had formulated the requirements for the Advanced Scout Helicopter (ASH) program. The requirements were formulated around an aircraft capable of performing in day, night, and adverse weather and compatible with all the advanced weapons systems planned for
development and elding into the 1980s. The program
was approved by the System Acquisition Review Council and the Army prepared for competitive development
to begin the next year.[15] However, as the Army tried to
get the program o the ground, Congress declined to provide funding for it in the scal year 1977 budget and the
ASH Project Managers Oce (PM-ASH) was closed on
30 September 1976.[16]
While no development occurred during the next few
years, the program survived as a requirement without
funding. On 30 November 1979, the decision was made
to defer development of an advanced scout helicopter in
favor of pursuing modication of existing airframes in
the inventory as a near term scout helicopter (NTSH) option. The development of a mast-mounted sight would be
the primary focus to improve the aircrafts ability to perform reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition
missions while remaining hidden behind trees and terrain.
Both the UH-1 and the OH-58 were evaluated as NTSH
candidates, but the UH-1 was dropped from consideration due to its larger size and ease of detection. The OH58, on the other hand demonstrated a dramatic reduction
in detectability with a Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS).
On 10 July 1980, the Army decided that the NTSH would
be a competitive modication program based on developments in the commercial helicopter industry, particularly
Hughes Helicopters development of the Hughes 500D
which provided signicant improvements over the OH6.[17]
55
7.1.3 Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP)

The Armys decision to acquire the NTSH resulted in the
Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP)". Both
Bell Helicopter and Hughes Helicopters redesigned their
scout aircraft to compete for the contract. Bell oered
a more robust version of the OH-58 in their model 406
aircraft,[18] and Hughes oered an upgraded version of
the OH-6. On 21 September 1981, Bell Helicopter Textron was awarded a development contract.[19][20] The rst
prototype ew on 6 October 1983,[2] and the aircraft entered service in 1985 as the OH-58D.[21]
Initially intended for attack, cavalry and artillery roles,
the Army only approved a low initial production level
and conned the role of the OH-58D to eld artillery observation. The Army also directed that a follow-on test
be conducted to further evaluate the aircraft due to perceived deciencies. On 1 April 1986, the Army formed
a task force at Fort Rucker, Alabama, to remedy deciencies in the AHIP.[21] In 1988, the Army had planned
to discontinue the OH-58D and focus on the LHX; however, Congress approved $138 million to expand the program, calling for the AHIP to operate with the Apache as
a hunter/killer team; the AHIP would locate targets and
the Apache would destroy them in a throwback to the traditional OH-58/AH-1 relationship.[22]
The Secretary of the Army directed instead that the aircrafts armament systems be upgraded, based on experience with Task Force 118s performance operating armed
OH-58D helicopters in the Persian Gulf in support of
Operation Prime Chance, and that the aircraft be used
primarily for scouting and armed reconnaissance.[23] The
armed aircraft would be known as the OH-58D Kiowa
Warrior, denoting its new armed conguration. Beginning with the production of the 202nd aircraft (s/n 890112) in May 1991, all remaining OH-58D aircraft were
produced in the Kiowa Warrior conguration. In January
1992, Bell Helicopter received its rst retrot contract to
convert all remaining OH-58D Kiowa helicopters to the
Kiowa Warrior conguration.[2]
7.2 Design
7.2.1 Mast mounted sight
The OH-58D introduced the most distinctive feature of
the Kiowa family the Mast Mounted Sight (MMS),
which resembles a beach ball perched above the rotor system. The MMS by Ball Aerospace & Technologies has
a gyro-stabilized platform containing a TeleVision System (TVS), a Thermal Imaging System (TIS), and a Laser
Range Finder/Designator (LRF/D). These new features
gave the aircraft the additional mission capability of target acquisition and laser designation in both day or night,
56
CHAPTER 7. BELL OH-58 KIOWA
and in limited-visibility and adverse weather.
his aircraft came under machine gun re and exploded.

Sergeant Philip Taylor, both
The Mast Mounted Sight system was developed by the Knuckey and his observer,
[30]
died
in
the
explosion.
McDonnell Douglas Corp. in Huntington Beach, CA.
Production took place primarily at facilities in Monrovia,
CA. As a result of a merger with Boeing, and a later sale
of the business unit, the program is currently owned and 7.3.2 Operation Prime Chance
managed by DRS Technologies, with engineering support based in Cypress, CA, and production support taking In early 1988, it was decided that armed OH-58D (AHIP)
helicopters from the 118th Aviation Task Force would
place in Melbourne, FL.[24]
be phased in to replace the SEABAT (AH-6/MH-6)
teams of Task Force 160th to carry out Operation Prime
Chance, the escort of oil tankers during the IranIraq
7.2.2 Wire Strike Protection System
War. On 24 February 1988, two AHIP helicopters reOne distinctive feature of operational OH-58s are the ported to the Mobile Sea Base Wimbrown VII, and the
knife-like extensions above and below the cockpit which helicopter team (SEABAT team after their callsign)
are part of the passive Wire Strike Protection System. It stationed on the barge returned to the United States. For
can protect 90% of the frontal area of the helicopter from the next few months, the AHIP helicopters on the Wimwire strikes that can be encountered at low altitudes by brown VII shared patrol duties with the SEABAT team
directing wires to the upper or lower blades before they on the Hercules. Coordination was dicult, but despite
can entangle the rotor blade or landing skids. The OH-58 frequent requests from TF-160, the SEABAT team on the
was the rst helicopter to test this system, after which the Hercules was not replaced by an AHIP detachment until
[31]
system was adopted by the US Army for the OH-58 and June 1988. The OH-58D helicopter crews involved in
[25]
the operation received deck landing and underwater surmost of their other helicopters.
vival training from the Navy.

Major General John Norton, commanding general of the
Army Aviation Materiel Command (AMCOM),[26] received the rst OH-58A Kiowa at a ceremony at Bell Helicopters Fort Worth plant in May 1969. Two months
later, on 17 August 1969, the rst production OH-58A
Kiowa helicopters were arriving in Vietnam,[27] accompanied by a New Equipment Training Team (NETT)
from the Army and Bell Helicopters.[28] Although the
Kiowa production contract replaced the LOH contract
with Hughes, the OH-58A did not automatically replace
the OH-6A in operation. Subsequently, the Kiowa and
the Cayuse would continue operating in the same theater
until the end of the war.
7.3.1
Vietnam War
On 27 March 1970, an OH-58A Kiowa (s/n 68-16785)

was shot down over Vietnam, one of the rst OH-58A
losses of the war. The pilot, Warrant Ocer Ralph
Quick, Jr., was ying Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Benoski,
Jr. as an artillery spotter. After completing a battle damage assessment for a previous re mission, the aircraft
was damaged by .51 cal (13 mm) machine gun re and
crashed, killing both crew members. Approximately 45
OH-58A helicopters were destroyed during the Vietnam
War due to combat losses and accidents.[29] One of the
last combat losses was of an OH-58A (s/n 68-16888)
from A Troop, 3-17th Cavalry, own by First Lieutenant
Thomas Knuckey. On 27 May 1971, Lieutenant Knuckey
was also ying a battle damage assessment mission when
In November 1988, the number of OH-58D helicopters

that supported Task Force 118 was reduced. However,
the aircraft continued to operate from the Navys Mobile
Sea Base Hercules, the frigate Underwood, and the destroyer Conolly. OH-58D operations primarily entailed
reconnaissance ights at night, and depending on maintenance requirements and ship scheduling, Army helicopters usually rotated from the mobile sea base and other
combatant ships to a land base every seven to fourteen
days. On 18 September 1989, an OH-58D crashed during night gunnery practice and sank, but with no loss of
personnel. When the Mobile Sea Base Hercules was deactivated in September 1989, all but ve OH-58D helicopters redeployed to the continental United States.[32]
7.3.3 RAID
In 1989, Congress mandated that the Army National
Guard would take part in the countrys War on Drugs,
enabling them to aid federal, state and local law enforcement agencies with special congressional entitlements. In response, the Army National Guard Bureau
created the Reconnaissance and Aerial Interdiction Detachments (RAID) in 1992, consisting of aviation units in
31 states with 76 specially modied OH-58A helicopters
to assume the reconnaissance/interdiction role in the ght
against illegal drugs. During 1994, 24 states conducted
more than 1,200 aerial counterdrug reconnaissance and
interdiction missions, conducting many of these missions
at night.[33] Eventually, the program was expanded to
cover 32 states and consisting of 116 aircraft, including
dedicated training aircraft at the Western Army Aviation
Training Site (WAATS) in Marana, Arizona.[34]

The RAID programs mission has now been expanded
to include the war against terrorism and supporting U.S.
Border Patrol activities in support of homeland defense.
The National Guard RAID units Area of Operation
(AO) is the only one in the Department of Defense that
is wholly contained within the borders of the United
States.[34]
7.3.4
57
pilots killed.[40] Their presence has also been anecdotally
credited with saving lives, having been used to rescue
wounded despite their small size.[41] In Iraq, OH-58Ds
ew 72 hours per month, while in Afghanistan, they ew
80 hours per month.[42] In 2013, Bell stated that the OH58 had 820,000 combat hours, and 90% mission capable
rate.[43]
Operation Just Cause and action in 7.3.6 Future

the 1990s
During Operation Just Cause in 1989, a team consisting

of an OH-58 and an AH-1 were part of the Aviation Task
Force during the securing of Fort Amador in Panama.
The OH-58 was red upon by Panama Defense Force soldiers and crashed 100 yards (91 m) away, in the Bay of
Panama. The pilot was rescued but the co-pilot died.[35]
On 17 December 1994, Army Chief Warrant Ocers
(CWO) David Hilemon and Bobby Hall left Camp Page,
South Korea on a routine training mission along the
Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Their ight was intended to
be to a point known as Checkpoint 84, south of the DMZ
no-y zone, but the OH-58C Kiowa strayed nearly four
miles (6.4 km) into the Kangwon Province, inside North
Korean airspace, due to errors in navigating the snowcovered, rugged terrain. The helicopter was shot down
by North Korean troops and CWO Hilemon was killed.
CWO Hall was held captive and the North Korean government insisted that the crew had been spying. Five
days of negotiations resulted in the North Koreans turning over Hilemons body to U.S. authorities. The negotiations failed to secure Halls immediate release. After
13 days in captivity, Hall was freed on 30 December,
uninjured.[36][37]
The rst attempt to replace the OH-58 was the RAH66 Comanche of the Light Helicopter Experimental program, which was cancelled in 2004. Airframe age and
losses led to the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program to procure a new aircraft, the Bell ARH-70, which
was later cancelled in 2008 due to cost overruns. The
third replacement eort for the OH-58 was the Armed
Aerial Scout program.[44] Due to uncertainty in the AAS
program and scal restraints, planned retirement of the
OH-58F Kiowa has been extended from 2025 to 2036.[45]
The Kiowas role as a scout aircraft is being supplemented by tactical unmanned aerial vehicles, the two
platforms often act in conjunction to provide reconnaissance to expose crews to less risk. The OH-58F has the
ability to control UAVs directly to safely perform scout
missions.[42] In 2011, the Kiowa was scheduled to be replaced by the light version of the Future Vertical Lift aircraft in the 2030s.[46]
As of December 2013, the U.S. Army has 338 Kiowas in

its active-duty force and 30 in the Army National Guard.
The Army is considering retiring the Kiowa as part of a
wider restructuring to cut costs and reduce the various
types of helicopters in service. The Analysis of Alternatives (AoA) for the AAS program found that the Kiowa
operating alongside RQ-7 Shadow UAVs was the most
aordable and capable solution; it also said that the AH64E Apache Guardian was the most capable immedi7.3.5 Afghanistan and Iraq
ate solution for the scout helicopter role. It is proposed
that all OH-58s be divested and all National Guard and
Army Reserve Apaches would be transferred to the active Army to serve as scouts. The Apache costs 50 percent more than the Kiowa to operate and requires more
maintenance; studies showed that if the Apache had been
used in place of the Kiowa in Iraq and Afghanistan, total
operating costs would have been $4 billion greater, but
would save $1 billion per year in operating and sustainment costs. UH-60 Black Hawks would be transferred
from the active eet to reserve and Guard units. The proposal aims to retire older helicopters to save money and
retain those with the greatest capabilities.[47] The 2010
AoA that found that Apaches teamed with UAVs was the
optimal choice; with a reduced service size a total of 698
Shrink wrapped OH-58 Kiowa helicopters to be shipped to Iraq.
Apaches could ll the role. Funds for Apache upgrades
[48]
The United States Army has employed the OH-58D dur- would be released from the Kiowas termination. Meing Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq and Operation En- dia expects the OH-58s to go to foreign military[49]rather
during Freedom in Afghanistan.[38][39] Due to combat than civilian operators due higher operating cost.
and accidents, over 35 airframes have been lost, with 35 The Army will place 26 out of 335 OH-58Ds in non-
58
yable storage during 2014. In anticipation of divesting

the Kiowa, the Army is looking to see if other military
branches, government agencies, and foreign customers
would be interested in buying the aircraft. The Kiowas
are considered in a good price range for foreign countries
with limited resources. Bell has not yet agreed to support the helicopters if sold overseas. In November 2014
Croatia sent a letter of intent for the acquisition of 16
OH-58Ds.[50][51]
CA-32 was the equivalent of the 206B-1 (upgraded engine and longer rotor blades). The rst twelve of 56 were
built in the U.S. then partially disassembled and shipped
to Australia where they were reassembled.[55] Helicopters
in the naval eet were retired in 2000.[55]
7.4.3 OH-58C
7.4 Variants
OH-58C operated by the National Test Pilot School at the Mojave

Airport. Note the at windscreen and the IR exhaust suppressors
Equipped with a more robust engine, the OH-58C was

supposed to solve many issues and concerns regarding the
An OH-58 Kiowa.
Kiowas power. In addition to the upgraded engine, the
OH-58C had unique IR suppression systems mounted on
its turbine exhaust. Early C models featured at-panel
windscreens as an attempt to reduce glint from the sun,
7.4.1 OH-58A
which could give away the aircrafts location to an enemy.
The OH-58A Kiowa is a 4-place observation helicopter. The windscreens had a negative eect of limiting the forThe Kiowa has two-place pilot seating, although the con- ward view of the crew, a previous strength of the original
trols in the left seat are designed to be removed to carry design.
a passenger up front. During its Vietnam development, The aircraft was also equipped with a larger instrument
it was tted with the M134 Minigun, a 7.62 mm electri- panel, roughly a third bigger than the OH-58A panel,
cally operated machine gun. A total of 74 OH-58A he- which held larger ight instruments. The panel was also
licopters were delivered to the Canadian Armed Forces equipped with Night Vision Goggle (NVG) compatible
as COH-58A and later redesignated as CH-136 Kiowa cockpit lighting. The lights inside the aircraft are modhelicopters.[52]
ied to prevent them from interfering with the aircrews
[56]
In 1978, OH-58A aircraft began to be converted to use of NVGs. OH-58C aircraft were also the rst U.S.
the same engine and dynamic components as the OH- Army scout helicopter to be equipped with the AN/APR58C.[53] And, in 1992, 76 OH-58A were modied with 39 radar detector, a system which allowed the crew to
anti-aircraft radar systems in proxanother engine upgrade, a thermal imaging system, a know when there were
[57]
imity
to
the
aircraft.
communications package for law enforcement, enhanced
navigational equipment and high skid gear as part of the Some OH-58C aircraft were armed with two AIM-92
Army National Guards (ARNG) Counter-Drug RAID Stingers. These aircraft are sometimes referred to as OHprogram.
58C/S, the S referring to the Stinger installation.[58]
Called Air-To-Air Stinger (ATAS), the weapon system
was intended to provide an air defense capability.
7.4.2
OH-58B
The OH-58B was an export version for the Austrian Air

Force.[54] The Australian Government also procured the
OH-58A for the Australian Army and Royal Australian
Navy as the CAC CA-32. Produced under contract in
Australia by Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation, the
7.4.4 OH-58D
The OH-58D (Bell Model 406) was the result of the Army
Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP). An upgraded
transmission and engine gave the aircraft the power it
7.4. VARIANTS
59
7-shot 2.75 in (70 mm) Hydra-70 rocket pods,[65] and an
M296 .50 caliber machine gun. The standard of performance for aerial gunnery from an OH-58D is to achieve
at least one hit out of 70 shots red at a wheeled vehicle 800 to 1,200 m (2,625 to 3,937 ft) away.[66][67] The
Kiowa Warrior upgrade also includes improvements in
available power, navigation, communication and survivability, as well as modications to improve the aircrafts
deployability.[68]
7.4.5 OH-58F
A OH-58D assigned to 2nd Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment,
lands on the deck of the USS Lake Erie
Bell Helicopter OH-58F test aircraft in ight

OH-58D with cockpit airbags
needed for nap-of-the-earth ight proles, and a fourbladed main rotor made it much quieter than the twobladed OH-58C. The OH-58D introduced the distinctive
Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS) above the rotor system, and
a mixed glass cockpit, with traditional instruments identied as standby for emergency use.
The Bell 406CS Combat Scout was based on the OH58D (sometimes referred to as the MH-58D). Fifteen
aircraft[7][59] were sold to Saudi Arabia.[60] A roofmounted Saab HeliTOW sight system was opted for in
place of the MMS.[61] The 406CS also had detachable
weapon hardpoints on each side.
The AH-58D was an OH-58D version operated by Task
Force 118 (4th Squadron, 17th Cavalry) and modied
with armament in support of Operation Prime Chance.
The weapons and re control systems would become the
basis for the Kiowa Warrior. AH-58D is not an ocial
DOD aircraft designation, but is used by the Army in reference to these aircraft.[62][63][64]
The OH-58F is the designation for an upgrade of the

OH-58D. The Cockpit and Sensor Upgrade Program
(CASUP) features a nose-mounted targeting and surveillance system in addition to the OH-58Ds mast-mounted
sensor. The AAS-53 Common Sensor Payload (CSP)
includes an advanced infrared camera, color ElectroOptical camera, and image intensier; it is expected to
improve ight performance by 1-2% through weight and
drag reductions.[69] Cockpit upgrades include the Control
and Display Subsystem version 5, for more processing
and storage power, three color multi-function displays,
and dual-independent advanced moving maps. The OH58F shall have Level 2 Manned-Unmanned (L2MUM)
teaming, the Force Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) display screen, with future improvement
to Blue Force Tracker 2. Survivability enhancements
include ballistic oor armor and the Common Missile
Warning System (CMWS). Other features include improved situational awareness, digital inter-cockpit communications, HELLFIRE future upgrades, redesigned
wiring harness, Health and Usage Monitoring (HUMS),
and enhanced weapons functionality via 1760 digital
interface. It has a dual-channel, full-authority digital
engine-controller to ensure operations at required power
levels in all environments.[70][71][72] The OH-58F did not
address engine power requirements; Rolls-Royce proposed adaptions of the Model 250-CR30 engine to increase output by 12%.[73]
The Kiowa Warrior, sometimes referred to by its acronym

KW, is the armed version of the OH-58D Kiowa. The
main dierence that distinguishes the Kiowa Warrior
from the original AHIP aircraft is a universal weapons
pylon found mounted on both sides of the aircraft. These
pylons are capable of carrying combinations of AGM- In October 2012, the rst OH-58F was nished. Unlike
114 Hellre missiles, air-to-air Stinger (ATAS) missiles, most military projects, the Army designed and built the
60
new variant itself, which lowered developmental costs.

It weighed 3,590 lb, 53 lb below the target weight and
about 200 lb lighter than the OH-58D. The weight savings are attributed to more ecient wiring and a lighter
sensor. The rst production aircraft will start being built
in January 2013 and will be handed over to the Army
by the end of the year. Low rate production was to start
in March 2015, with the rst operational squadron being
fully equipped by 2016. The Army is to buy 368 OH58Fs, older A, C and D-model OH-58s were to be remanufactured into F-models.[74] Because of battle damage and combat attrition, total OH-58F numbers will be
about 321 aircraft.[75] The rst ight of the OH-58F occurred on 26 April 2013.[76]
the Block II was seen as the performance upgrade. This

gave the Army exibility in times of shrinking budgets,
as they had the option of upgrading the Kiowa to the Fmodel and then continuing to the Block II later when there
were sucient funds.[81] Shortly before December 2012,
the Army decided they would recommend proceeding
with the AAS program.[44][45] The Army ended the AAS
program in late 2013.[82] With the onset of sequestration
budget cuts in early 2013, it was decided that the $16 billion cost of buying new armed scout helicopters was too
expensive.[77]
The Army plans to retire its Kiowa eet and end the Fmodel CASUP upgrades. CASUP and SLEP upgrades
would cost $3 billion and $7 billion respectively, totaling
$10 billion for features that the Army cannot aord to
allocate money to. The OH-58D can reach 20 percent
of armed aerial scout mission requirements, upgrading to
OH-58F standard would raise that to 50 percent. Replacing the Kiowa with Apaches and unmanned systems in
scout roles would meet 80 percent of requirements.[77] In
the rst quarter of 2014, Bell received a stop-work order
for the Kiowa F-model CASUP program.[78]
The OH-58X was a modication of the fourth development OH-58D (s/n 69-16322) with partial stealth features and a chin-mounted McDonnell-Douglas Electronics Systems turret as a night piloting system; including
a Kodak FLIR system with a 30-degree eld of view.
Avionics systems were consolidated and moved to the
nose, making room for a passenger seat in the rear. No
aircraft were produced.[2]
7.4.7 Others
7.5 Operators
Austria
Austrian Armed Forces[83]
OH-58X Kiowa. Modied OH-58D prototype. Note nose, pitch

link cover and engine cowl area
Australian Army Kiowa
7.4.6
OH-58F Block II
On April 14, 2011, Bell performed the successful rst

ight of their OH-58F Block II variant. The Block II
was Bells entry in the Armed Aerial Scout program.[79] It
built on the improvements of the F-model, and added features including the Honeywell HTS900 turboshaft engine,
the transmission and main rotors of the Bell 407, and the
tail and tail rotor of the Bell 427. Bell started voluntary
ight demonstrations in October 2012, and the Army had
to decide by December if it would even proceed with the
AAS program.[80] Bell hoped for the Army to go with
their service life extension models instead of the program.
The F-model Kiowa is an obsolescence upgrade, while
Republic of China (Taiwan)

Republic of China Army[83]
Dominican Republic
Dominican Air Force[83]
Saudi Arabia
61
Royal Saudi Land Forces[83]

Turkey
Turkish Army[83]
United States
United States Army[83]
Canadian CH-136 Kiowa with 408 Tactical Helicopter
Squadron, 1984

68-16940 - International Airport in Palm Springs,
California. Transformed into a sculpture.[98]
69-16112 - Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson,
Arizona[99]
An Austrian Armed Forces OH-58, during AirPower 2013
7.5.1
69-16123 - Kansas Museum of Military History in

Augusta, Kansas[100]
69-16153 - MAPS Air Museum in North Canton,
Ohio[101]
Former operators
69-16338 - Point Alpha Museum in Hesse, Germany[102]
Australia
71-20475 - Veterans Memorial Museum,

Huntsville, Alabama, United States[103][104]
Australian Army
[84]
72-21256 - The Aviation Museum of Kentucky in

Lexington, Kentucky[105]
161 Reconnaissance Squadron [84]

Canada
Polish Aviation Museum, Krakw, Poland - CH136[106]
Canadian Forces[85]
7.7 Specications
400 Tactical Helicopter Squadron[86]

3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School[87]
401 Tactical
Squadron[88]
and
403 (Helicopter)
Squadron[89]
Training
Helicopter 7.7.1
Operational
Training

Aerospace Engineering Test Establishment[97]
OH-58A
62
Data from U.S. Army Aircraft Since 1947[107]
Main rotor diameter: 35 ft 0 in (10.67 m)
Height: 12 ft 105 8 in (3.93 m)
Crew: 1 pilot, 2 pilots, or 1 pilot and 1 observer
Main rotor area: 14.83 ft2 (1.38 m2 )
Gross weight: 5,500 lb (2,495 kg)
Powerplant: 1 Rolls-Royce T703-AD-700A or

250-C30R3 turboshaft, 650 hp (485 kW) each
Empty weight: 1,583 lb (718 kg)

Powerplant: 1 Allison T63-A-700 turboshaft,
317 shp (236 kW)
Fuselage length: 34 ft 4.5 in (10.48 m)
Performance
Maximum speed: 120 knots (222 km/h, 138 mph)
Cruise speed: 102 knots (188 km/h, 117 mph)
Performance
Maximum speed: 149 mph (240 km/h)
Cruise speed: 127 mph (204 km/h)
Range: 161 miles (556 km)
Endurance: 2.0 hours
Armament
Range: 299 mi (481 km, 260 nmi)

Armament
Guns: M134 six-barreled 7.62mm minigun

mounted on the M27 Armament Subsystem
OR
M129 grenade launcher mounted on the XM8
Armament Subsystem
Each pylon (two total) can carry one of the following:

1x M3P (or M296) .50 cal (12.7 mm) machine
gun[108]
1x LAU-68 rocket launcher w/ seven 2.75 Hydra
70 rockets
2x AGM-114 Hellre missiles
7.7.3 OH-58F
7.7.2
OH-58D
Data from Bell Helicopter [109][110]

Crew: 2 pilots
Powerplant:
1 Rolls-Royce 250-C30R3
turboshaft, 650 hp (485 kW) each
Performance
Data from Janes,[2] U.S. Army Aircraft Since 1947[107]
Cruise speed: 109 (with weapons) mph (176 km/h)
Range: 161 miles (260 km)
Crew: 2 pilots
Length: 42 ft 2 in (12.85 m)
Endurance: 2.0 hours

Armament
7.9. REFERENCES
63
Each pylon (two total) can carry one of the fol- 7.9.2
lowing:
1x M3P .50 cal (12.7mm) machine gun
1x M260 rocket launcher w/ seven 2.75 Hydra 70
rockets
Notes
[1] Donald, David, ed. Bell Model 206 JetRanger, The

Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
2x AGM-114 Hellre missiles
[2] Jackson, Paul, Lindsay T. Peacock, Kenneth Munson, and

John W. R. Taylor. Janes All the Worlds Aircraft, 1996
97. Coulsdon, Surrey, UK: Janes Information Group,
1996. ISBN 978-0-7106-1377-6.
2x JAGM (Joint Air-to-Ground Missile)
[3] Remington, Steve. The Cessna CH-1 Helicopter. CollectAir.com
7.8 See also

Related development
Bell YOH-4
Bell 206
Bell 400
Bell 407
Bell ARH-70
OH-6 Cayuse
MBB Bo 105
Cicar CH-14
Mil Mi-36
Changhe Z-11
Arospatiale Gazelle
Related lists
List of active United States military aircraft
7.9 References
7.9.1
Footnotes
[1] The last new build aircraft were delivered to the U.S.
Army in 1989. The subsequent arming of the AHIP and
the System Safety Enhancement Program (SSEP) caused
aircraft to be steadily retted until 1999.
[4] Beechy, Robert. U.S Army Aircraft Acquisition Programs. Uncommon Aircraft 2006. 18 November 2005.
Accessed on 19 September 2006.
[5] See Light Observation Helicopter. The Navy, who was assisting the Army in the selection phase, recommended the
Hiller Model 1100, while the Army team preferred the
Bell D-250, and then the 1100. The Selection Board selected both aircraft. Afterwards, the acting Army Chief of
Sta directed the Selection Board to include the Hughes
369 in the y-o competition.
[6] Spangenberg, George A. George A. Spangenberg Oral
History. georgespangenberg.com. Judith SpangenbergCurrier, ed. pp. 187-190. Accessed on 29 April 2008.
[7] Visschedijk, Johan. Bell 206 JetRanger. 1000AircraftPhotos.com. 16 October 2003. Accessed on 19 September 2006.
[8] Spenser, Jay P. Bell Helicopter. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, p. 263. University
of Washington Press, 1998. ISBN 0-295-98058-3.
[9] Aastad, Andy. The Introduction to the JetRanger. Rotor
Magazine. Helicopter Association International. Winter
2006-2007. Accessed on 29 April 2008.
[10] Holley and Sloniker, p. 8.
[11] Hirschberg, Michael J. and David K. Daley. Bell. US
and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th Century.
American Helicopter Society. 7 July 2000. Accessed on
20 April 2007.
[13] Department of the Army Historical Summary.
army.mil. 1974. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
[14] Cocke, Karl E. (1978). XI Research, Development and
Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1974. United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[15] Cocke, Karl E. (1978). X Research, Development and
Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1975. United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[16] Cocke, Karl E. (1977). Research, Development and Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary,
1976. United States Army Center of Military History.
64
[17] 11. Research Development and Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1980 url
= http://www.history.army.mil/books/DAHSUM/1980/
index.htm#Contents''. United States Army Center of
Military History. 1983. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[18] Historic U.S. Army Helicopters. Archived from the
original on 2007-02-24. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[19] COL Robert S. Fairweather Jr. and MAJ Grant Fossum
(JulyAugust 1982). The AHIP: Field Artillery Aerial
Observer Platform of the Future (PDF). Field Artillery
Magazine.
[20] Research Development and Acquisition. Department of
the Army Historical Summary, 1981. United States Army
Center of Military History. 1988. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[21] Gough, Terrence J. (1995). http://www.history.army.
mil/books/DAHSUM/1986/ch04.htm |chapterurl= missing title (help). Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1986. United States Army Center of Military History.
[22] Webb, William Joe (1993). Modernizing and Equipping
the Army. Department of the Army Historical Summary,
1988. United States Army Center of Military History.
[23] Demma, Vincent H. (1998). 11. Modernization: Research, Development and Acquisition. Department of
the Army Historical Summary, 1989. United States Army
Center of Military History.
[24] DRS Technologies, Inc. - Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS)".
Drs.com. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
[25] Bristol Aerospace.
[35] Operation Just Cause: The Incursion into Panama. United

States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub No.
70-85-1. Retrieved 1 September 2006.
[36] Oce of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Public Affairs). OH-58C Helicopter Down in North Korea. Press
Release. United States Department of Defense. 19 December 1994. Accessed 30 December 2007.
[37] Miles, Donna. Drama Along the DMZ. Soldiers. 45
February 1995. Accessed on 3 November 2006. (archive
copy).
[38] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA. SPG Media Limited. 2007-11-27.
Archived from the original on 4 July 2008. Retrieved
2008-08-04.
[39] Sayah, Reza with Barbara Starr and Jamie McIntyre. U.S., Pakistan exchange shots at volatile border.
CNN.com, 25 September 2008. Accessed on 15 January
2009.
[40] Hastings, Michael, Americas New Cavalry, Mens Journal, September 2010, p. 128.
[41] Thackary, Lorna. Injured Red Lodge soldier recounts blast, dramatic rescue in Afghanistan.
BillingsGazette.com, 18 April 2010.
Accessed on
31 May 2013.
[42] Another Old Warrior Too Good To Replace - Strategypage.com, May 14, 2013
[43] "Bell Helicopter Provides OH-58 Kiowa Warrior Program
Update" Bell/Textron, April 12, 2013. Accessed: December 8, 2013.
[26] Lieutenant General John Norton. Army Aviation Hall of

Fame. Army Aviation Association of America. Accessed
on 22 October 2008.
[44] U.S. Army ocials said to back new scout helicopter Reuters.com, November 30, 2012
[27] Historic U.S. Army Helicopters. October 5, 2005.
[45] U.S. Army Conrms AAS Will Be New Start Or OH-58

SLEP - Aviationweek.com, May 10, 2013
[28] Bell Helicopter News information. Vietnam Helicopter

Pilots Association. Accessed on 22 October 2008.
[46] Superfast Helicopters - Defensemedianetwork.com, 25

October 2011
[29] Roush, Gary. Helicopter Losses During the Vietnam

War. VHPA.org. Accessed on 4 January 2009.
[47] Army Plans To Scrap Kiowa Helo Fleet - MarineCorpstimes.com, 9 December 2013
[30] Kiowa crewmember line of duty deaths.

crews.com. Accessed on 4 January 2009.
armyair-
[48] Army aviation ying smarter into scal squeeze Army.mil, 14 January 2014
[31] Operations EARNEST WILL and PRIME CHANCE.

Night Stalker History. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
[49] Host, Pat (April 2015). Armys aviation restructuring not

to aect civil helicopter market. Rotor & Wing. p. 3842. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
[32] Demma, Vincent H. (1998).

6.
Operations.
Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1989.
United States Army Center of Military History. CMH
Pub 101-21. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
[33] Kaplan, L. Martin (2000). 5. Reserve Forces.
Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1994.
United States Army Center of Military History. CMH
Pub 101-25.
[34] Doug Nelms (1 November 2002). Homeland Defense: Fighting Homeland Wars. Rotor & Wing (www.
aviationtoday.com).
[50] http://www.jutarnji.hr/
jutarnji-doznaje--ministar-kotromanovic-pisao-pentagonu-hrvatska-trazi-od
1236155/
[51] US Army begins grounding Kiowas, seeks buyers - Flightglobal.com, 7 May 2014
[52] Bell CH-136 Kiowa. Air Force Public Aairs, Department of National Defence. 15 April 2004.
[53] Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1978.
United States Army Center of Military History.
7.9. REFERENCES
65
[54] OH-58B Kiowa. GlobalSecurity.org.

[55] History of Bell OH58-A Kiowa Helicopter. 161 Possums. 161 Recce Association.
[78] Bell receives stop work order for Kiowa upgrades - Flightglobal.com, 5 May 2014
[79] Bell Flies OH-58 Block II Candidate for AAS - Military.com, April 19, 2011
[56] Bell OH-58C Kiowa. Flight Research, Inc.

[57] Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1977.
United States Army Center of Military History.
[58] Team Redstones Role in Operation DESERT
SHIELD/DESERT STORM. Redstone Arsenal.
[59] MH-58D Combat Scout.
[80] Bell starts OH-58 Block II ight demo - Flightglobal.com,

October 23, 2012
[81] Scout Helicopter Competitors to Army: Its Time for a
Flyo - Nationaldefensemagazine.com, December 2012
[82] Outgoing General: US Army Must Continue To Fund Research and Development - Defensenews.com, 14 January
2014
[60] Royal Saudi Air Arms. Scramble. Dutch Air Society.

[61] Bell Model 406 CS Combat Scout. Janes All the
Worlds Aircraft 1992-1993. Janes Information Group,
1992. subscription article, dated 15 July 1992.
[62] OH-58 series Kiowa Photo Gallery
[63] XVIII AIRBORNE CORPS CHRONOLOGY - OPERATION DESERT STORM - 16- 31 January 1991
[64] XVIII AIRBORNE CORPS HISTORY OFFICE PHOTOGRAPHS - Gulf War Photo Sampler - Operations
DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM
[65] Hydra-70 Rocket System. Federation of American Scientists.
[66] ASP Motion Base for Stabilized Mounts Department of
Defense Small Business Innovation Research. Retrieved:
June 2012.
[67] Helicopter gunnery tables GlobalSecurity.org.
trieved: June 2012.
Re-
[68] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 2006-10-04.

[69] Colucci, Frank (MayJune 2013). Stretching the Scout.
Vertiite 59 (3): 4245.
[70] Army News Service by Kris Osborn, 15 March 2011
[71] OH-58F - Army.mil/Stand-To, 18 May 2011.
[72] The Bell OH-58F: Your Mission (PDF). Bell Helicopter. Retrieved March 2011.
[73] Trimble, Stephen. "US Army announces new Fox model
for Kiowa Warrior". Flight International. 26 October
2010. Flightglobal.com (online), 26 October 2010.
[74] US Army completes rst OH-58F test aircraft - Flightglobal.com, 25 October 2012
[75] Given Budget Uncertainty, Armed Aerial Scout Hovering
in Limbo - Nationaldefensemagazine.com, April 2013
[76] US Army OH-58F makes rst ight - Flightglobal.com,
30 April 2013
[77] Army Debates Divestment of Kiowa Warrior; Replacement Program in Doubt - Nationaldefensemagazine.com,
14 January 2014

2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
[84] History of Bell OH58-A Kiowa Helicopter. .webcitation.org. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
[85] Bell CH-136 KIOWA. canadianwings.com. Retrieved
17 January 2014.
[86] Canadian Forces (November 2008). 400 Sqn History.
Retrieved 30 January 2013.
[87] Canadian Forces (April 2004). Bell CH-136 Kiowa.
[88] Canadian Forces (December 2008). 400 Series. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
[89] Canadian Forces (November 2008). 403 Squadron History. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
[90] Canadian Forces (September 2011). 408 Squadron History. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
[93] Canadian Forces (May 2010). 427 Squadron History.
[94] Canadian Forces (November 2008).
[http://www.
rcaf-arc.forces.gc.ca/1w-1e/sqns-escs/page-eng.asp?
id=379 430 Squadron History"]. Retrieved 30 January
2013.
[95] Canadian Forces (November 2008). 438 Squadron History. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
[96] Canadian Forces (April 2012). 444 Squadron History.
[97] Shaw, Robbie: Superbase 18 Cold Lake- Canadas Northern Guardians, p. 86. Osprey Publishing, London, 1990.
ISBN 0-85045-910-9.
[98] Airframe Dossier - Bell OH-58C (FG) Kiowa, s/n
68-16940 US, c/n 40254. Aerial Visuals. www.
AerialVisuals.ca. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
[99] KIOWA. Pima Air & Space Museum. pimaair.org. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
66
[100] Aerial Visuals - Airframe Dossier - Bell OH-58 Kiowa,

s/n 69-16123 US. Aerial Visuals. AerialVisuals.ca. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
[101] History - OH-58 Kiowa. Google Sites. Retrieved 20
May 2015.
[102] de Vries, Wim. Memorial / Gedenksttte Point Alpha Bell OH-58A Kiowa"". Panoramio. Google. Retrieved
20 May 2015.
[103] Administrator. OH58 Kiowa Helicopter. memorialmuseum.org. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
[104] Aircraft Data 71-20475, 1971 Bell OH-58C Kiowa C/N
41336. Airport-Data.com. Airport-Data.com. Retrieved
20 May 2015.
[105] Aircraft Data 72-21256, 1972 Bell OH-58A Kiowa C/N
41922. Airport-Data.com. Airport-Data.com. Retrieved
20 May 2015.
[106] Bell CH-136 Kiowa. http://www.muzeumlotnictwa.pl''.
[107] Harding, Stephen. Bell H-58 Kiowa. U.S. Army Aircraft Since 1947. Schier Publishing Ltd., 1997. ISBN
0-7643-0190-X.
[108] van Geete, Stephanie. 6-6 Cavalry aircrews eld new
Kiowa Warrior weapons system. www.army.mil Published 6 Apr 2009. Accessed 16 Sep 2013.
[109] The Bell OH-58F. Bell Helicopter. [Brochure]. 2011.
[110] OH-58F: Next Generation Kiowa.
Web. Accessed 16 Sept 2013.
7.9.3
Bell Helicopter.
Bibliography
Holley, Charles, and Mike Sloniker. Primer of the

Helicopter War. Grapevine, Tex: Nissi Publ, 1997.
ISBN 0-944372-11-2.
Spenser, Jay P. Bell Helicopter. Whirlybirds, A
History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University
of Washington Press, 1998. ISBN 0-295-98058-3.
World Aircraft information les Brightstar publishing London File 424 sheet 2
This article incorporates public domain material from
websites or documents of the United States Army Center of Military History.
7.10 External links

OH-58 Kiowa Warrior and OH-58D fact sheets on
Army.mil
OH-58D armament systems page on Army.mil
Kiowa Warrior Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS) Sensor
Suite on northropgrumman.com
Chapter 8
Bell UH-1 Iroquois

This article is about the single-engine military versions
and operators of the Bell Model 204 and 205. For the
civil versions and operators, see Bell 204/205. For an
overview of the whole Huey family of aircraft, see Bell
Huey family.
The Bell UH-1 Iroquois (unocially Huey) is a military
helicopter powered by a single turboshaft engine, with
two-bladed main and tail rotors. The helicopter was developed by Bell Helicopter to meet the United States
Army's requirement for a medical evacuation and utility
helicopter in 1952, and it rst ew on 20 October 1956.
Ordered into production in March 1960, the UH-1 was
the rst turbine-powered helicopter to enter production
for the United States military, and more than 16,000 have
been built.[1]
In 1952, the Army identied a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army
determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, or complex to maintain easily. In November
1953, revised military requirements were submitted to
the Department of the Army.[3] Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell
Helicopter with the Model 204 and Kaman Aircraft with
a turbine-powered version of the H-43. On 23 February
1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to
build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation, designated as the XH-40.[4]
The rst combat operation of the UH-1 was in the service 8.1.1 Model 204
of the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War. The original
designation of HU-1 led to the helicopters nickname of Main article: Bell 204/205
Huey.[2] In September 1962, the designation was changed
to UH-1, but Huey remained in common use. ApproxPowered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 (LTC1Bimately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam.
1) engine producing 700 shp (520 kW), the XH-40 rst
ew on 20 October 1956[5] at Fort Worth, Texas, with
Bells chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Two
8.1 Development
more prototypes were built in 1957, and the Army had
previously ordered six YH-40 service test aircraft, even
before the rst prototype had own.[3][6] In March 1960,
the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated as the HU-1A and ocially
named Iroquois after the Native American nations.[7]
The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived
from its designation of HU-1, which came to be pronounced as Huey. The reference became so popular
that Bell began casting the name on the helicopters antitorque pedals.[2] The ocial U.S. Army name was almost
never used in practice.[8] After September 1962, the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unied Department of Defense (DOD) designation system,
but the nickname remained.
A Bell XH-40, a prototype of the UH-1
Main article: Bell UH-1 Iroquois variants
While glowing in praise for the helicopters advances

over piston-engined helicopters, the Army reports from
the service tests of the YH-40 found it to be underpowered with the production T53-L-1A powerplant produc67
68
ing a maximum continuous 770 shaft horsepower (570
kilowatts).[N 1] The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the rst UH-1As were
being delivered. In response, Bell proposed the UH-1B,
equipped with the Lycoming T53-L-5 engine producing
960 shp (720 kW) and a longer cabin that could accommodate either seven passengers or four stretchers and a
medical attendant. Army testing of the UH-1B started in
November 1960, with the rst production aircraft delivered in March 1961.[3]
CHAPTER 8. BELL UH-1 IROQUOIS

the transmission, facing out. Seating capacity increased
to 15, including crew.[9] The enlarged cabin could also
accommodate six stretchers and a medic, two more than
the earlier models.[9] In place of the earlier models sliding side doors with a single window, larger doors were
tted which had two windows, plus a small hinged panel
with an optional window, providing access to the cabin.
The doors and hinged panels were quickly removable, allowing the Huey to be own in a doors o conguration.
The Model 205 prototype ew on 16 August 1961.[10][11]
Seven pre-production/prototype aircraft had been delivered for testing at Edwards AFB starting in March 1961.
The 205 was initially equipped with a 44-foot (13.4 m)
main rotor and a Lycoming T53-L-9 engine with 1,100
shp (820 kW). The rotor was lengthened to 48 feet (14.6
m) with a chord of 21 in (53 cm). The tailboom was
also lengthened, in order to accommodate the longer rotor
blades. Altogether, the modications resulted in a gross
weight capacity of 9,500 lb (4,309 kg). The Army ordered production of the 205 in 1963, produced with a
T53-L-11 engine for its multi-fuel capability.[N 2][12] The
prototypes were designated as YUH-1D and the production aircraft was designated as the UH-1D.
Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 in

order to correct aerodynamic deciencies of the armed
UH-1B. Bell tted the UH-1C with a 1,100 shp (820 kW)
T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to lift all
weapons systems in use or under development. The Army
would eventually ret all UH-1B aircraft with the same
engine. A new rotor system was developed for the UH1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence
of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The
improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a
slight speed increase.[6] The increased power and a larger
diameter rotor required Bells engineers to design a new
tail boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord vertical n on the tail rotor pylon and In 1966, Bell installed the 1,400 shp (1,000 kW) Lylarger synchronized elevators.
coming T53-L-13 engine to provide more power for the
Bell also introduced a dual hydraulic control system for aircraft. The pitot tube was relocated from the nose to the
redundancy as well as an improved inlet lter system for roof of the cockpit, to prevent damage during landing.
the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia. The UH- Production models in this conguration were designated
1C fuel capacity was increased to 242 US gallons (920 as the UH-1H.[8][13]
liters), and gross weight was raised to 9,500 lb (4,309 kg),
giving a nominal useful load of 4,673 lb (2,120 kg). UH1C production started in June 1966 with a total of 766 8.1.3 Marine Corps
aircraft produced, including ve for the Royal Australian
Navy and ve for Norway.
In 1962, the United States Marines Corps held a competition to choose an assault support helicopter to replace
the Cessna O-1 xed-wing aircraft and the Kaman OH8.1.2 Model 205
43D helicopter. The winner was the UH-1B, which was
already in service with the Army. The helicopter was
Main article: Bell 204/205
designated the UH-1E and modied to meet Marine reWhile earlier short-body Hueys were a success, the quirements. The major changes included the use of allaluminum construction for corrosion resistance,[N 3] radios compatible with Marine Corps ground frequencies,
a rotor brake for shipboard use to stop the rotor quickly
on shutdown and a roof-mounted rescue hoist.
The UH-1E was rst own on 7 October 1963, and deliveries commenced 21 February 1964, with 192 aircraft
completed. Due to production line realities at Bell, the
UH-1E was produced in two dierent versions, both with
the same UH-1E designation. The rst 34 built were
essentially UH-1B airframes with the Lycoming T53-L11 engine producing 1,100 shp (820 kW). When Bell
Ventura County Sheris Department Air Unit Fire Support Bell switched production to the UH-1C, the UH-1E production beneted from the same changes. The Marine Corps
HH-1H
later upgraded UH-1E engines to the Lycoming T53Army wanted a version that could carry more troops. L-13, which produced 1,400 shp (1,000 kW), after the
Bells solution was to stretch the HU-1B fuselage by 41 in Army introduced the UH-1M and upgraded their UH-1C
(104 cm) and use the extra space to t four seats next to helicopters to the same engine.
8.2. DESIGN
8.1.4
69
Air Force
steel later in the UH-1Hs life, due to cracking on hightime airframes. The semi-monocoque tail boom attaches
The United States Air Force's (USAF) competition for to the fuselage with four bolts.[17]
a helicopter to be used for support on missile bases in- The UH-1Hs dynamic components include the engine,
cluded a specic requirement to mandate the use of the transmission, rotor mast, main rotor blades, tail rotor
General Electric T58 turboshaft as a powerplant. The Air driveshaft, and the 42-degree and 90-degree gearboxes.
Force had a large inventory of these engines on hand for The transmission is of a planetary type and reduces the
its eet of HH-3 Jolly Green Giant rescue helicopters and engines output to 324 rpm at the main rotor. The
using the same engine for both helicopters would save two-bladed, semi-rigid rotor design, with pre-coned and
costs. In response, Bell proposed an upgraded version of under-slung blades, is a development of early Bell model
the 204B with the T58 engine. Because the T58 output designs, such as the Bell 47 with which it shares comshaft is at the rear, and was thus mounted in front of the mon design features, including a dampened stabilizer bar.
transmission on the HH-3, it had to have a separate oset The two-bladed system reduces storage space required for
gearbox (SDG or speed decreaser gearbox) at the rear, the aircraft, but at a cost of higher vibration levels. The
and shafting to couple to the UH-1 transmission.
two-bladed design is also responsible for the characteristic 'Huey thump' when the aircraft is in ight, which is
particularly evident during descent and in turning ight.
8.1.5 Twin engine variants
The tail rotor is driven from the main transmission, via
the two directional gearboxes which provide a tail rotor
The single engine UH-1 variants were followed by the
speed approximately six times that of the main rotor to
twin-engine UH-1N Twin Huey and later the UH-1Y
increase tail rotor eectiveness.[17]
Venom. Bell began development of the UH-1N for
Canada in 1968. It changed to the more powerful Pratt The UH-1H also features a synchronized elevator on the
& Whitney Canada PT6T twin-engine set. The U.S. also tail boom, which is linked to the cyclic control and allows
ordered the helicopter with the U.S. Air Force receiving a wider center of gravity range. The standard fuel system
it in 1970. Canadas military, the U.S. Marine Corps, and consists of ve interconnected fuel tanks, three of which
are mounted behind the transmission and two of which
the U.S. Navy rst received the model in 1971.[6]
are under the cabin oor. The landing gear consists of
In 1996, the USMC began the H-1 upgrade program by
two arched cross tubes joining the skid tubes. The skids
awarding a contract to Bell Helicopter for developing the
have replaceable sacricial skid shoes to prevent wear of
improved UH-1Y and AH-1Zs variants.[14] The UH-1Y
the skid tubes themselves. Skis and inatable oats may
includes a lengthened cabin, four-blade rotor and two
be tted.[17]
more powerful GE T700 engines.[1] The UH-1Y entered
service with the USMC in 2008.[15]
8.2 Design
The UH-1 has a metal fuselage of semi-monocoque construction with tubular landing skids and two rotor blades
on the main rotor.[16] Early UH-1 models featured a single Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine in versions with
power ratings from 700 shp (522 kW) to 1,400 shp (1,040
kW).[6] Later UH-1 and related models would feature
twin engines and four-blade rotors.
All aircraft in the UH-1 family have similar construction.
The UH-1H is the most-produced version, and is representative of all types. The main structure consists of
two longitudinal main beams that run under the passenger cabin to the nose and back to the tail boom attachment point. The main beams are separated by transverse
bulkheads and provide the supporting structure for the
cabin, landing gear, under-oor fuel tanks, transmission,
engine and tail boom. The main beams are joined at the
lift beam, a short aluminum girder structure that is attached to the transmission via a lift link on the top and
the cargo hook on the bottom and is located at the aircrafts center of gravity. The lift beams were changed to
Typical armament for UH-1 gunship
Internal seating is made up of two pilot seats and additional seating for up to 13 passengers or crew in the cabin.
The maximum seating arrangement consists of a fourman bench seat facing rearwards behind the pilot seats,
70
facing a ve-man bench seat in front of the transmission

structure, with two, two-man bench seats facing outwards
from the transmission structure on either side of the aircraft. All passenger seats are constructed of aluminum
tube frames with canvas material seats, and are quickly
removable and recongurable. The cabin may also be
congured with up to six stretchers, an internal rescue
hoist, auxiliary fuel tanks, spotlights, or many other mission kits. Access to the cabin is via two aft-sliding doors
and two small, forward-hinged panels. The doors and
hinged panels may be removed for ight or the doors
may be pinned open. Pilot access is via individual hinged
doors.[17]
operational service and Hueys with the 57th Medical Detachment arrived in Vietnam in March 1962.[13]
The UH-1 has long been a symbol of US involvement in
Southeast Asia in general and Vietnam in particular, and
as a result of that conict, has become one of the worlds
most recognized helicopters. In Vietnam primary missions included general support, air assault, cargo transport, aeromedical evacuation, search and rescue, electronic warfare, and later, ground attack. During the conict, the craft was upgraded, notably to a larger version
based on the Model 205. This version was initially designated the UH-1D and ew operationally from 1963.
While the ve main fuel tanks are self-sealing, the UH1H was not equipped with factory armor, although armored pilot seats were available.[17]
The UH-1Hs dual controls are conventional for a helicopter and consist of a single hydraulic system boosting the cyclic stick, collective lever and anti-torque pedals. The collective levers have integral throttles, although
these are not used to control rotor rpm, which is automatically governed, but are used for starting and shutting down the engine. The cyclic and collective control
the main rotor pitch through torque tube linkages to the
swash plate, while the anti-torque pedals change the pitch
of the tail rotor via a tensioned cable arrangement. Some
UH-1Hs have been modied to replace the tail rotor control cables with torque tubes similar to the UH-1N Twin A rie squad from the 1st Squadron, 9th Cavalry exiting from a
UH-1D
Huey.[17]

8.3.1
U.S. Army
During service in the Vietnam War, the UH-1 was used

for various purposes and various terms for each task
abounded. UH-1s tasked with a ground attack or armed
escort role were outtted with rocket launchers, grenade
launchers, and machine guns. As early as 1962, UH-1s
were modied locally by the companies themselves, who
fabricated their own mounting systems.[18] These gunship
UH-1s were commonly referred to as Frogs or Hogs
if they carried rockets, and Cobras or simply Guns
if they had guns.[19][20][N 4][21] UH-1s tasked and congured for troop transport were often called Slicks due to
an absence of weapons pods. Slicks did have door gunners, but were generally employed in the troop transport
and medevac roles.[8][13]
UH-1s also ew hunter-killer teams with observation

helicopters, namely the Bell OH-58A Kiowa and the
Hughes OH-6 Cayuse (Loach).[8][13] Towards the end of
the conict, the UH-1 was tested with TOW missiles, and
two UH-1B helicopters equipped with the XM26 ArmaUH-1Ds airlift members of the 2nd Battalion, 14th Infantry Reg- ment Subsystem were deployed to help counter the 1972
iment from the Filhol Rubber Plantation area to a staging area,
Easter Invasion.[22] USAF Lieutenant James P. Fleming
in 1966
piloted a UH-1F on a 26 November 1968 mission that
[23]
The HU-1A (later redesignated UH-1A) rst entered ser- earned him the Medal of Honor.
vice with the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Camp- In Cavalry troops (companies), there were three plabell, Kentucky, the 82nd Airborne Division, and the 57th toons. The Blue platoon had aero-rie soldiers and their
Medical Detachment. Although intended for evaluation organic UH-1 troop transports for feet-on-the ground
only, the Army quickly pressed the new helicopter into reconnaissance and to support other platoons. The
71
During the war 7,013 UH-1s served in Vietnam and of
these 3,305 were destroyed. In total 1,074 Huey pilots
were killed, along with 1,103 other crew members.[24]
The US Army phased out the UH-1 with the introduction of the UH-60 Black Hawk, although the Army UH-1
Residual Fleet had around 700 UH-1s that were to be retained until 2015, primarily in support of Army Aviation
training at Fort Rucker and in selected Army National
Guard units. Army support for the craft was intended to
end in 2004. The UH-1 Huey was retired from active
Army service in 2005.[25] In 2009, Army National Guard
retirements of the UH-1 accelerated with the introduction
of the UH-72 Lakota.[26][27][28]
8.3.2 U.S. Air Force
Two UH-1B Huey gunships from HAL-3 Seawolf sit on the

deck of the USS Garrett County in Mekong Delta, South Vietnam
reconnaissance or observation helicopter platoon was

known as the Whites. The attack helicopter platoon
was called the Reds. The red platoon had Huey or Huey
Cobra attack helicopters. Mixed-platoon teams were often used. Purple teams had one or two Blue slicks
dropping o scout troops, while one or two Red attack
helicopters provided protection. Another highly eective
team was the Pink Recon/Attack team, which had a single scout helicopter and a single attack helicopter to defend the scout and to attack discovered enemy troops.[8]
VNAF UH-1H lands during a combat mission in Southeast Asia

in 1970
In October 1965, the USAF 20th Helicopter Squadron

was formed at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam,
equipped initially with CH-3C helicopters. By June 1967
the UH-1F and UH-1P were also added to the units inventory, and by the end of the year the entire unit had
shifted from Tan Son Nhut to Nakhon Phanom Royal
Thai Air Force Base, with the CH-3s transferring to the
21st Helicopter Squadron. On 1 August 1968, the unit
was redesignated the 20th Special Operations Squadron.
The 20th SOSs UH-1s were known as the Green Hornets, stemming from their color, a primarily green twotone camouage (green and tan) was carried, and radio
call-sign Hornet. The main role of these helicopters
were to insert and extract reconnaissance teams, provide
cover for such operations, conduct psychological warfare,
and other support roles for covert operations especially in
Laos and Cambodia during the so-called Secret War.[29]
During the course of the war, the UH-1 went through several upgrades. The UH-1A, B, and C models (short fuselage, Bell 204) and the UH-1D and H models (stretchedfuselage, Bell 205) each had improved performance and
load-carrying capabilities. The UH-1B and C performed
the gunship, and some of the transport, duties in the early
years of the Vietnam War. UH-1B/C gunships were replaced by the new AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter from
1967 to late 1968. The increasing intensity and sophistication of NVA anti-aircraft defenses made continued use
of UH-1 gunships impractical, and after Vietnam the Cobra was adopted as the Armys main attack helicopter.
Devotees of the UH-1 in the gunship role cite its ability
to act as an impromptu dusto if the need arose, as well as 8.3.3 U.S. Navy
the superior observational capabilities of the larger Huey
cockpit, which allowed return re from door gunners to The US Navy began acquiring UH-1B helicopters from
the Army and these aircraft were modied into gunships
the rear and sides of the aircraft.[8][13]
72
with special gun mounts and radar altimeters and were

known as Seawolves in service with Navy Helicopter Attack (Light) (HA(L)3). UH-1C helicopters were also
acquired in the 1970s.[30][31] The Seawolves worked as a
team with Navy river patrol operations.[32]
sequently transferred to the 171st Aviation Squadron in

Darwin, Northern Territory and the 5th Aviation Regiment based in Townsville, Queensland following the decision that all battleeld helicopters would be operated
by the Australian Army.[36] On 21 September 2007, the
Four years after the disestablishment of HA(L)3, the Australian Army retired the last of their Bell UH-1s. The
Navy determined that it still had a need for gunships, last ight occurred in Brisbane on that day with the airhelicopters and Tiger
establishing two new Naval Reserve Helicopter Attack craft replaced by MRH-90 medium[37]
armed reconnaissance helicopters.
(Light) Squadrons as part of the newly formed Commander, Helicopter Wing Reserve (COMHELWINGRES) The Royal Australian Navy's 723 Squadron also operated
in 1976. Helicopter Attack Squadron (Light) Five seven UH-1B from 1964 to 1989, with three of these air(HA(L)5), nicknamed the Blue Hawks, was estab- craft lost in accidents during that time.[38] 723 Squadron
lished at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California on the deployed Iroquois aircraft and personnel as part of the
11 June 1977 and its sister squadron, Helicopter Attack Experimental Military Unit during the Vietnam War.[39]
Squadron (Light) Four (HA(L)4), known as the Red
Wolves, was formed at Naval Air Station Norfolk, Virginia on 1 July 1976.[33]
8.3.5 New Zealand
8.3.4
Australia
A Royal New Zealand Air Force No. 3 Squadron UH-1H Iroquois in November 2009
A 9 Sqn UH-1D in Vietnam, 1970.
The Royal Australian Air Force employed the UH-1H until 1989. Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF
were deployed to South Vietnam in mid 1966 in support of the 1st Australian Task Force. In this role they
were armed with single M60 doorguns. In 1969 four
of No. 9 Squadrons helicopters were converted to gunships (known as 'Bushrangers), armed with two xed
forward ring M134 7.62 mm minigun (one each side)
and a 7 round rocket pod on each side. Aircrew were
armed with twin M60 exible mounts in each door. UH1 helicopters were used in many roles including troop
transport, medevac and Bushranger gunships for armed
support.[34] No. 35 Squadron and No. 5 Squadron also
operated the Iroquois in various roles through the 1970s
and 1980s. Between 1982 and 1986, the squadron contributed aircraft and aircrew to the Australian helicopter
detachment which formed part of the Multinational Force
and Observers peacekeeping force in the Sinai Peninsula,
Egypt.[34] In 1988 the RAAF began to re-equip with S70A Blackhawks.[35]
The Royal New Zealand Air Force had an active eet of

13 Iroquois serving with No. 3 Squadron RNZAF.[40]
The rst delivery was ve UH-1D in 1966 followed in
1970 by nine UH-1H and one more UH-1H in 1976. All
of the UH-1D aircraft were upgraded to 1H specication during the 1970s. Two ex-U.S. Army UH-1H attrition airframes were purchased in 1996, one of which
is currently in service. Three aircraft have been lost in
accidents.[41]
The RNZAF is currently in the process of retiring the Iroquois. The NHIndustries NH90 has been chosen as its replacement, eight active NH90 helicopters plus one spare
are being procured. This process was expected to be completed by the end of 2013, but has since been pushed out
to 2016. Individual aircraft were retired as they reach
their next major 'group' servicing intervals; the UH-1H
is to be retired as the NH90 eet is stood up.[42] On 21
May 2015, the remaining UH-1H eet of six helicopters
conducted a nal tour of the country ahead of its planned
retirement on 1 July. During 49 years of service the type
had seen service in areas including the U.K., Southeast
In 1989 and 1990 the RAAFs UH-1H Iroquois were sub- Asia, Timor, the Solomon Islands, various South Pacic

nations, and the Antarctic.[43]
8.3.6
Germany
73
Force and took part as troop transports in the counterinsurgency ght. One was lost in combat in September
1979, when hit in Mozambique by a RPG. At least another three were lost. The survivors were put up for sale
in 1990.[46]
8.3.10 Argentina
German UH-1D
The 352 licensed German UH-1D variants built by

Dornier between 1967 and 1981 saw service with the
military (Bundeswehr) by the German Army and German Air Force as light utility as well as search and rescue (SAR) helicopters.[8] In addition the German Federal
Police (Bundespolizei) made extensive use of the UH-1
before replacing them with newer Eurocopter EC135 helicopters.
8.3.7
El Salvador
UH-1s were operated by El Salvador Air Force, being at

its time the biggest and most experienced combat helicopter force in Central and South America, ghting during 10 years and being trained by US Army in tactics developed during the Vietnam War. UH-1M and UH-1H
helicopters used by El Salvador were modied to carry
bombs instead of rocket pods.[44]
UH-1Hs at Port Stanley Airport. These were transported to the

islands by C-130H Hercules and did not have their rotors reattached yet
Nine Argentine Army Aviation UH-1Hs and two

Argentine Air Force Bell 212 were included with the
aircraft deployed during the Falklands War. They performed general transport and SAR missions and were
based at Port Stanley (BAM Puerto Argentino). Two of
the Hueys were destroyed and, after the hostilities had
ended, the balance were captured by the British.[47]
8.3.11 Israel
Israel withdrew its UH-1s from service in 2002, after

thirty three years of service. They were replaced by
Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters beginning with
an initial batch of 10 delivered in 1994. While some
were passed on to pro-Israeli militias in Lebanon, eleven
8.3.8 Lebanon
other UH-1Ds were reportedly sold to a Singapore based
logging company but were, instead, delivered in October
During the Battle of Nahr el-Bared camp in North 1978 to the Rhodesian Air Force to skirt the UN endorsed
Lebanon, the Lebanese army, lacking xed-wing aircraft, embargo imposed during the Rhodesian Bush War.[48][49]
modied the UH-1H to carry 500 lb (227 kg) Mark 82
bombs to strike militant positions, i.e. helicopter bombing. Special mounts engineered by the Lebanese army
8.3.12 Operation Enduring Freedom
were added to the sides of each Huey to carry the high
(2001present)
explosive bombs.[45]
8.3.9
Rhodesia
Very late in the Rhodesian Bush War the Rhodesian Air

Force was able to obtain and use eleven former Israeli
Agusta-Bell 205As, known in service as Cheetahs. After
much work these then formed No. 8 Sqn Rhodesian Air
UH-1Hs have been used by the American Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in counter-narcotics raids in
the ongoing conict in Afghanistan. Operated by contractors, these Hueys provide transportation, surveillance,
and air support for DEA FAST teams. Four UH-1Hs and
two Mi-17s were used in a raid in July 2009 which led to
the arrest of an Afghan Border Police commander.[50]
74
8.4 Variant overview

Main article: UH-1 Iroquois variants
YH-40: Six aircraft for evaluation, as XH-40 with

12-inch (300 mm) cabin stretch and other modications.
Bell Model 533: One YH-40BF rebuilt as a
ight test bed with turbofan engines and wings.
8.4.1
U.S. Military variants
HU-1A: Initial Bell 204 production model, redesignated as the UH-1A in 1962.[13] 182 built.[51]
TH-1A: UH-1A with dual controls and blindying instruments, 14 conversions.[51]
XH-1A: A single UH-1A was redesignated for
grenade launcher testing in 1960.[13]
HU-1B: Upgraded HU-1A, various external and
rotor improvements.
Redesignated UH-1B in
1962.[13] 1014 built plus four prototypes designated
YUH-1B.[51]
NUH-1B: a single test aircraft, serial number
64-18261.[13]
UH-1A Iroquois in ight.
UH-1C: The UH-1B gunship lacked the power necessary to carry weapons and ammunition and keep
up with transport Hueys, and so Bell designed yet another Huey variant, the UH-1C, intended strictly
for the gunship role. It is an UH-1B with improved
engine, modied blades and rotor-head for better
performance in the gunship role.[13] 767 built.[51]
YUH-1D: Seven pre-production prototypes of the
UH-1D.
UH-1D: Initial Bell 205 production model (long
fuselage version of the 204). Designed as a troop
carrier to replace the CH-34 then in US Army
service.[13] 2008 built many later converted to UH1H standard.[51]
NASA's UH-1H returns to Langley after supporting space shuttle

operations at Kennedy Space Center.
HH-1D: Army crash rescue variant of UH1D.[13]

UH-1E: UH-1B/C for USMC with dierent avionics and equipment.[13] 192 built.[51]
NUH-1E: UH-1E congured for testing.
TH-1E: UH-1C congured for Marine Corps
training. Twenty were built in 1965.[13]
UH-1F: UH-1B/C for USAF with General Electric
T58-GE-3 engine of 1,325 shp (988 kW).[13] 120
built.[51]
TH-1F: Instrument and Rescue Trainer based
on the UH-1F for the USAF.[13] 26 built.[51]
A USAF TH-1H out of Randolph Air Force Base in 2005
XH-40: The initial Bell 204 prototype. Three prototypes were built, equipped with the Lycoming XT53-L-1 engine of 700 shp (520 kW).[13]
UH-1G: Unocial name applied locally to at least

one armed UH-1H by the Khmer National Air Force
in Cambodia.[52]
8.4. VARIANT OVERVIEW
75
HH-1K: Purpose built SAR variant of the Model
204 for the US Navy with USN avionics and
equipment.[13] 27 built.[51]
TH-1L: Helicopter ight trainer based on the HH1K for the USN. A total of 45 were built.[13]
UH-1L: Utility variant of the TH-1L. Eight
were built.[13]
Base Rescue Moose Jaw CH-118 Iroquois helicopters at CFB

Moose Jaw, 1982
UH-1H: Improved UH-1D with a Lycoming T53L-13 engine of 1,400 shp (1,000 kW).[13] 5435
built.[51]
CUH-1H: Canadian Forces designation for
the UH-1H utility transport helicopter. Redesignated CH-118.[13][53] A total of 10 built.[51]
EH-1H: Twenty-two aircraft converted by installation of AN/ARQ-33 radio intercept and
jamming equipment for Project Quick Fix.
UH-1M: Gunship specic UH-1C upgrade with

Lycoming T53-L-13 engine of 1,400 shp (1,000
kW).[13]
UH-1N: Initial Bell 212 production model, the Bell
Twin Pac twin-engined Huey powered by Pratt &
Whitney Canada T400-CP-400.[13]
UH-1P: UH-1F variant for USAF for special operations use and attack operations used solely by
the USAF 20th Special Operations Squadron, the
Green Hornets.[13]
EH-1U: No more than 2 UH-1H aircraft modied for Multiple Target Electronic Warfare System
(MULTEWS).[56]
HH-1H: SAR variant for the USAF with rescue hoist.[13] A total of 30 built.[51]
UH-1V: Aeromedical evacuation, rescue version for

the US Army.[13]
JUH-1: Five UH-1Hs converted to SOTAS battleeld surveillance conguration with

belly-mounted airborne radar.[13]
EH-1X: Ten Electronic warfare UH-1Hs converted

under Quick Fix IIA.[13]
TH-1H: Recently modied UH-1Hs for use as

basic helicopter ight trainers by the USAF.
UH-1Y: Upgraded variant developed from existing

upgraded late model UH-1Ns, with additional emphasis on commonality with the AH-1Z.
Note: In U.S. service the G, J, Q, R, S, T, W and Z model
designations are used by the AH-1. The UH-1 and AH1 are considered members of the same H-1 series. The
military does not use I (India) or O (Oscar) for aircraft
designations to avoid confusion with one and zero respectively.
8.4.2 Other military variants
JGSDF UH-1J in Okadama STA, 2007
UH-1J: An improved Japanese version of the UH1H built under license in Japan by Fuji was locally
given the designation UH-1J.[54] Among improvements were an Allison T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343 kW (1,800 shp), a vibrationreduction system, infrared countermeasures, and a
night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit.[55]
Bell 204: Bell Helicopters company designation,

covering aircraft from the XH-40, YH-40 prototypes to the UH-1A, UH-1B, UH-1C, UH-1E, UH1F, HH-1K, UH-1L, UH-1P and UH-1M production aircraft.
Agusta-Bell AB 204: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Italy by
Agusta.
Agusta-Bell AB 204AS: Anti-submarine
warfare, anti-shipping version of the AB 204
helicopter.
76

Fuji-Bell 204B-2: Military utility transport 8.6 Aircraft on display
helicopter. Built under license in Japan by Fuji
Heavy Industries. Used by the Japan Ground Main article: List of displayed Bell UH-1 Iroquois
Self-Defense Force under the name Hiyodori.
Bell 205: Bell Helicopters company designation of

the UH-1D and UH-1H helicopters.
8.7 Specications (UH-1D)
Bell 205A-1: Military utility transport helicopter version, initial version based on the
UH-1H.
Bell 205A-1A: As 205A-1, but with armament hardpoints and military avionics. Produced specically for Israeli contract.
Agusta-Bell 205: Military utility transport
helicopter. Built under license in Italy by
Agusta.
AIDC UH-1H: Military utility transport helicopter.
Built under license in Taiwan by Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation.[57]
Dornier UH-1D: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Germany by Dornier General characteristics
Flugzeugwerke.[57]
Crew: 14
Fuji-Bell 205A-1: Military utility transport
Capacity: 3,880 lb (1,760 kg) including 14 troops,
helicopter. Built under licence in Japan by
or 6 stretchers, or equivalent cargo
Fuji. Used by the Japanese Ground Self De[58]
fense Force under the designation HU-1H.
Length: 57 ft 1 in (17.40 m) with rotors
Bell 211 Huey Tug With up-rated dynamic system and larger wide chord blades, the Bell 211 was
oered for use as the US Armys prime artillery
mover, but not taken up.[8]
Width: 8 ft 7 in (2.62 m) (Fuselage)


Bell Huey II: A modied and re-engined UH Max takeo weight: 9,500 lb (4,309 kg)
1H, improvements were an Allison T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343 kW (1,800 shp),
Powerplant: 1 Lycoming T53-L-11 turboshaft,
a vibration-reduction system, infrared countermea1,100 shp (820 kW)
sures, and a night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible
Main rotor diameter: 48 ft 0 in (14.63 m)
cockpit.signicantly upgrading its performance, and
its cost-eectiveness. Currently oered by Bell in
cooperation with the Philippine Air Force to all cur- Performance
rent military users of the type.
Maximum speed: 135 mph (217 km/h; 117 kn)
UH-1/T700 Ultra Huey: Upgraded commercial
version, tted with a 1,400-kW (1900-shp) General
Electric T700-GE-701C turboshaft engine.[59]
8.5 Operators
Main article: List of Bell UH-1 Iroquois operators
Cruise speed: 125 mph (109 kn; 201 km/h)

Range: 315 mi (274 nmi; 507 km)
Service ceiling: 19,390 ft (5,910 m) (Dependent on
environmental factors such as weight, outside temp.,
etc)
Power/mass: 0.15 hp/lb (0.25 kW/kg)
8.10. REFERENCES
Armament
Variable, but may include a combination of:
2 7.62 mm M60 machine gun, or 2 7.62 mm
GAU-17/A machine gun
2 7-round or 19-round 2.75 in (70 mm) rocket
pods
77
Bell 204/205
Bell 212
Bell 214
Bell 412
Bell 533
Panha Shabaviz 2-75
2 7.62 mm Rheinmetall MG3 (German Army and

German Luftwae)
2 .303 Browning Mk II (Rhodesian, twin machine
guns mounted on port side)
Further information: U.S. helicopter armament subsystems

Main article: Aircraft in ction Bell H-1 Iroquois
The image of American troops disembarking from a
Huey has become an iconic image of the Vietnam War,
and can be seen in many lms, video games and television shows on the subject, as well as more modern settings. The UH-1 is seen in many lms about the Vietnam
War, including The Green Berets, Platoon, Hamburger
Hill, Apocalypse Now, Casualties of War, and Born on the
Fourth of July. It is prominently featured in We Were Soldiers as the main helicopter used by the Air Cavalry in the
Battle of Ia Drang. Author Robert Mason recounts his career as a UH-1 Slick pilot in his memoir, Chickenhawk.
The 2002 journey of Huey 091, displayed in the Smithsonian American History Museum, is outlined in the documentary In the Shadow of the Blade.[60]
8.9 See also
Sikorsky XH-39
Related lists
8.10 References
8.10.1 Footnotes
[1] The total power rating of the T53-L-1A is 860 shp (640
kW). Military engines are often derated to improve reliability of the aircraft powertrain and to provide a temporary period of higher power output without exceeding the
limits of the engine.
[2] The 7 January 1965-edition of Flight International magazine states that the L-11 engine is similar to the L-9 in
power, but with a multi-fuel capability.
[3] Earlier UH-1s had some magnesium components.
[4] Quote: The UH-1B was the rst helicopter gunship to
achieve widespread combat use. It was also the rst to
carry the name Cobra
8.10.2 Citations
[1] Bell UH-1Y pocket guide. Bell Helicopter, March 2006.
UH-1 Iroquois variants
[2] Bell UH-1V Huey. Delaware Valley Historical Aircraft

Association, March 2008. Retrieved: 25 February 2009.
Bell Huey overview of all models
[3] Weinert 1991, p. 203.
US Helicopter Armament Subsystems

Related development
[4] Chapman, S. Up from Kitty Hawk: 195463 (pdf). Air

Force Magazine, Air Force Association. Retrieved: 5 October 2008.
Bell AH-1 Cobra
[5] Aeroengines 1957 (pdf). Flight, 26 July 1957 . Retrieved: 10 August 2009.

Bell UH-1N Twin Huey
[6] Donald, David, ed. Bell 204"; Bell 205. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes
& Noble Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
Bell UH-1Y Venom
[7] H-40. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 16 February 2010.
78
[8] Drendel 1983, pp. 921.
[32] River Patrol Force. Navy News Release, 1969.Retrieved:

3 March 2012.
[9] Apostolo 1984, pp. 4748.
[33] BLUEHAWKS of HAL-5. bluehawksofhal-5.org. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
[10] McGowen 2005, p. 100.

[11] Pattillo 2001, p. 208.
[12] Dobson, G. Helicopter powerplants: The world scene.
Flight, 7 January 1965. Retrieved: 10 August 2009.
[34] No. 9 Squadron RAAF UH-1H. Academic.ru. Retrieved: 20 May 2009.

[35] Eather 1995, p. 40.
[13] Mutza 1986
[36] Eather 1995, pp. 150151.
[14] Donald, David. Modern Battleeld Warplanes. London:

AIRTime Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-880588-76-5.
[37] Stackpool, Andrew (22 July 2010). 40 Years of Top Service. Army. Canberra, Australia: Directorate of Defence Newspapers. p. 10. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
[15] Trimble, Stephen. UH-1Y declared operational after

12-year development phase. Flightglobal.com, 18 August
2008. Retrieved: 24 January 2010.
[38] RAAF/Army A2/N9 Bell UH-1B/D/H Iroqois. ADF Serials. Retrieved: 31 July 2012.
[16] Endres, Gunter, ed. Janes Helicopter Markets and Systems. London: Janes Information Group, 2006. ISBN
978-0-7106-2684-4.
[17] DAOT 5: C-12-118-000/MB-000 Operating Instructions
CH118 Helicopter (unclassied), Change 2, 23 April
1987. Department of National Defence
[18] Price, Major David H. The Army Aviation Story Part XI:
The Mid-1960s. rucker.army.mil. Retrieved: 3 March
2012.
[19] Bishop, Chris. Huey Cobra Gunships. London: Osprey
Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-84176-984-3.
[20] Drendel 1974, p. 9.
[21] Mason, Robert. Chickenhawk. New York: Viking Penguin Books, 1984, ISBN 0-14-303571-1.
[22] U.S. Army Helicopter Weapon Systems: Operations
with XM26 TOW missile system in Kontum (1972).
army.mil. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[23] Col. James P. Fleming. United States Air Force, 29 May
2012.
[24] Helicopter Losses During the Vietnam War. Vietnam
Helicopter Pilots Association. Retrieved: 5 September
2007.
[25] Death Traps No More - Strategypage.com, April 11, 2013
[26] Mehl, Maj. Thomas W. A Final LZ. Army National
Guard. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[27] Sommers, Larry Huey Retirement. Army National
Guard, 4 May 2009. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[28] Soucy, Sta Sgt. Jon. " New Helicopters Delivered
to District of Columbia National Guard. Army National
Guard, 3 December 2009. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[40] RNZAF 3 Squadron History. Airforce.mil.nz, 31 October 2005. Retrieved: 4 September 2012.
[41] RNZAF Aircraft UH-1H Iroquois. Airforce.mil.nz,
Retrieved: 18 October 2012.
[42] NH90. Royal New Zealand Air Force. Retrieved: 30
January 2012.
[43] RNZAF Huey embarks on nal domestic tour - Flightglobal.com, 21 May 2015
[44] Cooper, Tom. El Salvador, 19801992. Air Combat
Information Group, 1 September 2003. Retrieved: 3
September 2007.
[45] Kahwaji, Riad. The victory Lebanon developed helicopter bombers. Ya Libnan, 3 September 2007. Retrieved: 3 September 2007.
[46] Zimbabwe Air Force Aircraft Types. Aeroight. Retrieved: 20 May 2009.
[47] Bell 212. fuerzaaerea.mil.ar. Retrieved: 25 August
2010.
[48] "Israel:UH-1" aeroight.co. Retrieved: 4 October 2009.
[49] Brent 1988, p. 14.
[50] Afghan hash bust underscores ocial corruption. www.
wired.com. Retrieved: 4 October 2009.
[51] Andrade 1987, p. 125.
[52] Forsgren, Jan. Aviation Royale Khmere/Khmer Air
Force Aircraft. Aeroight, 22 April 2007. Retrieved: 28
October 2008.
[53] Bell CH-118 Iroquois. Canadian DND webpage. Retrieved: 30 August 2007.
[54] (Japanese)UH-1J
ber 2007.
[29] Mutza 1987, pp. 2231.

[30] Navy Seawolves. seawolf.org.
2012.
[39] Australian Naval Aviation Museum (ANAM) 1998, p.

179.
Retrieved: 3 March
[31] History of US Navy Combat Search and Rescue
. Retrieved: 11 Decem-
[55] Goebel, Greg. "[7] Foreign-Build Hueys. The Bell UH-1

Huey. airvectors.net, 1 December 2007. Retrieved: 16
August 2009.
79
[56] Buley, Dennis. Aeroight. 29 December 1999. US

Armys Fleet of Special Electronic Mission Aircraft. Retrieved: 28 October 2008
Eden, Paul, ed. Bell UH-1 Iroquois. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[57] Goebel. Greg. The Bell UH-1 Huey. Vector site. Retrieved: 3 March 2012.
Francillon, Ren, J. Vietnam: The War in the Air.

New York: Arch Cape Press, 1987. ISBN 0-51762976-3.
[58] " UH-1B/H

, UH-1J
. (in Japanese).
nifty.com. Retrieved: 11 December 2007.
[59] The UH-1/T700 Ultra Huey helicopter powered by General Electric engines demonstrated high altitude/hot day
capabilities during a series of ight demonstrations. Defense Daily, October 1994. Retrieved: 29 October 2008.
[60] In The Shadow of The Blade. In The Shadow of The
Blade, 2004. Retrieved: 5 August 2009.
8.10.3
Bibliography
Andrade, John M. U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909. Hersham, Surrey, UK:
Midland Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 0904597-22-9.
Apostolo, Giorgio. Bell 204, Bell 205. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York:
Bonanza Books, 1984. ISBN 0-517-43935-2.
Australian Naval Aviation Museum (ANAM). Flying Stations: A Story of Australian Naval Aviation.
St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. 1998. ISBN
1-86448-846-8
Brent, W. A. Rhodesian Air Force A Brief History
19471980. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Freeworld
Chant, Christopher.
Fighting Helicopters of
the 20th Century (20th Century Military Series).
Christchurch, Dorset, UK: Graham Beehag Books,
1996. ISBN 1-85501-808-X.
Debay, Yves. Combat Helicopters. Paris: Histoire
& Collections, 1996. ISBN 2-908182-52-1.
Donald, David, ed. Bell Model 212 Twin TwoTwelve. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1997.
ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
Drendel, Lou. Gunslingers in Action. Carrollton,
Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1974. ISBN
0-89747-013-3.
Drendel, Lou.
Huey.
Carrollton, Texas:
ISBN
Squadron/Signal Publications, 1983.
0-89747-145-8.
Eather, Steve (1995). Flying Squadrons of the
Australian Defence Force. Weston Creek, ACT:
Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1-875671-15-3.
Guilmartin, John Francis and Michael O'Leary. The

Illustrated History of the Vietnam War, Volume 11:
Helicopters. New York: Bantam Books, 1988.
ISBN 0-553-34506-0.
McGowen, Stanley S. Helicopters: An Illustrated
History of Their Impact. Santa Barbara, California:
ABC-CLIO, 2005. ISBN 978-1-85109-468-4.
Mesko, Jim. Airmobile: The Helicopter War in Vietnam. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. ISBN 0-89747-159-8.
Mikesh, Robert C. Flying Dragons: The South Vietnamese Air Force. London: Osprey Publishing,
1988. ISBN 0-85045-819-6.
Mutza, Wayne. UH-1 Huey In Action. Carrollton,
0-89747-179-2.
Mutza, Wayne. Covertly to Cambodia. Air Enthusiast, Thirty-two, December 1986 April 1987,
pp. 2231. Bromley, UK: Pilot Press. ISSN 01435450.
Mutza, Wayne. UH-1 Huey in Color. Carrollton,
0-89747-279-9.
Pattillo, Donald M. Pushing the Envelope: The
American Aircraft Industry. Ann Arbor, Michigan:
University of Michigan Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0472-08671-9;.
Specications for Bell 204, 205 and 214 Huey Plus
8.11 External links

Ocial Huey II page on BellHelicopter.com
UH-1N USAF fact sheet
UH-1D/UH-1H Iroquois utility helicopter and UH1 Factsheet on Army.mil
UH-1 history on Navy Air web site
The Bell UH-1 Huey at Greg Goebels AIR VECTORS
Philippine Air Force Huey II Project
An account of a Medal of Honor rescue ying a
Green Hornet
80
History of the Huey on timothypruittphoto.com
HA(L)3 Seawolf
HUEY 509 The Only Flying HUEY in U.K.
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-2A (1966)
is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-1OA
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-1OB
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-12A
Archive
Archive
Archive
Archive
Archive
Archive
Chapter 9
Boeing AH-64 Apache

The Boeing AH-64 Apache is a four-blade, twinturboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing
gear arrangement, and a tandem cockpit for a two-man
crew. It features a nose-mounted sensor suite for target
acquisition and night vision systems. It is armed with a
30 mm (1.18 in) M230 chain gun carried between the
main landing gear, under the aircrafts forward fuselage.
It has four hardpoints mounted on stub-wing pylons, typically carrying a mixture of AGM-114 Hellre missiles
and Hydra 70 rocket pods. The AH-64 has a large amount
of systems redundancy to improve combat survivability.
The Apache originally started as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Army's
Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH1 Cobra. The prototype YAH-64 was rst own on 30
September 1975. The U.S. Army selected the YAH64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, and later approved
full production in 1982. After purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64
production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U.S. Army service in April 1986. The rst production AH-64D Apache Longbow, an upgraded Apache
variant, was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space
& Security; over 2,000 AH-64s have been produced to
date.[3]
9.1.1 Advanced Attack Helicopter

Main article: Advanced Attack Helicopter
Following the cancellation of the AH-56 Cheyenne in
1972, in favor of U.S. Air Force and Marine Corps
projects like the A-10 Thunderbolt II and Harrier, the
United States Army sought an aircraft to ll an anti-armor
attack role that would still be under Army command;[6][7]
the 1948 Key West Agreement forbade the Army from
owning combat xed-wing aircraft. The Army wanted
an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in repower, performance and range. It would have the maneuverability
for terrain following nap-of-the-earth (NoE) ying.[8] To
this end, the U.S. Army issued a Request For Proposals (RFP) for an Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) on
15 November 1972.[9][10] As a sign of the importance of
this project, in September 1973 the Army designated its
ve most important projects, the Big Five with AAH
included.[11]
The U.S. Army is the primary operator of the AH-64; it An early Hughes YAH-64A prototype with T-tail
has also become the primary attack helicopter of multiple
nations, including Greece, Japan, Israel, the Netherlands
and Singapore; as well as being produced under license
in the United Kingdom as the AgustaWestland Apache.
U.S. AH-64s have served in conicts in Panama, the
Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used
the Apache in its military conicts in Lebanon and the
Gaza Strip; British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in Afghanistan and Iraq.
A YAH-64A prototype in 1982
9.1 Development
Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, and Sikorsky.
In July 1973, the U.S. Department of Defense selected
nalists Bell and Hughes Aircrafts Toolco Aircraft Division (later Hughes Helicopters). This began the phase
1 of the competition.[12] Each company built prototype
helicopters and went through a ight test program.
81
82
Hughes Model 77/YAH-64A prototype rst ew on 30
September 1975, while Bells Model 409/YAH-63A
prototype rst ew on 1 October 1975. After evaluating
the test results, the Army selected Hughes YAH-64A
over Bells YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the
YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade
main rotor and the instability of the YAH-63s tricycle
landing gear arrangement.[13][14]
CHAPTER 9. BOEING AH-64 APACHE

tem and other upgrades. In 1988, funding was approved
for a multi-stage upgrade program to improve sensor
and weapon systems.[22] Technological advance led to
the programs cancellation in favor of more ambitious
changes. In August 1990, development of the AH-64D
Apache Longbow was approved by the Defense Acquisition Board. The rst AH-64D prototype ew on 15 April
1992,[23] prototype testing ended in April 1995. During
testing, six AH-64D helicopters were pitted against a numerically superior group of AH-64A helicopters; the results demonstrated the AH-64D to have a seven times increase in survivability and four times increase in lethality
compared to the AH-64A.[24][25][26] On 13 October 1995,
full-scale production was approved;[27] a $1.9-billion veyear contract was signed in August 1996 to rebuild 232
AH-64As to AH-64D standard.[28] On 17 March 1997,
the rst production AH-64D rst ew, it was delivered
on 31 March.[29]
The AH-64A then entered phase 2 of the AAH program under which three pre-production AH-64s would
be built, additionally, the two YAH-64A ight prototypes and the ground test unit were upgraded to the same
standard.[13] Weapons and sensor systems were integrated
and tested during this time, including the laser-guided
AGM-114 Hellre missile.[15] Development of the Hellre missile had begun in 1974, originally known by the
name of Helicopter Launched, Fire and Forget Missile
('Hellre' being a shortened acronym),[16] for the purpose
of arming helicopter platforms with an eective anti-tank Portions of the Apache are produced by various
aerospace rms. AgustaWestland has produced nummissile.[17][18]
ber of components for the Apache, both for the international market and for the British Army's AgustaWestland
9.1.2 Into production
Apache.[30] Since 2004, Korea Aerospace Industries
has been the sole manufacturer of the Apaches
In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed fuselage.[31][32][33] Fuselage production had previously
over to the U.S. Army for Operational Test II. The Army been performed by Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical; the
testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to transfer of fuselage production led to a prolonged legal
upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of dispute between Teledyne Ryan and Boeing.[34]
engine, rated at 1,690 shp (1,260 kW). The AH-64 was
The AH-64D program cost a total of $11bn through
named the Apache in late 1981, keeping with the Armys
2007.[35] In April 2006, Boeing was awarded a $67.6M
traditional use of American Indian tribal names for its
xed-price contract for the remanufacture of several exhelicopters and it was approved for full-scale production
isting U.S. AH-64As to the AH-64D conguration; bein 1982.[19] In 1983, the rst production helicopter was
tween May 2009 and July 2011, a further ve contracts
rolled out at Hughes Helicopters facility at Mesa, Ariwere issued to remanufacture batches of AH-64As to the
zona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell
upgraded D variant.[36] Since 2008, nations operating the
Douglas for $470 million in 1984.[20] The helicopter
older AH-64A have been urged to undertake modernizaunit later became part of The Boeing Company with
tion programs to become AH-64Ds, as Boeing and the
the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August
U.S. Army plans to terminate support for the A-variants
1997.[21] In 1986, the incremental or yaway cost for the
in the near future.[37]
AH-64A was $7M and the average unit cost was approximately $13.9M based on total costs.[20]
9.2 Design
9.2.1 Overview
The AH-64 Apache has a four-blade main rotor and a
four-blade tail rotor.[41] The crew sits in tandem, with
the pilot sitting behind and above the copilot/gunner.[42]
Both crew members are capable of ying the aircraft and performing methods of weapon engagements
independently.[43] The AH-64 is powered by two General
Electric T700 turboshaft engines with high-mounted exhausts on either side of the fuselage.[44][45] Various models of engines have been used on the Apache; those in
A YAH-64A in 1984
British service use engines from Rolls-Royce instead of
During the 1980s, McDonnell Douglas studied an AH- General Electric. In 2004, General Electric Aviation be64B, featuring an updated cockpit, new re control sys- gan producing more powerful T700-GE-701D engines,
9.2. DESIGN
rated at 2,000 shp (1,500 kW) for AH-64Ds.[46]
The crew compartment has shielding between the cockpits, such that at least one crew member can survive
hits. The compartment and the rotor blades are designed to sustain a hit from 23 mm (0.91 in) rounds. The
airframe includes some 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) of protection and has a self-sealing fuel system to protect against
ballistic projectiles.[47] The aircraft was designed to meet
the crashworthiness requirements of MIL-STD-1290,[48]
which species minimum requirement for crash impact
energy attenuation to minimize crew injuries and fatalities. This was achieved through incorporation of increased structural strength, crashworthy landing gear,
seats and fuel system.
9.2.2
Avionics and targeting
83
vironments, and to operate at night or day and during
adverse weather conditions.[57] Various sensors and onboard avionics allows the Apache to perform in these
conditions; such systems include the Target Acquisition and Designation System, Pilot Night Vision System (TADS/PNVS), passive infrared countermeasures
,[58] GPS, and the IHADSS.[51][57] In August 2012, 24
U.S. Army AH-64Ds were equipped with the Ground
Fire Acquisition System (GFAS), which detects and targets ground-based weapons re sources in all-light conditions and with a 120 Visual eld. The GFAS consists of
two sensor pods working with the AH-64s other sensors,
a thermographic camera precisely locates ground-based
threats.[59]
In 2014, it was announced that new targeting and surveillance sensors were under development to provide highresolution color imagery to crews, replacing older low
denition black-and-white imaging systems.[60] In 2014,
the U.S Army was adapting its Apaches for increased
maritime performance as part of the Pentagons rebalance to the Pacic. Additional avionics and sensor improvements includes an extended-range radar capable of
detecting small ships in littoral environments, software
adaptions to handle maritime targets, and adding Link
16 data-links for better communications with friendly
assets.[61]
One of the revolutionary features of the Apache was

its helmet mounted display, the Integrated Helmet and
Display Sighting System (IHADSS);[49][50] among its
capabilities, either the pilot or gunner can slave the
helicopters 30 mm automatic M230 Chain Gun to
their helmet, making the gun track head movements
to point where they look. The M230E1 can be alternatively xed to a locked forward ring position, or
controlled via the Target Acquisition and Designation
System (TADS).[51][52] On more modern AH-64s, the
TADS/PNVS has been replaced by Lockheed Martin's 9.2.3 Armaments and congurations
Arrowhead (MTADS) targeting system.[53]
The AH-64 is adaptable to numerous dierent roles
within its context as Close Combat Attack (CCA), it has
a customizable weapons loadout mounted on stub-wings
for the role desired.[41] In addition to the 30 mm M230E1
Chain Gun, the Apache carries a range of external stores
on its stub-wing pylons, typically a mixture of AGM-114
Hellre anti-tank missiles, and Hydra 70 general-purpose
unguided 70 mm (2.756 in) rockets.[62] Since 2005, the
Hellre missile is sometimes outtted with a thermobaric
warhead; designated AGM-114N, it is intended for use
against ground forces and urban warfare operations.[63]
The use of thermobaric enhanced blast weapons such
as the AGM-114N has been a point of controversy.[64]
AH-64 Apache in ight
U.S. Army engagement training is performed under the

Aerial Weapons Scoring System Integration with Longbow Apache Tactical Engagement Simulation System
(AWSS-LBA TESS), using live 30 mm and rocket ammunition as well as simulated Hellre missiles. The Smart
Onboard Data Interface Module (SMODIM) transmits
Apache data to an AWSS ground station for gunnery
evaluation.[54] The AH-64s standard of performance for
aerial gunnery is to achieve at least 1 hit for every 30
shots red at a wheeled vehicle at a range of 8001,200
m (8701,310 yd).[55][56]
The AH-64 was designed to perform in front-line en-
Starting in the 1980s, the Stinger and AIM-9 Sidewinder

air-to-air missiles and the AGM-122 Sidearm antiradiation missile were evaluated for use upon the AH64.[65][66] The Stinger was initially selected; the U.S.
Army was also considering the Starstreak air-to-air
missile.[65][67] External fuel tanks can also be carried on
the stub wings to increase range and mission time.[41] The
stub-wing pylons have mounting points for maintenance
access; these mountings can be used to secure externally
personnel for emergency transportation.[68] Stinger missiles are often used on non-U.S. Apaches as foreign forces
did not have as many air superiority aircraft to control
the skies.[69] The AH-64E initially lacked the ability to
use the Stinger to make room for self-defense equipment, the capability was readded following a South Ko-
84
rean demand.[70][71]
The AH-64E Apache has the ability to control unmanned
aerial vehicles, used by the U.S. Army to perform aerial
scouting missions previously performed by the OH-58
Kiowa. Apaches can request to take control of an RQ-7
Shadow or MQ-1C Grey Eagle from ground control stations to safely scout via datalink communications. There
are four levels of UAV interoperability (LOI): LOI 1 indirectly receives payload data; LOI 2 receives payload data
through direct communication; LOI 3 deploys the UAVs
armaments; and LOI 4 takes over ight control. UAVs
can search for enemies and, if equipped with a laser
designator, target them for the Apache or other friendly AH-64 during an extraction exercise at Camp Bondsteel, Kosovo,
2007. Note the soldier on the avionics bay
aircraft.[72][73]
hour ground war a total of 277 AH-64s took part, destroying 278 tanks, numerous armored personnel carriers and
other Iraqi vehicles.[84][87][88] One AH-64 was lost in the
war, to an RPG hit at close range, the Apache crashed but
9.3.1 United States Army
the crew survived.[89] To maintain operations, the U.S.
Army unocially grounded all other AH-64s worldwide;
The U.S. Army formally accepted its rst production AHtheatre ew only one-fth of the planned
64A in January 1984 and training of the rst pilots began Apaches in the
[90]
ight-hours.
[74][75]
later that year.
The rst operational Apache unit,
7th Battalion, 17th Cavalry Brigade, began training on The AH-64 played roles in the Balkans during separate
the AH-64A in April 1986 at Fort Hood, Texas.[76][77] conicts in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s.[91][92] During
Two operational units with 68 AH-64s rst deployed to Task Force Hawk, 24 Apaches were deployed to a land
Europe in September 1987 and took part in large military base in Albania in 1999 for combat in Kosovo. These reexercises there.[76][78] The Apache was rst used in com- quired 26,000 tons of equipment to be transported over
bat in 1989, during Operation Just Cause, the invasion of 550 C-17 ights, at a cost of US$480 million.[93] DurPanama. The AH-64 participated in over 240 hours of ing these deployments, the AH-64 encountered problems
combat attacking various targets, mostly at night.[79][80] such as deciencies in training, night vision equipment,
General Carl Stiner, the commander of the operation, fuel tanks, and survivability.[94][95] On 27 April 1999, an
commented that: You could re that Hellre missile Apache crashed during training in Albania due to a failthrough a window from four miles away at night.[81]
ure with the tail rotor,[96] causing the eet in the Balkans
[97]
Upon elding the Apache, capabilities such as using the to be grounded in December 2000.
FLIR for extensive night operations made it clear that it

was capable of operating beyond the forward line of own
troops (FLOT) that previous attack helicopters were normally restricted to.[82] It was discovered that the Apache
was coincidentally tted with the Have Quick UHF radio system used by the U.S. Air Force, allowing interservice coordination and joint operations such as the joint
air attack teams (JAAT). The Apache have operated extensively with close air support (CAS) aircraft such as
the USAFs Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and
the USMCs McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II, often acting as a target designator to conserve the Apaches
own munitions.[83]
Nearly half of all U.S. Apaches were deployed to Saudi
Arabia following Iraqs invasion of Kuwait.[81] During
Operation Desert Storm on 17 January 1991, eight AH64As guided by four MH-53 Pave Low IIIs destroyed part
of Iraqs radar network in the operations rst attack,[84]
allowing aircraft to evade detection.[85] The Apaches each
carried an asymmetric load of Hydra 70 echette rockets,
Hellres, and one auxiliary fuel tank.[86] During the 100-
In 2000, Major General Dick Cody, 101st Airbornes

commanding ocer, wrote a strongly worded memo
to the Chief of Sta about training and equipment
failures.[98] No pilots were qualied to y with night
vision goggles, preventing nighttime operations.[99] The
Washington Post printed a front-page article on the failures, commenting: The vaunted helicopters came to
symbolise everything wrong with the Army as it enters
the 21st century: Its inability to move quickly, its resistance to change, its obsession with casualties, its postCold War identity crisis.[100] No Apache combat missions took place in Kosovo due to fears of casualties.[99]
U.S. Apaches served in Operation Enduring Freedom in
Afghanistan from 2001.[101] The Apache was the only
Army platform capable of providing accurate CAS duties for Operation Anaconda, regularly taking re during the intense early ghting, they were typically repaired
quickly.[102] U.S. AH-64Ds typically ew in Afghanistan
and Iraq without the Longbow Radar in the absence of armored threats.[103] On 21 December 2009, a pair of U.S.
Apaches attacked a British-held base in a friendly re in-

cident, killing one British soldier.[104] In 2006, Thomas
Adams noted that Apaches often fought in small teams
with little autonomy to react to threats and opportunities,
requiring lengthy dialogue with command structures in an
eort to centrally micromanage each unit.[105]
AH-64D Apache ying over Baghdad, Iraq in 2007, on a reconnaissance mission
In 2003, the AH-64 participated in the invasion of Iraq

during Operation Iraqi Freedom.[106] On 24 March 2003,
31 Apaches were damaged, and one shot down and captured, in an unsuccessful attack on an Iraqi Republican Guard armored brigade near Karbala.[107] Iraqi tank
crews had set up a ak trap among terrain and eectively employed their guns.[108][109] Iraqi ocials claimed
a farmer with a Brno rie shot down the Apache,[110] but
the farmer denied involvement.[111] The helicopter came
down intact and both the pilot and co-pilot were captured.[108] The AH-64D was destroyed via air strike the
following day.[112][113]
By the end of U.S. military operations in Iraq in December 2011, several Apache helicopters had been shot down
by enemy re, and others lost in accidents. In 2006, an
Apache was downed by a Soviet-made Strela 2 (SA-7) in
Iraq, despite the Apache being typically able to avoid such
missiles.[114] In 2007, four Apache helicopters were destroyed on the ground by insurgent mortar re using webpublished geotagged photographs taken by soldiers.[115]
Several AH-64s were lost to accidents in Afghanistan as
of 2012.[116][117][118][119] Most Apaches that took heavy
damage were able to continue their missions and return
safely.[109]
As of 2011, the U.S. Army Apache eet had accumulated
more than 3 million ight hours since the rst prototype
ew in 1975.[120] A DOD audit released in May 2011,
found that Boeing had signicantly overcharged the U.S.
Army on multiple occasions, ranging from 33.3 percent
to 177,475 percent for routine spare parts in helicopters
like the Apache.[121]
85
achieved initial operating capability (IOC).[123] In March
2014, the 1st-229th Attack Reconnaissance Battalion deployed 24 AH-64Es to Afghanistan in the type' rst combat deployment.[124] From March to June 2014, the AH64E ew 1,700 hours in Afghanistan at what Boeing described as a higher tempo than the D-model would
be capable of.[125] As of 14 October 2014, AH-64E
Apaches had own almost 9,600 combat hours. From
April through September 2014, AH-64E in combat maintained an 88 percent readiness rate.[126]
The Army is implementing a plan to move all Apaches
from the Army Reserve and National Guard to the active
Army to serve as scout helicopters to replace the OH58 Kiowa. Using the AH-64 to scout would be less expensive than Kiowa upgrades or purchasing a new scout
helicopter. AH-64Es can control unmanned aerial vehicles like the MQ-1C Grey Eagle to perform aerial scouting missions; a 2010 study found the teaming of Apaches
and UAVs was the most cost-eective alternative to a new
helicopter and would meet 80 percent of reconnaissance
requirements, compared to 20 percent with existing OH58s and 50 percent with upgraded OH-58s. National
Guard units, who would lose their attack helicopters,
criticized the proposal.[127][128] In March 2015, the rst
heavy attack reconnaissance unit was formed, comprising 24 attack Apaches, 24 reconnaissance Apaches, and
12 Shadow UAVs.[129]
In July 2014, the Pentagon announced that Apaches had
been dispatched to Baghdad to protect embassy personnel
from Islamic State militant attacks. On 4 October 2014,
Apaches began performing missions in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State ground forces.[130]
9.3.2 Israel
The Israeli Air Force (IAF) rst received AH-64As in
1990,[131] for a total eet of 42.[132] There was some
controversy over the Air Forces choice to purchase
Apaches over upgrading existing AH-1 Cobra attack
helicopters.[133] In 2000, Israel was interested in acquiring up to 48 AH-64Ds, but U.S. reluctance to share
the software source code complicated the prospect.[132]
In April 2005, Boeing delivered the rst AH-64D to
the IAF.[134] In 2001, the U.S. government was allegedly investigating misuse of the Apache and other USsupplied military equipment against Palestinian leaders
and facilities.[135] In 2009, an arranged sale of six AH64Ds was reportedly blocked by the Obama Administration, pending interagency review, over concerns the
helicopters may pose a threat to civilian Palestinians in
Gaza.[136][137] In IAF service, the AH-64A was named as
the Peten (Hebrew: , for Cobra[N 1] ), while the AH64D was named Saraph[131] (, also as Seraph, Hebrew for venomous/ery winged serpent).[139]
On 21 February 2013, the 1st Battalion (Attack), 229th

Aviation Regiment at Joint Base Lewis-McChord became the rst U.S. Army unit to eld the AH-64E Apache
Guardian; a total of 24 AH-64E were received by mid- During the 1990s, Israeli AH-64As frequently attacked
2013.[122] On 27 November 2013, the Apache Guardian Hezbollah outposts in Lebanon.[140][141][142] On 13 April
86

standard.[157]
9.3.3 United Kingdom
Israeli Air Force AH-64D Saraph during an exercise with the

Hellenic Air Force in 2011.
1996, during Operation Grapes of Wrath, an Apache

red two Hellre missiles at an ambulance in Lebanon,
killing six civilians.[143] During the al-Aqsa Intifada in
2000, AH-64s were used to kill senior Hamas gures,
such as Ahmed Yassin and Adnan al-Ghoul.[144][145] On
24 May 2001, a privately owned Lebanese-registered
Cessna 152 ew into Israeli airspace, it was intercepted
by two AH-64s and shot down by a Hellre missile,
killing the pilot.[146] On 22 March 2004, an Israeli
AH-64 used a Hellre missile to kill Hamas leader
Ahmed Yassin, also killing his two bodyguards and nine
bystanders.[147][148] IAF Apaches played a prominent role
in the 2006 Lebanon War, launching strikes into Lebanon
targeting Hezbollah forces.[149][150]
UK Army Air Corps Westland WAH-64D Apache Longbow displays at a UK airshow
Main article: AgustaWestland Apache
The UK operates a modied version of the Apache

Longbow initially called the Westland WAH-64 Apache,
and is designated Apache AH1 by the British Army.
Westland built 67 WAH-64 Apaches under license
from Boeing,[162] following a competition between the
Eurocopter Tiger and the Apache for the British Armys
new Attack Helicopter in 1995.[163][164] Important deviations made by AgustaWestland from the U.S. Apache
There have also been accidents involving the Apache he- variants include changing to more powerful Rolls-Royce
licopter in Israeli service. During the Lebanon War in engines,[165] and the addition of a folding blade assembly
2006, two IAF AH-64A helicopters collided, killing one for use on naval ships.[166]
pilot and critically wounding three.[151] In another incident in the conict an IAF AH-64D crashed due to a
malfunction in the main rotor, killing the two crew.[152] 9.3.4 Netherlands
In late 2007, the Israeli Air Force put further purchases
and deliveries of AH-64Ds on hold during an investiga- The Dutch government initially showed an interest in action upon the aircrafts performance envelope.[139] How- quiring Apache helicopters in the late 1980s, where it
ever, Israeli ocials have since praised the Apache for stated that it may purchase as many as 52.[167] A compeits role in Operation Cast Lead in 2008, against Hamas in tition held in 1994 against the Eurocopter Tiger and the
Gaza.[153] In recent years, Israeli Apaches have been used Bell AH-1 SuperCobra led to the Royal Netherlands Air
to patrol the skies over Gaza; strike operations against in- Force ordering 30 AH-64D Apaches in 1995.[168][169][170]
surgents using these helicopters has become a frequent Deliveries began in 1998[171] and ended in 2002.[172][173]
The RNLAF Apaches are equipped with the Apache
occurrence.[154][155][156]
Since recent orders of new AH-64Ds have been blocked, Modular Aircraft Survivability Equipment (AMASE)
system to counter infrared (IR) missile
Israel has pursued upgrades to its AH-64A eet.[157][158] self-protection
[174][175]
threats.
In June 2010, Israel decided not to upgrade all AH-64As
to D conguration, due to funding constraints and lack
of U.S. cooperation.[159][157] In December 2010, the IAF
was examining the adoption of a new missile system as
a cheaper and lightweight complement to the Hellre
missile, either the American Hydra 70 or the Canadian
CRV7.[160] In 2013, Israeli AH-64As had been receiving a comprehensive upgrade of their avionics and electrical systems.[161] The AH-64As are being upgraded to
the AH-64Ai conguration, which is near the AH-64D
The RNLAF Apaches rst deployment was in 2001 to

Djibouti, Africa.[176] They were also deployed alongside
U.S. AH-64s in support of NATO peacekeeping forces in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.[177] In 2004, six Dutch AH-64s
were deployed as part of the Netherlands contribution to
Multinational force in Iraq to support the Dutch ground
forces.[178] The Apaches performed close combat support
and display of force missions, along with providing reconnaissance information to ground forces. In February
87
9.3.5 Saudi Arabia

Following the 1991 Gulf War, during which many
U.S. Apaches operated from bases within Saudi
territory,[183][184] Saudi Arabia purchased twelve AH64As for the Royal Saudi Land Force.[185][186] It has
been speculated that the Saudi purchase had motivated
Israel to also procure the Apaches.[187] In August 2006,
the Saudi Arabian government began negotiations for
Apache upgrades worth up to $400M, possibly remanufacturing their AH-64As to the AH-64D Longbow
conguration.[188] In September 2008, the U.S. Government approved the purchase of 12 AH-64Ds requested
by Saudi Arabia.[189] In October 2010, Saudi Arabia
requested a further 70 AH-64Ds as part of a possible,
massive arms deal.[190][191]
In November 2009, the Royal Saudi Land Force, as part
of a military eort against insurgent intrusions of the
kingdoms border, started using the Apache in Operation
Scorched Earth; this involved launched air strikes against
rebels operating inside neighboring Yemen as
Royal Netherlands Air Force AH-64D at the Farnborough Air- Houthi
[192][193]
well.
In January 2010 the rebels claimed to have
show, 2006
shot down an Apache; this was denied by the Saudi
military.[194] In late January 2010, the leader of the Shiite
rebels announced their withdrawal from Saudi territory,
2006, the Netherlands contribution to NATO forces in this announcement followed a key battle on 12 January
took control of the border
Afghanistan was increased from 600 to 1,400 troops and when Saudi forces reportedly
[195]
village
of
Al
Jabiri.
[179]
6 AH-64s were sent in support.
9.3.6 Egypt
In 1995, the Egyptian Air Force placed an order for 36
AH-64A helicopters.[196] These Apaches were delivered
with most of the advanced avionics used on the U.S.
eet at that time, with the exception of localized radio equipment.[197] In 2000, Boeing announced an order to remanufacture Egypts existing Apache eet to
the AH-64D conguration.[198] Notably, the AH-64D upA Royal Netherlands Army AH-64D Apache
grade did not include the procurement of the Longbow
radar, the supply of which had been refused by the U.S.
government.[199] Egypt requested a further 12 AH-64D
II Apaches through a Foreign Military Sale in
Shortly after Apaches were deployed to Hamid Karzai In- Block[200][201]
2009.
ternational Airport, as part of the Netherlands contribution to ISAF, on 10 April 2004 a pair of Dutch Apaches In August 2012, the Egyptian Armed Forces undertook
came under light gunre close to the Afghan capital.[180] a large-scale military operation to regain control of the
On 17 December 2007, an RNLAF Apache ew into Sinai Peninsula from armed militants. Air cover throughpowerlines during a night ying exercise in the Nether- out the operation was provided by the Egyptian Air
lands, forcing an emergency landing and causing a lengthy Forces Apache helicopters; reportedly the Apaches deblackout in the region.[181] On 17 March 2015 a RNLAF stroyed three vehicles and killed at least 20 militants.[202]
Apache crashed during a training mission in Mali. Both Up to ve Egyptian Apaches were temporarily stationed
pilots died. The ministry of defence opened an investiga- in the Sinai following an agreement between Egypt and
tion into the cause of the crash.[182]
Israel.[203]
88
9.3.7
Other users
The United Arab Emirates purchased 30 AH-64A helicopters in 1991 and 1994,[204] which they are now upgrading to AH-64D specication.[205] In 2005, Kuwait
purchased 16 Longbow helicopters.[206]
In September 2003, Greece ordered 12 AH-64D in addition to existing eet of 20 AH-64A+.[207] By 1995
they had received 20 AH-64As; another 12 AH-64Ds
were ordered in 2003.[196] Singapore purchased 20 AH64D Longbow Apache aircraft in two batches between
1999 and 2001;[208] during October 2010 Apache training was suspended following the forced crash-landing of
an Apache.[209]
Japan ordered 50 AH-64Ds,[196] which are being built
under license by Fuji Heavy Industries, designated AH64DJP. The rst helicopter was delivered to the JGSDF
in early 2006.[210]
Taiwan (Republic of China) reached an agreement with
the U.S. to purchase 30 AH-64D Block III Apaches with
weapons, and associated equipment in June 2011.[211][212]
On 5 November 2013, Taiwan received the rst 6 AH64E Apaches. A second batch arrived in December
2013, with all 30 to be delivered by the end of 2014.[213]
By early April 2014, 18 had been delivered. On 25
April 2014, a Taiwanese AH-64E crashed into a threestory building during a training ight in bad weather
conditions.[214] Power loss was also being considered as a
cause. The crash is the rst airframe loss of an AH-64E
model.[215] An investigation ruled out mechanical failure
and concluded human error as responsible, that the pilots
descended too fast through clouds at low altitude without checking ight panels to maintain adequate height;
the Army responded by stepping up simulator training
for pilots.[216] In October 2014, the fth and nal batch
of AH-64Es was delivered to Taiwan, completing the
order.[217]
9.3.8
April 2013, the Indian Ministry of Defence (MoD) decided that the IAF would receive the 22 AH-64s as it
was an ongoing acquisition.[226] In May 2013, the Indian
Army requested 11 AH-64Es;[227] and has a requirement
for 39 Apaches.[228] In August 2014, the Indian Ministry of Defence approved the AH-64 procurement, nal approval from the Cabinet Committee on Security is
required.[229]
In 2009, South Korea showed interest in acquiring
Apaches.[230][231] This move may be related to U.S. plans
to withdraw many of its Apaches from South Korea.[232]
On 21 September 2012, the U.S. Congress was notied of
the possible purchase of 36 AH-64D Block III Apaches,
along with associated equipment and armament.[233] The
Apache competed against the Bell AH-1Z Viper and the
TAI/AgustaWestland T-129;[234] in April 2013, South
Korea announced that it is to purchase 36 AH-64Es.[235]
The Apaches are to be delivered from 2016 to 2018.[236]
On 26 August 2013, the U.S. and Indonesia formalized a
$500 million deal for 8 AH-64E Apaches.[237]
Iraq requested the sale of 24 AH-64s in April 2013;[238]
In January 2014, a sale, including the helicopters, associated parts, maintenance, and training, was cleared
by Congress.[239][240] However, the proposal was not accepted by the Iraqi government and expired in August
2014.[241] In July 2012, Qatar requested the sale of 24
AH-64D Apache Block III helicopters, with associated
equipment, training, and support.[242] The sale was approved on 27 March 2014.[243]
9.4 Variants
9.4.1 AH-64A
Future and possible users
In 2008, the Indian Air Force (IAF) released a tender for 22 attack helicopters; there were six contending submissionsSikorskys UH-60 Black Hawk, the
AH-64D, Bells AH-1 Super Cobra, Eurocopter's Tiger,
Mils Mi-28 and AgustaWestlands A129 Mangusta.[218]
In October 2008, Boeing and Bell withdrew.[219] In 2009,
the competition was restarted and a new Apache proposal was submitted.[220][221] In December 2010, India
requested the possible sale of 22 AH-64Ds and associated equipment.[222] On 5 October 2012, IAF Chief NAK
Browne conrmed the AH-64D Block IIIs selection.[223]
In October 2012, India transferred most armed helicopters from the IAF to the Army Aviation Corps.[224]
The IAF sought to maintain control of the 22 proposed
Apaches for air combat missions, the Indian Army argued
that they would be better used in army operations.[225] In
IAF AH-64A Peten
The AH-64A is the original production attack helicopter.

The crew sit in tandem in an armored compartment. It
is powered by two GE T700 turboshaft engines. The Amodel was equipped with the 701 engine version until
1990 when the engines were switched to the more powerful 701C version.[244]
9.4. VARIANTS
89
U.S. Army AH-64As are being converted to AH-64Ds.

The services last AH-64A was taken out of service in
July 2012 before conversion at Boeings facility in Mesa,
Arizona.[245] On 25 September 2012, Boeing received a
$136.8M contract to remanufacture the last 16 AH-64As
into the AH-64D Block II version, to be completed by
December 2013.[246]
which being the AN/APG-78 Longbow millimeter-wave

re-control radar (FCR) target acquisition system and
the Radar Frequency Interferometer (RFI), housed in a
dome located above the main rotor.[249][250] The radome's
raised position enables targets detection while the helicopter is behind obstacles (e.g. terrain, trees or buildings). The AN/APG-78 is capable of simultaneously
tracking up to 128 targets and engaging up to 16 at once,
an attack can be initiated within 30 seconds.[251][252] A ra9.4.2 AH-64B
dio modem integrated with the sensor suite allows data to
be shared with ground units and other Apaches; allowing
In 1991 after Operation Desert Storm, the AH-64B was a them to re on targets detected by a single helicopter.[253]
proposed upgrade to 254 AH-64As. The upgrade would
have included new rotor blades, a Global Positioning System (GPS), improved navigation systems and new radios.
Congress approved $82M to begin the Apache B upgrade.
The B program was canceled in 1992.[247] The radio, navigation, and GPS modications, were later installed on
most A-model Apaches through other upgrades.
9.4.3
AH-64C
Additional funding from Congress in late 1991 resulted

in a program to upgrade AH-64As to an AH-64B+ version. More funding changed the plan to upgrade to AH64C. The C upgrade would include all changes to be included in the Longbow except for mast-mounted radar
and newer 700C engine versions. However, the C designation was dropped after 1993.[248] With AH-64As receiving the newer engine from 1990, the only dierence
between the C model and the radar-equipped D model
was the radar, which could be moved from one aircraft to
another; thus the decision was made to simply designate
both versions AH-64D.[248]
9.4.4
Israeli AH-64D
The aircraft is powered by a pair of uprated T700GE-701C engines. The forward fuselage was expanded
to accommodate new systems to improve survivability,
navigation, and 'tactical internet' communications capabilities. In February 2003, the rst Block II Apache
was delivered to the U.S. Army, featuring digital communications upgrades. The Japanese Apache AH-64DJP
variant is based on the AH-64D;[131] it can be equipped
with the AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles for selfdefense.[254][255]
AH-64D
9.4.5 AH-64E
Formerly known as AH-64D Block III, in 2012, it was

redesignated as AH-64E Guardian to represent its increased capabilities.[256][257][258] The AH-64E features
improved digital connectivity, the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System, more powerful T700-GE-701D
engines with upgraded face gear transmission to accommodate more power,[259] capability to control Unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAVs), full IFR capability, and improved
landing gear.[260][261] New composite rotor blades, which
successfully completed testing in 2004, increase cruise
speed, climb rate, and payload capacity.[262] Deliveries
began in November 2011,[263] full rate production was
approved on 24 October 2012.[264] 634 AH-64Ds will
Republic of Singapore Air Force AH-64D on static display, note be upgraded to AH-64E standard; a production run of
the swept wing tip on the main rotor blades
56 new-build AH64Es will start in 2019/20.[265] Changes
in production lots 4 through 6 shall include a cognitive
The AH-64D Apache Longbow, is equipped with a glass decision aiding system, new self-diagnostic abilities, and
cockpit and advanced sensors, the most noticeable of Link-16 data-links. The updated Longbow radar has an
90
oversea capacity, potentially enabling naval strikes; an Apache (assembled from kits purchased from Boeing)
AESA radar is under consideration.[266] The E model is is based on the AH-64D Block I with several dierent
to be t for maritime operations.[267]
systems, including more powerful engines, folding rotor
blades, and other modications for operation from Royal
Navy vessels.
9.4.6
AH-64F
In 2014, Boeing conceptualized an Apache upgrade prior

to the introduction of the U.S. Armys anticipated attack
version of the Future Vertical Lift aircraft, forecast to
replace the Apache by 2040. The conceptual AH-64F
would have greater speed via a new 3,000 shp turboshaft
engine from the improved turbine engine program, retractable landing gear, stub wings to ooad lift from the
main rotor during cruise, and a tail rotor that can articulate 90 degrees to provide forward thrust;[268] resembling
the pusher propeller of the canceled 1970s era Lockheed
AH-56 Cheyenne attack helicopter.
9.4.7
Sea Apache
9.4.9 Block modication

While a major change in design or role will cause the
type designator sux to change, for example from AH64D to AH-64E the helicopters are also subject to Block
modication. Block modication is the combining of
equipment changes into blocks of modication work orders, the modications in the block (sometimes called a
block package) are all done to the helicopter at the same
time.[275]
9.5 Operators
Egypt
Egyptian Air Force (AH-64D)[276]
A U.S. Army AH-64A Apache aboard USS Nassau during Joint

Shipboard Weapons and Ordnance training
During the 1980s Naval versions of the AH-64A

for the United States Marine Corps and Navy were
examined.[269][270] Multiple concepts were studied with
A Hellenic Army AH-64A
altered landing gear arrangements, improved avionics and
weapons.[269] Funding for a naval version was not provided; the Marine Corps continued to use the AH-1.[271]
Greece
The Canadian Forces Maritime Command also examined
[272]
In 2004, British Army AgustaWesta naval Apache.
land Apaches were deployed upon the Royal Navy's HMS
Hellenic Army (AH-64A/D)[276]
Ocean, a Landing Platform Helicopter, for suitability
testing; there was U.S. interest in the trials.[166] During the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the British
Indonesia
Army extensively used Apaches from HMS Ocean.[273]
In 2013, U.S. 36th Combat Aviation Brigade AH-64Ds
were tested on a variety of U.S. Navy ships.[274]
Indonesian Army (AH-64E: 8 on order)[276]
9.4.8
Export Apaches
Several models have been derived from both AH-64A and

AH-64D for export. The British-built AgustaWestland
Israel
Israeli Air Force (AH-64A/D)[276]
9.6. SPECIFICATIONS (AH-64A/D)
91
Japan
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (AH-64D)[276]

Kuwait
Kuwait Air Force (AH-64D)[276]

A US Army Apache res o Hydra 70 rockets during a live re
exercise at Grafenwhr training area
United Kingdom
See AgustaWestland Apache

United States
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) AH-64D
United States Army (AH-64D/E)[276]
Netherlands
9.6 Specications (AH-64A/D)
Royal Netherlands Air Force (AH-64D)[276]

Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Land Forces (AH-64A/D/E)[276]
Singapore
Republic of Singapore Air Force (AH-64D)[276]

Republic of Korea
Data from Janes Information Group,[51][67] Bishop[277]

Republic of Korea Army (AH-64E: 36 on order)
[276]
Republic of China
Republic of China Army (AH-64E)[276]
Crew: 2 (pilot, and co-pilot/gunner)

Length: 58.17 ft (17.73 m) (with both rotors turning)
Height: 12.7 ft (3.87 m)
Disc area: 1,809.5 ft (168.11 m)

United Arab Emirates Air Force (AH-64D)[276]
92

Hardpoints: Four pylon stations on the stub wings.
Longbows also have a station on each wingtip for an
AIM-92 Stinger twin missile pack.[65]
Rockets: Hydra 70 70 mm, and CRV7 70 mm airto-ground rockets
Missiles: Typically AGM-114 Hellre variants;
AIM-92 Stinger may also be carried.
Avionics
Weapon loadout of the AH-64 Apache
Lockheed Martin / Northrop Grumman AN/APG78 Longbow re-control radar[278] (Note: can only
be mounted on the AH-64D/E)
Powerplant: 2 General Electric T700-GE701 and later upgraded to T700-GE-701C (1990 Main article: AH-64 Apache in ction
present) & T700-GE-701D (AH-64E) turboshafts,
701: 1,690 shp, 701C: 1,890 shp, 701D: 2,000
shp (701: 1,260 kW, 701C: 1,409 kW, 701D:
1,490 kW) each
9.8 See also
Rotor systems: 4 blade main rotor, 4 blade tail rotor in non-orthogonal alignment
Performance
Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and

Engineering Center
Desert Strike: Return to the Gulf
United States Army Aviation and Missile Command
Related development

km/h)
AgustaWestland Apache
Maximum speed: 158 knots (182 mph, 293 km/h) Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
Cruise speed: 143 knots (165 mph, 265 km/h)
Range: 257 nmi (295 mi, 476 km) with Longbow
radar mast
Ferry range: 1,024 nmi (1,180 mi, 1,900 km)
Service ceiling: 21,000 ft (6,400 m) minimum
loaded
Disc loading: 9.80 lb/ft (47.9 kg/m)
Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (0.31 kW/kg)
Armament
Agusta A129 Mangusta and TAI/AgustaWestland

T-129
Bell AH-1Z Viper
Bell YAH-63
CAIC WZ-10
Denel Rooivalk
Eurocopter Tiger
Kamov Ka-50
Mil Mi-24/25/35
Mil Mi-28
Related lists
List of helicopters
Guns: 1 30 mm (1.18 in) M230 Chain Gun with

1,200 rounds as part of the Area Weapon Subsystem
List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the

Iraq War
9.9. REFERENCES
9.9 References
Notes
[1] Israel had already used Tzefa (), Hebrew for Viper to
name its Bell AH-1 Cobras.[138] Donald 2004 states Peten
translates to Viper.[131]
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[2] Haynes, Mary L. and Cheryl Morai Young, ed.
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[23] Donald 2004, pp. 150153.
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Helicopter to Japanese Government Under Boeing Li[188] The 2006 Saudi Shopping Spree: $400M to Upgrade
censing Agreement. Boeing. 15 March 2006.
AH-64A Apache Helicopters. Defense Industry Daily.
1 August 2006.
[211] Trimble, Stepehen (10 June 2011). Taiwan buys 30 AH64 Apaches. Flight International.
[189] Shalal-Esa, Andrea (12 September 2008). US OKs sale
of Boeing helicopters to Saudi Arabia. Reuters.
[212] Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Oce in

the United States AH-64D Apache Helicopters and
[190] Lakshman, Narayan (21 October 2010). Huge U.S.Related Weapons (PDF). Defense Security Cooperation
Saudi arms deal. The Hindu (Chennai, India).
Agency (DSCA). 3 October 2007. Retrieved 24 July
2009.
[191] Saudi Arabia AH-64D APACHE, UH-60M BLACKHAWK, AH-6i Light Attack, and MD-530F Light Turbine Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation [213] Taiwan receives rst batch of AH-64E Apaches - Flightglobal.com, 5 November 2013
Agency, 20 October 2010.
[192] Saudi troops combing Yemen border; security stepped
up. BBC News. 20 November 2009.
[193] Saudi Apache gunships prevent incursion by inltrators"". Saudi Gazette. 6 December 2009.
[214] Taiwans AH-64Es Grounded After Apache Crash Armedforces-Int.com, 25 April 2014
[215] Crash destroys Taiwanese AH-64E Apache - Flightglobal.com, 26 April 2014
[216] Pilots Blamed for Taiwan Apache Crash - Defense[194] Saudi Military Operations along the Yemen Border Renews.com, 15 July 2014
pel Houthist Incursion. The Jamestown Foundation. 28
January 2010.
[217] Taiwan received fth and last batch of AH-64E Apache
attack helicopters - Airrecognition.com, 20 October 2014
[195] Yemen rebels announce pullout from Saudi land. The
Jordan Times. 26 January 2010.
[218] IAF conducting trials for attack helicopters. Hindustan
Times. 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
[196] Bishop 2005, pp. 4044.
[219] Govindasamy, Siva (10 October 2008). Bell, Boeing
[197] Bishop 2005, p. 42.
Quit Indian Attack Helicopter Contest. Flight International.
[198] Egypt to Upgrade 35 Apaches to AH-64D Conguration. Boeing, 25 September 2000.
[220] Boeing Submits Proposals To India For Apache And
Chinook Helicopters. Boeing. 23 October 2009.
[199] Feldman 2004, p. 106.
[221] US government details AH-64D bid for Indian air force
[200] AH-64D Apache Longbow helicopters for Egypt. Decontract. Flight International. 4 January 2011.
fence Talk. 29 May 2009.
[222] India Support for Direct Commercial Sale of AH-64D
[201] Egypt Aims to Add AH-64D Block II Attack HeliBlock III APACHE Helicopters (PDF). US Defense Secopters. Defense Industry Daily. 28 May 2009.
curity Cooperation Agency. 27 December 2010.
[202] Egypt launches airstrikes in Sinai after troop massacre. [223] IAF getting 22 Apache helicopters: NAK Browne. InCNN, 8 August 2012.
dian Express, 5 October 2012.
[203] Friedman, Ron. Israel allows Egypt to keep attack heli- [224] The Indian Army Wins A Big One. Strategypage.com,
copters in Sinai. Times of Israel, 9 August 2012.
19 October 2012.
[204] US Copters Set For Middle East. Toledo Blade. 4 June [225] Going To War Over Gunships. Strategypage.com, 3
1991.
January 2013
[205] UAEs 30-Helicopter Apache Upgrade Program Under- [226] IAF, not Army, will get Apache attack helicopters.
way. Defense Industry Daily. 10 May 2009.
Times Of India. 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
[206] Kuwait Runs Apache Longbow Contract To $262.2 M. [227] India; Army Wing request its own Apache Squadron
Defense Industry Daily. 26 August 2005.
Dmilt.com, 14 May 2013.
98
[228] India; Army Aviation requests additional Apache heli- [252] Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Janes
copters - Dmilt.com, 4 July 2014
- IHS. janes.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[229] New Delhi approves Apache buy. ightglobal.com. 29 [253] Helicopter prole: Boeing AH-64 Apache. Flight InterAugust 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
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[230] Jung, Sung-ki (14 January 2009). Seoul Seeks To Deploy [254] Apache Stinger Testing in Holding Pattern until
Apaches In 2012. Korea Times. Retrieved 29 December
Starstreak Integration Finished. Defense Daily. 15 June
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[231] South Korea Dithers Over Apaches. United Press Inter- [255] Taylor, Ed (21 December 2005). Japan to get rst Boeing
national. 7 August 2009.
copter. East Valley Tribune.
[232] Sung-ki, Jung (8 February 2009). US May Withdraw [256] Whittle, Richard Army Loves AH-64D Block III enough
More Apache Helos From Korea by 2012. Korea Times.
to call it Echo; will Taliban call it the Echo Monster?".
AOL Defense, 22 October 2012.
[233] Republic of Korea (ROK) AH-64D APACHE Attack
Helicopters. DSCA.mil, 25 September 2012.
[257] Bledsoe, Sophia. Team Apache announces nickname for
[234] Korea helicopter bids. Flightglobal.com, 26 September
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the Apache Echo Model. U.S. Army, 14 January 2013.
[237] USA and Indonesia formalise AH-64E Apache deal - [260]

Flightglobal.com, 26 August 2013
[261]
[238] Quarterly Report to the United States Congress (PDF).
sigir.mil. 30 April 2013.
[262]
[239] Congress Clears Apache Sale to Iraq. Foreign Policy, 27
January 2014.
[263]
[240] Agreement reached to sell billions in Apache helicopters
to Iraq. Militarytimes.com, 28 January 2014
. Boeing Press Release, 2 November 2011.
[258] Army Renames Apache Block III Helicopters. National

Defense Magazine.
[235] Song, Sang-ho (17 April 2013). Seoul to Purchase 36
Apache Helicopters. Korea Herald.
[259] "Interlocking gears used in clocks give Army helicopters
more power", HeliHub, 28 October 2013. Accessed: 17
[236] South Korean Boeing AH-64E Apache Order June 2014. Archived on 20 February 2014.
Armedforces-Int.com, April 19, 2013
Technology gives Apache block III more lift, capability,

landing ability. U.S. Army.
Boeing-Developed Composite Rotor Blade Spins Forward. Boeing, 10 May 2004.
Trimble, Stephen From Albania to Afghanistan, US
Army integrates lessons into latest Apache. Flight International, 3 November 2011.
[241] Iraq passes on Apache buy. Janes, 25 September 2014. [264] John Pike. Upgraded Apache helicopter OK'd for production. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[242] Qatar AH-64D APACHE Block III LONGBOW Attack Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation [265] Jennings, Gareth (30 October 2013). ADEX 2013: US
Agency, 12 July 2012.
sequestration buys time for UK Apache decision makers.
IHS Janes Defence Weekly.
[243] $23.9B in Deals Announced on Last Day of DIMDEX Defensenews.com, 27 March 2014
[266] Majumdar, Dave. US Army elds rst AH-64E unit, but
[244] Bishop 2005, p. 12.
more improvements to come. Flight International, 9 January 2013.
[245] Bledsoe, Soa. Army 'retires last A model Apache heli[267] Drwiega , Andrew. "U.S. Armys Apache Maritime
copter. Defense Video & Imagery Distribution System.
Role" Aviation Today, 10 November 2014. Accessed: 16
Retrieved 18 July 2012.
November 2014.
[246] Boeing Remanufactures AH-64A Apaches to AH-64D
[268] Boeing proposes high-speed Apache, heavier Chinook Block II. Defenseindustrydaily.com
Flightglobal.com, 26 June 2014
[247] Bishop 2005, p. 10.
[248] Donald 2004, p. 153.
[270] Donald 2004, p. 150.
[249] McDonnell-Bell plan Longbow-radar for LHX. Defense
[271] Donald 2004, p. 170.
Daily. 22 February 1990.
[250] AN/APR-48A Radar Frequency Interferometer (PDF). [272] Curran, Peggy (6 August 1986). Local rms hope
for spin-os from big naval aircraft project. Montreal
Lockheed Martin. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
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[251] Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Janes
- IHS. janes.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[273] HMS Ocean. Royal Navy/MOD.
[274] Myers, Meghann (5 September 2013). Army helicopters

y from Navy ships, test joint ops. Army Times.
99
9.10 External links
[275] Army Regulation 750-10 Army Modication Program
AH-64 Apache page on Boeing.com

AH-64 Apache U.S. Army fact le (archived from

the original on 2011-05-01)
[277] Bishop 2005.
Apache overview with supporting images on HowStuWorks.com
[278] AN/APG Equipment Listing. designation-systems.net
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III technologies
Bernstein, Jonathan. AH-64 Apache units of operations: Enduring Freedom an Iraqi Freedom. Oxford
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Fisk, Robert. The Great War for Civilisation: The
Conquest of the Middle East. Fourth Estate, 2005.
ISBN 978-1-4000-7517-1
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Government Accounting Oce, 1974.
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Peace. Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 0674-00703-4.
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Attack Helicopter Program. Washington, DC: Department of the Army. 1973.
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Apache Helicopter Acoustic Analysis
Chapter 10
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress

B-52 redirects here. For other uses, see B52 (disam- 10.1.1
biguation).
BUFF redirects here. For other uses, see Bu.
Origins
The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is a long-range,

subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was
designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to
provide support and upgrades. It has been operated by
the United States Air Force (USAF) since the 1950s.
The bomber is capable of carrying up to 70,000 pounds
(32,000 kg) of weapons.[4]
Beginning with the successful contract bid in June 1946,
the B-52 design evolved from a straight wing aircraft powered by six turboprop engines to the nal prototype YB- Models 462 (1946)[11] to 464-35 (1948)[11]
52 with eight turbojet engines and swept wings. The B-52
took its maiden ight in April 1952. Built to carry nuclear weapons for Cold War-era deterrence missions, the
B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. A veteran
of several wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional
munitions in combat. The B-52s ocial name Stratofortress is rarely used; informally, the aircraft has become commonly referred to as the BUFF (Big Ugly Fat
Fucker).[5][Note 1]
The B-52 has been in active service with the USAF since
1955. As of 2012, 85 were in active service with nine in
reserve. The bombers ew under the Strategic Air Command (SAC) until it was inactivated in 1992 and its aircraft absorbed into the Air Combat Command (ACC);
in 2010 all B-52 Stratofortresses were transferred from
the ACC to the new Air Force Global Strike Command
(AFGSC). Superior performance at high subsonic speeds
and relatively low operating costs have kept the B-52 in
service despite the advent of later, more advanced aircraft, including the canceled Mach 3 B-70 Valkyrie, the
variable-geometry B-1 Lancer, and the stealth B-2 Spirit.
The B-52 completed fty years of continuous service
with its original operator in 2005; after being upgraded
between 2013 and 2015, it is expected to serve into the
2040s.[Note 2]
10.1 Development
Models 464-49 (1949)[11] to B-52A (1952)
On 23 November 1945, Air Materiel Command (AMC)

issued desired performance characteristics for a new
strategic bomber capable of carrying out the strategic
mission without dependence upon advanced and intermediate bases controlled by other countries.[12] The aircraft
was to have a crew of ve or more turret gunners, and
a six-man relief crew. It was required to cruise at 300
mph (260 knots, 480 km/h) at 34,000 feet (10,400 m)
with a combat radius of 5,000 miles (4,300 nautical miles,
8,000 km). The armament was to consist of an unspecied number of 20 mm cannon and 10,000 pounds (4,500
kg) of bombs.[13] On 13 February 1946, the Air Force
100
10.1. DEVELOPMENT
101
issued bid invitations for these specications, with Boe- design was capable of being adapted to new aviation teching, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Com- nology and more stringent requirements.[26] In January
pany submitting proposals.[13]
1948 Boeing was instructed to thoroughly explore recent
including aerial refueling and
On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, a straight-wing technological innovations,
[27]
the
ying
wing.
Noting
stability
and control problems
aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a
Northrop
was
experiencing
with
their
YB-35 and YB-49
gross weight of 360,000 pounds (160,000 kg) and a comying
wing
bombers,
Boeing
insisted
on a conventional
bat radius of 3,110 miles (2,700 nmi, 5,010 km), was
aircraft,
and
in
April
1948
presented
a US$30 million
[14]
declared the winner.
On 28 June 1946, Boeing was
(US$294 million today[28] ) proposal for design, construcissued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build
[29]
a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do prelim- tion, and testing of two Model 464-35 prototypes. The
Model 464-35 design had a similar conguration as a later
inary engineering and testing.[15] However, by October
Union, the
1946, the air force began to express concern about the Tupolev design that was built for the Soviet
Tupolev Tu-95 Bear strategic bomber.[30] Further revisheer size of the new aircraft and its inability to meet
the specied design requirements.[16] In response, Boe- sions during 1948 resulted in an aircraft with a top speed
of 513 miles per hour (445 kn, 825 km/h) at 35,000 feet
ing produced Model 464, a smaller four-engine version
with a 230,000 pound (105,000 kg) gross weight, which (10,700 m), a range of 6,909 miles (6,005 nmi, 11,125
km), and a 280,000 pounds (125,000 kg) gross weight,
was briey deemed acceptable.[16][17]
which included 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of bombs and
Subsequently, in November 1946, the Deputy Chief of 19,875 US gallons (75,225 L) of fuel.[31][32]
Air Sta for Research and Development, General Curtis
LeMay, expressed the desire for a cruise speed of 400
miles per hour (345 kn, 645 km/h), to which Boeing re- 10.1.2 Design eort
sponded with a 300,000 lb (136,000 kg) aircraft.[18] In
December 1946, Boeing was asked to change their design
to a four-engine bomber with a top speed of 400 miles per
hour, range of 12,000 miles (10,000 nmi, 19,300 km),
and the ability to carry a nuclear weapon; in total, the aircraft could weigh up to 480,000 pounds (220,000 kg).[19]
Boeing responded with two models powered by the T35 turboprops. The Model 464-16 was a nuclear only
bomber with a 10,000 pound (4,500 kg) payload, while
the Model 464-17 was a general purpose bomber with a
9,000 pound (4,000 kg) payload.[19] Due to the cost associated with purchasing two specialized aircraft, the air
force selected Model 464-17 with the understanding that
it could be adapted for nuclear strikes.[20]
In June 1947, the military requirements were updated and XB-52 Prototype on ight line (X-4 in foreground)
the Model 464-17 met all of them except for the range.[21]
It was becoming obvious to the air force that, even with
the updated performance, the XB-52 would be obsolete
by the time it entered production and would oer little
improvement over the Convair B-36; as a result, the entire project was postponed for six months.[22] During this
time, Boeing continued to perfect the design, which resulted in the Model 464-29 with a top speed of 455 miles
per hour (395 kn, 730 km/h) and a 5,000-mile range.[23]
In September 1947, the Heavy Bombardment Committee was convened to ascertain performance requirements
for a nuclear bomber. Formalized on 8 December 1947,
these requirements called for a top speed of 500 miles
per hour (440 kn, 800 km/h) and an 8,000 mile (7,000
nmi, 13,000 km) range, far beyond the capabilities of
Side view of YB-52 bomber, with bubble canopy similar to that
464-29.[22][24]
of the B-47
The outright cancellation of the Boeing contract on 11
December 1947 was staved o by a plea from its pres- In May 1948, AMC asked Boeing to incorporate the preident William McPherson Allen to the Secretary of the viously discarded, but now more fuel-ecient, jet engine
[33]
Air Force Stuart Symington.[25] Allen reasoned that the into the design. That resulted in the development of yet
another revision in July 1948, Model 464-40 substituted
102
Westinghouse J40 turbojets for the turboprops.[34] The
air force project ocer who reviewed the Model 46440 was favorably impressed, especially since he had already been thinking along similar lines. Nevertheless, the
government was concerned about the high fuel consumption rate of the jet engines of the day, and directed that
Boeing still use the turboprop-powered Model 464-35 as
the basis for the XB-52. Although he agreed that turbojet propulsion was the future, General Howard A. Craig,
Deputy Chief of Sta for Material, was not very keen
on a jet-powered B-52, since he felt that the jet engine
had not yet progressed suciently to permit skipping an
intermediate turboprop stage. However, Boeing was encouraged to continue turbojet studies even without any
expected commitment to jet propulsion.[35][36]
On Thursday, 21 October 1948, Boeing engineers
George S. Schairer, Art Carlsen and Vaughn Blumenthal
presented the design of a four-engine turboprop bomber
to the chief of bomber development, Colonel Pete Warden. Warden was disappointed by the projected aircraft
and asked if the Boeing team could come up with a proposal for a four-engine turbojet bomber. Joined by Ed
Wells, Boeing vice president of engineering, the engineers worked that night in the Hotel Van Cleve in Dayton,
Ohio, redesigning Boeings proposal as a four-engine turbojet bomber. On Friday, Colonel Warden looked over
the information and asked for a better design. Returning
to the hotel, the Boeing team was joined by Bob Withington and Maynard Pennell, two top Boeing engineers who
were in town on other business.[37]
By late Friday night, they had laid out what was essentially
a new airplane. The new design (464-49) built upon the
basic layout of the B-47 Stratojet with 35 degree swept
wings, eight engines paired in four underwing pods, and
bicycle landing gear with wingtip outrigger wheels.[38] A
notable feature of the landing gear was the ability to pivot
the main landing gear up to 20 from the aircraft centerline to increase safety during crosswind landings.[39]
After a trip to a hobby shop for supplies, Schairer set
to work building a model. The rest of the team focused
on weight and performance data. Wells, who was also a
skilled artist, completed the aircraft drawings. On Sunday, a stenographer was hired to type a clean copy of the
proposal. On Monday, Schairer presented Colonel Warden with a neatly bound 33-page proposal and a 14-inch
scale model.[37] The aircraft was projected to exceed all
design specications.[40]
Although the full-size mock-up inspection in April 1949
was generally favorable, range again became a concern since the J40s and early model J57s had excessive fuel consumption.[41] Despite talk of another revision of specications or even a full design competition
among aircraft manufacturers, General LeMay, now in
charge of Strategic Air Command, insisted that performance should not be compromised due to delays in engine
development.[42][43] In a nal attempt to increase range,
Boeing created the larger 464-67, stating that once in
CHAPTER 10. BOEING B-52 STRATOFORTRESS

production, the range could be further increased in subsequent modications.[44] Following several direct interventions by LeMay,[45] Boeing was awarded a production
contract for thirteen B-52As and seventeen detachable reconnaissance pods on 14 February 1951.[46] The last major design changealso at General LeMays insistence
was a switch from the B-47 style tandem seating to a more
conventional side-by-side cockpit, which increased the
eectiveness of the copilot and reduced crew fatigue.[47]
Both XB-52 prototypes featured the original tandem seating arrangement with a framed bubble-type canopy.[48]
10.1.3 Pre-production
The YB-52, the second XB-52 modied with more operational equipment, rst ew on 15 April 1952 with
Tex Johnston as pilot.[49][50] During ground testing
on 29 November 1951, the XB-52s pneumatic system
failed during a full-pressure test; the resulting explosion
severely damaged the trailing edge of the wing, necessitating considerable repairs. A two-hour, 21-minute proving ight from Boeing Field, King County, in Seattle,
Washington to Larson AFB was undertaken with Boeing test pilot Johnston and air force Lieutenant Colonel
Guy M. Townsend.[51] The XB-52 followed on 2 October 1952.[52] The thorough development,[Note 3] including
670 days in the wind tunnel and 130 days of aerodynamic
and aeroelastic testing, paid o with smooth ight testing. Encouraged, the air force increased its order to 282
B-52s.[54]
10.1.4 Production and improvements

Only three of the 13 B-52As ordered were built.[62]
All were returned to Boeing, and used in their test
program.[55] On 9 June 1952, the February 1951 contract was updated to order the aircraft under new specications. The nal 10, the rst aircraft to enter active
service, were completed as B-52Bs.[55] At the roll out
ceremony on 18 March 1954, Air Force Chief of Sta
General Nathan Twining said:
The long rie was the great weapon of its
day. ... today this B-52 is the long rie of the
air age.[63][64]
The B-52B was followed by progressively improved
bomber and reconnaissance variants, culminating in the
B-52G and turbofan B-52H. To allow rapid delivery, production lines were set up both at its main Seattle factory
and at Boeings Wichita facility. More than 5,000 companies were involved in the massive production eort, with
41% of the airframe being built by subcontractors.[65]
The prototypes and all B-52A, B and C models (90
aircraft)[66] were built at Seattle. Testing of aircraft built
at Seattle caused problems due to jet noise, which led to
10.2. DESIGN
the establishment of curfews for engine tests. Aircraft
were ferried 150 miles (240 km) east on their maiden
ights to Larson Air Force Base near Moses Lake, where
they were fully tested.[67]
103
Pacer Plank reskinning, completed in 1977.[72][80] The
wet wing introduced on G and H models was even more
susceptible to fatigue, experiencing 60% more stress during ight than the old wing. The wings were modied by
1964 under ECP 1050.[81] This was followed by a fuselage skin and longeron replacement (ECP 1185) in 1966,
and the B-52 Stability Augmentation and Flight Control
program (ECP 1195) in 1967.[81] Fuel leaks due to deteriorating Marman clamps continued to plague all variants of the B-52. To this end, the aircraft were subjected to Blue Band (1957), Hard Shell (1958), and nally QuickClip (1958) programs. The latter tted safety
straps that prevented catastrophic loss of fuel in case of
clamp failure.[82]
As production of the B-47 came to an end, the Wichita

factory was phased in for B-52D production, with Seattle responsible for 101 D-models and Wichita 69.[68] Both
plants continued to build the B-52E, with 42 built at Seattle and 58 at Wichita,[69] and the B-52F (44 from Seattle and 45 from Wichita).[70] For the B-52G, it was decided in 1957 to transfer all production to Wichita, which
freed up Seattle for other tasks (in particular the production of airliners).[71][72] Production ended in 1962 with
the B-52H, with 742 aircraft built, plus the original two
prototypes.[73]
In September 2006, the B-52 became one of the rst
US military aircraft to y using alternative fuel. It took
o from Edwards Air Force Base with a 50/50 blend of
Fischer-Tropsch process (FT) synthetic fuel and conven10.2 Design
tional JP-8 jet fuel, which burned in two of the eight
engines.[83] On 15 December 2006, a B-52 took o from
10.2.1 Overview
Edwards with the synthetic fuel powering all eight engines, the rst time an air force aircraft was entirely powThe B-52 shared many technological similarities with the ered by the blend. The seven-hour ight was considered
preceding Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber. The a success.[83] This program is part of the Department of
two aircraft used the same basic design, such as swept Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, which aims to reduce
wings and podded jet engines,[74] and the cabin included crude oil usage and obtain half of its aviation fuel from
the crew ejection systems.[75] On the B-52D, the pilots alternative sources by 2016.[83] On 8 August 2007, Air
and electronic countermeasures (EDM) operator ejected Force Secretary Michael Wynne certied the B-52H as
upwards, while the lower deck crew ejected downwards; fully approved to use the FT blend.[84]
until the B-52G, the gunner had to jettison the tail gun to
bail-out.[76]
10.2.2 Avionics
B-52H (61-0023), congured at the time as a testbed to investigate structural failures, still ying after its vertical stabilizer
sheared o in severe turbulence on 10 January 1964. The aircraft landed safely[77]
Structural fatigue was accelerated by at least a factor of

eight in a low-altitude ight prole over that of highaltitude ying, requiring costly repairs to extend service
life. In the early 1960s, the three-phase High Stress program was launched to counter structural fatigue, enrolling
aircraft at 2,000 ying hours.[78][79] Follow-up programs
were conducted, such as a 2,000-hour service life extension to select airframes in 19661968, and the extensive
A view of the lower deck of the B-52, dubbed the battle station
Ongoing problems with avionics systems were addressed

in the Jolly Well program, completed in 1964, which improved components of the AN/ASQ-38 bombing navigational computer and the terrain computer. The
MADREC (Malfunction Detection and Recording) upgrade tted to most aircraft by 1965 could detect failures in avionics and weapons computer systems, and
was essential in monitoring the Hound Dog missiles.
The electronic countermeasures capability of the B-52
was expanded with Rivet Rambler (1971) and Rivet Ace
104
(1973).[85]
To improve operations at low altitude, the AN/ASQ151 Electro-Optical Viewing System (EVS), which consisted of a Low Light Level Television (LLLTV) and a
Forward looking infrared (FLIR) system mounted in blisters under the noses of B-52Gs and Hs between 1972
and 1976.[86] The navigational capabilities of the B-52
were later augmented with the addition of GPS in the
1980s.[87] The IBM AP-101, also used on the Rockwell
B-1 Lancer bomber and the Space Shuttle, was the B-52s
main computer.[88]
In 2007 the LITENING targeting pod was tted, which
increased the eectiveness of the aircraft in the attack
of ground targets with a variety of stando weapons, using laser guidance, a high-resolution forward-looking infrared sensor (FLIR), and a CCD camera used to obtain target imagery.[89] LITENING pods have been tted to a wide variety of other US aircraft, such as the
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the McDonnell Douglas AV8B Harrier II.[90]
10.2.3
Armament
The ability to carry up to 20 AGM-69 SRAM nuclear

missiles was added to G and H models, starting in
1971.[91] To further improve its oensive ability, airlaunched cruise missiles (ALCMs) were tted.[92] After testing of both the air force-backed Boeing AGM-86
and the navy-backed General Dynamics AGM-109 Tomahawk, the AGM-86B was selected for operation by the
B-52 (and ultimately by the B-1 Lancer).[93] A total of
194 B-52Gs and Hs were modied to carry AGM-86s,
carrying 12 missiles on underwing pylons, with 82 B52Hs further modied to carry another eight missiles on
a rotary launcher tted in the bomb-bay. To conform
with SALT II Treaty requirements that cruise missilecapable aircraft be readily identiable by reconnaissance
satellites, the cruise missile armed B-52Gs were modied with a distinctive wing root fairing. As all B-52Hs
were assumed modied, no visual modication of these
aircraft was required.[94] In 1990, the stealthy AGM-129
ACM cruise missile entered service; although intended to
replace the AGM-86, a high cost and the Cold Wars end
led to only 450 being produced; unlike the AGM-86, no
conventional (non-nuclear) version was built.[95] The B52 was to have been modied to utilize Northrop Grumman's AGM-137 TSSAM weapon; however, the missile
was canceled due to development costs.[96]
Those B-52Gs not converted as cruise missile carriers
underwent a series of modications to improve conventional bombing. They were tted with a new Integrated
Conventional Stores Management System (ICSMS) and
new underwing pylons that could hold larger bombs or
other stores than could the external pylons. Thirty B-52s
were further modied to carry up to 12 AGM-84 Har-
A B-52D with anti-ash white on the under side.
poon anti-ship missiles each, while 12 B-52Gs were tted

to carry the AGM-142 Have Nap stand-o air-to-ground
missile.[97] When the B-52G was retired in 1994, an urgent scheme was launched to restore an interim Harpoon
and Have Nap capability,[Note 4] the four aircraft being
modied to carry Harpoon and four to carry Have Nap
under the Rapid Eight program.[100]
The Conventional Enhancement Modication (CEM)
program gave the B-52H a more comprehensive conventional weapons capability, adding the modied underwing weapon pylons used by conventional-armed B52Gs, Harpoon and Have Nap, and the capability to carry
new-generation weapons including the Joint Direct Attack Munition and Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser
guided bombs, the AGM-154 glide bomb and the AGM158 JASSM missile. The CEM program also introduced
new radios, integrated Global Positioning System into the
aircrafts navigation system and replaced the under-nose
FLIR with a more modern unit. Forty-seven B-52Hs
were modied under the CEM program by 1996, with
19 more by the end of 1999.[101][102]
Starting in 2016, Boeing is to upgrade the internal rotary launchers to the MIL-STD-1760 interface to enable
the internal carriage of smart bombs, which can currently
only be carried on the wings.[103]
10.2.4 Engines
For a study for the U.S. Air Force in the mid-1970s,
Boeing investigated replacing the engines, changing to
a new wing, and other improvements to upgrade B52G/H aircraft as an alternative to the B-1A, then in
development.[104] Boeing later suggested re-engining the
B-52H eet with the Rolls-Royce RB211 535E-4.[105]
This would involve replacing the eight Pratt & Whitney
TF33s (total thrust 8 17,000 lb) with four RB211s (total thrust 4 37,400 lb)which would increase range
and reduce fuel consumption, at a cost of approximately
US$2.56 billion for the whole eet (71 aircraft at $36 million each). A Government Accountability Oce study
concluded that Boeings estimated savings of US$4.7 bil-
105
March 1956. The training for B-52 crews consisted of
ve weeks of ground school and four weeks of ying, accumulating 35 to 50 hours in the air. The new B-52Bs
replaced operational B-36s on a one-to-one basis.[111]
USAF B-52H Stratofortress Engines
lion would not be realized and that it would cost US$1.3

billion over keeping the existing engines, citing signicant up-front procurement and re-tooling expenditure, as
well as the RB211s higher maintenance cost. The GAO
report was subsequently disputed in a Defense Sciences
Board report in 2003; the Air Force was urged to reengine the aircraft without delay.[106] Further, the DSB
report stated the program would have signicant savings,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and increase aircraft
range and endurance, in line with the conclusions of a
separate Congress-funded study conducted in 2003.[107]
In 2014, the U.S. Air Force was reviewing industry studies of engine replacement.[108] The re-engining has not
been approved as of 2014. In late 2014, it was reported
that the DOD and unnamed private companies were exploring a leasing program where private lease companies
would purchase new engines and lease them to the USAF.
DOD costs would be determined by depreciation and actual usage with no up-front lump payments.[109]
10.2.5
Costs
Costs per aircraft.
Early operations were problematic;[112] in addition to supply problems, technical issues also struck.[113] Ramps and
taxiways deteriorated under the aircrafts weight, the fuel
system was prone to leaks and icing,[114] and bombing and
re control computers were unreliable.[113] The split level
cockpit presented a temperature control problem the
pilots cockpit was heated by sunlight while the observer
and the navigator on the bottom deck sat on the ice-cold
oor. Thus, a comfortable temperature setting for the
pilots caused the other crew members to freeze, while
a comfortable temperature for the bottom crew caused
the pilots to overheat.[115] The J57 engines proved unreliable. Alternator failure caused the rst fatal B-52
crash in February 1956;[116] as a result the eet was briey
grounded. In July, fuel and hydraulic issues grounded the
B-52s again. In response to maintenance issues, the air
force set up Sky Speed teams of 50 contractors at each
B-52 base to perform maintenance and routine checkups,
taking an average of one week per aircraft.[117]
Three B-52Bs of the 93rd Bomb Wing prepare to depart March

AFB for Castle AFB, California, after their record-setting roundthe-world ight in 1957.
Note: The original costs were in approximate 1955

United States dollars.[110] Figures in tables noted with On 21 May 1956, a B-52B (52-0013) dropped a Mk-15
current have been adjusted for ination to the current cal- nuclear bomb over the Bikini Atoll in a test code-named
Cherokee. It was the rst air-dropped thermonuclear
endar year.[28]
weapon.[118] From 24 to 25 November 1956, four B52Bs of the 93rd BW and four B-52Cs of the 42nd
BW ew nonstop around the perimeter of North Amer10.3 Operational history
ica in Operation Quick Kick, which covered 15,530 miles
(13,500 nmi, 25,000 km) in 31 hours, 30 minutes. SAC
10.3.1 Introduction
noted the ight time could have been reduced by 5 to
6 hours if the four inight refuelings were done by fast
Although the B-52A was the rst production variant, jet-powered tanker aircraft rather than propeller-driven
these aircraft were used only in testing. The rst oper- Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighters.[119] In a demonstration
ational version was the B-52B that had been developed of the B-52s global reach, from 16 to 18 January 1957,
in parallel with the prototypes since 1951. First ying in three B-52Bs made a non-stop ight around the world
December 1954, B-52B, AF Serial Number 52-8711, enduring Operation Power Flite, during which 24,325 miles
tered operational service with 93rd Heavy Bombardment (21,145 nmi, 39,165 km) was covered in 45 hours 19
Wing (93rd BW) at Castle Air Force Base, California, minutes (536.8 smph) with several in-ight refuelings by
on 29 June 1955. The wing became operational on 12 KC-97s.[120][Note 5]
106
The B-52 set many records over the next few years. On
26 September 1958, a B-52D set a world speed record of
560.705 miles per hour (487 kn, 902 km/h) over a 10,000
kilometers (5,400 nmi, 6,210 mi) closed circuit without
a payload. The same day, another B-52D established a
world speed record of 597.675 miles per hour (519 kn,
962 km/h) over a 5,000 kilometer (2,700 nmi, 3,105
mi) closed circuit without a payload.[80] On 14 December 1960, a B-52G set a world distance record by ying
unrefueled for 10,078.84 miles (8,762 nmi, 16,227 km);
the ight lasted 19 hours 44 minutes (510.75 mph).[121]
From 10 to 11 January 1962, a B-52H set a world distance record by ying unrefueled, surpassing the prior B52 record set two years earlier, from Kadena Air Base,
Okinawa, Japan, to Torrejon Air Base, Spain, which covered 12,532.28 miles (10,895 nmi, 20,177 km).[61] The
ight passed over Seattle, Fort Worth and the Azores.
10.3.2
Cold War
Main article: Cold War

When the B-52 entered into service, the Strategic Air
Command (SAC) intended to use it to deter and counteract the vast and modernizing Soviet military. As the
Soviet Union increased its nuclear capabilities, destroying or countering the forces that would deliver nuclear
strikes (bombers, missiles, etc.) became of great strategic importance.[122] The Eisenhower administration endorsed this switch in focus; the President in 1954 expressing a preference for military targets over those of civilian
ones, a principle reinforced in the Single Integrated Operation Plan (SIOP), a plan of action in the case of nuclear
war breaking out.[123]
of the USs nuclear deterrent, which would act to prevent

the breakout of a large-scale war between the US and the
Soviet Union under the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction.[125]
Due to the late 1950s-era threat of surface-to-air missiles
(SAMs) that could threaten high-altitude aircraft,[126][127]
seen in practice in the 1960 U-2 incident,[128] the intended use of B-52 was changed to serve as a low-level
penetration bomber during a foreseen attack upon the
Soviet Union, as terrain masking provided an eective
method of avoiding radar and thus the threat of the
SAMs.[129] Although never intended for the low level role,
the B-52s exibility allowed it to outlast several intended
successors as the nature of aerial warfare changed. The
B-52s large airframe enabled the addition of multiple
design improvements, new equipment, and other adaptations over its service life.[85]
In November 1959, to improve the aircrafts combat capabilities in the changing strategic environment, SAC initiated the Big Four modication program (also known
as Modication 1000) for all operational B-52s except
early B models.[78][129] The program was completed by
1963.[130] The four modications were the ability to
launch AGM-28 Hound Dog stando nuclear missiles
and ADM-20 Quail decoys, an advanced electronic countermeasures (ECM) suite, and upgrades to perform the
all-weather, low-altitude (below 500 feet or 150 m) interdiction mission in the face of advancing Soviet missilebased air defenses.[130]
In the 1960s, there were concerns over the eets capable
lifespan. Several projects beyond the B-52, the Convair
B-58 Hustler and North American XB-70 Valkyrie, had
either been aborted or proved disappointing in light of
changing requirements, which left the older B-52 as the
main bomber as opposed to the planned successive aircraft models.[131][132] On 19 February 1965, General Curtis E. LeMay testied to Congress that the lack of a
follow-up bomber project to the B-52 raised the danger
that, The B-52 is going to fall apart on us before we can
get a replacement for it.[133] Other aircraft, such as the
General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, later complemented
the B-52 in roles the aircraft was not as capable in, such
as missions involving high-speed, low-level penetration
dashes.[134]
10.3.3 Vietnam War

Southerly route of the "Operation Chrome Dome" airborne nuclear alert
Throughout the Cold War, B-52s and other US strategic bombers performed airborne alert patrols under code
names such as Head Start, Chrome Dome, Hard Head,
Round Robin, and Giant Lance. Bombers loitered at high
altitude near the borders of the Soviet Union to provide
rapid rst strike or retaliation capability in case of nuclear
war.[124] These airborne patrols formed one component
Main article: Vietnam War

With the escalating situation in Southeast Asia, 28 B52Fs were tted with external racks for 24x 750 pound
(340 kg) bombs under project South Bay in June 1964; an
additional 46 aircraft received similar modications under project Sun Bath.[70] In March 1965, the United States
commenced Operation Rolling Thunder. The rst combat mission, Operation Arc Light, was own by B-52Fs
on 18 June 1965, when 30 bombers of the 9th and 441st
107
pound bombs or from 27 to 42 750 pound bombs.[139] The
modication created enough capacity for a total of 60,000
pounds (27,215 kg) in 108 bombs. Thus modied, B52Ds could carry 22,000 pounds (9,980 kg) more than
B-52Fs.[140] Designed to replace B-52Fs, modied B52Ds entered combat in April 1966 ying from Andersen
Air Force Base, Guam. Each bombing mission lasted
10 to 12 hours with an aerial refueling by KC-135 Stratotankers.[49] In spring 1967, the aircraft began ying
from U Tapao Aireld in Thailand giving the aircraft the
advantage of not requiring in-ight refueling.[139]
The B-52s were restricted to bombing suspected Communist bases in relatively uninhabited sections, because their
Soviet specialists inspect the wreckage of the B-52 Stratofortress potency approached that of a tactical nuclear weapon.
shot down near Hanoi 23 December 1972
A formation of six B-52s, dropping their bombs from
30,000 feet, could take out... almost everything within
Bombardment Squadrons struck a communist stronghold a box approximately ve-eights mile wide by two miles
near the Bn Ct District in South Vietnam. The rst long. Whenever Arc Light struck ... in the vicinity of
wave of bombers arrived too early at a designated ren- Saigon, the city woke from the tremor..
dezvous point, and while maneuvering to maintain sta- Neil Sheehan, war correspondent, writing before the mass
tion, two B-52s collided, which resulted in the loss of both attacks to heavily populated cities including North Vietnams
bombers and eight crewmen. The remaining bombers, capital.[141]
minus one more that turned back due to mechanical
problems, continued toward the target.[135] Twenty-seven
Stratofortresses dropped on a one-mile by two-mile tar- On 22 November 1972, a B-52D (55-0110) from Uget box from between 19,000 and 22,000 feet, a little Tapao was hit by a surface-to-air missile (SAM) while
more than 50% of the bombs falling within the target on a raid over Vinh. The crew was forced to abandon the
This was the rst B-52
zone.[136] The force returned to Andersen AFB except damaged aircraft over Thailand.
[142]
destroyed
by
hostile
re.
In
total,
31 B-52s were lost
for one bomber with electrical problems that recovered
during
the
war,
which
included
10
B-52s
shot down over
to Clark AFB, the mission having lasted 13 hours. Post[143]
North
Vietnam.
strike assessment by teams of South Vietnamese troops
with American advisors found evidence that the VC had The zenith of B-52 attacks in Vietnam was Operation
departed the area before the raid, and it was suspected Linebacker II (sometimes referred to as the Christmas
that inltration of the souths forces may have tipped o Bombing) which consisted of waves of B-52s (mostly D
the north because of the ARVN troops involved in the models, but some Gs without jamming equipment and
post-strike inspection.[137]
with a smaller bomb load). Over 12 days, B-52s ew
729 sorties[144] and dropped 15,237 tons of bombs on
Hanoi, Haiphong, and other targets.[87][145] Originally 42
B-52s were committed to the war; however, numbers
were frequently twice this gure.[146] During Operation
Linebacker II, fteen B-52s were shot down, ve were
heavily damaged (one crashed in Laos), and ve suered
medium damage. A total of 25 crewmen were killed in
these losses.[147] North Vietnam claimed 34 B-52s were
shot down.[148]
Air-to-air victories
B-52F releasing its payload of bombs over Vietnam
Beginning in late 1965, a number of B-52Ds underwent Big Belly modications to increase bomb capacity
for carpet bombings.[138] While the external payload remained at 24 500 pound (227 kg) or 750 pound (340 kg)
bombs, the internal capacity increased from 27 to 84 500
During the Vietnam War, B-52D tail gunners were credited with shooting down two MiG-21 Fishbeds. On
18 December 1972, tail gunner Sta Sergeant Samuel
O. Turners B-52 had just completed a bomb run for
Operation Linebacker II and was turning away when a
North Vietnamese Air Force MiG-21 approached.[169]
The MiG and the B-52 locked onto one another. When
the ghter drew within range, Turner red his quad (four
guns on one mounting) .50 caliber machine guns.[170] The
108
MiG exploded aft of the bomber,[169] a victory conrmed

by Master Sergeant Louis E. Le Blanc, the tail gunner in a
nearby Stratofortress. Turner received a Silver Star for his
actions.[171] His B-52, tail number 55-0676, is preserved
on display with air-to-air kill markings at Fairchild AFB
in Spokane, Washington.[169]
On 24 December 1972, during the same bombing campaign, the B-52 Diamond Lil was headed to bomb the
Thi Nguyn railroad yards when tail gunner Airman
First Class Albert E. Moore spotted a fast-approaching
MiG-21.[172] Moore opened re with his quad fties at
4,000 yd (3,700 m), and kept shooting until the ghter
disappeared from his scope. Technical Sergeant Clarence
W. Chute, a tail gunner aboard another Stratofortress,
watched the MiG catch re and fall away. The Diamond
Lil is preserved on display at the United States Air Force
Academy in Colorado.[172] Moore was the last recorded
bomber gunner to shoot down an enemy aircraft with
machine guns in aerial combat.[170] However, these airto-air kills were not conrmed by VPAF.[173]
Vietnamese sources have attributed a third air-to-air victory to a B-52, a MiG-21 shot down on 16 April 1972.[174]
These victories make the B-52 the largest aircraft credited with air-to-air kills.[Note 6] The last Arc Light mission without ghter escort took place on 15 August 1973,
as U.S. military action in Southeast Asia was wound
down.[175]
10.3.4
Post Vietnam service
B-52Bs reached the end of their structural service life by

the mid-1960s and all were retired by June 1966, followed by the last of the B-52Cs on 29 September 1971;
except for NASA's B-52B "008" which was eventually retired in 2004 at Edwards AFB, California.[176] Another of
the remaining B Models, "005" is on display at the Wings
Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum in Denver,
Colorado.[177]
1968, but the bulk (82) were retired between May 1969
and March 1970. Most F models were also retired between 1967 and 1973, but 23 survived as trainers until
late 1978. The eet of D models served much longer; 80
D models were extensively overhauled under the Pacer
Plank program during the mid-1970s.[178] Skinning on
the lower wing and fuselage was replaced, and various
structural components were renewed. The eet of D
models stayed largely intact until late 1978, when 37
not already upgraded Ds were retired.[179] The remainder
were retired between 1982 and 1983.[180]
The remaining G and H models were used for nuclear standby (alert) duty as part of the United States
nuclear triad. This triad was the combination of nucleararmed land-based missiles, submarine-based missiles and
manned bombers. The B-1, intended to supplant the B52, replaced only the older models and the supersonic FB111.[181] In 1991, B-52s ceased continuous 24-hour SAC
alert duty.[182]
After the fall of the Soviet Union, all B-52Gs remaining
in service were destroyed per the terms of the Strategic
Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneraton Center (AMRC) cut the 365 B52G bombers into pieces. Completion of the destruction
task was veried by Russia via satellite and rst-person
inspection at the AMARC facility.[183]
10.3.5 Gulf War and later

See also: Gulf War
B-52 strikes were an important part of Operation Desert
Retired B-52s are stored at the 309th AMARG (formerly

AMARC), a desert storage facility often called the Boneyard
at Davis-Monthan AFB near Tucson, Arizona.[184]
Storm. Starting on 16 January 1991, a ight of B52Gs ew from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, refueled in
the air en route, struck targets in Iraq, and returned
B-52H modied to carry two D-21 drones
home a journey of 35 hours and 14,000 miles round
trip. It set a record for longest-distance combat mission,
A few time-expired E models were retired in 1967 and breaking the record previously held by an RAF Vulcan
109
bomber in 1982; however, this was achieved using forward refueling.[185][186] B-52Gs operating from the King
Abdullah Air Base at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; RAF Fairford in the United Kingdom; Morn Air Base, Spain; and
the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean
Territory ew bombing missions over Iraq, initially at low
altitude. After the rst three nights, the B-52s moved to
high-altitude missions instead, which reduced their eectiveness and psychological impact compared to the low
altitude role initially played.[187]
The conventional strikes were carried out by three
bombers, which dropped up to 153 750-pound bombs
over an area of 1.5 by 1 mi (2.4 by 1.6 km). The bombings demoralized the defending Iraqi troops, many of
whom surrendered in the wake of the strikes.[188] In 1999,
the science and technology magazine Popular Mechanics described the B-52s role in the conict: The Bus
value was made clear during the Gulf War and Desert
Fox. The B-52 turned out the lights in Baghdad.[189]
During Operation Desert Storm, B-52s ew about 1,620
sorties, and delivered 40% of the weapons dropped by
coalition forces.[3]
During the conict, several claims of Iraqi air-to-air successes were made, including an Iraqi pilot, Khudai Hijab, who allegedly red a Vympel R-27R missile from
his MIG-29 and damaged a B-52G on the opening night
of the Gulf War.[190] However, the U.S. Air Force disputes this claim, stating the bomber was actually hit by
friendly re, an AGM-88 High-speed, Anti-Radiation
Missile (HARM) that homed on the re-control radar of
the B-52s tail gun; the jet was subsequently renamed In
HARMs Way.[191] Shortly following this incident, General George Lee Butler announced that the gunner position on B-52 crews would be eliminated, and the gun turrets permanently deactivated, commencing on 1 October
1991.[192]
A B-52H Stratofortress of the 2d Bomb Wing takes o from

Andersen Air Force Base, Guam
An additional B-52H is controlled by NASA as part

of the Heavy-lift Airborne Launch program.[194]
On 24 March 1999, when Operation Allied Force began, B-52 bombers bombarded Serb targets throughout
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, including during the
Battle of Kosare.[195]
The B-52 contributed to Operation Enduring Freedom in
2001 (Afghanistan/Southwest Asia), providing the ability to loiter high above the battleeld and provide Close
Air Support (CAS) through the use of precision guided
munitions, a mission which previously would have been
restricted to ghter and ground attack aircraft.[196] In late
2001, ten B-52s dropped a third of the bomb tonnage in
Afghanistan.[197] B-52s also played a role in Operation
Iraqi Freedom, which commenced on 20 March 2003
(Iraq/Southwest Asia). On the night of 21 March 2003,
B-52Hs launched at least one hundred AGM-86C CALCMs at targets within Iraq.[198]
In August 2007, a B-52H ferrying AGM-129 ACM
cruise missiles from Minot Air Force Base to Barksdale Air Force Base for dismantling was mistakenly
loaded with six missiles with their nuclear warheads. The
weapons did not leave USAF custody and were secured
at Barksdale.[199][200]
From 2 to 3 September 1996, two B-52H bombers conducted a mission as part of Operation Desert Strike.
The B-52s struck Baghdad power stations and communications facilities with 13 AGM-86C conventional airlaunched cruise missiles (CALCM) during a 34-hour,
As of January 2013, 78 of the original 744 B-52 aircraft
16,000-mile round trip mission from Andersen AFB,
were operational in the U.S. Air Force.[201] Four of 18 BGuam the longest distance ever own for a combat
52Hs from Barksdale AFB being retired are in the bonemission.[193]
yard of 309th AMARG at Davis-Monthan AFB as of 8
Since the mid-1990s, the B-52H has been the only vari- September 2008.[202]
ant remaining in military service;[Note 7] it is currently stationed at:
10.3.6 Continued service
Minot Air Force Base, ND 5th Bomb Wing
B-52s are periodically refurbished at USAF maintenance

[203]
Barksdale Air Force Base, LA 2nd Bomb Wing depots such as Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma.
(active Air Force) & 307th Bomb Wing (Air Force Even while the air force works on its Next-Generation
Bomber and 2037 Bomber projects, it intends to keep the
Reserve Command)
B-52H in service until 2045, nearly 90 years after the B One B-52H is assigned to Edwards Air Force Base 52 rst entered service, an unprecedented length of serand is used by Air Force Material Command at the vice for any aircraft, civilian or military.[3][204][205][Note 8]
Air Force Flight Test Center.
The USAF continues to rely on the B-52 because it re-
110
mains an eective and economical heavy bomber, particularly in the type of missions that have been conducted since the end of the Cold War against nations that
have limited air defense capabilities. The B-52 has the
capacity to "loiter" for extended periods over (or even
well outside) the battleeld, and deliver precision stando and direct re munitions. It has been a valuable asset
in supporting ground operations during conicts such as
Operation Iraqi Freedom.[207] The B-52 had the highest
mission capable rate of the three types of heavy bombers
operated by the USAF in 2001. The B-1 averaged a
53.7% ready rate and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
achieved 30.3%, while the B-52 averaged 80.5% during
the 20002001 period.[184] The B-52s $72,000 cost per
hour of ight is more than the B-1Bs $63,000 cost per
hour, but less than the B-2s $135,000 per hour.[208]
JASSM-ER and the ADM-160C MALD-J. All 1760 IWBUs should be online by October 2017. As opposed to
three B-52s carrying 36 weapons, two bombers will have
the ability to carry 40 weapons, lowering the number of
crews and amounts of fuel needed for a mission, and
gives the option of putting more weapons on target with
the same number of aircraft.[214] The 1760 IWBU allows
precision-guided weapons to be deployed from inside the
weapons bay, increasing the number of guided weapons a
B-52 can carry and reducing the need for guided bombs to
be carried externally on wing hardpoints. The rst phase
will allow a B-52 to carry 24 500-pound JDAMs or 20
2,000-pound JDAMs, with later phases accommodating
the JASSM and MALD family of missiles.[215] In addition to carrying more smart bombs, moving them internally from the wings results in a 15 percent fuel savings
[216]
Additionally, a proposed variant of the B-52H was the and greater range from less drag.
EB-52. This version would have modied and augmented The Long Range Strike Bomber program is expected to
16 B-52H airframes with additional electronic jamming yield a stealthy B-52 and B-1 successor that would begin
capabilities.[209][210] This new aircraft would have given service in the 2020s. Two competitors, Northrop Grumthe USAF an airborne jamming capability that it has man and a joint team of Boeing and Lockheed Martin,
lacked since retiring the EF-111 Raven. The program submitted proposals in 2014. A contract to the winning
was canceled in 2005 following the removal of funds for team will be awarded in mid-2015. About 80100 airthe stand-o jammer. The program was revived in 2007, craft will be produced.[217]
but funding was again cut in early 2009.[211]
In 2012, it was announced that USAF engineering studies
suggest that the lifespan of the B-52 could extend beyond
2040.[212]
In July 2013, the Air Force began a eet-wide technological upgrade of its B-52 bombers called Combat Network
Communications Technology (CONECT) to modernize
electronics, communications technology, computing, and
avionics on the ight deck. CONECT upgrades include
software and hardware such as new servers, modems, radios, data-links, receivers, and digital workstations for
the crew. One piece is the ARC-210 Warrior beyondline-of-sight software programmable radio able to transmit voice, data, and information in-ight between B-52s
and ground command and control centers, allowing for
the transmission and receipt of data with updated intelligence, mapping, or targeting information; previous inight target changes required copying down coordinates,
while the ARC-210 allows machine-to-machine transfer
of data, useful on long-endurance missions where targets
may have changed locations when the B-52 was traveling.
The aircraft will be able to receive information through
Link-16. CONECT upgrades will cost $1.1 billion overall and take several years. Funding has been secured for
30 B-52s and the Air Force hopes for 10 CONECT upgrades per year, but the rate has yet to be determined.[213]
10.4 Variants
The B-52 went through several design changes and variants over its 10 years of production.[110]
XB-52 Two prototype aircraft with limited operational
equipment, used for aerodynamic and handling tests
YB-52 One XB-52 modied with some operational
equipment and re-designated
B-52A Only three of the rst production version, the

B-52A, were built, all loaned to Boeing for ight
testing.[49] The rst production B-52A diered from
prototypes in having a redesigned forward fuselage.
The bubble canopy and tandem seating was replaced
by a side-by-side arrangement and a 21 in (53 cm)
nose extension accommodated more avionics and a
new sixth crew member.[Note 9] In the rear fuselage,
a tail turret with four 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) machine
guns with a re-control system, and a water injection
system to augment engine power with a 360 US gallon (1,363 L) water tank were added. The aircraft
also carried a 1,000 US gallon (3,785 L) external
fuel tank under each wing. The tanks damped wing
utter and also kept wingtips close to the ground for
Weapons upgrades include the 1760 Internal Weapons
ease of maintenance.[218]
Bay Upgrade (IWBU), which gives a 66 percent increase
in carriage capability using a digital interface and rotary
launcher to increase the weapons payload. The IWBU
eort is expected to cost roughly $313 million.[213] The NB-52A The last B-52A (serial 52-0003) was modied and redesignated NB-52A in 1959 to carry the
1760 IWBU will allow the B-52 to carry the AGM-158B
North American X-15. A pylon was tted under the
10.4. VARIANTS
111
(the crew was increased to eight in these
aircraft).[49] The 300 pound (136 kg) pod contained radio receivers, a combination of K-36,
K-38, and T-11 cameras, and two operators on
downward-ring ejection seats. The pod required only four hours to install.[116]
Seven B-52Bs were brought to B-52C standard
under Project Sunower.[221]
NB-52A carrying an X-15
NB-52B The NB-52B was B-52B number 52-0008 converted to an X-15 launch platform. It subsequently
ew as the "Balls 8" in support of NASA research
until 17 December 2004, making it the oldest ying
B-52B. It was replaced by a modied B-52H.[222]
right wing between the fuselage and the inboard engines with a 6 feet x 8 feet (1.8 m x 2.4 m) section B-52C The B-52Cs fuel capacity (and range) was inremoved from the right wing ap to t the X-15 tail.
creased to 41,700 US gallons by adding larger 3000
Liquid oxygen and hydrogen peroxide tanks were
US gallon underwing fuel tanks. The gross weight
installed in the bomb bays to fuel the X-15 before
was increased by 30,000 pounds (13,605 kg) to
launch. Its rst ight with the X-15 was on 19 March
450,000 pounds. A new re control system, the
1959, with the rst launch on 8 June 1959. The NBMD-9, was introduced on this model.[141] The belly
52A, named The High and Mighty One carried the
of the aircraft was painted with antiash white paint,
X-15 on 93 of the programs 199 ights.[219]
which was intended to reect thermal radiation away
after a nuclear detonation.[223]
RB-52C The RB-52C was the designation initially given
to B-52Cs tted for reconnaissance duties in a similar manner to RB-52Bs. As all 35 B-52Cs could
be tted with the reconnaissance pod, the RB52C designation was little used and was quickly
abandoned.[223]
NASAs NB-52B Balls 8 (lower) and its replacement B-52H on

the ight line at Edwards Air Force Base in 2004
B-52B/RB-52B
The B-52B was the rst version to enter service with
the USAF on 29 June 1955 with the 93rd Bombard- B-52D dropping 500-lb bombs
ment Wing at Castle AFB in California.[218] This version included minor changes to engines and avionics,
enabling an extra 12,000 pounds of thrust using water B-52D The B-52D was a dedicated long-range bomber
injection.[220] Temporary grounding of the aircraft after
without a reconnaissance option. The Big Belly
a crash in February 1956 and again the following July
modications allowed the B-52D to carry heavy
caused training delays, and at mid-year there were still
loads of conventional bombs for carpet bombing
no combat-ready B-52 crews.[116]
over Vietnam,[220] while the Rivet Rambler modication added the Phase V ECM systems, which
Of the 50 B-52Bs built, 27 were capable of
was better than the systems used on most later Bcarrying a reconnaissance pod as RB-52Bs
52s. Because of these upgrades and its long range
112

capabilities, the D model was used more extensively in Vietnam than any other model.[141] Aircraft assigned to Vietnam were painted in a camouage colour scheme with black bellies to defeat
searchlights.[68]
B-52E The B-52E received an updated avionics and

bombing navigational system, which was eventually
debugged and included on following models.[220]
One E aircraft (AF Serial No. 56-0631) was
modied as a testbed for various B-52 systems. Redesignated NB-52E, the aircraft was
tted with canards and a Load Alleviation and
Mode Stabilization system (LAMS) which reduced airframe fatigue from wind gusts during low level ight. In one test, the aircraft
ew 10 knots (11.5 mph, 18.5 km/h) faster
than the never exceed speed without damage
because the canards eliminated 30% of vertical and 50% of horizontal vibrations caused by
wind gusts.[224]
were eliminated. Instead, spoilers provided roll control. The tail n was shortened by 8 feet (2.4 m),
water injection system capacity was increased to
1,200 US gallons (4,540 L), and the nose radome
was enlarged.[226] The tail gunner manning the 4
.50 caliber machine guns (quad mounted in a remote controlled tail turret on the G-model (ASG15), the guns were later removed from all operational aircraft) was relocated to the main cockpit and
was provided with an ejection seat.[225] Dubbed the
Battle Station concept, the oensive crew (pilot
and copilot on the upper deck and the two bombing navigation system operators on the lower deck)
faced forward, while the defensive crew (tail gunner
and ECM operator) on the upper deck faced aft.[141]
The B-52G entered service on 13 February 1959 (a
day earlier, the last B-36 was retired, making SAC
an all-jet bomber force). 193 B-52Gs were produced, making this the most produced B-52 variant.
Most B-52Gs were destroyed in compliance with the
1992 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty; the last B52G, number 58-0224, was dismantled under New
START treaty requirements in December 2013.[227]
A few examples remain on display for museums.[228]
B-52F This aircraft was given J57-P-43W engines with

a larger capacity water injection system to provide
greater thrust than previous models.[220] This model B-52H The B-52H had the same crew and structural
changes as the B-52G. The most signicant upgrade
had problems with fuel leaks which were eventually
was the switch to TF33-P-3 turbofan engines which,
solved by several service modications: Blue Band,
despite the initial reliability problems (corrected by
Hard Shell, and QuickClip.[82]
1964 under the Hot Fan program), oered considerably better performance and fuel economy than the
J57 turbojets.[141][226] The ECM and avionics were
updated, a new re control system was tted, and
the rear defensive armament was changed from machine guns to a 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon (later
removed in 199194).[225] The nal 18 aircraft were
manufactured with provision for the ADR-8 countermeasures rocket, which was later retrotted to the
remainder of the B-52G and B-52H eet.[229] A provision was made for four GAM-87 Skybolt ballistic
missiles. The aircrafts rst ight occurred on 10
B-52G on static display at Langley Air Force Base in Hampton,
July 1960, and it entered service on 9 May 1961.
Virginia
This is the only variant still operational. A total of
102 B-52Hs were built. The last production aircraft,
B-52H AF Serial No. 61-0040, left the factory on
B-52G The B-52G was proposed to extend the B-52s
26 October 1962.[230]
service life during delays in the B-58 Hustler program. At rst, a radical redesign was envisioned
with a completely new wing and Pratt & Whit- XR-16A Allocated to the reconnaissance variant of the
ney J75 engines. This was rejected to avoid slowB-52B but not used and the aircraft were designated
downs in production, although a large number of
RB-52B instead.[231]
changes were implemented.[220] The most signicant of these was the brand-new wet wing with
integral fuel tanks which considerably increased
the fuel capacity; gross aircraft weight went up by 10.5 Operators
38,000 pounds (17,235 kg) compared with prior
variants. In addition, a pair of 700 US gallon Main article: List of B-52 Units of the United States Air
(2,650 L) external fuel tanks was tted under the Force
wings.[225] In this model, the traditional ailerons
10.6. NOTABLE ACCIDENTS

United States
NASA
United States Air Force
Air Combat Command
57th Wing Nellis AFB, Nevada
340th Weapons Squadron (Barksdale)
Global Strike Command
2d Bomb Wing Barksdale AFB, Louisiana
11th Bomb Squadron
20th Bomb Squadron
96th Bomb Squadron
5th Bomb Wing Minot AFB, North Dakota
23d Bomb Squadron
69th Bomb Squadron
Air Force Materiel Command
412th Test Wing Edwards AFB, California
113
On 11 February 1958, a B-52D crashed in South
Dakota because of ice blocking the fuel system,
leading to an uncommanded reduction in power
to all eight engines. Three crew members were
killed.[233]
On 8 September 1958, two B-52s collided in midair
near Fairchild AFB, Washington; all 13 crew members on the 2 aircraft are killed [234]
On 15 October 1959, a B-52 from the 492d Bomb
Squadron at Columbus AFB, Mississippi carrying 2
nuclear weapons collided in midair with a KC-135
tanker near Hardinsburg, Kentucky; 4 of the 8 crew
members on the bomber and all 4 crew on the tanker
were killed. One of the nuclear bombs was damaged
by re but both weapons were recovered.[234]
On 10 August 1959, a B-52 crashed in the Spruce
Swamp at Fremont, New Hampshire. The bomber
was on a routine training mission from Chicopee,
Mass., when its air speed indicator and altimeter
failed, which led to more serious malfunctions. The
B-52 was attempting to make an emergency landing
at Goose Bay, the only landing option not aected
by foggy weather conditions. However, it crashed
before making the landing. The U.S. Air Force reported that it was the rst B-52 crash where the entire crew survived; the crew parachuted to safety.
Debris from the crash covered a quarter-mile of
densely wooded swampland.[235]
419th Flight Test Squadron

Air Force Reserve Command
307th Bomb Wing (Associate) Barksdale AFB,
LA
93d Bomb Squadron
343d Bomb Squadron

See also: Category:Accidents and incidents involving
the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
On 10 January 1957, a B-52 returning to Loring
Air Force Base from a routine instrument training mission broke apart in midair and crashed near
Morrell, New Brunswick, killing eight of the nine
crew on board. Co-pilot Captain Joseph L. Church
parachuted to safety. The crash was believed to have
been caused by overstressing the wings and/or airframe during an exercise designed to test the pilots
reexes. This was the fourth crash involving a B-52
in 11 months.[232]
On 24 January 1961, a B-52G broke up in midair

and crashed after suering a severe fuel loss, near
Goldsboro, North Carolina, dropping two nuclear
bombs in the process without detonation.[236]
On 14 March 1961, a B-52F from Mather AFB[237]
carrying two nuclear weapons experienced an
uncontrolled decompression, necessitating a descent
to 10,000 feet to lower the cabin altitude. Increased
fuel consumption at the lower altitude and unable
to rendezvous with a tanker in time, the aircraft
ran out of fuel. The crew ejected safely, while the
unmanned bomber crashed 15 miles (24 km) west
of Yuba City, California.[238]
On 7 April 1961, B-52B (53-0380) was accidentally
shot down by a New Mexico Air National Guard
F-100 on an intercept training mission. The F100 was carrying live missiles whose launch capability was supposed to be disabled, but a wiring fault
caused one of them to re and strike the bombers
left wing. The aircraft crashed near Mount Taylor, killing three of the eight crew members on
board.[239]
On 24 January 1963, a B-52C on a training mission out of Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts,
114

men ejected successfully before the aircraft crashed
near Cumberland, Maryland.[244] Two crewmen
subsequently perished on the ground because of
hypothermia, while another, who was unable to
eject, died in the aircraft; both weapons were recovered. This was one of several incidents caused by
failure of the vertical stabilizer.[245]
On 17 January 1966, a fatal collision occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over
Palomares, Spain. The two unexploded B-28 FI
1.45-megaton-range nuclear bombs on the B-52
were eventually recovered; the conventional explosives of two more bombs detonated on impact, with
serious dispersion of both plutonium and uranium,
but without triggering a nuclear explosion. After the
crash, 1,400 metric tons (3,100,000 lb) of contaminated soil was sent to the United States.[246] In 2006,
an agreement was made between the U.S. and Spain
to investigate and clean the pollution still remaining
as a result of the accident.[247]
MK 39 nuclear bomb after the January 1961 Goldsboro B-52

crash. The weapons parachute deployed, resulting in a soft landing and recovery of the weapon intact. Five of the six stages of
the arming sequence had completed.
lost its vertical stabilizer due to bueting during lowlevel ight, and crashed on the west side of Elephant
Mountain near Greenville, Maine. Of the nine crewmen aboard, two survived the crash.[240][241]
On 30 January 1963, a B-52E of the 6th Bomb Wing
from Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico, crashed
in snow-covered mountains in northern New Mexico
after turbulence tore o the vertical n. The ECM
operator and tail gunner were killed but at least
three crew (pilot, radio operator and one other crew
member) survived. Three Lockheed T-33 Shooting Stars and, later, three Douglas C-54 Skymaster
transports, circled the area trying to locate survivors;
the pilots reported that they saw two other survivors
after the rst man walked to safety.
On 10 January 1964, a B-52H own by Boeing test
pilots lost its vertical stabilizer to turbulence near
East Spanish Peak. It was able to land at Blytheville
Air Force Base.[242][243]
On 13 January 1964, a B-52D carrying two nuclear bombs suered a structural failure in ight
that caused the tail section to shear o. Four crew-
On 18 November 1966, a B-52G Serial No. 580228 deployed from Barksdale Air Force Base
crashed and was destroyed when it ew into the
ground in swampland south of Stone Lake, Sawyer
County, Wisconsin. The crew was on a low level terrain avoidance night mission, before SAC stopped
such ights, and had just entered low altitude and
were calibrating their terrain avoidance radar, when
they ew too low, clipped the tops of the forest and
crashed.[248][249]
On 8 July 1967, B-52D AF Serial No. 56-0601
overran the runway due to loss of brakes during an
emergency landing at Da Nang Air Base, Vietnam
with the loss of ve of her six crew. The aircraft
had suered an electrical malfunction that led to the
ameout of two engines.[250]
On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four nuclear bombs aboard as part of Operation Chrome
Dome, crashed on the ice of the North Star Bay
while attempting an emergency landing at Thule
Air Base, Greenland.[251] The resulting re caused
extensive radioactive contamination, the cleanup
(Project Crested Ice) lasting until September of that
year.[246] Following closely on the Palomares incident, the cleanup costs and political consequences
proved too high to risk again, so SAC ended the airborne alert program the following day.[252][253]
On 3 April 1970 a B-52D assigned to the 28th
Bomb Wing caught re and crashed while landing at
Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota; sliding to a halt and
burning atop a 25,000 gallon fuel storage tank. Efforts by re department personnel saved the 9 man
crew and prevented a catastrophic explosion of the
fuel tank.[234]
10.7. SURVIVORS
115
On 31 March 1972, B-52D, AF Serial No. 560625, departed McCoy Air Force Base, Florida on
a routine training mission. Assigned to the 306th
Bombardment Wing, the unarmed aircraft sustained
multiple engine failures and engine res on engines
No.7 and No.8 shortly after takeo. The aircraft
immediately attempted to return to the base, but
crashed just short of Runway 18R in a residential area of Orlando, Florida, approximately 1 mile
north of McCoy AFB, destroying or damaging eight
homes. The ight crew of 7 airmen and 1 civilian on
the ground were killed.[254]
On 30 July 1972, B-52D, AF Serial No. 56-0677,
assigned to the 307th Strategic Bomb Wing, operating out of U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Aireld on a
combat mission as part of Operation Linebacker was
hit by lightning. The strike knocked out the planes
instruments and started a re on the port wing. Five
of the six crewmen were killed in the crash[255]
On 30 October 1981, B-52D, AF Serial No. 55078, assigned to the 22d Bomb Wing, March AFB,
CA, impacted the ground nine miles east of La
Junta, CO during a night low-level training mission.
All eight crew members on board were killed (six
crew and two maintainers). Sortie departed March
AFB with a planned recovering at Carswell AFB,
TX.[256]
B-52H 61-0026 Czar 52 seconds before crashing during practice

for an airshow on 24 June 1994. The copilots escape hatch,
detached during the incomplete ejection sequence, can be seen
near the tip of the vertical stabilizer.
while returning from a bombing mission in Iraq during the Persian Gulf War. The crash was eventually blamed on a catastrophic failure of the aircrafts
electrical system. Three of the six crew members on
board were killed.[260][261]
On 24 June 1994, B-52H Czar 52, AF Serial
No. 61-0026 crashed at Fairchild Air Force Base,
Washington, during practice for an airshow. All four
crew members died in the accident.[262]
On 16 December 1982, B-52G, AF Serial No. 576482, assigned to 328th BS, 93rd BW, Castle AFB,
On 21 July 2008, a B-52H, Raidr 21, AF SeCA, was participating in a Minimum Interval Takerial No. 60-0053, deployed from Barksdale Air
O (MITO; 12 seconds between each aircraft on
Force Base, Louisiana to Andersen Air Force Base,
takeo) from Mather AFB, CA. The incident airGuam crashed approximately 25 miles (40 km) o
craft was in the number two position of a three ship
the coast of Guam. All six crew members were
cell. The B-52G was equipped with water injection
killed (ve standard crew members and a ight surto give additional thrust on take-o. The lead air[263]
geon).
craft was dry and did not utilize thrust agumentation. The incident aircraft was wet and did use
the thrust augmentation system. During the take-o,
the incident aircraft rapidly started to overtake the 10.7 Survivors
lead aircraft. The incident aircraft pilot retarded the
throttles rapidly causing ameout of four engines. See also: List of displayed Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
The aircraft then stalled leading to impact with the
ground. Nine crew members were killed. There
There are many B-52s still in use and others on static diswere no fatalities on the ground.[257]
play at USAF bases and museums around the world.
On 16 October 1984, B-52G, AF Serial No. 576479, assigned to the 92d Bomb Wing, Fairchild
10.8 Specications (B-52H)
AFB, WA, clipped its wing on Hunts Mesa, an
outcropping in Monument Valley, Arizona, and
[264]
USAF fact sheet,[3] Quest for
crashed, sending a reball high into the air. Two Data from Knaack,
[265]
of the seven crew perished in the crash, including Performance
Col. William Ivy, the wings deputy commander for General characteristics
operations.[258][259]
On 2 February 1991, B-52G Hulk 46, assigned to
the 4300th Bomb Wing (Provisional), Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) crashed
Crew: 5 (pilot, copilot, Weapon Systems Ocer,

navigator, Electronic Warfare Ocer, and tail gunner until the removal of the tail gun in 1991)
116

Zero-lift drag coecient: 0.0119 (estimated)
Drag area: 47.60 sq ft (4.42 m)
Aspect ratio: 8.56
Performance
Maximum speed: 560 kn (650 mph, 1,047 km/h)
Cruise speed: 442 kn (525 mph, 844 km/h)
Combat radius: 4,480 mi (3,890 nmi, 7,210 km)
Ferry range: 10,145 mi (8,764 nmi, 16,232 km)
B-52H prole

Wing loading: 120 lb/ft (586 kg/m)
Thrust/weight: 0.31
Lift-to-drag ratio: 21.5 (estimated)
Armament
Boeing B-52H static display with weapons, Barksdale AFB 2006.

A second B-52H can be seen in ight in the background
Length: 159 ft 4 in (48.5 m)

Wingspan: 185 ft 0 in (56.4 m)
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61 Vulcan cannon

originally mounted in a remote controlled tail turret on the H-model, removed from all current operational aircraft in 1991
Bombs: Approximately 70,000 lb (31,500 kg)
mixed ordnance; bombs, mines, missiles, in various
congurations
Wing area: 4,000 sq ft (370 m)
Airfoil: NACA 63A219.3 mod root, NACA
65A209.5 tip
Powerplant: 8 Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3/103
turbofans, 17,000 lbf (76 kN) each
Fuel capacity: 47,975 U.S. gal (39,948 imp gal;
181,610 L)
Avionics
Electro-optical viewing system that uses platinum

silicide forward looking infrared and high resolution
low-light-level television sensors
ADR-8 cha rocket (1965-1970)[229]
LITENING Advanced Targeting System[266]
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod[267]
IBM AP-101 computer[88]
10.11. REFERENCES
117

Main article: B-52 Stratofortress in ction
The B-52 has been featured in a number of major lms,
most notably: Bombers B-52 (1957),[268] A Gathering of
Eagles (1963),[269] Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned
to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964),[270] and
By Dawns Early Light (1990).[271] It has also been featured in numerous novels, such as most of the early
Patrick McLanahan novels by Dale Brown, which feature one or more heavily modied B-52 bombers, nicknamed the EB-52 Megafortress.[272] A 1960s hairstyle,
the beehive, is also called a B-52 for its resemblance to
the aircrafts distinct nose.[273] The popular band The B52s was subsequently named after this hairstyle.[273]
10.10 See also
[2] Other aircraft with similarly long service include the

English Electric Canberra, Tupolev Tu-95, Lockheed C130 Hercules, Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, Lockheed P3 Orion and Lockheed U-2.[7][8][9][10]
[3] Quote:"Designing the B-29 had required 153,000 engineering hours; the B-52, 3,000,000.[53]
[4] The Have Nap missile, carried only by the B-52, enabled
stand-o attacks on targets while maintaining a man-inthe-loop guidance system capability.[98][99]
[5] The 93rd Bomb Wing received the Mackay Trophy for accomplishing their round-the-world non-stop ight in January 1957.[118]
[6] The following military aircraft are the only aircraft larger
than the B-52 in some manner (parameter listed in parenthesis may not be the only gure that exceeds the corresponding parameter of the B-52) and possess an air-toair capability; none has a combat kill: B-36 Peacemaker
(wingspan), Convair YB-60 (wingspan), Ilyushin Il-76D
(payload).
[7] A B-52B, Balls 8, was in use by NASA, a civilian US government entity, until 17 December 2004.
Related development
Boeing B-47 Stratojet
[8] At least one B-52 aviators father and grandfather also ew

the bomber.[206]
Conroy Virtus
[9] The electronic warfare ocer sat behind the pilot facing
to the rear.[218]
10.11.2 Citations
Avro Vulcan
Convair B-36
[1] Knaack 1988, p. 291.
Convair YB-60
[2] Knaack 1988, p. 241.
Handley Page Victor
[3] Fact Sheet: B-52 Stratofortress. United States Air Force,

20 September 2005. Retrieved: 11 August 2013.
Myasishchev M-4
Tupolev Tu-95
[4] Fact Sheet: B-52 Superfortress. Minot Air Force Base,

United States Air Force, October 2005. Retrieved: 12
January 2009.
Vickers Valiant
[5] BUF. Wordorigins.org. Retrieved: 3 November 2009.

[6] Flynn 1997, p. 138.
Related lists
[7] " (Return of the Flying Bear) in Russian. Lenta. 3 November 2009.
List of bomber aircraft

Accidents and incidents involving the B-52
[8] RAAF C-130 Hercules 50 Years of Outstanding Service. defenseworld.net, 3 November 2008.
[9] Lombardi, Michael. The rst KC-135 tanker aircraft
rolled out 50 years ago this month. Boeing, July 2006.
10.11 References
[10] Karl, Jonathan. So high, so fast. ABC News, 17 August

2007. Retrieved: 3 November 2009.
10.11.1
[11] Greenwood 1995, p. 201.
Notes
[1] Fellow
is
substituted
for
Fucker
bowdlerized/sanitized versions of the acronym.[6]
in
[12] Knaack 1988, pp. 206207.

[13] Knaack 1988, p. 207.
118
[14] Knaack 1988, pp. 207208.
[45] Knaack 1988, pp. 217219.
[15] Tagg 2004, p. 19.
[46] Knaack 1988, p. 219.
[16] Tagg 2004, p. 21.
[47] Knaack 1988, p. 221.
[17] Knaack 1988, p. 208.
[48] Cooke 1956, pp. 2428.
[18] Tagg 2004, p. 22.
[49] Donald 1997, pp. 161162.
[19] Tagg 2004, p. 23.
[50] The Boeing Logbook: 19521956 15 April 1952. Boeing. Retrieved: 13 August 2009.
[20] Knaack 1988, p. 209.

[21] Tagg 2004, p. 30.
[22] Tagg 2004, p. 34.
[23] Knaack 1988, p. 210.
[24] Knaack 1988, pp. 210211.
[25] Knaack 1988, p. 212.
[26] Tagg 2004, pp. 3536.
[27] Tagg 2004, pp. 3639.
[28] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 18002014. Federal
Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27,
2014.
[29] Tagg 2004 pp. 4044.
[30] Simonsen, Erik. Dueling bombers: Boeings YB-52 beat
out Convairs YB-60and continues to serve. Boeing
Frontiers, June 2006. Retrieved: 17 July 2010.
[31] Knaack 1988, p. 213.
[32] Tagg 2004, pp. 4547.
[33] Tagg 2004, pp. 4445.
[34] Knaack 1988, pp. 214215.
[35] Baugher, Joe. Origin of the B-52. USAF Bombers:
American Military Aircraft, 30 June 2000. Retrieved: 9
August 2011.
[36] Mandeles, Dr. Mark D. The Development of the B-52
and Jet Propulsion; A Case Study in Organizational Innovation. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Air University Press,
March 1998. LCCN 98014703
[37] B-52 Design: Dayton Hotel Birthplace of Jet-powered
Bomber. Boeing, 11 April 2002. Retrieved: 3 August
2011.
[38] Tagg 2004, pp. 4850.
[39] Tagg 2004, pp. 5859.
[40] Knaack 1998, pp. 215216.
[41] Tagg 2004, p. 57.
[42] Knaack 1988, pp. 217218.
[43] Tagg 2004, p. 60.
[44] Knaack 1988, p. 218.
[51] Knaack 1988, p. 222.

[52] Tagg 2004, p. 82.
[53] Knaack 1988, p. 227.
[54] Knaack 1988, p. 229.
[55] Knaack 1988, p. 230.
[56] Knaack 1988, p. 247.
[57] Knaack 1988, p. 258.
[58] Knaack 1988, p. 262.
[59] Knaack 1988, p. 269.
[60] Knaack 1988, p. 280.
[61] Knaack 1988, p. 289.
[62] Tagg 2004, p. 85.
[63] Knaack 1988, pp. 229230.
[64] Tagg 2004, p. 5.
[65] Gunston Flight 1957, p. 776.
[66] Lake International Air Power Review Spring 2003, pp.
117121.
[67] Bowers 1989, p. 379.
[68] Lake International Air Power Review Summer 2003, pp.
100101.
[69] Lake International Air Power Review Summer 2003, p.
102.
[70] Lake International Air Power Review Summer 2003, p.
103.
[71] Gunston Flight 1957, p. 778.
[72] Lake International Air Power Review, Summer 2003, p.
101.
[73] Eden 2004, p. 71.
[74] Tegler 2000, p. xiii.
[75] Tegler 2000, pp. 8485.
[76] Higham 2005, pp. 4344.
[77] Tinker, Frank A. Who Will Bell the Invisible CAT?"
Popular Mechanics, August 1969, pp. 9497.
10.11. REFERENCES
[78] Tagg 2004, p. 87.

[79] Knaack 1988, pp. 254255.
[80] Knaack 1988, p. 259.
[81] Knaack 1988, pp. 276277.
[82] Knaack 1988, pp. 266267.
119
[107] Defense Science Board Task Force on B-52H ReEngining. Oce of the Under Secretary of Defense. Retrieved: 10 July 2010.
[108] Sweetman, Bill. B-52 Re-engine resurfaces as USAF
reviews studies. Aviation Week, 10 October 2014, Retrieved: 16 October 2014.
[109]
[83] Zamorano, Marti, B-52 synthetic fuel testing: Center
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10.12 External links

USAF B-52 Fact Sheet
B-52 page on GlobalSecurity.com
B-52 Stratofortress history on fas.org
B-52 prole on AerospaceWeb.org
Analysis of Fairchild AFB crash
B-52 Stratofortress Association website
Boeing B-52 - the Strategic Stratofortress a 1957
Flight article by Bill Gunston
Chapter 11
Boeing C-17 Globemaster III

For other aircraft with this designation, see C-17 (disambiguation).
The Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is a large military
transport aircraft. It was developed for the United States
Air Force (USAF) from the 1980s to the early 1990s by
McDonnell Douglas. The C-17 carries forward the name
of two previous piston-engined military cargo aircraft,
the Douglas C-74 Globemaster and the Douglas C-124
Globemaster II. The C-17 commonly performs strategic
airlift missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout
the world; additional roles include tactical airlift, medical
evacuation and airdrop duties.
Boeing, which merged with McDonnell Douglas in the
1990s, continued to manufacture C-17s for export customers following the end of deliveries to the U.S. Air
Force. Aside from the United States, the C-17 is in service with the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Qatar,
United Arab Emirates, NATO Heavy Airlift Wing, India,
and Kuwait. The nal C-17 was completed in May 2015.
11.1 Development
11.1.1
Background and design phase
In the 1970s, the U.S. Air Force began looking for a

replacement for its Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical
cargo aircraft.[3] The Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the
YC-15.[4] Though both entrants exceeded specied requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before
a winner was selected. The Air Force started the C-X
program in November 1979 to develop a larger AMST
with longer range to augment its strategic airlift.[5]
The McDonnell Douglas YC-15 design was used as the basis for
the C-17.
the YC-15; Boeing bid an enlarged three-engine version

of its AMST YC-14. Lockheed submitted two designs, a
C-5-based design and an enlarged C-141 design. On 28
August 1981, McDonnell Douglas was chosen to build
its proposed aircraft, then designated C-17. Compared
to the YC-15, the new aircraft diered in having swept
wings, increased size, and more powerful engines.[6] This
would allow it to perform the work done by the C-141,
and also fulll some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5
Galaxy, freeing the C-5 eet for outsize cargo.[6]
Alternate proposals were pursued to ll airlift needs after the C-X contest. These were lengthening of C-141As
into C-141Bs, ordering more C-5s, continued purchases
of KC-10s, and expansion of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet.
Limited budgets reduced program funding, requiring a
delay of four years. During this time contracts were
awarded for preliminary design work and for the completion of engine certication.[7] In December 1985, a
full-scale development contract was awarded.[8] At this
[7]
Air Force
By 1980, the USAF found itself with a large eet of ag- time, rst ight was planned for 1990. The
[9]
had
formed
a
requirement
for
210
aircraft.
ing C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, USAF needed increased strategic airlift capabilities Development problems and limited funding caused deto fulll its rapid-deployment airlift requirements. The lays in the late 1980s.[10] Criticisms were made of the
USAF set mission requirements and released a request developing aircraft and questions were raised about more
for proposals (RFP) for C-X in October 1980. McDon- cost-eective alternatives during this time.[11][12] In April
nell Douglas elected to develop a new aircraft based on 1990, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced the or125
126
CHAPTER 11. BOEING C-17 GLOBEMASTER III
der from 210 to 120 aircraft.[13] The maiden ight of the

C-17 took place on 15 September 1991 from the McDonnell Douglass plant in Long Beach, California, about a
year behind schedule.[14][15] The rst aircraft (T-1) and
ve more production models (P1-P5) participated in extensive ight testing and evaluation at Edwards Air Force
Base.[16] Two complete airframes were built for static and
repeated load testing.[15]
11.1.2
tions suggested 5,000 ft (1,500 m) was required.[28] The

YC-15 was transferred to AMARC to be made ightworthy again for further ight tests for the C-17 program in
March 1997.[29] In 1995, most of the problems had been
reportedly resolved.[30][31] The rst C-17 squadron was
declared operational by the USAF in January 1995.[32]
11.1.3 Production and deliveries
Development diculties
A static test of the C-17 wing in October 1992 resulted

in the wing failing at 128% of design limit load, which
was below the 150% requirement. Both wings buckled
rear to the front and failures occurred in stringers, spars
and ribs.[17] Some $100 million was spent to redesign the
wing structure; the wing failed at 145% during a second
test in September 1993.[18] A careful review of the test
data however, showed that the wing was not loaded correctly and did indeed meet the requirement.[19] The C-17
received the Globemaster III name in early 1993.[6] In
late 1993, the Department of Defense gave the contractor
two years to solve production and cost overrun problems Paratroopers dropping from a C-17 during a training exercise in
or face termination of the contract after the delivery of 2010.
the 40th aircraft.[20] By accepting the 1993 terms, McDonnell Douglas incurred a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion
on the development phase of the program.[16]
In April 1994, the C-17 program remained over budget,
and did not meet weight, fuel burn, payload and range
specications. It failed several key criteria during airworthiness evaluation tests.[21][22][23] Technical problems
were found with the mission software, landing gear, and
other areas.[24] In May 1994, it was proposed to cut production to as few as 32 aircraft; these cuts were later
rescinded.[25] A July 1994 GAO document revealed that
Air Force and DoD studies from 1986 and 1991 stated
the C-17 could use 6,400 more runways outside the U.S.
than the C-5; it was discovered that these studies only
considered runway dimensions, but not runway strength
or Load Classication Numbers (LCN). The C-5 has a
lower LCN, but the USAF classies both in the same
broad Load Classication Group (LCG). When considering runway dimensions and load ratings, the C-17s
worldwide runway advantage over the C-5 shrank from
6,400 to 911 airelds.[26] The C-17s ability to use low
quality, austere airelds was not considered.[26]
C-17s from the 517th Airlift Squadron dropping equipment and

airborne infantry during joint training in September 2010.
In 1996, DoD ordered another 80 aircraft for a total of

120.[33] In 1997 McDonnell Douglas merged with its former competitor, Boeing. In April 1999, Boeing proposed
to cut the price of the C-17 if the Air Force bought 60
more,[34] and in August 2002, the order was increased to
180 aircraft.[35] In 2007, 190 C-17s were on order for
the USAF.[36] On 6 February 2009, Boeing was awarded
a $2.95 billion contract for 15 additional aircraft, increasing the total USAF C-17 eet to 205 and extending production from August 2009 to August 2010.[37] On
6 April 2009, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates
stated that there would be no more C-17s ordered beyond the 205 planned.[38] However, on 12 June 2009, the
House Armed Services Air and Land Forces Subcommittee added a further 17 C-17s.[39]
A January 1995 GAO report revealed that, over the original cost of $41.8 billion for 210 C17s, the 120 aircraft on
order were costing $39.5 billion.[27] In March 1994, the
U.S. Army decided it did not need the 60,000 lb (27,000
kg) Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES)
delivery with the C-17 and that the C-130s 42,000 lb
(19,000 kg) capability was sucient; C-17 testing was
limited to this lower weight. Airow issues prevented the
C-17 from meeting airdrop requirements. A February
1997 GAO report revealed that a C-17 with a full payload In 2010, Boeing transitioned to a production rate of 10
could not land on 3,000 ft (910 m) wet runways; simula- C-17s per year from a high of 16 per year, this was due
11.2. DESIGN
127
to dwindling orders and to extend the life of the pro- rate descents. In vortex surng tests performed by C-17s,
duction line while additional international orders were up to 10% fuel savings were reported.[54]
sought. The workforce was reduced by approximately
1,100 through 2012, and a second shift at the Long Beach
assembly plant was also eliminated.[40] By April 2011,
230 production C-17s had been delivered, including 210
to the USAF.[41] The C-17 prototype T-1 was retired
in 2012 after being used by the USAF for testing and
development.[42] In January 2010, the USAF announced
the end of Boeings performance-based logistics contracts
to maintain the aircraft.[43] On 19 June 2012, the USAF
ordered its 224th and nal C-17, as a replacement for an
aircraft that crashed in Alaska in July 2010.[44]
In September 2013, Boeing announced that C-17 production was starting to close down. In October 2014,
the main wing spar of the 279th and last aircraft was
completed, this C-17 shall be delivered in 2015, after
which Boeing will close the Long Beach plant.[45][46] Production of spare components shall continue until at least
2017. The C-17 is projected to be in service for several decades.[47][48] In February 2014, Boeing was engaged in sales talks with ve or six countries for the
remaining 15 C-17s, two to four of which are not current operators,[49] and Boeing decided to build 10 aircraft
without conrmed buyers in anticipation of future purchases. As of April 2015, ve aircraft found buyers, including two for the Middle East, two for Australia and
one for Canada.[50]
In May 2015, the Wall Street Journal reported that Boeing expected to book a charge of less than $100 million and eliminate 3,000 positions associated with the C17 program. According to Teal Group analyst Richard
Aboulaa, Airbus introduction of the cheaper A400M
Atlas undercut international sales of the C-17.[51]
A Royal Australian Air Force C-17 landing at Kharkiv International Airport, showing its landing gear
The aircraft requires a crew of three (pilot, copilot,

and loadmaster) for cargo operations. Cargo is loaded
through a large aft ramp that accommodates rolling stock,
such as a 69-ton (63-metric ton) M1 Abrams main battle
tank, other armored vehicles, trucks, and trailers, along
with palletized cargo. The cargo compartment is 88 feet
(26.82 m) long by 18 feet (5.49 m) wide by 12 feet 4
inches (3.76 m) high. The cargo oor has rollers for palletized cargo that can be ipped to provide a at oor
suitable for vehicles and other rolling stock.
Sources: C-17 Globemaster III Pocket Guide,[52] Boeing

IDS Major Deliveries[53]
11.2 Design
The C-17 is 174 feet (53 m) long and has a wingspan of
about 170 feet (52 m). It can airlift cargo fairly close to
a battle area. The size and weight of U.S. mechanized
repower and equipment have grown in recent decades
from increased air mobility requirements, particularly for
large or heavy non-palletized outsize cargo.
The C-17 is powered by four Pratt & Whitney F117-PW100 turbofan engines, which are based on the commercial Pratt and Whitney PW2040 used on the Boeing 757.
Each engine is rated at 40,400 lbf (180 kN) of thrust.
The engines thrust reversers direct engine exhaust air upwards and forward, reducing the chances of foreign object damage by ingestion of runway debris, and providing enough reverse thrust to back the aircraft up on the
ground while taxiing. The thrust reversers can also be
used in ight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-
C-17 Globemaster III cockpit
Maximum payload of the C-17 is 170,900 lb (77,500 kg),

and its Maximum takeo weight is 585,000 lb (265,350
kg). With a payload of 160,000 lb (72,600 kg) and an
initial cruise altitude of 28,000 ft (8,500 m), the C-17
has an unrefueled range of about 2,400 nautical miles
(4,400 km) on the rst 71 aircraft, and 2,800 nautical
miles (5,200 km) on all subsequent extended-range models that include a sealed center wing bay as a fuel tank.
Boeing informally calls these aircraft the C-17 ER.[55] The
C-17s cruise speed is about 450 knots (833 km/h) (Mach
0.74). It is designed to airdrop 102 paratroopers and their
equipment.[56] The U.S. Armys Ground Combat Vehicle
is to be transported by the C-17.
128
The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as

3,500 ft (1,064 m) and as narrow as 90 ft (27 m). In addition, the C-17 can operate from unpaved, unimproved
runways (although with greater chance of damage to the
aircraft).[56] The thrust reversers can be used to back the
aircraft and reverse direction on narrow taxiways using
a three- (or more) point turn. The plane is designed for
20 man-hours of maintenance per ight hour, and a 74%
mission availability rate.[56]

11.3.1
172nd Airlift Wing of the Mississippi Air National Guard

at Jackson-Evers International Airport/ANGB, Mississippi.
In FY 2006, eight C-17s were delivered to March Joint
Air Reserve Base, California; controlled by the Air Force
Reserve Command (AFRC), assigned to the 452d Air
Mobility Wing; and subsequently assigned to AMCs
436th Airlift Wing and its AFRC associate unit, the
512th Airlift Wing, at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware,
supplementing the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy.[62] In 2011, the
New York Air National Guard's 105th Airlift Wing at
Stewart Air National Guard Base, New York, transitioned
from the C-5 to the C-17.[63]
The U.S. Presidential Limousine is transported by C-17 for long

distance trips
USAF C-17s in ight over the Blue Ridge Mountains in the eastern
U.S.
The rst production model was delivered to Charleston

Air Force Base, South Carolina on 14 July 1993. The
rst C-17 squadron, the 17th Airlift Squadron, became
operationally ready on 17 January 1995.[57] The C-17 has
broken 22 records for oversized payloads.[58] The C-17
was awarded U.S. aviations most prestigious award, the
Collier Trophy in 1994.[59] A Congressional report on
operations in Kosovo and Operation Allied Force noted
One of the great success stories...was the performance
of the Air Forces C-17A[60] The C-17 ew half of the
strategic airlift missions in the operation, the type could
use small airelds, easing operations; rapid turnaround
times also led to ecient utilization.[61]
The U.S. Air Force originally planned to buy a total of
120 C-17s, with the last one being scheduled for delivery
in November 2004. The scal 2000 budget funded another 14 aircraft, primarily for Air Mobility Command
(AMC) support of the United States Special Operations
Command (USSOCOM). Basing of the original 120 C17s was with the 437th Airlift Wing and 315th Airlift Wing at Charleston AFB, South Carolina, the 62nd
Airlift Wing and 446th Airlift Wing at McChord Air
Force Base, Washington, the Air Education and Training Command's (AETC) 97th Air Mobility Wing at Altus
AFB, Oklahoma, and the Air Mobility Command-gained
The C-17 have been used to deliver military goods and

humanitarian aid during Operation Enduring Freedom in
Afghanistan as well as Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq.
On 26 March 2003, 15 USAF C-17s participated in the
biggest combat airdrop since the United States invasion
of Panama in December 1989: the night-time airdrop
of 1,000 paratroopers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade
occurred over Bashur, Iraq. The airdrop of paratroopers were followed by C-17s ferrying M1 Abrams, M2
Bradleys, M113s and artillery.[64] USAF C-17s have also
been used to assist allies in their airlift requirements, including Canadian vehicles to Afghanistan in 2003 and
Australian forces during the Australian-led military deployment to East Timor in 2006. In 2006, USAF C-17s
ew 15 Canadian Leopard C2 tanks from Kyrgyzstan into
Kandahar in support of NATOs Afghanistan mission. In
2013, ve USAF C-17s supported French operations in
Mali, operating with other nations C-17s (RAF, NATO
and RCAF deployed a single C-17 each).
A C-17 accompanies the President of the United States
on his visits to both domestic and foreign arrangements, consultations, and meetings. The C-17 is used
to transport the Presidential Limousine and security
detachments.[65] There have been several occasions when
a C-17 has been used to transport the President himself,
temporarily gaining the Air Force One call sign while doing so.[66]
There was debate over follow-on C-17 orders, Air

Force having requested line shutdown while Congress attempted to reinstate production. In FY2007, the Air
Force requested $1.6 billion in response to excessive
combat use on the C-17 eet.[67] In 2008, USAF General Arthur Lichte, Commander of Air Mobility Command, indicated before a House of Representatives subcommittee on air and land forces a need to extend production to another 15 aircraft to increase the total to 205.
Pending the delivery of the results of two studies in 2009,
Lichte observed that the production line may remain open
for further C-17s to satisfy airlift requirements.[68] The
USAF eventually decided to cap its C-17 eet at 223 aircraft, the nal delivery was accepted on 12 September
2013.[69]
11.3.2
Royal Air Force
Boeing has marketed the C-17 to many European nations

including Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and
the United Kingdom. The Royal Air Force (RAF) has
established an aim of having interoperability and some
weapons and capabilities commonality with the USAF.
The 1998 Strategic Defence Review identied a requirement for a strategic airlifter. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift (STSA) competition commenced in September of that year, however tendering was canceled in August 1999 with some bids identied by ministers as too
expensive, including the Boeing/BAe C-17 bid, and others unsuitable.[70] The project continued, with the C-17
seen as the favorite.[70] In the light of Airbus A400M delays, the UK Secretary of State for Defence, Geo Hoon,
announced in May 2000 that the RAF would lease four C17s at an annual cost of 100 million[67] from Boeing for
an initial seven years with an optional two-year extension.
The RAF had the option to buy or return the aircraft to
Boeing. The UK committed to upgrading its C-17s in line
with the USAF so that if they were returned, the USAF
could adopt them.
129
fourth C-17 was delivered on 24 August 2001. The RAF
aircraft were some of the rst to take advantage of the new
center wing fuel tank found in Block 13 aircraft. In RAF
service, the C-17 has not been given an ocial service
name and designation (for example, C-130J referred to
as Hercules C4 or C5), but is referred to simply as the
C-17 or C-17A Globemaster.
The RAF declared itself delighted with the C-17. Although the Globemaster eet was to be a fallback for the
A400M, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on
21 July 2004 that they had elected to buy their four C17s at the end of the lease,[71] even though the A400M
appeared to be closer to production. The C-17 gives the
RAF strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose,
for example a maximum payload of 169,500 lb (77,000
kg) compared to the A400Ms 82,000 lb (37,000 kg).[67]
The C-17s capabilities allow the RAF to use it as an airborne hospital for medical evacuation missions.[72]
Another C-17 was ordered in August 2006, and delivered on 22 February 2008. The four leased C-17s were
to be purchased later in 2008.[73] Because of fears that the
A400M may suer further delays, the MoD announced
in 2006 that it planned to acquire three more C-17s, for
a total of eight, with delivery in 20092010. On 26 July
2007, Defence Secretary Des Browne announced that the
MoD intended to order a sixth C-17 to boost operations in
Iraq and Afghanistan.[74] On 3 December 2007, the MoD
announced a contract for a sixth C-17,[75] which was received on 11 June 2008.[76]
On 18 December 2009, Boeing conrmed that the RAF
had ordered a seventh C-17,[77][78] which was delivered
on 16 November 2010.[79] The UK announced the purchase of its eighth C-17 in February 2012.[80] The RAF
showed interest in buying a ninth C-17 in November
2013.[81]
On 13 January 2013, the RAF deployed two C-17s of
No. 99 Squadron from RAF Brize Norton to the French
vreux Air Base. The aircraft transported French armored vehicles to the Malian capital of Bamako during
the French Intervention in Mali.[82]
11.3.3 Royal Australian Air Force

Main article: Boeing C-17 Globemaster III in Australian
service
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) began investigating an acquisition of heavy lift aircraft for strategic
transport in 2005.[83] In late 2005 the then Minister for
Defence Robert Hill stated that such aircraft were being
considered due to the limited availability of strategic airlift aircraft from partner nations and air freight compaRAF C-17 at RAF Lakenheath, August 2010
nies. The C-17 was considered to be favored over the
A400M as it was a proven aircraft and in production.
The rst C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeings Long One major RAAF requirement was the ability to airlift
Beach facility on 17 May 2001 and own to RAF Brize the Armys M1 Abrams tanks; another requirement was
Norton by a crew from No. 99 Squadron. The RAFs immediate delivery. Though unstated, commonality with
130
A RAAF C-17 in Afghanistan, December 2010
the USAF and the United Kingdoms RAF was also considered advantageous. RAAF aircraft were ordered directly from the USAF production run and are identical
to American C-17 even in paint scheme, the only dierence being the national markings. This allowed delivery
to commence within nine months of commitment to the
program.[84]
On 2 March 2006, the Australian government announced
the purchase of three aircraft and one option with an entry into service date of 2006.[67] In July 2006 a xed
price contract was awarded to Boeing to deliver four C17s for US$780M (A$1bn).[85] Australia also signed a
US$80.7M contract to join the global 'virtual eet' C-17
sustainment program[86] and the RAAFs C-17s will receive the same upgrades as the USAFs eet.[87]
The Royal Australian Air Force took delivery of its rst
C-17 in a ceremony at Boeings plant at Long Beach,
California on 28 November 2006.[88] Several days later
the aircraft ew from Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii to
Defence Establishment Fairbairn, Canberra, arriving on
4 December 2006. The aircraft was formally accepted
in a ceremony at Fairbairn shortly after arrival.[89] The
second aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 11 May
2007 and the third was delivered on 18 December 2007.
The fourth Australian C-17 was delivered on 19 January
2008.[90] All the Australian C-17s are operated by No.
36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in
Queensland.[91]

signed an agreement with the U.S. government to acquire
a fth C-17 due to an increased demand for humanitarian
and disaster relief missions.[92] The aircraft was delivered
to the RAAF on 14 September 2011.[93] On 23 September 2011, Australian Minister for Defence Materiel Jason
Clare announced that the government was seeking information from the U.S. about the price and delivery schedule for a sixth Globemaster.[94] In November 2011, Australia requested a sixth C-17 through the U.S. FMS program; it was ordered in June 2012, and was delivered on
1 November 2012.[95][96]
Australias C-17s have supported ADF operations around
the world, including supporting Air Combat Group training deployments to the U.S., transporting Royal Australian Navy Sea Hawk helicopters and making fortnightly supply missions to Australian forces in Iraq and
Afghanistan. The C-17s have also carried humanitarian supplies to Papua New Guinea during Operation
Papua New Guinea Assist in 2007, supplies and South
African Puma helicopters to Burma in 2008 following
Cyclone Nargis,[97] relief supplies to Samoa following the
2009 earthquake, aid packages around Queensland following the 20102011 oods and Cyclone Yasi, and rescue teams and equipment to New Zealand following the
February 2011 Christchurch earthquake, and equipment
after the 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami from
Western Australia to Japan. In July 2014, an Australian
C-17 transported several bodies of victims of Malaysia
Airlines Flight 17 from Ukraine to the Netherlands.[98]
In August 2014, Defence Minister David Johnston announced the intention to purchase one or two additional C-17s.[99] On 3 October 2014, Johnston announced the governments approval to buy two C-17s
at a total cost of US$770 million.[50] The United States
Congress approved the sale under the Foreign Military
Sales program.[100][101] Prime Minister Tony Abbott conrmed in April 2015 that two additional aircraft are to be
ordered, with delivery in late 2015;[102] these are to add
to the six C-17s it has as of 2015.[50]
11.3.4 Royal Canadian Air Force

Canadas air arm has had a long-standing need for
strategic airlift for humanitarian and military operations
around the world. It had followed a pattern similar to
the German Air Force in leasing Antonovs and Ilyushins
for many of its needs, including deploying the Disaster
Assistance Response Team (DART) to tsunami-stricken
Sri Lanka in 2005. The air service was forced to rely
entirely on leased An-124 Ruslan for a Canadian Army
deployment to Haiti in 2003. The service has also used
a combination of leased Ruslans, Ilyushins and USAF
Wing Commander Linda Corbould, commander of No. 36 C-17s for moving heavy equipment into Afghanistan.
Squadron RAAF, training in a USAF C-17
In 2002, the Canadian Forces Future Strategic Airlifter
Project began to study alternatives, including long-term
On 18 April 2011, Boeing announced that Australia had leasing arrangements.[103]
131
support to a variety of missions, including humanitarian
assistance, peace support and combat.[116]
11.3.5 NATO (Strategic Airlift Capability

Program)
RCAF CC-177 on approach to CFB Trenton
On 5 July 2006, the Canadian government issued a notice that it intended to negotiate directly with Boeing
to procure four airlifters for the Canadian Forces Air
Command (renamed Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011).[104] On 1 February 2007, Canada awarded a
contract for four C-17s with delivery beginning in August 2007.[105] Like Australia, Canada was granted airframes originally slated for the U.S. Air Force, to accelNATO Strategic Airlift Capability's C-17
erate delivery.[106]
On 16 June 2007, the rst Canadian C-17 rolled o the
assembly line at Long Beach, California and into the paint
hangar for painting and addition of Canadian markings
including the national logo and air force roundel. The
rst Canadian C-17 made its initial ight on 23 July.[107]
It was turned over to Canada on 8 August,[108] and participated at the Abbotsford International Airshow on 11
August prior to arriving at its new home base at 8 Wing,
CFB Trenton, Ontario on 12 August.[109] Its rst operational mission was delivery of disaster relief to Jamaica
in the aftermath of Hurricane Dean.[110] The second C17 arrived at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton on 18 October 2007.
The last of four aircraft was delivered in April 2008.[111]
The ocial Canadian designation is CC-177 Globemaster III.[112] The aircraft are assigned to 429 Transport
Squadron based at CFB Trenton.
On 14 April 2010, a Canadian C-17 landed for the rst
time at CFS Alert, the worlds most northerly airport.[113]
Canadian Globemasters have been deployed in support
of numerous humanitarian and military missions worldwide, including Operation Hestia after the earthquake in
Haiti, providing airlift as part of Operation Mobile and
support to the Canadian mission in Afghanistan. After
Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013, Canadian
C-17s established an air bridge between the two nations,
deploying Canadas DART Team and delivering humanitarian supplies and equipment. In 2014, they supported
Operation Reassurance and Operation Impact.
On 19 December 2014, it was reported that Canadas
Defence Department intended to purchase one more C17.[114][115] On 30 March 2015, Canadas fth C-17
landed at Canadas largest air base, CFB Trenton. Lt.
Gen. Yvan Blondin, commander of the Royal Canadian
Air Force (RCAF), noted the new military plane will improve the Canadian Armed Forces response capability to
both domestic and international emergencies and provide
At the 2006 Farnborough Airshow, a number of NATO

member nations signed a letter of intent to jointly purchase and operate several C-17s within the NATO Strategic Airlift Capability.[117] Strategic Airlift Capability
members are Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, the
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, the
United States, as well as two Partnership for Peace countries Finland and Sweden as of 2010.[117] The purchase
was for two C-17s, and a third was contributed by the
U.S. On 14 July 2009, Boeing delivered the rst C-17 under NATOs Strategic Airlift Capability (SAC) program.
The second and third C-17s were delivered in September
and October 2009.[118][119]
The SAC C-17s are based at Ppa Air Base, Hungary.
The Heavy Airlift Wing is hosted by Hungary, which acts
as the ag nation.[120] The aircraft are manned in similar fashion as the NATO E-3 AWACS aircraft.[121] The
C-17 ight crew are multi-national, but each mission is
assigned to an individual member nation based on the
SACs annual ight hour share agreement. The NATO
Airlift Management Programme Oce (NAMPO) provides management and support for the Heavy Airlift
Wing. NAMPO is a part of the NATO Support Agency
(NSPA).[122] In September 2014, Boeing revealed that
the three C-17s supporting NATO SAC missions had
achieved a readiness rate of nearly 94 percent over the
last ve years and supported over 1,000 missions.[123]
11.3.6 Indian Air Force

In June 2009, the Indian Air Force (IAF) selected the C17 for its Very Heavy Lift Transport Aircraft requirement,
it is to replace several types of transport aircraft.[124][125]
In January 2010, India requested 10 C-17s through the
U.S.'s Foreign Military Sales program,[126] the sale was
132
approved by Congress in June 2010.[127] On 23 June
2010, the Indian Air Force successfully test-landed a
USAF C-17 at the Gaggal Airport, India to complete
the IAFs C-17 trials.[128] In February 2011, the IAF and
Boeing agreed terms for the order of 10 C-17s[129] with
an option for six more; the US$4.1 billion order was approved by the Indian Cabinet Committee on Security on
6 June 2011.[130][131] Deliveries began in June 2013 and
are to continue until 2014.[132][133] In 2012, the IAF reportedly nalized plans to buy six more C-17s in the 13th
ve-year plan (20172022).[125][134][135]

and Egypt were evacuated from war-torn Yemen in April
2015.[149] C-17 also played a major role in supplying
and rescuing during devastating 2015 Nepal earthquake,
which killed nearly 6,000. C-17s were used to transport
relief material and rescue Indian citizens.[150]
11.3.7 Others
Boeing delivered Qatars rst C-17 on 11 August 2009
and the second on 10 September 2009 for the Qatar Emiri
Air Force.[151] Qatar received its third C-17 in 2012, and
fourth C-17 was received on 10 December 2012.[152] In
June 2013, the New York Times reported that Qatar was
allegedly using its C-17s to ship weapons from Libya to
the Syrian opposition during the civil war via Turkey.[153]
The IAFs rst C-17, 2013
The aircraft provides strategic airlift and the ability to deploy special forces, such as during national
emergencies.[136] They are operated in diverse terrain
from Himalayan air bases in North India at 13,000
ft (4,000 m) to Indian Ocean bases in South India.[137]
The C-17s are based at Hindon Air Force Station and
are operated by the No. 81 Squadron Skylords.[138][139]
The rst C-17 was delivered in January 2013 for testing and training;[140] it was ocially accepted on 11
June 2013.[141] The second C-17 was delivered on 23
July 2013 and put into service immediately. IAF Chief
of Air Sta Norman AK Browne called the Globemaster III a major component in the IAFs modernization
drive" while taking delivery of the aircraft at Boeings
Long Beach factory.[142] On 2 September 2013, the Skylords squadron with three C-17s ocially entered IAF
service.[143]
The Skylords regularly y missions within India, such
as to high-altitude bases at Leh and Thoise. The IAF
rst used the C-17 to transport an infantry battalions
equipment to Port Blair on Andaman Islands on 1
July 2013.[144][145] Foreign deployments to date include
Tajikistan in August 2013, and Rwanda to support Indian
peacekeepers.[134] One C-17 was used for transporting relief materials during Cyclone Phailin.[146] The fth aircraft was received in November 2013.[147] The sixth aircraft was received in July 2014.[148]
The C-17 played a crucial role in Operation Raahat, in
which over 4,500 Indian nationals and 960 foreign nationals from 41 countries including US, UK, France, Canada
United Arab Emirates Air Force C-17
In February 2009, the United Arab Emirates Air Force

agreed to purchase four C-17s.[154] In January 2010, a
contract was signed for six C-17s.[155] In May 2011, the
rst C-17 was handed over and the last of the six was
received in June 2012.[156][157]
Kuwait requested the purchase of one C-17 in September 2010 and a second in April 2013 through the U.S.'s
Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program.[158] The nation
ordered two C-17s; the rst was delivered on 13 February 2014.[159]
11.4 Variants
C-17A: Initial military airlifter version.
C-17A ER": Unocial name for C-17As with
extended range due to the addition of the center
wing tank.[55][160] This upgrade was incorporated
in production beginning in 2001 with Block 13
aircraft.[160]
C-17B: Proposed tactical airlifter version. The
design includes double-slotted aps, an additional
main landing gear on center fuselage, more powerful engines and other systems for shorter landing and
take-o distances.[161] Boeing oered the C-17B to
11.5. OPERATORS
133
the U.S. military in 2007 for carrying the Armys

Future Combat Systems (FCS) vehicles and other
equipment.[162]
MD-17:
Proposed variant for civilian
operators.[163] Later re-designated as BC-17
after 1997 merger.[164]
11.5 Operators
USAF C-17 transporting a Dutch PzH 2000 self-propelled howitzer to Afghanistan, September 2006
C-17 operators
C-17 in an Aeromedical Evacuation conguration
RAF, RAAF and USAF C-17s and ight crews at RAF Brize Norton in June 2007
82nd Airborne paratroopers seated before an airdrop
No. 36 Squadron[165]
Canada
A training mission in Jan. 2007 over the Hawaiian Islands
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force six C-17ERs in

service[95]
Royal Canadian Air Force ve CC-177 (C-17ER)

in use.
429 Transport Squadron, CFB Trenton[166]
India
134
Indian Air Force 10 C-17s ordered,[167] with six

delivered by July 2014.[148]
No. 81 Squadron Skylords, AFS Hindon[138]
NATO
305th Air Mobility Wing - McGuire AFB, New Jersey

6th Airlift Squadron
436th Airlift Wing - Dover AFB, Delaware
Heavy Airlift Wing three in service,[168] including

1 C-17 contributed by the USAF.[169] and based at
Ppa Air Base, Hungary.
Kuwait
Kuwait Air Force one C-17 in inventory and a second C-17 on order as of February 2014.[159]
3d Airlift Squadron
437th Airlift Wing - Charleston AFB, South Carolina
17th Airlift Squadron(deactivating
in summer, 2015)[173]
Pacic Air Forces
Qatar
3d Wing - Elmendorf AFB, Alaska

Qatari Emiri Air Force four C-17As in use
[152]

United Arab Emirates Air Force six C-17As in

service[155]
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force eight C-17ERs[170]
15th Airlift Wing - Hickam AFB, Hawaii

Air Education and Training Command
97th Air Mobility Wing - Altus AFB, Oklahoma
Air Force Material Command
No. 99 Squadron, RAF Brize Norton

412th Test Wing - Edwards AFB, California
United States
United States Air Force 223 total (70 C-17A, 153 C17A-ER)[171][172]

315th Airlift Wing (Associate) - Charleston AFB,
SC
Air Mobility Command

60th Air Mobility Wing - Travis AFB, California
21st Airlift Squadron
62d Airlift Wing - McChord AFB, Washington
10th Airlift Squadron (deactivating
summer, 2016)[173]

349th Air Mobility Wing (Associate) - Travis AFB,
CA
445th Airlift Wing - Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio
11.6. ACCIDENTS AND NOTABLE INCIDENTS
135
446th Airlift Wing (Associate) - McChord AFB,

WA
452d Air Mobility Wing - March ARB, CA
730th Air Mobility Training
Squadron (Altus AFB, OK)
512th Airlift Wing (Associate) - Dover AFB, DE
514th Air Mobility Wing (Associate) - McGuire
AFB, NJ
C-17 on the runway at Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan on 30 January 2009 after landing with landing gear retracted.
On 10 December 2003, a U.S. Air Force C-17 (AF

Serial No. 98-0057) was hit by a surface-to-air missile after take-o from Baghdad, Iraq. One engine
was disabled and the aircraft returned for a safe
landing.[176] The aircraft was repaired and returned
to service.[177]
732d Airlift Squadron

Air National Guard
105th Airlift Wing Stewart ANGB, New York
154th Wing Hickam AFB, HI
164th Airlift Wing Memphis, Tennessee
On 6 August 2005, a U.S. Air Force C-17 (AF Serial No. 01-0196) ran o the runway at Bagram
Air Base in Afghanistan while attempting to land,
destroying the aircrafts nose and main landing
gear.[178] It took two months to make the aircraft
ightworthy, the aircraft was own to Boeings Long
Beach facility by a test pilot, as the temporary repairs imposed performance limitations.[179] In October 2006, the aircraft returned to service after receiving repairs.

172d Airlift Wing Jackson, Mississippi
183d Airlift Squadron
176th Wing (Associate) Elmendorf AFB, Alaska
On 30 January 2009, a U.S. Air Force C-17 (AF

Serial No. 96-0002 Spirit of the Air Force)
made a gear-up landing at Bagram Air Base.[180][181]
The C-17 was ferried from Bagram AB, making several stops along the way, to Boeings Long Beach
plant for extensive repairs. The USAF Aircraft Accident Investigation Board concluded the cause was
the crews failure to lower the landing gear, having
not followed the pre-landing checklist.[182]
11.6 Accidents and notable incidents

On 10 September 1998, a U.S. Air Force C-17 (AF
Serial No.96-0006) delivered Keiko the whale to
Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, a 3,800-foot (1,200 m)
runway, and suered a landing gear failure during
landing. There were no injuries, but the aircraft received major damage to the landing gear. After receiving temporary repairs, the C-17 was own to another city in Iceland for further repairs.[174][175]
On 28 July 2010, a U.S. Air Force C-17 (AF Serial

No. 00-0173 Spirit of the Aleutians) crashed at
Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska while practicing
for the 2010 Arctic Thunder Air Show, killing all
four aboard.[183] The C-17 crashed near a railroad,
disrupting rail operations.[184] A military investigative report determined that a stall caused by pilot
error led to the crash.[185] This is the only fatal C-17
crash and its only hull-loss incident.[184]
136
11.7 Specications (C-17)
Payload: 170,900 lb (77,519 kg) of cargo distributed at max over 18 463L master pallets or a mix
of palletized cargo and vehicles
Length: 174 ft (53 m)
Wingspan: 169.8 ft (51.75 m)
Height: 55.1 ft (16.8 m)
Wing area: 3,800 ft (353 m)
Three C-17s unload supplies to help victims of Hurricane

Katrina at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi, in August
2005.

Powerplant: 4 Pratt & Whitney F117-PW-100
Fuel capacity: 35,546 U.S. gal (134,556 L)
Performance
Cruise speed: Mach 0.74 (450 knots, 515 mph,
830 km/h)
Range: 2,420 nmi[186] (2,785 mi, 4,482 km) ;
5,610 nmi (10,390 km) with paratroopers
A C-17 creates a visible vortex while using reverse thrust

to push the aircraft backwards on a runway.

Max. wing loading: 150 lb/ft (750 kg/m)
Minimum thrust/weight: 0.277
Takeo run at MTOW: 7,600 ft (2,316 m)[186]
Landing distance: 3,500 ft (1,060 m)
A C-17 does a combat o-load of pallets in Afghanistan,

June 2009
Data from U.S. Air Force fact sheet,[56] Boeing,[186][187]
11.8 See also

Airhead
Strategic airlift
Related development
McDonnell Douglas YC-15

Crew: 3: 2 pilots, 1 loadmaster (ve additional personnel required for aeromedical evacuation)
Capacity:
102 paratroopers or
134 troops with palletized and sidewall seats
or
54 troops with sidewall seats (allows 13 cargo
pallets) only or
36 litter and 54 ambulatory patients and medical attendants or
Cargo, such as an M1 Abrams tank, three
Strykers, or six M1117 Armored Security Vehicles
Antonov An-124
Ilyushin Il-76
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter
Xian Y-20
Related lists
List of active Canadian military aircraft
List of active United Kingdom military aircraft
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11.9.1
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Bonny, Danny, Barry Fryer and Martyn Swann.

AMARC MASDC III, The Aerospace Maintenance
and Regeneration Center, Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ,
19972005. Surrey, UK: British Aviation Research
Group, 2006. ISBN 978-0-906339-07-7.
Department of Defense. Kosovo/Operation Allied
Force After-Action Report, 31 January 2000.
Gertler, Jeremiah. Air Force C-17 Aircraft Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress.
Congressional Research Service, 22 December 2009.
Kennedy, Betty R. Globemaster III: Acquiring the C17. McConnell AFB, Kansas: Air Mobility Command Oce of History, 2004.
McLaughlin, Andrew. Big Mover. Canberra:
Australian Aviation (Phantom Media), September
2008.
Norton, Bill. Boeing C-17 Globemaster III (Warbird
Tech, Vol. 30). North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. ISBN 1-58007-040-X.
141

C-17 overview page and C-17 History page on Boeing.com
C-17 USAF fact sheet
C-17 page on GlobalSecurity.org
C-17 Globemaster III Military transport aircraft on
airrecognition.com
C-17 production list on rzjets.net
Chapter 12
Boeing C-32
The Boeing C-32 is a military passenger transportation
version of the Boeing 757 for the United States Air Force.
The C-32 provides transportation for United States leaders to locations around the world. The primary users are
the Vice President of the United States, using the distinctive call sign "Air Force Two", the First Lady and the
Secretary of State. On rare occasions, other members of
the U.S. Cabinet and Congressional leaders have been authorized to y aboard the C-32 for various missions. Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush and Bill Clinton
have at times own on a C-32 as Air Force One in place
of the larger VC-25A.
(6,900 mi; 11,000 km) range (the longest range of any

757 in operation). They have frequently been associated
with the Foreign Emergency Support Team of the U.S.
State Department.[2][3]
12.2 Design
12.1 Development and operation

The C-32 is a military version of the Boeing 757-200 extended range aircraft, selected along with the C-37A to
replace the aging eet of VC-137 aircraft. Active-duty
aircrews from the 1st Airlift Squadron, 89th Airlift Wing
at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, y the aircraft.
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and former President George
The contract was awarded for the C-32 in August 1996. H. W. Bush aboard a C-32 in 2007
By using commercial o-the-shelf acquisition practices,
a new record has been set from contract award to aircraft
delivery: less than two years. The C-32 is the rst military
aircraft ever acquired in this manner. The 89th Airlift
Wing acquired the rst of four aircraft in late June 1998.
A further two were acquired in 2010, with both having
been used previously as commercial aircraft.
The 227th Special Operations Flight at McGuire Air
Force Base, N.J., has two modied C-32B aircraft supporting specialist worldwide airlift operations (c/n 25493
& 25494). They are known to be operated by the 486th
Flight Test Squadron located at Eglin Air Force Base,
Florida. These are the only U.S Air Force C-32B in existence although both aircraft have been associated with a
multiplicity of registrations. [1] These 757s are tted with
a generic (non-VIP) interior and 48 comfortable seats.
All luggage and cargo must be tted into the rear of the
main cabin (except for a small lower cargo hold that contains spare tires/wheels along with oil and hydraulic servicing units), the forward and aft lower cargo areas housing extended range fuel cells giving them a 6,000 nmi
President Obama and staers aboard a C-32A as Air Force One

in 2009 showing the second and third section.
The C-32 is a specially congured version of the Boeing

757-200 airliner. The C-32 body is identical to that of
the Boeing 757-200, but has dierent interior furnishings and more sophisticated avionics. For the C-32A, the
passenger cabin is divided into four sections:
142
12.4. SPECIFICATIONS (C-32A)
143
The forward area has a communications center, galley, lavatory and 10 business-class seats.
The second section is a fully enclosed stateroom
for the use of the primary passenger. It includes a
changing area, private lavatory, separate entertainment system, two rst-class swivel seats and a convertible divan that seats three and folds out to a bed.
The third section contains the conference and sta
facility with eight business-class seats.
The rear section of the cabin contains general seating
with 32 business-class seats, galley, two lavatories
and closets.
A C-32 taking o
The C-32 is more fuel ecient and has improved capa1st Airlift Squadron
bilities over its VC-137 predecessor. It can travel twice
the distance on the same amount of fuel and operate on
shorter runways down to 5,000 feet (1,500 m) in length. Air Force Special Operations Command
Its 92,000 pound (41,700 kg) fuel capacity allows the aircraft to travel 5,500 nautical miles (10,000 km) unrefu 193d Special Operations Wing - Harrisburg, Penneled. In-ight refueling is via a receptacle on top of the
sylvania
forward fuselage, just aft of the cockpit.
Heading the safety equipment list is the Trac Collision Avoidance System and Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System. Weather systems are enhanced
with a Predictive Windshear Warning System. Other
items include the future air navigation system with
Global Positioning System, Flight Management System/Electronic Flight Instrument System, Controller Pilot Data Link Communications and Automatic Dependent Surveillance.
150th Special Operations Flight

(McGuire Air Force Base, New
Jersey)
486th Flight Test Squadron - Eglin
Air Force Base, Florida
12.4 Specications (C-32A)
Inside the C-32, communications are paramount. The

Data from
Vice President, heads of state and other decision-makers
can conduct business anywhere around the world using General characteristics
improved telephones, satellites, television monitors, facsimiles and copy machines. The C-32 has state-of-the-art
Crew: 16 ight crew (varies with mission)
avionics equipment.
Capacity: 45 passengers
The six C-32A aircraft have blended winglets added by
Goodrich Aviation Technical Services in Everett, Wash Length: 155 ft, 3 in (47.32 m)
ington.
Wingspan: 124 ft, 8 in (37.99 m)
The C-32 has better short-eld capacity than the VC-25,
making it preferable when ying to locations without a
Height: 44 ft, 6 in (13.56 m)
runway long enough to accommodate the VC-25.
12.3 Operators
United States

Air Mobility Command
89th Airlift Wing - Andrews Air Force Base,
Maryland
Powerplant: 2 Pratt & Whitney PW2040 engines, 43,730 lbf (185 kN) each
Performance
Maximum speed: 605 mph (Mach 0.8) (968 km/h)
Range: 5,650 nautical miles unrefueled (11,100
km)
144
12.5 See also

Related development
Boeing 757
Boeing VC-25
Related lists
12.6 References
[1] Type C-32 into 'Type' eld
[2] http://www.state.gov/j/ct/programs/index.htm#FEST
[3] Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST)". US Department of State. Retrieved on May 8, 2013
The original version of this article was from the public domain source at Air Force Link
12.7 External links

Air Force C-32 factsheet
CHAPTER 12. BOEING C-32
Chapter 13
Boeing CH-47 Chinook

The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is an American twinengine, tandem rotor heavy-lift helicopter. Its primary
roles are troop movement, artillery placement and battleeld resupply. It has a wide loading ramp at the rear
of the fuselage and three external-cargo hooks. With a
top speed of 170 knots (196 mph, 315 km/h) the helicopter was faster than contemporary 1960s utility helicopters and attack helicopters. The CH-47 is among the
heaviest lifting Western helicopters. Its name is from the
Native American Chinook people.
The Chinook was designed and initially produced by
Boeing Vertol in the early 1960s; it is now produced by
Boeing Rotorcraft Systems. It is one of the few aircraft
of that era along with the xed-wing Lockheed C-130
HC-1B during in-ight evaluation
Hercules cargo aircraft that remain in production and
frontline service, with over 1,200 built to date. The helicopter has been sold to 16 nations with the U.S. Army and
Vertol began work on a new tandem-rotor helicopter desthe Royal Air Force (see Boeing Chinook (UK variants))
ignated Vertol Model 107 or V-107 in 1957.[4][5] In June
being its largest users.
1958, the U.S. Army awarded a contract to Vertol for
the aircraft under the YHC-1A designation.[6] The YHC1A had a capacity for 20 troops.[3] Three were tested
by the Army for deriving engineering and operational
data. However, the YHC-1A was considered by most
of the Army users to be too heavy for the assault role
13.1.1 Early development
and too light for the transport role.[3] The decision was
In late 1956, the United States Department of the Army made to procure a heavier transport helicopter and at the
announced plans to replace the Sikorsky CH-37 Mo- same time upgrade the UH-1 Huey as a tactical troop
jave, which was powered by piston engines, with a new, transport. The YHC-1A would be improved and adopted
[7]
turbine-powered helicopter.[3] Turbine engines were also by the Marines as the CH-46 Sea Knight in 1962.
the larger Model 114 under the
a key design feature of the smaller UH-1 Huey utility The Army then ordered
[8]
designation
HC-1B.
The
pre-production Boeing Vertol
helicopter. Following a design competition, in SeptemYCH-1B
made
its
initial
hovering
ight on 21 September
ber 1958, a joint ArmyAir Force source selection board
1961.
In
1962
the
HC-1B
was
redesignated
the CH-47A
recommended that the Army procure the Vertol medium
1962
United
States
Tri-Service
aircraft
desigunder
the
transport helicopter. However, funding for full-scale denation
system.
It
was
named
Chinook,
which
alludes
to
velopment was not then available, and the Army vacilthe
Chinook
people
of
the
Pacic
Northwest.
lated on its design requirements. Some in Army Aviation
thought that the new helicopter should be a light tactical transport aimed at taking over the missions of the old
piston-engined H-21 and H-34 helicopters, and be consequently capable of carrying about fteen troops (one
squad). Another faction in Army Aviation thought that
the new helicopter should be much larger to be able to airlift a large artillery piece, and have enough internal space
to carry the new MGM-31 Pershing Missile System.[3]
The CH-47 is powered by two turboshaft engines,

mounted on each side of the helicopters rear pedestal
and connected to the rotors by driveshafts. Initial models
were tted with Lycoming T-53 jet engines with a combined rating of 2,200 shaft horsepower. Subsequent versions of the Chinook were congured with improved Lycoming engines and later with General Electric turbines.
The counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an anti-
145
146
CHAPTER 13. BOEING CH-47 CHINOOK

rotor blades, a redesigned cockpit to reduce pilot workload, improved and redundant electrical systems, an advanced ight control system and improved avionics.[10]
The latest mainstream generation is the CH-47F, which
features several major upgrades to reduce maintenance,
digitized ight controls, and is powered by two 4,733horsepower Honeywell engines.[11]
A CH-47 in a training exercise with US Navy Special Warfare, in

July 2008
A commercial model of the Chinook, the Boeing-Vertol

Model 234, is used worldwide for logging, construction,
ghting forest res, and supporting petroleum extraction
operations. On 15 December 2006, the Columbia Helicopters company of the Salem, Oregon, metropolitan
area, purchased the Type certicate of the Model 234
from Boeing.[12] The Chinook has also been licensed to
be built by companies outside the United States, such as
Elicotteri Meridionali (now AgustaWestland) in Italy, and
Kawasaki in Japan.
torque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift

and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes
it less sensitive to changes in the center of gravity, impor13.2
tant for the cargo lifting role, as well as its cargo dropping
role. While hovering over a specic location, increased
stability is aorded to such a twin rotor helicopter over 13.2.1
single rotor when weight is added or removed; for example when troops drop from or begin climbing up ropes
to the aircraft, or when other cargo is dropped abruptly.
If one engine fails, the other can drive both rotors.[9] The
sizing of the Chinook was directly related to the growth
of the Huey and the Armys tacticians insistence that initial air assaults be built around the squad. The Army
pushed for both the Huey and the Chinook, and this focus was responsible for the acceleration of its air mobility
eort.[3]
13.1.2
Operational history
Vietnam War
Improved and later versions

U.S. troops board CH-47 Chinook and UH-1 Huey helicopters
during Operation Crazy Horse, Vietnam, 1966
The Army nally settled on the larger Chinook as its

standard medium transport helicopter and as of February
1966, 161 aircraft had been delivered to the Army. The
1st Cavalry Division had brought their organic Chinook
battalion with them when they arrived in 1965 and a separate aviation medium helicopter company, the 147th, had
arrived in Vietnam on 29 November 1965.[13] This latter
company was initially placed in direct support of the 1st
Infantry Division.
A CH-47F practicing the Pinnacle maneuver whereby soldiers
are deposited without the helicopter landing.
Improved and more powerful versions of the CH-47 have

been developed since the helicopter entered service. The
U.S. Armys rst major design leap was the now-common
CH-47D, which entered service in 1982. Improvements
from the CH-47C included upgraded engines, composite
The most spectacular mission in Vietnam for the Chinook was the placing of artillery batteries in perilous
mountain positions inaccessible by any other means, and
then keeping them resupplied with large quantities of
ammunition.[3] The 1st Cavalry Division found that its
CH-47s were limited to a 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) payload when operating in the mountains, but could carry
an additional 1,000 pounds (450 kg) when operating near
the coast.[3] The early Chinook design was limited by its
147
rotor system which did not permit full use of the installed late 1978, Iran placed an order for an additional 50 hepower, and users were anxious for an improved version licopters with Elicotteri Meridionali, but that order was
which would upgrade this system.
canceled immediately after the revolution;[19] but 11 of
[20]
As with any new piece of equipment, the Chinook pre- them were delivered after multiple requests by Iran.
sented a major problem of customer education. Commanders and crew chiefs had to be constantly alert that
eager soldiers did not overload the temptingly large cargo
compartment. It would be some time before troops would
be experts at using sling loads.[3] The Chinook soon
proved to be such an invaluable aircraft for artillery movement and heavy logistics that it was seldom used as an assault troop carrier. Some of the Chinook eet were used
for casualty evacuation, due to the very heavy demand
for the helicopters they were usually overburdened with
wounded.[14] Perhaps the most cost eective use of the
Chinook was the recovery of other downed aircraft.[15]
In the 1978 Iranian Chinook shootdown, four Iranian

CH-47Cs penetrated 1520 km into Soviet airspace in
the Turkmenistan Military District. They were intercepted by a MiG-23M which shot down one, killing eight
crew members, and forced a second one to land. Chinook
helicopters were used in eorts by the Imperial Iranian
loyalist forces to resist the 1979 Iranian revolution.[21]
During the IranIraq War, Iran made heavy use of its USbought equipment, and lost at least 8 CH-47s during the
19801988 period; most notably during a clash on 15 July
1983, when an Iraqi Mirage F1 destroyed three Iranian
Chinooks transporting troops to the front line, and on 25
26 February 1984, when Iraqi MiG-21 ghters shot down
two examples.[22]
Despite the arms embargo in place upon Iran,[23][24] it
has managed to keep its Chinook eet operational.[25][26]
Some of the Chinooks have been rebuilt by Panha. Currently 20 to 45 Chinooks are operational in Iran.[27]
13.2.3 Falklands War

The Chinook was used both by Argentina and the United
Kingdom during the Falklands War in 1982.[28] The
Argentine Air Force and the Argentine Army each deployed two CH-47C helicopters, which were widely used
in general transport duties. Of the Armys aircraft, one
Troops unload from a CH-47 in the Cay Giep Mountains, Viet- was destroyed on the ground by a Harrier while the
nam, 1967
other was captured by the British and reused after the
[29]
Both Argentine Air Force helicopters returned
The CH-47s are generally armed with a single 7.62- war.
[30]
to
Argentina
and remained in service until 2002.
millimeter M60 machine gun on a pintle mount on either
side of the machine for self-defense, with stops tted to See also: Boeing Chinook (UK variants) Operational
keep the gunners from ring into the rotor blades. Dust history
lters were also added to improve engine reliability. At
its peak employment in Vietnam, there were 22 Chinook
units in operation. Of the nearly 750 Chinook helicopters
in the U.S. and South Vietnam eets, about 200 were lost 13.2.4 Afghanistan and Iraq wars
in combat or wartime operational accidents.[16] The U.S.
Army CH-47s supported the 1st Australian Task Force as
required.
13.2.2
Iran
During the 1970s, the United States and Iran had a strong
relationship, in which the Iranian armed forces began to
use many American military aircraft, most notably the F14 Tomcat, as part of a modernization program.[17] After an agreement signed between Boeing and Elicotteri
Meridionali, the Imperial Iranian Air Force purchased
20 Elicotteri Meridionali-built CH-47Cs in 1971.[18] The
Imperial Iranian Army Aviation purchased 70 CH-47Cs
from Elicotteri Meridionali between 1972 and 1976. In Soldiers wait for pickup from two CH-47s in Afghanistan, 2008
148
Approximately 163 CH-47Ds of various operators were 13.2.5 Disaster relief and other roles
deployed to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iraq during
Operation Desert Shield and the subsequent Operation Since the types inception, the Chinook has carried out
secondary missions including medical evacuation, disasDesert Storm in 199091.[31]
ter relief, search and rescue, aircraft recovery, re ghting, and heavy construction assistance.[43] According to
Suresh Abraham, the Chinooks ability to carry large underslung loads has been of signicant value in relief operations in the aftermath of natural disasters.[44] Chinooks
operators have often deployed their eets overseas to support humanitarian eorts in stricken nations; Chinooks
of the Republic of Singapore Air Force assisted in relief
operations in neighboring Indonesia following the 2004
Asian Tsunami, and after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake
the Royal Air Force dispatched Chinooks to Northern
Pakistan to assist in recovery eorts.[44]
Three Japanese CH-47s were used to cool Reactors 3 and
4 of the Fukushima Nuclear power-plant with sea water after the 9.0 earthquake in 2011;[45][46] to protect the
The CH-47D has seen wide use in Operation Enduring crew from heightened radiation levels, lead plates were
Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in attached to the oor.[47][48]
Iraq. The Chinook is being used in air assault missions,
inserting troops into re bases and later bringing food,
water, and ammunition. It is also the casualty evacu- 13.3 Variants
ation (casevac) aircraft of choice in the British Armed
Forces.[32] In combat theaters, it is typically escorted
by attack helicopters such as the AH-64 Apache for
protection.[33][34] Its lift capacity has been found of particular value in the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan
where high altitudes and temperatures limit the use of
helicopters such as UH-60 Black Hawk; reportedly, one
Chinook can replace up to ve UH-60s in the air assault
transport role.[35]
Chinook helicopter near Bagram, Afghanistan
The Chinook helicopters of several nations have participated in the Afghanistan War, including aircraft from
Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Canada, and Australia. Despite the age of the Chinook, it is still in
heavy demand, in part due its proven versatility and
ability to operate in demanding environments such as U.S. Army soldiers ride inside a Chinook in November 2008.
Afghanistan.[36][37]
On 6 August 2011, a Chinook crashed near Kabul killing
all of the 38 aboard. It was reportedly shot down with a
rocket-propelled grenade by the Taliban. The 38 were
members of NATO and allied forces, including about
30 U.S. special forces and seven Afghan troops. The
previous biggest single-day loss for American forces in
Afghanistan involved a Chinook that was shot down near
Kabul in Kunar Province in June 2005 with the death of
all aboard, including a 16-member U.S. Special Operations team.[38][39]
In May 2011 an Australian Army CH-47D crashed during a resupply mission in Zabul Province, resulting in one
fatality and ve survivors. The helicopter was unable to
be recovered and was destroyed in place.[40][41] To compensate for the loss, the ADF added two ex-U.S. Army
CH-47Ds to the eet which are expected to be in service
until the introduction of the CH-47Fs in 2016.[42]
13.3.1 HC-1B
The pre-1962 designation for Model 114 development
aircraft that would be re-designated CH-47 Chinook.
13.3.2 CH-47A
The all-weather, medium-lift CH-47A Chinook was
powered initially by Lycoming T55-L-5 engines rated at
2,200 horsepower (1,640 kW) but then replaced by the
T55-L-7 rated at 2,650 hp (1,980 kW) engines or T55L-7C engines rated at 2,850 hp (2,130 kW). The CH47A had a maximum gross weight of 33,000 lb (15,000
kg). allowing for a maximum payload of approximately
10,000 lb (4,500 kg)[49] Initial delivery of the CH-47A
13.3. VARIANTS
149
Chinook to the U.S. Army was in August 1962. A total

of 349 were built.
13.3.3
ACH-47A
The ACH-47A was originally known as the

Armed/Armored CH-47A (or A/ACH-47A). It was
ocially designated ACH-47A by U.S. Army Attack
Cargo Helicopter and unocially Guns A Go-Go. Four
CH-47A helicopters were converted to gunships by
Boeing Vertol in late 1965. Three were assigned to
the 53rd Aviation Detachment in South Vietnam for
testing, with the remaining one retained in the U.S. for
weapons testing. By 1966, the 53rd was redesignated
the 1st Aviation Detachment (Provisional) and attached
to the 228th Assault Support Helicopter Battalion of
the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile). By 1968, only
one gunship remained, and logistical concerns prevented
more conversions. It was returned to the United States,
and the program stopped.
The ACH-47A carried ve M60D 7.62 51 mm machine guns or M2HB .50 caliber machine guns, provided by the XM32 and XM33 armament subsystems,
two M24A1 20 mm cannons, two XM159B/XM159C
19-Tube 2.75-inch (70 mm) rocket launchers or sometimes two M18/M18A1 7.62 51 mm gun pods, and
a single M75 40 mm grenade launcher in the XM5/M5
armament subsystem (more commonly seen on the UH1 series of helicopters). The surviving aircraft, Easy
Money, has been restored and is on display at Redstone
Arsenal, Alabama.[50]
13.3.4
CH-47B
The CH-47B was an interim solution while Boeing

worked on a more substantially improved CH-47C. The
CH-47B was powered by two Lycoming T55-L-7C 2,850
shp (2,130 kW) engines. It featured a blunted rear rotor
pylon, redesigned asymmetrical rotor blades, and strakes
along the rear ramp and fuselage to improve ying characteristics. It could be equipped with two door-mounted
M60D 7.62 mm NATO machine guns on the M24 armament subsystem and a ramp-mounted M60D using
the M41 armament subsystem. Some CH-47 bombers
were equipped to drop tear gas or napalm from the rear
cargo ramp onto NLF (aka Vit Cng) bunkers. The CH47 could be equipped with a hoist and cargo hook. The
Chinook proved especially valuable in Pipe Smoke aircraft recovery missions. The Hook recovered about
12,000 aircraft valued at over $3.6 billion during the war.
108 were built.
CH-47C of the Italian Army
rst had Lycoming T55-L-7C engines delivering 2,850

shp (2,130 kW). The Super C included Lycoming T55L-11 engines delivering 3,750 shp (2,800 kW), an upgraded maximum gross weight of 46,000 lb (21,000 kg)
and a pitch stability augmentation system (PSAS). The
T55-L-11 engines suered diculties, as they had been
hurriedly introduced to increase payload; thus they were
temporarily replaced by the more reliable Lycoming T55L-7C. The type was distinguishable from the standard
C by the uprated maximum gross weight.
The type was unable to receive FAA certication to engage in civil activities due to the non-redundant hydraulic
ight boost system drive. A redesign of the hydraulic
boost system drive was incorporated in the succeeding
CH-47D, allowing that model to achieve certication as
the Boeing Model 234. A total of 233 CH-47Cs were
built. Canada bought a total of eight CH-47Cs, deliveries
of the type began in 1974. Receiving the Canadian designation CH-147, these were tted with a power hoist
above the crew door, other changes included a ight engineer station in the rear cabin, Boeing referred to the conguration as the Super C. The CH-47C saw wide use
during the Vietnam war, eventually replacing the older
H-21 Shawnee in the combat assault support role.
13.3.6 CH-47D
The CH-47D shares the same airframe as earlier models,

the main dierence being the adoption of more powerful engines. Early CH-47Ds were originally powered by
two T55-L-712 engines, the most common engine is the
later T55-GA-714A. With its triple-hook cargo system,
the CH-47D can carry heavy payloads internally and up
to 26,000 pounds (12 t) (such as 40-foot or 12-metre containers) externally. It was rst introduced into service in
1979. In air assault operations, it often serves as the principal mover of the 155 mm M198 howitzer, accompanying 30 rounds of ammunition, and an 11-man crew. The
13.3.5 CH-47C
CH-47D also has advanced avionics, such as the Global
The CH-47C principally featured more powerful engines Positioning System. Nearly all US Army CH-47D were
and transmissions.[51] Three sub-versions were built; the conversions from previous A, B, and C models, a total of
150
13.3.8 MH-47E
The MH-47E has been used by U.S. Army Special Operations. Beginning with the E-model prototype manufactured in 1991, there were a total of 26 Special Operations
Aircraft produced. All aircraft were assigned to 2160th
SOAR(A) Nightstalkers, home based at Fort Campbell
Kentucky. E models were conversions from existing CH47C model airframes. The MH-47E has similar capabilities as the MH-47D, but includes an increased fuel capacity similar to the CH-47SD and terrain following/terrain
avoidance radar.[58]
In 1995, the Royal Air Force ordered eight Chinook
HC3s, eectively a low-cost version of the MH-47E for
CH-47D of the Spanish Army in 2009
the special operations role. They were delivered in 2001
but never entered operational service due to technical is472 being converted. The last U.S. Army CH-47D built sues with their avionics t, unique to the HC3. In 2008,
HC3s to HC2 standard, to
was delivered to the U.S. Army Reserve, located at Fort work started to downgrade the
[59]
enable
them
to
enter
service.
[52]
Hood, Texas, in 2002.
The Netherlands acquired all seven of the Canadian
Forces' surviving CH-147s and upgraded them to CH- 13.3.9
47D standard. Six more new-build CH-47Ds were delivered in 1995 for a total of 13. The Dutch CH-47D
feature a number of improvements over U.S. Army CH47Ds, including a long nose for Bendix weather radar,
a "glass cockpit", and improved T55-L-714 engines.
As of 2011, the Netherlands shall upgrade 11 of these
which will be updated to the CH-47F standard at a later
date.[53] As of 2011, Singapore has 18 CH-47D/SDs,
which includes twelve Super D Chinooks, in service.[54]
In 2008, Canada purchased 6 CH-47Ds from the U.S.
for the Canadian Helicopter Force Afghanistan for $252
million.[55][56] With 1 CH-47D loss, the remaining 5 CH47D were returned by Canada in 2011 after their mission
in Afghanistan was over.
13.3.7
MH-47D
An American MH-47D stands ready to receive medical supplies

in Feyzabad, Afghanistan.
CH-47F
Soldiers prepare to board a CH-47F at the National Training

Center, Fort Irwin, California in November 2007
The rst CH-47F, an upgraded D model, made its maiden

ight in 2001; the rst production rolled out on 15 June
2006 at Boeings facility in Ridley Park, Pennsylvania,
and rst ew on 23 October 2006.[60] Upgrades included
new 4,868-shaft-horsepower (3,630 kW) Honeywell engines, an upgraded airframe featuring greater single-piece
construction for lower maintenance requirements.[61] The
milled construction reduces vibrations, eliminates exing points, and reduces inspection and repair needs; it
is also expected to increase service life.[62] The CH-47F
can y at speeds of over 175 mph (282 km/h) with a payload of more than 21,000 lb (9.5 t).[63] New avionics include a Rockwell Collins Common Avionics Architecture
System (CAAS) cockpit, and BAE Systems' Digital Advanced Flight Control System (DAFCS).[61]
The MH-47D variant was developed for special forces

operations and has inight refueling capability, a fast
rope-rappelling system and other upgrades. The MH47D was used by U.S. Army 160th Special Operations
Aviation Regiment. 12 MH-47D helicopters were pro- Boeing delivered 48 CH-47Fs to the U.S. Army through
duced. Six were conversions from CH-47A models and August 2008; at that time Boeing announced a $4.8 bilsix were conversions from CH-47C models.[57]
lion contract with the Army for 191 Chinooks.[63] In
13.3. VARIANTS
February 2007, the Netherlands became the rst international customer, ordering six CH-47Fs, expanding their
eet to 17.[64] On 10 August 2009, Canada signed a
contract for 15 CH-47Fs for the Royal Canadian Air
Force, delivered in 201314.[65][66] On 15 December
2009, Britain announced its Future Helicopter Strategy,
including the purchase of 24 new CH-47Fs to be delivered from 2012.[67] Australia ordered seven CH-47Fs in
March 2010 to replace its six CH-47Ds between 2014
and 2017.[68][69] AgustaWestland also domestically assembles the CH-47F under license, known as the Chinook ICH-47F, for several customers.[70]
151
The MH-47G Special Operations Aviation (SOA) version
is currently being delivered to the U.S. Army. It is similar
to the MH-47E, but features more sophisticated avionics including a digital Common Avionics Architecture
System (CAAS). The CAAS is a common glass cockpit
used by dierent helicopters such as MH-60K/Ls, CH53E/Ks, and ARH-70As.[73] The MH-47G also incorporates all of the new sections of the CH-47F.[74]
The new modernization program improves MH-47D and
MH-47E Special Operations Chinook helicopters to the
MH-47G design specs. A total of 25 MH-47E and 11
MH-47D aircraft were upgraded by the end of 2003.
In 2002 the army announced plans to expand the Special Operations Aviation Regiment. The expansion would
add 12 additional MH-47G helicopters.[75] On 10 February 2011, leaders and employees from the H-47 program
gathered for a ceremony at Boeings helicopter facility in
Ridley Park, PA, to commemorate the delivery of the nal MH-47G Chinook to U.S. Army Special Operations
Command. Modernization of MH-47D/E Chinooks to
MH-47G standard is due for completion in 2015.[76]
A CH-47F Block 2 is planned to be introduced after

2020. The Block 2 aims for a payload of 22,000 lb
(10,000 kg) with 4,000 ft/95 F high/hot hover performance, eventually increased up to 6,000 ft/95 F, to
carry the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle; maximum take
o weight would be raised to 24,500 kg (54,000 lb).
It features the composite-based advanced Chinook rotor
blade (ACRB) (derived from the cancelled RAH-66 Comanche) 20 percent more powerful Honeywell T55-715
engines, and the active parallel actuator system (APAS);
the APAS enhances the digital advanced ight-control
system, providing an exact torque split between the ro- 13.3.11
tors for greater eciency. A new fuel system combines
the three fuel cells in each sponson into one larger fuel cell
and eliminating intra-cell fuel transfer hardware, reducing weight by 90 kg (200 lb) and increasing fuel capacity.
Three 60 kVA generators for increased electrical capacity are also featured.[71][72]
CH-47J
The Army plans for a Block 3 upgrade after 2025, which

could include a new 6,000 shp-class engine with boosted
power capacity of the transmission and drive train developed under the future aordable turbine engine (FATE)
program and a lengthened fuselage. The Future Vertical Lift program plans to begin replacing the Armys
rotorcraft eet in the mid-2030s, initially focusing on A JASDF CH-47J ies from Iruma Air Base, Japan.
medium-left helicopters, thus the CH-47 is planned to be
in service beyond 2060, over 100 years after rst entering The CH-47J is a medium-transport helicopter for the
service.[72]
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), and the
Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The dierences
between the CH-47J and the CH-47D are the engine,
rotor brake and avionics, for use for general transporta13.3.10 MH-47G
tion, SAR and disaster activity like U.S. forces.[77] The
CH-47JA, introduced in 1993, is a long-range version of
the CH-47J, tted with an enlarged fuel tank, an AAQ16 FLIR in a turret under the nose, and a partial glass
cockpit.[77][78] Both versions are built under license in
Japan by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, who produced 61
aircraft by April 2001.[79]
A US Army MH-47 Chinook, lands aboard the USS Peleliu
The Japan Defense Agency ordered 54 aircraft of which

39 were for the JGSDF and 15 were for the JASDF. Boeing supplied yable aircraft, to which Kawasaki added full
avionics, interior, and nal paint.[80] The CH-47J model
Chinook (N7425H) made its rst ight in January 1986,
and it was sent to Kawasaki in April.[81] Boeing began delivering ve CH-47J kits in September 1985 for assembly
152
at Kawasaki.[80]
13.3.12
13.3.14 Civilian models
HH-47
On 9 November 2006, the HH-47, a new variant of the

Chinook based on the MH-47G, was selected by the U.S.
Air Force as the winner of the Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR-X) competition. Four development HH-47s
were to be built, with the rst of 141 production aircraft planned to enter service in 2012.[82][83] However,
in February 2007 the contract award was protested and
the GAO ordered the CSAR-X project to be re-bid.[84]
However, the CSAR-X program was again terminated in
2009. In February 2010, the U.S. Air Force announced British Airways Helicopters 234LR at Aberdeen Airport in 1985
plans to replace aging HH-60G helicopters. The Air
Force is deferring secondary combat search and rescue
requirements that called for a larger helicopter.[85][86]
13.3.13
Other export models
BV-347 at the US Army Aviation Museum inFort Rucker, Alabama
A RSAF CH-47SD o loads commandos, during a demonstration

in 2008
The Royal Air Force variant of the CH-47C is known as

the Chinook HC1. The export version of the CH-47C
Chinook for the Italian Army was designated CH-47C
Plus. The Royal Air Force versions of the CH-47D are
known as the Chinook HC2 and HC2A.
The HH-47D is a search and rescue version for the
Republic of Korea Air Force. The CH-47DG is an upgraded version of the CH-47C for Greece. While the
CH-47SD (also known as the Super D) is a modied
variant of the CH-47D, with extended range fuel tanks
and higher payload carrying capacity; the CH-47SD is
currently in use by the Republic of Singapore Air Force,
Hellenic Army and the Republic of China Army.
Eight CH-47Cs were delivered to the Canadian Forces in
1974. These helicopters were in Canadian service until
1991, with the designation CH-147. These aircraft were
subsequently sold to the Netherlands and are now operated by the Royal Netherlands Air Force as CH-47Ds.
Plans are to completely replace the current eet of 17
CH-47Ds with the F-model and enlarge the eet to 20
aircraft, pending funding.
Model 234LR (long range): Commercial transport

helicopter. The Model 234LR can be tted out as an
all-passenger, all-cargo, or cargo/passenger transport helicopter.
Model 234ER (extended range): Commercial
transport version.
Model MLR (multi-purpose long range): Commercial transport version.
Model 234UT (utility transport): Utility transport
helicopter.
Model 414: The Model 414 is the international export version of the CH-47D. It is also known as the
CH-47D International Chinook.
13.3.15 Derivatives
In 1969, work on the experimental Model 347 was begun.
It was a CH-47A with a lengthened fuselage, four-blade
rotors, detachable wings mounted on top of the fuselage
and other changes. It rst ew on 27 May 1970 and was
evaluated for a few years.[87]
13.4. OPERATORS
153
In 1973, the Army contracted Boeing to design a Heavy

Lift Helicopter (HLH), designated XCH-62A. It appeared to be a scaled-up CH-47 without a conventional
body, in a conguration similar to the S-64 Skycrane
(CH-54 Tarhe), but the project was canceled in 1975.
The program was restarted for test ights in the 1980s
and was again not funded by Congress.[87] The scaled up
model of the HLH was scrapped at the end of 2005 at
Fort Rucker, Alabama.[88]
13.4 Operators
Main article: List of Boeing CH-47 Chinook operators
A CH-47 lifts an F-15 to a training installation at Creech Air

Force Base
NASA CH-47B used as an in-ight simulator at Moett Field. It

was formerly used by the U.S. Army, under number 66-19138.
Egypt
Greece
India (15 on order, yet to be received)
Iran
Italy
Japan
Libya
Morocco
Netherlands
Oman
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Korea
South Vietnam (former)
Spain
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey (to be received)[90]
United Kingdom - See Boeing Chinook (UK

variants)
Argentina (former)
Australia
Brazil (to be received)[89]
United States of America
Canada
Vietnam (former)
154
13.6 Specications (CH-47F)
On 14 July 1977, a U.S. Army CH-47 helicopter was

shot down by North Korean forces after straying into
the DMZ.[91]
On 11 September 1982, at an airshow in Mannheim,
Germany, a United States Army Chinook (serial
number 74-22292) carrying parachutists crashed,
killing 46 people. The crash was later found to
have been caused by an accumulation of ground
walnut shell grit used for cleaning machinery,
which blocked lubrication from reaching transmission bearings.[92][93] The accident resulted in the
eventual discontinuation of the use of walnut grit as
a cleaning agent.
Orthographically projected diagram of the Boeing Vertol CH-47
Chinook.
On 6 November 1986, a British International Helicopters Chinook crashed on approach to Sumburgh Data from Boeing CH-47D/F,[101] Army Chinook
Airport, Shetland Islands resulting in the loss of 45 le,[102] International Directory[103]
lives and the withdrawal of the Chinook from crewGeneral characteristics
servicing ights in the North Sea.[94]
On 1 March 1991, Major Marie Therese Rossi Cayton was killed when her Chinook helicopter crashed
after colliding with a microwave tower during a dust
storm. She was the rst American woman to y in
combat during Desert Storm in 1991.[95]
On 2 June 1994, a British RAF CH-47 crashed
killing 25 passengers and 4 crew in Scotland.
On 29 May 2001, a ROK Army CH-47D installing a
sculpture onto Olympic Bridge in Seoul, South Korea failed to unlatch the sculpture. The helicopters
rotors struck the monument; then the fuselage hit
and broke into two. One section crashed onto the
bridge in ames and the other fell into the river. All
three crew members on board died.[96][97]
On 21 February 2002, a U.S. Army Special Forces
MH-47E crashed at sea in the Philippines, killing
all ten U.S. soldiers on board. No enemy re was
involved.[98]
Crew: three (pilot, copilot, ight engineer)

Capacity:
3355 troops or
24 litters and 3 attendants or
28,000 lb (12,700 kg) cargo
Length: 52 ft. fuselage, 98 ft 10 in. with rotors[104]
(30.1 m)
Disc area: 5,600 ft2 (520 m2 )
Powerplant:
2 Lycoming T55-GA-714A
On 11 September 2004, a Greek Army CH-47SD
turboshaft,
4,733
hp (3,529 kW) each
crashed into the sea o Mount Athos. All 17 people
on board were killed, including four senior gures in
Performance
the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[99]
On 7 January 2013, a BV-234 N241CH owned by
Columbia Helicopters, Inc., crashed shortly after
taking o from the airport in Pucallpa, Coronel Portillo Province, Peru. All seven crew members were
killed.[100]

Cruise speed: 130 kt (149 mph, 240 km/h)
Range: 400 nmi (450 mi, 741 km)
Combat radius: 200 nmi (370.4 km) 230 mi
See also: Boeing Chinook (UK variants) Notable

incidents and accidents
Ferry range: 1,216 nmi (1,400 mi, 2,252 km[105] )

13.8. REFERENCES
Disc loading: 9.5 lb/ft2 (47 kg/m2 )
Armament
up to 3 pintle mounted medium machine guns (1 on

loading ramp and 2 at shoulder windows), generally
7.62 mm (0.308 in) M240/FN MAG machine guns
Avionics
Rockwell Collins Common Avionics Architecture

System (CAAS) (MH-47G/CH-47F)
Turboshaft engine on the rear of a CH-47
M240 machine gun emplacement on the loading
ramp, as well as another partly visible on the right
shoulder window
13.7 See also

17th Aviation Brigade (United States)
United States Army Aviation and Missile Command
Related development
Boeing Chinook (UK variants)
CH-46 Sea Knight
CH-53 Sea Stallion
CH-54 Tarhe
Mil Mi-6
Mil Mi-26
S-64 Skycrane
Yakovlev Yak-24
Related lists
155
13.8 References
[1] Boeing Marks 50 Years of Delivering Chinook Helicopters. Boeing. 16 August 2012. Retrieved 2014-0129.
[2] CH-47F Selected Acquisition Report RCS: DDA&T(Q&A)823-278 (PDF). US Department of
Defense. 31 December 2011. p. 13.
[3] Leuutenant General John J. Tolson (1989). Vietnam Studies: Airmobility 196171. Department of the Army (US
Government Printing Oce). CMH Pub 90-4.
[4] Apostolo, Giorgio. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York: Bonanza Books. 1984. ISBN 978-0517-43935-7.
[5] Goebel, Greg. Origins: Vertol V-107 & V-114. Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[6] Spenser, Jay P. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University of Washington Press, 1998.
ISBN 0-295-97699-3.
[7] Holmes, Alexander (26 October 1962). The Quiet
Americans-Our Marines Overseas. Los Angeles Times.
[8] Warwick, Graham (1 April 2008). Chinook: Five
decades of development. Flight International.
[9] Chinook Information and diagrams about the transmission system. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[10] Belden, Tom (21 May 1982). This Whirlybirds an early
bird: Boeing Vertols Army copter delivered on budget.
Philadelphia Inquirer.
[11] Boeing Receives $1.15B Contract for 15 Canadian Chinooks, Announces Matching Reinvestment in Industry.
Boeing. 10 August 2009.
[12] Type Certicate Data Sheet No. H9EA (.PDF). Federal
Aviation Administration. 17 January 2007. Retrieved 8
February 2007.
[13] Chinook Copter to Vietnam. The New York Times. 11
August 1965.
[14] Scannell-Desch, Elizabeth A.; Marion Anderson (2000).
Hardships and Personal Strategies of Vietnam War
Nurses. Western Journal of Nursing Research 22 (5):
526550.
[15] Dunstan, Simon (2003). Vietnam choppers: helicopters in
battle 195075. Osprey Publishing. p. 81.
[16] Anderton, David & Miller, Jay Boeing Helicopters CH47 Chinook. Arlington : Aerofax, Inc, 1989, p. 8, ISBN
0-942548-42-6
[17] Marder, Murray (26 July 1973). Oil pact with U.S. rm:
Iran signs agreement. Victoria Advocate.
[18] Szulcs, Tad (25 July 1971). U.S., Britain Quietly Back
Military Build-Up of Iran. The New York Times.
List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the

Iraq War
[19] US reportedly will buy copters so Iran can't. Milwaukee

Journal. 22 January 1984.
156
[20] about:reader?url=http%3A%2F%2Firartesh.ir%
2Fpost%2F502&tabId=4
[21] Iranian troops smash four-day siege by Kurds. Lakeland
Ledger. 27 August 1979.
[42] ADF Bolsters CH-47D Chinook Capability. Ministerial press release. Department of Defence. 12 December
[43] CH-47D/F Chinook page. Boeing.
[22] Sander Peeters. Iraqi Air-to-Air Victories since 1967.

Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[44] Abraham, Suresh. Tactical Transport Helicopters in Humanitarian Relief Operations. ADJ, April 2009.
[23] Roy, Amit (23 February 1980). Iran feeling squeeze of

European embargo. Spokesman-Review.
[45] Japanese military helicopters dump water on Fukushima

nuclear power plant. New York Post. Retrieved 13
November 2014.
[24] U.S. cuts o plane parts to Iran. Chicago Tribune. 9

November 1979.
[25] Iran, China Seek Military Equipment From Pentagon
Surplus Auctions. Fox News Channel. 16 January 2007.
[26] Iranian engineers overhaul Chinook helicopter. BBC
News. 27 January 2007.
[27] http://irartesh.ir/post/502
[28] British air and land forces outnumbered. Boston Globe.
21 May 1982.
[29] MoD uses 'cut and shut' chopper. BBC News. 18 July
2009.
[30] boeing-vertol CH-47C Chinook in Argentina Comando
de Aviacin del Ejrcito argentino. Helis.com. Retrieved
13 November 2014.
[31] CH-47D/MH-47E Chinook. Army Technology. SPG
Media Limited. 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2006.
[32] Paras tell of their fear under re. The Herald. 12
September 2000.
[33] UK leads Nato into Kosovo. BBC News. 12 June 1999.
[34] Crerar, Pippa (26 January 2006). Scots set for Taliban
Hotspots. Daily Record.
[35] Chinook Replaces Blackhawk in Combat. Air Transportation. 5 March 2008.
[36] Boeing Receives $1.15B Contract for 15 Canadian Chinooks, Announces Matching Reinvestment in Industry.
Boeing, 10 August 2009.
[37] MoD to buy 22 new Chinooks. The Daily Telegraph
(London). 15 December 2009.
[38] Copter Downed by Taliban Fire; Elite U.S. Unit Among
Dead. The New York Times, 6 August 2011.
[39] 31 U.S. Troops Killed in Afghanistan Helo Crash. Defense News, 6 August 2011.
[40] Dodd, Mark (31 May 2011). Insurgent re may have
caused fatal Chinook crash in Afghanistan. The Australian. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
[41] PRESS CONFERENCE WITH CHIEF OF THE
DEFENCE FORCE AIR CHIEF MARSHAL ANGUS HOUSTON AND MINISTER FOR DEFENCE
STEPHEN SMITH. Department of Defence. Retrieved
31 May 2011.
[46] The Christian Science Monitor. CH-47 Chinook helicopter begins dumping water on nuclear reactor. The
Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[47] http://www.citytv.com/toronto/
citynews/topic/japan-earthquake/article/
119408--concern-grows-over-spent-fuel-pools-as-crews-spray-nuclear-plan
Concern grows over spent fuel pools as crews spray nuclear plant with water
[48] http://www.nzherald.co.nz/japan-tsunami/news/article.
cfm?c_id=1503051&objectid=10713272 Japan crisis:
Radiation levels begin to dip
[49] US ARMY CH-47 Chinook Helicopter. Retrieved 13
November 2014.
[50] Guns a Go-Go. chinook-helicopter.com
[51] US Army CH-47A / CH-47B / CH-47C / CH-47D / SOA
Chinooks. Vectorsite.net, 1 July 2004.
[52] Boeing CH-47D model Chinook helicopters. chinookhelicopter.com
[53] Boeing, Netherlands MOD Mark 1st Flight of Royal
Netherlands Air Force CH-47F (NL) Chinook 26 January
2011.
[54] Gunner, Jerry (November 2011). Chinook at 50 World Wokka Operators - Republic of Singapore Air
Force. AirForces Monthly (Key Publishing Ltd) 284:
p.88 (pp.8490). ISSN 0955-7091.
[55] Equipment Procurement Afghanistan Air Capabilities
forces.gc.ca.
[56] Chinooks make their debut in Afghanistan canadianally.com
[57] Boeing MH-47D model Chinook helicopters. chinookhelicopter.com
[58] Boeing MH-47E model Chinook helicopters. chinookhelicopter.com
[59] Hoyle, Craig (6 June 2008). UK starts Chinook HC3 'reversion' work, amid criticism. Flight International. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
[60] New Boeing CH-47F takes ight, Aerotech News and
Review, 3 November 2006, p. 3.
[61] Chinook Helicopter Begins Operational Test Flights with
US Army (Press release). Boeing. 19 February 2007.
13.8. REFERENCES
[62] Holcomb, Henry. New Look Chinook. Philadelphia

Inquirer, 17 August 2007. archive link
[63] Boeing Awarded US Army Contract for 191 CH-47F
Chinook Helicopters (Press release). 26 August 2008.
[64] Boeing Signs Contract for Dutch Chinooks (Press release). Boeing. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 1 April
2015.
[65] Boeing Receives $1.15B Contract for 15 Canadian Chinooks, Announces Matching Reinvestment in Industry
(Press release). Boeing. PRNewswire. Retrieved 1 April
2015.
[66] Leblanc, Daniel (10 August 2009). Chinooks will y too
late for Afghanistan. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 1
April 2015.
[67] As Cuts Loom, Britain Orders 24 Chinooks From Boeing. Defense News, 15 December 2009.
[68] Australia Ordering CH-47F Chinooks. Defense Industry Daily, 22 March 2010.
[69] The Hon. Greg Combet AM MP (20 March 2010). New
Chinook CH-47 helicopters. Media Release. Australian
Department of Defence.
[70] Chinook ICH-47F. AgustaWestland, Retrieved 4 July
2013.
[71] Warwick, Graham (22 April 2013). Block 2 CH-47F
to Tackle Payload Shortfalls. Aviation Weeks Defense
Technology International edition. Retrieved 1 April 2015
via Military.com. (Original story Aviation Week )
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[81] Jackson, Paul (22 July 1999). Janes All the Worlds Aircraft 1999-00. THE BOEING COMPANY. BOEING
114 and 414. US ARMY MH-47E PROCUREMENT..
Retrieved 9 March 2011.
[82] Boeing News Release
[83] Global Security.org
[84] Bowing To GAO, USAF Likely To Recompete CSARX. Aviation Week, 28 February 2007.
[85] Trimble, Stephen. USAF abandons large helicopter for
rescue mission, proposes buying 112 UH-60Ms. Flight
International. 24 February 2010.
[86] USAF HH-60 Personnel Recovery Recapitalization Program Sources Sought RFI. FBO.gov, 23 March 2010.
[87] Goebel, Greg. ACH-47A Gunship / Model 347 / XCH62 HLH (Model 301) / Model 360. Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[88] XCH-62 with photo. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[89] http://www.forte.jor.br/2015/01/14/
exercito-ja-prepara-recebimento-dos-helicopteros-ch-47f-chinook-american
[90] http://www.janes.com/article/47750/
turkey-advances-tfx-fighter-project-orders-new-rifles-more-f-35s-ch-47s
[91] ASN Wikibase Occurrence # 152334.
[92] Air show safety in the spotlight, BBC, 27 July 2002.
[93] Ursula J. Schoenborn v. The Boeing Company, 769 F.2d
115 (3d Cir. 1985) a case in the US Court of Appeals
for the Third Circuit
[72] Trimble, Stephen (31 March 2015). US Army outlines CH-47F upgrades for 100-year lifespan. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
[94] Report No: 2/1988. Report on the accident to Boeing

Vertol (BV) 234 LR, G-BWFC 2.5 miles east of Sumburgh, Shetland Isles, 6 November 1986
[73] Warwick, Graham. Chinook: CAAS unites rotorcraft

cockpits. Flight International, 1 April 2008.
[95] Marie Therese Rossi Cayton. Arlington National Cemetery site.
[74] MH-47E/G Special Operations Chinook product page.

Boeing.
[96] S. Korean Helicopter Crashes Into Bridge, 3 Killed.

Peoples Daily, 30 May 2001.
archive page on
Google.com
[75] John Pike. MH-47G Chinook. Retrieved 13 November

2014.
[76] Superfast Helicopters - Defensemedianetwork.com, October 25, 2011
[77] Crawford, Steve (2003). Twenty-rst century military helicopters: todays ghting gunships. Zenith Imprint. p. 48.
ISBN 0-7603-1504-3.
[78] goebel, greg. Chinook in commercial & foreign service.
Vectorsite.net. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
[97] Crew killed as Korean helicopter hits sculpture. The

Daily Telegraph, 30 May 2001.
[98] A Crash in Philippines. chinook-helicopter.com,
[99] Bamber, David. Four Orthodox church leaders die in air
crash. The Daily Telegraph, 12 September 2004.
[100] Portland-area native among 7 killed in Peru helicopter
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[101] Boeing CH-47D/F Specications.

[79] McGinley, Donna. Boeing Core Business Activities
November 2014.
(PDF). Advocacy and Public Policymaking. Retrieved 9
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[102] U.S. Army Chinook Fact File
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[80] Flight International. Number 4006. Volume 129. New- [103] Frawley, Gerard: The International Directory of Military
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[104] http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/rotorcraft/military/
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[105] United States of America. Naval Training Equipment
Center. Department of the Navy. Recognition Study Cards
US and Foreign Aircraft. Device 5E14H. LSN 6910-LLC006462. Orlando, Florida. 1982. 55 Cards. Annotation: 2252 kilometers.
13.9 External links

CH-47D/F, MH-47E/G, CH-47 history, and Model
234 Chinook history pages on Boeing.com
CH-47A/B/C, ACH-47A, CH-47D/F and CH-47
Chinook pages on Army.mil
CH-47 page on GlobalSecurity.org
CH-47 page on Vectorsite.net
Boeings New Combat-Ready CH-47F Chinook
Helicopter Fielded to First US Army Unit
Italian Chinooks CASR Article
The Kopp-Etchells Eect CH-47 Night Landings
in Afghanistan. Michael Yon online magazine
Chapter 14
Boeing E-4
The Boeing E-4 Advanced Airborne Command Post,
with the project name Nightwatch,[2] is a strategic
command and control military aircraft operated by the
United States Air Force (USAF). The E-4 series was specially modied from the Boeing 747-200B. The E-4 serve
as a survivable mobile command post for the National
Command Authority, namely the President of the United
States, the Secretary of Defense, and successors. The
four E-4Bs are operated by the 1st Airborne Command
and Control Squadron of the 55th Wing located at Outt
Air Force Base, near Omaha, Nebraska. An E-4B is denoted a National Airborne Operations Center when in
action.[3]
A right front view of an E-4 advanced airborne command post

(AABNCP) on the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) simulator for
testing.
14.1 Development
Two of the original 747-200 airframes were originally
planned to be commercial airliners. When the airline did
not complete the order, Boeing oered the airframes to
the United States Air Force as part of a package leading
to a replacement for the older EC-135J National Emergency Airborne Command Post (NEACP). Under the
481B NEACP program the Air Force Electronic Systems
Division awarded Boeing a contract in February 1973 for
two unequipped aircraft, designated E-4A, powered by
four P&W JT9D engines, to which a third aircraft was
added in July 1973. The rst E-4A was completed at
the Boeing plant outside Seattle, Washington in 1973. ESystems won the contract to install interim equipment in
these three aircraft, and the rst completed E-4A was delivered to Andrews AFB, Maryland in December 1974.
The next two were delivered in 1975, the third diered by
being powered by the GE F103 engine, which was later
made standard and retrotted to the previous two aircraft.
The A model eectively housed the same equipment as
the EC-135, but oered more space and an ability to remain aloft longer than an EC-135.[4]
Boeing delivered the rst E-4B (AF Serial Number 750125),[4] which was distinguished from the earlier version
by the presence of a large hump on the dorsal surface directly behind the upper deck. This contains the aircrafts
SHF satellite antenna.[6]
By January 1985 all three E-4As had been retrotted

to E-4B models.[4] The E-4B oered a vast increase in
communications capability over the previous model and
was considered to be 'hardened' against the eects of
electromagnetic pulse (EMP) from a nuclear blast. Hardening the aircraft meant that all equipment and wiring
on board was shielded from EMP. Additional steps were
taken to block radiation from the aircrafts cabin air management system and cockpit, including the novel use of
In November 1973 it was reported that the program cost the same screens used to cover the windows of microwave
was estimated to total $548 million for seven 747s, six ovens placed over the ight deck windows.
as operational command posts and one for research and The E-4B eet has an estimated roll-out cost of approxdevelopment.[5] In December 1973 a fourth aircraft was imately US$250 million each. In 2005 the Air Force
ordered; it was tted with more advanced equipment, re- awarded Boeing a ve-year, US$2 billion contract for the
sulting in the designation E-4B. On 21 December 1979 continued upgrade of the E-4B eet.[7]
159
160
CHAPTER 14. BOEING E-4

simultaneously. The projection screens have since been
replaced with at screen displays.[11]
The battle sta includes various controllers, planners, launch system ocers, communications operators,
weather ocer, communications operators, administrative and support personnel, and a chief of battle sta. The
Looking Glass missions were commanded by a general
ocer with two sta ocers, while the National Airborne Operations Center (NAOC) may rendezvous and
embark a member of the National Command Authority
(NCA) from an undisclosed location. There are at least
48 crew aboard any E-4B mission.
National Emergency Airborne Command Post internal conguration, April 1976
14.2 Design
The E-4B is designed to survive an EMP with systems
intact[8] and has state-of-the-art direct re countermeasures. Although many older aircraft have been upgraded
with glass cockpits, the E-4B still uses traditional analog
ight instruments, as they are less susceptible to damage
from an EMP blast.[9]
The E-4B is capable of operating with a crew up to
112 people including ight and mission personnel,[1] the
largest crew of any aircraft in US Air Force history. With
in-ight aerial refueling it is capable of remaining airborne for a considerable period (limited only by consumption of the engines lubricants and food supplies). In
a test ight for endurance, the aircraft remained airborne
and fully operational for 35.4 hours, however it was designed to remain airborne for a full week in the event of an
emergency.[10] It takes two fully loaded KC-135 tankers
to fully refuel an E-4B. The E-4B has three operational
decks: upper, middle, and lower.
14.2.1
Middle and Upper decks
The ight deck contains the stations for the pilot, copilot,
navigator, and ight engineer, including a special navigation station not normally found on commercial Boeing
747s. A lounge area and sleeping quarters for ight crews
and other personnel are located aft of the ight deck. The
ight crew consists of an aircraft commander, co-pilot,
navigator, and ight engineer.
Behind the projection room is the operations team area

containing the automatic data processing equipment and
seats and console work areas for 29 sta members. The
consoles are congured to provide access to or from the
automated data processing, automatic switchboard, direct
access telephone and radio circuits, direct (hot) lines,
monitor panel for switchboard lines, sta, and operator
inter-phone and audio recorder.
The aft compartment at the end of the main deck is the
Technical Control (Tech Control) area. This area was
the nerve center for all communications and communications technicians. Typically 3 of the 6 crew positions
were occupied here by specialized US Air Force Technicians that were responsible for the proper monitoring
and distribution of all communications power, cooling,
and reliability. The Technical Controller #1 (Tech 1,
TC1) was the direct interface with the aircraft Flight Engineer and Flight Crew. This position was also the main
focal point for all communications related issues. The
Technical Controller #2 (Tech 2, TC2) was responsible
for maintaining all Ultra high frequency communications
between the aircraft and the Nightwatch GEP (Ground
Entry Points). These GEPs provided 12 voice lines to
the aircraft which were used in the day-to-day operations
of the mission. Secure Voice was also provided. The
SHF Operator (or technician) maintained the SHF satellite link and provided other worldwide communications
services probably having replaced a lot of the UHF capabilities.
The rest area, which occupies the remaining portion of
the aft main deck, provides a rest and sleeping area for the
crew members. The rest area contains storage for food[11]
and is also used for religious ceremonies.
Within the forward entry area is the main galley unit
and stairways to the ight deck and to the forward lower
equipment area. This area contains refrigerators, freezers, two convection ovens, and a microwave oven to give
stewards the capability to provide more than 100 hot
meals during prolonged missions. Additionally, four seats
are located on the left side of the forward entry area for
the security guards and the stewards.
The middle deck contains the conference room, which

provides a secure area for conferences and briengs. It
contains a conference table for nine people. Aft of the
conference room is a projection room serving the conference room and the brieng room. The projection room
had the capability of projecting computer graphics, over- Behind the forward entry area is the National Command
head transparencies, or 35 mm slides to either the con- Authority (NCA) area, which is designed and furnished
ference room or the brieng room either singularly or as an executive suite. It contains an oce, a lounge, and
161
sleeping area, and a dressing room. Telephone instruments in this area provide the NCA with secure and clear
worldwide communications.
The brieng room contains a brieng table with three executive seats, eighteen additional seats, a lectern, and two
80 inch at screen LED monitors ush mounted to the
partition.
The communications control area is divided into a voice
area and a data area. The voice area, located on the
right side of the compartment, contains the radio operators console, the semi-automatic switchboard console,
and the communication ocers console. The data area,
located on the left side of the area, contains the record
communications console, record data supervisors console, high speed DATA/AUTODIN/AFSAT console, and
LF/VLF control heads. The E-4B can communicate with
the ground over a wide range of frequencies covering virtually the entire radio communications spectrum from 14
kHz to 8.4 GHz. Ground stations can link the E-4B into
the main US ground-based communications network.
An E-4 at El Dorado International Airport in Bogot, Colombia
(SAC).[12]
The aircraft were originally stationed at Andrews Air

Force Base in Maryland, so that the U.S. President and
Secretary of Defense could access them quickly in the
event of an emergency. The origin of the name NightThe ight avionics area contains the aircraft systems watch comes from the richly detailed Rembrandt paintpower panels, ight avionics equipment, liquid oxygen ing, The Night Watch, that depicts local townsfolk proconverters, and storage for baggage and spare parts.
tecting a town; it was selected by the Squadrons rst
commanding ocer. Later, the aircraft were moved to
Outt Air Force Base where they would be safer from
attack. Until 1994, one E-4B was stationed at Andrews
14.2.2 Lower Lobe
Air Force Base at all times so the President could easily
The forward lower equipment room contains the aircrafts board it in times of world crisis.
water supply tanks, 1200 kVA electrical power panels, The NEACP aircraft originally used the static call sign
step down transformers, VLF transmitter, and SHF SAT- Silver Dollar"; this call sign faded from use when daily
COM equipment. An AC/DC powered hydraulic re- call signs were put in use. When a President boards the
tractable airstair is located in the forward right side of the E-4, its call sign becomes "Air Force One". The E-4B
forward lower equipment area, installed for airplane entry also serves as the Secretary of Defenses preferred means
and exit. In the event of an emergency, the air stair can of transportation when traveling outside the U.S.[13] The
be jettisoned if necessary. The aft lower lobe contains spacious interior and sophisticated communications cathe maintenance console and mission specic equipment. pability provided by the aircraft allow the Secretarys seThe lower trailing wire antenna (TWA) area contains the
aircrafts 5 miles (8.0 km) long TWA reel which is
used by up to 13 communications links the antenna operators station, as well as the antenna reel controls and
indicators. Much attention has been given to hardening
this area against EMP, especially as the TWA, essential
for communicating with Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines, is also particularly eective in picking up EMP.

The E-4 eet was originally deployed in 1974,[1] when
it was termed National Emergency Airborne Command
Post (NEACP) (often pronounced kneecap). The aircraft was to provide a survivable platform to conduct war
operations in the event of a nuclear attack. Early in the E4s service, the media dubbed the aircraft as the doomsday planes.[5] The E-4 was also capable of operating the
Looking Glass missions of the Strategic Air Command
nior sta to work for the duration of the mission.

With the adoption of two highly modied Boeing 747200Bs (Air Force designation VC-25A) to serve as Air
Force One in 1989 and the end of the Cold War, the
need for NEACP diminished. In 1994, NEACP began to
be known as NAOC, and it took on a new responsibility:
ferrying Federal Emergency Management Agency crews
to natural disaster sites and serving as a temporary command post on the ground until facilities could be built on
site. Evidently no E-4B was employed during the Hurricane Katrina Disaster of 2005, though one E-4B was used
by FEMA following Hurricane Opal in 1995.[14]
The cocked or on alert E-4B is manned 24 hours a
day with a watch crew on board guarding all communications systems awaiting a launch order (klaxon launch).
Those crew members not on watch would be in the alert
barracks, gymnasium, or at other base facilities. The 24
hour alert status at Andrews AFB ended when President
Clinton ordered the aircraft to remain at Outt unless
needed, though relief crews remain based at Andrews and
162

E-8 aircraft, and could also perform many of the same
tasks of the E-4B. As of the 2015 Federal Budget there
were no plans for retiring the E-4B. The E-4B airframe
has a usable life of 115K hours and 30K cycles, which
would be reached in 2039; the maintenance limiting point
would occur some time in the 2020s.[23]
All four produced are operated by the U.S. Air Force,

and are assigned to the 1st Airborne Command Control
Squadron (1ACCS) of the 55th Wing at Outt Air Force
Base, Nebraska. Maintenance and crews are provided by
Air Combat Command. Operations are coordinated by
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. One E-4B is kept on the United States Strategic Command.[1]
alert at all times.[1]
In the event that the President travels outside of North
America using a VC-25A as Air Force One, an E-4B will
deploy to a second airport in the vicinity of the Presidents
14.3.1 September 11, 2001
destination, to be readily available in the event of a world
On 11 September 2001, an aircraft closely resembling crisis or an emergency that renders the VC-25A unusable.
an E-4B was spotted and lmed orbiting the Washington When the President visits Honolulu, Hawaii, an E-4B has
away at Hilo International
D.C. area by news outlets and civilians, after the attack often been stationed 200 miles
[24][25]
Airport
on
Hawaii
Island.
on the Pentagon. This aircraft sighting has added fuel
E-4B and two C-32s at Defence Establishment Fairbairn,
Canberra, Australia during bilateral defense talks, February
2008
to the continued speculation and debate concerning the

September 11 attacks.[15][16] In his book Black Ice, author Dan Verton identies this aircraft as an E-4B taking part in an operational exercise, saying the exercise was canceled when the rst plane struck the World
Trade Center.[17] According to air trac control recordings and radar data, this E-4B call sign VENUS77 became airborne just before 9:44 am, circled north of
the White House during its climb, and then tracked to
the south of Washington DC where it held in a holding
pattern.[18][19][20]
14.3.2
14.4 Operators
United States

55th Wing
1st Airborne Command and Control
Squadron (1ACCS)
Recent history
14.5 Variants
E-4A Three aircraft (s/n 73-1676, 73-1677, and 740787) produced. No bulge to house equipment on
top of fuselage.[26] These were later converted to E4Bs.[1]
USAF E-4B 75-0125 in Hilo, Hawaii, December 2013
E-4B One built (s/n 75-0125) and equipped with

52,500-lb CF6-50E2 engines. Has Nuclear electromagnetic pulse protection, nuclear and thermal effects shielding, advanced electronics, and a wide variety of communications equipment.[26]
In January 2006, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld

announced a plan to retire the entire E-4B eet starting in 14.6 Specications (E-4B)
2009. This was reduced to retiring one of the aircraft in
February 2007.[21] The next Secretary of Defense, Robert Data from USAF Fact Sheet,[1] Boeing 747-200
Gates reversed this decision in May 2007.[22] This is due specications[27]
to the unique capabilities of the E-4B, which cannot be
duplicated by any other single aircraft in Air Force ser- General characteristics
vice, and the cancellation in 2007 of the E-10 MC2A,
which was considered as a successor to the EC-135 and
Crew: up to 112
14.8. SEE ALSO

Length: 231 ft 4 in (70.5 m)
Powerplant: 4 General Electric CF650E2
163
14.8 See also

TACAMO
Related development
Boeing 747
Boeing VC-25
Boeing E-6 Mercury
Northrop Grumman E-10 MC2A
Ilyushin Il-80
Performance
Related lists
Cruise speed: Mach 0.84 (555 mph, 895 km/h)

Range: 6,200 nmi (7,100 mi, 11,000 km)
14.9 References
Endurance: 150+ hours [10]
References

Thrust/weight: 0.26
[1] E-4B fact sheet. USAF. March 2005. Retrieved 19

April 2015.
[2] Section 214. Operational Priority, Air Trac Control
(PDF) (order), FAA, 9 February 2012, JO 7110.65U.
[3] Terdiman, Daniel (23 July 2013), Aboard Americas
Doomsday command and control plane, CNET, retrieved
23 July 2013.
[4] Michell 1994, p. 265.
The E-4B plays a prominent role in two motion pictures. [5] Doomsday Jets Increase in Cost. Spartanburg HeraldIn the 1990 HBO lm By Dawns Early Light, following a
Journal. Associated Press. 5 November 1973.
nuclear strike by the Russians the aircraft serves as a ying platform for the presumed president, the ex-Secretary [6] Bowers 1989, p. 528.
of the Interior who is played by Darren McGavin. The
aircraft is pursued by a Boeing EC-135 Looking Glass, [7] Boeing Awarded E-4B Product Support Integrator Contract. 21 December 2005.
which successfully intercepts it. In the 2002 motion picture The Sum of All Fears, the president and his sta travel [8] Dendy IV, Sta Sgt. John B (May 2000), Around
on an E-4B following the detonation of a nuclear weapon
the clock with the E-4B, Airman (magazine) (USAF),
by terrorists. In the novel, the Vice-president and his famarchived from the original on May 10, 2000.
ily are aboard the NEACP after terrorists explode a nuclear bomb in Denver while the President and his Na- [9] American Doomsday overview, video clip. National
Geographic.
tional Security Advisor are stuck at Camp David during
a blinding snowstorm. The E-4s program, Project Night- [10] Winchester, Jim (2006). The Encyclopedia of Modern
watch, was referenced in the book The Fallout, by S. A.
Aircraft. Thunder Bay Press. p. 264.
Bodeen.
[11] Guided Tour Inside the E-4B NAOC Doomsday Plane.
National Geographic produced a television special on

You tube. Horizontal Rain Blog. 30 September 2013.
doomsday planning of the United States which includes
[12] Alwin 1999, p. 608.
footage from inside an E-4 during a drill.[9]
164
[13] Gilmore, Gerry J. Rumsfeld Uses 'Flying Pentagon' To

Communicate During Trips. US Department of Defense,
1 August 2005.
[14] News Photo, US Virgin Islands: FEMA, 1995-09-16.
[15] 9/11: The mystery plane, CNN, 12 September 2007.
[16] Mystery 9/11 aircraft, The Raw Story, 13 September
2007.
[17] Verton 2003, p. 144.

Tyler, Tim (1995). Who are the Nightwatch stations?" (PDF). Special Topic Report (3). Worldwide Ute News Club (WUN). Retrieved 2013-1228.
Verton, Dan (2003), Black Ice: The Invisible Threat
of Cyber-Terrorism, New York City, NY, US:
McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-222787-1.
[18] The 9/11 Mystery Plane Air Trac Control Recording.

[19] 84 RADES with NEADS mix.
USAF E-4 fact sheet
[20] 9-11: The Mystery Plane; not so mysterious
E-4 product page and history page on Boeing.com
[21] Federal Budget Program 0302015F E-4B National Airborne Operations Center (PDF). FY2008 Federal Budget.
February 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[22] Francillon 2008, p. 37.
[23] Federal Budget Program E00400 / E-4B (PDF). bgaaeroweb.com. March 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[24] E-4Bs at ITO. HNL RareBirds. 5 January 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
[25] Plane at Hilo likely Bushs Air Force One backup. The
Honolulu Star-Bulletin. 25 October 2003. Retrieved 31
December 2013.
[26] den Daas, Gostar (January 2014). Boeing E-4 factsheet.
aviamagazine.com/factsheets. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[27] Boeing 747-200 Technical Specications, Boeing
Bibliography
Bowers, Peter M. Boeing Aircraft since 1916.
London:Putnam, 1989. ISBN 0-85177-804-6.
Francillon, Ren J. Doomsday 747s: The National
Airborne Operations Center. Air International,
December 2008. Key Publishing, Syamford, Lincs,
UK. pp. 3237.
Haverlah, Je (2005). Nightwatch Outline.
Worldwide Ute News Club (WUN). Retrieved
2013-12-28.
Jenkins, Dennis R. Boeing 747-100/200/300/SP
(AirlinerTech Series, Vol. 6). Specialty Press,
2000. ISBN 1-58007-026-4.
Lloyd, Alwin T., A Cold War Legacy: A Tribute
to Strategic Air Command- 1946-1992. Missoula,
Montana, United States: Pictorial Histories Publications Company, 1999. ISBN 978-1-57510-052-4.
Michell, Simon. Janes Civil and Military Upgrades
1994-95. Coulsden, Surrey, UK: Janes Information
Group, 1994. ISBN 0-7106-1208-7.
E-4 page on GlobalSecurity.org

E-4 page on TheAviationZone.com
Chapter 15
Boeing E-6 Mercury

E-6B redirects here. For the common ight computer, July 1988. The E-6A, which was initially named Hersee E6B.
mes, entered service with VQ-3 on 3 August 1989, with
the second squadron, VQ-4 receiving its rst E-6As in
The Boeing E-6 Mercury (formerly E-6 Hermes) is an January 1991, allowing the EC-130Q to be phased on in
June that year. The E-6A was renamed Mercury in Auairborne command post and communications relay based
[2]
on the Boeing 707-320. The original E-6A manufac- tumn 1991 by request of the US Navy. Sixteen were
delivered up to 1992.
tured by Boeings defense division entered service with
the United States Navy in July 1989, replacing the EC- The E-6B is an upgrade to the E-6A. It included a bat130Q. It conveyed instructions from the National Com- tlesta area and updated mission equipment. The ight
mand Authority to eet ballistic missile submarines (see deck systems were later replaced with an o-the-shelf
communication with submarines), a mission known as 737 Next Generation cockpit. This greatly increases the
TACAMO (TAke Charge And Move Out). The E-6B situational awareness of the pilot and saves signicant
model deployed in October 1998 kept this role, but added cost over the previous custom avionics package. The rst
further command post capabilities and control of land- E-6B was accepted in December 1997. All 16 E-6A airbased missiles and nuclear-armed strategic bombers. The craft were modied to the E-6B standard, with the nal
E-6B replaced Air Force EC-135Cs in the Looking delivery taking place on 1 December 2006.[3]
Glass role, providing command and control of U.S. nuclear forces should ground-based control become inoperable. With production lasting until 1991, the E-6 was the 15.2 Operational history
nal derivative of the Boeing 707 to be built.
Codenamed Looking Glass, it is United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM)'s Airborne Command
Post, designed to take over in case the Global Operations Center (GOC), located at Outt Air Force Base,
Nebraska, is destroyed or incapable of communicating
with strategic forces. The term looking glass is used
because it mirrors the abilities of the US Navy to control nuclear forces.
15.3 Specications
Data from Navy Fact File[1]
Navy E-6B Mercury at the Mojave Air and Space Port
Crew: 1225
Like the E-3 Sentry airborne warning and control system

(AWACS) aircraft, the E-6 is adapted from Boeings 707320 airliner. The rst E-6 made its maiden ight from
Boeings Renton Factory on 19 February 1987, when it
was own to Boeing Field, Seattle, for tment of mission
avionics, being delivered to the Navy for testing on 22
Capacity: 23
165
Length: 150 ft 4 in (45.8 m)

166
CHAPTER 15. BOEING E-6 MERCURY
[2] Francillon 1995, p. 21.

[3] Walsh, Madonna and Brad Mudd. Boeing Delivers Final
Upgraded E6-B to U.S. Navy. Boeing, 1 December 2006.
15.5.2 Bibliography
Francillon, Ren J. Messenger of the Gods: The
Boeing E-6 Mercury in USN Service. Air International, Vol. 48, No 1, January 1995, pp. 1924.
Detail of the E-6s wingtip
15.6 External links

E-6B Mercury Fact File page, and E-6A/B Mercury

(TACAMO) History page on Navy.mil
Powerplant: 4 CFMI CFM-56-2A-2 high-bypass

turbofans
E-6 Mercury (TACAMO) page at FAS.org
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 0.862 (600 miles per hour
or 520 knots or 970 kilometres per hour)
Range: 6,600 nmi (7,590 mi, 12,144 km) with 6
hours loiter time
Service ceiling: > 40,000 ft (12,200 m)
15.4 See also

Related development
Boeing 707
Boeing E-4
Northrop Grumman E-10 MC2A
Ilyushin Il-80
Related lists
15.5 References
15.5.1
Notes
[1] US Navy Fact File: E-6B Mercury airborne command

post. U.S. Navy. Retrieved: 4 March 2007.
E-6B Mercury page on tacamo.navy.mil

E-6 Mercury page on tech.military.com
Chapter 16
Boeing VC-25
This article is about the current primary aircraft used as
Air Force One. For the history of the callsign and the
use of aircraft, see Air Force One.
The Boeing VC-25 is the designation of a United States
Air Force passenger transportation aircraft, a military
version of the Boeing 747 airliner. The two modied
Boeing 747s are designated VC-25A by the USAF.
The VC-25 is most famous for its role as Air Force One,
the call sign of any U.S. Air Force aircraft carrying the
President of the United States. The two aircraft currently in U.S. service are highly modied versions of Boeings 747-200B, with tail numbers 28000 and 29000. Although the Air Force One designation technically applies Boeing VC-25 Air Force One video
to the aircraft only while the President is aboard, the term
is commonly applied to the VC-25s more generally. They
often operate in conjunction with Marine One helicopters
that ferry the President to airports in circumstances where The VC-25 is not compliant with Automatic Dependent
a vehicle motorcade would be inappropriate.
Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) standards; the Air Force
is upgrading both airplanes. The Air Force reported
that the operating cost for each VC-25A is $210,877 per
hour.[4]
16.1 Development
By 1985, the pair of Boeing 707-based VC-137s used as
the Presidential aircraft had been in service for 23 and
13 years respectively, and the USAF began searching for
an eventual replacement. The Request for Proposal issued stated that the aircraft to be selected should have
at least three engines and an unrefueled range of at least
6,000 miles (9,700 km). Both Boeing with its 747 and
McDonnell Douglas with the DC-10 were in competition to be selected, with the Boeing entry the eventual
winner.[1] The fabrication of the current 747s began during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (19811989). Reagan ordered two identical Boeing 747-200Bs to replace
the Boeing 707s that he used for transport.[2]
The VC-25s were completed in 1986 and rst ew in
1987.[3] The interior designs were created by First Lady
Nancy Reagan, who used designs reminiscent of the
American Southwest.[2] Problems with interior wiring for
communication systems delayed delivery of the two aircraft until 1990,[3] during the administration of George
H.W. Bush.
16.2 Design and conguration

While the VC-25 has two main decks and a cargo area,
like a regular Boeing 747, its 4,000 square feet (370 m)
of oor space has been recongured for presidential duties. Its lowest level is mostly cargo space, carrying luggage and the onboard food supply.
The main passenger area is on the second oor or main
deck.[5] There are three entrances on board, two on the
lower and one on the main deck. Typically the president
boards and deplanes from the front, main deck entrance
via an airstair, while journalists and other passengers enter at the lower rear door. Facilities for the press and other
passengers are congured like an ordinary airliners rstclass cabin.[6]
167
168
CHAPTER 16. BOEING VC-25
President George W. Bush, Bill McGurn, Stephen Hadley and Ed

Gillespie gather in the presidents oce aboard Air Force One en
route to Bahrain in January 2008.
President Barack Obama meets with Rep. Dennis Kucinich, DOhio, aboard Air Force One en route to Cleveland, Ohio, March
15, 2010.
The conference room.
The corridor that runs down the port (left) side of the aircraft.
Secret Service agents are stationed in the two chairs.
aircraft had to land at Barksdale Air Force Base in order

for President George W. Bush to address the nation.[7]
These oces, including the presidents suite, are mostly
located on the starboard (right) side, and a long corridor
runs along the port (left) side. There is an area along the
corridor for two Secret Service agents. The aircraft also
contains a conference room, originally designed as a situation room but now used for meeting with sta while traveling. This room includes a 50-inch plasma screen television which can be used for teleconferencing. The aircraft
has fully equipped oce areas with telecommunication
systems (including 87 telephones and 19 televisions).[5]
The President and First Ladys private quarters. The couches can
fold out into beds.
16.2.1
The White House
On board the VC-25 is a medical annex, which includes

a fold-out operating table, emergency medical supplies,
and a well-stocked pharmacy; George W. Bush had a
treadmill added to Air Force One during his term in ofce. Every ight is staed by a doctor and nurse. The
aircraft is self-sucient, such as carrying all the food it
will need. Meals are prepared in two galleys, which together are equipped to feed up to 100 people at a time.[5]
The President gets his own menu. An area where guests
sit is near the center of the aircraft, outside the White
House.[5]
The front of the aircraft is referred to as the White

House of the aircraft.[5] The presidents executive suite
includes sleeping quarters with two couches that can be
converted into beds, lavatory and shower, vanity, double
sink, and a private oce, or the presidents Oval Oce
aboard Air Force One. If necessary, the president can There are separate quarters for guests, senior sta, Seaddress the nation from the oce. This capability was cret Service and security personnel, and the news meadded after the September 11 attacks, during which the dia located in the aft area of the main deck. Protocol
169
states that one may wander aft of wherever ones assigned

seat is, but not forward.[5] Communications equipment
and the cockpit are on the upper deck. There are also
secure and non-secure voice, fax and data communications facilities.[5] While the aircrafts luggage capacity is
adequate to carry the belongings of the passengers, the
logistics train of the President means that the aircraft
must y preceded by an aerial convoy of several cargo
transports, which carry the helicopters, motorcade vehicles, and other equipment required by the presidential
entourage.[5]
The VC-25 is capable of ying 7,800 miles (12,600
km)roughly one-third the distance around the world The casket of President Gerald Ford being lowered from the
without refueling. It can be refuelled during ight from cabin of SAM 29000 at Andrews Air Force Base, MD, 2006.
a tanker aircraft. The VC-25A can accommodate more
than 70 passengers. Each VC-25A cost approximately
US$325 million. When a VC-25 taxis to an airports
ramp for events, it stops with the port side of the aircraft
facing gathered onlookers.
missiles, and cha to avoid radar-guided missiles. All
small arms and ammunition stores not under the physical possession of the Secret Service on board the VC16.3 Operational history
25s are stowed and secured by the Secret Service in sepThe VC-25 replaced the VC-137C (a military version of arate locked compartments, each with a dierent lockthe Boeing 707) as the mainstay of the Air Force One ing mechanism for added security. Many of the VC-25s
eet. On some occasions, the VC-25s are used to trans- other capabilities are classied for security reasons.
port the Vice President of the United States, for which After a presidential inauguration in which there is a
service they adopt the callsign Air Force Two. These change in oce, the outgoing president is provided a
aircraft are maintained and operated as military opera- ight aboard one of the VC-25 aircraft to his home destions by the Presidential Airlift Group, part of Air Mo- tination. The aircraft is not known as Air Force One for
bility Command's 89th Airlift Wing, based at Andrews this ight because it is not carrying the president in oce.
Air Force Base in Camp Springs, Maryland.
For both Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush,
the ight was known as Special Air Mission 28000, with
28000 representing the aircrafts tail number.[8][9]
A VC-25 at MacDill Air Force Base in Florida on June 16, 2004
The aircraft can also be operated as a military command

center in the event of an incident such as a nuclear attack. Operational modications include aerial refueling
capability and anti-aircraft missile countermeasures. The
electronics on board are connected with approximately
238 miles (383 km) of wiring, twice that of a regular 747.
All wiring is covered with heavy shielding for protection
from an electromagnetic pulse in the event of a nuclear
attack. The aircraft also has electronic countermeasures
(ECMs) to jam enemy radar, ares to avoid heat-seeking
The VC-25A has also been used to transport deceased

former presidents. The guest area aft of the White
House has chairs and tables that can be removed and the
casket laid in their place.[5] The remains of both Ronald
Reagan and Gerald Ford were transported by SAM 28000
and 29000 respectively to Washington for their state funerals, and then on to their nal resting places. Colonel
Mark Tillman, pilot for President George W. Bush, said,
We'll take care of the president from basically when hes
in oce to when he lays [sic] in state.[5] For the funeral
of President Ronald Reagan in 2004, Tillman said that the
crew converted the front of the aircraft to look the way it
would have appeared when Reagan was president; President and Nancy Reagan's Air Force One jackets were
placed on the chairs to make them feel at home.[5] A
specially designed hydraulic lifter (similar to the type
used by airline catering) with the presidential seal axed
to the sides lifts the casket up to the portside aft door to
enter the VC-25A. The tradition of placing the caskets
inside the passenger cabin dates back to the assassination
of John F. Kennedy, when the crew refused to allow the
presidents body to be placed in the cargo hold,[10] and
again during the state funeral of Lyndon B. Johnson.[11]
170
CHAPTER 16. BOEING VC-25
16.3.1
Future
The current 747-200B aircraft are aging and are expected

to be replaced as they have become less cost-eective to
operate. The USAF Air Mobility Command is looking
into possible replacements and press coverage suggested
that the USAF would consider the Boeing 747-8 and the
Airbus A380.[12] On January 7, 2009, the USAF Materiel
Command issued a new Sources Sought notice for a replacement aircraft to enter service by 2017 with an additional two aircraft to follow in 2019 and 2021.[13] In
2009 Boeing was the only aircraft manufacturer interested in supplying the replacement aircraft,[14] and was
reported to be exploring a 787 option also.[15] On 28 January 2009, EADS North America conrmed the company will not respond to the US Air Force notice, as assembling only three airplanes in the US would not make
nancial sense.[16] On 28 January 2015, the Air Force announced the selection of the Boeing 747-8 to replace the
aging VC-25A for presidential transport.[17][18]
16.4 Operators
United States
Cruise speed: Mach 0.84 (575 mph, 925 km/h) at

35,000 ft altitude
Range: 6,800 nmi (7,800 mi, 13,000 km)

Main article: Aircraft in ction Boeing 747
The VC-25 Air Force One is a prominent symbol of
the American presidency and its power; with the White
House and presidential seal, it is one of the most familiar
presidential symbols. Air Force One has often appeared
in popular culture and ction, most notably as the setting
of the 1997 action movie Air Force One where the aircraft
had an escape pod and a parachute ramp, unlike the actual
Presidential aircraft.[20]
16.7 See also

Air Force One photo op incident
Air Force Two
Air transports of heads of state

89th Airlift Wing Presidential Airlift Group
(PAG) - Andrews AFB, Maryland
Related development
16.5 Specications (VC-25A)
Boeing 747
E-4 Nightwatch
Data from Boeing BDS[19]

Crew: 26: 2 pilots, ight engineer, navigator,[3] and
cabin crew
Capacity: 76 passengers
Length: 231 ft 10 in (70.6 m)

VC-137C SAM 26000
VC-137C SAM 27000
Boeing C-32
Boeing C-40 Clipper
16.8 References
Powerplant: 4 General Electric CF680C2B1 Notes

Zero fuel weight: 526,500 lb (238,800 kg)
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 0.92 (630 mph, 1,015
km/h) at 35,000 ft altitude
[1] Thomas, H. U.S. considers Air Force One from Airbus.

heraldnet.com. Retrieved: June 26, 2009.
[2] Williams, Rudi. Reagan Makes First, Last Flight in Jet
He Ordered. United States Department of Defense, June
10, 2004. Retrieved: July 28, 2013.
[3] Jenkins 2000, pp. 5556.
171
[4] Butler, Amy, and Guy Norris, Foregone Conclusion,

Aviation Week and Space Technology, 9 June 2014, pp.
40-41.
Albertazzie, Ralph and Jerald F. Terhorst. Flying

White House: The Story of Air Force One. Book
Sales, 1979. ISBN 0-698-10930-9.
[5] Wallace, Chris (host). Aboard Air Force One. Fox

News, November 24, 2008. Retrieved: November 28,
2008.
Braun, David. Q&A: U.S. Presidential Jet Air Force

One. National Geographic News, May 29, 2003.
[6] Harris, Tom. How Air Force One Works. HowStuWorks.com. Retrieved: October 10, 2006.
Dorr, Robert F. Air Force One. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 2002. ISBN 07603-1055-6.
[7] Stebner, Greg (narrator). On Board Air Force One.

National Geographic Channel, January 25, 2009. Retrieved: June 26, 2009.
[8] Felsenthal, Carol. When Bill Clinton Left the White
House. Chicago Daily Observer, January 22, 2009. Retrieved: June 26, 2009.
[9] Bush ies to Texas to begin post-presidential life. New
York Times, January 20, 2009. Retrieved: September 9,
2011.
[10] Bernstein, Adam (April 29, 2006). Col. James Swindal; Piloted Air Force One After Kennedys Death. The
Washington Post. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
[11] Foley, Thomas (January 25, 1973). Thousands in Washington Brave Cold to Say Goodbye to Johnson. The Los
Angeles Times. p. A1.
[12] US considers Airbus A380 as Air Force One and potentially a C-5 replacement. Flight Global. 17 October
2007.
[13] USAF Presidential Aircraft Recapitalization (PAR) Program. USAF Material Command, January 7, 2009. Retrieved: January 8, 2009.
[14] USAF Presidential Aircraft Recapitalization (PAR) Program, Interested Vendors List. USAF Materiel Command,
January 7, 2009. Retrieved: January 8, 2009.
[15] Butler, Amy. Boeing Only Contender for New Air Force
One. Aviation Week, January 28, 2009. Retrieved January 28, 2009.
[16] EADS waves o bid for Air Force One replacement.
Flight Global. January 28, 2009.
[17] AF Identies Boeing 747-8 platform for next Air Force
One
[18] Mehta, Aaron. Boeing Tapped for Air Force One Replacement. Defence News, 28 January 2015
[19] Air Force One Technical Specs. Boeing Defense, Space
and Security. Retrieved: June 26, 2009.
[20] Hardesty 2003, p. 15.
Bibliography
Air Force One Fact Sheet. United States Air Force,
(Current as of May 2014).
Hardesty, Von. Air Force One: The Aircraft that

Shaped the Modern Presidency. Chanhassen, Minnesota: Northword Press, 2003. ISBN 1-55971894-3.
Harris, Tom. How Air Force One Works. HowStuWorks.com. Retrieved: October 10, 2006.
Jenkins, Dennis R. Boeing 747-100/200/300/SP
(AirlinerTech Series, Vol. 6). North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2000. ISBN 1-58007-0264.
Technical Order 00-105E-9, Segment 9, Chapter
7.
Walsh, Kenneth T. Air Force One: A History of the
Presidents and Their Planes. New York: Hyperion,
2003. ISBN 1-4013-0004-9.
16.9 External links

USAF VC-25 fact sheet
USAF Photo gallery
Chapter 17
Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight

The Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight is a mediumlift tandem rotor transport helicopter powered by twin
turboshaft aircraft engines. It was used by the United
States Marine Corps (USMC) to provide all-weather,
day-or-night assault transport of combat troops, supplies
and equipment until its replacement by the MV-22 Osprey. Additional tasks include combat support, search
and rescue (SAR), support for forward refueling and
rearming points, CASEVAC and Tactical Recovery of
Aircraft and Personnel (TRAP).
The Sea Knight was also the U.S. Navy's standard
medium-lift utility helicopter until it was phased out in
favor of the MH-60S Knighthawk in the early 2000s.
Canada also operated the Sea Knight, designated as CH113, and operated them in the SAR role until 2004. Other
export customers include Japan, Sweden, and Saudi Arabia. The commercial version is the BV 107-II, commonly
referred to simply as the Vertol.
17.1 Development
17.1.1
Origins
Piasecki Helicopter was a pioneering developer of

tandem-rotor helicopters, with the most famous previous helicopter being the H-21 Flying Banana. Piasecki
Helicopter became Vertol in 1955 and work began on a
new tandem rotor helicopter designated the Vertol Model
107 or V-107 in 1956. The V-107 prototype had two
Lycoming T53 turboshaft engines, producing 877 shp
(640 kW) each.[2] The rst ight of the V-107 took place
on 22 April 1958.[3] The V-107 was then put through a
ight demonstration tour in the United States and overseas. In June 1958, the U.S. Army awarded a contract
to Vertol for ten production aircraft designated YHC1A.[4]
The order was later decreased to three, so that the Army
could divert funds for the V-114, also a turbine powered tandem, but larger than the V-107.[4] The Armys
three YHC-1As were powered by GE-T-58 engines. The
YHC-1As rst ew in August 1959, and were followed
by an improved commercial/export model, the 107-II.[1]
U.S. Marines of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit boarding a

CH-46, August 2006
During 1960, the U.S. Marine Corps evolved a requirement for a medium-lift, twin-turbine troop/cargo assault
helicopter to replace the piston-engined types then in
use.[5] That same year Boeing acquired Vertol and renamed the group Boeing Vertol.[4] Following a competition, Boeing Vertol was selected to build its model 107M
as the HRB-1, early in 1961.[1] In 1962 the U.S. Air Force
ordered 12 XCH-46B Sea Knights with the XH-49A designation, but later cancelled the order due to a delivery
delay and opted for the Sikorsky S-61R instead.[6]
Following the Sea Knights rst ight in August 1962, the
designation was changed to CH-46A. In November 1964,
introduction of the Marines CH-46A and the Navys UH46As began. The UH-46A variant was modied for the
vertical replenishment role.[1] The CH-46A was equipped
with a pair of T58-GE8-8B turboshaft engines rated at
1,250 shp (930 kW) each and could carry 17 passengers
or 4,000 pounds (1,815 kg) of cargo.[7]
17.1.2 Further developments

Production of the improved CH-46D followed with deliveries beginning in 1966. Its improvements included
modied rotor blades and more powerful T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines[1] rated at 1,400 shp (1,040 kW) each.
The increased power allowed the D-model to carry 25
troop or 7,000 pounds (3,180 kg) of cargo.[7] The CH-
172
173
46D was introduced to the Vietnam theater in late 1967,

supplementing the U.S. Marine Corps existing unreliable and problematic CH-46A eet.[8] Along with the
USMCs CH-46Ds, the U.S. Navy received a small number of UH-46Ds for ship resupply.[9] Also, approximately
33 CH-46As were upgraded to CH-46Ds.[7]
A door gunner manning a pintle-mounted .50-caliber M2 machine gun aboard a Marine CH-46, August 2006
The Marines also received CH-46Fs from 1968 to 1971.

The F-model retained the D-models T58-GE-10 engines
but revised the avionics and included other modications.
The CH-46F was the nal production model.[1] The Sea
Knight has undergone upgrades and modications. Most
of the U.S. Marine Corps Sea Knights were upgraded to
CH-46E standard. The CH-46E features berglass rotor
blades, airframe reinforcement, and further uprated T58GE-16 engines producing 1,870 shp (1,390 kW) each.
Some CH-46Es have been given double fuel capacity.[7]
The Dynamic Component Upgrade (DCU), incorporated
starting in the mid-1990s, provides for increased capability through strengthened drive systems and rotor controls.
The commercial variant, the BV 107-II, was rst ordered
by New York Airways in 1960. They took delivery of
their rst three aircraft, congured for 25 passengers, in
July 1962.[5] In 1965, Boeing Vertol sold the manufacturing rights of the 107 to Kawasaki Heavy Industries.
Under this arrangement, all Model 107 civilian and military aircraft built in Japan are known as KV 107.[5] On
15 December 2006, Columbia Helicopters, Inc acquired
the type certicate for the Boeing Vertol 107-II, and is
in the process of acquiring a Production Certicate from
the FAA. Plans for actual production of the aircraft have
not been announced.[5]
A U.S. Marine watches two CH-46 Sea Knights, 2002
operations.[7] The CH-46 has xed tricycle landing gear,

with twin wheels on all three units. The gear conguration causes a nose-up stance to facilitate cargo loading
and unloading. The main gear are tted in rear sponsons
that also contain fuel tanks with a total capacity of 350
US gallons (1,438 L).[7]
The CH-46 has a cargo bay with a rear loading ramp that
could be removed or left open in ight for extended cargo
or for parachute drops. An internal winch is mounted in
the forward cabin and can be used to pull external cargo
on pallets into the aircraft via the ramp and rollers. A
belly sling hook (cargo hook) which is usually rated at
10,000 lb (4,500 kg). could be attached for carrying external cargo. Although the hook is rated at 10,000 lb
(4,500 kg)., the limited power produced by the engines
precludes the lifting of such weight. It usually has a crew
of three, but can accommodate a larger crew depending
on mission specics. For example, a Search and Rescue
variant will usually carry a crew of ve (Pilot, Co-Pilot,
Crew Chief, Swimmer, and Medic) to facilitate all aspects of such a mission. A pintle-mounted 0.50 in (12.7
17.2 Design
mm) Browning machine gun is mounted on each side
of the helicopter for self-defense.[7] Service in southeast
The CH-46 has tandem counter-rotating rotors powered
Asia resulted in the addition of armor with the guns.[1]
by two GE T58 turboshaft engines. The engines are
mounted on each side of the rear rotor pedestal with a
driveshaft to the forward rotor. The engines are coupled
so either could power both rotors in an emergency. The 17.3 Operational history
rotors feature three blades and can be folded for on-ship
174
17.3.1
CHAPTER 17. BOEING VERTOL CH-46 SEA KNIGHT
United States
produced documentary.[18]
A aming Marine CH-46 of HMM-265, after being hit by enemy

AAA re in Helicopter Valley, 15 July 1966.[10]
U.S. Marines load a simulated casualty onto a CH-46E during

convoy operations training in May 2004.
Known colloquially as the Phrog, the Sea Knight was

used in all U.S. Marine operational environments between its introduction during the Vietnam War and its
frontline retirement in 2014.[11] The types longevity and
reputation for reliability led to mantras such as phrogs
phorever and never trust a helicopter under 30.[12]
CH-46s transported personnel, evacuated wounded, supplied forward arming and refueling points (FARP), performed vertical replenishment, search and rescue, recovered downed aircraft and crews and other tasks.
CH-46E Sea Knights were also used by the U.S. Marine

Corps during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In one incident
on 1 April 2003, Marine CH-46Es and CH-53Es carried U.S. Army Rangers and Special Operations troops on
an extraction mission for captured Army Private Jessica
Lynch from an Iraqi hospital.[19] During the subsequent
occupation of Iraq and counter-insurgency operations,
the CH-46E was heavily used in the CASEVAC role, being required to maintain 24/7 availability regardless of
conditions.[20] According to authors Williamson Murray
and Robert H Scales, the Sea Knight displayed serious reliability and maintenance problems during its deployment
to Iraq, as well as limited lift capabilities.[21] Following
the loss of numerous US helicopters in the Iraqi theatre,
the Marines opted to equip their CH-46s with more advanced anti-missile countermeasures.[22]
During the Vietnam War, the CH-46 was one of the

prime US troop transport helicopters in the theatre, slotting between the smaller Bell UH-1 Iroquois and larger
Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion. During the 1972 Easter
Oensive, Sea Knights saw heavy use to convey US and
South Vietnamese ground forces to and around the front
lines.[13] CH-46 operations were plagued by major technical problems; the engines, being prone to foreign object damage (FOD) from debris being ingested when hovering close to the ground and subsequently suering a
compressor stall, had a lifespan as low as 85 ight hours;
on 21 July 1966, all CH47s were grounded until more efcient lters had been tted.[14] By the end of US military
operations in Vietnam, over a hundred Sea Knights had
been lost to enemy re.[15]
In February 1968 the Marine Corps Development and
Education Command obtained several CH-46 units to
perform herbicide dissemination tests using HIDAL (Helicopter, Insecticide Dispersal Apparatus, Liquid) systems; testing indicated the need for redesign and further
study.[16] Tandem-rotor helicopters were often used to
transport nuclear warheads; the CH-46A was evaluated to
deploy Naval Special Forces with the Special Atomic Demolition Munition (SADM).[17] Nuclear Weapon Accident Exercise 1983 (NUWAX-83), simulating the crash
of a Navy CH-46E carrying 3 nuclear warheads, was conducted at the Nevada Test Site on behalf of several federal agencies; the exercise, which used real radiological agents, was depicted in a Defense Nuclear Agency-
The U.S. Navy retired the type on 24 September 2004,

replacing it with the MH-60S Seahawk;[23] the Marine
Corps maintained its eet as the MV-22 Osprey was
elded.[24] In March 2006 Marine Medium Helicopter
Squadron 263 (HMM-263) was deactivated and redesignated VMM-263 to serve as the rst MV-22 squadron.[25]
The replacement process continued through the other
medium helicopter squadrons into 2014. On 5 October
2014, the Sea Knight performed its nal service ight
with the U.S. Marine Corps at Marine Corps Air Station
Miramar. HMM-364 was the last squadron to use it outside the United States, landing it aboard the USS America (LHA-6) on her maiden transit. On 9 April 2015,
the CH-46 was retired by the Marine Medium Helicopter
Training Squadron 164, the last Marine Corps squadron
to transition to the MV-22.[26][27]
17.3.2 Canada
The Royal Canadian Air Force procured six CH-113
Labrador helicopters for the SAR role and the Canadian
Army acquired 12 of the similar CH-113A Voyageur for
the medium-lift transport role. The RCAF Labradors
17.4. VARIANTS
were delivered rst with the rst one entering service on
11 October 1963.[28][29] When the larger CH-147 Chinook was procured by the Canadian Forces in the mid1970s, the Voyageur eet was converted to Labrador
specications to undertake SAR missions. The refurbished Voyageurs were re-designated as CH-113A
Labradors, thus a total of 15 Labradors were ultimately
in service.[29]
175
of Aurora, Oregon purchased eight of the retired CH113 Labradors to add to their eet of 15 Vertol 107-II
helicopters.[30]
17.3.3 Sweden
In 1963, Sweden procured ten UH-46B from the US as a
transport and anti-submarine helicopter for the Swedish
armed forces, designated Hkp 4A. In 1973, a further eight
Kawasaki-built KV-107, which were accordingly designated Hkp 4B, were acquired to replace the older Piasecki
H-21. During the Cold War, the eets primary missions were anti-submarine warfare and troop transportation, they were also frequently employed in the search
and rescue role. In the 1980s, the Hkp 4A was phased
out, having been replaced by the Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma; the later Kawasaki-built Sea Knights continued in operational service until 2011, they were replaced
by the UH-60 Black Hawk.
17.3.4 Civilian
CH-113 Labrador 11301 at the Canadian Aviation Museum
The Labrador was tted with a watertight hull for marine

landings, a 5,000 kilogram cargo hook and an external
rescue hoist mounted over the right front door. It featured
a 1,110 kilometer ying range, emergency medical equipment and an 18-person passenger capacity. By the 1990s,
heavy use and hostile weather conditions had taken their
toll on the Labrador eet, resulting in increasing maintenance costs and the need for prompt replacement.[29] In
1981, a mid-life upgrade of the eet was carried out by
Boeing Canada in Arnprior, Ontario. Known as the SARCUP (Search and Rescue Capability Upgrade Program),
the ret scheme included new instrumentation, a nosemounted weather radar, a tail-mounted auxiliary power
unit, a new high-speed rescue hoist mounted over the side
door and front-mounted searchlights. A total of six CH113s and ve CH-113As were upgraded with the last delivered in 1984.[29]
Columbia Helicopters BV 107-II
The civilian version, designated as the BV 107-II Vertol,[31] was developed prior to the military CH-46. It
was operated commercially by New York Airways, Pan
American World Airways and later on by Columbia Helicopters.[31] Among the diversity of tasks was pulling a
hover barge.[32][33] In December 2006, Columbia Helicopters purchased the type certicate of the Model 107
from Boeing, with the aim of eventually producing newbuild aircraft themselves.[34]
In 1992, it was announced that the Labradors were to

be replaced by 15 new helicopters, a variant of the
AgustaWestland EH101, designated CH-149 Chimo. The
order was subsequently cancelled by the Jean Chrtien
Liberal government in 1993, resulting in cancellation
penalties, as well as extending the service life of the
Labrador eet. However, in 1998, a CH-113 from CFB
Greenwood crashed on Quebecs Gasp Peninsula while 17.4 Variants
returning from a SAR mission, resulting in the deaths of
all crewmembers on board. The crash placed pressure 17.4.1 American versions
upon the government to procure a replacement, thus an
order was placed with the manufacturers of the EH101 Model 107 Company model number for basic protofor 15 aircraft to perform the search-and-rescue mistype, one built.[35]
sion, designated CH-149 Cormorant. CH-149 deliveries began in 2003, allowing the last CH-113 to be re- Model 107-II Commercial airline helicopter. All subsequent commercial aircraft were produced as BV
tired in 2004.[29] In October 2005 Columbia Helicopters
176
A HMX-1 CH-46D departs Santa Barbara Municipal Airport

A UH-46D lowers mail to the fantail of USS Decatur
CH-46A before delivery under the 1962 United

States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.
CH-46A Medium-lift assault and cargo transport and
SAR helicopter for the USMC, tted with two
1,250 shp (935 kW) General Electric T58-GE-8 turboshaft engines. Previously designated HRB-1. 160
built for USMC, one static airframe.
UH-46A Medium-lift utility transport helicopter for the
United States Navy. Similar to the CH-46A. 14
built.
HH-46A Approximately 50 CH-46As were converted
into SAR helicopters for the United States Navy
base rescue role.
RH-46A Planned conversion of CH-46As into
minesweeping helicopters for the US Navy, none
converted. Nine SH-3As were converted to the
RH-3A conguration instead.
UH-46B Development of the CH-46A to specication
HX/H2 for the United States Air Force; 12 ordered
in 1962, cancelled and Sikorsky S-61R / CH-3C ordered instead.
YCH-46C YHC-1A redesignated in 1962. United
States Army retained two, NASA used one for vertical autonomous landing trials (VALT).
CH-113 Labrador landing on The Clapper, a sea stack o the

tip of Bell Island in Newfoundland
CH-46D Medium-lift assault and cargo transport helicopter for the USMC, tted with two 1,400 shp
(1,044 kW) General Electric T58-GE-10 turboshaft
107-II-2, two built as Boeing Vertol prototypes, ve
engines. 266 built.
sold to New York Airways, ten supplied to Kawasaki
HH-46D Surviving HH-46A were upgraded and a small
as sub-assemblies or as parts.[36]
number of UH-46Ds were converted into SAR heliModel 107M Company model number for military
copters. SAR upgrades included the addition of an
transport of BV-107/II-2 for the U.S. Marine
external rescue hoist near the front crew door and an
Corps.[37]
18-inch X 18-inch Doppler RADAR system located
behind the nose landing gear, which provided for
YHC-1A Vertol Model 107 for test and evaluation by
automatic, day/night, over-water hovering capability
the United States Army. Adopted by the U.S. Mafor at sea rescue. Additionally a Loud Hailer was
rine Corps as the HRB-1. Later redesignated YCHinstalled opposite the crew entrance door for com46C, three built.
municating with downed aviators on the ground or
HRB-1 Original designation before being renamed as
in the water.
17.4. VARIANTS
177
UH-46D Medium-lift utility transport helicopter for the HKP 4A Boeing Vertol 107-II-14, used originally by
US Navy combat supply role. Similar to the CHAir Force for SAR, ten built.[42]
46D. Ten built and one conversion from CH-46D.
HKP 4B Boeing
Vertol
107-II-15,
mineCH-46E Approximately 275 -A, -D, and -F airframes
layer/ASW/SAR helicopter for Navy, three
were updated to CH-46E standards with improved
built and one conversion from Boeing-Vertol civil
avionics, hydraulics, drive train and upgraded T58prototype.[43]
GE-16 and T58-GE-16/A engines.
HKP 4C Kawasaki KV-107-II-16, advanced mineHH-46E Three CH-46Es were converted into SAR
layer/ASW/SAR helicopter for Navy,eight built.
helicopters for Marine Transport Squadron One
HKP 4D Rebuilt HKP 4A for Navy as SAR/ASW he(VMR-1) at MCAS Cherry Point.[38]
licopter, four conversions.[44]
CH-46F Improved version of CH-46D, electrical distribution, com/nav update BUNO 154845-157726.
Last production model in the United States. 174 17.4.4 Japanese versions
built, later reverted to CH-46E.
VH-46F Unocial designation of standard CH-46F
used by HMX-1 as VIP support transport helicopter.
CH-46X Replacement helicopter based on the Boeing
Model 360, this Advance Technology Demonstrator
from the 1980s never entered production. The aircraft relied heavily on composites for its construction and had a beeer drive train to handle the twin
Avco-Lycoming AL5512 engines (4,200 shp).[39]
XH-49 Original designation of UH-46B.
17.4.2
Canadian versions
A CH-46D assigned to HTS-11 lifts cargo during a VERTREP

mission with the USS Abraham Lincoln
CH-113 Labrador Search and rescue version of the KV-107II-1 (CT58-110-1) Utility transport version,
Model 107-II-9 for the Royal Canadian Air
one built from Boeing-supplied kits.
Force.[40]
KV-107II-2 (CT58-110-1) Commercial airline version,
CH-113A Voyageur Assault and utility transport vernine built from Boeing-supplied kits.
sion of the Model 107-II-28 for the Canadian Army.
Later converted to CH-113A Labrador when the KV-107IIA-2 (CT58-140-1) Improved version of the
Canadian Forces acquired the CH-47 Chinook.[41]
KV-107/II-2, three built.
17.4.3
Swedish versions
KV-107II-3 (CT58-110-1) Minesweeping version for

the JMSDF, two built.
KV-107IIA-3 (CT58-IHI-10-M1) Uprated version of
the KV-107/II-3, seven built.
KV-107II-4 (CT58-IHI-110-1) Assault and
transport version for the JGSDF, 41 built.
utility
KV-107II-4A (CT58-IHI-110-1) VIP version of the

KV-107/II-4, one built.
KV-107IIA-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1) Uprated version of
the KV-107/II-4, 18 built.
KV-107II-5 (CT58-IHI-110-1) Long-range SAR version for the JASDF, 17 built.
Boeing-Vertol civil prototype in service with the Swedish Navy as
HKP 4B
KV-107IIA-5 (CT58-IHI-104-1) Uprated version of

the KV-107II-5, 35 built.
178
17.5.1 Military and Government operators
US Navy Sea Knight ies for the nal time over Norfolk, Virginia
United States
United States Department of State[46]
17.5.2 Civilian operators

CHI Kawasaki Vertol KV-107II slinging a bucket during the
Yellowstone res of 1988
KV-107II-7 (CT58-110-1) VIP transport version, one

built.
KV-107II-16 HKP 4C for Swedish Navy. Powered
by Rolls-Royce Gnome H.1200 turboshaft engines,
eight built.
Canada
Helifor Canada[47]
United States
Columbia Helicopters[48]
KV-107IIA-17 (CT58-140-1) Long-range

transport version for the Tokyo Metropolitan Police 17.5.3
Department, one built.
Former operators
KV-107IIA-SM-1 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) Fireghting

helicopter for Saudi Arabia, seven built.
KV-107IIA-SM-2 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1)
Aeromedical and rescue helicopter for Saudi
Arabia, four built.
KV-107IIA-SM-3 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) VIP
port helicopter for Saudi Arabia, two built.
trans-
KV-107IIA-SM-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) Air ambulance helicopter for Saudi Arabia, three built.
Source:[45]
17.5 Operators
A KV-107 with the JASDF on display at the Kakamigahara

Aerospace Museum
Canada
17.6. NOTABLE ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS

Canadian Army[49]
Royal Canadian Air Force[50]
Japan
Japan Air Self-Defense Force[51]

Japan Ground Self-Defense Force[51]
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force[51]
Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department[52]
Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Interior[53][54]
Sweden
Swedish Air Force[55]
Swedish Navy[55]
179
HMM-265[63]
HMM-268[64]
HMM-364[65]
HMM-764[66]
HMMT-164[67][68]
United States Navy[69][70]
17.6 Notable accidents and incidents

On 15 July 1966 during Operation Hastings, two
CH-46As BuNo 151930 and BuNo 151936 of
HMM-164 collided at LZ Crow while another,
BuNo 151961, crashed into a tree avoiding the rst
two, resulting in 2 Marines killed. Another CH-46
BuNo 152500 of HMM-265 was shot down at the
LZ later that day resulting in 13 Marines killed.[71]
On 4 June 1968 CH-46D BuNo 152533 of HMM165 was hit by anti-aircraft re at Landing Zone
Loon and crashed killing 13 Marines[72]
On 14 March 1969 CH-46D BuNo 154841 of
HMM-161 was hit by a B-40 rocket as it conducted
a resupply and medevac mission at Landing Zone
Sierra, killing 12 Marines and 1 Navy corpsman.[73]
On 9 December 1999, a CH-46D Sea Knight BuNo
154790 of HMM-166 crashed during a boarding exercise o the coast of San Diego, California, killing
seven U.S. Marines. The pilot landed the CH-46D
short on the deck of the USNS Pecos, causing the
left rear tire and strut to become entangled in the
restraint equipment at the back of the ship, which
caused it to plunge into the ocean.[74]
A HKP 4A variant with the Swedish Air Force
17.7 Specications (CH-46E)
Thailand
Royal Thai Army[56]
United States
New York Airways[57]

Pan American Airways[58]
HMX-1[60]
Orthographically projected diagram of the CH-46 Sea Knight
VMR-1[61]
Data from Frawley,[75] Donald[3]
HMM-262[62]
180
Crew: ve: two pilots, one crew chief, one aerial

gunner/observer, one tail gunner
Capacity: ** 24 troops or
15 stretchers and two attendants or
2270 kg (5,000 lb)
Length: 44 ft 10 in fuselage (13.66 m
Fuselage width: 7 ft 3 in (2.2 m))
Disc area: 3,927 ft (364.8 m)
Medal of Honor recipient Mike Clausen's CH-46 on display at

the Carolinas Aviation Museum, 2006

Powerplant: 2 General Electric T58-GE-16
turboshafts, 1,870 shp (1,400 kW) each
Performance
Maximum speed: 166 mph (144 knots, 267 km/h)
Range: 633 mi (550 nmi, 1,020 km)
Japan Air Self Defense Force Hamamatsu Air

Base Publication Center, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka,
Japan[78]
Kakamigahara Aerospace Science
Kakamigahara, Gifu, Japan[79]
Museum,
Kawasaki Vertol 107-II Kawasaki Good Times

World, within Kobe Maritime Museum, Kobe,
Hygo, Japan.[80][81]
Aeroseum, Gothenburg, Sweden Boeing Vertol/Kawasaki KV-107-II (CH-46), Hkp 4C, c/n
4093, Fv 04072 72[82]
Ferry range: 690 mi (600 nmi, 1,110 km)

Armament
Guns: Two door-mounted GAU-15/A .50 BMG

(12.7 x 99 mm) machine guns (optional), one rampmounted M240D 7.62 x 51 mm machine gun (op- A HKP 4B of the Swedish Armed Forces on display at the Swedish
Air Force Museum, Malmen, Sweden
tional)

National Air Force Museum of Canada Labrador
11315[76]
Canada Aviation and Space Museum Labrador
11301[29]
Comox Air Force Museum Labrador 11310[77]
Swedish Air Force Museum, Linkping Sweden.

Prototype BV-107-II N6679D[83] Bought used from
Boeing in 1970.
Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, San Diego,
California, USA has CH-46E #154803 (c/n 2410)
as YS-09 Lady Ace 09 of HMM-165. The CH46 took part in Operation Frequent Wind and was
used to evacuate Ambassador Graham Martin, the
last United States Ambassador to South Vietnam
17.10. REFERENCES
from the United States Embassy, Saigon on 30 April
1975.[84][85]
USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California displays HH-46A #150954 (c/n 2040) as U.S. Navy
SA-46 of HC-3 on one side and VR-46 of HC-11
on the other.[86]
National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola,
FL displays HH-46D #151952 (c/n 2102) as U.S
Navy HW-00 of HC-6.[87]
181
17.10 References
Citations
[1] CH-46 history page, U.S. Navy, 16 November 2000.
[2] Apostolo, Giorgio. Boeing Vertol Model 107. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York: Bonanza
Books. 1984. ISBN 978-0-517-43935-7.
[3] Donald 1997, p. 175.
Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA has Raymond Clausen's Medal of Honor
mission CH-46E #153389 (c/n 2287) as HMM-263
EG-16. The rear fuselage of #153335 was used in
restoration.[88]
[4] Spenser, Jay P. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University of Washington Press, 1998.
ISBN 0-295-97699-3.
New River Aviation Memorial at the front gate of

Marine Corps Air Station New River, (part of Camp
Lejeune) in Jacksonville, North Carolina- CH46E
#153402 (c/n 2300) as YS-02 of HMM-162 on one
side and HMM-261 on the other.[89][90]
[6] US Air Force CH-46B. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
[5] Tandem Twosome, Vertical Magazine, FebruaryMarch

2007.
[7] Boeing Sea Knight. Vectorsite.net, 1 August 2011.

[8] Rottman and Hook 2007, p. 10.
[9] Eden, Paul, ed. Boeing-Vertol H-46 Sea Knight, Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books,
2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
National Museum of the Marine Corps Quantico,

Virginia has a walk-through exhibit containing the
rear half of a CH-46D displayed as the former [10] King, Tim (23 April 2012). Vietnams Helicopter Valley:
Graveyard of Marine CH-46s. Salem-News.com (Salem,
#153986 (c/n 2337) YK-13 from HMM-364 with
[91]
OR).
Retrieved 12 December 2014.
their logo, The Purple Fox. The front half of the
aircraft was used as a training aid display for HMX- [11] Boeing Vertol 107 CH-46 Sea Knight. Helicopter His1.[92][93]
tory Site. Helis.com.
Patriots Point Naval and Maritime Museum in
Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, has CH-46E
#154009 (c/n 2360) of HMM-164.[94][95]
Veterans Museum Dyersburg Army Air Base in
Halls, Tennessee.[96]
17.9 See also

Related development
CH-47 Chinook
Piasecki H-25
Sikorsky S-61
Yakovlev Yak-24
Related lists
[12] Ask A Marine. HMM-364 Purple Foxy Ladies.

[13] Hamilton, Molly. Former CH-46 Sea Knight pilot
lends expertise to Vietnam Experience Exhibit. patriotspoint.org, 3 November 2014.
[14] Dunstan 2003, pp. 182-184.
[15] CH-46 Sea Knight. National Naval Aviation Museum,
[16] Darrow Robert A.. Historical, Logistical, Political and
Technical Aspects of the Herbicide/Defoliant Program,
1967-1971. Plant Sciences Laboratories, US Army
Chemical Corps, Fort Detrick, Frederick MD, September
1971. p. 30. A Resume of the Activities of the Subcommittee on Defoliation/Anticrop Systems (Vegetation Control Subcommittee) for the Joint Technical Coordinating
Group/Chemical-Biological.
[17] 0800031 Special Atomic Demolition Munition (SADM)
Delivery by Parachutist/Swimmer/ Declassied U.S. Nuclear Test Film #31. osti.gov. Department of Energy.
[18] NUWAX-83 training scenario lm.
[19] Stout, Jay A. Hammer from Above, Marine Air Combat
Over Iraq. Ballantine Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0-89141871-9.
[20] Cheeca, Rocky. Evacuating the Injured. Air & Space
Magazine, September 2012.
182
[21] Murray and Scales 2005, p. 272.
[44] HKP 4D. Helis.com.
[22] Warwick, Graham. Picture: US Marine Corps tests

anti-missile system for Boeing CH-46 Sea Knight as Iraq
helicopter shoot-downs mount. Flight International, 23
February 2007.
[45] database for all Kawasaki KV-107 helicopters built.

Helis.com. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
[46] Old Phrogs get new life. 2012, Gannett Government
Media Corporation. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
[23] Crawley, James W. Swan song for Navys ugly-duckling

copter. SignonSanDiego.com.
[47] Helifor Fleet. helifor.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[24] Major Acquisition Programs Aviation Combat Element

Programs (PDF). Headquarters Marine Corps. 2006.
[48] Columbia 107-II. colheli.com. Retrieved 7 March

2013.
[25] White, LCpl Samuel. VMM-263 ready to write next

chapter in Osprey program. U.S. Marine Corps.
[49] Worlds Air Forces 1981 pg. 330. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[26] Venerable 'Sea Knight' Makes Goodbye Flights - Military.com, 3 October 2014
[50] Boeing Vertol CH-113 Labrador. Retrieved 3 January

2013.
[27] Marines Bid Phrog Farewell to Last Active CH-46E Sea

Knight Squadron - News.USNI.org, 10 April 2015
[51] World Air Forces 1987 pg. 66. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
[28] Milberry, Larry: Sixty Years The RCAF and Air Command 19241984, p. 472. McGraw Hill Ryerson, 1984.
ISBN 0-07-549484-1
[29] Canada Aviation and Space Museum (n.d.). Boeing Vertol CH-113 Labrador. Retrieved 2008-11-18.
[30] Columbia Helicopters Acquires eight CH-113 Labrador
helicopters from Canadian military. RotorHub. RotorHub.com. Archived from the original on 22 December
[52] "
Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
[53] World Air Forces 2004 pg. 83. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[54] Kawasaki/Vertol KV107 operators. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
[55] World Air Forces 1987 pg. 91. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
[56] Thai aviation history. Retrieved 2012-12-14.
[31] Eichel, Garth. Columbia Helicopters. Vertical Magazine, FebruaryMarch 2007.
[57] New York Airways Boeing-Vertol V 107 N6672D. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
[32] Happy birthday to Columbia Helicopters! Oregon-based

company celebrates its 50th anniversary Vertical (magazine), 18 April 2007. Retrieved: 24 August 2012.
[58] HEAVY-LIFT HELPERS. Vertical magazine. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
[33] The hover barge Columbia Helicopters. Retrieved: 24

August 2012.
[34] Type Certicate Data Sheet No. 1H16 (PDF). Federal
Aviation Administration. 17 January 2007. Retrieved
2007-02-08.
[35] Boeing BV-107 helicopters built. Helis.com
[36] Boeing BV-107/II helicopters built. Helis.com
[37] Boeing H-46 helicopters built. Helis.com
[38] LCpl Payne, Doug (20 December 2007). Pedro retires
last HH-46Ds (PDF). The Windsock (Marine Corps Air
Station Cherry Point, NC). pp. A1 & A3. Retrieved
2008-07-25.
[59] Vietnam-era Marine helo ies into history.

sandiego.com. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
ut-
[60] HMX-1. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 7 March 2013.

[61] VMR-1. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[62] Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron-262 [HMM262]". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[63] Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron-265. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[39] Photo of Boeing Model 360 with CH-46X tail markings. Airport-data.com. 2007-06-17. Retrieved 201404-25.
[66] Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 764. tripod.com.

[40] CH-113 Labrador. Helis.com.
[67] Marine Medium Helicopter Training Squadron 164. tripod.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[41] CH-113A Voyageur. Helis.com.

[42] HKP 4A. Helis.com.
[43] HKP 4B. Helis.com.
[68] Vietnam-era Marine helo ies into history

[69] World Air Forces 2004 pg. 96. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
[70] Polmar, Norman (2005). [page 384 The Naval Institute

Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet] (18th ed.).
p. 384. ISBN 978-1591146858. Retrieved 28 March
2015.
[71] Shulimson, Jack (1982). U.S. Marines in Vietnam: An
Expanding War, 1966 (Marine Corps Vietnam Operational
Historical Series). Marine Corps Association. pp. 1645.
ASIN B000L34A0C.
[72] 680606 HMM-165 Vietnam. USMC Combat Helicopter Association. Retrieved 31 December 2014.
[73] Smith, Charles (1988). US Marines in Vietnam High Mobility and Standdown 1969. History and Museums Division Headquarters United States Marine Corps. p. 55.
ISBN 9781494287627.
[74] A Tailhook of a Dierent Kind... check-six.com
[75] Frawley, Gerald. The International Directory of Military
Aircraft, 2002/2003, p. 48. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia:
Aerospace Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[76] National Air Force Museum of Canada (2010).
Labrador. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
[77] Comox Air Force Museum (December 2009). News.
[78] Display aircraft JASDF Hamamatsu Air Base Publication
Center
[79] Display helicopters Kakamigahara Aerospace Science
Museum
[80] Museum Outline Kawasaki Good Times World
[81] JA9555. Chakkiri.com. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
183
[92] Helicopter halved to serve as museum exhibit, training aid

[93] Swifty Finds Permanent Home
[94] Boeing-Vertol CH-46D c/n 2360 - Helicopter Database.
[95] Patriots Point Adds 1967 CH-46D Helicopter
[96] Veterans Museum welcomes new exhibit
Bibliography
Andrade, John U.S.Military Aircraft Designations
and Serials since 1909. Midland Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 0-904597-22-9.
Andrade, John. Militair 1982. London: Aviation
Press Limited, 1982. ISBN 0-907898-01-7.
Donald, David ed. Boeing Vertol Model 107 (H-46
Sea Knight)" The Complete Encyclopedia of World
Aircraft, Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997. ISBN 07607-0592-5.
Dunstan, Simon. Vietnam Choppers: Helicopters in
Battle 1950-1975, Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN
1-84176-796-4.
Murray, Williamson and Robert H. Scales. The Iraq
War. Harvard University Press, 2005. ISBN 067450-412-7.
Rottman, Gordon and Adam Hook. Vietnam Airmobile Warfare Tactics. Osprey Publishing, 2007.
ISBN 1-84603-136-2.
[82] Aircraft at Museum. Aeroseum

[83] boeing-vertol hkp4b - Helicopter Database. Helis.com.
[84] Boeing-Vertol CH-46D c/n 2410- Helicopter Database.

CH-46D/E Sea Knight and CH-46 history pages on

U.S. Navy site; CH-46 page on USMC site
[85] Myers, Phil (31 March 2012). HMM-165 Lady Ace

09 Dedication. militaryaviationjournal.com/. Military
Aviation Journal. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
CH-46 product page and CH-46 history page on

Boeing.com

[89] Boeing-Vertol CH-46D (c/n 2300) - Helicopter
Database. Helis.com. Retrieved 2014-12-12.
[90] Lingafelt, Jared (6 November 2014). MV-22 dedicated
to Aviation Memorial. The Globe (Jacksonville, NC).
[91] Boeing-Vertol CH-46D (c/n 2337) - Helicopter
Database. Helis.com. Retrieved 2014-12-13.
Columbia Helicopters Largest Civilian Operator

of BV/KV Model 107
Boeing Vertol 107 & H-46 Sea Knight on Airliners.net
Detail List of CH-113 Labradors & Voyageurs
Kawasaki Helicopter Services (S.A.) Ltd.
Chapter 18
Close air support

Joint Fires Observers, Joint Terminal Attack Controllers
(JTAC)s, and Forward Air Controllers (FAC).
18.1 History
18.1.1 World War I
The use of aircraft in the close air support of ground
forces dates back to World War I, the rst signicant use
of aerial units in warfare.[2] Air warfare, and indeed aviation itself, was still in its infancyand the direct eect
of rie calibre machine guns and light bombs of World
War I aircraft was very limited compared with the power
of (for instance) a World War II ghter bomber, but close
A Boeing AH-64 Apache attack helicopter provides close air supsupport aircraft still had a powerful psychological impact.
port to United States Army soldiers patrolling the Tigris River
The aircraft was a visible and personal enemyunlike
southeast of Baghdad, Iraq during the Iraq War
artillerypresenting a personal threat to enemy troops,
while providing friendly forces assurance that their supeIn military tactics, close air support (CAS) is dened as riors were concerned about their situation.
air action by xed or rotary-winged aircraft against hostile Most successful attacks of 19171918 included planning
targets that are close to friendly ground or naval forces, for co-ordination between aerial and ground units, aland which requires detailed integration of each air mis- though it was very hard at this early date to co-ordinate
sion with re and movement of these forces.[1]
these attacks due to the primitive nature of air-to-ground
Conversely, deep air support (DAS) is air action directed
on objectives not in the immediate vicinity of friendly
forces for the purposes of neutralizing and destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and for interfering with enemy command, supply, communications, and observations.
The determining factor for CAS is detailed integration,
not proximity. CAS may need to be conducted far from
friendly forces, if the mission requires detailed integration with the re and movement of these forces. A closely
related subset of air interdiction, battleeld air interdiction denotes interdiction against units with near-term
eects on friendly units, but which does not require integration with friendly troop movements. The term battleeld air interdiction is not currently used in US joint
doctrine.
radio communication. Though most airpower proponents sought independence from ground commanders and
hence pushed the importance of interdiction and strategic
bombing, they nonetheless recognised the need for close
air support.[3]
From the commencement of hostilities in 1914, aviators
engaged in sporadic and spontaneous attacks on ground
forces, but it wasn't until 1916 that an air support doctrine
was elaborated and dedicated ghters for the job were put
into service. By that point, the startling and demoralizing
eect that attack from the air could have on the troops in
the trenches had been made clear.
At the Battle of the Somme, 18 British armed

reconnaissance planes strafed the enemy trenches after
conducting surveillance operations. The success of this
improvised assault spurred innovation on both sides. In
Close air support requires excellent coordination with 1917, following the Second Battle of the Aisne the British
ground forces. In advanced modern militaries, this co- debuted the rst ground-attack aircraft, a modied F.E 2b
ordination is typically handled by specialists such as ghter carrying 20-lb bombs and mounted machine-guns.
184
18.1. HISTORY
185
seater planes, the Germans preferred the use of heavier
two-seaters with an additional machine gunner in the aft
cockpit. The Germans adopted the powerful Hannover
CL.II and built the rst purpose built ground attack aircraft, the Junkers J.I. During the 1918 Spring Oensive the Germans employed 30 squadrons, or Schlasta,
of ground attack ghters and were able to achieve some
initial tactical success.[3] The British later deployed the
Sopwith Salamander as a specialised ground attack aircraft, although it was too late to see much action.
It was during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of 1918

that Close Air Support was rst proven to be an imporThe F.E 2d was one of the rst aircraft to be used for close air tant factor in ultimate victory. After the British achieved
support in 1917 (the observer is demonstrating the use of the rear- air superiority over the German aircraft sent to aid the
Ottoman Turks, squadrons of S.E 5as and D.H. 4s were
ring Lewis gun).
sent on wide-ranging attacks against German and Turkish
positions near the Jordan river. Combined with a ground
After exhausting their ammunition the planes returned to assault lead by General Edmund Allenby, three Turkish
base for refuelling and rearming and returned to the bat- armies soon collapsed into a full rout. In the words of the
tlezone. Other modied planes used in this role were the attacking squadrons ocial report:
Airco DH.5 and Sopwith Camelthe latter was particularly successful in this role.[2]
No 1 Squadron made six heavy raids during
Aircraft support was rst integrated into a battle plan on a
the day, dropped three tons of bombs and red
large scale at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai, where a signifnearly 24,000 machine gun rounds. The panic
icantly larger number of tanks were deployed than preand slaughter beggared description ...[2]
viously. By that time, eective anti-aircraft tactics were
being used by the enemy infantry and pilot casualties were
high, although air support was later judged as having been 18.1.2 Inter-war period
of a critical importance in places where the infantry had
got pinned down.[2]
British doctrine at the time came to recognise two forms
of air support; trench strang (the modern-day doctrine of CAS), and ground strang (the modern-day doctrine of air interdiction)attacking tactical ground targets away from the land battle. As well as strang
with machine-guns, the planes were modied with bomb
racks; the plane would y in very low to the ground and
release the bombs just above the trenches.
The British used air power extensively during the interwar period
to police areas in the Middle East.
The close air support doctrine was further developed in

the interwar period. Most theorists advocated the adaptation of ghters or light bombers into the role. During
this period, airpower advocates crystallized their views on
the role of airpower in warfare. Aviators and ground ocers developed largely opposing views on the importance
of CAS, views that would frame institutional battles for
CAS in the 20th century.
The Junkers J.I, a First World War German ground-attack aircraft
The inter-war period saw the use of CAS in a number

of conicts, including the Russo-Polish War, the Spanish
wars in the Middle East and the Gran
The Germans were also quick to adopt this new form Civil War, colonial
[2]
Chaco
War.
of warfare and were able to deploy aircraft in a similar capacity at Cambrai. While the British used single- The British used air power to great eect in various colo-
186
nial hotspots in the Middle East and North Africa during the immediate postwar period. The newly formed
RAF contributed to the defeat of Afghan forces during the Third Anglo-Afghan War by harassing the enemy and breaking up their formations. Z force, an air
squadron, was also used to support ground operations
during the Somaliland campaign, in which the 'Mad Mullah' Mohammed Abdullah Hassan's insurgency was defeated. Following from these successes, the decision was
made to create a unied RAF Iraq Command to use air
power as a more cost-eective way of controlling large
areas than the use of conventional land forces.[4] It was
eectively used to suppress the Great Iraqi Revolution of
1920 and various other tribal revolts.
CHAPTER 18. CLOSE AIR SUPPORT

merely duplicated the abilities of artillery, whereas interdiction provided a unique capability.
Ground ocers contended there was rarely sucient artillery available, and the exibility of aircraft would be
ideal for massing repower at critical points, while producing a greater psychological eect on friendly and hostile forces alike. Moreover, unlike massive, indiscriminate artillery strikes, small aerial bombs wouldn't render
ground untracable, slowing attacking friendly forces.[3]
Although the prevailing view in ocial circles was largely
indierent to CAS during the interwar period, its importance was expounded upon by military theorists, such as
J. F. C. Fuller and Basil Liddell Hart. Hart, who was an
advocate of what later came to be known as 'Blitzkrieg'
tactics, thought that the speed of armoured tanks would
render conventional artillery incapable of providing support re. Instead he proposed that:
actual 'oensive' support must come from an
even more mobile artillery moving alongside.
For this purpose the close co-operation of lowying aircraft...is essential[6]
18.1.3 World War II

World War II marked the universal acceptance of the
integration of air power into combined arms warfare as
The Condor Legion reduced the city of Guernica to rubble, and close air support. Although the German Luftwae was
greatly inuenced German military strategists.
the only force to use CAS at the start of the war, all the
major combatants had developed eective air-ground coDuring the Spanish Civil War German volunteer aviators ordination techniques by the wars end.
of the Condor Legion on the Nationalist side, despite little
ocial support from their government, developed close
air support tactics that proved highly inuential for sub- Luftwae
sequent Luftwae doctrine.
U.S. Marine Corps Aviation was used as an intervention force in support of U.S. Marine Corps ground forces
during the Banana Wars, in places such as Haiti, the
Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. Marine Aviators
experimented with air-ground tactics and in Haiti and
Nicaragua they adopted the tactic of dive bombing.[5]
The observers and participants of these wars would base
their CAS strategies on their experience of the conict.
Aviators, who wanted institutional independence from
the Army, pushed for a view of airpower centered around
interdiction, which would relieve them of the necessity of
integrating with ground forces and allow them to operate
as an independent military arm. They saw close air support as both the most dicult and most inecient use of A ight of Ju 87 D-5s over the Eastern Front, winter 194344.
aerial assets.
Close air support was the most dicult mission, requiring
identifying and distinguishing between friendly and hostile units. At the same time, targets engaged in combat
are dispersed and concealed, reducing the eectiveness
of air attacks. They also argued that the CAS mission
As a continental power intent on oensive operations,

Germany could not ignore the need for aerial support of
ground operations. Though the Luftwae, like its counterparts, tended to focus on strategic bombing, it was
unique in its willingness to commit forces to CAS. Unlike
18.1. HISTORY
187
the Allies, the Germans were not able to develop powerful strategic bombing capabilities, which implied industrial developments they were forbidden to take according to the Treaty of Versailles.[7] In joint exercises with
Sweden in 1934, the Germans were rst exposed to divebombing, which permitted greater accuracy while making attack aircraft more dicult to track by antiaircraft
gunners. As a result, Ernst Udet, chief of the Luftwae
's development, initiated procurement of close support
dive bombers on the model of the U.S. Navys Curtiss
Helldiver, resulting in the Henschel Hs 123, which was
later replaced by the famous Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. Experience in the Spanish Civil War lead to the creation of
ve ground-attack groups in 1938, four of which would
be equipped with Stukas. The Luftwae matched its material acquisitions with advances in the air-ground coordination. General Wolfram von Richthofen organized a
limited number of air liaison detachments that were attached to ground units of the main eort. These detachments existed to pass requests from the ground to the
air, and receive reconnaissance reports, but they were not
trained to guide aircraft onto targets.
be implemented, and the Luftwae commander followed

the schedule he had previously worked out with Guderian. As late as November 1941, the Luftwae refused to
provide Erwin Rommel with an air liaison ocer for the
Afrika Korps, because it would be against the best use of
the air force as a whole.[3]
These preparations did not prove fruitful in the invasion of

Poland, where the Luftwae focused on interdiction and
dedicated few assets to close air support. But the value of
CAS was demonstrated at the crossing of the Meuse River
during the Invasion of France in 1940. General Heinz
Guderian, one of the creators of the combined-arms tactical doctrine commonly known as "blitzkrieg", believed
the best way to provide cover for the crossing would be
a continuous stream of ground attack aircraft on French
defenders. Though few guns were hit, the attacks kept
the French under cover and prevented them from manning their guns. Aided by the sirens attached to Stukas,
the psychological impact was disproportional to the destructive power of close air support (although as often as
not, the Stukas were used as tactical bombers instead of
close air support, leaving much of the actual work to the
older Hs 123 units for the rst years of the war). In addition, the reliance on air support over artillery reduced
the demand for logistical support through the Ardennes.
Though there were diculties in coordinating air support
with the rapid advance, the Germans demonstrated consistently superior CAS tactics to those of the British and
French defenders. Later, on the Eastern front, the Germans would devise visual ground signals to mark friendly
units and to indicate direction and distance to enemy emplacements.
RAF and USAAF
Despite these accomplishments, German CAS was not

perfect and suered from the same misunderstanding and
interservice rivalry that plagued other nations air arms,
and friendly re was not uncommon. For example, on
the eve of the Meuse oensive, Guderians superior cancelled his CAS plans and called for high-altitude strikes
from medium bombers, which would have required halting the oensive until the air strikes were complete. Fortunately for the Germans, his order was issued too late to
German CAS was also extensively used on the Eastern

Front during the period 19411943. Their decline was
caused by the growing strength of the Red Air Force and
the redeployment of assets to defend against American
and British strategic bombardment. The introduction of
improved Soviet tanks, the T-34 and KV-1 temporarily
reduced the eectiveness of close air support, even after
the adoption of 30 mm cannon and shaped-charge bombs,
until more powerful cannons, air-to-ground mortars and
rockets were introduced. While German procedures for
CAS led the way, their loss of air superiority and technological advantage, combined with a declining supply of
aircraft and fuel, crippled their ability to provide eective CAS on the western front after 1943.
US Navy SBD Dauntless dropping its bomb.
The Royal Air Force (RAF) entered the war woefully unprepared to provide CAS. In 1940 during the Battle of
France, the Royal Air Force and Army headquarters in
France were located at separate positions, resulting in unreliable communications. After the RAF was withdrawn
in May, Army ocers had to telephone the War Oce
in London to arrange for air support. The stunning effectiveness of German air-ground coordination spurred
change. On the basis of tests in Northern Ireland in August 1940, Group Captain A. H. Wann RAF and Colonel
J.D. Woodall (British Army) issued the Wann-Woodall
Report, recommending the creation of a distinct tactical air force liaison ocer (known colloquially as tentacles) to accompany Army divisions and brigades. Their
report spurred the RAF to create an RAF Army Co-
188
operation Command and to develop tentacle equipment strikes by what was originally termed a Mobile Fighter
and procedures placing an Air Liaison Ocer with each Controller traveling with the forward troops. The conbrigade.
troller rode in the leading tank or armoured car and di[13]
Although the RAF was working on its CAS doctrine in rected a cab rank of aircraft above the battleeld.
London, ocers in North Africa improvised their own This system of close co-operation rst used by the Desert
coordination techniques. In October 1941, Sir Arthur Air Force, was steadily rened and perfected, during the
Tedder and Arthur Coningham, senior RAF commanders campaigns in Italy, Normandy and Germany.
in North Africa, created joint RAF-Army Air Support
Control stas at each corps and armored division headquarters, and placed a Forward Air Support Link at each
brigade to forward air support requests. When trained
tentacle teams arrived in 1942, they cut response time
on support requests to thirty minutes.[3] It was also in
the North Africa desert that the cab rank strategy was
developed.[8] It used a series of three aircraft, each in
turn directed by the pertinent ground control by radio.
One aircraft would be attacking, another in ight to the
battle area, while a third was being refuelled and rearmed
at its base. If the rst attack failed to destroy the tactical
target, the aircraft in ight would be directed to continue
the attack. The rst aircraft would land for its own refuelling and rearming once the third had taken o. The
CAS tactics developed and rened by the British during
the campaign in North Africa served as the basis for the
Allied system used to subsequently gain victory in the
air over Germany in 1944 and devastate its cities and
industries.[2]
British Mobile Fighter Controllers operating during World War II
The use of forward air control to guide close air support (CAS)[9] aircraft, so as to ensure that their attack
hits the intended target and not friendly troops, was rst
used by the British Desert Air Force in North Africa, but
not by the USAAF until operations in Salerno.[10] During
the North African Campaign in 1941 the British Army
and the Royal Air Force established Forward Air Support
Links (FASL), a mobile air support system using ground
vehicles. Light reconnaissance aircraft would observe enemy activity and report it by radio to the FASL which was
attached at brigade level. The FASL was in communication (a two-way radio link known as a tentacle) with the
Air Support Control (ASC) Headquarters attached to the
corps or armoured division which could summon support
through a Rear Air Support Link with the airelds.[11][12]
They also introduced the system of ground direction of air
By the time the Italian Campaign had reached Rome, the

Allies had established air superiority. They were then
able to pre-schedule strikes by ghter-bomber squadrons;
however, by the time the aircraft arrived in the strike
area, oftimes the targets, which were usually trucks, had
ed.[14] The initial solution to eeting targets was the
British Rover system. These were pairings of air controllers and army liaison ocers at the front but able to
switch communications seamlessly from one brigade to
another hence Rover. Incoming strike aircraft arrived
with pre-briefed targets, which they would strike 20 minutes after arriving on station only if the Rovers had not
directed them to another more pressing target. Rovers
might call on artillery to mark targets with smoke shells,
or they might direct the ghters to map grid coordinates,
or they might resort to a description of prominent terrain features as guidance. However, one drawback for the
Rovers was the constant rotation of pilots, who were there
for fortnightly stints, leading to a lack of institutional
memory. US commanders, impressed by the British tactics at the Salerno landings, adapted their own doctrine to
include many features of the British system.[15]
At the start of the War, the United States Army Air Forces
(USAAF) had, as its principal mission, the doctrine of
strategic bombing. This incorporated the unerring belief
that unescorted bombers could win the war without the
advent of ground troops. This doctrine proved to be fundamentally awed. However, during the entire course of
the war the USAAF top brass clung to this doctrine, and
hence operated independently of the rest of the Army.
Thus it was initially unprepared to provide CAS, and in
fact, had to be dragged kicking and screaming into the
CAS function with the ground troops. USAAF doctrinal
priorities for tactical aviation were, in order, air superiority, isolation of the battleeld via supply interdiction, and
thirdly, close air support. Hence during the North African
Campaign CAS was poorly executed, if at all. So few
aerial assets were assigned to U.S. troops that they red
on anything in the air. And in 1943, the USAAF changed
their radios to a frequency incompatible with ground radios.
The situation improved during the Italian Campaign,
where American and British forces, working in close cooperation, exchanged CAS techniques and ideas. There,
the AAFs XII Air Support Command and the Fifth U.S.
Army shared headquarters, meeting every evening to plan
strikes and devising a network of liaisons and radios for
communications. However, friendly re continued to be
a concern pilots did not know recognition signals and
regularly bombed friendly units, until an A-36 was shot
18.1. HISTORY
down in self-defense by Allied tanks. The expectation of
losses to friendly re from the ground during the planned
invasion of France prompted the black and white invasion
stripes painted on all Allied aircraft from 1944.
189
advance of General Patton's Third Army in its drive
across France. Armed reconnaissance was a major feature of XIX TAC close air support, as the rapid advance
left Pattons Southern ank open. Such was the close nature of cooperation between the Third Army and XIX
TAC that Patton actually counted on XIX TAC to guard
his anks. This close air support from XIX TAC was thus
undoubtedly a key factor in the rapid advance and success
of Pattons Third Army.
The American Navy and Marine Corps used CAS in conjunction with or as a substitute for the lack of available
artillery or naval gunre in the Pacic theater. Navy and
Marine F6F Hellcats and F4U Corsairs used a variety of
ordnance such as conventional bombs, rockets and napalm to dislodge or attack Japanese troops utilizing cave
complexes in the latter part of World War II.
Red Air Force
A-36A of the 86th Fighter Bomber Group (Dive) in Italy in 1944.
In 1944, USAAF commander Lt. Gen. Henry (Hap)

Arnold acquired 2 groups of A-24 dive bombers, the
army version of the Navys SBD-2, in response to the
success of the Stuka and German CAS. Later, the USAAF developed a modication of the North American
P-51 Mustang with dive brakes the North American
A-36. However, there was no training to match the purchases. Though Gen. Lesley McNair, commander of
Army Ground Forces, pushed to change USAAF priorities, the latter failed to provide aircraft for even major training exercises. Six months before the invasion of
Normandy, 33 divisions had received no joint air-ground
training.
The USAAF saw the greatest innovations in 1944 under
Gen. Elwood Quesada, commander of IX Tactical Air
Command, supporting the First U.S. Army. He developed the armored column cover, where on-call ghterbombers maintained a high-level of availability for important tank advances, allowing armor units to maintain
a high tempo of exploitation even when they outran their
artillery assets. He also used a modied antiaircraft radar
to track friendly attack aircraft to redirect them as necessary, and experimented with assigning ghter pilots to
tours as forward air controllers to familiarize them with
the ground perspective. In July 1944, Quesada provided
VHF aircraft radios to tank crews in Normandy. When
the armored units broke out of the Normandy beachhead, tank commanders were able to communicate directly with overhead ghter-bombers. However, despite
the innovation, Quesada focused his aircraft on CAS only
for major oensives. Typically, both British and American attack aircraft were tasked primarily to interdiction,
even though later analysis showed them to be twice as
dangerous as CAS.
A Soviet Air Force Il-2M Sturmovik
The Red Air Force was not slow to recognize the value of
ground support aircraft. Even as far back as the Battles
of Khalkhyn Gol, Russian aircraft were given the task of
disrupting enemy ground operations. This use increased
markedly after the German invasion.[16] Purpose-built
aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik were highly
eective in blunting the activity of the Panzers. Joseph
Stalin paid the Il-2 a great tribute in his own inimitable
manner: when a particular production factory fell behind
on its deliveries, Stalin sent the following cable to the factory manager: They are as essential to the Red Army as
air and bread.[17]
18.1.4 Korean War

From Navy experiments with the KGW-1 Loon, the
Navy designation for the German V-1 ying bomb,
Marine Captain Marian Cranford Dalby developed the
AN/MPQ-14, a system that enabled radar-guided bomb
release at night or in poor weather.[18]
Though the Marine Corps continued its tradition of intimate air-ground cooperation in the Korean War, the
newly created United States Air Force (USAF) again
moved away from CAS, now to strategic bombers and
jet interceptors. Though eventually the Air Force supXIX TAC, under the command of General Otto P. Wey- plied sucient pilots and forward air controllers to proland utilized similar tactics to support the rapid armored vide battleeld support, coordination was still lacking.
190

advocated a degree of decentralization for good reactivity, in contrast with the USAF-favored centralization
of CAS. The third point dealt with the lack of training
and joint culture, which are necessary for an adequate
air-ground integration. Finally, USAF aircraft were not
designed for CAS: the advent of jet ghters, too fast
to adjust their targets, and strategic bombers, too big
to be used on theatre, rendered CAS much harder to
implement.[7]
18.1.5 Vietnam and the CAS role debate
F4U-5 Corsairs provide close air support to U.S. Marines ghting

Chinese forces during the Korean War, December 1950.
Since pilots operated under centralized control, ground

controllers were never able to familiarize themselves with
pilots, and requests were not processed quickly. Harold
K. Johnson, then commander of the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division (later Army Chief of Sta)
commented regarding CAS: If you want it, you can't get
it. If you can get it, it can't nd you. If it can nd you,
it can't identify the target. If it can identify the target, it
can't hit it. But if it does hit the target, it doesn't do a
great deal of damage anyway.[19]
It is unsurprising, then, that MacArthur excluded USAF
aircraft from the airspace over the Inchon Landing in
September 1950, instead relying on Marine Aircraft
Group 33 for CAS. In December 1951, Lt. Gen. James
Van Fleet, commander of the Eighth U.S. Army, formally
requested the United Nations Commander, Gen. Mark
Clark, to permanently attach an attack squadron to each
of the four army corps in Korea. Though the request was
denied, Clark allocated many more Navy and Air Force
aircraft to CAS. Despite the rocky start, the USAF would
also work to improve its coordination eorts. It eventually required pilots to serve 80 days as forward air controllers (FACs), which gave them an understanding of the
diculties from the ground perspective and helped cooperation when they returned to the cockpit. The USAF
also provided airborne FACs in critical locations. The
Army also learned to assist, by suppressing anti-aircraft
re prior to air strikes.
The U.S. Army wanted a dedicated USAF presence on
the battleeld to reduce fratricide, or the harm of friendly
forces. The air liaison ocer (ALO) was born. The ALO
is an aeronautically rated ocer that has spent a tour away
from the cockpit, serving as the primary adviser to the
ground commander on the capabilities and limitations of
airpower.
UH-1B with rockets and a grenade launcher
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the US Army

began to identify a dedicated CAS need for itself. The
Howze Board, which studied the question, published a
landmark report describing the need for a helicopterbased CAS requirement.[20] However, the Army did not
follow the Howze Board recommendation initially. Nevertheless it did eventually adopt the use of helicopter
gunships and attack helicopters in the CAS role.[21]
AH-1 Cobra over Vietnam
The Korean War revealed important aws in the application of CAS. Firstly, the USAF preferred interdiction Though helicopters were initially armed merely as defenover re support while the Army regarded support mis- sive measures to support the landing and extraction of
sions as the main concern for air forces. Then, the Army troops, their value in this role lead to the modication of
18.2. AIRCRAFT
early helicopters as dedicated gunship platforms. Though
not as fast as xed-wing aircraft and consequently more
vulnerable to anti-aircraft weaponry, helicopters could
utilize terrain for cover, and more importantly, had much
greater battleeld persistence owing to their low speeds.
The latter made them a natural complement to ground
forces in the CAS role. In addition, newly developed antitank guided missiles, demonstrated to great eectiveness
in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, provided aircraft with an
eective ranged anti-tank weapon. These considerations
motivated armies to promote the helicopter from a support role to a combat arm. Though the U.S. Army controlled rotary-wing assets, coordination continued to pose
a problem. During wargames, eld commanders tended
to hold attack helicopters out of fear of air defenses, committing them too late to eectively support ground units.
The earlier debate over control over CAS assets were reiterated between ground commanders and aviators. Nevertheless, the US Army incrementally gained increased
control over its CAS role.[22]
In the mid-1970s, after Vietnam, the USAF decided to
train an enlisted force to handle many of the tasks the
ALO was saturated with, to include terminal attack control. Now the ALO mainly serves in the liaison role, the
intricate details of mission planning and attack guidance
left to the enlisted members of the Tactical Air Control
Party.
18.2 Aircraft
191
track. The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka is the best known example
of a dive bomber built for precision bombing but which
was successfully utilised for CAS. It was tted with windblown whistles on its landing gear to enhance its psychological eect. Some variants of the Stuka were equipped
with 37 mm anti-tank cannons.
Other than the A-36, a P-51 modied with dive brakes,
the Americans and British used no dedicated CAS aircraft in World War II, preferring ghters or ghterbombers that could be pressed into CAS service. While
some such as the Hawker Typhoon and the P-47 Thunderbolt, performed admirably in that role, there were a number of compromises that prevented most ghters from
making eective CAS platforms. Fighters were usually
optimized for high-altitude operations without bombs or
other external ordnance ying at low level with bombs
quickly expended fuel. Cannons had to be mounted differently for strang strang required a further and
lower convergence point than aerial combat did.
Of the World War II allies, the Soviet Union used specifically designed ground attack aircraft more than the UK
and US. Such aircraft included the Ilyushin Il-2, the single
most produced military aircraft design in all of aviation
history. The Soviets also used the Polikarpov Po-2, a biplane, as a ground attack aircraft.
The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury ghters and the U.S.
Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued
to be used throughout the Vietnam War.
In the Vietnam War, the United States introduced xed
and rotary wing gunships, cargo aircraft retted as gun
platforms to serve as close air support and air interdiction
aircraft. The rst of these was the AC-47 Spooky. Later
models include the Fairchild AC-119 and the Lockheed
AC-130; the latter was used extensively in Afghanistan
and Iraq.
An A-10 Thunderbolt II ring an AGM-65 Maverick missile.
Various aircraft can ll close air support roles. Military

helicopters are often used for close air support and are
so closely integrated with ground operations that in most
countries they are operated by the army rather than the
air force. Fighters and ground attack aircraft like the A- B-1B Lancer on a close air support mission in Afghanistan in
10 Thunderbolt II provide close air support using rockets, 2008
missiles, small bombs, and strang runs.
In World War II, dive bombers and ghters were used in
close air support. Dive bombing permitted greater accuracy than level bombing runs, while the rapid altitude
change made it more dicult for antiaircraft gunners to
Usually close support is thought to be only carried out by

ghter-bombers or dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such
as the A-10 Thunderbolt II (Warthog) or Su-25 (Frogfoot), but even large high-altitude bombers have success-
192
18.3 Technological enhancement
B-1B Lancer employing GBU-38s in Iraq
The use of information technology to direct and coordinate precision air support has increased the importance
of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance in utilizing CAS. Laser, GPS, and battleeld data transfer are
routinely used to coordinate with a wide variety of air
platforms able to provide CAS. Recent doctrine[1] reects
the increased use of electronic and optical technology to
direct targeted res for CAS. Air platforms communicating with ground forces can also provide additional aerialto-ground visual search, ground-convoy escort, and enhancement of command and control (C2), assets which
can be particularly important for low intensity conict.[23]
18.4 See also

Counter-insurgency aircraft, a specic type of CAS
aircraft
Flying Leathernecks
Forward Air Control
Forward observer
Ground-attack aircraft
Light Attack/Armed Reconnaissance
A US Navy F/A-18F Super Hornet in a close air support conguration over Afghanistan in 2009
Pace-Finletter MOU 1952

Tactical bombing, a general term for the type of
bombing that includes CAS and air interdiction
fully lled close support roles using precision guided munitions. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the lack
of ghter aircraft forced military planners to rely heavily on US bombers, particularly the B-1B Lancer, to ll
the CAS role. Bomber CAS, relying mainly on GPS
guided weapons and laser-guided JDAMs has evolved
into a devastating tactical employment methodology and
has changed US doctrinal thinking regarding CAS in general. With signicantly longer loiter times, range, and
weapon capacity, bombers can be deployed to bases outside of the immediate battleeld area, with 12 hour missions being commonplace since 2001. After the initial
collapse of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, airelds in
Afghanistan became available for continuing operations
against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. This resulted in a great
number of CAS operations being undertaken by aircraft
from Belgium (F-16 Fighting Falcon), Denmark (F-16),
France (Mirage 2000D), the Netherlands (F-16), Norway (F-16), the United Kingdom (Harrier GR7s, GR9s
and Tornado GR4s) and the United States (A-10, F-16,
AV-8B Harrier II, F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet,
F/A-18 Super Hornet, UH-1Y Venom).
18.5 Notes
[1] Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Close Air
Support (2003). DoD.
[2] Hallion (1990), Airpower Journal.
[3] House (2001), Combined Arms Warfare.
[4] Boyle, Andrew. Trenchard Man of Vision p. 371
[5] Corum & Johnson, Small Wars, p. 23-40.
[6] Mearsheimer, John J. (2010). Liddell Hart and the Weight
of History. Cornell University Press. Retrieved 2013-0207.
[7] Elie Tenenbaum, The Battle over Fire Support. The
CAS Challenge and the Future of Artillery, Focus
stratgique, No. 35 bis, October 2012. http://www.ifri.
org/downloads/fs35bistenenbaum.pdf
[8] Strike from Above: The History of Battleeld Air Attack
19111945. pp. 181182.
18.6. REFERENCES
[9] Joint Air Operations Interim Joint warfare Publication 3

30 (PDF). MoD. pp. 45. CAS in dened as air action
against targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces
and require detailed integration of each air mission with
the re and movement of these forces
[10] Matthew G. St. Clair, Major, USMC (February 2007).
The Twelfth US Air Force Tactical and Operational Innovations in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations,
19431944. (PDF). Air University Press Maxwell Air
Force Base, Alabama. The use of forward air controllers
(FAC) was another innovative technique employed during
Operation Avalanche. FACs were rst employed in the
Mediterranean by the British Desert Air Force in North
Africa but not by the AAF until operations in Salerno.
This type of C2 was referred to as Rover Joe by the
United States and Rover David or Rover Paddy by the
British.
[11] Air power at the Battlefront: Allied Close Air Support in
Europe, 194345 Ian Gooderson p26
[12] Post, Carl A. (2006). Forward air control: a Royal Australian Air Force innovation. Air Power History.
[13] RAF & Army Co-operation (PDF). Short History of the
Royal Air Force. RAF. p. 147. |chapter= ignored (help)
[14] Strike from the Sky: The History of Battleeld Air Attack
19111945. pp. 181182. ISBN 0-87474-452-0.
[15] Charles Pocock. THE ANCESTRY OF FORWARD
AIR CONTROLLERS. Forward Air Controllers Association. fundamental feature of the system was use of
waves of strike aircraft, with pre-briefed assigned targets
but required to orbit near the line of battle for 20 minutes,
subject to Rover preemption and use against eeting targets of higher priority or urgency. If the Rovers did not
direct the ghter-bombers, the latter attacked their prebriefed targets. US commanders, impressed by British
at the Salerno landings, adapted their own doctrine to include many features of the British system, leading to differentiation of British Rover David, US Rover Joe and
British Rover Frank controls, the last applying air strikes
against eeting German artillery targets.
[16] Austersltt, Tor Willy. Ilyushin Il-2. break-left.org,
2003. Retrieved: 27 March 2010.
[17] Goebel, Greg. Ilyushin Il-2. www.vectorsite.net, June
[18] Krulak, First to Fight, p. 113-119
[19] Blair (1987), Forgotten War, p. 577.
[20] General HH Howze (Obit)". Nytimes.com. 1998-12-18.
[21] Transforming the Force: The 11th Air Assault Division
(Test) from 19631965 Page 29
[22] Interservice Rivalry and Airpower in the Vietnam War
Chapter 5 (PDF). Carl.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
[23] Haun (2006), Air & Space Power Journal.
193
18.6 References
Blair, Clay (1987). The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 19501953. New York: Times
Books/Random House.
Corum, James S. and Wray R. Johnson (2003).
Airpower in Small Wars Fighting Insurgents and
Terrorists. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of
Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1240-8.
Hallion, Dr. Richard P. (Spring 1990). Battleeld
Air Support: A Retrospective Assessment". Airpower
Journal (U.S. Air Force). Archived from the original on 2006-04-01. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
Haun, LtCol Phil M., USAF (Fall 2006). The Nature of Close Air Support in Low Intensity Conict.
Air & Space Power Journal. Retrieved 2007-02-11.
House, Jonathan M. (2001). Combined Arms Warfare in the Twentieth Century. Lawrence, Kansas:
University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1081-2.
Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for
Close Air Support (CAS)" (PDF). Joint Publication 3-09.3 (PDF). U.S. Department of Defense. 3
September 2003. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
Krulak, Victor H. (1984). First To Fight: An Inside
View of the U.S. Marine Corps. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-785-2.
Elie Tenenbaum, The Battle over Fire Support.
The CAS Challenge and the Future of Artillery,
Focus stratgique, No. 35 bis, October 2012.
18.7 External links

DOD dictionary denition of close air support
Our Jets Can Support the Guys On the Ground,
September 1950, Popular Science large article on
the very public debate during the Korean War about
xed-wing jets vs prop aircraft close air support role,
with photos and drawings
Close Air Support 2008
The Forward Air Controller Association
The ROMAD Locator The home of the current
ground FAC
Joint Fires Integration and Interoperability Team
works with CAS and others.
Operation Anaconda: An Airpower Perspective
Close air support during Operation Anaconda,
United States Airforce, 2005.
Chapter 19
Delta IV
Delta IV is an active expendable launch system in the
Delta rocket family. Delta IV uses rockets designed by
Boeing's Integrated Defense Systems division and built
in the United Launch Alliance (ULA) facility in Decatur,
Alabama. Final assembly is completed at the launch site
by ULA.[2] The rockets were designed to launch payloads
into orbit for the United States Air Force Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program and commercial satellite business. Delta IV rockets are available in
ve versions: Medium, Medium+ (4,2), Medium+ (5,2),
Medium+ (5,4), and Heavy, to cover a range of payload
size and weight. Delta IV was primarily designed to satisfy the needs of the U.S. military.
added to cover FY10.[5]

In March 2015, ULA announced plans to phase out all
Delta IV launchers except the Delta IV Heavy by 2018.[6]
The Delta IV will be largely replaced by the Atlas V.[7]
19.1.2 2012 upper stage anomaly
On October 4, 2012, a Delta IV M+ (4,2) experienced

an anomaly in the upper stages RL10-B-2 engine which
resulted in lower than expected thrust. While the vehicle had sucient fuel margins to successfully place the
payload, a GPS Block IIF satellite, into its targeted orbit,
The rockets are assembled at the Horizontal Integration investigation into the glitch delayed subsequent Delta IV
Facility for launches from SLC-37B at Cape Canaveral, launches and the next Atlas V launch (AV-034) due to
and in a similar facility for launches from SLC-6 at commonality between the engines used on both vehicles
upper stages.[8]
Vandenberg Air Force Base.
By December 2012 ULA had determined the cause of
the anomaly to be a fuel leak, and Delta IV launches resumed in May 2013. After two more successful launches,
19.1 History
further investigation led to the delay of Delta ight 365
with the GPS IIF-5 satellite.[9] Originally scheduled to
The Delta IV entered the space launch market when
launch in October 2013, the vehicle eventually lifted o
global capacity was already much higher than demand.
on February 21, 2014.[10]
Furthermore, as an unproven design it has had diculty
nding a market in commercial launches, and the cost to
launch a Delta IV is higher than that for competing ve- 19.1.3 Planned successor
hicles. In 2003, Boeing pulled the Delta IV from the
commercial market, citing low demand and high costs. The Vulcan rocket is planned to replace the Atlas V and
In 2005, Boeing stated that it sought to return the Delta Delta IV rockets. Vulcan is projected to enter service by
IV to commercial service.[3]
2019, using the Blue Origin BE-4 methane-fuelled rocket
All but one of the rst launches have been paid for by the engine.[11]
U.S. Government. In 2015, ULA stated that a Delta IV
Heavy is sold for nearly $400 million.[4]
19.2 Vehicle description

19.1.1
Recent history
19.2.1 Delta IV rst stage
The United States Air Force (USAF) funds Delta IV engineering, integration, and infrastructure through contracts
with Boeing Launch Services (BLS). On August 8, 2008
the USAF Space and Missile Systems Center increased
the cost plus award fee contract with BLS for $1.656
billion to extend the period of performance through the
end of FY09. In addition a $557.1 million option was
Main article: Common Booster Core

The rst stage of a Delta IV consists of one, or
in the Heavy variety three, Common Booster Cores
(CBC) powered by a Rocketdyne RS-68 engine. Unlike
many rst-stage rocket engines, which use solid fuel or
194
19.3. VARIANTS
195
kerosene, the RS-68 engines burn liquid hydrogen and 19.2.3

liquid oxygen.
In 2002, the RS-68 became the rst large liquidpropellant rocket engine designed in the U.S. since the
Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) in the 1970s.[12] The
primary goal for the RS-68 was to reduce cost versus the
SSME. Some sacrice in chamber pressure and specic
impulse was made, hurting eciency; however, development time, part count, total cost, and assembly labor
were reduced to a fraction of the SSME, despite the RS68s signicantly larger size. Typically, the RS-68 runs
at 102% rated thrust for the rst few minutes of ight,
and then throttles down to 58% rated thrust before main
engine cuto.[13] On the Heavy variant, the main CBCs
engine throttles down to 58% rated thrust around 50 seconds after lifto, while the strap-on CBCs remain at
102%. This allows the main CBC to conserve propellant and burn after booster separation. After the strapon CBCs separate, the main CBCs engine throttles back
up to 102% before throttling back down to 58% prior to
main engine cuto.[14]
Guidance, navigation, control and

communications
The L-3 Communications Redundant Inertial Flight Control Assembly (RIFCA) guidance system used on the
Delta IV is common to that carried on the Delta II, although the software is dierent because of the dierences between the Delta II and Delta IV. The RIFCA features six ring laser gyroscopes and accelerometers each,
to provide a higher degree of reliability.[18]
19.2.4 Payload encapsulation
To encapsulate the satellite payload, a variety of dierent payload fairings are available. A stretched Delta III
4-meter composite payload fairing is used on 4-meter
variants, while an enlarged, 5-meter composite fairing is
used on 5-meter variants. A longer fairing version is standard on the Heavy variant, and a Boeing-built Titan IVderived, 5-meter, aluminum isogrid fairing is also available for the Heavy.[19] The Delta IV is over 62 m (205 ft)
The RS-68 engine is mounted to the lower thrust structall.
ture of the vehicle by a four-legged (quadrapod) thrust
frame, and enclosed in a protective composite conical
thermal shield. Above the thrust structure is an aluminum Comparable rockets
isogrid (a grid pattern machined out of the inside of the
tank to reduce weight) liquid hydrogen tank, followed by Angara - Ariane 5 - Atlas V - Falcon 9 - Falcon Heavy a composite cylinder called the centerbody, an aluminum GSLV III - H-IIB - Long March 5 (or Chang Zheng 5) isogrid liquid oxygen tank, and a forward skirt. Along Proton
the back of the CBC is a cable tunnel to hold electrical
and signal lines, and a feedline to carry the liquid oxygen
to the RS-68 from the tank. The CBC is of a constant,
19.3 Variants
5-meter (16.4 ft) diameter.[12]
19.3.1 Delta IV Small
19.2.2
Delta Cryogenic Second Stage
During the Delta IVs development, a Small variant was

considered. This would have featured the Delta II second
stage, an optional Thiokol Star 48B third stage, and the
Delta II payload fairing, all atop a single CBC.[20] The
Small variant was dropped by 1999.[21][22]
Main article: Delta Cryogenic Second Stage
19.3.2 Delta IV Medium

The upper stage of the Delta IV, or DCSS, is based on the
Delta III upper stage, but with increased propellant capacity. The 4-meter (13.1 ft) version uses lengthened propellant tanks, while the 5-meter version has a 5-meter diameter liquid hydrogen tank and a further lengthened liquid
oxygen tank. The second stage is powered by a RL10B2
engine, which features an extendable carbon-carbon nozzle to improve specic impulse.[15] Depending on variant,
two dierent interstages are used to mate the rst and second stages. A tapering interstage which narrows down
from 5 m to 4 m in diameter is used on 4-meter variants,
where a cylindrical interstage is used on 5-meter variants.
Both interstages are built from composites.[16][17]
The Delta IV Medium (Delta 9040) is the most basic

Delta IV. It features a single CBC and a modied Delta
III second stage, with 4-meter liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks and a 4-meter payload fairing. The
Delta IV Medium is capable of launching 4,200 kg to
geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The GTO orbit is
1804 m/s away from GEO. The mass of fairing and payload attach ttings have been subtracted from the gross
performance.[23]
The Delta IV Medium+ (4,2) (Delta 9240) is similar
to the Medium, but uses two Alliant-built 1.5-m (60in) diameter solid rocket booster Graphite-Epoxy Motors
196
CHAPTER 19. DELTA IV
(GEM-60s) strap-on boosters to increase payload capacity to 6,150 kg to GTO.[23]

The Delta IV Medium+ (5,2) (Delta 9250) is similar to
the Medium+ (4,2), but has a 5-mdiameter payload fairing for larger payloads and a modied second stage with a
5-meter liquid hydrogen tank and stretched liquid oxygen
tank. Because of the extra weight of the larger payload
fairing and second stage, the Medium+ (5,2) can launch
5,072 kg to GTO.[23]
The Delta IV Medium+ (5,4) (Delta 9450) is similar to
the Medium+ (5,2), but uses four GEM-60s instead of
two, enabling it to lift 6,882 kg to GTO.[23]
Delta IV evolution
19.3.4 RS-68A upgrade

19.3.3
Delta IV Heavy
The possibility of a higher performance Delta IV was indicated in a 2006 RAND Corporation study of national
Main article: Delta IV Heavy
security launch requirements out to 2020,[26] which noted
The Delta IV Heavy (Delta 9250H) is similar to the that a single National Reconnaissance Oce (NRO) payload would require an increase in the lift capability of
the Delta IV Heavy. This was achieved using the higherperformance RS-68A engine,[27] and launched on June
29, 2012.[28] ULA phased out the baseline RS-68 engine
with the launch of Delta ight 371 on March 25, 2015.
All future launches will use the RS-68A,[29] with the engines higher thrust allowing use of a single CBC design
for all Delta IV Medium and M+ versions. This upgrade
reduces cost and increases exibility, since any standardized CBC can be congured for zero, two, or four solid
boosters; this CBC will necessitate a slight performance
loss for most medium congurations.[30] The Delta IV
Heavy will still require non-standard CBCs for the core
and boosters.[31]
RS-68A
RS-68
*Masses include Payload Attach Fitting weighing from
240 kg to 1,221 kg depending on payload.[1]
19.3.5 Future variants

Possible future upgrades for the Delta IV include adding
extra strap-on solid motors to boost capacity, higherthrust main engines, lighter materials, higher-thrust second stages, more (up to six) strap-on CBCs, and a cryoDelta IV Heavy launching
genic propellant cross feed from strap on boosters to the
common core. These modications could potentially inmass of the payload delivered to LEO to 100
Medium+ (5,2), except that it uses two additional CBCs crease the
[24]
tonnes.
instead of using GEMs. These are strap-on boosters
which are separated earlier in the ight than the center At one point NASA planned to use Delta IV or Atlas V to
CBC. The Delta IV Heavy also features a stretched 5- launch the proposed Orbital Space Plane,[34] which evenmeter composite payload fairing.[24] An aluminum trisec- tually became the Crew Exploration Vehicle and then the
tor (three-part) fairing derived from the Titan IV fairing Orion. Orion was intended to y on the Ares I launch
is also available.[25] This was rst used on the DSP-23 vehicle, then the Space Launch System after Ares I was
ight.
cancelled.
19.4. LAUNCH SITES
197
In 2009 The Aerospace Corporation reported on NASA

results of a study to determine the feasibility of modifying Delta IV to be human-rated for use in NASA human
spaceight missions. According to Aviation Week the
study, found that a Delta IV heavy [...] could meet
NASAs requirements for getting humans to low Earth
orbit.[35]
A possible upgrade to the Delta IV family is the creation
of new variants by the addition of extra solid motors.
One such modication, the Medium+(4,4), would pair
the four GEM-60s of the M+(5,4) with the upper stage
and fairing of the (4,2). This would theoretically provide
a GTO payload of 7,500 kg (16,600 lb) and an LEO payload of 14,800 kg (32,700 lb). This is the simplest variant
to implement and is available within 36 months of the rst
order. Two other possible versions, the Medium+(5,6)
and (5,8), would add two or four extra GEM-60s to the
(5,4) variant, respectively. These would provide signicantly higher performance (up to 9,200 kg/20,200 lb to
GTO for the M+(5,8)) but would require more extensive
modications to the vehicle, such as adding the extra attach points and changes to cope with the dierent ight
loads. They would also require pad and infrastructure
changes. The Medium+(5,6) and (5,8) can be available
within 48 months of the rst order.[36]
19.4 Launch sites

Delta IV launches occur from either of two rocket launch
sites. On the East coast of the United States, Space
Launch Complex 37 (SLC-37) at the Cape Canaveral Air
Force Station. On the West coast, polar-orbit and highinclination launches use Vandenberg Air Force Base's
Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6) pad.
Launch facilities at both sites are similar. At the pad is a
Mobile Service Tower (MST), which provides service access to the rocket and protection from the weather. There
is a crane at the top of the MST, which allows the payload and GEM-60 solid motors to be attached to the vehicle. The MST is rolled away from the rocket several
hours before launch. At Vandenberg, the launch pad also
has a Mobile Assembly Shelter (MAS), which completely
encloses the vehicle; at CCAFS, the vehicle is partly exposed near its bottom.
First Delta IV Heavy with three CBCs prior to launch
Unit (LMU), which is attached to the vehicle by bolts that

sever at launch. Behind the Launch Table is a Fixed Pad
Erector (FPE), which uses two long-stroke hydraulic pistons to raise the vehicle to the vertical position after being
rolled to the pad from the Horizontal Integration Facility
(HIF). Beneath the Launch Table is a ame duct, which
deects the rockets exhaust away from the rocket or facilities.
The Horizontal Integration Facility (HIF) is situated some
distance from the pad. It is a large building that allows the
Delta IV CBCs and second stages to be mated and tested
before they are moved to the pad. The horizontal rocket
assembly of the Delta IV are similar to the ones with
the assembly of Soyuz launch vehicles; they are also assembled horizontally, unlike the Space Shuttles, the past
Saturn launch vehicles and the upcoming Space Launch
System, where they are assembled and rolled out to the
launch pad entirely vertically.
Beside the vehicle is a Fixed Umbilical Tower (FUT),

which has two (VAFB) or three (CCAFS) swing arms.
These arms carry electrical, hydraulic, environmental control, and other support functions to the vehicle
through umbilical lines. The swing arms retract at T-0 Movement of the Delta IVs among the various facilities at
seconds to prevent them from hitting the vehicle.
the pad is facilitated by Elevating Platform Transporters
Under the vehicle is a Launch Table, with six Tail Ser- (EPTs). These rubber-tired vehicles can be powered by
vice Masts (TSMs), two for each CBC. The Launch Ta- either diesel engines or electric power. Diesel EPTs are
ble supports the vehicle on the pad, and the TSMs provide used for moving the vehicles from the HIF to the pad,
further support and fueling functions for the CBCs. The while electric EPTs are used in the HIF, where precision
vehicle is mounted to the Launch Table by a Launch Mate of movement is important.[37]
198
19.5 Vehicle processing
Delta IV 4-Meter Second Stage
Delta IV CBCs are assembled at ULAs factory in

Decatur, Alabama. They are then loaded onto the M/V
Delta Mariner, a roll-on/roll-o cargo vessel, and shipped
to either launch pad. There, they are ooaded and rolled
into a Horizontal Integration Facility (HIF), where they
are mated with the second stages, which were shipped
separately to the pad on the Delta Mariner. Also, in the
HIF, the three CBCs of Heavy variant are mated to each
other.
Various tests are performed, and then the vehicle is rolled
horizontally to the pad, where the Fixed Pad Erector GOES-N launch on a Medium+ (4,2)
(FPE) is used to raise the vehicle to the vertical position,
inside the MST. At this time, the GEM-60 solid motors,
if any are required, are rolled to the pad and attached to
the vehicle. After further testing, the payload (which has
already been enclosed in its fairing) is transported to the
pad, hoisted into the MST by a crane, and attached to the
vehicle. Finally, on launch day, the MST is rolled away
from the vehicle, and the vehicle is ready for launch.[38]
19.6 Delta IV launches

For more details on this topic, see List of Thor and Delta
launches (20002009).
For more details on this topic, see List of Thor and Delta
A unique aerial view of NROL-22 launch from SLC-6
launches (20102019).
List Date: March 28, 2015
For planned launches, see:
List of Thor and Delta launches (20102019)
19.6.1
Notable past launches
The rst payload launched with a Delta IV was the

Eutelsat W5 communications satellite. The launch vehicle was a Medium+ (4,2) variant, launched from Cape
Canaveral. It carried the communications satellite into
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) on November 20,

2002.
Heavy Demo was the rst launch of the Heavy variant
in December 2004 after signicant delays due to bad
weather. Due to cavitation in the propellant lines, sensors
registered depletion of propellant. The strap-on, and later
core CBC engines shut down prematurely, even though
sucient propellant remained to continue the burn as
scheduled. The second stage attempted to compensate
for the under-burn, until it ran out of propellant. This
ight was a test launch carrying a payload of:
19.8. REFERENCES
DemoSat 6020 kg; an aluminum cylinder lled
with 60 brass rods planned to be carried to GEO;
however due to the sensor faults, the satellite did not
reach this orbit.
199
List of launch vehicles
19.8 References
NanoSat-2, carried to low Earth orbit (LEO) a set

of two very small satellites of 24 and 21 kg, nicknamed Sparky and Ralphie planned to orbit for one
day. Given the under-burn, the two most likely did
not reach a stable orbit.[66]
[1] Delta IV Users Guide (PDF). ULA. June 2013.

Archived from the original (PDF) on July 2014. Retrieved
July 2014.
NROL-22 was the rst Delta IV launched from SLC-6

at Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB). It was launched
aboard a Medium+ (4,2) in June 2006 carrying a classied satellite for the U.S. National Reconnaissance Oce
(NRO).
[3] Boeings Delta IV may return to commercial launches.

Orange County Register. March 25, 2005.
DSP-23 was the rst launch of a valuable payload aboard

a Heavy vehicle. This was also the rst Delta IV launch
contracted by the United Launch Alliance, a joint venture
between Boeing and Lockheed Martin. The main payload
was the 23rd and nal Defense Support Program missilewarning satellite, DSP-23. Launch from Cape Canaveral
occurred on November 10, 2007.[67]
NROL-26 was the rst heavy EELV launch for the
NRO. It carried USA 202, a classied reconnaissance
satellite, on a Delta IV Heavy that lifted o January 18,
2009.[68]
NROL-32 was a heavy launch, carrying a satellite for
NRO. The payload is speculated to be the largest satellite
sent into space. The rocket lifted o on November 21,
2010;[69] the launch was delayed from October 19.
[2] Boeing and Lockheed Martin Complete United Launch

Alliance Transaction (Press release). Boeing. December
1, 2006.
[4] Clark, Stephen (22 April 2015). ULA needs commercial

business to close Vulcan rocket business case. Spaceight
Now. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
[5] DefenseLink Contracts for Friday, August 08, 2008.
US Department of Defense. 8 August 2008. Retrieved
6 January 2009.
[6] ULA Targets 2018 for Delta 4 Phase-out, Seeks Relaxation of RD-180 Ban. SpaceNews.com. Retrieved 201503-03.
[7] http://sputniknews.com/science/20150318/1019638384.
html
[8] Bergin, Chris. Home Forums L2 Sign Up ISS Commercial Shuttle SLS/Orion Russian European Chinese Unmanned Other Atlas V green light after RL-10 is exonerated during Delta IV anomaly review. NASASpaceight.com. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
NROL-49 lifted o from Vandenberg AFB on January 20, [9]

2011.[44] It was the rst Delta IV Heavy mission to be
launched out of Vandenberg. This mission was for the
NRO and its details are classied.[70]
[10]
A Delta IV Heavy launched the Orion spacecraft on an
uncrewed test ight, EFT-1, on December 5, 2014.[71]
The launch was originally planned for December 4, but
high winds and valve issues caused the launch to be [11]
rescheduled for December 5.[72]
19.6.2
Planned launches
Several GPS Block IIIA satellites will be launched

using Medium+ (4,2) rockets (as well as Atlas V 401
rockets).
19.7 See also

Comparison of orbital launchers families
Comparison of orbital launch systems
Advanced Common Evolved Stage
Expendable launch system
Gruss, Mike. Glitch on October 2012 Delta 4 Mission Is

Behind GPS 2F-5 Launch Delay. SpaceNews.com. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
United Launch Alliance Successfully Launches 25th
Delta IV Mission Carrying Global Positioning System
Satellite for the U.S. Air Force. United Launch Alliance.
21 Feb 2014. Retrieved 21 Feb 2014.
Mike Gruss (13 April 2015). ULAs Next Rocket To Be
Named Vulcan. Space News.
[12] Space Launch Report: Delta IV Data Sheet. Ed Kyle.

September 5, 2010.
[13] Delta IV GOES-N Launch Timeline. Spaceight Now.
June 9, 2005.
[14] Delta IV Heavy Demo Launch Timeline. Spaceight
Now. December 1, 2004.
[15] Delta IV Payload Planners Guide (PDF). United Launch
Alliance. September 2007. pp. 15 to 16.
[16] ATK Composite and Propulsion Technologies Help
Launch Defense Weather Satellite. Alliant Techsystems.
November 2006.
[17] ATK Propulsion Technologies Help Launch Boeings
Delta IV Heavy Rocket. Alliant Techsystems. November 2007.
200
[18] L-3 Space & Navigations RIFCA Trihex

[19] Delta IV Payload Planners Guide (PDF). United Launch
Alliance. September 2007. pp. 17.
[41] Justin Ray (December 22, 2004). Air Force says plenty
of good came from Delta 4 test. Spaceight Now. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
[21] Gunters Space page - Delta IV
[42] Justin Ray (June 27, 2006). New era of rocket launches
begins at California base. Spaceight Now. Retrieved
December 12, 2010.
[22] Boeing Signs agreement for Delta IV Integration Facility (Press release). Boeing. January 28, 1999.
[43] Covault, Craig (March 9, 2007). Delta Pad Damage Assessed After Fuel Leak. Aviation Week.
[23] Delta IV Launch Services Users Guide (PDF). United

Launch Alliance. June 2013. pp. 210,53.
[44] Tracking Station - Worldwide launch schedule. Spaceight Now. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
[24] Delta Launch 310 Delta IV Heavy Demo Media Kit Delta Growth Options (PDF). Boeing.
[45] Schaub, Michael B. Mission Set Database.

GSFC/Honeywell TSI. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
[25] US Air Force - EELV Fact Sheets
[46] First ULA Delta IV Heavy NRO Mission Successfully

Lifts O From Cape Canaveral. United Launch Alliance. January 17, 2009. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
[20] Delta IV Small Astronautix.com
[26] Forrest McCartney et al. (2006). National Security

Space Launch Report (PDF). RAND. pp. 67.
[27] Three Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne RS-68A Engines
Power Delta IV Heavy Upgrade Vehicle on Inaugural
Flight. PR Newswire. Retrieved November 2014.
[28] United Launch Alliance Upgraded Delta IV Heavy
rocket successfully Launches Second Payload in Nine
Days for the National Reconnaissance Oce (Press release). United Launch Alliance. 2012-06-29.
[29] Delta 4 rocket evolving to upgraded main engine.
Spaceight Now. 27 March 2015. Retrieved 28 March
2015.
[30] New Delta 4 Engine Variant is Part of ULA Cost Cutting
Strategy. spacenews.com.
[31] Ongoing Launch Vehicle Innovation at United Launch
Alliance (PDF). ULA. March 2010. Archived from the
original (PDF) on March 2014. Retrieved July 2014.
[32] Delta IV. SpaceLaunchReport.com.
[33] Delta IV Payload Planners Guide. September 2007.
[34] Whitesides, Loretta Hidalgo (July 9, 2008). Why NASA
Isnt Trying to Human-Rate the Atlas V or Delta IV Rockets. Wired. You could launch a smaller human vehicle
on a current expendable rocket [...] In fact, before the
Columbia disaster NASA teams were working on an Orbital Space Plane (OSP) designed to do just that.
[35] Frank Morring, Jr. (June 15, 2009). Study Finds
Human-rated Delta IV Cheaper. Aviation Week.
[36] Delta IV Payload Planners Guide (PDF). ULA. September 2007. pp. 1015, 16. Archived from the original
(PDF) on July 2011.
[37] Delta IV Launch Facilities
[38] Delta IV prelaunch assembly. Spaceight Now. December 1, 2004.
[39] The DemoSat payload. Spaceight Now. 2004-12-01.
[40] Justin Ray (December 22, 2004). Delta 4-Heavy hits
snag on test ight. Spaceight Now. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
NASA
[47] Harwood, William (June 27, 2009). Delta 4 deploys an

advanced weather observatory. Spaceight Now.
[48] NASA and NOAAs GOES-O Satellite Successfully
Launched (Press release). NASA KSC. June 27, 2009.
[49] Ray, Justin (2009-12-05). New communications craft
launched for U.S. military. Spaceight Now. Retrieved
2009-12-06.
[50] Teaming of Delta 4 rocket and GOES a sweet success.
Spaceight Now. 2010-03-04.
[51] First-of-its-kind satellite for GPS launched into space.
Spaceight Now. 2010-05-28.
[52] Huge rocket launches secret U.S. spy satellite.
MSNBC.com. 22 November 2010. Retrieved 22
November 2010.
[53] United Launch Alliance Launches First West Coast Delta
IV Heavy Mission. United Launch Alliance. 20 January
[54] ULA Successfully launches Fourth NRO mission in Six
months. United Launch Alliance. 11 March 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
[55] United Launch Alliance Marks the 50th Successful GPS
Launch for the Air Force with the Delivery of the GPS
IIF-2 Mission to orbit. United Launch Alliance. 16 July
2011. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
[56] Delta IV GPS IIIF-3. Spaceight 101. Oct 4, 2012.
Retrieved July 2014.
[57] Atlas V green light after RL-10 is exonerated during
Delta IV anomaly review. NASASpaceight.com. Dec
7, 2012. Retrieved July 2014.
[58] United Launch Alliance Launches Second Successful
Mission for U.S. Air Force in Just Nine Days. United
Launch Alliance. 24 May 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
[59] United Launch Alliance Successfully Launches Second
Wideband Global SATCOM Mission for U.S. Air Force
in Less Than Three Months. United Launch Alliance. 8
August 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
[60] National Reconnaissance Oce Mission Successfully

Launches on Worlds Largest Rocket, the Unite Launch
Alliance Delta IV Heavy. United Launch Alliance. 28
[61] United Launch Alliance Successfully Launches 25th
Delta IV Mission Carrying Global Positioning System
Satellite for the U.S. Air Force. United Launch Alliance.
20 February 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
Global Positioning System Satellite for the U.S. Air Force
in Less Than Three Months. United Launch Alliance. 16
May 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
[63] United Launch Alliance Marks 85th Successful Launch
by Delivering Three Satellites into Orbit for the U.S. Air
Force. United Launch Alliance. 29 July 2014. Retrieved
29 July 2014.
[64] United Launch Alliance Successfully Launches NASAs
Orion Spacecraft on Critical Flight Test for Lockheed
Martin. United Launch Alliance. 6 Dec 2014. Retrieved
5 Dec 2014.
Mission in Less than Two Weeks. United Launch Alliance. 26 March 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[66] Delta 4-Heavy mission report. Spaceight Now.
[67] Justin Ray (2007-11-11). Delta 4-Heavy rocket res
away from Cape Canaveral. Spaceight Now. Retrieved
2008-05-28.
[68] First ULA Delta IV Heavy NRO Mission Successfully
Lifts O From Cape Canaveral (Press release). ULA.
January 17, 2009.
[69] "'Eavesdropper' satellite rides huge rocket from Florida:
The US National Reconnaissance Oce has launched
what is reputed to be the largest satellite ever sent into
space. BBC News. 2010-11-22.
[70] Justin Ray (January 16, 2009). Delta 337 Mission Status
Center. Spaceight Now.
[71] Bergin, Chris.
EFT-1 Orion completes assembly
and conducts FRR. NASASpaceight.com. Retrieved
November 8, 2014.
[72] Delta IV issues, Winds Scrub Orions Exploration Flight
Test-1 Debut. Aviation Week, December 4, 2014.
19.9 External links

Delta IV Launch Vehicle page on United Launch Alliance site
Boeings Delta IV Rocket page
Delta IV information on Gunters Space page
Boeing press kit for Heavy Demo launch, 2005
Comparison of Delta IV Heavy with Space Shuttle
201
First Vandenberg Delta IV Heavy launch video via
EducatedEarth.
Bates, Jason. Boeings Delta IV Heavy Gets Ready
for its Close-Up, Space News, 2004-12-06.
Rocketdyne Space Page
Delta IV page on Astronautix.com
Chapter 20
Electronic-warfare aircraft
An-12BK-PPS (Soviet Union)
Mi-8PP (Soviet Union)
An-26REP (Soviet Union)
Tu-16RM-2 (Soviet Union)
20.1 External links

Electronic-warfare aircraft at militaryfactory.com
An EF-111A Raven (foreground) with a tail pod for receiving
and an underside transmitting pod, accompanied by an F-111F
An electronic-warfare aircraft is a military aircraft

equipped for electronic warfare (EW), that is, degrading
the eectiveness of enemy radar and radio systems by using radar jamming and deception methods.
In 1943, British Avro Lancaster aircraft were equipped
with cha to blind enemy air defence radars. They were
supplemented by specially-equipped aircraft own by No.
100 Group RAF, which operated modied Halifaxes,
Liberators and Fortresses carrying various jammers such
as Carpet, Airborne Cigar, Mandrel, Jostle, and Piperack.
Examples of modern aircraft designed or modied for
EW include:
EA-6B Prowler (US)
EF-111A Raven (US)
EC-130H Compass Call (US)
EA-18G Growler (US)
Kawasaki EC-1 (Japan)
Shaanxi Y-8EW (China)
Embraer R-99 (Brazil)
IAI 202B Arava (Israel)
Tornado ECR (Germany-Italy)
EF-10B Skynight (US)
202
Chapter 21
Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin

The Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin is a twin-engined, single main rotor, MEDEVAC-capable Search and Rescue (SAR) helicopter operated by the United States
Coast Guard (USCG). It is a variant of the French-built
Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin.
The USCG funded a program to improve engine reliability, but the resulting LTS101-850 failed to meet expectations.
In 1994, the USCG therefore held a fast-track competition to select a new powerplant, and in March 2004 the
Guard announced the selection of the Turbomeca Arriel
2C2-CG, already installed on the EC155. This upgrade
began in 2004, and has resulted in a safer and more ca21.1 Development
pable aircraft. These modied HH-65As and HH-65Bs,
which also gained new avionics and other enhancements,
The SA366 G1 Dauphin version was selected by the have been designated as HH-65Cs.
United States Coast Guard in 1979 as its new short range
recovery (SRR) air-sea rescue helicopter, replacing the
Sikorsky HH-52A Sea Guard. In total 99 helicopters, optimised for the USCGs search and rescue role tasks and 21.2 Design
given the designation HH-65A Dolphin, were acquired.
Unlike the HH-52, the HH-65A is not able to perform
water landings.[1] The HH-65 normally carries a crew of
four: Pilot, Copilot, Flight Mechanic and Rescue Swimmer.
The Dolphin was manufactured by Aerospatiale Helicopter Corporation (later American Eurocopter; now
Airbus Helicopters, Inc.) in Grand Prairie, Texas.
Textron Lycoming (now Honeywell) built the Dolphins
LTS101-750B-2 turboshaft engines in Williamsport,
Pennsylvania, and Rockwell Collins manufactured the
HH-65s electronic systems in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.[1]
The HH-65 Dolphin is used for homeland security patrols, cargo, drug interdiction, ice breaking, military
readiness, pollution control, and search and rescue missions. The HH-65 is known for its Fenestron tail rotor and
its autopilot capabilities, which can complete an unaided
approach to the water and bring the aircraft into a stable
50 ft (15 m) hover, or automatically y search patterns,
an ability which allows the crew to engage in other tasks.
Original 11-blade Fenestron on the HH-65C
The HH-65As minimum equipment requirements exceeded anything previously packaged into a helicopter
weighing less than 10,000 pounds. 75% of the HH-65s
structure including rotorhead, rotor blades and fuselage consists of corrosion-resistant composite materials. Some Coast Guard pilots have nicknamed the Dolphin as Tupperwolf, a portmanteau of tupperware (because of the aircrafts high composites content)[2] and
Airwolf (from the 1980s TV series).
In order to comply with U.S. regulations relating to local content (based primarily on the value of individual
components of the aircraft), engineering changes were
required notably, the SA365s original Turbomeca Arriel engines were replaced with LTS101-750B-2 powerplants, which at the time represented the cutting edge of
turboshaft design. Unfortunately, initial teething prob- Also a unique feature of the Dolphin is its computerized
lems with this engine worsened as the HH-65s weight ight management system, which integrates state-of-thegrew, resulting in several in-ight loss-of-power events. art communications and navigation equipment. This sys203
204
CHAPTER 21. EUROCOPTER HH-65 DOLPHIN

new-build MH-65Cs were acquired for this mission.
21.4 Variants
HH-65C radar
tem provides automatic ight control. At the pilots direction, the system will bring the aircraft to a stable hover 50
feet (15 m) above a selected object. This is an important Members of USCG Air Station Savannah use a USCG HH-65C
safety feature in darkness or inclement weather. Selected demonstrating a helicopter rescue
search patterns can be own automatically, freeing the pilot and copilot to concentrate on sighting & searching the
HH-65A Initial USCG version, powered by two 734 shp
object.[1]
(547 kW) LTS101-750B-2 turboshafts and with an
A distinctive feature of the MH-65 is its fenestron ducted8,900 lb (4,000 kg) M.T.O.W.
fan anti-torque device. The fenestron consists of 10
blades spin inside a circular housing at the base of the
HH-65B Avionics upgrade undertaken on a portion of
helicopters tail n.
the eet. Retrot included an NVG-compatible inCertied for single-pilot instrument ight rules (IFR) optegrated ight management avionics suite consisting
eration, the HH-65A was the rst helicopter certied with
of two GPS-embedded CDU-900G control display
a four-axis autopilot, allowing for hands-o hover over a
units and two MFD-255 multifunction at panel dispre-determined location.
plays. The HH-65B upgrade was undertaken at the
Coast Guards Aircraft Repair and Supply Center
(ARSC) in Elizabeth City, NC, with the rst aircraft
rolling-o the post-depot maintenance (PDM) line
in March 2001.
The Dolphin is primarily a Short Range Recovery (SRR)
aircraft. There are now a total of 102 Dolphins in the HH-65C HH-65A/B upgraded with new 934 shp (696
kW) Arriel 2C2-CG engines that provide 40% more
Coast Guard Fleet. The eet has home ports in 17
power and higher performance, plus an upgraded
cities on the Atlantic and Pacic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico,
tail gearbox, long-nose avionics compartment, inHawaii, and the Great Lakes region.[1]
creased 9,480 lb (4,300 kg) MTOW, expanded latThe Dolphin is usually deployed from shore but it can be
eral ight envelope and Vehicle and Engine Multideployed from medium and high endurance Coast Guard
function Display (VEMD) with First Limit Indicator
Cutters, as well as the Polar Icebreakers. The Dolphins
(FLI). First retrot completed in October 2004.
main jobs are: search and rescue, enforcement of laws
and treaties (including drug interdiction), polar ice breaking, marine environmental protection including pollution MH-65C Initially intended only for use by the MultiMission Cutter Helicopter (MCH), a further encontrol, and military readiness.
hancement of the HH-65C within the USCGs
When deployed from an icebreaker, the helicopter acts as
Deepwater eort, includes the installation of a 10the ships eyes, searching out thinner and more navigable
blade low-noise Fenestron, relocated avionics, and
ice channels. They also have the job of airlifting supplies
an airborne use of force package (in common with
to villages isolated by winter, or transporting scientists to
that of the modernized HH-60T) which provides the
conduct remote research.[1]
capability to re warning and disabling shots from
The MH-65 is also used to patrol the Air Defense Identhe air. The MH-65C is used in 'airborne use of
tication Zone (ADIZ) around Washington, D.C., also
force' missions, such as the Helicopter Interdiction
known as the National Capital Region (NCR). Seven
Tactical Squadron (HITRON) mission taken up by
21.6. SPECIFICATIONS (MH-65C)

the MH-65C in early 2008. AUF aircraft are armed
with the Barrett M107CQ 12.7 mm anti-materiel rie and M240G 7.62 mm machine gun.
MH-65D MH-65C with an upgraded ight navigation system common to Department of Defense
helicopters.[3] The rst production MH-65D was
completed on January 20, 2011 and is tted with a
Honeywell HG7502 radar altimeter, two Honeywell
H-764G EGIs (embedded GPS/inertial navigation
systems) and two control display units CDU-7000D
from Rockwell Collins. 97 HH/MH-65Cs will be
upgraded to MH-65D standard.[4]
MH-65E The MH-65E will incorporate upgrades that
will modernize the cockpit by installing digital
glass cockpit instruments, known as the Common
Avionics Architecture System (CAAS), similar to
those installed in the Coast Guards upgraded MH60T Jayhawk Medium Range Recovery (MRR) helicopters. The Echo upgrade will also replace the
legacy analog automatic ight control with a digital
system, and installing a digital weather radar system.
The MH-65E model is expected to begin to be delivered to the eet in 2017.[5]
205
CGAS Houston[13]
CGAS Humboldt Bay[14]
CGAS Kodiak[15]
CGAS Los Angeles [16]
CGAS Miami [17]
CGAS New Orleans[18]
CGAS North Bend[19]
CGAS Port Angeles[20]
CGAS San Francisco [21]
CGAS Savannah[22]
CGAS Traverse City[23]
Helicopter Interdiction Tactical Squadron[24]
21.6 Specications (MH-65C)
21.5 Operators
Data from United States Coast Guard[25]
Crew: 2 pilots and 2 crew
Length: 11.6 m (38 ft 1 in)
Height: 4 m (13 ft 1 in)
Empty weight: 3,128 kg (6,896 lb)
Max takeo weight: 4,300 kg (9,480 lb)
HH-65C Dolphins of the United States Coast Guard
Powerplant: 2 Turbomeca Arriel 2C2-CG turboshaft engines, 636 kW (853 hp) each
Main rotor diameter: 11.9 m (39 ft 1 in)
United States
United States Coast Guard[6]

CGAS Atlantic City[7]
Coast Guard ATC[8]
CGAS Barbers Point [9]
CGAS Borinquen [10]
CGAS Corpus Christi[11]
CGAS Detroit [12]
Main rotor area: 38.54 m2 (414.8 sq ft)

Performance
Maximum speed: 324 km/h; 201 mph (175 kn)
Range: 658 km (409 mi; 355 nmi)
Service ceiling: 5,486 m (17,999 ft)
Armament
206
CHAPTER 21. EUROCOPTER HH-65 DOLPHIN
Guns:
[12] Coast Guard Air Station Detroit. uscg.mil. Retrieved

12 March 2013.
1 x 7.62 mm M240 machine gun
[13] Coast Guard Air Station Houston. uscg.mil. Retrieved

5 April 2013.
1 x Barrett M107 0.50 in (12.70 mm) caliber precision rie
[14] Group/Air Station Humboldt Bay. uscg.mil. Retrieved

5 April 2013.
[15] Air Station Kodiak. uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
21.7 See also

U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command
Related development
Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin
Eurocopter Panther
Agusta MH-68 Stingray
HH-60 Jayhawk
CH-149 Cormorant
21.8 References
[1] HH-65A Dolphin, GlobalSecurity.org, accessed 1 October 2007
[2] http://www.fredsplace.org/images/morgenthau2/
060813.pdf
[3] http://www.uscg.mil/acquisition/mch/default.asp USCG
Acquisition Directorate: Multi-Mission Cutter Helicopter
[4] Airforces Monthly, April 2011
[5] Coast Guard Common Avionics Today. Retrieved: 13
September 2014.
[6] Signicant Dates in Coast Guard Aviation (PDF).
uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[7] AIR STATION ATLANTIC CITY. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
[8] Coast Guard Aviation Training Center. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
[9] Air Station Barbers Point. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12
March 2013.
[10] Coast Guard Air Station Borinquen. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
[11] Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas. uscg.mil. Retrieved
5 April 2013.
[16] CG Air Station Los Angeles. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12

March 2013.
[17] Coast Guard Air Station Miami. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12
March 2013.
[18] Coast Guard Air Station New Orleans. uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[19] Air Station North Bend. uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April
2013.
[20] History of the Coast Guard in Port Angeles. uscg.mil.
[21] CG Air Station San Francisco. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12
March 2013.
[22] Coast Guard Air Station Savannah. globalsecurity.org.
[23] United States Coast Guard Air Station Traverse City.
uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[24] "(HITRON) Jacksonville. uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April
2013.
[25] USCG Multi-Mission Cutter Helicopter. United States
Coast Guard. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
21.9 External links

HH-65 Depot Maintenance page and Flight Training
page on CoastGuardchannel.com
Fatal Coast Guard crashes on check-six.com
Chapter 22
Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota

The Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota is a twin-engine helicopter with a single, four-bladed main rotor. The UH-72
is a militarized version of the Eurocopter EC145 and was
built by American Eurocopter (now Airbus Helicopters,
Inc.), a division of Airbus Group, Inc. Initially marketed as the UH-145, the helicopter was selected as the
winner of the United States Army's Light Utility Helicopter (LUH) program on 30 June 2006. In October
2006, American Eurocopter was awarded a production
contract for 345 aircraft to replace aging UH-1H/V and
OH-58A/C helicopters in the U.S. Army and Army National Guard eets.
22.1.2 LUH Program and UH-145

The LUH program was initiated in early 2004, with an
initial stated requirement for 322 helicopters to conduct homeland security, administrative, logistic, medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) and support of the army test
and training centers missions. The LUH contract was released in late July 2005. At least ve proposals were received. The competitors included the Bell 210 and Bell
412, MD Explorer and AW139. EADS North America
(EADS NA) marketed the UH-145 variant of the EC 145
for the program.[6]
On 30 June 2006, the U.S. Army announced that the

EADS NA entry as the winner of the $3 billion LUH contract. In August, the UH-145 was ocially designated by
the Department of Defense as the UH-72A. The award
22.1 Development
was conrmed in October 2006 following protests from
losing bidders. Despite a four-month delay due to the
protests, the rst UH-72 was delivered on time in Decem22.1.1 Background
ber, at which time the name Lakota was also formally anThe U.S. Armys LHX program began in the early 1980s, nounced for the type, following the services tradition of
proposing two helicopter designs with a high percent- giving its helicopters Native American names. The LUH
age of commonality of dynamic components. One was marked EADS NAs largest DoD contract to date.
a light utility version (LHX-U) for assault and tacti- On 23 August 2007, the UH-72A received full-rate procal movement of troops and supplies, the other was a duction (FRP) approval, allowing the procurement of a
light scout/attack version (LHX-SCAT) to complement planned eet of 345 aircraft through 2017 as of June
the growing development of the AH-64 Apache. As 2008.[7] The UH-72A is produced at Airbus Helicopterss
the program was developed, the light utility version was facility in Columbus, Mississippi; production transitioned
dropped and focus was placed on the light attack recon- from local assembly of kits received from Eurocopter
naissance version,[3] which eventually became the RAH- Deutschland to full local production in 2009.[8] In De66 Comanche.[4]
cember 2009, the service ordered 45 more UH-72As.[9]
[10]
In 2004, the Department of Defense and the U.S. Army The 100th Lakota was delivered in March 2010,
[11]
That
made the decision to terminate the RAH-66 program. the 250th UH-72 was delivered in April 2013.
month,
the
U.S.
Army
opted
to
halt
procurement
after
As part of the termination, the service was allowed
[12]
at this point, a total of 312
to keep the future years funding programmed for the 2014 due to budget cuts;
[13]
Lakotas
were
on
order
by
the
service.
In January 2014,
[5]
Comanche. To replace the capability that the CoCongress
gave
the
Army
$171
million
to
procure 20 admanche was supposed to oer, the U.S. Army planned
[14]
The
300th
UH-72
was
delivered to
ditional
UH-72As.
several programs, including three new aircraft. The
[1]
the
Army
in
May
2014.
Army Sta decided that these three aircraft, the Armed
Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH), the Light Utility Helicopter (LUH), and the Future Cargo Aircraft (FCA)
(later renamed Joint Cargo Aircraft, or JCA), were to be
existing, in-production commercial aircraft modied for
Army service.
In May 2013, Congress questioned why the UH-72 had

not been considered for the armed scout role. The
Army Chief of Sta General Ray Odierno stated that the
UH-72A was developed for domestic operations and is
not considered to be operationally deployable to combat
207
208
CHAPTER 22. EUROCOPTER UH-72 LAKOTA
zones. The UH-72 is employed by the U.S. Army Na- 22.1.3

tional Guard in a utility role in the U.S., releasing UH60 Black Hawk helicopters to deploy overseas.[15] On 21
June 2013, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition,
Technology and Logistics Frank Kendall stated in a letter to Congress that UH-72 combat modications were
presently unaordable. Fleet-wide combat modications would reportedly cost $780 million and add 774
lb (351 kg) of weight per helicopter; changes would include passive and active survivability systems, hardened
engines and drive train, external lighting and communications upgrades.[16]
Proposed uses
EADS AAS-72X concept
Use as trainers
As of December 2013, the U.S. Army is considering retiring its OH-58 Kiowa eet and transferring all National
Guard and U.S. Army Reserve AH-64 Apaches to the
active Army to serve as scout helicopters. All 100 active
Army UH-72s along with 104 Army National Guard UH72s would be transferred to use as training helicopters,
replacing the TH-67 Creek at the United States Army
Aviation Center of Excellence at Fort Rucker. Some active Army UH-60 Black Hawks would be transferred to
Army Reserve and Army National Guard units for homeland defense and disaster response missions. The proposals aim to retire older helicopters to substantially reduce costs while retaining crucial capabilities.[17] With
the prospect of most UH-72s being repurposed as training helicopters, the Army is requesting funds to buy 100
more Lakotas to add to the training eet. The FY 2015
budget would cover 55 helicopters, and FY 2016 funds
would complete the purchase.[18]
On 4 September 2014, the Army issued a notice that they
intended to buy up to 155 EC145/UH-72s to use as training platforms on an other than full and open competitive basis. Following this, AgustaWestland launched a
judicial bid to have the acquisition declared illegal. On
19 September, they claimed at a hearing that the EC145
did not oer the best value for the money and that its
restricted ight maneuver envelope impeded its training utility. Airbus defended the Armys position, noting
their previous selection and use of the EC145, claiming
AgustaWestlands gures of EC145 costs were exaggerated, and that the Lakota was already in use in training
roles.[19] Bell Helicopter also criticized the Armys actions, but did not take legal action. On 14 October 2014,
a Federal Claims Court issued a temporary order denying the U.S. governments challenge of AgustaWestlands
action until the Army issues its nal justication and approval (J&A) to sole-source the helicopter trainer procurement. Since the Army contends buying UH-72As
falls under 2006 LUH contract, and so not requiring a
new J&A, AgustaWestlands court challenge was eectively nulled.[20]
The Armed Scout 645 (EC645) was a proposed armed

version of the UH-72 for the U.S. Armys Armed Aerial
Scout (AAS) program for a OH-58D replacement. On
4 May 2009, EADS and Lockheed Martin announced a
teaming agreement for the 645.[21][22] Three demonstrator AAS-72X aircraft were built and began ight testing
in late 2010.[23] In September 2012, EADS began voluntary ight demonstrations of both an AAS-72X and
an EC145 T2 at high altitudes, reportedly meeting with
performance requirements.[24][25] Two versions were offered: the AAS-72X, an armed version of the UH-72;
and the AAS-72X+, an armed militarized version of the
EC-145T2.[26] In late 2013, the U.S. Army announced
the termination of the AAS program.[27]
In May 2012, the UH-72A was submitted in the U.S.
Air Force's Common Vertical Life Support Platform
(CVLSP) program for a UH-1N Twin Huey replacement.
As with the U.S. Army, the UH-72A can operate in permissive environments, such as ICBM site support and security under the Air Force Global Strike Command and
personnel transport in the National Capital Region by the
Air Mobility Command's 89th Airlift Wing. Advantages
over the UH-1N include 30 percent more speed, range,
and loiter time, enhanced reliability and crashworthiness,
night vision compatibility, modern avionics, and being
cheaper to operate.[28] In August 2013, the USAF said
it planned to sustain the UH-1N for six to ten years.[29] In
September 2013, acting Air Force Secretary Eric Fanning received a letter from the CEO of EADS North
America, arguing that to ret and maintain the Hueys
costs more than to acquire and operate UH-72As; the letter also urged prompt action as Army orders were almost
complete and production was winding down. The USAF
said they have little money and can risk using Hueys for
a while, EADS North America stated that the UH-72A
will lower the risk to the U.S. Air Force nuclear enterprise, and will save taxpayers the considerable cost of
future recapitalization.[30] Reportedly, buying UH-72As
would cost as much as upgrading 62 Hueys, but long-term
operating costs would be much lower.[31]
209
22.2 Design
See also: Eurocopter EC 145 Design
The UH-72 is designed to take on a range of missions, from general support and medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) to personnel recovery and counternarcotics operations. They are planned to replace the
UH-1 and OH-58A/C, which are older light utility helicopters, and supplant other types in domestic use, primarily those in Army National Guard service. The UH-72
is being procured as a commercial o-the-shelf (COTS)
product, which simplies logistics support of the eet.[32]
EADS NA has teamed with Sikorsky to provide Contractor Logistics Support (CLS) for the UH-72, through
its Helicopter Support, Inc. (HSI)/Sikorsky Aerospace The rst two Army National Guard UH-72As at Tupelo, Mississippi
Maintenance. (SAM) subsidiaries.[33]
The basic UH-72A is simply a commercial EC145 helicopter that has a U.S. Army color scheme and is tted
with an AN/ARC-231 radio. Other than utility transport, the Lakota can be congured for medical evacuation, VIP transport, security and support, and opposing
forces training. It is described as the best military aircraft in the inventory for domestic operations, used by
the Army National Guard for state support, disaster relief, and homeland defense and by non-deployed active
units for MEDEVAC and training.[34] Compared to the
previous UH-1 Huey used in those roles, the twin-engine
Lakota ies faster (145 kn or 269 km/h or 167 mph versus
124 kn or 230 km/h or 143 mph), has an external hoist
system, and has a fully integrated computerized cockpit.
The Huey has an advantage in the MEDEVAC role, being
able to carry three patients compared to the Lakotas twopatient load, but an average evacuation typically deals
with two or fewer patients.[35] The Security & Support
Mission Equipment Package (S&S MEP) is a version of
the UH-72A for homeland security, counter drug, and
border patrol missions. It is equipped with an electrooptical/infrared sensor and laser pointer turret, moving
map system and touch-screen displays, video management system, digital video recorded and datalink, searchlight, and rescue hoist from the MEDEVAC package.[36]
ical evacuation missions in January 2007. On 20 June

2007, the NTCs U.S. Army Air Ambulance Detachment
(USAAAD) became the rst operational unit to eld the
Lakota.[39] On 10 July 2007, the Training and Doctrine
Command (TRADOC) Flight Detachment at Fort Eustis,
Virginia became the second U.S. Army unit elded with
the UH-72A.[40]
A report published in August 2007 by the Operational
Test and Evaluation Directorate (DOT&E) noted that although the Lakota "...is eective in the performance of
light utility missions, it was prone to overheating during
operations in the desert conditions of Fort Irwin when not
equipped with air conditioning systems.[41] In response,
vents were added in the doors to increase cabin air ow;
air conditioning has been installed on some Medical and
VIP versions, as well as added air conditioning units for
crew comfort.[42]
The Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) located

at Fort Polk, Louisiana received their rst aircraft on
7 September 2007. On 16 January 2009, the United
States Military Academy received two UH-72As, replacing two UH-1H helicopters for VIP transport to and from
the academy. The helicopters also support the cadet
parachute team and cadet training missions.[43] The U.S.
Naval Test Pilot School received the rst of ve UH-72As
in September 2009. The UH-72A replaced the TH-6B
Cayuse as the prime training aircraft for the test pilot
schools
helicopter curriculum.[44]
The rst aircraft was delivered to the U.S. Army on 11
December 2006 in Columbus, Mississippi.[37] On 12 De- By March 2010, the Lakota entered service in Puerto
cember 2006, General Richard A. Cody, Vice Chief of Rico, Kwajalein Atoll, and the U.S. Armys missile test
Sta of the Army, and Joe Red Cloud, a chief of the range in Germany.[45] On 20 December 2010, a UHOglala Sioux Tribe, Lakota nation, accepted the rst UH- 72A assigned to the Puerto Rico Army National Guard
72A in an ocial ceremony.[38] The service estimated became the rst UH-72A to experience a fatal accident.
that delivery of the planned 345 aircraft would continue The aircraft crashed at sea o the coast of Puerto Rico
until 2017.[7]
and all six personnel aboard were killed.[46]
The rst production helicopters were sent to the National On 18 July 2012, the U.S. Armys Aviation Flight Test
Training Center (NTC), Fort Irwin, California for med- Directorate received three UH-72As at Redstone Arse-
210

UH-72B Lakota Proposed upgrade of the UH-72A
with possible introduction in 2017; this new conguration is based on the upgraded civilian Eurocopter
EC145T2.[55]
AAS-72X A proposed armed version of the UH-72 for
the US Armys Armed Aerial Scout OH-58D replacement program oered by EADS and Lockheed
Martin.[21]
AAS-72X+ An armed military version of the Eurocopter EC145T2 also proposed for the Armed
Aerial Scout program.[26] It was equipped with more
powerful engines with an extra 200 horsepower
nal, Huntsville, Alabama; they are used for general supeach, a fenestron shrouded tail rotor, and a fully digport and as chase aircraft to support aviation development
ital glass cockpit.[56][57]
testing. With this delivery, the service has received over
200 UH-72As.[47] On 22 September 2012, the Oregon
Army National Guard's Detachment 1, C Company, 1112 Aviation, received the rst of four UH-72A heli- 22.5 Operators
copters during a roll-out ceremony at Camp Rilea in Warrenton, Oregon.[48]
Thailand
A UH-72A at the Pentagon, 2010
On 25 March 2015, Airbus completed assembly of the

rst UH-72A made specically for training for the U.S.
Army. The training conguration of the Lakota diers
from the baseline model in several ways, including an observer seat for the instructor, a buzz number on its side
for easy identication, and a ight control system that allows it to communicate with Fort Rucker. As part of the
Armys aviation restructure initiative, Fort Ruckers eet
of TH-67 training helicopters will be replaced with 187
UH-72s, comprising 106 purpose-built trainers and 81
existing versions that will be modied.[49]
22.3.1
Export
Royal Thai Army (6 on order)[58][52]

United States

United States Navy[58]
United States Naval Test Pilot School[59]
22.6 Specications (UH-72A)
On 7 June 2013, Thailand requested the sale of six UH72A Lakotas with associated equipment, training, and Data from UH-72 specications,[60] Eurocopter EC 145
support for an estimated cost of $77 million.[50] On 9 data[61]
October 2013, the Thai government approved $55 million in funds to support the Royal Thai Army's acquisi- General characteristics
tion of six UH-72A helicopters from 2013 to 2015.[51]
On 28 March 2014, the Thai Army awarded a $34 mil Crew: 1 or 2 pilots
lion contract to Airbus Helicopter for six UH-72As, they
Capacity: 9 troops or 2 stretchers and medical crew
are to be tted with a mission equipment package including the AN/ARC-231 airborne radio terminal; deliveries
Length: 42 ft 7 in (13.03 m)
are to begin by April 2015.[52] On 29 September 2014,
Congress was notied of a Thailand request for the sale
of another nine UH-72 Lakotas, related equipment, and
support.[53][54]
Disc area: 1,023 ft (94.98 m)
22.4 Variants
UH-72A Lakota An unarmed utility military version
of the EC 145.

22.8. REFERENCES
211
Powerplant:
2 Turbomeca Arriel 1E2
turboshafts, 738 shp (551 kW) each
Performance
Range: 370 nmi (426 mi, 685 km)
[5] Brieng on the Restructure and Revitalization of Army

Aviation. U.S. Department of Defense, 23 February
2004.
[6] EADS North America to Oer the UH-145 for the U.S.
Armys light utility helicopter (LUH) mission. EADS
North America, 24 August 2005.
[7] The UH-72A comes home to its new Army assignment
in Mississippi. EADS North America, 7 June 2008.
[8] EADS underscores commitment to U.S. production.
Reuters, 9 May 2008.
[9] EADS North America receives $247 million contract for
Light Utility Helicopter program. EADS North America, 10 December 2009.
[10] Trimble, Stephen (4 March 2010). How long before UH72 gets militarized?". ightglobal.com.
22.7 See also

Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk
U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command
[11] EADS North America Delivers 250th UH-72A Lakota

Helicopter to U.S. Army - EADS North America press
release, April 25, 2013
[12] Army Trimming Light Utility Helicopter Program - Aviationweek.com, 10 April 2013.
[13] The Last Of The Lakotas Strategypage.com, 29 May
2013.
Related development
Eurocopter EC 145
[14] US Army to acquire 20 more Lakotas Flightglobal.com,

17 January 2014.

Agusta A109
[15] Cox, Matthew. Army Defends GCV, Keeps Lakota

Stateside. DoDBuzz.com, 9 May 2013.
[16] Upgrading UH-72As for combat conditions 'unaordable', Pentagon says. Janes, 27 June 2013.
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
[17] Army Plans To Scrap Kiowa Helo Fleet. MarineCorpstimes.com, 9 December 2013.
Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin

HAL Dhruv
[18] US Army Seeks To Purchase 100 Lakota Helicopters Defensenews.com, 27 February 2014
Related lists
[19] Rotorcraft rivals trade blows over US Army trainer buy Flightglobal.com, 29 September 2014
List of helicopters
[20] Army Moves Ahead with Airbus Trainer Plan - Ainonline.com, 7 December 2014
22.8 References
[21] EADS North America selects Lockheed Martin as Mission Equipment Package integrator for new Armed Scout
Helicopter. Eurocopter, 4 May 2009.
[1] Airbus Group Delivers 300th On-Time, On-Budget UH72A Lakota Helicopter to U.S. Army - Reuters.com, 14
May 2014
[2] US Army aircraft, FY2012 budget estimate, p. 43. US
Army
[3] US Army set new LHX Timetable. Fight International,
27 February 1988.
[4] From LHX to Comanche.
March 2008.
Globalsecurity.org, 25
[22] Armed Scout fact sheet. EADS NA/Lockheed Martin,

[23] Warwick, Graham (April 4, 2010). Armys Aerial Scout
Options Expand. Aviation Week.
[24] EADS starts voluntary US Army ight demo of AAS72X+. Flightglobal.com, September 26, 2012
[25] EADS urges US Army to buy new scout helicopter.
Flightglobal.com, October 18, 2012
[26] AAS versions. AOL.Defense.com, October 18, 2012
212
[27] Outgoing General: US Army Must Continue To Fund Research and Development - Defensenews.com, 14 January
2014
[28] UH-72 Lakota Could Be a Candidate for Air Force Duty
- Defensemedianetwork.com, March 10, 2013
[47] http://www.al.com/42/index.ssf/2012/07/army_fields_
three_uh-72a_lakot.html#incart_river_business
[48] http://www.albanytribune.com/
20092012-oregon-national-guard-to-roll-out-new-uh-72a-lakota-helicopters
E2%80%8F/
[29] air force planning decade-long Huey extension - Militarytimes.com, 22 August 2013
[49] First Purpose-Built UH-72A Training Helicopter on Its

Way to Fort Rucker - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, 25
March 2015
[30] EADS Urges Air Forces Fanning To Buy Lakota Helos

For Nuke Mission - Breakingdefense.com, 16 September
2013
[50] Thailand Seeks Six UH-72A Lakota Helicopters Deagel.com, 20 June 2013.
[31] EADS Targets U.S. Air Force As Next UH-72 Lakota

Customer - Aviationtoday.com, 1 December 2013
[51] Thai government approves funds for helicopter procurement - Janes.com, 9 October 2013
[32] Jesmain, Andrew. DIIG Current Issues No.7: Case

Study: The Drivers of a Successful COTS Acquisition.
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS),
2009.
[52] Thailand nalises purchase of Lakota helicopters Janes.com, 31 March 2014
[33] Sikorsky Contractor Logistics Support Sikorsky. April

2007
[53] Thailand UH-72A Lakota Helicopters. Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 29 September 2014.
[54] FMS: Thailand Wants Nine UH-72A Lakota Helicopters. Deagel.com, 29 September 2014.
[34] Stateside Lakota deliveries let Black Hawks go to theater

- Army.mil, 22 April 2011
[55] US Army considers B-model upgrade for UH-72A

Lakota eet. Flight International, 5 March 2013.
[35] 'Huey' takes historic last ride at Yakima Training Center

- Army.mil, 3 February 2011
[56] Scout Helicopter Competitors to Army: Its Time for a

Flyo. Nationaldefensemagazine.com, December 2012
[36] New Lakota variant packs punch for Guard - Army.mil,

29 September 2011
[57] EADS urges US Army to buy new scout helicopter.

Flight International
[37] Sims, Paul. Ready for ight. Eurocopter delivers

rst UH-72A to U.S. Army as worlds media watches.
Starkville Daily News, 12 December 2006.

[38] US Army unveils UH-72A Lakota. US Army, 11 December 2006.
[59] U.S. Naval Test Pilot School UH-72A Lakotas have arrived. navy.mil. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
[60] UH-72A Lakota specications. Airbus Helicopters, Inc.
[39] UH-72A Light Utility Helicopter Enters Operational

Service with the First Full-equipped US Army Unit
EADS North America, 19 June 2007.
[40] Dinklage, Lindy. Lakotas mark transition in Army aviation. U.S. Army, Fort Eustis Public Aairs, 15 October
2007. Retrieved: 28 June 2009.
[41] Davis, Aaron C. for Associated Press. New Army chopper overheats. encyclopedia.com, 10 November 2007.
[42] UH-72 Lakota: Hot n High. defenseindustrydaily.com,
18 November 2007.
[43] USMA takes possession of new helicopters.
Hudson News Network, 17 January 2009.
Mid-
[44] U.S. Naval Test Pilot School UH-72A Lakotas have arrived. Naval Air Systems Command. 24 March 2010.
[45] Expanding missions for the UH-72A are highlighted
at the 100th Lakota delivery ceremony. EADS North
America. 4 March 2010.
[46] Tremble, Stephen. UH-72A crashes o Puerto Rico in
rst major mishap. Flight International, 22 December
2010.
[61] Eurocopter EC 145 Technical Data. Eurocopter
22.9 External links

EADS North America UH-72A site
The Lakota Light Utility Helicopter on US Army
site
AMerican Eurocopter Armed Scout 645 ocial site
LUH Program on GlobalSecurity.org
LUH competition contenders
Armys aviation restructuring not to aect civil helicopter market Rotor & Wing article
Chapter 23
Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II

A-10 redirects here. For other uses, see A10.
The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II is an
American twin-engine, straight wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild-Republic in the early 1970s. It is the
only United States Air Force production aircraft designed
solely for close air support, including attacking tanks,
armored vehicles, and other ground targets with limited
air defenses.
The A-10 was designed around the 30 mm GAU-8
Avenger rotary cannon that is its primary armament. The
A-10s airframe was designed for durability, with measures such as 1,200 pounds (540 kg) of titanium armor to
protect the cockpit and aircraft systems, enabling it to absorb a signicant amount of damage and continue ying.
The A-10A single-seat variant was the only version built,
though one A-10A was converted to an A-10B twin-seat
version. In 2005, a program was begun to upgrade remaining A-10A aircraft to the A-10C conguration.
The A-10s ocial name comes from the Republic P-47
Thunderbolt of World War II, a ghter that was particularly eective at close air support. The A-10 is more commonly known by its nicknames Warthog or Hog. Its
secondary mission is to provide airborne forward air control, directing other aircraft in attacks on ground targets.
Aircraft used primarily in this role are designated OA-10.
With a variety of upgrades and wing replacements, the A10s service life may be extended to 2028, though there
are proposals to retire it sooner.
23.1 Development
23.1.1
Background
Criticism that the U.S. Air Force did not take close air
support (CAS) seriously prompted a few service members to seek a specialized attack aircraft.[4][5] In the
Vietnam War, large numbers of ground-attack aircraft
were shot down by small arms, surface-to-air missiles,
and low-level anti-aircraft gunre, prompting the development of an aircraft better able to survive such weapons.
In addition, the UH-1 Iroquois and AH-1 Cobra heli-
copters of the day, which USAF commanders had said

should handle close air support, were ill-suited for use
against armor, carrying only anti-personnel machine guns
and unguided rockets meant for soft targets. Fast jets
such as the F-100 Super Sabre, F-105 Thunderchief and
F-4 Phantom II proved for the most part to be ineective
for close air support because their high speed did not allow pilots enough time to get an accurate x on ground
targets and they lacked sucient loiter time. The eective, but aging, Korean War era A-1 Skyraider was the
USAFs primary close air support aircraft.[6][7]
23.1.2 A-X program

In 1966, the USAF formed the Attack Experimental (AX) program oce.[8] On 6 March 1967, the Air Force
released a request for information to 21 defense contractors for the A-X. The objective was to create a design study for a low-cost attack aircraft.[5] In 1969, the
Secretary of the Air Force asked Pierre Sprey to write
the detailed specications for the proposed A-X project;
Spreys initial involvement was kept secret due to his
earlier controversial involvement in the F-X project.[5]
Spreys discussions with Skyraider pilots operating in
Vietnam and analysis of aircraft used in the role indicated the ideal aircraft should have long loiter time, lowspeed maneuverability, massive cannon repower, and
extreme survivability;[5] possessing the best elements of
the Ilyushin Il-2, Henschel Hs 129, and Skyraider. The
specications also demanded that each aircraft cost less
than $3 million.[5] Sprey required that the biography of
World War II Luftwae attack pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel
be read by people on the A-X program.[9]
In May 1970, the USAF issued a modied, more detailed
request for proposals (RFP) for the aircraft. The threat
of Soviet armored forces and all-weather attack operations had become more serious. The requirements now
included that the aircraft would be designed specically
for the 30 mm rotary cannon. The RFP also specied a
maximum speed of 460 mph (400 kn; 740 km/h), takeo
distance of 4,000 feet (1,200 m), external load of 16,000
pounds (7,300 kg), 285-mile (460 km) mission radius,
and a unit cost of US$1.4 million.[10] The A-X would
be the rst USAF aircraft designed exclusively for close
213
214
CHAPTER 23. FAIRCHILD REPUBLIC A-10 THUNDERBOLT II
air support.[11] During this time, a separate RFP was released for A-Xs 30 mm cannon with requirements for a
high rate of re (4,000 round/minute) and a high muzzle
velocity.[12] Six companies submitted aircraft proposals,
with Northrop and Fairchild Republic selected to build
prototypes: the YA-9A and YA-10A, respectively. General Electric and Philco-Ford were selected to build and
test GAU-8 cannon prototypes.[13]
Two YA-10 prototypes were built in the Republic factory in Farmingdale, New York and rst ew on 10 May
1972 by pilot Howard Sam Nelson. Production A-10s
were built at Fairchild in Hagerstown, Maryland. After trials and a y-o against the YA-9, on 18 January
1973, the USAF announced the YA-10s selection for
production.[14] General Electric was selected to build the
GAU-8 cannon in June 1973.[15] The YA-10 had an additional y-o in 1974 against the Ling-Temco-Vought
A-7D Corsair II, the principal USAF attack aircraft at
the time, in order to prove the need for a new attack aircraft. The rst production A-10 ew in October 1975,
and deliveries commenced in March 1976. In total, 715
airplanes were produced, the last delivered in 1984.[16]
An A-10A of pre-glass cockpit design
ceived this upgrade are redesignated A-10C; work was to

be completed in 2011.[25] The Government Accounting
Oce in 2007 estimated the cost of upgrading, refurbishing, and service life extension plans for the A-10 force
to total $2.25 billion through 2013.[11][26] The Air Force
Material Command's Ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill
AFB, Utah completed work on its 100th A-10 precision
One experimental two-seat A-10 Night Adverse Weather
engagement upgrade in January 2008.[27]
[17]
(N/AW) version was built by converting an A-10A.
The N/AW was developed by Fairchild from the rst In 2007, the A-10 was subject to a service life extension
[28]
Boeing was awarded a contract to
Demonstration Testing and Evaluation (DT&E) A-10 for program (SLEP);
[29]
consideration by the USAF. It included a second seat build as many as 242 A-10 wing sets in June 2007. In
for a weapons system ocer responsible for electronic November 2011, two A-10s ew with the new wing tted.
countermeasures (ECM), navigation and target acquisi- In September 2013, the USAF awarded Boeing a $212
tion. The N/AW version did not interest the USAF or million follow-on contract for 56 new wings, increasing
export customers. The two-seat trainer version was or- the total ordered to 173. Re-winging improves mission
dered by the Air Force in 1981, but funding was can- readiness, decreases maintenance costs, and allows the A[30]
celed by U.S. Congress and the jet was not produced.[18] 10 to be operated up to 2035. In plans to retire the AThe only two-seat A-10 built now resides at Edwards Air 10, the USAF is considering halting the wing replacement
program, saving an additional $500 million on top of the
Force Base's Flight Test Center Museum.[19]
total saving of retiring the eet.[31] If the USAF kept the
42 A-10s already re-winged while retiring all others, the
savings would be $1 billion compared to $4.2 billion for
23.1.3 Upgrades
complete retirement.[32]
The A-10 has received many upgrades over the years.
From 1978 onwards, the Pave Penny laser receiver pod
was adopted, which receives reected laser radiation
from laser designators for faster and more accurate target
identication.[20][21] The A-10 began receiving an inertial
navigation system in 1980.[22] The Low-Altitude Safety
and Targeting Enhancement (LASTE) upgrade provided
computerized weapon-aiming equipment, an autopilot,
and a ground-collision warning system. The A-10 is compatible with night vision goggles for low-light operation.
In 1999, aircraft began receiving Global Positioning System navigation systems and a multi-function display.[23]
The LASTE system was upgraded with Integrated Flight
& Fire Control Computers (IFFCC).[24]
In 2005, the entire A-10 eet began receiving the Precision Engagement upgrades that include an improved
re control system (FCS), electronic countermeasures
(ECM), and smart bomb targeting. Aircraft which re-
In 2012, Air Combat Command requested the testing of

a 600-gallon external fuel tank which would extend the
A-10s loitering time by 4560 minutes; ight testing of
such a tank was conducted in 1997, but did not involve
combat evaluation. Over 30 ight tests were conducted
by the 40th Flight Test Squadron to gather data on the
aircrafts handling characteristics and performance across
dierent load congurations. The tank slightly reduced
stability in the yaw axis, however there is no decrease in
aircraft tracking performance.[33]
In July 2010, the USAF issued Raytheon a contract to integrate a Helmet Mounted Integrated Targeting (HMIT)
system onto A-10Cs.[26] The Gentex Corporation Scorpion Helmet Mounted Cueing System (HMCS) was also
evaluated.[34] In February 2014, SoAF Deborah Lee
James ordered that development of Suite 8 software upgrade continue, in response to Congressional pressure.
Software upgrades were originally to be ceased due to
23.2. DESIGN
215
plans to retire the A-10. Suite 8 software includes IFF

Mod 5, which allows friendly units to identify the A-10
as a friendly aircraft.[35]
23.1.4
Other uses
A-10 inboard prole drawing
A-10 at RAF Fairford, 2005
On 25 March 2010, an A-10 conducted the rst ight of

an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend.
The ight, performed at Eglin Air Force Base, used a
1:1 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel.[36] On 28
June 2012, the A-10 became the rst aircraft to y using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol; known as ATJ
(Alcohol-to-Jet), the fuel is cellulousic-based that can be
derived using wood, paper, grass, or any cell-based material, and are fermented into alcohols before being hydroprocessed into aviation fuel. ATJ is the third alternative
fuel to be evaluated by the Air Force as a replacement
for petroleum-derived JP-8 fuel. Previous types were a
synthetic paranic kerosene derived from coal and natural gas and a bio-mass fuel derived from plant-oils and
animal fats known as Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet.[37]
In 2011, the National Science Foundation granted $11
million to modify an A-10 for weather research for
CIRPAS at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School,[38][39] replacing a retired North American T-28 Trojan.[40] The A10s armor is expected to allow it to survive the extreme
meteorological conditions, such as 200 mph hailstorms,
found in inclement high-altitude weather events.[39]
forward airelds near front lines. The aircraft can loiter for extended periods and operate under 1,000 ft (300
m) ceilings with 1.5 mi (2.4 km) visibility. It typically
ies at a relatively low speed of 300 knots (350 mph; 560
km/h), which makes it a better platform for the groundattack role than fast ghter-bombers, which often have
diculty targeting small, slow-moving targets.[6]
The leading edge of the wing has a honeycomb structure panel construction, providing strength with minimal weight; similar panels cover the ap shrouds, elevators, rudders and sections of the ns.[42] The skin panels are integral with the stringers and are fabricated using computer-controlled machining, reducing production
time and cost. Combat experience has shown that this
type of panel is more resistant to damage. The skin
is not load-bearing, so damaged skin sections can be
easily replaced in the eld, with makeshift materials if
necessary.[43] The ailerons are at the far ends of the wings
for greater rolling moment and have two distinguishing
features: The ailerons are larger than is typical, almost
50 percent of the wingspan, providing improved control
even at slow speeds; the aileron is also split, making it a
deceleron.[44][45]
The A-10 is designed to be refueled, rearmed, and serviced with minimal equipment.[46] Also, most repairs can
be done in the eld.[47] An unusual feature is that many
of the aircrafts parts are interchangeable between the left
and right sides, including the engines, main landing gear,
and vertical stabilizers. The sturdy landing gear, lowIn 2015, Boeing revealed that it was holding initial discus- pressure tires and large, straight wings allow operation
sions on the prospects of selling retired or stored A-10s from short rough strips even with a heavy aircraft ordin near-yaway condition to international customers.[41]
nance load, allowing the aircraft to operate from damaged
airbases, ying from taxiways or even straight roadway
sections.[48]
23.2 Design
23.2.1
Overview
The A-10 has superior maneuverability at low speeds and

altitude because of its large wing area, high wing aspect
ratio, and large ailerons. The wing also allows short takeos and landings, permitting operations from primitive
The front landing gear is oset to the aircrafts right to

allow placement of the 30 mm cannon with its ring barrel along the centerline of the aircraft.[49] During ground
taxi, the oset front landing gear causes the A-10 to
have dissimilar turning radii. Turning to the right on the
ground takes less distance than turning left.[Note 1] The
wheels of the main landing gear partially protrude from
their nacelles when retracted, making gear-up belly land-
216
Front view of an A-10 showing the 30 mm cannon and oset

front landing gear
This A-10 suered extensive damage during Operation Iraqi

Freedom in 2003
ings easier to control and less damaging. All landing gears

are hinged toward the aircrafts rear; if hydraulic power
is lost, a combination of gravity and wind resistance can
an hour and landed safely.[56][57]
open and lock the gear in place.[45]
23.2.2
Durability
The A-10 is exceptionally tough, being able to survive

direct hits from armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles up to 23 mm. It has double-redundant hydraulic
ight systems, and a mechanical system as a back up if hydraulics are lost. Flight without hydraulic power uses the
manual reversion control system; pitch and yaw control
engages automatically, roll control is pilot-selected. In
manual reversion mode, the A-10 is suciently controllable under favorable conditions to return to base, though
control forces are greater than normal. The aircraft is designed to y with one engine, one tail, one elevator, and
half of one wing missing.[50]
The cockpit and parts of the ight-control system are protected by 1,200 lb (540 kg) of titanium aircraft armor, referred to as a bathtub.[51][52] The armor has been tested
to withstand strikes from 23 mm cannon re and some
strikes from 57 mm rounds.[47][51] It is made up of titanium plates with thicknesses from 0.5 to 1.5 inches (13
to 38 mm) determined by a study of likely trajectories
and deection angles. The armor makes up almost 6 percent of the aircrafts empty weight. Any interior surface of the tub directly exposed to the pilot is covered
by a multi-layer nylon spall shield to protect against shell
fragmentation.[53][54] The front windscreen and canopy
are resistant to small arms re.[55]
The A-10s durability was shown on 7 April 2003 when
Captain Kim Campbell, while ying over Baghdad during
the 2003 invasion of Iraq, suered extensive ak damage.
Iraqi re damaged an engine and crippled the hydraulic
system, requiring the aircrafts stabilizer and ight controls to be operated via the 'manual reversion mode'. Despite this damage, Campbell ew the aircraft for nearly
The A-10 was envisioned to y from forward air bases

and semi-prepared runways with high risk of foreign object damage to the engines. The unusual location of
the General Electric TF34-GE-100 turbofan engines decreases ingestion risk, and allows the engines to run
while the aircraft is serviced and rearmed by ground
crews, reducing turn-around time. The wings are also
mounted closer to the ground, simplifying servicing and
rearming operations. The heavy engines require strong
supports, four bolts connect the engine pylons to the
airframe.[58] The engines high 6:1 bypass ratio have a relatively small infrared signature, and their position directs
exhaust over the tailplanes further shielding it from detection by infrared homing surface-to-air missiles. The engines are angled upward by nine degrees to cancel out the
nose-down pitching moment they would otherwise generate due to being mounted above the aircrafts center
of gravity, avoiding the need to trim the control surfaces
against the force.[58]
To reduce the likelihood of damage to the A-10s fuel
system, all four fuel tanks are located near the aircrafts
center and are separated from the fuselage; projectiles
would need to penetrate the aircrafts skin before reaching a tanks outer skin.[53][54] Compromised fuel transfer
lines self-seal; if damage exceeds a tanks self-sealing capabilities, check valves prevent fuel owing into a compromised tank. Most fuel system components are inside
the tanks so that fuel will not be lost due to component
failure. The refueling system is also purged after use.[59]
Reticulated polyurethane foam lines both the inner and
outer sides of the fuel tanks, retaining debris and restricting fuel spillage in the event of damage. The engines are
shielded from the rest of the airframe by rewalls and re
extinguishing equipment. In the event of all four main
tanks being lost, two self-sealing sump tanks contain fuel
for 230 miles (370 km) of ight.[53][54]
23.2. DESIGN
23.2.3
Weapons
A side-view drawing of the A-10s GAU-8/A Avenger gun and its

approximate location in the fuselage
217
The fuselage of the aircraft is built around the cannon.
The GAU-8/A is mounted slightly to the port side; the
barrel in the ring location is on the starboard side at
the 9 o'clock position so it is aligned with the aircrafts
centerline. The guns 5-foot, 11.5-inch (1.816 m) ammunition drum can hold up to 1,350 rounds of 30 mm
ammunition,[49] but generally holds 1,174 rounds.[63] To
prevent enemy re from causing the GAU-8/A rounds to
re prematurely, armor plates of diering thicknesses between the aircraft skin and the drum are designed to detonate incoming shells.[49][54] A nal armor layer around
the drum protects it from fragmentation damage. The gun
is loaded by Syn-Techs linked tube carrier GFU-7/E 30
mm ammunition loading assembly cart.
The AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missile is a
commonly-used munition, targeted via electro-optical
(TV-guided) or infrared. The Maverick allows target engagement at much greater ranges than the cannon, and
thus less risk from anti-aircraft systems. During Desert
Storm, in the absence of dedicated forward-looking infrared (FLIR) cameras for night vision, the Mavericks
infrared camera was used for night missions as a poor
mans FLIR.[64] Other weapons include cluster bombs
and Hydra rocket pods.[65] The A-10 is equipped to carry
laser-guided bombs. A-10s usually y with an ALQ-131
ECM pod under one wing and two AIM-9 Sidewinder airto-air missiles under the other wing for self-defense.[66]
Although the A-10 can carry considerable disposable

stores, its primary built-in weapon is the 30 mm GAU8/A Avenger Gatling-type cannon. One of the most powerful aircraft cannon ever own, it res large depleted uranium armor-piercing shells. In the original design, the pilot could switch between two rates of re: 2,100 or 4,200
rounds per minute;[60] this was changed to a xed rate
of 3,900 rounds per minute.[61] The cannon takes about
half a second to come up to speed, so 50 rounds are red
during the rst second, 65 or 70 rounds per second thereafter. The gun is accurate enough to place 80 percent of
its shots within a 40-foot (12.4 m) diameter circle from 23.2.4
4,000 feet (1,220 m) while in ight.[62] The GAU-8 is optimized for a slant range of 4,000 feet (1,220 m) with the
A-10 in a 30 degree dive.[63]
Modernization
A-10 Thunderbolt II, fully armed
The A-10 Precision Engagement Modication Program

will update 356 A-10/OA-10s to the A-10C variant with
a new ight computer, new glass cockpit displays and
controls, two new 5.5-inch (140 mm) color displays with
moving map function and an integrated digital stores
management system.[11][26]
Another view of the A-10s GAU-8 installation
Other funded improvements to the A-10 eet include a

new data link, the ability to employ smart weapons such as
the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) and Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser, and the ability to carry an
integrated targeting pod such as the Northrop Grumman
LITENING or the Lockheed Martin Sniper Advanced
218
Targeting Pod (ATP). Also included is the Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) to provide
sensor data to personnel on the ground.[25]
23.2.5
Colors and markings
Arkansas Air National Guard A-10C ring an AGM-65 air-tosurface missile on a ring range at Davis-Monthan AFB
23.3.1 Introduction
An A-10 from the 343rd Tactical Fighter Wing prepares to drop

Mark 82 bombs at the Yukon Command Training Site in 1988.
Since the A-10 ies low to the ground and at subsonic

speed, aircraft camouage is important to make the aircraft more dicult to see. Many dierent types of
paint schemes have been tried. These have included a
peanut scheme of sand, yellow and eld drab; black
and white colors for winter operations and a tan, green
and brown mixed pattern.[67] Many A-10s also featured a
false canopy painted in dark gray on the underside of the
aircraft, just behind the gun. This form of automimicry
is an attempt to confuse the enemy as to aircraft attitude
and maneuver direction.[68][69] Many A-10s feature nose
art, such as shark mouth or warthog head features.
The rst unit to receive the A-10 Thunderbolt II was the

355th Tactical Training Wing, based at Davis-Monthan
Air Force Base, Arizona, in March 1976. The rst
unit to achieve full combat-readiness was the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina, in 1978. Deployments of A-10As followed at
bases both at home and abroad, including England AFB,
Louisiana; Eielson AFB, Alaska; Osan Air Base, South
Korea; and RAF Bentwaters/RAF Woodbridge, England. The 81st TFW of RAF Bentwaters/RAF Woodbridge operated rotating detachments of A-10s at four
bases in Germany known as Forward Operating Locations (FOLs): Leipheim, Sembach Air Base, Nrvenich,
and Ahlhorn.[71]
A-10s were initially an unwelcome addition to many in

the Air Force. Most pilots switching to the A-10 did not
want to because ghter pilots traditionally favored speed
and appearance.[72] In 1987, many A-10s were shifted to
the forward air control (FAC) role and redesignated OA10.[73] In the FAC role the OA-10 is typically equipped
with up to six pods of 2.75 inch (70 mm) Hydra rockets,
The two most common markings applied to the A-10 usually with smoke or white phosphorus warheads used
have been the European I woodland camouage scheme for target marking. OA-10s are physically unchanged and
and a two-tone gray scheme. The European woodland remain fully combat capable despite the redesignation.[74]
scheme was designed to minimize visibility from above,
as the threat from hostile ghter aircraft was felt to outweigh that from ground-re. It uses dark green, medium 23.3.2 Gulf War and Balkans
green and dark gray in order to blend in with the typical European forest terrain and was used from the 1980s
to the early 1990s. Following the end of the Cold War,
and based on experience during the 1991 Gulf War, the
air-to-air threat was no longer seen to be as important as
that from ground re, and a new color scheme known as
Compass Ghost was chosen to minimize visibility from
below. This two-tone gray scheme has darker gray color
on top, with the lighter gray on the underside of the aircraft, and started to be applied from the early 1990s.[70]

A-10A after Operation Desert Storm, 1992
219
The A-10 was used in combat for the rst time during 23.3.3
the Gulf War in 1991, destroying more than 900 Iraqi
tanks, 2,000 other military vehicles and 1,200 artillery
pieces.[4] A-10s also shot down two Iraqi helicopters with
the GAU-8 cannon. The rst of these was shot down by
Captain Robert Swain over Kuwait on 6 February 1991,
marking the A-10s rst air-to-air victory.[75] Four A-10s
were shot down during the war, all by surface-to-air missiles. Another three battle-damaged A-10s and OA-10As
returned to base but were written o, some sustaining additional damage in crash landings.[76][77] The A-10 had a
mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, ew 8,100 sorties,
and launched 90 percent of the AGM-65 Maverick missiles red in the conict.[78] Shortly after the Gulf War,
the Air Force abandoned the idea of replacing the A-10
with a close air support version of the F-16.[79]
Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and recent deployments
A-10 over Afghanistan, 2011
During the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, A-10s did

not take part in the initial stages. For the campaign
against Taliban and Al Qaeda, A-10 squadrons were deployed to Pakistan and Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan,
beginning in March 2002. These A-10s participated in
Operation Anaconda. Afterwards, A-10s remained incountry, ghting Taliban and Al Qaeda remnants.[84]
An A-10A during Operation Allied Force
U.S. Air Force A-10 aircraft red approximately 10,000

30 mm rounds in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 199495.
Following the seizure of some heavy weapons by Bosnian
Serbs from a warehouse in Ilida, a series of sorties were
launched to locate and destroy the captured equipment.
On 5 August 1994, two A-10s located and strafed an
anti-tank vehicle. Afterward, the Serbs agreed to return
remaining heavy weapons.[80] In August 1995, NATO
launched an oensive called Operation Deliberate Force.
A-10s ew close air support missions, attacking Bosnian
Serb artillery and positions. In late September, A-10s began ying patrols again.[81]
A-10s returned to the Balkan region as part of Operation
Allied Force in Kosovo beginning in March 1999.[81] In
March 1999, A-10s escorted and supported search and
rescue helicopters in nding a downed F-117 pilot.[82]
The A-10s were deployed to support search and rescue
missions, but over time the Warthogs began to receive
more ground attack missions. The A-10s rst successful attack in Operation Allied Force happened on 6 April
1999; A-10s remained in action until combat ended in
late June 1999.[83]
Operation Iraqi Freedom began on 20 March 2003. Sixty

OA-10/A-10 aircraft took part in early combat there.[85]
United States Air Forces Central issued Operation Iraqi
Freedom: By the Numbers, a declassied report about the
aerial campaign in the conict on 30 April 2003. During
that initial invasion of Iraq, A-10s had a mission capable
rate of 85 percent in the war and red 311,597 rounds
of 30 mm ammunition. A single A-10 was shot down
near Baghdad International Airport by Iraqi re late in
the campaign. The A-10 also ew 32 missions in which
the aircraft dropped propaganda leaets over Iraq.[86]
A-10s at Tallil Air Base, Iraq of the Air Force Reserve Command's 442nd Fighter Wing, in 2009
The A-10C rst deployed to Iraq in 2007 with the 104th

Fighter Squadron of the Maryland Air National Guard.
The jets include the Precision Engagement Upgrade.[87]
The A-10Cs digital avionics and communications systems have greatly reduced the time to acquire a close air
support target and attack it.[88]
220
A-10s ew 32 percent of combat sorties in Operation

Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. The
sorties ranged from 27,800 to 34,500 annually between
2009 and 2012. In the rst half of 2013, they ew 11,189
sorties in Afghanistan.[89] From the beginning of 2006 to
October 2013, A-10s ew 19 percent of CAS operations
in Iraq and Afghanistan, more than the F-15E Strike Eagle or B-1B Lancer, but less than the 33 percent of CAS
missions own by F-16s during that time period.[90]
An A-10 peels away from a KC-135 Stratotanker while ying

over Afghanistan, February 2011
In March 2011, six A-10s were deployed as part of

Operation Odyssey Dawn, the coalition intervention in
Libya. They participated in attacks on Libyan ground
forces there.[91][92]
23.3.4 Proposed retirement

In 2007, the A-10 was expected to be in USAF service
until 2028 and possibly later,[100] when it may be replaced
by the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.[28] Critics
have said that replacing the A-10 with the F-35 would be
a giant leap backwards given the A-10s performance
and the F-35s rising costs.[101] In 2012, the Air Force
considered the F-35B STOVL variant as a replacement
CAS aircraft, but concluded that the aircraft could not
generate sucient sorties.[102] In 2012, the USAF proposed disbanding ve A-10 squadrons in its budget request to cut its eet of 348 A-10s by 102 to lessen cuts
to multi-mission aircraft.[103] In August 2013, Congress
and the Air Force examined various proposals, including
the F-35 and the MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle
lling the A-10s role. Proponents state that the A-10s armor and cannon are superior to aircraft such as the F-35,
that guided munitions could be jammed; and that ground
commanders frequently request A-10 support.[89]
In the Air Forces FY 2015 budget, the service considered retiring the A-10 and other single-mission aircraft,
prioritizing multi-mission aircraft; cutting a whole eet
and its infrastructure is seen as the only method for major savings. Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve
members argued that allocating all A-10s to their control
would achieve savings; half of the eet is operated by the
Air National Guard. The U.S. Army had expressed interest in obtaining some A-10s,[104][105] but Army Secretary
John M. McHugh later stated there was no chance of
that happening due to Army aviation eet reconguration and that the aircrafts mission was for the Air Force
to perform.[106] The U.S. Air Force stated that retirement
would save $3.7 billion from 2015 to 2019. Guided munitions allow more aircraft to perform the CAS mission,
reducing the requirement for a specialized aircraft; since
2001, multirole aircraft and bombers performed 80 percent of CAS missions. The A-10 is also more vulnerable
to advanced anti-aircraft defenses. The Army stated that
the A-10 is invaluable for its versatile weapons loads, psychological impact, and reduced logistics needs on ground
support systems.[107]
On 24 July 2013, a pair of A-10s protected an ambushed

convoy in Afghanistan, supporting the evacuation eorts
of wounded soldiers under hostile re. Ground forces
communicated an estimated location of enemy forces to
the pilots, after which the lead aircraft, relying on visual
references, red two rockets to mark the area to guide
cannon re from the second A-10. The attackers moved
closer to the soldiers, which prevented helicopter evacuation, leading to the convoy commander authorizing the
A-10s to provide dangerously close re. The aircraft conducted strang runs, ying 75 ft above the enemys position and 50 meters parallel to friendly ground forces,
completing 15 gun passes ring nearly 2,300 rounds and
dropping three 500 lb bombs. This engagement was typ- The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year
ical of close-air support missions the A-10 was designed 2014 prohibited the Air Force from spending money durfor.[93]
ing FY 2014 on retiring the A-10; it did not change
In September 2014, the USAF 122nd Fighter Wing rescheduled reductions of two aircraft per month, reducvealed it would be deploying to the Middle East in the ing the operational total to 283.[108] On 27 January 2014,
next month, which includes 12 of the units 21 A-10 air- General Mike Hostage, head of Air Combat Command,
craft. Although the deployment had been planned a year stated that while other aircraft in the A-10s role may not
in advance in a support role, the timing coincided with the be as good, they were more viable in environments where
ongoing Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State the A-10 was potentially useless and that retaining the Amilitants.[94][95][96] Since mid-November, U.S. comman- 10 would mean cuts being imposed on other areas.[109]
ders began sending A-10s to hit IS targets in central Equivalent cost saving measures include cutting the enand northwestern Iraq on an almost daily basis.[97][98] In tire B-1 Lancer bomber eet or 350 F-16s; the F-16 eet
about two months time, A-10s have own 11 percent of would either be reduced by a third or perform most CAS
all USAF sorties since the start of operations in August missions until the F-35 becomes fully operational.[110] On
24 February 2014, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel
2014.[99]
23.5. OPERATORS
221
presented a budget plan that would retire the A-10 over

ve years to fund the F-35A.[111][112]
There were accusations that the A-10s retirement is due
to less importance placed on ground support and that it
would risk lives. Army Chief of Sta Ray Odierno told
Congress that while the Army did not recommend retiring
the A-10, he understood the Air Forces budget decision,
and that both services would work together to develop
better CAS tactics for the F-16; the Senate viewed that as
a new solution to one already in place.[113] On 23 April
2014, Air Force Chief of Sta Mark Welsh defended
the plan to divest the A-10 as logical and that analysis
showed that the choice was the least operationally harmful, as well increased cost savings to $4.2 billion. He also A newly updated A-10C arrives at Davis-Monthan AFB, 29
revealed alternative cost-saving measures the Air Force November 2006.
rejected such as: F-35A deferments; further F-15 Eagle cuts; ISR and air mobility eet reductions; extensive
sion. (All updated to A-10C)
tanker eet reductions; command and control cuts; and
grounding some long-range strike platforms.[114][115][116] OA-10A A-10As used for airborne forward air control.
(All updated to A-10C)
The House Armed Services Committee passed an
amendment to their FY 2015 markup blocking A-10 re- YA-10B Night/Adverse Weather Two-seat
experitirement, stipulating that the eet cannot be retired or
mental prototype, for work at night and in bad
stored until the U.S. Comptroller General completes cerweather. The one YA-10B prototype was converted
tications and studies on the abilities of other platforms
from an A-10A.[128]
used to perform CAS.[117] The Senate Armed Services
Committee markup directed $320 million saved from A-10C A-10As updated under the incremental Precision Engagement (PE) program.[25]
personnel cuts to retain the A-10. Both Armed Services
Committees of Congress draft plans kept the A-10 in A-10PCAS Proposed unmanned version developed
service for at least another year.[118] The House Approby Raytheon and Aurora Flight Sciences as
priations Committee voted in favor of retiring the A-10
part of DARPA's Persistent Close Air Support
eet,[119] but the House FY 2015 spending bill blocked
program.[129] The PCAS program eventually
the retirement during 2015.[120]
dropped the idea of using an optionally manned
The F-35As operational readiness may be pushed back
due in part to the blocked A-10 retirement, as the Air
Force claims it is keeping maintainers needed to work
on the F-35.[121] Lawmakers are backing bills to prevent
A-10 retirement in FY 2015; up to 36 planes could be allowed to be moved to back-up status to free up maintainers for F-35 work,[122] and 18 will be moved to back-up
status in 2015.[123] In January 2015, Air Force ocials
told lawmakers that it would take 15 years to fully develop a new attack aircraft to replace the A-10;[124] service leaders admit a follow-on weapon system for the A10 is on the table.[125] The Air Force plan is for F-16s
and F-15Es to initially take up CAS sorties, which will
then be taken over by the F-35A once sucient numbers
reach full operating potential over the next decade. After
that, the service is considering purchasing a relatively inexpensive replacement to perform CAS against enemies
that lack sophisticated air defenses.[126]
A-10.[130]
Civilian A-10 Proposed by the South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology to replace its North American T-28 Trojan thunderstorm penetration aircraft.
The A-10 would have its military engines, avionics, and oxygen system replaced by civilian versions.
The engines and airframe would receive protection
from hail, and the GAU-8 Avenger would be replaced with ballast or scientic instruments.[131]
23.5 Operators
The A-10 has been own exclusively by the United States
Air Force and its Air Reserve components, the Air Force
Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard
(ANG). The USAF operates 173 A-10C aircraft (54 in
active duty, 55 in AFRC, and 64 in ANG) (as of FY
2014).
23.4 Variants
United States
[127]
YA-10A Pre-production variant. 12 were built.
A-10A Single-seat close air support, ground-attack ver-
222
66th Weapons Squadron

74th Fighter Squadron
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron (Nellis Air
Force Base, Nevada)
Air National Guard

163d Fighter Squadron
An A-10 Thunderbolt II banks left after refueling

23.5.1 Former operators

Four A-10s of the 111th Fighter Wing, Pennsylvania Air National Guard, y in formation during a refueling mission.
18th Tactical Fighter Squadron

81st Fighter Squadron
91st Tactical Fighter Squadron
92d Tactical Fighter Squadron

Air National Guard
USAF A-10A showing kill markings from Desert Storm, 1991

23.7. SPECIFICATIONS (A-10A)
223
77-0244 Wisconsin Air National Guard Museum,

Volk Field ANGB, Wisconsin[151]
YA-10A
77-0252 (nose section only) Cradle of Aviation,

Garden City, New York[152]
71-1370 Joint Base Langley-Eustis (Langley

AFB), Hampton, Virginia[132]
YA-10B
77-0259 Imperial War Museum, former RAF

Duxford, United Kingdom[153]
77-0264 Spangdahlem AB, Germany
73-1664 Air Force Flight Test Center Museum,

Edwards AFB, California[133]
A-10A
78-0681 National Museum of the United

States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton,
Ohio[154]
78-0687 Fort Campbell, Kentucky[155]
73-1666 Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB,

Utah[134]
79-0097 Warbird Park, former Myrtle Beach

AFB, South Carolina[156]
73-1667 Former England AFB, Louisiana[135]
79-0100 Barnes Air National Guard Base,

Westeld, Massachusetts[157]
75-0263 Empire State Aerosciences Museum,

Glenville, New York[136]
79-0103 Bradley Air National Guard Base,

Windsor Locks, Connecticut[144]
75-0270 McChord Air Museum, McChord AFB,

Washington[137]
79-0116 Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona[144]
75-0293 Wings of Eagles Discovery Center,

Elmira, New York[138]
79-0173 New England Air Museum, Windsor

Locks, Connecticut[158]
75-0288 Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin

AFB, Florida[139]
80-0219 - RAF Alconbury, United Kingdom[144]
75-0289 Heritage Park, Eielson AFB, Alaska
[140]
75-0298 Pima Air & Space Museum (adjacent to

Davis-Monthan AFB), Tucson, Arizona[141]
75-0305 Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB,
Warner Robins, Georgia[142]
75-0308 Previously at Pope AFB, North Carolina;[143] relocated to Moody AFB, Georgia[144]
8o-0247 - American Airpower Museum, Republic

Airport, Farmingdale, NY
80-0708 Selfridge Military Air Museum, Selfridge
Air National Guard Base, Harrison Township,
Michigan[159]
23.7 Specications (A-10A)
75-0309 Shaw AFB, South Carolina[144]
Data from The Great Book of Modern Warplanes,[160]

Fairchild-Republic A/OA-10,[161] USAF[78]
76-0515 Osan AB, South Korea[144]
76-0516 Harold F. Pitcairn Wings of Freedom

Aviation Museum, Horsham, Pennsylvania.[145]
Crew: 1
76-0530 Whiteman AFB, Missouri[146]
Length: 53 ft 4 in (16.26 m)
76-0535 Cradle of Aviation, Garden City, New

York[147]
76-0540 Aerospace Museum of California,

McClellan Airport (former McClellan AFB),
Sacramento, California[148]
Wing area: 506 ft (47.0 m)
77-0205 USAF Academy collection, Colorado

Springs, Colorado[149]
77-0228 Grissom Air Museum, Grissom ARB

(former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana[150]
Airfoil: NACA 6716 root, NACA 6713 tip

CAS mission: 47,094 lb (21,361 kg)
Anti-armor mission: 42,071 lb (19,083 kg)
224

Powerplant: 2 General Electric TF34-GE-100A
turbofans, 9,065 lbf (40.32 kN) each
Internal fuel capacity: 11,000 lb (4,990 kg)
Performance
Never exceed speed: 450 knots (518 mph,[161]
833 km/h) at 5,000 ft (1,500 m) with 18 Mk 82
bombs[162]
at sea level, clean[161]
Stall speed: 120 knots (138 mph, 220 km/h) [163]
Combat radius:
CAS mission: 250 nmi (288 mi, 460 km) at
1.88 hour loiter at 5,000 ft (1,500 m), 10 min
combat
Missiles:
2 AIM-9 Sidewinders air-to-air missiles
for self-defense
6 AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface
missiles
Bombs:
Mark 80 series of unguided iron bombs
or
Mk 77 incendiary bombs or
BLU-1,
BLU-27/B Rockeye II,
Mk20,
BL-755[164]
and
CBU52/58/71/87/89/97
cluster
bombs
or
Paveway series of Laser-guided bombs or
Joint Direct Attack Munition (A10C)[165] or
Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (A10C)
Other:
SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys and
cha dispenser pod or
AN/ALQ-131 or AN/ALQ-184 ECM
pods or
Lockheed Martin Sniper XR or
LITENING targeting pods (A-10C)
or
2 600 US gallon Sargent Fletcher drop
tanks for increased range/loitering time.
Anti-armor mission: 252 nmi (290 mi, 467

km), 40 nmi (45 mi, 75 km)) sea-level penetration and exit, 30 min combat
50 knot (55 mph, 90 km/h) headwinds, 20 minutes
reserve
Rate of climb: 6,000 ft/min (30 m/s)
Thrust/weight: 0.36
Armament
Avionics
AN/AAS-35(V) Pave Penny laser tracker pod[166]
(mounted beneath right side of cockpit) for use with
Paveway LGBs (Currently the Pave Penny is no
longer in use)
Guns: 1 30 mm (1.18 in) GAU-8/A Avenger

Gatling cannon with 1,174 rounds (Capacity 1,350)
Head-up display (HUD) for improved technical ying and air-to-ground support.[167]
Hardpoints: 11 (8 under-wing and 3 underfuselage pylon stations) with a capacity of 16,000

lb (7,260 kg) and provisions to carry combinations
of:
Rockets:
4 LAU-61/LAU-68 rocket pods (each
with 19 / 7 Hydra 70 mm rockets, respectively)
4 LAU-5003 rocket pods (each with
19 CRV7 70 mm rockets)
6 LAU-10 rocket pods (each with 4
127 mm (5.0 in) Zuni rockets)
Main article: A-10 Thunderbolt II in ction
23.9 Nicknames
The A-10 Thunderbolt II received its popular nickname
"Warthog" from the pilots and crews of the USAF attack squadrons who ew and maintained it. The A10 is the last of Republics jet attack aircraft to serve
23.11. REFERENCES
with the USAF. The Republic F-84 Thunderjet was nicknamed the Hog, F-84F Thunderstreak nicknamed Superhog, and the Republic F-105 Thunderchief tagged
Ultra Hog.[168] The saying Go Ugly Early has been associated with the aircraft in reference to calling in the A-10
early to support troops in ground combat.[169]
23.10 See also

Craig D. Button
190th Fighter Squadron, Blues and Royals friendly
re incident
1988 Remscheid A-10 crash
Ilyushin Il-102
Northrop YA-9
Sukhoi Su-25
Related lists
225
[7] Spick 2000, pp. 1012.

[8] Jenkins 1998, p. 12.
[9] Coram 2004, p. 235.
[10] Jenkins 1998, pp. 1617.
[11] GAO-07-415: Tactical Aircraft, DOD Needs a Joint
and Integrated Investment Strategy.U.S. Government Accountability Oce, April 2007. Retrieved: 5 March 2010.
[12] Jenkins 1998, p. 19.
[13] Jenkins 1998, pp. 18, 20.
[14] Spick 2000, p. 18.
[15] Jenkins 1998, p. 21.
[16] Pike, Chris. A-10/OA-10 Thunderbolt II. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 18 July 2010.
[17] Fact Sheet: Republic Night/Adverse Weather A-10.
National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved:
18 July 2010.
[18] Spick 2000, pp. 5255.
[19] Aircraft inventory. Flight Test Historical Foundation.
[20] Spick 2000, p. 48.
[21] Jenkins 1998, p. 652.
[22] Spick 2000, p. 49.
List of friendly re incidents
[23] Donald and March 2004, p. 46.
23.11 References
23.11.1
Notes
[1] With the inner wheel on a turn stopped, the minimum radius of the turn is dictated by the distance between the
inner wheel and the nose wheel. Since the distance is less
between the right main wheel and the nose gear than the
same measurement on the left, the aircraft can turn more
tightly to the right.
23.11.2
Citations
[1] Spick 2000, pp. 17, 52.
[24] Jensen, David. All New Warthog. Avionics Magazine, 1

December 2005.
[25] Schanz, Marc V. Not Fade Away. Air Force Magazine,
June 2008. Retrieved: 5 March 2010.
[26] A Higher-Tech Hog: The A-10C PE Program. Defense
Industry Daily, 21 July 2010. Retrieved: 11 June 2011.
[27] Orndor, Bill. Maintenance unit completes upgrade of
100th A-10. U.S. Air Force, 18 January 2008. Retrieved:
5 March 2010.
[28] Tirpak, John A. Making the Best of the Fighter Force.
Air Force magazine, Vol. 90, no. 3, March 2007.
[29] Boeing Awarded $2 Billion A-10 Wing Contract. Boeing, 29 June 2007. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
[2] Jenkins 1998, p. 42.
[30] US Air Force to Build 56 Additional A-10 Wings to

Keep the Type Operating Through 2035 - Deagel.com,
4 September 2013
[3] Operation Desert Storm: Evaluation of the Air Campaign, GAO/NSIAD-97-134 Appendix IV. U.S. General
Accounting Oce, 12 June 1997. Retrieved 5 March
2010.
[31] Air Force Budget Proposal Preserves Cherished Modernization Programs - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, 4
March 2014
[4] Burton 1993 .
[32] A-10:
Been There, Considered That.
forcemag.com, 24 April 2014.
[5] Coram 2004

Air-
[33] 40th FTS expands A-10 fuel limitations in combat Eglin.AF.mil, 26 August 2013
226
[34] Defence & Security Intelligence & Analysis - IHS Janes

360. janes.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[35] Air Force Reluctantly Upgrades A-10s After Congress
Complains. War is Boring blog
[36] Graham, Ian. Air Force scientists test, develop bio jet
fuels. af.mil, 30 March 2010. Retrieved: 18 July 2010.
[63] Jenkins 1998, pp. 6473.

[64] Stephens World Air Power Journal Spring 1994, pp. 53
54.
[65] Stephens World Air Power Journal, Spring 1994, pp. 54
56.
[66] Stephens. World Air Power Journal, Spring 1994, p. 53.
[37] 46th tests alcohol-based fuel in A-10 - Eglin.AF.mil, 2

July 2012
[38] NSF to Turn Tank Killer Into Storm Chaser Science
(journal), 11 November 2011. Retrieved: 22 July 2012.
[39] Plane Has Combative Attitude toward Storms American
Meteorological Society. Retrieved: 22 July 2012.
[40] T-28 Instrumented Research Aircraft South Dakota
School of Mines & Technology. Retrieved: 22 July 2012.
[67] Neubeck 1999, p. 92.

[68] Neubeck 1999, pp. 72, 73, 76, 77.
[69] Shaw 1985, p. 382.
[70] Stephens World Air Power Journal, Spring 1994, p. 47.
[71] Jenkins 1998, pp. 5659.
[72] Campbell 2003, pp. 117, 175183.
[41] Boeing discussing international A-10 Warthog sales.

Flightglobal.com, 20 May 2015.
[73] Jenkins 1998, p. 63.
[42] Air International, May 1974, p. 224.
[74] Stephens World Air Power Journal, Spring 1994, pp. 50,
56.
[43] Drendel 1981, p. 12.

[44] Stephens World Air Power Journal. Spring 1994, p. 64.
[45] Taylor 1982, pp. 363364.
[46] Spick 2000, pp. 6465.
[48] Jenkins 1998, p. 58.
[75] Coyne, James P. Total Storm, Air Force magazine, June

1992
[76] Fixed-wing Combar Aircraft Attrition, list of Gulf War
xed-wing aircraft losses. Gulf War Airpower Survey,
Vol. 5. Retrieved: 24 OCT 2014.
[77] Friedman, Norman. Desert Victory. World Air Power
Journal.
[49] Spick 2000, p. 44.
[78] A-10/OA-10 fact sheet. U.S. Air Force, October 2007.

[50] Henderson, Breck W. A-10 'Warthogs damaged heavily

in Gulf War bug survived to y again. Aviation Week and
Space Technology, 5 August 1991.
[79] A-16 Close Air Support. F-16.net. Retrieved: 5 March

2010.
[51] Jenkins 1998, pp. 47, 49.
[80] Sudetic, Chuck. U.S. Hits Bosnian Serb Target in Air

Raid. The New York Times, 6 August 1994.
[52] Spick 2000, pp. 32.
[81] Donald and March 2004, pp. 4243.
[53] Stephens World Air Power Journal Spring 1994, p. 42.

[54] Air International June 1979, p. 270.
[55] Spick 2000, pp. 3033.
[56] Haag, Jason. Wounded Warthog: an A-10 Thunderbolt
II pilot safely landed her Warthog after it sustained signicant damage from enemy re. Combat Edge, April
2004.
[82] Pilot Gets 2nd Chance to Thank Rescuer. Air Force

Times, 27 April 2009.
[83] Haave |, Col. Christopher and Lt. Col. Phil M. Haun. A10s over Kosovo. Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force
Base, Alabama, December 2003. Retrieved: 21 August
2011.
[57] Capt. Kim Campbell. stripes.com. Retrieved: 21 August 2011.
[85] Donald and March 2004, pp. 4445.
[58] Bell 1986, p. 64.
[86] 30 Apr OIF by the Numbers UNCLASS.doc (pdf).

globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 5 March 2010.
[59] Wilson 1976, p. 714.

[60] Stephens 1995, p. 18.
[61] TCTO 1A-10-1089, Flight manual TO 1A-10A-1 (20
February 2003, Change 8), page vi, 1-150A.
[62] Sweetman 1987, p. 46.
[87] Maier, Sta Sgt. Markus. Upgraded A-10s prove worth

in Iraq. U.S. Air Force, 7 November 2007. Retrieved: 5
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[88] Doscher, Sta Sgt. Thomas J. A-10C revolutionizes
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2014.
[90] Air Force, lawmakers clash over future of A-10 again - [111] Shanker, Thom; Cooker, Helene (23 February 2014).
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[91] New air missions attack Kadha troops: Pentagon. AFP,
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[112] How Hagel spending plan will transform US military,
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[92] Schmitt, Eric U.S. Gives Its Air Power Expansive Role
in Libya. The New York Times, 29 March 2011, p. A13.
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[93] Bagram pilots save 60 Soldiers during convoy ambush
[114] Welsh Defends Plan to Scrap A-10 as Logical", DoD
AF.mil, 6 August 2013.
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[94] 122nd Fighter Wing deploying 300 airmen to Mideast [115] Grounding A-10s will save $4.2 billion, decision clear:
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[95] Pentagon to deploy 12 A-10s to Middle East. TheHill.
[116] Air Force Chief: Shelving A-10 Makes 'Eminent Sense'
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[96] House Dem: A-10 jets crucial to ISIS ght. TheHill.
[117] HASC OKs $600B in 2015 DoD Spending, nixes A-10

retirement plans, Military times, 8 May 2014.
[97] A-10s Hitting ISIS Targets in Iraq - Military.com, 17 December 2014

[118] Senate committee: $320M from personnel cuts could
keep A-10 ying, Military times, 22 May 2014.
[98] A-10 attacking Islamic State targets in Iraq - Militarytimes.com, 19 December 2014
[119] House Panel Votes to Scrap the A-10 Warthog, DoD
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[99] A-10 Performing 11 Percent of Anti-ISIS Sorties - Defensenews.com, 19 January 2015
[120] House spending bill blocks A-10 retirement, Military
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[100] Trimble, Steven. US Air Force may extend Fairchild
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[101] Goozner, Merill. "$382 Billion for a Slightly Better [122] Lawmakers Agree to Block Retirement of A-10 Fleet,
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Fighter Plane?: F-35 has plenty of support in Congress.
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[123] Air Force to sideline 18 A-10s this year - Military2011
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[102] F-35B cannot generate enough sorties to replace A-10.
[124] Pentagon Unveils Program to Help Build 6th Generation
Flight global, 16 May 2012.
Fighter - DoDBuzz.com, 28 January 2015
[103] Schogol, Je. Proposed A-10 cuts total 29 percent of
[125] Air Force considering A-10 replacement for future close
inventory. Air Force Times, 1 February 2012.
air support - Flightglobal.com, 13 February 2015
[104] USAF Weighs Scrapping KC-10, A-10 Fleets. Defense
[126] One-week study re-arms A-10 retirement decision:
News, 15 September 2013.
USAF - Flightglobal.com, 6 March 2015
[105] USAF General: A-10 Fleet Likely Done if Sequestration [127] Donald and March 2004, pp. 910.
Continues. Defense News, 17 September 2013.
[128] Jenkins 1998, pp. 9293.
[106] Army Not Interested in Taking A-10 Warthogs from Air
Force - DoDBuzz.com, 25 January 2015
[129] Unmanned version of A-10 on way. SpaceDaily.com, 20
February 2012.
[107] A-10: Close Air Support Wonder Weapon or Boneyard
[130] Darpa Refocuses Precision Close Air Support Eort
Bound?", Breaking defense, 19 December 2013.
On Manned Aircraft - Aviationweek.com, 10 September
[108] Additional A-10 retirements on hold until at least end of
2013
year, Flight global, 3 January 2014.
[131] Next-generation Storm-penetrating Aircraft (PDF).
[109] Air Combat Commands challenge: Buy new or modernSouth Dakota School of Mines and Technology. Reize older aircraft, Air Force times, 2 February 2014.
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[132] A-10 Thunderbolt II/71-1370. aerialvisuals.ca.

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Re- [156] A-10 Thunderbolt II/79-0079. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[133] A-10 Thunderbolt II/73-1664.'Air Force Flight Test [157] A-10 Thunderbolt II/79-0100. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
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[134] A-10 Thunderbolt II/73-1666. Hill Aerospace Museum. [158] A-10 Thunderbolt II. New England Air Museum. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[135] A-10 Thunderbolt II/73-1667. Warbird Registry. Re- [159] . Selfridge Military Air Museum. Retrieved: 5 April
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[136] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0263. Empire State Aero- [160] Spick 2000, pp. 21, 4448.
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[161] Jenkins 1998, p. 54.
[137] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0270. McChord Air Museum.
[162] Flight manual TO 1A-10A-1 (20 February 2003, Change
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[138] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0293. Wings of Eagles Discov[163] Aalbers, Willem Palerider. History of the Fairchildery Center. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
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[139] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0288. Air Force Armament
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[164] Flight Manual TO 1A-10A-1 (20 February 2003, Change
8), pp. 530.
[140] " Eielson Air Force Base. Retrieved: 23 November 2014.
[141] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0298. Pima Air & Space Mu- [165] Pike, John. A-10 Specs. Global Security. Retrieved: 5
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[142] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0305. Museum of Aviation. [166] Lockheed Martin AN/AAS-35(V) Pave Penny laser
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[143] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0308. Warbird Registry. Re[167] A-10 vs F-16: Go Ugly Early, HUD Video. Livetrieved: 5 April 2013.
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[144] http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/shared/media/
[168] Jenkins 1998, pp. 4, backcover.
document/AFD-130115-047.pdf
[145] "
~
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[146] Team Whiteman recovers A-10 aircraft.. Whiteman

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[148] A-10 Thunderbolt II/76-0540. Aerospace Museum of
California. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[149] A-10 Thunderbolt II/77-0205. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[150] A-10 Thunderbolt II/77-0228. Grissom Air Museum.
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[153] " Welcome to the American Air Museum Home Page.
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[154] A-10 Thunderbolt II/78-0681. National Museum of the
USAF. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
Bell, Dana. A-10 Warthog in Detail & Scale, Blue
Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: TAB Books, 1986.
ISBN 0-8168-5030-5.
Burton, James G. The Pentagon Wars: Reformers Challenge the Old Guard, Annapolis, Maryland:
Naval Institute Press, 1993. ISBN 1-55750-081-9.
Campbell, Douglas N. The Warthog and the Close
Air Support Debate. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval
Institute Press, 2003. ISBN 1-55750-232-3
Coram, Robert. Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who
Changed the Art of War. Los Angeles: Back Bay
Books, 2004. ISBN 0-316-79688-3.
Donald, David and Daniel J. March, eds. A-10
Fighting Warthog. Modern Battleeld Warplanes.
Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime, 2004. ISBN 1880588-76-5.
Drendel, Lou. A-10 Warthog in action. Carrollton,
0-89747-122-9.

The Fairchild A-10A: More Thunder for the USAF,
Air International, Vol. 6, No. 5, May 1974, pp.
219225, 263. Bromley, UK: Pilot Press. ISSN
0306-5634.
The Fairchild Can-Opener: Shturmovik of the Eighties?, Air International, Vol. 16, No. 6, June 1979,
pp. 267272, 287. Bromley, UK: Pilot Press. ISSN
0306-5634.
Fitzsimmons, Bernard (ed.) A-10 Thunderbolt II
(Modern Fighting Aircraft Series). New York:
Arco Publishing, Inc., 1984. ISBN 0-668-06070-0.
Jenkins, Dennis R. Fairchild-Republic A/OA-10
Warthog. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty
Press, 1998. ISBN 1-58007-013-2.
Melampy, Jake. Modern Hog Guide: The A-10 Exposed. Trenton, Ohio: Reid Air Publications, 2007.
ISBN 0-9795064-2-5.
Neubeck, Ken. A-10 Warthog, Mini in-action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1995.
ISBN 0-89747-335-3.
Neubeck, Ken. A-10 Warthog Walk Around. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1999.
ISBN 0-89747-400-7.
Shaw, Robert. Fighter Combat: Tactics and Maneuvering. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press,
1985. ISBN 0-87021-059-9.
Spick, Mike. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes.
London: Salamander Books, 2000. ISBN 1-84065156-3.
Stephens, Rick. A-10 Thunderbolt II. World Air
Power Journal, 1995. ISBN 1-874023-54-9.
Stephens, Rick.
Fairchild A-10: Fighting
Warthog, World Air Power Journal, Volume 16,
Spring 1994, pp. 3283, Aerospace Publishing,
London. ISBN 1-874023-36-0. ISSN 0959-7050.
Sweetman, Bill. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes, New York: Portland House, 1987. ISBN
0-517-63367-1.
Taylor, John W. R. Janes All The Worlds Aircraft
198283. London: Janes Yearbooks, 1982. ISBN
0-7106-0748-2.
Wilson, Michael. Fairchild A-10. Flight International, 20 March 1976, pp. 707717.
Winchester, Jim, ed. Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt
II, Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation
Factle), Rochester, Kent, UK: The Grange plc.,
2006. ISBN 1-84013-929-3.
229

USAF A-10 fact sheet page
(1988) TO 1A-10A-1 Flight Manual USAF Series
A-10A Aircraft Serno 75-00258 and Subsequent
Republic A-10A page, A-10 Construction, and
Night/Adverse Weather A-10 pages on National
Museum of the United States Air Force site
A-10 web page on GlobalSecurity.org
A-10 Thunderbolt II in action on youtube.com
A-10 Thunderbolt II
Chapter 24
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon

F-16 redirects here. For other uses, see F16.
24.1.1
F-16 Fighting Falcon redirects here. For the video
game, see Falcon (video game series).
The General Dynamics (now Lockheed Martin) F-16
Fighting Falcon is a single-engine multirole ghter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the
United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as an air superiority day ghter, it evolved into a successful all-weather
multirole aircraft. Over 4,500 aircraft have been built
since production was approved in 1976.[3] Although no
longer being purchased by the U.S. Air Force, improved
versions are still being built for export customers. In
1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing
business to the Lockheed Corporation,[4] which in turn
became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger
with Martin Marietta.[5]
The Fighting Falcon has key features including a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while maneuvering, a seat reclined 30 degrees to reduce the eect of g-forces on the
pilot, and the rst use of a relaxed static stability/yby-wire ight control system helps to make it a nimble
aircraft. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon
and 11 locations for mounting weapons and other mission equipment. The F-16s ocial name is Fighting
Falcon, but Viper is commonly used by its pilots, due
to a perceived resemblance to a viper snake as well as the
Battlestar Galactica Colonial Viper starghter.[6][7]
In addition to active duty U.S. Air Force, Air Force
Reserve Command, and Air National Guard units, the
aircraft is also used by the USAF aerial demonstration
team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy. The
F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of
25 other nations.[8]
24.1 Development
Lightweight Fighter program
Main article: Lightweight Fighter program

Experience in the Vietnam War revealed the need for
air superiority ghters and better air-to-air training for
ghter pilots.[9] Based on his experiences in the Korean
War and as a ghter tactics instructor in the early 1960s
Colonel John Boyd with mathematician Thomas Christie
developed the Energymaneuverability theory to model
a ghter aircrafts performance in combat. Boyds work
called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and
which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio.[10][11] In the late 1960s, Boyd gathered a group of
like-minded innovators that became known as the Fighter
Maa and in 1969 they secured Department of Defense
funding for General Dynamics and Northrop to study design concepts based on the theory.[12][13]
Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program. However, the Air Forces leadership understood
that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions.[14] The Advanced
Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard, who favored the idea of
competitive prototyping. As a result in May 1971, the
Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with
Boyd a key member, and two of its six proposals would
be funded, one being the Lightweight Fighter (LWF). The
Request for Proposals issued on 6 January 1972 called
for a 20,000-pound (9,100 kg) class air-to-air day ghter
with a good turn rate, acceleration and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of Mach 0.61.6 and altitudes of 30,00040,000 feet (9,10012,000 m). This
was the region where USAF studies predicted most future
air combat would occur. The anticipated average yaway
cost of a production version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no
rm plans to procure the winner.[15][16]
230
24.1. DEVELOPMENT
231
24.1.2 Air Combat Fighter competition
A right side view of a YF-16 (foreground) and a Northrop YF-17,

each armed with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles.
Increased interest would turn the LWF into a serious acquisition program. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and
Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G ghterbombers.[22] In early 1974, they reached an agreement
with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner,
they would consider ordering it as well. The USAF also
needed to replace its F-105 and F-4 ghter-bombers. The
U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in ghter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974
redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter
(NACF) program that would be a navalized ghterbomber variant of the LWF. The four NATO allies
had formed the Multinational Fighter Program Group
(MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December
1974; thus the USAF accelerated testing.[23][24][25]
Finalists selected and yo

Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Sta selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P600 for the follow-on prototype development and testing
phase. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth
$37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16
and YF-17, respectively, with rst ights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in
the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Maa and other LWF
proponents successfully advocated the idea of complementary ghters in a high-cost/low-cost force mix. The
high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sucient ghters for its overall ghter force struc- YF-16 on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center
ture requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by
the time of the prototypes yo, dening the relationship To reect this serious intent to procure a new ghterof the LWF and the F-15.[17][18]
bomber, the LWF program was rolled into a new Air
The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dy- Combat Fighter (ACF) competition in an announcement
namics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer.[19] The rst by U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger in
YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90- April 1974. Schlesinger also made it clear that any
the F-15, which
minute maiden ight was made at the Air Force Flight ACF order would be in addition to [24][25]
extinguished
opposition
to
the
LWF.
ACF also
Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards AFB, California, on 2
raised
the
stakes
for
GD
and
Northrop
because
it brought
February 1974. Its actual rst ight occurred accidenin
competitors
intent
on
securing
what
was
touted at
tally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974.
[26]
These
the
time
as
the
arms
deal
of
the
century.
While gathering speed, a roll-control oscillation caused
were
Dassault-Breguets
proposed
Mirage
F1M-53,
the
a n of the port-side wingtip-mounted missile and then
SEPECAT
Jaguar,
and
the
proposed
Saab
37E
Euthe starboard stabilator to scrape the ground, and the aircraft then began to veer o the runway. The test pilot, roghter. Northrop oered the P-530 Cobra, which
Phil Oestricher, decided to lift o to avoid a potential was similar to the YF-17. The Jaguar and Cobra were
crash, safely landing six minutes later. The slight dam- dropped by the MFPG early on, leaving two European
age was quickly repaired and the ocial rst ight oc- and the two U.S. candidates. On 11 September 1974,
curred on time. The YF-16s rst supersonic ight was the U.S. Air Force conrmed plans to order the winning
accomplished on 5 February 1974, and the second YF- ACF design to equip ve tactical ghter wings. Though
16 prototype rst ew on 9 May 1974. This was followed computer modeling predicted a close contest, the YF-16
by the rst ights of Northrops YF-17 prototypes on 9 proved signicantly quicker going from one maneuver to
unanimous choice of those pilots
June and 21 August 1974, respectively. During the y- the next, and was the [27]
that
ew
both
aircraft.
o, the YF-16s completed 330 sorties for a total of 417
ight hours;[20] the YF-17s ew 288 sorties, covering 345
hours.[21]
On 13 January 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John L.

McLucas announced the YF-16 as the winner of the ACF
232
CHAPTER 24. GENERAL DYNAMICS F-16 FIGHTING FALCON
competition.[28] The chief reasons given by the Secretary

were the YF-16s lower operating costs, greater range,
and maneuver performance that was signicantly better
than that of the YF-17, especially at supersonic speeds.
Another advantage of the YF-16 unlike the YF-17
was its use of the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine,
the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the cost of engines for both programs.[29]
Secretary McLucas announced that the USAF planned to
order at least 650, possibly up to 1,400 production F-16s.
In the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) competition,
on 2 May 1975 the Navy selected the YF-17 as the basis
for what would become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18
Hornet.[30][31]
24.1.3
Into production
An F-16C of the Colorado Air National Guard with AIM-9

Sidewinder missiles and a centerline fuel tank (300 gal capacity) after disengaging from a refueling boom.
The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 Full-Scale Development (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four twoseat models) for its ight test program, but this was
reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F16B two-seaters).[32] The YF-16 design was altered for
the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened by
10.6 in (0.269 m), a larger nose radome was tted for
the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from
280 sq ft (26 m2 ) to 300 sq ft (28 m2 ), the tailn
height was decreased, the ventral ns were enlarged, two
more stores stations were added, and a single door replaced the original nosewheel double doors. The F-16s
weight was increased by 25% over the YF-16 by these

modications.[33][34]
The FSD F-16s were manufactured by General Dynamics
in Texas at United States Air Force Plant 4 in late 1975;
the rst F-16A rolled out on 20 October 1976 and rst
ew on 8 December. The initial two-seat model achieved
its rst ight on 8 August 1977. The initial productionstandard F-16A ew for the rst time on 7 August 1978
and its delivery was accepted by the USAF on 6 January
1979. The F-16 was given its formal nickname of Fighting Falcon on 21 July 1980, entering USAF operational
service with the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 388th
Tactical Fighter Wing at Hill AFB in Utah on 1 October
1980.[35]
On 7 June 1975, the four European partners, now known
as the European Participation Group, signed up for 348
aircraft at the Paris Air Show. This was split among
the European Participation Air Forces (EPAF) as 116
for Belgium, 58 for Denmark, 102 for the Netherlands,
and 72 for Norway. Two European production lines,
one in the Netherlands at Fokkers Schiphol-Oost facility and the other at SABCAs Gosselies plant in Belgium,
would produce 184 and 164 units respectively. Norways
Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk and Denmarks Terma A/S
also manufactured parts and subassemblies for EPAF aircraft. European co-production was ocially launched on
1 July 1977 at the Fokker factory. Beginning in November 1977, Fokker-produced components were sent to Fort
Worth for fuselage assembly, then shipped back to Europe for nal assembly of EPAF aircraft at the Belgian
plant on 15 February 1978; deliveries to the Belgian Air
Force began in January 1979. The rst Royal Netherlands
Air Force aircraft was delivered in June 1979. In 1980,
the rst aircraft were delivered to the Royal Norwegian
Air Force by SABCA and to the Royal Danish Air Force
by Fokker.[36][37]
During the late 1980s and 1990s, Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) produced 232 Block 30/40/50 F-16s on a
production line in Ankara under license for the Turkish
Air Force. TAI also produced 46 Block 40s for Egypt
in the mid-1990s and 30 Block 50 from 2010. Korean
Aerospace Industries opened a production line for the
KF-16 program, producing 140 Block 52s from the mid1990s to mid-2000s (decade). If India had selected the
F-16IN for its Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft procurement, a sixth F-16 production line would be built
in India.[38] In May 2013, Lockheed Martin stated there
were currently enough orders to keep producing the F-16
until 2017.[39]
24.1.4 Improvements and upgrades

One change made during production was augmented
pitch control to avoid deep stall conditions at high angles
of attack. The stall issue had been raised during development, but had originally been discounted. Model tests
24.2. DESIGN
233
of the YF-16 conducted by the Langley Research Center 24.2

revealed a potential problem, but no other laboratory was
able to duplicate it. YF-16 ight tests were not sucient
24.2.1
to expose the issue; later ight testing on the FSD aircraft demonstrated there was a real concern. In response,
the areas of the horizontal stabilizer were increased 25%
on the Block 15 aircraft in 1981 and later retrotted to
earlier aircraft. In addition, a manual override switch to
disable the horizontal stabilizer ight limiter was prominently placed on the control console, allowing the pilot
to regain control of the horizontal stabilizers (which the
ight limiters otherwise lock in place) and recover. Besides reducing the risk of deep stalls, the larger horizontal
tail also improved stability and permitted faster takeo
rotation.[40][41]
In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve the F-16s capabilities, mitigate risks during technology development,
and ensure the aircrafts worth. The program upgraded
the F-16 in three stages. The MSIP process permitted
the quick introduction of new capabilities, at lower costs
and with reduced risks compared to traditional independent upgrade programs.[42] In 2012, the USAF had allocated $2.8 billion to upgrade 350 F-16s while waiting
for the F-35 to enter service.[43] One key upgrade has
been an auto-GCAS (Ground collision avoidance system)
to reduce instances of controlled ight into terrain.[44]
Onboard power and cooling capacities limits the scope
of upgrades, which often involves the addition of more
power-hungry avionics.[45]
Lockheed won many contracts to upgrade foreign operators F-16s. BAE Systems also oers various F-16
upgrades, receiving orders from South Korea, Oman,
Turkey, and the US Air National Guard;[46][47][48] BAE
lost the South Korean contract due to a price breach in
November 2014.[49] In 2012, the USAF assigned the total upgrade contract to Lockheed Martin.[50] Upgrades
include Raytheons Center Display Unit, which replaces
several analog ight instruments with a single digital
display.[51]
In 2013, sequestration budget cuts cast doubt on the
USAFs ability to complete the Combat Avionics Programmed Extension Suite (CAPES), a part of secondary
programs such as Taiwans F-16 upgrade.[52] ACC's
General Mike Hostage stated that if he only had money
for SLEP (service life extension program) or CAPES, he
would fund SLEP to keep the aircraft ying.[53] Lockheed Martin responded to talk of CAPES cancellation
with a xed-price upgrade package for foreign users.[54]
CAPES was not included in the Pentagons 2015 budget
request.[55] The USAF said that the upgrade package will
still be oered to Taiwan, and Lockheed said that some
common elements with the F-35 will keep the radars unit
costs down.[56] In 2014 the USAF issued a RFI to SLEP
300 F-16 C/Ds.[57]
Design
Overview
Comparison between F-16s inset cannons; early aircraft

had four vents, while later aircraft had two.
The F-16 is a single-engine, very maneuverable, supersonic, multi-role tactical ghter aircraft; it was designed
to be a cost-eective combat workhorse that can perform various missions and maintain around-the-clock
readiness. It is much smaller and lighter than predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics, including the rst use of a relaxed static stability/y-by-wire
(RSS/FBW) ight control system, to achieve enhanced
maneuver performance. Highly nimble, the F-16 was the
rst ghter aircraft purpose-built to pull 9-g maneuvers
and can reach a maximum speed of over Mach 2. Innovations include a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick, and reclined seat to
reduce g-force eects on the pilot. It is armed with an
internal M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root and has
multiple locations for mounting various missiles, bombs
and pods. It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one,
providing power to climb and accelerate vertically.[2]
The F-16 was designed to be relatively inexpensive to
build and simpler to maintain than earlier-generation
ghters. The airframe is built with about 80% aviationgrade aluminum alloys, 8% steel, 3% composites, and
1.5% titanium. The leading-edge aps, stabilators, and
ventral ns make use of bonded aluminium honeycomb
structures and graphite epoxy lamination coatings. The
number of lubrication points, fuel line connections, and
replaceable modules is signicantly lower than predecessors; 80% of access panels can be accessed without
stands.[38] The air intake was placed so it was rearward of
the nose but forward enough to minimize air ow losses
and reduce aerodynamic drag.[58]
Although the LWF program called for a structural life
of 4,000 ight hours, capable of achieving 7.33 g with
234
80% internal fuel; GDs engineers decided to design the

F-16s airframe life for 8,000 hours and for 9-g maneuvers on full internal fuel. This proved advantageous when
the aircrafts mission changed from solely air-to-air combat to multi-role operations. Changes in operational use
and additional systems have increased weight, necessitating multiple structural strengthening programs.[59]
24.2.2
General conguration
regulating the ight envelope.[38][59] The F-16 has a moderate wing loading, reduced by fuselage lift.[62] The vortex lift eect is increased by leading edge extensions,
known as strakes. Strakes act as additional short-span,
triangular wings running from the wing root (the juncture with the fuselage) to a point further forward on the
fuselage. Blended into the fuselage and along the wing
root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of
attack increases, generating additional lift and allowing
greater angles of attack without stalling. Strakes allow
a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which increases roll
rates and directional stability while decreasing weight.
Deeper wingroots also increase structural strength and internal fuel volume.[59]
24.2.3 Armament
Early F-16s could be armed with up to six AIM-9
Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles
(AAM), including rail launchers on each wingtip. Some
F-16s can employ the AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range
AAM; more recent versions can equip the AIM-120
AMRAAM. It can also carry other AAMs; a wide
variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs;
F-16CJ of the 20th Fighter Wing at Shaw AFB, South Carolina,
electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting
armed with a mix of air-to-air missiles, anti-radiation missiles,
or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on 9 hardpoints six unexternal fuel tanks and support equipment
der the wings, two on wingtips, and one under the fusethe fuselage are available
The F-16 has a cropped-delta planform incorporat- lage; two other locations under
[63]
for
sensor
or
radar
pods.
The
F-16 carries a 20 mm
ing wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control
(0.787
in)
M61A1
Vulcan
cannon
for close range aerial
strakes; a xed-geometry, underslung air intake (with
combat
and
strang.
[60]
splitter plate ) to the single turbofan jet engine; a
conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with allmoving horizontal "stabilator" tailplanes; a pair of ventral
24.2.4 Negative stability and y-by-wire
ns beneath the fuselage aft of the wings trailing edge;
and a tricycle landing gear conguration with the aftretracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance
behind the inlet lip. There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located behind the single-piece bubble
canopy of the cockpit. Split-ap speedbrakes are located
at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and an tailhook
is mounted underneath the fuselage. A fairing beneath
the rudder often houses ECM equipment or a drag chute.
Later F-16 models feature a long dorsal fairing along
the fuselages spine, housing additional equipment or
fuel.[38][61]
Aerodynamic studies in the 1960s demonstrated that the
"vortex lift" phenomenon could be harnessed by highly
swept wing congurations to reach higher angles of attack, using leading edge vortex ow o a slender lifting
surface. As the F-16 was being optimized for high combat agility, GDs designers chose a slender cropped-delta
wing with a leading edge sweep of 40 and a straight
trailing edge. To improve maneuverability, a variablecamber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected;
the camber is adjusted by leading-edge and trailing edge
aperons linked to a digital ight control system (FCS)
F-16C of the South Carolina Air National Guard in-ight over

North Carolina equipped with air-to-air missiles, bomb rack, targeting pods and Electronic Counter Measures pods
The F-16 was the rst production ghter aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable,
also known as "relaxed static stability" (RSS), to improve
maneuverability.[64] Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, which induces aircraft to return to
24.2. DESIGN
235
straight and level ight attitude if the pilot releases the

controls; this reduces maneuverability as the inherent stability has to be overcome. Aircraft with negative stability are designed to deviate from controlled ight and thus
be more maneuverable. At supersonic speeds the F-16
gains stability (eventually positive) due to aerodynamic
changes.[65][66]
To counter the tendency to depart from controlled
ightand avoid the need for constant trim inputs by
the pilot, the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) y-bywire (FBW) ight control system (FLCS). The ight control computer (FLCC) accepts pilot input from the stick
and rudder controls, and manipulates the control surfaces
in such a way as to produce the desired result without
inducing control loss. The FLCC conducts thousands F-16 ground trainer cockpit (F-16 MLU)
of measurements per second on the aircrafts ight attitude to automatically counter deviations from the pilot- 24.2.5 Cockpit and ergonomics
set ight path; leading to a common aphorism among pilots: You don't y an F-16; it ies you.[67]
A key feature of the F-16s cockpit is the exceptional
The FLCC further incorporates limiters governing move- eld of view. The single-piece, bird-proof polycarbonate
ment in the three main axes based on attitude, airspeed bubble canopy provides 360 all-round visibility, with a
and angle of attack (AOA); these prevent control surfaces 40 look-down angle over the side of the aircraft, and
from inducing instability such as slips or skids, or a high 15 down over the nose (compared to the common 12
AOA inducing a stall. The limiters also prevent maneu- 13 of preceding aircraft); the pilots seat is elevated for
vers that would exert more than a 9 g load.[68] Flight test- this purpose. Furthermore, the F-16s canopy lacks the
ing has revealed that assaulting multiple limiters at high forward bow frame found on many ghters, which is an
[38][74]
The F-16s
AOA and low speed can result in an AOA far exceeding obstruction to a pilots forward vision.
the 25 limit, colloquially referred to as departing"; this ACES II zero/zero ejection seat is reclined at an unusual
causes a deep stall; a near-freefall at 50 to 60 AOA, ei- tilt-back angle of 30; most ghters have a tilted seat at
ther upright or inverted. While at a very high AOA, the 1315. The tilted seat can accommodate taller pilots
aircrafts attitude is stable but control surfaces are ineec- and increases G-force tolerance; however it has been astive; the pitch limiter locks the stabilators at an extreme sociated with reports of neck ache, possibly caused by in[75]
pitch-up or pitch-down attempting to recover, this can be correct head-rest usage. Subsequent U.S. ghters have
[38][76]
Due
overridden so the pilot can rock the nose via pitch con- adopted more modest tilt-back angles of 20.
[69]
to the seat angle and the canopys thickness, the ejection
trol to recover.
seat lacks canopy-breakers for emergency egress; instead
Unlike the YF-17, which had hydromechanical controls
the entire canopy is jettisoned prior to the seats rocket
serving as a backup to the FBW, General Dynamics
ring.[77]
took the innovative step of eliminating mechanical linkages between the control stick and rudder pedals, and The pilot ies primarily by means of an armrest-mounted
the ight control surfaces. The F-16 is entirely reliant side-stick controller (instead of a traditional centeron its electrical systems to relay ight commands, in- mounted stick) and an engine throttle; conventional rudstead of traditional mechanically-linked controls, leading der pedals are also employed. To enhance the pilots
to the early moniker of the electric jet. The quadru- degree of control of the aircraft during high-g combat
plex design permits "graceful degradation" in ight con- maneuvers, various switches and function controls were
trol response in that the loss of one channel renders the moved to centralised "hands on throttle-and-stick (HOFLCS a triplex system.[70] The FLCC began as an TAS)" controls upon both the controllers and the throttle.
analog system on the A/B variants, but has been sup- Hand pressure on the side-stick controller is transmitted
planted by a digital computer system beginning with the by electrical signals via the FBW system to adjust variF-16C/D Block 40.[71][72] The F-16s controls suered ous ight control surfaces to maneuver the F-16. Origfrom a sensitivity to static electricity or electrostatic dis- inally the side-stick controller was non-moving, but this
charge (ESD). Up to 7080% of the C/D models elec- proved uncomfortable and dicult for pilots to adjust to,
sometimes resulting in a tendency to over-rotate during
tronics were vulnerable to ESD.[73]
takeos, so the control stick was given a small amount of
play. Since introduction on the F-16, HOTAS controls
have become a standard feature on modern ghters.[78]
The F-16 has a head-up display (HUD), which projects
visual ight and combat information in front of the pi-
236
lot without obstructing the view; being able to keep his

head out of the cockpit improves a pilots situation
awareness.[79] Further ight and systems information are
displayed on multi-function displays (MFD). The lefthand MFD is the primary ight display (PFD), typically showing radar and moving-maps; the right-hand
MFD is the system display (SD), presenting information about the engine, landing gear, slat and ap settings, and fuel and weapons status. Initially, the F16A/B had monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT) displays; replaced by color liquid-crystal displays on the
Block 50/52.[38][80] The MLU introduced compatibility
with night-vision goggles (NVG). The Boeing Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) is available from
Block 40 onwards, for targeting based on where the pilots head faces, unrestricted by the HUD, using high-oboresight missiles like the AIM-9X.[81]
A F-16 from the 18th Aggressor Sqdn. takes o from Eielson Air
Force Base
24.2.6
Fire-control radar
It has four operating frequencies within the X band,

and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground
operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad
weather. The Block 15s APG-66(V)2 model added a
more powerful signal processing, higher output power,
improved reliability and increased range in cluttered or
jamming environments. The Mid-Life Update (MLU)
program introduced a new model, APG-66(V)2A, which
features higher speed and more memory.[82]
The AN/APG-68, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25. The APG-68
has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beamsharpening, ground moving target indication, sea target, and track while scan (TWS) for up to 10 targets.
The Block 40/42s APG-68(V)1 model added full compatibility with Lockheed Martin Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infra-Red for Night (LANTIRN)
pods, and a high-PRF pulse-Doppler track mode to provide continuous-wave radar (CW) target illumination for
semi-active radar-homing (SARH) missiles like the AIM7 Sparrow. Block 50/52 F-16s initially used the more
reliable APG-68(V)5 which has a programmable signal
processor employing Very-High-Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) technology. The Advanced Block 50/52
(or 50+/52+) are equipped with the APG-68(V)9 radar,
with a 30% greater air-to-air detection range and a
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode for high-resolution
mapping and target detection-recognition. In August
2004, Northrop Grumman were contracted to upgrade
the APG-68 radars of Block 40/42/50/52 aircraft to the
(V)10 standard, providing all-weather autonomous detection and targeting for Global Positioning System (GPS)aided precision weapons, SAR mapping and terrainfollowing radar (TF) modes, as well as interleaving of all
modes.[38]
The F-16E/F is outtted with Northrop Grummans
AN/APG-80 active electronically scanned array (AESA)
radar.[83] Northrop Grumman developed the latest AESA
radar upgrade for the F-16 (selected for USAF and Taiwan Air Force F-16 upgrades), named the Scalable Agile Beam Radar (SABR).[84] In July 2007, Raytheon announced that it was developing a Next Generation Radar
(RANGR) based on its earlier AN/APG-79 AESA radar
as a competitor to Northrop Grummans AN/APG-68
and AN/APG-80 for the F-16.[38]
Westinghouse AN/APG-68 radar
24.2.7 Propulsion
The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the

Westinghouse AN/APG-66 re-control radar.
Its
slotted planar array antenna was designed to be compact
to t into the F-16s relatively small nose. In uplook
mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency
(PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in
a low-clutter environment, and in look-down/shoot-down
employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments.
The initial powerplant selected for the single-engined F16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning
turbofan, a modied version of the F-15s F100-PW-100,
rated at 23,830 lb (106.0 kN) thrust. During testing,
the engine was found to be prone to compressor stalls
and rollbacks, wherein the engines thrust would spontaneously reduce to idle. Until resolved, the Air Force
ordered F-16s to be operated within "dead-stick land-
237
the 29,588 lb (131.6 kN) F110-GE-129 on the Block 50
and 29,160 lb (129.4 kN) F100-PW-229 on the Block
52. F-16s began ying with these IPE engines in the early
1990s. Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the
USAF, 556 were tted with F100-series engines and 890
with F110s.[38] The United Arab Emirates Block 60 is
powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan,
which is rated at a maximum thrust of 32,500 lb (144.6
kN), the highest developed for the F-16.[89][90]

Main article: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
operational history
Due to their ubiquity, F-16s have participated in numerous conicts, most of them in the Middle East.
24.3.1 United States
Mechanics actuating an F-16 exhaust nozzle.
ing" distance of its bases.[85] It was the standard F-16

engine through the Block 25, except for new-build Block
15s with the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU). The
OCU introduced the 23,770 lb (105.7 kN) F100-PW220, later installed on Block 32 and 42 aircraft: the
main advance being a Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) unit, which improved reliability and reduced stall occurrence. Beginning production in 1988,
the "220 also supplanted the F-15s "100, for commonality. Many of the "220 engines on Block 25 and
later aircraft were upgraded from 1997 onwards to the
"220E standard, which enhanced reliability and maintainability; unscheduled engine removals were reduced by
35%.[86][87]
The F100-PW-220/220E was the result of the USAFs
Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program (colloquially
known as the Great Engine War), which also saw the
entry of General Electric as an F-16 engine provider. Its
F110-GE-100 turbofan was limited by the original inlet
to thrust of 25,735 lb (114.5 kN), the Modular Common Inlet Duct allowed the F110 to achieve its maximum
thrust of 28,984 lb (128.9 kN). (To distinguish between
aircraft equipped with these two engines and inlets, from
the Block 30 series on, blocks ending in 0 (e.g., Block
30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in 2 (e.g.,
Block 32) are tted with Pratt & Whitney engines.)[86][88]
Wisconsin ANG F-16s over Madison, Wisconsin. The tail of the

formations lead ship features a special 60th Anniversary scheme
for the 115th Fighter Wing.
The F-16 is being used by the active duty USAF, Air

Force Reserve, and Air National Guard units, the USAF
aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary-aggressor aircraft by the
United States Navy at the Naval Strike and Air Warfare
Center.
The U.S. Air Force, including the Air Force Reserve and
the Air National Guard, ew the F-16 in combat during
Operation Desert Storm in 1991 and in the Balkans later
in the 1990s. F-16s also patrolled the no-y zones in Iraq
during Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch
and served during the wars in Afghanistan (Operation
Enduring Freedom) and Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom)
from 2001 and 2003 respectively. In 2011, Air Force FThe Increased Performance Engine (IPE) program led to 16s took part in the intervention in Libya.[91]
238
The F-16 was scheduled to remain in service with the 24.3.3

U.S. Air Force until 2025.[92] The planned replacement
was to be the F-35A version of the Lockheed Martin
F-35 Lightning II, which would gradually begin replacing a number of multi-role aircraft among the programs
member nations. However due to delays in the JSF program, all USAF F-16s will get service life extension
upgrades.[93]
24.3.2
Pakistan
Israel
The Pakistan Air Force's new F-16D Block 52+ ghters with
internal/integrated Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) systems
undergoing ight testing
During the Soviet-Afghan war, between May 1986 and

January 1989, Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F-16s defended
against intruders from Afghanistan, while losing one F-16
to Afghan re.[102]
The Pakistan Air Force has used its F-16s in various
foreign and internal military exercises, such as the Indus Vipers exercise in 2008 conducted jointly with
Turkey.[103] Since May 2009, the PAF has also been usIsraeli Air Force F-16A Netz 107 with 6.5 kill marks of other ing their F-16 eet to attack militant positions and supaircraft and one kill mark of an Iraqi nuclear reactor, a world
port the Pakistan Army's operations in North-West Pakrecord for an F-16[94]
istan against the Taliban insurgency.[104] As of November
2011, PAF F-16 have launched 5,500 sorties in operaThe F-16s rst air-to-air combat success was achieved by tions. More than 80% of the dropped munitions were
[105]
the Israeli Air Force (IAF) over the Bekaa Valley on 28 laser-guided bombs.
April 1981, against a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter, which was PAF F-16s patrolled the Indian border during the Kargil
downed with cannon re.[95] On 7 June 1981, eight Israeli Conict and during the 2008 tension[106] with India.
F-16s, escorted by F-15s, executed Operation Opera,
their rst employment in a signicant air-to-ground operation. This raid severely damaged Osirak, an Iraqi nuclear 24.3.4 Turkey
reactor under construction near Baghdad, to prevent the
regime of Saddam Hussein from using the reactor for the
creation of nuclear weapons.[96]
The following year, during the 1982 Lebanon War Israeli
F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days. Israeli Air Force F-16s were
credited with 44 air-to-air kills during the conict.[95][97]
In January 2000, Israel completed a purchase of 102
new F-16I planes in a deal totaling $4.5 billion.[98] F16s were also used in their ground-attack role for strikes
against targets in Lebanon. IAF F-16s participated in
the 2006 Lebanon War and during the attacks in the
Gaza strip in December 2008.[99] During and after 2006 Turkish Air Force F-16D
Lebanon war, IAF F-16s shot down Iranian-made UAV
drones launched by Hezbollah, using Rafael Python 5 air- The Turkish Air Force acquired its rst F-16s in 1987.
to-air missile.[100][101]
Turkish F-16s participated in the Bosnia Herzegovina
24.4. VARIANTS
239
and Kosovo since 1993 in support of United Nations in 1999.[125] Belgian and Danish F-16s also particiresolutions.[107]
pated in joint operations over Kosovo during the war.[125]
On 18 June 1992, a Greek Mirage F-1 crashed during Dutch, Belgian, Danish, and Norwegian F-16s were dethe 2011 intervention in Libya and in
dogght with a Turkish F-16.[108][109][110] On 8 February ployed during
[126]
Afghanistan.
In Libya, Norwegian F-16s dropped al1995, a Turkish F-16 crashed into the Aegean after being
most
550
bombs
and ew 596 missions,[127] some 17%
[111][112]
intercepted by Greek Mirage F1 ghters.
of the total strike missions[128] including the bombing of
On 8 October 1996, 7 months after the escalation over Muammar Gaddas headquarters.[129]
Imia a Greek Mirage 2000 red an R.550 Magic II missile
and shot down a Turkish F-16D[113] over the Aegean Sea. See also: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
The Turkish pilot died, while the co-pilot ejected and was operational history and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting
rescued by Greek forces.[110][114][115] In August 2012, af- Falcon operators
ter the downing of a RF-4E on the Syrian Coast, Turkish
Defence Minister smet Ylmaz conrmed that the Turkish F-16D was shot down by a Greek Mirage 2000 with
an R.550 Magic II in 1996 after violating Greek airspace 24.4 Variants
near Chios island.[116]
On 23 May 2006, two Greek F-16s intercepted a Turkish RF-4 reconnaissance aircraft and two F-16 escorts o
the coast of the Greek island of Karpathos, within the
Athens FIR. A mock dogght ensued between the two
sides, resulting in a midair collision[117] between a Turkish F-16 and a Greek F-16. The Turkish pilot ejected
safely, but the Greek pilot died due to damage caused by
the collision.[118][119]
Turkey used its F-16s extensively in its conict with separatist Kurds in Kurdish parts of Turkey and Iraq. Turkey
launched its rst cross-border raid on 16 December 2007,
a prelude to the 2008 Turkish incursion into northern
Iraq, involving 50 ghters before Operation Sun. This
was the rst time Turkey had mounted a night-bombing
operation on a massive scale, and also the largest opera- A Portuguese Air Force F-16A outtted with AIM-9 Sidewinder
missiles, AN/ALQ-131 ECM pod, and external fuel tanks.
tion conducted by Turkish Air Force.[120]
During the Syrian Civil War, Turkish F-16s were tasked Main article: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
with airspace protection on the Syrian border. After the variants
RF-4 downing in June 2012 Turkey changed its rules of
engagements against Syrian aircraft, resulting in scramF-16 models are denoted by increasing block numbers to
bles and downings of Syrian combat aircraft.[121]
denote upgrades. The blocks cover both single- and twoseat versions. A variety of software, hardware, systems,
weapons compatibility, and structural enhancements have
24.3.5 Egypt
been instituted over the years to gradually upgrade production models and retrot delivered aircraft.
On 16 February 2015, Egyptian F-16s performed air
strikes on jihadi weapons caches and training camps in While many F-16s were produced according to these
Libya in revenge of the murder of 21 workers by masked block designs, there have been many other variants with
militants aliated with the Islamic State (ISIS). The air signicant changes, usually due to modication programs.
strikes killed 64 ISIS ghters, including three leaders in Other changes have resulted in role-specialization, such
as the close air support and reconnaissance variants. SevDerna and Sirte on the coast.[122]
eral models were also developed to test new technology.
The F-16 design also inspired the design of other aircraft,
which are considered derivatives. Older F-16s are being
24.3.6 Others
converted into QF-16 drone targets.[130]
The Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force,
Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force, F-16A/B The F-16A (single seat) and F-16B (two seat)
Pakistan Air Force, and Venezuela have own the Fwere initial production variants. These variants in16 on combat missions.[123][124] A Serbian MiG-29 was
clude the Block 1, 5, 10 and 20 versions. Block 15
shot down by a Dutch F-16AM during the Kosovo War
was the rst major change to the F-16 with larger
240

horizontal stabilizers. It is the most numerous F-16
variant with 475 produced.[131]
An Israeli F-16I (Block 52) with conformal fuel tanks (CFTs),

internal/integrated Electronic countermeasures, and other external stores during a Red Flag exercise at Nellis AFB, NV, July
2009
A United Arab Emirates Air Force F-16E Block 60 with the

Northrop Grumman IFTS pod, Conformal Fuel Tanks, and various external armament taking o from the Lockheed Martin
plant in Fort Worth, Texas.
F-16C/D The F-16C (single seat) and F-16D (two seat) F-16N The F-16N is an adversary aircraft operated by
variants entered production in 1984. The rst C/D
the U.S. Navy. It is based on the standard F-16C/D
version was the Block 25 with improved cockpit
Block 30 and is powered by the General Electric
avionics and radar which added all-weather capaF110-GE-100 engine. However, the F-16N has a
bility with beyond-visual-range (BVR) AIM-7 and
strengthened wing and is capable of carrying an
AIM-120 air-air missiles. Block 30/32, 40/42,
Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation (ACMI)
and 50/52 were later C/D versions.[132] The Fpod on the starboard wingtip. Although the single16C/D had a unit cost of US$18.8 million (1998).[2]
seat F-16Ns and twin-seat (T)F-16Ns are based on
Operational cost per ight hour has been estimated
the early-production small-inlet Block 30 F-16C/D
at $7,000[133] to $22,470[134] or $24,000, depending
airframe, they retain the APG-66 radar of the Fon calculation method.[135]
16A/B. In addition, the aircrafts 20 mm cannon has
been removed, as has the ASPJ, and they carry no
F-16E/F The F-16E (single seat) and F-16F (two seat)
missiles. Their EW t consists of an ALR-69 radar
are newer F-16 variants. The Block 60 version is
warning receiver (RWR) and an ALE-40 cha/are
based on the F-16C/D Block 50/52 and has been
dispenser. The F-16Ns and (T)F-16Ns have the
developed especially for the United Arab Emirates
standard Air Force tailhook and undercarriage and
(UAE). It features improved AN/APG-80 active
are not aircraft carrier capable. Production totaled
electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, avion26 airframes, of which 22 are single-seat F-16Ns
ics, conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), and the more powand 4 are twin-seat TF-16Ns. The initial batch of
erful GE F110-132 engine.[136][137]
aircraft were in service between 1988 and 1998. At
that time, hairline cracks were discovered in several bulkheads and the Navy did not have the reF-16IN For the Indian MRCA competition for the
sources to replace them, so the aircraft were eventuIndian Air Force, Lockheed Martin oered the
ally retired, with one aircraft sent to the collection of
F-16IN Super Viper.[138] The F-16IN is based on
the National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Penthe F-16E/F Block 60 and features conformal fuel
sacola, Florida, and the remainder placed in storage
tanks; AN/APG-80 AESA radar, GE F110-132A
at Davis-Monthan AFB. These aircraft were later
engine with FADEC controls; electronic warfare
replaced by embargoed ex-Pakistani F-16C/Ds in
suite and infra-red searching (IRST); updated glass
2003. The original inventory of F-16Ns were precockpit; and a helmet-mounted cueing system.[139]
viously operated by adversary squadrons at NAS
As of 2011, the F-16IN is no longer in the
Oceana, Virginia; NAS Key West, Florida and the
competition.[140]
former NAS Miramar, California. The current aircraft are operated by the Naval Strike and Air WarF-16IQ In September 2010, the Defense Security Coopfare Center at NAS Fallon, Nevada.[142][143][144]
eration Agency informed the United States Congress
of a possible Foreign Military Sale of 18 F-16IQ aircraft along with the associated equipment and services to the newly reformed Iraqi Air Force. Total F-16V At the 2012 Singapore Air Show Lockheed Marvalue of sale is estimated at US$4.2 billion.[141]
tin unveiled plans for the new F-16V variant with the
24.6. NOTABLE ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS
241
24.6 Notable accidents and incidents
A USAF QF-16A, on its rst unmanned test ight, over the Gulf
of Mexico
V sux referencing its Viper nickname. It is to feature an active electronically scanned array (AESA)
radar, a new mission computer and electronic warfare suite, and various cockpit improvements; this
package can be retrotted to previous F-16s, including the Block 60.[145][146]
QF-16 In September 2013, an unmanned F-16 tested by
Boeing and US Air Force, with two US Air Force
pilots controlling the airplane from the ground as
it ew from Tyndall AFB over the Gulf of Mex- A U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds pilot ejects from his F-16 at an
air show in September 2003
ico.[147][148]
24.5 Operators
Main article: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
operators
4,500 F-16s had been delivered by July 2010.[149]
F-16 operators (former operators in red)
24.5.1
Former operators
Italy Italian Air Force leased 30 F-16As and

4 F-16Bs from the USAF from 2001 until 2012.[150]
United States AeroGroup, a private American commercial company, performed F-16 training
services and support for the Dutch, Italian and Belgian Air Forces.[151][152][153]
On 8 May 1975, while practicing a 9-g aerial display

maneuver with the second YF-16 (tail number 721568) at Fort Worth, prior to being sent to the Paris
Air Show, one of the main landing gear jammed.
The test pilot, Neil Anderson, had to perform an
emergency gear-up landing and chose to do so in the
grass, hoping to minimize damage and to avoid injuring any observers. The aircraft was only slightly
damaged, but due to the mishap the rst prototype
was sent to the Paris Air Show in its place.[154]
On 15 November 1982, while on a training ight
outside Kunsan Air Base in South Korea, USAF
Captain Ted Harduvel died when he crashed inverted into a mountain ridge. In 1985, Harduvels widow led a lawsuit against General Dynamics claiming an electrical malfunction, not pilot error, as the cause; a jury awarded the plainti $3.4
million in damages. However in 1989, the United
States Court of Appeals ruled the contractor had immunity to lawsuits, overturning the previous judgment. The court did remand the plaintis claim of
electrical malfunction as the cause, noting that General Dynamics and the USAF knew about chang of
instrumentation wiring, which they had not initially
disclosed.[155] The accident and subsequent trial was
the subject of the 1992 lm Afterburn.[156][157]
On 23 March 1994, during a joint Army-Air Force
exercise at Pope AFB, North Carolina, F-16D (AF
242

Serial No. 88-0171) of the 23d Fighter Wing / 74th
Fighter Squadron was simulating an engine-out approach when it collided with a USAF C-130E. Both
F-16 crew members ejected, but their aircraft, on
full afterburner, continued on an arc towards Green
Ramp and struck a USAF C-141 that was being
boarded by US Army paratroopers. This accident
resulted in 24 fatalities and at least 80 others injured.
It has since been known as the "Green Ramp disaster".[158]
On 15 September 2003, a USAF Thunderbird F16C crashed during a Mountain Home AFB, Idaho,
air show. Captain Christopher Stricklin attempted a
"Split S" maneuver based on an incorrect mean-sealevel altitude of the aireld. Climbing to only 1,670
ft (510 m) above ground level instead of 2,500 ft
(760 m), Stricklin had insucient altitude to complete the maneuver, but was able to guide the aircraft
away from spectators and ejected less than one second before impact. Stricklin survived with only minor injuries; the aircraft was destroyed. USAF procedure for demonstration Split-S maneuvers was
changed, requiring both pilots and controllers to use
above mean-sea-level altitudes.[159][160]
On 26 January 2015, a Greek F-16D crashed while
performing a NATO training exercise in Albacete,
Spain. Both crew members and 9 French soldiers on
the ground died when it crashed in the ight-line, destroying or damaging two Italian AMX, two French
Alpha Jets and one French Mirage 2000.[161][162]
78-0001 Langley AFB Memorial Park, Langley

AFB, Virginia. First production model F-16A delivered to USAF.[168]
78-0005 162d Fighter Wing Park, Tucson Air National Guard Base, Arizona[169]
78-0025 Gate guard, Burlington Air National
Guard Base, Vermont[170]
78-0042 Gate guard, Montgomery Air National
Guard Base/Dannelly Field, Alabama[171]
78-0052 Eielson AFB Heritage Park, Eielson
AFB, Alaska[172]
78-0053 Pylon display at Misawa AB, Japan[173]
78-0057 Pylon display at Spangdahlem AB,
Germany[174]
78-0059 Selfridge Military Air Museum and Air
Park, Selfridge ANGB, Michigan[175]
78-0065 388th Fighter Wing and 419th Fighter
Wing combined Headquarters, Hill AFB, Utah[176]
78-0066 On display in Kansas Air National Guard
Memorial Park area, McConnell AFB, Kansas[177]
79-0290 On display at Great Falls Air National
Guard Base, Montana.[178]
79-0296 Gate guard, Jacksonville Air National
Guard Base, Florida[179]
79-0307 On display at Cannon AFB Air Park,
Cannon AFB, New Mexico[180]

YF-16
72-1567 Virginia Air and Space Center, Hampton,
Virginia[163]
YF-16B
75-0752 Frontiers of Flight Museum, Dallas,
Texas[164]
F-16A
79-0309 Base park area adjacent to USAFCENT

Headquarters, Shaw AFB, South Carolina. Painted
as 20th Fighter Wing F-16C 93-0534. Memorial to
Maj Brinson Phillips, 20 FW, killed 19 Mar 2000
while ying F-16C 93-0534[181]
79-0312 On pylon display, Veterans Memorial
Park, Douglas, Arizona[182]
79-0326 Gate guard, Homestead Air Reserve
Base, Florida[183]
79-0327 Pedestal mounted memorial, Luke AFB,
Arizona. Painted in 302d Fighter Squadron markings, to include World War II Tuskegee Airmen
Red Tails empennage[184]
75-0746 Pylon-mounted gate guard, McEntire Air

National Guard Base, South Carolina[165]
79-0334 USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park,

Mobile, Alabama[185]
75-0748 Cadet Area Quadrangle, U.S. Air Force

Academy, Colorado[166]
79-0337 Ground-mobile static display aircraft,

normally located at Hancock Field Air National
Guard Base, New York. Utilized by New York Air
National Guard's 174th Attack Wing (former 174th
Fighter Wing) at fairs and expositions for Air National Guard recruiting.[186]
75-0750 On display at the Experimental Aircraft

Display Hangar, National Museum of the United
States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio[167]

79-0352 On static display with 23d Wing at
Moody AFB, Georgia[187]
79-0366 Memorial park static display, Mountain
Home AFB, Idaho[188]
243
FA-55 On display at the Chateau de Savigny les
Beaune in Beaune, France. A former Belgian Air
Force example.[203][204]
F-16B
79-0373 On display at Buckley AFB, Colorado.

Aircraft painted in markings of Colorado Air National Guard's 140th Fighter Wing based at Buckley
AFB.[189]
78-0088 On display at the Naval Air Station Wildwood Aviation Museum, Cape May County Airport,
New Jersey[205]

Utah[190]
78-0101 On display at United States Space Camp

/ Aviation Challenge, Huntsville, Alabama[206]

Utah[191]
78-0107 On display adjacent to Parade Ground,

Lackland AFB, Texas[207]
79-0403 Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, New

York City, New York[192]
79-0430 Staord Air & Space Museum,

Weatherford, Oklahoma[208]
80-0481 Display on Parade Ground, Sheppard

AFB, Texas.[193]
81-0816 Pylon display gate guard, Atlantic City

Air National Guard Base, New Jersey[209]
80-0527 Former Arizona Air National Guard

162d Fighter Wing aircraft destined for transfer
to/display at the Pima Air and Space Museum,
Tucson, Arizona.[194]
81-0817 On display at the Russell Military Museum located in Russell, Illinois.
80-0528 City park in Pinellas Park, Florida.

Painted in markings of 56th Tactical Training
Wing-cum-56th Fighter Wing, previously assigned
to nearby MacDill AFB in the 1980s and early
1990s.[195]
AFB, Florida.[196]
80-0612 Memorial park static display at Puerto
Rico National Guard's Camp Santiago, Salinas,
Puerto Rico. Former Puerto Rico Air National
Guard F-16ADF, painted in markings of PRANGs
former 198th Fighter Squadron, but marked as
81612.[197]
81-0663 On display in United States Air Force
Thunderbirds markings at the National Museum of
the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB,
Dayton, Ohio.[198]
Warner Robins, Georgia[199]
F-16C
83-1126 Pylon display at Hill Memorial Park, Hill
AFB, Utah[210]
84-1264 Air park display, Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station, Indiana. Aircraft retains Air
Force Heritage paint scheme honoring 358th Fighter
Group during World War II.[211]
84-1393 Pylon display at Texas National Guard's
Camp Mabry, Austin, Texas. Former Texas Air
National Guard 147th Fighter Wing/111th Fighter
Squadron aircraft.[212]
85-1469 Static display at Joe Foss Field Air National Guard Station, South Dakota[213]
87-0323 Preserved as Thunderbird 1 in front
of the USAF Air Demonstration Squadron/United
States Air Force Thunderbirds hangar, Nellis AFB,
Nevada. Assigned to Thunderbirds in the 1992
2008 timeframe. Had number 1 attached on 11 Jun
1999; number 2 in the 2004 season; number 3 on 3
Mar 2003 and number 4 on 1 Apr 2005.[214]
81-0721 MacDill AFB Memorial Park, MacDill

AFB, Florida. Former Florida Air National Guard
125th Fighter Wing F-16ADF repainted in mark- F-16N
ings of a 56th Fighter Wing F-16A previously as 163269 San Diego Aerospace Museum, San
signed to MacDill in the 1980s.[200]
Diego, California[215]
82-0930 On display at Ellington Field Joint Re 163271 Pacic Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa,
serve Base, Houston, Texas[201]
California[216]
FA-01 On display at the Royal Museum of the
163277 Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs,
Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels,
Belgium[202]
California[217]
244
163569 - NAS Fort Worth JRB, painted in USAFR

colors 457th FS, 301st FW
163572 National Naval Aviation Museum, Naval
Air Station Pensacola, Pensacola, Florida[218]
163576 Air Power Park, Naval Air Station Fallon,
Nevada[219]
24.8 Specications (F-16C Block

50)
F-16C block 52 of the Hellenic Air Force with conformal fuel
tanks and AIFF.
M61A1 on display
Testing of the F-35 diverterless supersonic inlet on an F-16

testbed. The original intake with Splitter plate (aeronautics) is
shown in the top image
Data from USAF sheet,[2] International Directory of Military Aircraft[64]

Weapons Storage and Security System vault in raised position

holding a B61 nuclear bomb, adjacent to an F16. The vault
is within a Protective Aircraft Shelter
Height: 16 ft (4.88 m)
Crew: 1
Airfoil: NACA 64A204 root and tip
Length: 49 ft 5 in (15.06 m)
24.8. SPECIFICATIONS (F-16C BLOCK 50)

Powerplant:
turbofan
1 F110-GE-100 afterburning
Dry thrust: 17,155 lbf (76.3 kN)

Thrust with afterburner: 28,600 lbf (127
kN)
Performance
Maximum speed:
At sea level: Mach 1.2 (915 mph, 1,470
km/h)[64]
At altitude: Mach 2[2] (1,320 mph, 2,120
km/h) clean conguration
Combat radius: 340 mi (295 nmi, 550 km) on a
hi-lo-hi mission with four 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs
drop tanks
Service ceiling: 50,000+ ft[2] (15,240+ m)
Wing loading: 88.3 lb/ft (431 kg/m)
Thrust/weight: 1.095
Maximum g-load: +9.0 g
Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan 6barrel Gatling cannon, 511 rounds
Hardpoints: 2 wing-tip Air-to-air missile launch
rails, 6 under-wing, and 3 under-fuselage pylon
(2 of 3 for sensors) stations with a capacity of up to
17,000 lb (7,700 kg) of stores
Rockets:
4LAU-61/LAU-68 rocket pods (each with
19 /7 Hydra 70 mm rockets, respectively)
4LAU-5003 rocket pods (each with 19
CRV7 70 mm rockets)
245
2 AIM-7 Sparrow
6 AIM-9 Sidewinder
6 AIM-120 AMRAAM
6 IRIS-T
6 Python-4
Air-to-ground missiles:
6 AGM-65 Maverick
4 AGM-88 HARM
AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Stando
Missile (JASSM)
Anti-ship missiles:
2 AGM-84 Harpoon
4 AGM-119 Penguin
Bombs:
8 CBU-87 Combined Eects Munition

8 CBU-89 Gator mine
8 CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon
4 Mark 84 general-purpose bombs
8 Mark 83 GP bombs
12 Mark 82 GP bombs
8 GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb (SDB)
4 GBU-10 Paveway II
6 GBU-12 Paveway II
4 GBU-24 Paveway III
4 GBU-27 Paveway III
4 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) series
4 AGM-154 Joint Stando Weapon (JSOW)
Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser
(WCMD)
B61 nuclear bomb
B83 nuclear bomb
Others:
SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys dispenser
pod and cha pod or
AN/ALQ-131 & AN/ALQ-184 ECM pods or
LANTIRN, Lockheed Martin Sniper XR &
LITENING targeting pods or
up to 3 300/330/370/600 US gallon Sargent
Fletcher drop tanks for ferry ight/extended
range/loitering time or
UTC Aerospace DB-110 long range EO/IR
sensor pod on centerline
4LAU-10 rocket pods (each with 4 Zuni

Avionics
127 mm rockets)
Missiles:
AN/APG-68 radar
Air-to-air missiles:
MIL-STD-1553 bus
246

Main article: F-16 Fighting Falcon in ction
24.10 See also
[9] Spick 2000, p. 190.

[10] Hillaker, Harry. John Boyd, USAF Retired, Father of the
F-16. at the Wayback Machine (archived June 1, 2009)
Code One: An Airpower Projection Magazine, April/July
[11] Code One, April & July 1991. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
4th generation jet ghter

Green Ramp disaster
David S. Lewis (General Dynamics CEO during
formative period for F-16)
Related development
Vought Model 1600
General Dynamics F-16 VISTA
General Dynamics F-16XL
AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo
KAI T-50 Golden Eagle
Mitsubishi F-2
Related lists
List of ghter aircraft
[13] Coram 2002, pp. 24546.

[14] Bjorkman, Eileen, Small fast and in your face, Air &
Space, Feb/March 2014, pp.28-35
[15] Peacock 1997, pp. 910.
[17] Peacock 1997, pp. 1011.
[19] Martin, Douglas. Robert H. Widmer, Designer of Military Aircraft, Dies at 95. The New York Times, 2 July
2011.
[20] Richardson 1990, pp. 1213.
[21] Jenkins 2000, p. 14.
[22] Osborne, Phil, Executive Producer. F-16 Fighting Falcon (video #9-315842-037444). Magna Pacic, 2009.
Quote: At 17:29, Another development, which both
manufacturers were aware of, was the aging F-104
Starghters, which equip several European NATO air
forces, would soon need to be replaced.
[23] Jenkins 2000, pp. 1415, 1920.
24.11 References
[24] Richardson 1990, p. 14.

[25] Peacock 1997, pp. 1213.
24.11.1
Notes
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[28] Peacock 1997, pp. 1316.
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[29] Richardson 1990, p. 13.
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[7] Peacock 1997, p. 100.
[8] Stout, Joe and Laurie Quincy. United States Government
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Advanced F-16 Aircraft for Morocco. Lockheed Martin
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[30] Peacock 1997, pp. 14, 1719, 3334.

[31] Donald, David ed. Boeing F/A-18 Hornet. Warplanes
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[32] Darling 2003, p. 17.
[33] Peacock 1997, pp. 3132.
[34] Spick 2000, p. 196.
[35] Peacock 1997, pp. 1719, 3334.
[36] Peacock 1997, pp. 1416, 21.
[37] Richardson 1990, pp. 1315.
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Museum, Brussels. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
September 2014.
[203] Chateau de Savigny les Beaune, Savigny-les-Beaunes,
France. Aviationmuseum.eu. 10 January 2015.
September 2014.
[204] Fortner, Mark (11 January 2015). French Chateau Hosts
an Insane Collection of Cars, Motorcycles and Jets. YaSeptember 2014.
hoo Autos.
[182] Airframe Details for F-16 #79-0312. Retrieved 13 [205] Airframe Details for F-16 #78-0088. Retrieved 13
September 2014.
September 2014.
[183] Airframe Details for F-16 #79-0326. Retrieved 13 [206] Airframe Details for F-16 #78-0101. Retrieved 10 OcSeptember 2014.
tober 2014.
[184] Airframe Details for F-16 #79-0327. Retrieved 13 [207] Airframe Details for F-16 #78-0107. Retrieved 13
September 2014.
September 2014.
24.12. FURTHER READING
[208] F-16 Fighting Falcon/79-0430.. Retrieved 13 September 2014.

September 2014.
September 2014.
September 2014.
September 2014.
[215] San Diego Air & Space Museum. F-16 Viper/163269..
[216] F-16 Viper/163271.. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
[217] F-16 Viper/163277.. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
[218] F-16 Viper/163272.. National Naval Aviation Museum.
September 2014.
24.11.2
Bibliography
Aleshire, Peter. Eye of the Viper: The Making of an

F-16 Pilot (Illustrated ed.). Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Globe Pequot, 2005. ISBN 1-59228-822-7.
251
Hoh, Roger H. and David G. Mitchell. Flying
Qualities of Relaxed Static Stability Aircraft Volume I: Flying Qualities Airworthiness Assessment
and Flight Testing of Augmented Aircraft. Federal
Aviation Administration (DOT/FAA/CT-82/130-I),
September 1983. Retrieved: 16 June 2008.
Jenkins, Dennis R. F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success
Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 9780-07134-696-2.
Peacock, Lindsay. On Falcon Wings: The F-16
Story. RAF Fairford, United Kingdom: The Royal
Air Force Benevolent Fund Enterprises, 1997.
ISBN 1-899808-01-9.
Richardson, Doug. General Dynamics F-16 Fighting
Falcon. London: Salamander Books, 1990. ISBN
0-86101-534-7.
Senior, Tim. The AirForces Monthly Book of the F16 Fighting Falcon. Stamford, UK: Key Books Ltd,
2002. ISBN 0-946219-60-5.
Spick, Mike, ed. Great Book of Modern Warplanes.
St. Paul, MN: MBI, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
24.12 Further reading

Drendel, Lou. F-16 Fighting Falcon Walk Around
No. 1. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Books,
1993. ISBN 0-89747-307-8.
Gunston, Bill. United States Military Aircraft of the
20th century London: Salamander Books Ltd, 1984.
ISBN 0-86101-163-5.
Aronstein, David C. and Albert C. Piccirillo. The

Lightweight Fighter Program: A Successful Approach to Fighter Technology Transition. Reston,
VA: AIAA, 1996. ISBN 978-1-56347-193-3.
Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle,

Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Arlington, Texas:
Aerofax, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-081-8.
Coram, Robert. Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who

Changed the Art of War. New York: Little, Brown,
and Co., 2002. ISBN 0-316-88146-5.
Sweetman, Bill. Supersonic Fighters: The F-16

Fighting Falcons. Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone
Press, 2008. ISBN 1-4296-1315-7.
Darling, Kev. F-16 Fighting Falcon (Combat Legend). London: Airlife, 2003. ISBN 1-84037-399-7.
Williams, Anthony G. and Dr. Emmanuel Gustin.

Flying Guns: The Modern Era. Ramsbury, UK: The
Crowood Press, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-655-3.
Eden, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London, UK: Amber Books, 2004.
ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Frawley, Gerard.
The International Directory
Manly NSW, Australia:
of Military Aircraft.
Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002. ISBN 1875671-55-2.
Hampton, Dan. Viper Pilot: the autobiography of
one of Americas most decorated F-16 combat pilots.
William Morrow, 2012. ISBN 9780062130358

F-16 USAF fact sheet
F-16 page on LockheedMartin.com
F-16 articles on Code One magazine site
F-16.net extensive and up-to-date Fighting Falcon
resource
252
F-16 prole on Aerospaceweb.org

F-16 page on GlobalSecurity.org
Maintenance Programs of Pakistani F-16s on
PAFwallpapers.com
Greek F-16 C/D Fighting Block 52
Chapter 25
Global Positioning System

GPS redirects here. For the device, see GPS receiver.
For other uses, see GPS (disambiguation).
This article is about the American system. For the
Russian equivalent, see GLONASS. For the European
equivalent, see GALILEO. For other similar systems,
see GNSS.
list during Global Positioning System satellite operations.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based
satellite navigation system that provides location and time
information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or
near the earth where there is an unobstructed line of
sight to four or more GPS satellites.[1] The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The US began the GPS project in 1973 to overcome the

limitations of previous navigation systems,[2] integrating
ideas from several predecessors, including a number of
Artists conception of GPS Block II-F satellite in earth classied engineering design studies from the 1960s. The
U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed the sysorbit.
tem, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully
operational in 1995. Bradford Parkinson, Roger L. Easton, and Ivan A. Getting are credited with inventing it.
Civilian GPS receivers ("GPS navigation device") in a

marine application.
Automotive navigation system in a taxicab.
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to eorts to modernize the GPS
system and implement the next generation of GPS Block
IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control
System (OCX).[3] Announcements from Vice President
Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these
changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization eort, GPS III.
In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suered from incomplete coverage
of the globe until the mid-2000s.[4] There are also the
planned European Union Galileo positioning system, Indias Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System, and the
Chinese BeiDou Navigation Satellite System.
25.1 History
The design of GPS is based partly on similar groundbased radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN and the
U.S. Air Force Senior Airman runs through a check- Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s and used
by the British Royal Navy during World War II.
253
254
25.1.1
CHAPTER 25. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
Predecessors
Precise navigation would enable United States ballistic

missile submarines to get an accurate x of their positions
before they launched their SLBMs.[14] The USAF, with
two thirds of the nuclear triad, also had requirements for a
more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy
and Air Force were developing their own technologies in
parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem.
To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (such as Russian SS24 and SS-25) and so the need to x the launch position
had similarity to the SLBM situation.
In 1956, the German-American physicist Friedwardt

Winterberg[5] proposed a test of general relativity - detecting time slowing in a strong gravitational eld using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside articial satellites. Calculations using general relativity determined that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen
by the earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per
day (than those on the earth), and this was corrected for
in the design of GPS.[6]
In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation
The Soviet Union launched the rst man-made satellite, system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate
Sputnik, in 1957. Two American physicists, William ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A
Guier and George Weienbach, at Johns Hopkinss follow-on study, Project 57, was worked in 1963 and it
Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), decided to monitor was in this study that the GPS concept was born. That
Sputniks radio transmissions.[7] Within hours they real- same year, the concept was pursued as Project 621B,
had many of the attributes that you now see in
ized that, because of the Doppler eect, they could pin- which[15]
GPS
and promised increased accuracy for Air Force
point where the satellite was along its orbit. The Direcbombers
as
well as ICBMs. Updates from the Navy Trantor of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do
sit
system
were
too slow for the high speeds of Air Force
the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank
operation.
The
Naval
Research Laboratory continued adMcClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier
vancements
with
their
Timation (Time Navigation) sateland Weienbach to investigate the inverse problem
lites,
rst
launched
in
1967,
and with the third one in 1974
pinpointing the users location given that of the satellite.
carrying
the
rst
atomic
clock
into orbit.[16]
(At the time, the Navy was developing the submarinelaunched Polaris missile, which required them to know
the submarines location.) This led them and APL to
develop the Transit system.[8] In 1959, ARPA (renamed
DARPA in 1972) also played a role in Transit.[9][10][11]
The rst satellite navigation system, Transit, used by
the United States Navy, was rst successfully tested in
1960.[12] It used a constellation of ve satellites and could
provide a navigational x approximately once per hour.
In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite
that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space,
a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the groundbased Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations,[13]
became the rst worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.
While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in
military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was
seen as justication for the billions of dollars it would cost
in research, development, deployment, and operation for
a constellation of navigation satellites. During the Cold
War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the
United States was the one need that did justify this cost
in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent
eect is why GPS was funded. It is also the reason for
the ultra secrecy at that time. The nuclear triad consisted
of the United States Navys submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force
(USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM
launch position was a force multiplier.
Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964,
the United States Army orbited its rst Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic
surveying.[17] The SECOR system included three groundbased transmitters from known locations that would send
signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth
ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could
then use those signals to x its location precisely. The last
SECOR satellite was launched in 1969.[18] Decades later,
during the early years of GPS, civilian surveying became
one of the rst elds to make use of the new technology,
because surveyors could reap benets of signals from the
less-than-complete GPS constellation years before it was
declared operational. GPS can be thought of as an evolution of the SECOR system where the ground-based transmitters have been migrated into orbit.
25.1.2 Development
With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program.
During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about
twelve military ocers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It
was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became
GPS was created. Later that year, the DNSS program
was named Navstar, or Navigation System Using Timing
and Ranging.[19] With the individual satellites being as-
25.1. HISTORY
255
sociated with the name Navstar (as with the predecessors

Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name
was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites,
Navstar-GPS.[20] Ten "Block I" prototype satellites were
launched between 1978 and 1985 (with one prototype being destroyed in a launch failure).[21]
taries of defense and transportation. Its membership includes equivalent-level ocials from the departments of
state, commerce, and homeland security, the joint chiefs
of sta, and NASA. Components of the executive oce
of the president participate as observers to the executive
committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaiAfter Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 carson.
rying 269 people, was shot down in 1983 after straying The U.S. Department of Defense is required by law to
into the USSRs prohibited airspace,[22] in the vicinity of maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as dened in
Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President Ronald Reagan the federal radio navigation plan and the standard posiissued a directive making GPS freely available for civil- tioning service signal specication) that will be available
ian use, once it was suciently developed, as a common on a continuous, worldwide basis, and develop meagood.[23] The rst satellite was launched in 1989, and the sures to prevent hostile use of GPS and its augmentations
24th satellite was launched in 1994. The GPS program without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses.
cost at this point, not including the cost of the user equipment, but including the costs of the satellite launches,
has been estimated at about USD$5 billion (then-year 25.1.3 Timeline and modernization
dollars).[24] Roger L. Easton is widely credited as the priMain article: List of GPS satellites
mary inventor of GPS.
Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed
with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive in
1996 to turn o Selective Availability in May 2000 to
provide the same precision to civilians that was aorded
to the military. The directive was proposed by the U.S.
Secretary of Defense, William Perry, because of the
widespread growth of dierential GPS services to improve civilian accuracy and eliminate the U.S. military
advantage. Moreover, the U.S. military was actively developing technologies to deny GPS service to potential
adversaries on a regional basis.[25]
Since its deployment, the U.S. has implemented several
improvements to the GPS service including new signals
for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all
users, all the while maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment. Modernization of the satellite system has been an ongoing initiative by the U.S. Department of Defense through a series of satellite acquisitions
to meet the growing needs of the military, civilians, and
the commercial market.
As of early 2015, high-quality, FAA grade, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) GPS receivers provide an accuracy of better than 3.5 horizontal meters,[26] although
many factors such as receiver quality and atmospheric issues can aect this accuracy.
GPS is owned and operated by the United States Government as a national resource. The Department of Defense is the steward of GPS. Interagency GPS Executive
Board (IGEB) oversaw GPS policy matters from 1996
to 2004. After that the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to advise and
coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters
concerning the GPS and related systems.[27] The executive committee is chaired jointly by the deputy secre-
In 1972, the USAF Central Inertial Guidance Test

Facility (Holloman AFB), conducted developmental ight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over
White Sands Missile Range, using ground-based
pseudo-satellites.
In 1978, the rst experimental Block-I GPS satellite
was launched.[21]
In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down
the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed into
prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, killing all 269 people on board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that GPS would
be made available for civilian uses once it was
completed,[30][31] although it had been previously
published [in Navigation magazine] that the CA
code (Coarse Acquisition code) would be available
to civilian users.
By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites
had been launched to validate the concept.
Beginning in 1988, Command & Control of these
satellites was transitioned from Onizuka AFS, California to the 2nd Satellite Control Squadron (2SCS)
located at Falcon Air Force Station in Colorado
Springs, Colorado.[32][33]
On February 14, 1989, the rst modern Block-II
satellite was launched.
The Gulf War from 1990 to 1991 was the rst conict in which the military widely used GPS.[34]
In 1991, a project to create a miniature GPS receiver successfully ended, replacing the previous 50
pound military receivers with a 2.75 pound handheld
receiver.[10]
256
In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was inactivated and replaced by the
50th Space Wing.
By December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), indicating a full constellation (24 satellites) was available and providing the
Standard Positioning Service (SPS).[35]
Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by
Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April 1995,
signifying full availability of the militarys secure
Precise Positioning Service (PPS).[35]
In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill
Clinton issued a policy directive[36] declaring GPS
a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency
GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.
In 1998, United States Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety and
in 2000 the United States Congress authorized the
eort, referring to it as GPS III.
On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control

systems caused a software incompatibility with 8000
to 10000 military receivers manufactured by a division of Trimble Navigation Limited of Sunnyvale,
Calif.[43]
On February 25, 2010,[44] the U.S. Air Force
awarded the contract to develop the GPS Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX) to improve accuracy and availability of GPS navigation
signals, and serve as a critical part of GPS modernization.
25.1.4 Awards
On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992
Robert J. Collier Trophy, the nations most prestigious
aviation award. This team combines researchers from the
Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace
Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and
IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors
them for the most signicant development for safe and
ecient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft
since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago.
Two GPS developers received the National Academy of

On May 2, 2000 Selective Availability was discon- Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003:
tinued as a result of the 1996 executive order, allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.
Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace
Corporation and an engineer at the Massachusetts
In 2004, the United States Government signed an
Institute of Technology, established the basis for
agreement with the European Community estabGPS, improving on the World War II land-based ralishing cooperation related to GPS and Europes
dio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid
planned Galileo system.
to Navigation).
In 2004, United States President George W. Bush
Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and
updated the national policy and replaced the execastronautics at Stanford University, conceived the
utive board with the National Executive Commitpresent satellite-based system in the early 1960s and
tee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and
[37]
developed it in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force.
Timing.
Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force,
November 2004, Qualcomm announced successful
from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of
tests of assisted GPS for mobile phones.[38]
colonel.
In 2005, the rst modernized GPS satellite was
launched and began transmitting a second civilian
signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.[39]
GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the

National Medal of Technology on February 13,
2006.[45]
On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based

Ground Segment Control System was transferred to In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into[46]the Space
Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame.
the new Architecture Evolution Plan.[40]
Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into
On May 19, 2009, the United States Government the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of
Accountability Oce issued a report warning that Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2,
some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.[41]
2010 for his role in space technology development and
On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part
allayed fears of GPS failure saying Theres only a of Project 621B.
small risk we will not continue to exceed our perfor- On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global Positioning System
mance standard.[42]
25.2. BASIC CONCEPT OF GPS

(GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF
member, the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The IAF Honors and Awards Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program
and the exemplary role it has played in building international collaboration for the benet of humanity.
257
The receivers earth-centered solution location is usually
converted to latitude, longitude and height relative to an
ellipsoidal earth model. The height may then be further
converted to height relative the geoid (e.g., EGM96) (essentially, mean sea level). These coordinates may be displayed, e.g. on a moving map display and/or recorded
and/or used by some other system (e.g., a vehicle guidance system).
25.2 Basic concept of GPS

25.2.1
Fundamentals
The GPS system concept is based on time. The satellites

carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized to
each other and to ground clocks. Any drift from true time
maintained on the ground is corrected daily. Likewise,
the satellite locations are monitored precisely. GPS receivers have clocks as wellhowever, they are not synchronized with true time, and are less stable. GPS satellites continuously transmit their current time and position.
A GPS receiver monitors multiple satellites and solves
equations to determine the exact position of the receiver
and its deviation from true time. At a minimum, four
satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute
four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and
clock deviation from satellite time).
25.2.3 User-satellite geometry

Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver
processing, the conceptual time dierences of arrival
(TDOAs) dene the measurement geometry. Each
TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see
Multilateration). The line connecting the two satellites
involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three
hyperboloids intersect.[47][48]
It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is

at the intersection of three spheres. While simpler to visualize, this is only the case if the receiver has a clock
synchronized with the satellite clocks (i.e., the receiver
measures true ranges to the satellites rather than range
dierences). There are signicant performance benets
to the user carrying a clock synchronized with the satellites. Foremost is that only three satellites are needed to
compute a position solution. If this were part of the GPS
25.2.2 More detailed description
system concept so that all users needed to carry a synchronized clock, then a smaller number of satellites could be
Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier
deployed. However, the cost and complexity of the user
frequency with modulation) that includes:
equipment would increase signicantly.
A pseudorandom code (sequence of ones and zeros) that is known to the receiver. By time-aligning
a receiver-generated version and the receivermeasured version of the code, the time of arrival
(TOA) of a dened point in the code sequence,
called an epoch, can be found in the receiver clock
time scale
A message that includes the time of transmission
(TOT) of the code epoch (in GPS system time scale)
and the satellite position at that time
25.2.4 Receiver in continuous operation

The description above is representative of a receiver startup situation. Most receivers have a track algorithm,
sometimes called a tracker, that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at dierent timesin eect,
taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker predicts the receiver
location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the new measurements are collected,
the receiver uses a weighting scheme to combine the new
measurements with the tracker prediction. In general, a
tracker can (a) improve receiver position and time accuracy, (b) reject bad measurements, and (c) estimate receiver speed and direction.
Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the
TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of ight
(TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite range dierences.
The receiver then computes its three-dimensional posi- The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed
tion and clock deviation from the four TOFs.
or direction can only be computed with a delay, and that
In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance
Cartesian coordinates with origin at the earths center) traveled between two position measurements drops below
and the oset of the receiver clock relative to GPS system or near the random error of position measurement. GPS
time are computed simultaneously, using the navigation units can use measurements of the doppler shift of the
equations to process the TOFs.
signals received to compute velocity accurately.[49] More
258
advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a 25.3.1 Space segment
compass or an inertial navigation system to complement
See also: GPS (satellite) and List of GPS satellite
GPS.
launches
The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting
25.2.5
Non-navigation applications
In typical GPS operation as a navigator, four or more

satellites must be visible to obtain an accurate result. The
solution of the navigation equations gives the position of
the receiver along with the dierence between the time
kept by the receivers on-board clock and the true timeof-day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise
and possibly impractical receiver based clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer, trac signal timing, Unlaunched GPS block II-A satellite on display at the San Diego
and synchronization of cell phone base stations, make use Air & Space Museum
of this cheap and highly accurate timing. Some GPS applications use this time for display, or, other than for the
basic position calculations, do not use it at all.
Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft
may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use
additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last
known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a
(possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.[50][51][52]
25.3 Structure
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These
are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and
a user segment (US).[53] The U.S. Air Force develops,
maintains, and operates the space and control segments.
GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each
GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its threedimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude)
and the current time.[54]
The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in
medium earth orbit and also includes the payload adapters
to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The
control segment is composed of a master control station
(MCS), an alternate master control station, and a host of
dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of hundreds of
thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure
GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of
civil, commercial, and scientic users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices).
A visual example of a 24 satellite GPS constellation in motion

with the earth rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in
view from a given point on the earths surface, in this example at
45N, changes with time.
GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs,
eight each in three approximately circular orbits,[55] but
this was modied to six orbital planes with four satellites each.[56] The six orbit planes have approximately 55
inclination (tilt relative to the earths equator) and are
separated by 60 right ascension of the ascending node
(angle along the equator from a reference point to the
orbits intersection).[57] The orbital period is one-half a
sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the
satellites pass over the same locations[58] or almost the
same locations[59] every day. The orbits are arranged so
that at least six satellites are always within line of sight
from almost everywhere on the earths surface.[60] The
result of this objective is that the four satellites are not
evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each orbit. In
general terms, the angular dierence between satellites in
each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart, which
sum to 360 degrees.[61]
25.3. STRUCTURE
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km
(12,600 mi); orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km
(16,500 mi),[62] each SV makes two complete orbits
each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each
day.[63] This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment
means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours
each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat
can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.
As of December 2012,[64] there are 32 satellites in the
GPS constellation. The additional satellites improve the
precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of
satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform
arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to
a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.[65] About
nine satellites are visible from any point on the ground at
any one time (see animation at right), ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed
for a position.
25.3.2
Control segment
259
Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC.[66] The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command
MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km (16 mi) ESE
of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space
Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force.
Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with
a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN)
ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and
Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic
clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds
of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellites internal orbital model. The updates are created by a
Kalman lter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other
inputs.[67]
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standardsso
to change a satellites orbit, the satellite must be marked
unhealthy, so receivers don't use it. After the satellite maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground,
upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy
again.
The Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves
as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps
the GPS system operational and performing within specication.
OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable
upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture that supported U.S. armed forces. OCS will
continue to be the ground control system of record until
the new segment, Next Generation GPS Operation Control System[3] (OCX), is fully developed and functional.
Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on display at

the Air Force Space & Missile Museum.
The control segment is composed of:

1. a master control station (MCS),
2. an alternate master control station,
3. four dedicated ground antennas, and
4. six dedicated monitor stations.
The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas (for additional
command and control capability) and NGA (National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The
ight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S.
Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll,
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador,
The new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPSs mission capabilities,
and enabling[68] Air Force Space Command to greatly enhance GPS operational services to U.S. combat forces,
civil partners and myriad domestic and international
users.
The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule
and technical risk. It is designed to provide 50%[69] sustainment cost savings through ecient software architecture and Performance-Based Logistics. In addition, GPS
OCX expected to cost millions less than the cost to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.
The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS
modernization and provides signicant information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.
OCX will have the ability to control and manage
GPS legacy satellites as well as the next generation
of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of
military signals.
260
Built on a exible architecture that can rapidly adapt
to the changing needs of todays and future GPS
users allowing immediate access to GPS data and
constellations status through secure, accurate and reliable information.
Provides the warghter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to enhance situational awareness.

user. A receiver is often described by its number of
channels: this signies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or ve,
this has progressively increased over the years so that,
as of 2007, receivers typically have between 12 and 20
channels.[lower-alpha 1]
Enables new modernized signals (L1C, L2C, and

L5) and has M-code capability, which the legacy
system is unable to do.
Provides signicant information assurance improvements over the current program including detecting
and preventing cyber attacks, while isolating, containing and operating during such attacks.
Supports higher volume near real-time command
and control capabilities and abilities.
On September 14, 2011,[70] the U.S. Air Force an- A typical OEM GPS receiver module measuring 1517 mm.
nounced the completion of GPS OCX Preliminary Design Review and conrmed that the OCX program is
ready for the next phase of development.
GPS receivers may include an input for dierential corThe GPS OCX program has achieved major milestones rections, using the RTCM SC-104 format. This is typiand is on track to support the GPS IIIA launch in May cally in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed.
Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits
2014.
the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers
with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those us25.3.3 User segment
ing external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low-cost
units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation SysFurther information: GPS navigation device
tem (WAAS) receivers.
The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands
A typical GPS receiver with integrated antenna.
GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such
as these.
of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil,
commercial and scientic users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of
an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock
(often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the
Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or

other device using the NMEA 0183 protocol. Although
this protocol is ocially dened by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA),[71] references to
this protocol have been compiled from public records,
allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other
proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and
MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB,
or Bluetooth.
25.4. APPLICATIONS
25.4 Applications
Main article: GNSS applications
See also: GPS navigation device
While originally a military project, GPS is considered a
dual-use technology, meaning it has signicant military
and civilian applications.
GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for
commerce, scientic uses, tracking, and surveillance.
GPSs accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as
banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control
of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-o
switching.[54]
25.4.1
Civilian
261
ics calculations. It is also used in amateur astronomy using small telescopes to professionals observatories, for example, while nding extrasolar planets.
Automated vehicle: applying location and routes for
cars and trucks to function without a human driver.
Cartography: both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
Cellular telephony: clock synchronization enables
time transfer, which is critical for synchronizing its
spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate
inter-cell hando and support hybrid GPS/cellular
position detection for mobile emergency calls and
other applications. The rst handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s. The U.S.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in the towers (for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency
services could locate 911 callers. Third-party software developers later gained access to GPS APIs
from Nextel upon launch, followed by Sprint in
2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.
Clock synchronization: the accuracy of GPS time
signals (10 ns)[72] is second only to the atomic
clocks they are based on.
Disaster relief/emergency services: depend upon
GPS for location and timing capabilities.
Meteorology-Upper Airs: measure and calculate the
atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction up
to 27 km from the earths surface
Fleet tracking: the use of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with one or
more eet vehicles in real-time.
Geofencing: vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS to
locate a vehicle, person, or pet. These devices are
attached to the vehicle, person, or the pet collar. The
application provides continuous tracking and mobile
or Internet updates should the target leave a designated area.[73]
This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientic experiment needing precise timing.
Geotagging: applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs (in Exif data) and
other documents for purposes such as creating map
overlays with devices like Nikon GP-1
GPS aircraft tracking
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPSs three

basic components: absolute location, relative movement,
and time transfer.
Astronomy: both positional and clock synchronization data is used in astrometry and celestial mechan-
GPS for mining: the use of RTK GPS has signicantly improved several mining operations such as
drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking, and surveying.
RTK GPS provides centimeter-level positioning accuracy.
262
GPS tours: location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an approaching
point of interest.
Navigation: navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.
Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate
timestamping of power system measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.
Recreation: for example, geocaching, geodashing,
GPS drawing and waymarking.
Attaching a GPS guidance kit to a dumb bomb, March 2003.
Robotics: self-navigating, autonomous robots using

a GPS sensors, which calculate latitude, longitude,
time, speed, and heading.
Sport: used in football and rugby for the control and
analysis of the training load.
Surveying: surveyors use absolute locations to make
maps and determine property boundaries.
Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement of earthquakes. Between earthquakes
GPS can be used to measure crustal motion and
deformation[74] to estimate seismic strain buildup
for creating seismic hazard maps.
Telematics: GPS technology integrated with computers and mobile communications technology in
automotive navigation systems
M982 Excalibur GPS-guided artillery shell.
Restrictions on civilian use
25.4.2 Military
The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian
receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above As of 2009, military GPS applications include:
18 km (60,000 feet) altitude and 515 m/s (1,000 knots)
or designed, modied for use with unmanned air vehicles
Navigation: Soldiers use GPS to nd objectives,
like, e.g., ballistic or cruise missile systems, are classied
even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and to coas munitions (weapons)which means they require State
ordinate troop and supply movement. In the United
Department export licenses.[75]
States armed forces, commanders use the Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier
This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian
Digital Assistant.[76]
units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A
(Coarse/Acquisition) code.
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classication as a munition. Vendor interpretations dier. The rule refers to operation at both the
target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with
some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach
30 kilometers (19 mi).
These limits only apply to units or components exported
from the USA. There is a growing trade in various components, including GPS units from other countries. These
are expressly sold as ITAR-free.
Target tracking: Various military weapons systems

use GPS to track potential ground and air targets before agging them as hostile. These weapon systems
pass target coordinates to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage targets accurately.
Military aircraft, particularly in air-to-ground roles,
use GPS to nd targets.
Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles, precision-guided munitions and Artillery projectiles. Embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000 g
25.5. COMMUNICATION
263
or about 118 km/s2 have been developed for use in almanac, which contains coarse orbit and status informa155-millimeter (6.1 in) howitzers.[77]
tion for up to 32 satellites in the constellation as well as
data related to error correction. Thus, to obtain an accu Search and rescue.
rate satellite location from this transmitted message, the
Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed receiver must demodulate the message from each satellite
it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds. To collect
more closely.
all transmitted almanacs, the receiver must demodulate
GPS satellites carry a set of nuclear detonation de- the message for 732 to 750 seconds or 12 1/2 minutes.[83]
tectors consisting of an optical sensor (Y-sensor), an All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies, encodX-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic ing signals using unique code division multiple access
pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor), that form a major (CDMA) so receivers can distinguish individual satellites
portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation De- from each other. The system uses two distinct CDMA
tection System.[78][79] General William Shelton has encoding types: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which
stated that future satellites may drop this feature to is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P(Y))
save money.[80]
code, which is encrypted so that only the U.S. military
25.5 Communication
and other NATO nations who have been given access to

the encryption code can access it.[84]
The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6
Main article: GPS signals
hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac
is updated typically every 24 hours. Additionally, data for
The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites en- a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission
code a variety of information including satellite positions, updates that delay data upload.
the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the 25.5.2 Satellite frequencies
network. Two dierent encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an
encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.
All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies,
1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal).
25.5.1 Message format
The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum
technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded
with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is
dierent for each satellite. The receiver must be aware
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the acmessage on L1 C/A and L2 P/Y frequencies at a rate of tual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, trans50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message mits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the
takes 750 seconds (12 1/2 minutes) to complete. The P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 milmessage structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long lion chips per second. The actual internal reference of
frame made up of ve subframes, each subframe being the satellites is 10.22999999543 MHz to compensate for
300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and 5 are sub- relativistic eects[85][86] that make observers on the earth
commutated 25 times each, so that a complete data mes- perceive a dierent time reference with respect to the
sage requires the transmission of 25 full frames. Each transmitters in orbit. The L1 carrier is modulated by both
subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus, the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modwith 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame ulated by the P code.[87] The P code can be encrypted
times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits as a so-called P(Y) code that is only available to mililong. At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 tary equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the
seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS). C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to
Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute the user.
or half-minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105 GHz is used
satellite.[81]
to transmit data from the satellites to ground stations.
The rst subframe of each frame encodes the week number and the time within the week,[82] as well as the data
about the health of the satellite. The second and the third
subframes contain the ephemeris the precise orbit for
the satellite. The fourth and fth subframes contain the
This data is used by the United States Nuclear Detonation

(NUDET) Detection System (USNDS) to detect, locate,
and report nuclear detonations (NUDETs) in the earths
atmosphere and near space.[88] One usage is the enforcement of nuclear test ban treaties.
264

L1 carrier
1575.42 MHz
The L4 band at 1.379913 GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
broadcast
demodulator
signal
The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in
demodulated
signal
the process of GPS modernization. This frequency falls
...
into an internationally protected range for aeronautical
C/A gold code
navigation, promising little or no interference under all
modulo 2 C/A gold code
modulo 2
...
n1 1023 b/ms
n2 1023 b/ms
addition
addition
circumstances. The rst Block IIF satellite that provides
this signal was launched in 2010.[89] The L5 consists of
navigation data
navigation data
two carrier components that are in phase quadrature with
...
satellite n1
satellite n2
each other. Each carrier component is bi-phase shift key
50 b/s
50 b/s
(BPSK) modulated by a separate bit train. L5, the third
civil GPS signal, will eventually support safety-of-life ap- Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the
plications for aviation and provide improved availability Coarse/Acquisition Gold code.
and accuracy.[90]
A conditional waiver has recently been granted to

LightSquared to operate a terrestrial broadband service
near the L1 band. Although LightSquared had applied
for a license to operate in the 1525 to 1559 band as
early as 2003 and it was put out for public comment, the
FCC asked LightSquared to form a study group with the
GPS community to test GPS receivers and identify issue that might arise due to the larger signal power from
the LightSquared terrestrial network. The GPS community had not objected to the LightSquared (formerly MSV
and SkyTerra) applications until November 2010, when
LightSquared applied for a modication to its Ancillary
Terrestrial Component (ATC) authorization. This ling
(SAT-MOD-20101118-00239) amounted to a request to
run several orders of magnitude more power in the same
frequency band for terrestrial base stations, essentially repurposing what was supposed to be a quiet neighborhood for signals from space as the equivalent of a cellular
network. Testing in the rst half of 2011 has demonstrated that the impact of the lower 10 MHz of spectrum is minimal to GPS devices (less than 1% of the total
GPS devices are aected). The upper 10 MHz intended
for use by LightSquared may have some impact on GPS
devices. There is some concern that this may seriously
degrade the GPS signal for many consumer uses.[91][92]
Aviation Week magazine reports that the latest testing
(June 2011) conrms signicant jamming of GPS by
LightSquareds system.[93]
25.5.3
Demodulation and decoding
Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the

same L1 carrier frequency, the signals must be separated
after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code. The
signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of
the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored
by the receiver.[94][95]
mode until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To

obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed
line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver
can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites
it should listen for. As it detects each satellites signal, it
identies it by its distinct C/A code pattern. There can
be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the rst estimate of
position because of the need to read the ephemeris data.
Processing of the navigation message enables the determination of the time of transmission and the satellite position at this time. For more information see
Demodulation and Decoding, Advanced.
25.6 Navigation equations

Main article: GNSS positioning calculation
See also: Pseudorange
25.6.1 Problem description

The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and
z components of satellite position and the time sent are
designated as [xi, yi, zi, si] where the subscript i denotes
the satellite and has the value 1, 2, ..., n, where n 4.
When the time of message reception indicated by the onboard receiver clock is ti, the true reception time is ti = ti
+ b, where b is the receivers clock oset from the much
more accurate GPS system clocks employed by the satellites. The receiver clock oset is the same for all received
satellite signals (assuming the satellite clocks are all perfectly synchronized). The messages transit time is ti + b
- si, where si is the satellite time. Assuming the message
traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled is (ti
+ b - si) c.
If the almanac information has previously been acquired, For n satellites, the equations to satisfy are:
the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs,
unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If the almanac
(
)2
information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search (xxi )2 +(yyi )2 +(zzi )2 = [ti +bsi ]c , i = 1, 2, . . . , n
25.6. NAVIGATION EQUATIONS

(
)
or in terms of pseudoranges, pi = ti si c , as
(x xi )2 + (y yi )2 + (z zi )2 bc =
pi , i = 1, 2, ..., n .[96][97]
265
25.6.3 Solution methods

Least squares
When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simulSince the equations have four unknowns [x, y, z, b]the taneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the
three components of GPS receiver position and the clock number of receiver channels, processing capability, and
biassignals from at least four satellites are necessary to geometric dilution of precision (GDOP).
attempt solving these equations. They can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods. Existence and uniqueness Using more than four involves an over-determined sysof GPS solutions are discussed by Abell and Chaee.[47] tem of equations with no unique solution; such a system
by a least-squares or weighted least squares
When n is greater than 4 this system is overdetermined can be solved
[96]
method.
and a tting method must be used.
With each combination of satellites, GDOP quantities can
)
(
be calculated based on the relative sky directions of the (
x
, y, z, b = arg min
(x xi )2 + (y yi )2 + (z zi )2 bc
satellites used.[98] The receiver location is expressed in a
(x,y,z,b) i
specic coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude
using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a country-specic
system.[99]
Iterative
Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares
equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods. A common approach is by iteraWhile the GPS equations can be solved directly by nu- tion on a linearized form of the equations, (e.g., Gauss
merical and analytical methods, geometrical interpreta- Newton algorithm).
tions are possible and may have pedagogical value. In a
The GPS system was initially developed assuming use of
simplied case in which the measured ranges are synchroa numerical least-squares solution methodi.e., before
nized, they represent the radii of spheres, each centered
closed-form solutions were found.
on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the
position of the receiver is then at one of the two intersections of three of these spheres. However, this idealized Closed-form
case assumes the receiver clock bias is known; including
the unknown receiver clock bias allows the ranges to be- One closed-form solution to the above set of equations
come unsynchronized (thus referred to as pseudoranges), was developed by S. Bancroft.[97][101] Its properties are
as considered below.
well known;[47][48][102] in particular, proponents claim it
is superior in low-GDOP situations, compared to iterative
least squares methods.[101]
Hyperboloids
Bancrofts method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical,
If the distance traveled between the receiver and satel- and can be used for four or more satellites. When four
lite i and the distance traveled between the receiver and satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4
satellite j are subtracted, the result is (ti - si) c - (tj - sj) c, matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equawhich only involves known or measured quantities. The tion. Bancrofts method provides one or two solutions for
locus of points having a constant dierence in distance the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the
to two points (here, two satellites) is a hyperboloid (see case), only one is a near-earth sensible solution.[97]
Multilateration). Thus, from four or more measured re- When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a soception times, the receiver can be placed at the intersec- lution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the
tion of the surfaces of three or more hyperboloids.[47][48] pseudoinverse) to nd a solution. However, a case has
25.6.2
Geometric interpretation
been made that iterative methods (e.g., Gauss-Newton

algorithm) for solving over-determined non-linear least
Spherical cones
squares (NLLS) problems generally provide more accu[103]
The solution space [x, y, z, b] can be seen as a four- rate solutions.
dimensional geometric space. In that case each of the Leick et al. (2015) states that Bancrofts (1985) soequations describes a spherical cone,[100] with the cusp lution is a very early, if not the rst, closed-form
located at the satellite, and the base a sphere around the solution.[104] Other closed-form solutions were pubsatellite. The receiver is at the intersection of four or lished afterwards,[105][106] although their adoption in
practice is unclear.
more of such cones.
266
25.7 Error sources and analysis
This is one reason GPS spacecraft transmit on at least

two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a wellMain article: Error analysis for the Global Positioning dened function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time
System
dierence between the frequencies determines TEC and
thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency.
GPS error analysis examines error sources in GPS results
and the expected size of those errors. GPS makes cor- Military receivers can decode the P(Y) code transmitted
rections for receiver clock errors and other eects, but on both L1 and L2. Without decryption keys, it is still
some residual errors remain uncorrected. Error sources possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y)
include signal arrival time measurements, numerical cal- codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error inculations, atmospheric eects (ionospheric/tropospheric formation. However, this technique is slow, so it is curdelays), ephemeris and clock data, multipath signals, and rently available only on specialized surveying equipment.
natural and articial interference. Magnitude of resid- In the future, additional civilian codes are expected to
ual errors from these sources depends on geometric dilu- be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS
tion of precision. Articial errors may result from jam- modernization). All users will then be able to perform
ming devices and threaten ships and aircraft[107] or from dual-frequency measurements and directly compute ionointentional signal degradation through selective availabil- spheric delay errors.
ity, which limited accuracy to ~612 m, but has now been A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrierswitched o[108]
Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). This corrects the error
that arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not
instantaneous, and thus the correlation (satellite-receiver
uses
25.8 Accuracy enhancement and sequence matching) operation is imperfect. CPGPS
1s
the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of 1575.4210
6 =
surveying
0.63475 ns 1 ns , which is about one-thousandth of
1s
the C/A Gold code bit period of 102310
3 = 977.5 ns
1000 ns , to act as an additional clock signal and resolve
Main article: GPS enhancement
the uncertainty. The phase dierence error in the normal GPS amounts to 23 meters (710 ft) of ambiguity.
CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition re25.8.1 Augmentation
duces this error to 3 centimeters (1.2 in) of ambiguity.
By eliminating this error source, CPGPS coupled with
Integrating external information into the calculation pro- DGPS normally realizes between 2030 centimeters (8
cess can materially improve accuracy. Such augmenta- 12 in) of absolute accuracy.
tion systems are generally named or described based on
Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is a third alternahow the information arrives. Some systems transmit adtive for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this
ditional error information (such as clock drift, ephemera,
approach, determination of range signal can be resolved
or ionospheric delay), others characterize prior errors,
to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This
while a third group provides additional navigational or veis done by resolving the number of cycles that the sighicle information.
nal is transmitted and received by the receiver by using a
Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide combination of dierential GPS (DGPS) correction data,
Area Augmentation System (WAAS), European Geo- transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity
stationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), resolution techniques via statistical testspossibly with
Dierential GPS (DGPS), Inertial Navigation Systems processing in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning,
(INS) and Assisted GPS. The standard accuracy of about RTK).
15 meters (49 feet) can be augmented to 35 meters
(9.816.4 ft) with DGPS, and to about 3 meters (9.8
feet) with WAAS.[109]
25.8.3 Timekeeping
25.8.2
Precise monitoring
Leap seconds
While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated

Accuracy can be improved through precise monitoring Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the sateland measurement of existing GPS signals in additional lites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United
or alternate ways.
States Naval Observatory). The dierence is that GPS
The largest remaining error is usually the unpredictable time is not corrected to match the rotation of the earth,
delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections
ionospheric model parameters, but some errors remain. that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to
25.8. ACCURACY ENHANCEMENT AND SURVEYING
267
match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack

of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant
oset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI GPS
= 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed to the
on-board clocks to keep them synchronized with ground
clocks.[110]
specially equipped receivers. This method has many surveying applications. It is accurate enough for real-time
tracking of the very slow motions of tectonic plates, typically 0100 mm (04 inches) per year.
The GPS navigation message includes the dierence between GPS time and UTC. As of July 2012, GPS time
is 16 seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second
added to UTC June 30, 2012.[111] Receivers subtract this
oset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specic timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct
UTC time until after receiving the UTC oset message.
The GPS-UTC oset eld can accommodate 255 leap
seconds (eight bits).
Triple dierencing followed by numerical root nding,

and a mathematical technique called least squares can
estimate the position of one receiver given the position
of another. First, compute the dierence between satellites, then between receivers, and nally between epochs.
Other orders of taking dierences are equally valid. Detailed discussion of the errors is omitted.
The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles. Let (ri , sj , tk ) denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by
receiver i at time tk . This notation shows the meaning of the subscripts i, j, and k. The receiver (r), satellite (s), and time (t) come in alphabetical order as arguAccuracy
ments of and to balance readability and conciseness,
let i,j,k = (ri , sj , tk ) be a concise abbreviation. Also
GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14
we
dene three functions, : r , s , t , which return
nanoseconds.[112] However, most receivers lose acdierences between receivers, satellites, and time points,
curacy in the interpretation of the signals and are only
respectively. Each function has variables with three subaccurate to 100 nanoseconds.[113][114]
scripts as its arguments. These three functions are dened below. If i,j,k is a function of the three integer
arguments,
i, j, and k then it is a valid argument for the
Format
functions, : r , s , t , with the values dened as
As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the
r (i,j,k ) = i+1,j,k i,j,k ,
Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week
number and a seconds-into-week number. The week
s (i,j,k ) = i,j+1,k i,j,k , and
number is transmitted as a ten-bit eld in the C/A and
t (i,j,k ) = i,j,k+1 i,j,k .
P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again
every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started
Also if i,j,k and l,m,n are valid arguments for the
at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and
three functions and a and b are constants then (a i,j,k +
the week number became zero again for the rst time at
b l,m,n ) is a valid argument with values dened as
23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date,
r (a i,j,k + b l,m,n ) = a r (i,j,k ) +
a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate
b r (l,m,n ) ,
date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS
s (a i,j,k + b l,m,n ) = a s (i,j,k ) +
date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS
b s (l,m,n ) , and
navigation message uses a 13-bit eld that only repeats
every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year
t (a i,j,k + b l,m,n ) = a t (i,j,k ) +
2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).
b t (l,m,n ) .
Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by

dierencing the phases measured from satellite 1 with
that from satellite 2 at the same epoch.[115] This dierAnother method that is used in surveying applications ence is designated as s (1,1,1 ) = 1,2,1 1,1,1
is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier fre[116]
computes the dierence of requency multiplied by the speed of light gives the wave- Double dierencing
ceiver
1s
satellite
dierence
from that of receiver 2. This
length, which is about 0.19 meters for the L1 carrier. Acapproximately
eliminates
satellite
clock errors. This doucuracy within 1% of wavelength in detecting the leading
ble
dierence
is:
edge reduces this component of pseudorange error to as
little as 2 millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the
C/A code and 0.3 meters for the P code.
r (s (1,1,1 )) = r (1,2,1 1,1,1 ) = r (1,2,1 ) r (1,1,1 ) =
However, 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the
total phasethe number of waves multiplied by the Triple dierencing[117] subtracts the receiver dierence
wavelength plus the fractional wavelength, which requires from time 1 from that of time 2. This eliminates the
25.8.4
Carrier phase tracking (surveying)
268
ambiguity associated with the integral number of wavelengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not
change with time. Thus the triple dierence result eliminates practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris errors
have been signicantly reduced. This triple dierence is:
t (r (s (1,1,1 )))
Triple dierence results can be used to estimate unknown
variables. For example if the position of receiver 1 is
known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be
possible to estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root nding and least squares. Triple dierence
results for three independent time pairs may be sucient
to solve for receiver 2s three position components. This
may require a numerical procedure.[118][119] An approximation of receiver 2s position is required to use such
a numerical method. This initial value can probably be
provided from the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces. Such a reasonable estimate can
be key to successful multidimensional root nding. Iterating from three time pairs and a fairly good initial value
produces one observed triple dierence result for receiver
2s position. Processing additional time pairs can improve
accuracy, overdetermining the answer with multiple solutions. Least squares can estimate an overdetermined system. Least squares determines the position of receiver 2
that best ts the observed triple dierence results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the
sum of the squares.

pany LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC received
an application from LightSquareds predecessor, Motient
Services to use their allocated frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service.[123] In 2002, the U.S.
GPS Industry Council came to an out-of-band-emissions
(OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent transmissions from LightSquareds ground-based stations from
emitting transmissions into the neighboring GPS band of
1559 to 1610 MHz.[124] In 2004, the FCC adopted the
OOBE agreement in its authorization for LightSquared
to deploy a ground-based network ancillary to their satellite system - known as the Ancillary Tower Components
(ATCs) - We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component
remains ancillary to the principal MSS oering. We do
not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component
to become a stand-alone service. [125] This authorization
was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Interdepartment
Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S.
Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Interior, and U.S.
Department of Transportation.[126]
In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized

LightSquareds wholesale customerssuch as Best Buy,
Sharp, and C Spireto only purchase an integrated
satellite-ground-based service from LightSquared and resell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to
only use the ground-based signal using LightSquareds allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz.[127] In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC that LightSquareds signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices[128] although the FCCs
policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 or25.9 Regulatory spectrum issues der did not pertain to any proposed changes to the maximum number of ground-based LightSquared stations or
concerning GPS receivers
the maximum power at which these stations could operate. The January 2011 order makes nal authorization
In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under contingent upon studies of GPS interference issues carthe Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Part ried out by a LightSquared led working group along with
15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled GPS industry and Federal agency participation.
devices sold in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it
must accept any interference received, including inter- GPS receiver manufacturers design GPS receivers to use
ference that may cause undesired operation.[120] With spectrum beyond the GPS-allocated band. In some cases,
respect to GPS devices in particular, the FCC states that GPS receivers are designed to use up to 400 MHz of specGPS receiver manufacturers, must use receivers that rea- trum in either direction of the L1 frequency of 1575.42
sonably discriminate against reception of signals outside MHz, because mobile satellite services in those regions
their allocated spectrum..[121] For the last 30 years, GPS are broadcasting from space to ground, and at power
[129]
receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Ser- levels commensurate with mobile satellite services.
vice band, and have discriminated against reception of However, as regulated under the FCCs Part 15 rules,
from signals
mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any GPS receivers are not warranted protection
[121]
This
is
why GPS
outside
GPS-allocated
spectrum.
issue.
operates next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and
The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is also why the Mobile Satellite Service band operates next
1559 to 1610 MHz, while the spectrum allocated for to GPS. The symbiotic relationship of spectrum allocasatellite-to-ground use owned by Lightsquared is the Mo- tion ensures that users of both bands are able to operate
bile Satellite Service band.[122] Since 1996, the FCC has cooperatively and freely.
authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the
GPS band of 1525 to 1559 MHz to the Virginia com- The FCC adopted rules in February 2003 that allowed
25.10. OTHER SYSTEMS

Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) licensees such as LightSquared to construct a small number of ancillary groundbased towers in their licensed spectrum to promote
more ecient use of terrestrial wireless spectrum.[130]
In those 2003 rules, the FCC stated As a preliminary
matter, terrestrial [Commercial Mobile Radio Service
(CMRS)] and MSS ATC are expected to have dierent prices, coverage, product acceptance and distribution;
therefore, the two services appear, at best, to be imperfect substitutes for one another that would be operating in
predominately dierent market segments... MSS ATC is
unlikely to compete directly with terrestrial CMRS for the
same customer base.... In 2004, the FCC claried that
the ground-based towers would be ancillary, noting that
We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that
ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS oering. We do not intend,
nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become
a stand-alone service.[125] In July 2010, the FCC stated
that it expected LightSquared to use its authority to oer
an integrated satellite-terrestrial service to provide mobile broadband services similar to those provided by terrestrial mobile providers and enhance competition in the
mobile broadband sector.[131] However, GPS receiver
manufacturers have argued that LightSquareds licensed
spectrum of 1525 to 1559 MHz was never envisioned as
being used for high-speed wireless broadband based on
the 2003 and 2004 FCC ATC rulings making clear that
the Ancillary Tower Component (ATC) would be, in fact,
ancillary to the primary satellite component.[132] To build
public support of eorts to continue the 2004 FCC authorization of LightSquareds ancillary terrestrial component vs. a simple ground-based LTE service in the Mobile Satellite Service band, GPS receiver manufacturer
Trimble Navigation Ltd. formed the Coalition To Save
Our GPS.[133]
The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS interference issue before the
network is allowed to operate.[134][135] However, according to Chris Dancy of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association, airline pilots with the type of systems that
would be aected may go o course and not even realize it.[136] The problems could also aect the Federal
Aviation Administration upgrade to the air trac control
system, United States Defense Department guidance, and
local emergency services including 911.[136]
On February 14, 2012, the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) moved to bar LightSquareds planned
national broadband network after being informed by the
National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), the federal agency that coordinates spectrum uses for the military and other federal government
entities, that there is no practical way to mitigate potential interference at this time.[137][138] LightSquared is
challenging the FCCs action.
269
25.10 Other systems

Main article: Global navigation satellite systems
Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states
20 hours
Orbital period
Galileo
GPS
15 hours
Geostationary
Earth Orbit
COMPASS
10 hours
MEO satellites
GLONASS
5 hours
Radius of orbit
Iridium
Hubble
40 Mm 30 Mm 20 Mm 10 Mm
10 Mm 20 Mm 30 Mm
20000 miles 10000 miles

15000 mph
Height above
sea level
ISS10000 miles
20000 miles
25000 km/h
20000 km/h
10000 mph
15000 km/h
Orbital speed
Comparison of GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Compass

(medium earth orbit) satellite navigation system orbits with the
International Space Station, Hubble Space Telescope and Iridium
constellation orbits, Geostationary Earth Orbit, and the nominal
size of the Earth.[lower-alpha 2] The Moon's orbit is around 9 times
larger (in radius and length) than geostationary orbit.[lower-alpha 3]
of development include:
GLONASS Russias global navigation system.
Fully operational worldwide.
Galileo a global system being developed by
the European Union and other partner countries,
planned to be operational by 2014 (and fully deployed by 2019)
Beidou Peoples Republic of Chinas regional
system, currently limited to Asia and the West
Pacic[139]
COMPASS Peoples Republic of Chinas global
system, planned to be operational by 2020[140][141]
IRNSS Indias regional navigation system, planned
to be operational by 2015, covering India and Northern Indian Ocean[142]
QZSS Japanese regional system covering Asia and
Oceania
25.11 See also

GPS/INS
GPS navigation software
270
GPS navigation device
Indoor positioning system
[9] Helen E. Worth and Mame Warren (2009). Transit to Tomorrow. Fifty Years of Space Research at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (PDF).
Local positioning system
[10] Catherine Alexandrow (April 2008). The Story of GPS.
Military invention
[11] DARPA: 50 Years of Bridging the Gap. April 2008.
Mobile phone tracking
[12] Howell, Elizabeth. Navstar: GPS Satellite Network.

SPACE.com. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Navigation paradox
S-GPS
25.12 Notes
[1] Though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets produced for this purpose.
[13] Jerry Proc. Omega. Jproc.ca. Retrieved December 8,

2009.
[14] Why Did the Department of Defense Develop GPS?".
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[15] Charting a Course Toward Global Navigation. The
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[2] Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4R = TGM and VR = GM, where R = radius of
orbit in metres, T = orbital period in seconds, V = orbital
speed in m/s, G = gravitational constant 6.6731011
Nm/kg, M = mass of Earth 5.981024 kg.
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[107] Attewill, Fred. (2013-02-13) Vehicles that use GPS jam- [125] http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/
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[109] McNamara, Joel (2008). GPS For Dummies. John Wiley [127] FCC Order, Granted LightSquared Subsidiary LLC, a
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[111] Notice Advisory to Navstar Users (NANU) 2012034.
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[112] David W. Allan (1997). The Science of Timekeeping
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[130] FCC Order permitting mobile satellite services providers
to provide an ancillary terrestrial component (ATC) to
their satellite systems (PDF). Federal Communications
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[114] GPS time accurate to 100 nanoseconds. Galleon. Retrieved October 12, 2012.
[131] Federal Communications Commission Fixed and Mobile
[113] The Role of GPS in Precise Time and Frequency Dissemination (PDF). GPSworld. JulyAugust 1990. Retrieved April 27, 2014.
[115] Between-Satellite Dierencing.

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[116] Double dierencing. Gmat.unsw.edu.au. Retrieved

[132]
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[133]
[117] Triple dierencing. Gmat.unsw.edu.au. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
[134]
[118] chapter on root nding and nonlinear sets of equations
[119] Preview of Root Finding. Books.google.com. 2007. ISBN
978-0-521-88068-8. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
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November 6, 2011.
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[120] 2011 John Deere StarFire 3000 Operator Manual

(PDF). John Deere. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
[135] Julius Genachowski (May 31, 2011). FCC Chairman
Genachowski Letter to Senator Charles Grassley (PDF).
[121] Federal Communications Commission Report and Order
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In the Matter of Fixed and Mobile Services in the Mobile
Satellite Service Bands at 15251559 MHz and 1626.5 [136] Tessler, Joelle (April 7, 2011). Internet network may jam
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GPS in cars, jets. The Sun News. Retrieved April 7,
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quency Allocations (PDF). FCC.gov. November 18,
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274
[138] Paul Riegler, FBT. FCC Bars LightSquared Broadband

Network Plan. February 14, 2012. Retrieved February
14, 2012.
[139] Beidou coverage
[140] Beidou satellite navigation system to cover whole world
in 2020. Eng.chinamil.com.cn. Retrieved October 15,
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[141] Levin, Dan (March 23, 2009). Chinese Square O With
Europe in Space. The New York Times (China). Retrieved November 6, 2011.
[142] ASM, News on GIS, GNSS, spatial information, remote
sensing, mapping and surveying technologies for Asia.
Asmmag.com. Retrieved October 13, 2009.
NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction

(PDF). United States Coast Guard. September
1996.

Parkinson; Spilker (1996). The global positioning
system. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-56347-106-3.
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(2009). GPS and Galileo. McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780-07-159869-9.
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Navigator Chapter 11 Satellite Navigation. United
States government.
Global Positioning System Open Courseware from
MIT, 2012

Schriever Air Force Base GPS Operations Center
Responsible for operation of the Global Positioning
System
Global Positioning System at DMOZ
FAA GPS FAQ
GPS.govGeneral public education website created by the U.S. Government
USCG Navigation CenterStatus of the GPS constellation, government policy, and links to other references; includes satellite almanac data.
The GPS Program Oce (GPS Wing)
Responsible for designing and acquiring the
system on behalf of the United States Government.

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HTML at the Wayback Machine (archived August
22, 2008) and PDF (22.6 MB, 328 pages) at the
Wayback Machine (archived June 25, 2008)
National Geodetic Survey Orbits for the Global Positioning System satellites in the Global Navigation
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(DOP)
Navipedia information on GPSWiki initiated by
the European Space Agency
Relativity Science Calculator - Explaining Global
Positioning System
Chapter 26
Light Observation Helicopter

The Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) program was
a United States Army program to evaluate, develop and
eld a light scout helicopter to replace the Armys aging
OH-13 Sioux. The program gained impetus with the advent of the Vietnam War and was aided by advances in helicopter technology, specically the development of the
turboshaft engine. Three of the aircraft evaluated for the
program would eventually enter military service, one as
a training helicopter and two as observation helicopters
used for battleeld reconnaissance missions.
completion of the desert and temperate temperature testing of the YHO-2 HU. The YHO-3 BR did not complete
user testing after engineering evaluations revealed significant deciencies. Service testing demonstrated that the
YHO-2 had been the most capable, but due to a limited
load capability, it was deemed not suitable to replace the
OH-13.[3]
26.1.1 LOH
On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy Bureau of
Weapons issued Technical Specication 153, a request
for proposals (RFP) for a four-seat, turbine-powered,
light observation helicopter capable of fullling various
roles: personnel transport, escort and attack missions,
casualty evacuation and observation.[4] 25 aircraft manufacturers were solicited for the program on behalf of
the Army Chief of Transportation. By January 1961, 12
manufacturers, including Cessna, Hughes Tool Co. Aircraft Division, Hiller Aircraft and Bell Helicopters, had
responded with 19 designs.[3][5]
26.1 History
In July 1953, the Oce of Lieutenant General John

Dahlquist, Chief, Army Field Forces (AFF), forwarded
desirable military characteristics for a two-place reconnaissance helicopter to Army Headquarters. Nearly a
year later, in May 1954, Dahlquists oce once again
emphasized the need for replacement aircraft and recommended procurement of troop test quantities of the YH32. Preliminary evaluation of the YH-32 design revealed The United States Navy provided technical expertise to
that the aircraft was unsuitable for the mission, and the assist the Army in evaluating the design proposals.[6]
tests were canceled.[1]
In October 1961, the Army selected three of the designs for a ight evaluation. Bells D-250 design[7] was
In 1955, the Army Field Forces were transformed into
team[6] and designated the
the Continental Army Command (CONARC). Dahlquist, recommended by the Army
[8]
YHO-4 (later YOH-4), Hillers Model 1100 was recwho had been promoted to 4-star General on 18 August
[6]
1954, continued in command. On 11 October 1955, ommended by the Navy team and became the YHO-5
(later YOH-5), and Hughes Model 369 was added to the
CONARC recommended that the Department of the
[6]
Army initiate a program to develop a replacement ob- competition and became the YHO-6 (later YOH-6).
servation helicopter for the aging OH-13 Sioux and OH- Each manufacturer submitted 5 test and evaluation proto23 Raven. Armys Chief of Research and Development types of their designs to the Army for ight test evaluation
agreed to include the requirement for a new helicopter in at Camp Rucker, Alabama.
the budget for scal year 1957 on 19 March 1956, after As a result of the ight evaluation, Hillers YOH-5 and
CONARC highlighted the continued lack of development Hughes YOH-6 were selected to compete in a program
cost analysis bid for the contract. The Hughes bid won
for replacement aircraft.[2]
During the course of the next three years, three heli- the contract, although Hiller protested the contract award,
copters would be evaluated as candidates to replace the and in 1965, the YOH-6 was redesignated as the OH-6A
OH-13 and OH-23; the Sud-Ouest Djinn, the Hughes Cayuse.
269, and the Brantly B-2. The aircraft were designated
the YHO-1 DJ, YHO-2 HU, and YHO-3 BR, respectively. By October 1958, service testing of Sud Aviation
YHO-1 DJ was completed. The following year saw the
In 1967, the Army reopened the LOH competition for

bids and Bell resubmitted for the program using their
model 206A design. Fairchild-Hiller failed to resubmit
their bid with the YOH-5A, which they had successfully
275
276
marketed as the FH-1100.[9] In the end, Bell won the contract and the model 206A was designated as the OH-58A.
Following the Armys naming convention for helicopters,
the OH-58A was named Kiowa for the Native American
tribe.
26.2 See also

Bell YOH-4
Fairchild Hiller YOH-5
OH-6 Cayuse
OH-58 Kiowa
HAL Light Observation Helicopter
26.3 References
Notes
[1] Weinert 1991, p. 205.
[2] Weinert 1991, pp. 205-206.
[3] Weinert 1991, p. 206.
[4] Apostolo 1984
[5] Remington, Steve. The Cessna CH-1 Helicopter. Collectair.com. Accessed on 30 June 2009.
[6] Spangenberg, George A. George A. Spangenberg Oral
History. edited by Judith Spangenberg-Currier. pdf.
Spangenberg.org. pp.187-190
[8] Beechy, Robert. U.S Army Aircraft Acquisition Programs. Uncommon Aircraft 2006. 18 November 2005.
Accessed on 19 September 2006.
[9] Michael J. Hirschberg and David K. Daley (7 July 2000).
US and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th
Century.
Bibliography
Apostolo, Giorgio. The Illustrated Encyclopedia
of Helicopters. New York:Bonanza Books, 1984.
ISBN 0-517-43935-2
Holley, Charles, and Mike Sloniker. Primer of the
Helicopter War. Grapevine, Tex: Nissi Publ, 1997.
ISBN 0-944372-11-2
Weinert, Richard P., Jr. A History of Army Aviation
1950 - 1962. Fort Monroe, Virginia: Oce of
the Command Historian, U.S. Army Training and
Doctrine Command, 1991.
CHAPTER 26. LIGHT OBSERVATION HELICOPTER
Chapter 27
Lockheed AC-130
This article is about the ground attack aircraft. For the
video game about the aircraft, see AC-130 Operation
Devastation.
27.1 Development
27.1.1 Origins
The Lockheed AC-130 gunship is a heavily armed

ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules
transport plane. The basic airframe is manufactured by
Lockheed, while Boeing is responsible for the conversion
into a gunship and for aircraft support.[1] The AC-130A
Gunship II superseded the AC-47 Gunship I during the
Vietnam War.
During the Vietnam War, the C-130 Hercules was selected to replace the Douglas AC-47 Spooky gunship
(Project Gunship I) in order to improve mission endurance and increase capacity to carry munitions. Capable of ying faster than helicopters and at high altitudes
with excellent loiter time, the use of the pylon turn allowed the AC-47 to deliver continuous accurate re to a
[6][7]
The gunships sole user is the United States Air Force, single point on the ground.
which uses AC-130H Spectre, AC-130U Spooky, AC130J Ghostrider, and AC-130W Stinger II[2] variants
for close air support, air interdiction, and force protection. Close air support roles include supporting ground
troops, escorting convoys, and urban operations. Air interdiction missions are conducted against planned targets
and targets of opportunity. Force protection missions include defending air bases and other facilities. AC-130Us
are based at Hurlburt Field, Florida, while AC-130Hs and
AC-130Ws are based at Cannon AFB, New Mexico; gunships can be deployed worldwide.[3] The squadrons are
part of the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), a component of the United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM).[4]
Weaponry is mounted to re from the port side of the
non-pressurised aircraft. During an attack the gunship
performs a pylon turn, ying in a large circle around a
target, allowing it to re for far longer than conventional
attack aircraft. The AC-130H Spectre was armed with
two 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannons, one Bofors 40mm autocannon, and one 105 mm M102 cannon; after 1994 the
20 mm cannons were removed for most missions. The
upgraded AC-130U Spooky has a single 25 mm GAU12 Equalizer in place of the Spectres twin 20 mm cannons, an improved re control system, and increased ammunition capacity. New AC-130Js based on the MC130J Combat Shadow II special operations tanker were
planned as of 2012. The AC-130W is armed with one
30 mm Bushmaster cannon, AGM-176 Grin missiles,
and GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs.[5]
AC-130H Spectre near Hurlburt Field, Florida in 1988
In 1967, JC-130A USAF 54-1626 was selected for conversion into the prototype AC-130A gunship (Project
Gunship II). The modications were done at WrightPatterson Air Force Base by the Aeronautical Systems
Division. A direct view night vision telescope was installed in the forward door, an early forward looking
infrared (FLIR) in the forward part of the left wheel
well, and Gatling guns xed facing down and aft along
the left side. The analog re control computer prototype was handcrafted by RAF Wing Commander Tom
Pinkerton at the USAF Avionics Laboratory at WrightPatterson AFB. Flight testing of the prototype was performed primarily at Eglin Air Force Base, followed by
further testing and modications. By September 1967,
the aircraft was certied ready for combat testing and was
own to Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam for a 90-day
test program.[6] The AC-130 was later supplemented by
277
278
CHAPTER 27. LOCKHEED AC-130
the AC-119 Shadow (Project Gunship III), which later GAU-12/U and 40 mm Bofors cannon on the ACproved to be underpowered.
130U gunships to be replaced with two 30 mm Mk 44
Bushmaster II cannons.[13] In 2007, the Air Force modied four AC-130U gunships as test platforms for the
Bushmasters. These were referred to as AC-130U Plus
4 or AC-130U+4. AFSOC, however, canceled its plans
to install the new cannons on its eet of AC-130Us. It
has since removed the guns and re-installed the original
40 mm and 25mm cannons and returned the planes to
combat duty.[14] Brigadier General Bradley A. Heithold,
AFSOCs director of plans, programs, requirements, and
assessments, said on 11 August 2008 that the eort was
canceled because of problems with the Bushmasters accuracy in tests at the altitude we were employing it.
There were also schedule considerations that drove the
An AC-130U ring ares
decision, he said.[15]
Seven more warplanes were converted to the Plain Jane
conguration like the AC-130 prototype in 1968,[8] and
one aircraft received the Surprise Package equipment
in 1969.[9] Surprise Package included the latest 20 mm
rotary cannons and 40 mm Bofors cannon but no 7.62
mm close support armament. Surprise Package served as
a test bed for the avionic systems and armament for the
AC-130E.
In 1970, ten more AC-130As were acquired under the
Pave Pronto project.[10] In the summer of 1971, Surprise Package equipped AC-130s were converted to the
Pave Pronto conguration and assumed their new nickname 'Thor'. Conversion of C-130Es into AC-130Es for
the PAVE Spectre project followed.[11][12]
There were also plans to possibly replace the 105 mm

cannon with a breech-loading 120 mm M120 mortar, and
to give the AC-130 a stando capability using either the
AGM-114 Hellre missile, the Advanced Precision Kill
Weapon System (based on the Hydra 70 rocket), or the
Viper Strike glide bomb.[16]
In 2010, the Air Force awarded L-3 Communications
a $61 million contract to add precision strike packages to eight MC-130W Combat Spear special-mission
aircraft[17] to give them a gunship-like attack capability,
such-equipped MC-130Ws are known as Dragon Spears.
Air Force Special Operations Command is arming these
aircraft to relieve the high operational demands on AC130 gunships until new AC-130Js enter service.[18] The
MC-130W Dragon Spear was renamed the AC-130W
Stinger II in 2011.[19]
Regardless of their project names the aircraft were more

commonly referred to by the squadrons call sign 'SpecThe Air Force launched an initiative in 2011 to acquire
tre'.
16 new gunships based on new-built MC-130J Combat
Shadow II special operations tankers outtted with a precision strike package to give them an attack capability,
27.1.2 Recent and planned upgrades
requesting $1.6 billion from Fiscal Year 2011 through
2015. This would increase the size of the gunship eet to
33 aircraft, a net increase of eight after the planned retirement of eight aging AC-130Hs. The rst aircraft would
be bought in Fiscal 2012, followed by two in Fiscal 2013,
ve in Fiscal 2014, and the nal eight in Fiscal 2015.[20]
The decision to retain the C-130 came after funding for
16 C-27Js was removed from the scal 2010 budget.[21]
The AC-130J will follow the path of the Dragon Spear
program,[22] along similar lines to the USMC Harvest
HAWK program. On 9 January 2013, the Air Force began converting the rst MC-130J Combat Shadow II into
a AC-130J Ghostrider.[23] The rst AC-130J is to enter
service in 2017.[24] The Air Force decided to add a 105
mm cannon to the AC-130J in addition to the 30 mm cannon and smart bombs because the shells are more accurate
and cheaper than dropping SDBs. AFSOC is interested
AC-130U armed with two 30mm Bushmasters, 2007
in adding a directed energy weapon to the AC-130J.[25]
In 2007, Air Force Special Operations Command (AF- Other potential additions include an airborne active deSOC) initiated a program to upgrade the armament of nial system to perform crowd control, and deploying small
AC-130s. The test program planned for the 25 mm unmanned aerial vehicles from the common launch tubes
279
to provide remote video feed and coordinates to weapons AC-130H.[1] Although the AC-130U conducts some opoperators through cloud cover.[26]
erations in daylight, most of its combat missions are conducted at night.[28] The AC-130Hs unit cost is US$132.4
million, and the AC-130Us cost is US$190 million (scal
27.1.3 Future
2001 dollars).[4]
By 2018, AC-130 gunships will have been providing
close air support for special operators for 50 years. Al- 27.2.2
though the aircraft have been kept relevant through constant upgrades to their weaponry, sensor packages, and
countermeasures, they are not expected to be survivable
in future non-permissive environments due to their high
signatures and low airspeeds. Military analysts, such as
the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, have
suggested that AFSOC invest in more advanced technologies to ll the role to operate in future contested combat
zones, including a mix of low-cost disposable unmanned
and stealthy strike aircraft.[27]
Upgrades
27.2 Design
AC-130U sensor suite
Underside of an AC-130U Spooky
27.2.1
Overview
The AC-130 is a heavily armed long-endurance aircraft

carrying an array of anti-ground oriented weapons that
are integrated with sophisticated sensors, navigation, and
re control systems. It is capable of delivering precision
repower or area-saturation re over a target area over a
long period of time, at night or in adverse weather. The
sensor suite consists of a television sensor, infrared sensor, and radar. These sensors allow the gunship to visually or electronically identify friendly ground forces and
targets in most weather conditions.
The AC-130U is equipped with the AN/APQ-180, a
synthetic aperture radar for long-range target detection
and identication. The gunships navigational devices include inertial navigation systems and a Global Positioning System. The AC-130U employs technologies developed in the 1990s which allow it to attack two targets simultaneously. It has twice the munitions capacity of the
During the Vietnam era, the various AC-130 versions following the Pave Pronto modications were equipped with
a magnetic anomaly detector (MAD) system called the
Black Crow (AN/ASD-5), a highly sensitive passive device with a phased-array antenna located in the left-front
nose radome that could pick up localized deviations in
Earths magnetic eld that is normally used to detect submerged submarines. The Black Crow system was slaved
into the targeting computers of the AC-130A/E/H, enabling the detection of the unshielded ignition coils of
North Vietnamese trucks hidden under dense jungle foliage, typical along the Ho Chi Minh trail. It could also
detect hand-held transmitter signals of air controllers on
the ground to identify and locate targets.
The PGM-38/U enhanced 25 mm high explosive incendiary (HEI) round was created to expand the AC-130U
gunships mission in stando range and survivability for
its 25 mm GAU-12/U gun system. This round is a combination of the existing PGU-25 HEI and a M758 fuze
designated as FMU-151/B to meet the MIL-STD-1316.
The FMU-151 has an improved arming delay with multisensitive range.[29]

27.3.1 Vietnam War
The AC-130 gunship rst arrived in South Vietnam on
21 September 1967 under the Gunship II program and
began combat operations over Laos and South Vietnam
that year. In June 1968, AC-130s were deployed to Tan
Son Nhut AB near Saigon for support against the Tet Offensive. By 30 October 1968 enough AC-130 Gunship
280
IIs arrived to form a squadron, the 16th Special Operations Squadron (SOS) of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing
(TFW), at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. It
was at this time that the C-130A gunship was designated
the AC-130A.
On 18 August 1968, an AC-130 gunship ying an armed
reconnaissance mission in Vietnams III Corps was diverted to support a Special Forces Katum Camp. The
ground commander quickly assessed the accurate re and
capabilities of this weapon system and called for re
on his own perimeter when the Viet Cong attempted to
bridge the wire on the west side of his position.
By December 1968 most AC-130s ew under F-4 Phantom II escort (to protect the gunship against heavy and
concentrated AAA re) from the 497th Tactical Fighter
Squadron, normally three Phantoms per Gunship. In late
1969, under the code name of Surprise Package, 560490 arrived with solid-state laser-illuminated low-lightlevel-TV with a companion YAG laser designator, an improved forward looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, video
recording for TV and FLIR, an inertial navigation system, and a prototype digital re control computer. The
remaining AC-130s were retted with upgraded similar
equipment in the summer of 1970, and then redeployed
to Ubon RTAFB. On 25 October 1971, the rst Cadillac gunship, the AC-130E arrived in Vietnam. On 17
February 1972, the rst 105 mm cannon arrived for service with Spectre and was installed on Gunship 570. It
was used from mid-February until the aircraft received
battle damage to its right ap. The 105 was switched to
Gunship 571 and was used until 30 March when the aircraft was shot down.
AC-130A performs a left-hand pylon turn
27.3.2 Cold War and later action

With the conclusion of hostilities in Southeast Asia in the
mid-1970s, the AC-130H became the sole gunship in the
regular Air Force, home based at Hurlburt Field, Florida,
while the AC-130A eet was transferred to the Air Force
Reserve's 919th Tactical Airlift Group (919 TAG) at
Eglin AFB Auxiliary Field #3/Duke Field, Florida. With
the transition to the AC-130A, the 919 TAG was then redesignated as the 919th Special Operations Group (919
SOG).
In the late 1970s when the AC-130H eet was rst being
modied for in-ight refueling capability, a demonstration mission was planned and own from Hurlburt Field,
Florida, non-stop, to conduct a 2-hour live-re mission
over Empire Firing Range in the Republic of Panama,
then return home. This 13-hour mission with two inight refuelings from KC-135 tankers proved the validity of ying long-range missions outside the contiguous
United States to attack targets then return to home base
without intermediate stops.
On 28 January 1973, the Vietnam peace accord went into

eect, marking the end of Spectre operations in Vietnam.
Spectre was still needed and active in the region, supporting operations in Laos and Cambodia. On 22 February
1973, American oensive operations in Laos ended and
AC-130s from both the 4th and 16th Special Operations
the gunships became totally committed to operations in
Squadrons have been deployed in nearly every conict the
the Cambodian conict.
United States has been involved in, ocially and unoOn 12 April 1975 Khmer Rouge were threatening the cially, since the end of the Vietnam War.
capital of Phnom Penh and AC-130s were called upon
In July 1979, AC-130H crews deployed to Howard Air
to help in Operation Eagle Pull, the nal evacuation of
Force Base, Panama, as a precaution against possible
American and allied ocials from Phnom Penh before it
hostile actions against American personnel during the
fell to the communists. The AC-130 was also over Saigon
Nicaraguan Revolution. New time aloft and non-stop dis30 April 1975 to protect the nal evacuation in Operation
tance records were subsequently set by a 16th SOS 2-ship
Frequent Wind. When the SS Mayaguez was seized by
AC-130H formation ight that departed Hurlburt Field
Khmer Rouge soldiers and sailors on 15 May 1975, on
on 13 November 1979 and landed on 15 November at
the open sea, Spectres were called upon.
Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, a distance of 7,200
AC-130s destroyed more than 10,000 trucks and partici- nautical miles (13,300 km) and 29 hours 43 minutes nonpated in many crucial close air support missions in Viet- stop, refueling four times in-ight.[37][38] Refueling supnam.
port for the Guam deployment was provided by KC-135
Six Spectres and 52 aircrew members were lost to enemy crews from the 305th Air Refueling Wing from Grissom
AFB, Indiana.
re. On 24 May 1969, Spectre lost its rst gunship.[36]
In November 1979, four AC-130H gunships ew nonstop from Hurlburt Field to Anderson AFB, Guam, because of the hostage situation at the Embassy in Iran.
281
At Guam, AC-130H crews developed communicationsout/lights-out refueling procedures for later employment
by trial-and-error. This deployment with the 1 SOW/CC
as Task Force commander was directed from the oce
of the CJCS for fear that Iranian militants could begin
executing American Embassy personnel who had been
taken hostage on 4 November. One early option considered AC-130H retaliatory punitive strikes deep within
Iran. Later gunship ights exceeded the 1979 Hurlburtto-Guam ight. Upon return in March 1980, the four
planes soon found themselves in Egypt to support the illfated hostage rescue attempt.
force protection (air base defense) for ground forces, and

battleeld interdiction. The primary interdiction targets
were early warning/ground control intercept (EW/GCI)
sites along the southern border of Iraq. The rst gunship
to enter the Battle of Khafji helped stop a southbound
Iraqi armored column on 29 January 1991. One day later
three more gunships provided further aid to Marines participating in the operation. The gunships attacked Iraqi
positions and columns moving south to reinforce their positions north of the city.
The AC-130Hs of the 16th Special Operations Squadron

unit maintained an ongoing rotation to Howard AB,
Panama, monitoring activities in El Salvador and other
Central American points of interest, with rules of engagement eventually permitting attacks on FMLN targets. This commitment of Maintainers and crews started
in 1983 and lasted until 1990.[39] The AC-130 is considered to have hastened the end of the Salvadoran Civil War
in the 1980s. Crews ew undercover missions from Honduras and attacked guerrilla camps and concentrations.
store Hope and Operation United Shield) in 199293,

Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti in 1994. AC-130s
took part in Operation Assured Response in Liberia in
1996 and in Operation Silver Wake in 1997, the evacuation of American non-combatants from Albania.
Despite the threat of surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and

increasing visibility during the early morning hours of 31
During Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada in 1983, AC- January 1991, one AC-130H, AF Serial No. 69-6567,
130s suppressed enemy air defense systems and attacked call-sign Spirit 03, opted to stay to continue to protect
ground forces enabling the assault of the Point Salines the Marines. A lone Iraqi with a Strela-2 MANPADS
Aireld via airdrop and air-land of friendly forces. The shot Spirit 03 down, and all 14 crew members died.[40]
AC-130 aircrew earned the Lieutenant General William The military has used AC-130 gunships during the
H. Tunner Award for the mission.
humanitarian operations in Somalia (Operation Re-
AC-130s also had a primary role during the United States

invasion of Panama (named Operation Just Cause) 1989
when they destroyed Panama Defense Force headquarters
and numerous command-and-control facilities, and provided close air support for US ground troops. Aircrews
earned the Mackay Trophy for the most meritorious ight
of the year, and the Tunner Award.
27.3.3
Gulf War and the 1990s
AC-130s took part in the NATO missions in Bosnia and

Herzegovina and Kosovo during the 1990s.
The AC-130U gunship set a new record for the longest
sustained ight by any C-130 on 22 and 23 October 1997,
when two AC-130U gunships ew 36 hours nonstop from
Hurlburt Field, Florida to Taegu Air Base (Daegu), South
Korea, being refueled seven times in the air by KC-135
tankers. The two gunships took on 410,000 lb (186,000
kg) of fuel. Gunships also were part of the buildup of
U.S. forces in 1998 to compel Iraq to allow UNSCOM
weapons inspections.
27.3.4 Operations since 2001

The U.S. has used gunships with deployments to
War in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) in
Afghanistan (2001), and Iraq War (Operation Iraqi
Freedom) in Iraq (200311). In 2007, US Special Operations forces also used the AC-130 in attacks on suspected
al-Qaeda militants in Somalia.[41][42]
Close air support was the main mission of the AC130

in Iraq. Night after night, at least one AC130 was in
the air to fulll one or more air support requests (ASRs).
A typical mission had the AC130 supporting a single
brigades ASRs followed by aerial refueling and another
2 hours with another brigade or SOF team. The use of
AC-130s in places like Fallujah, urban settings where inSmoke visible from Gatling gun during twilight operations in surgents were among crowded populations of non com1988
batants, was criticized by human rights groups. AC-130s
During the Gulf War of 199091 (Operations Desert were also used for intelligence gathering with their soShield and Desert Storm), Regular Air Force and Air phisticated long-range video, infrared and radar sensors.
Force Reserve AC-130s provided close air support and AC-130 strikes were directed by special forces on known
282
Taliban locations during the early days of the war in AC-130W Stinger II (former MC-130W Dragon Spear)
Afghanistan. U.S. Special Operations Forces are using
MC-130Ws conversions (active duty USAF).[50]
the AC-130 to support its operations. The day after arriving in Afghanistan, the AC-130s attacked Taliban and AlQaeda forces near the city of Konduz and were directly 27.5 Operators
responsible for the citys surrender the next day. On 26
November 2001, AC-130 Spectres were called in to put
down a rebellion at the prison fort of Qala-i-Janghi. The
16 SOS ew missions over Mazar-i-Sharif, Konduz, Kandahar, Shkin, Asadabad, Bagram, Baghran, Tora Bora,
and virtually every other part of Afghanistan. Spectre
participated in countless operations within Afghanistan,
performing on-call close air support and armed reconnaissance.
In March 2002, three AC-130 Spectres provided 39 crucial combat missions in support of Operation Anaconda
in Afghanistan. During the intense ghting, the planes
expended more than 1,300 40 mm and 1,200 105 mm
rounds.
There are eight AC-130H and seventeen AC-130U air- AC-130U over Hurlburt Field
craft in active-duty service as of July 2010.[4]
In March 2011, the U.S. Air Force deployed two ACUnited States
130U gunships to take part in Operation Odyssey Dawn,
the U.S. military intervention in Libya,[43] which eventually came under NATO as Operation Unied Protec- United States Air Force[51][52][53]
tor.[44]
As of September 2013, 14 MC-130W Dragon Spear
aircraft have been converted to AC-130W Stinger II
gunships. The Stinger gunships have been deployed to
Afghanistan to replace the aging AC-130H and provide
an example for the new AC-130J Ghostrider. Modications began with crews cutting holes in the plane to make
room for weapons, and adding kits and bomb bases for
laser-guided munitions. Crews added a 105 mm cannon,
20 in infrared and electro-optical sensors, and the ability
to carry 250-pound bombs on the wings.[45]
Air Force Special Operations Command

1st Special Operations Wing - Hurlburt Field,
Florida
4th Special Operations Squadron
27th Special Operations Wing - Cannon AFB, New
Mexico
27.4 Variants
AC-130A Spectre (Project Gunship II, Surprise
Package, Pave Pronto)
Nineteen converted from C-130As, transferred to
Air Force Reserve in 1975, retired in 1995.[10][46]
AC-130E Spectre (Pave Spectre, Pave Aegis) Eleven
converted from C-130Es, ten upgraded to AC-130H
conguration.[47]

73rd Special Operations Squadron
551st Special Operations Squadron
46th Test Wing - Eglin AFB, Florida
AC-130H Spectre Eight aircraft; retired in 2014.[48]

AC-130U Spooky II Seventeen operational with (active
duty USAF)[4]
AC-130J Ghostrider[23] Sixteen to replace AC-130H
and increase eet size. First test ight occurred 31
January 2014.[49]

One of the rst seven AC-130A aircraft deployed to
Vietnam was AF serial no. 53-3129, named First Lady
in November 1970. This aircraft was a conversion of the
rst production C-130. On 25 March 1971, it took an
27.7. SPECIFICATIONS
283
Hurlburt Field on 20 October 1994. The Spectre Association dedicated Ultimate End (which served with the
16 SOS in Vietnam) on 4 May 1995. Lt Col Michael Byers, then 16 SOS commander, represented the active-duty
gunship force and Clyde Gowdy of the Spectre Association represented all Spectre personnel past and present
for the unveiling of a monument at the aircraft and the
dedication as a whole.[57]
Nose art on AC-130A AF Serial No. 53-3129 at the USAF Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida
anti-aircraft artillery hit in the belly just aft of the nose

gear wheel well over the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The
37 mm shell destroyed everything below the crew deck
and barely missed striking two crew members. The pilot was able to crash land the aircraft safely.[54] In 1975,
after the conclusion of US involvement in the Vietnam
war, it was transferred to the Air Force Reserve, where it
served with the 711th Special Operations Squadron of the
919th Special Operations Wing. In 1980, the aircraft was
upgraded from the original three-bladed propellers to the
quieter four-bladed propellers and was eventually retired
in late 1995. The retirement also marked an end to the
Air Force Reserve Command ying the AC-130A. The
aircraft now sits on display in the nal Air Force Reserve
Command conguration with grey paint, black markings,
and the four-bladed Hamilton Sunstrand 54H60-91 props
at the Air Force Armament Museum at Eglin Air Force
Base, Florida, USA.[55][56]
A third AC-130A, AF serial no. 54-1630, is on display

in the Cold War Gallery at the National Museum of the
United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
Named Azrael for the angel of death in Islam who severs
the soul from the body. This aircraft gured prominently
in the closing hours of Operation Desert Storm. On 26
February 1991, Coalition ground forces were driving the
Iraqi Army out of Kuwait. With an Air Force Reserve
crew called to active duty, Azrael was sent to the Al Jahra
highway (Highway 80) between Kuwait City and Basra,
Iraq, to intercept the convoys of tanks, trucks, buses, and
cars eeing the battle. Facing SA-6 and SA-8 surfaceto-air missiles and 37 mm and 57 mm radar-guided antiaircraft artillery the crew attacked and destroyed or disabled most of the convoys. Azrael was also assigned to
the 919th Special Operations Wing and retired to the museum in October 1995.[58]
Another AC-130A, AF serial no. 54-1626, the original prototype AC-130 named Gunship II is on display at the outdoor Air Park at the National Museum
of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB,
Ohio.[59] This aircraft served in Southeast Asia from 1967
to 1972, then served in JC-130A test conguration. It was
transferred to the National Museum of the United States
Air Force in 1976, and converted back to AC-130A conguration in the late 1990s.
AC-130A serial no. 54-1623, c/n 3010, named Ghost
Rider served in Southeast Asia and later conicts until
being retired in 1997 to Dobbins AFB, Georgia. Ghost
Rider eventually was transferred and displayed at the
Lockheed Museum at Marietta, Georgia.
A second AC-130A, AF serial no. 56-0509, named the

Ultimate End, was accepted by the Air Force on 28 February 1957, and modied to the AC-130A conguration on
27 July 1970. The aircraft participated in the Vietnam
War and the rescue of the SS Mayaguez. Ultimate End
demonstrated the durability of the C-130 after surviving
hits in ve places by 37 mm anti-aircraft artillery on 12 27.7 Specications
December 1970, extensive left wing leading edge damage
on 12 April 1971 and a 57 mm round damaging the belly Data from USAF Fact Sheet[4]
and injuring one crewman on 4 March 1972. Ultimate
End was reassigned to the Air Force Reserve's 919th General characteristics
Special Operations Wing at Eglin AFB Auxiliary Field
Crew: 13
No.3 / Duke Field on 17 June 1975, where it continued in
service until retired in the fall 1994 and transferred to Air
Ocers: 5 (pilot, copilot, navigator, re conForce Special Operations Command's Heritage Air Park
trol ocer, electronic warfare ocer)
at Hurlburt Field, Florida. While assigned to the 711th
Enlisted: 8 (ight engineer, TV operator, inSpecial Operations Squadron, Ultimate End served in Opfrared detection set operator, loadmaster, four
erations JUST CAUSE in Panama, DESERT STORM in
aerial gunners)
Kuwait and Iraq, and UPHOLD DEMOCRACY in Haiti.
After 36 years and seven months of service, 24 years as
a gunship, Ultimate End retired from active service on 1
October 1994. It made its last ight from Duke Field to
284
Gunners loading 40 mm cannon (background) and 105 mm cannon (foreground)
AC-130U Spooky
AC-130H Spectre over Santa Rosa Island, Northwest Florida

coast.
Wing area: 1745.5 ft (162.2 m)
2 7.62 mm GAU-2/A miniguns
2 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon
2 40 mm (1.58 in) L/60 Bofors cannon
Powerplant: 4 Allison T56-A-15 turboprops,

AC-130E Pave Aegis
4,910 shp (3,700 kW) each
Performance
Range: 2,200 nm (2,530 mi, 4,070 km)
27.7.1
Armament
AC-130A Project Gunship II

4 7.62 mm GAU-2/A miniguns
4 20 mm (0.787 in) M61 Vulcan 6-barrel Gatling
cannon

1 105 mm (4.13 in) M102 howitzer
AC-130H Spectre[60]
(Prior to c. 2000)
(Current Armament)
AC-130A Surprise Package, Pave Pronto, AC-130E Pave Spectre

27.7. SPECIFICATIONS
AC-130U Spooky II
1 General Dynamics 25 mm (0.984 in) GAU-12/U
Equalizer 5-barreled Gatling cannon
AC-130W Stinger II / AC-130J Ghostrider[23]
1x 30 mm ATK GAU-23/A autocannon[61]
1x 105 mm M102 Howitzer (AC-130J Ghostrider
only, red out the back of the aircraft via a modied
rear ramp.)[62][63]
'Gunslinger' weapons system with launch tube for
AGM-176 Grin missiles and/or GBU-44/B Viper
Strike munitions (10 round magazines)[2]
Wing mounted, AGM-114 Hellre missiles, GBU39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDBs) and/or GBU53/B SDB IIs[2] (4 per hardpoint on BRU-61/A
rack)[64][65]
27.7.2
Avionics
285
Raytheon AN/AAQ-26 Infrared Detecting Set
(IDS) long-wave infrared (LWIR) band
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) (mounted
forward of the nose landing gear door)[68][69]
General Electric (now Lockheed Martin)
AN/ASQ-145 Low Light Level Television
(LLLTV) EO re control system consists
of television camera (CCD-TV), AN/AVQ19 Laser Target Designator/Ranger (LTD/R
1064 nm laser emitter with permanently preset
PRF code) with eyesafe mode (1570 nm laser
emitter), AN/AAT-3 Ambient Temperature
Illuminator (ATI wide beam 860 nm laser
illuminator), and Infrared Zoom Laser Illuminator Designator (IZLID airborne version
of 860 nm narrow beam laser pointer/marker
and illuminator AN/PEQ-18) (mounted in the
crew entrance door)[67][68]
Navigation systems:
Teledyne Ryan (now Northrop Grumman)
AN/APN-218 radar doppler navigation
radar[68]
Previously installed systems:
AN/APN-59 radar search and weather
radar[68]
AC-130H Spectre
Mission systems:
Northrop Grumman AN/APN-241 multimode navigation radar derived version of
AN/APG-66 radar (formerly used on F16A Fighting Falcon) consisting of precised
navigation and air-to-ground modes including Monopulse Ground Mapping (MGM),
Doppler Beam Sharpening (DBS), high resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Terrain Avoidance/Terrain Following (TA/TF),
skin paint (for Station KEeping; SKE), maritime detection, weather/turbulence detection,
wind shear alert, and ballistic wind measurement (for precision airdrop)[66]
Motorola (now General Dynamics) AN/APQ150 Beacon Tracking Radar (BTR) sidelooking radar designed to search, acquire, and
track ground beacon signal (X-band transponder) located at a friendly position from 10 nautical miles, beacon coordinate is used as a reference point for ground troop to give the gunship a bearing and range from the beacon to
the desired target (mounted between 40 mm
cannon and 105 mm howitzer)[67][68]
Cubic Corporation AN/ARS-6 Personnel Locator System (PLS) radio navigation set[68]
AC-130U Spooky II
Mission systems:
Raytheon AN/APQ-180 multimode attack
radar enhanced version of AN/APG-70
radar (used on F-15E Strike Eagle) incorporating several enhanced air-to-ground modes
such as xed target track, ground moving target indication and track, projectile impact
point position, beacon track, and a weather
detection[68][70][71]
Raytheon AN/AAQ-26 IDS LWIR FLIR
(mounted on port side of the nose landing gear
door)[68][69]
Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ-39 Gunship Multispectral Sensor System (GMS2) EO/IR re
control system consists of mid-wave infrared
(MWIR) FLIR, two Image-Intensied Television (I2TV) cameras (CCD-TV), laser target designator/rangender with eyesafe mode
(1064 and 1570 nm dual mode laser emitter),
and near-infrared (NIR) laser pointer/marker
(860 nm laser emitter) (mounted under the
nose of port landing gear sponson)[72]
Previously installed systems:
286

GEC-Marconi All Light Level Television
(ALLTV) EO re control systems consists
of CCD-TV, Laser Target Designator/Range
Finder (LTD/RF 1064 nm laser emitter with
in-ight programmable PRF code) with eyesafe mode (1570 nm laser emitter), and Laser
Illuminator Assembly (LIA 860 nm laser
emitter)[68]

List of Lockheed aircraft
List of accidents and incidents involving the C-130
Hercules
27.10 References
Countermeasures:
Raytheon AN/ALR-69 digital Radar warning receiver (RWR)[70][73]
L-3 Communications AN/AAR-44 UVbased Missile Approach Warning System
(MAWS)[74]
ITT Exelis AN/ALQ-172 Digital radio
frequency memory (DRFM) jammer-based
Electronic countermeasure (ECM) incorporating integrated Electronic Warfare (EW) selfprotection function of detection, processing,
warning, prioritization, jamming, and threat
display[70][75]
BAE Systems AN/ALQ-196 Low-Band Jammer (LBJ) low frequency DRFM jammerbased ECM[76]
Northrop Grumman AN/AAQ-24 Nemesis
laser-based Directional Infrared Counter Measures (DIRCM) (mounted on the port and starboard rear fuselage)[77]
BAE Systems AN/ALE-47 Countermeasure
Dispensing System (CMDS) cha/are
dispenser[78]
[1] AC-130U Gunship page. Boeing.

[2] MC-130W Dragon Spear. Air Force Special Operations. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
[3] Fact sheet, AF.
[4] AC-130H/U Gunship (fact sheet), US: Air Force, 30 July
2010, archived from the original on Jul 23, 2012 (article
was originally based on this.)
[5] AC-130W Stinger II. USAF, December 2013.
[6] AC-130A (fact sheet), National Museum of the United
States Air Force.
[7] Douglas AC-47D (fact sheet), National Museum of the
United States Air Force.
[8] Lockheed AC-130A Plain Jane, National Museum of the
United States Air Force, retrieved 5 April 2009.
[9] Lockheed AC-130A Surprise Package. National Museum of the United States Air Force. Accessed on 5 April
2009.
[10] Lockheed AC-130A PAVE Pronto. National Museum
of the United States Air Force. Accessed on 5 April 2009.
[11] Lockheed AC-130E PAVE Spectre. National Museum
of the United States Air Force. Accessed on 5 April 2009.

Main article: C-130 Hercules in ction
27.9 See also

Related development
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules
Douglas AC-47 Spooky
Fairchild AC-119
Related lists
[12] Lockheed AC-130E PAVE Aegis. National Museum of

the United States Air Force. Accessed on 5 April 2009.
[13] Dunnigan, James (1 October 2006). 30 mm Everywhere. strategypage.com.
[14] A Spookier Spooky, 30mm at a Time? Nope.. Defense
Industry Daily. 1 March 2012.
[15] Spooky Gun Swap Canceled. Air Force Magazine, October 2008, Volume 91, Number 10, p. 24.
[16] Future AC-130 Gunship Integrated Weapons Systems
(PDF). US DoD. March 2006.
[17] DoD Contracts.
September 2010.
U.S. Department of Defense, 21
[18] Sirak, Micael. The SOF Makeover Airforce magazine,

Vol. 93, No. 6 June 2010.
[19] Wallace, Ashley. News: Stinger II. Air International,
Vol. 82 No. 5, May 2012, p. 19. ISSN 0306-5634.
[20] Sirak, Micael (April 2010), Air Force World, Airforce
magazine 93 (4).
27.10. REFERENCES
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[21] Schwartz: AFSOC will likely convert more C-130s into

gunship-lites", Inside the Air Force, 22 May 2009.
[45] AFSOCs new weapon: Portable unmanned aircraft

bases, The Military Times, 17 September 2013.
[22] Duncan, Capt. Kristen D. Benchmark 'Dragon Spear'

program earns William J. Perry Award. Air Force Special Operations Command Public Aairs
[46] AC-130A Spectre GlobalSecurity.org
[23] The most fearsome weapon is evolving, USAF, January 9,

2013, archived from the original on Feb 21, 2013.
[24] Ghostrider Comes Together, Strategy page, 9 October
2013.
[25] AFSOC Wants to Research Adding Laser Weapons to
AC-130 - Defensetech.org, 29 January 2015
[26] AFSOC envisions its gunship armed with lasers, other
high-tech weapons - AirForcetimes.com, 19 March 2015
[27] Air Force Commandos Will Have Fewer Aircraft, More
Firepower - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, 15 May 2013
[28] Naylor, Sean. Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story
of Operation Anaconda, pp. 425. Berkley Books, 2005.
ISBN 0-425-19609-7. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
[47] Lockheed AC-130H fact sheet National Museum of the

[48] http://www.cannon.af.mil/News/
ArticleDisplay/tabid/136/Article/495649/
static-display-dedicated-at-ac-130h-retirement-ceremony.
aspx
[49] King Jr., Samuel (7 February 2014). New AC-130J completes rst test ight. af.mil. Team Eglin Public Aairs.
[50] John Pike. MC-130W Combat Spear / AC-130W
Stinger II. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
[51] http://www.military.com/special-operations/
1st-special-operations-wing.html
[52] http://www.cannon.af.mil/Units.aspx
[29] PGU-38/U 25mm Ammunition, August 1993, Alliant Techsystems, Public Release, Case No. 93-S3040,
E10630 8/93.
[53] http://www.eglin.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123379338
[30] Hobson p. 182.
[55] List of AC-130 Gunships. Gunships. Retrieved 6 June

2011.
[31] Hobson p. 202.

[32] Hobson p. 219.
[33] Hobson p. 220.
[34] Hobson pp. 228, 229.
[35] Hobson p. 244.
[36] Hobson, Chris (2001), Vietnam Air Losses: United States
Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Losses in Southeast Asia, 19611973, Hinckley, ENG,
UK: Midland, p. 268, ISBN 1-85780-115-6.
[54] Noecker, Je. Callsign: Spectre
[56] First Lady retires, era ends. Gunships. Retrieved 6 June

2011.
[57] AC-130A Spectre. USAF Hurlburt Field
[58] Lockheed AC-130A Spectre, image. National Museum
of the United States Air Force. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[59] Lockheed AC-130A, image. National Museum of the
United States Air Force. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[60] AC-130H/U Gunship (fact sheet), US: Air Force, December 2015 (20 mm guns were removed).
[37] Lockheed records.

[38] Lawrence, Pilot Lt Col Jim (June 1995), Night Flyer
(MAGAZINE) (article) (AFSOC) Missing or empty |title= (help).
[39] Cooper, Tom. El Salvador, 19801992. ACIG. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
[40] Spirit 03 and the Battle for Khafji, Special operations
(memorial).
[41] Pentagon ocial: US attacks al Qaeda suspects in Somalia, CNN, Jan 8, 2007, archived from the original on
2007-01-11.
[61] ATKs GAU-23 30mm Automatic Cannon Receives

Type Classication for Use on U.S. Air Force AC-130W
Gunships. PR NewsWire. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
[62] http://breakingdefense.com/2015/01/
ghostriders-big-gun-ac-130j-gets-105-asap-laser-later/
[63] https://www.strategypage.com/%5Chtmw%5Chtsf%
5Carticles%5C20150327.aspx#startofcomments
[64] BRU-61/A Bomb Rack. Armed Forces International.
[42] US plane 'bombed Somalia targets", Africa News (BBC).
[65] Daytime Gunships Galore, Strategy page, November 29,

2012.
[43] McGarry, Brendan (28 March 2011), Coalition Isnt Coordinating Strikes With Rebels, US Says, Bloomberg.
[66] Aircraft Procurement, vol 2 part 2, FY05 (PDF).

USAF. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
[44] Schmitt, Eric (29 March 2011). US Gives Its Air Power
Expansive Role in Libya. The New York Times. p. A13.
[67] Boyne, Walter J. Encyclopedia of Modern U.S. Military

Weapons, pp. 1012. Barkley Books, 1995. ISBN 0425-16437-3. Retrieved 1 July 2013.
288
[68] U.S. Air Force Career Field Education and Training Plan:
Communication/Navigation/Mission Systems, pp. 257
291. U.S. Air Force, 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
[69] AN/AAQ-26 Infrared Detecting Set. Raytheon. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
[70] Pushies, Fred J. United States Air Force Special Ops, pp.
4226. Zenith Press, 2007. ISBN 0-760-32947-8. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[71] AN/APQ-180 Radar. Raytheon. Retrieved 11 June
2013.
[72] AN/AAQ-39. Lockheed Martin. Retrieved 12 June
2013.
[73] AN/ALR-69A(V) Radar Warning Receiver. Raytheon.
Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[74] AN/AAR-44 Infrared Warning Receiver. American
Special Ops. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
[75] ALQ-172 (EW Integrated Self Protection System)". ITT
Exelis. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[76] BAe Systems Jammer for Special Hercs. Aero News
Network. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[77] Parsch, Andreas. AN/AAQ Airborne Infrared Multipurpose/Special Equipment. Designation systems. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[78] Pike, John. AC-130 Project Gunship II. Global security. Retrieved 12 June 2013.

Mrozek, Donald J. (2002). Air Power and the
Ground War in Vietnam. The Minerva Group. pp.
128, esp. 216. ISBN 0-89875-981-1. Retrieved 6
April 2009.
Pirnie, Bruce (2005). Beyond Close Air Support:
Forging a New Air-Ground Partnership. Rand Corp.
pp. 58, esp. 188. ISBN 0-8330-3741-2. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
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Power. Zenith Imprint. pp. 75, esp. 176. ISBN
0-7603-2014-4. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
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Asia, Project CHECO, ScribD, retrieved 22 November 2012.

Gunship History, Spectre Association.
AC-130, Global Security.
Powerful Gunships Prowl Iraq, and Limits Show
on NPR from All Things Considered.
U.S. Air Force (2002). AC-130 Attack video with explicit kills (thermal imagery from targeting camera)
(160 MB). Internet Archive. Event occurs at 9 minutes. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
Gunship Worries, Air Force magazine, July 2009.

Ballard, Jack S. (1982). Development and Employment of Fixed-Wing Gunships 19621972. Oce
of Air Force History, US Air Force. p. 326. ISBN
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refs loaded throughout book)
Bonds, Ray; Miller, David (2002). The Illustrated
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426, esp. 480. ISBN 0-7603-1419-5. Retrieved
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Couvillon, Michael (2011). Grenada Grinder.
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1-4289-8210-8. Retrieved 6 April 2009..
(1977) T.O. 1C-130(A)A-1 Flight Manual USAF

Series AC-130A Airplane (Part 1), (Part 2)
Chapter 28

This article is about the early C-130 versions and serves
as an overview of the type. For the current production
version, see Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules.
For civil versions, see Lockheed L-100 Hercules.
The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine
turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built
originally by Lockheed, now Lockheed Martin. Capable
of using unprepared runways for takeos and landings,
the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medivac,
and cargo transport aircraft. The versatile airframe has
found uses in a variety of other roles, including as a
gunship (AC-130), for airborne assault, search and rescue, scientic research support, weather reconnaissance,
aerial refueling, maritime patrol, and aerial reghting. It
is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces
worldwide. Over 40 models and variants of the Hercules
serve with more than 60 nations.
The C-130 entered service with U.S. in the 1950s, followed by Australia and others. During its years of service,
the Hercules family has participated in numerous military, civilian and humanitarian aid operations. The family
has the longest continuous production run of any military
aircraft in history. In 2007, the C-130 became the fth
aircraftafter the English Electric Canberra, Boeing B52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-95, and Boeing KC-135
Stratotanker, all designs with various forms of aviation
gas turbine powerplantsto mark 50 years of continuous use with its original primary customer, in this case,
the United States Air Force. The C-130 is one of the few
military aircraft to remain in continuous production for
over 50 years with its original customer, as the updated
C-130J Super Hercules.
States Air Force issued a General Operating Requirement

(GOR) for a new transport to Boeing, Douglas, Fairchild,
Lockheed, Martin, Chase Aircraft, North American,
Northrop, and Airlifts Inc. The new transport would have
a capacity of 92 passengers, 72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a cargo compartment that was approximately
41 feet (12 m) long, 9 feet (2.7 m) high, and 10 feet (3.0
m) wide. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed from the ground-up as a combat
transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the
rear of the fuselage.
A key feature was the introduction of the Allison T56
turboprop powerplant, rst developed specically for the
C-130. At the time, the turboprop was a new application of turbine engines that used exhaust gases to turn a
propeller, which oered greater range at propeller-driven
speeds compared to pure turbojets, which were faster but
thirstier. As was the case on helicopters of that era,
such as the UH-1 Huey, turboshafts produced much more
power for their weight than piston engines. Lockheed
would subsequently use the same engines and technology
in the Lockheed L-188 Electra. That aircraft failed nancially in its civilian conguration but was successfully
adapted into the Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol and
submarine attack aircraft where the eciency and endurance of turboprops excelled.
28.1.2 Design phase
The Hercules resembled a larger four-engine brother to

the C-123 Provider with a similar wing and cargo ramp
layout that evolved from the Chase XCG-20 Avitruc,
which in turn, was rst designed and own as a cargo
glider in 1947.[2] The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter also
had a rear ramp, which made it possible to drive ve28.1 Design and development
hicles onto the plane (also possible with forward ramp
on a C-124). The ramp on the Hercules was also used
to airdrop cargo, which included low-altitude extraction
28.1.1 Background and requirements
for Sheridan tanks and even dropping large improvised
The Korean War, which began in June 1950, showed that "daisy cutter" bombs.
World War II-era piston-engine transportsFairchild The new Lockheed cargo plane design possessed a range
C-119 Flying Boxcars, Douglas C-47 Skytrains and of 1,100 nmi (1,270 mi; 2,040 km), takeo capability
Curtiss C-46 Commandoswere inadequate for mod- from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to y
ern warfare. Thus, on 2 February 1951, the United with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North Ameri289
290
CHAPTER 28. LOCKHEED C-130 HERCULES
can, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate. The

remaining ve companies tendered a total of ten designs: Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas
three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was a close affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed (preliminary project designation L-206) proposals and a fourturboprop Douglas design.
The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins,
starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L206.[3] Hall Hibbard, Lockheed vice president and chief
engineer, saw the proposal and directed it to Kelly Johnson, who did not care for the low-speed, unarmed aircraft,
and remarked, If you sign that letter, you will destroy A Michigan Air National Guard C-130E dispatches its ares durthe Lockheed Company.[3] Both Hibbard and Johnson ing a low-level training mission
signed the proposal and the company won the contract
for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951.[4]
ternal wing fuel tanks, which were disguised signals inThe rst ight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23
telligence (SIGINT) receiver antennas. These pods were
August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, Calislightly larger than the standard wing tanks found on other
fornia. The aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the secC-130Bs. Most aircraft featured a swept blade antenna on
ond prototype, but the rst of the two to y. The YC-130
the upper fuselage, as well as extra wire antennas between
was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61the vertical n and upper fuselage not found on other Cminute ight to Edwards Air Force Base; Jack Real and
130s. Radio call numbers on the tail of these aircraft were
Dick Stanton served as ight engineers. Kelly Johnson
regularly changed so as to confuse observers and disguise
[5]
ew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune.
their true mission.
After the two prototypes were completed, production beThe extended-range C-130E model entered service in
gan in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have
1962
after it was developed as an interim long-range
been built through 2009.[6]
transport for the Military Air Transport Service. EssenThe initial production model, the C-130A, was pow- tially a B-model, the new designation was the result of the
ered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade installation of 1,360 US gal (5,150 L) Sargent Fletcher expropellers and originally equipped with the blunt nose ternal fuel tanks under each wings midsection and more
of the prototypes. Deliveries began in December 1956, powerful Allison T56-A-7A turboprops. The hydraulic
continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in boost pressure to the ailerons was reduced back to 2050
1959. Some A models were re-designated C-130D af- psi as a consequence of the external tanks weight in the
ter being equipped with skis. The newer C-130B had middle of the wingspan. The E model also featured strucailerons with increased boost3,000 psi (21 MPa) versus tural improvements, avionics upgrades and a higher gross
2,050 psi (14 MPa)as well as uprated engines and four- weight. Australia took delivery of 12 C130E Hercules
bladed propellers that were standard until the J-models during 196667 to supplement the 12 C-130A models alintroduction.
ready in service with the RAAF. Sweden and Spain y the
TP-84T version of the C-130E tted for aerial refueling
capability.
28.1.3
Improved versions
As the C-130A became operational with Tactical Air 28.1.4 Refueling versions
Command (TAC), the C-130s lack of range became apparent and additional fuel capacity was added in the form The KC-130 tankers, originally C-130Fs procured for the
of external pylon-mounted tanks at the end of the wings. US Marine Corps (USMC) in 1958 (under the designaThe C-130B model was developed to complement the A tion GV-1) are equipped with a removable 3,600 US gal
models that had previously been delivered, and incorpo- (13,626 l) stainless steel fuel tank carried inside the cargo
rated new features, particularly increased fuel capacity in compartment. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue
the form of auxiliary tanks built into the center wing sec- aerial refueling pods each transfer up to 300 US gal per
tion and an AC electrical system. Four-bladed Hamil- minute (19 l per second) to two aircraft simultaneously,
ton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three- allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft
bladed propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models. formations, (a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in
An electronic reconnaissance variant of the C-130B was less than 30 minutes). The US Navy's C-130G has indesignated C-130B-II. A total of 13 aircraft were con- creased structural strength allowing higher gross weight
verted. The C-130B-II was distinguished by its false ex- operation.
28.1. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
28.1.5
291
More improvements
Royal Air Force C-130K (C.3)

Royal Australian Air Force C-130H, 2007
Aerospace as ight-testbed for the A400M turbine engine, the TP400. The C-130K is used by the RAF FalThe C-130H model has updated Allison T56-A-15 tur- cons for parachute drops. Three C-130K (Hercules C
boprops, a redesigned outer wing, updated avionics and Mk.1P) were upgraded and sold to the Austrian Air Force
other minor improvements. Later H models had a new, in 2002.[7]
fatigue-life-improved, center wing that was retrotted
to many earlier H-models. The H model remains in
widespread use with the United States Air Force (USAF)
and many foreign air forces. Initial deliveries began in 28.1.6 Later models
1964 (to the RNZAF), remaining in production until
1996. An improved C-130H was introduced in 1974, The MC-130E Combat Talon was developed for the
with Australia purchasing 12 of type in 1978 to replace USAF during the Vietnam War to support special operathe original 12 C-130A models, which had rst entered tions missions in Southeast Asia, and led to both the MC130H Combat Talon II as well as a family of other speRAAF Service in 1958.
cial missions aircraft. 37 of the earliest models currently
The United States Coast Guard employs the HC-130H operating with the Air Force Special Operations Comfor long-range search and rescue, drug interdiction, illegal mand (AFSOC) are scheduled to be replaced by newmigrant patrols, homeland security, and logistics.
production MC-130J versions. The EC-130 Commando
C-130H models produced from 1992 to 1996 were des- Solo is another special missions variant within AFSOC,
ignated as C-130H3 by the USAF. The 3 denoting the albeit operated solely by an AFSOC-gained wing in the
third variation in design for the H series. Improvements Pennsylvania Air National Guard, and is a psychological
included ring laser gyros for the INUs, GPS receivers, operations/information operations (PSYOP/IO) platform
a partial glass cockpit (ADI and HSI instruments), a equipped as an aerial radio station and television stations
more capable APN-241 color radar, night vision device able to transmit messaging over commercial frequencies.
compatible instrument lighting, and an integrated radar Other versions of the EC-130, most notably the EC-130H
and missile warning system. The electrical system up- Compass Call, are also special variants, but are assigned
grade included Generator Control Units (GCU) and Bus to the Air Combat Command (ACC). The AC-130 gunSwitching units (BSU)to provide stable power to the more ship was rst developed during the Vietnam War to prosensitive upgraded components.
vide close air support and other ground-attack duties.
The equivalent model for export to the UK is the C-130K,
known by the Royal Air Force (RAF) as the Hercules
C.1. The C-130H-30 (Hercules C.3 in RAF service) is
a stretched version of the original Hercules, achieved by
inserting a 100 in (2.54 m) plug aft of the cockpit and
an 80 in (2.03 m) plug at the rear of the fuselage. A single C-130K was purchased by the Met Oce for use by
its Meteorological Research Flight, where it was classied as the Hercules W.2. This aircraft was heavily modied (with its most prominent feature being the long red
and white striped atmospheric probe on the nose and the
move of the weather radar into a pod above the forward
fuselage). This aircraft, named Snoopy, was withdrawn in
2001 and was then modied by Marshall of Cambridge
The HC-130 is a family of long-range search and rescue

variants used by the USAF and the U.S. Coast Guard.
Equipped for deep deployment of Pararescuemen (PJs),
survival equipment, and (in the case of USAF versions)
aerial refueling of combat rescue helicopters, HC-130s
are usually the on-scene command aircraft for combat
SAR missions (USAF only) and non-combat SAR (USAF
and USCG). Early USAF versions were also equipped
with the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system, designed
to pull a person o the ground using a wire strung from
a helium balloon. The John Wayne movie The Green
Berets features its use. The Fulton system was later removed when aerial refueling of helicopters proved safer
and more versatile. The movie The Perfect Storm depicts
292
USAF HC-130P refuels a HH-60G Pavehawk helicopter
a real life SAR mission involving aerial refueling of a New

York Air National Guard HH-60G by a New York Air
National Guard HC-130P.
The C-130R and C-130T are U.S. Navy and USMC models, both equipped with underwing external fuel tanks.
The USN C-130T is similar, but has additional avionics improvements. In both models, aircraft are equipped
with Allison T56-A-16 engines. The USMC versions are
designated KC-130R or KC-130T when equipped with
underwing refueling pods and pylons and are fully night
vision system compatible.
the addition of three spoiler panels to each wing upper

surface, a long-stroke main and nose landing gear system, and changes to the ight controls and a change from
direct mechanical linkages assisted by hydraulic boost,
to fully powered controls, in which the mechanical linkages from the ight station controls operated only the hydraulic control valves of the appropriate boost unit.[9] The
HTTB rst ew on 19 June 1984, with civil registration
of N130X. After demonstrating many new technologies,
some of which were applied to the C-130J, the HTTB was
lost in a fatal accident on 3 February 1993, at Dobbins Air
Reserve Base, in Marietta, Georgia.[10] The crash was attributed to disengagement of the rudder y-by-wire ight
control system, resulting in a total loss of rudder control capability while conducting ground minimum control
speed tests (Vmcg). The disengagement was a result of
the inadequate design of the rudders integrated actuator
package by its manufacturer; the operators insucient
system safety review failed to consider the consequences
of the inadequate design to all operating regimes. A factor which contributed to the accident was the ight crews
lack of engineering ight test training.[11]
In the 1990s, the improved C-130J Super Hercules was

developed by Lockheed (later Lockheed Martin). This
model is the newest version and the only model in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules in
general appearance, the J model has new turboprop engines, six-bladed propellers, digital avionics, and other
The RC-130 is a reconnaissance version. A single exam- new systems.[12]
ple is used by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, the
aircraft having originally been sold to the former Imperial
Iranian Air Force.
The Lockheed L-100 (L-382) is a civilian variant, equivalent to a C-130E model without military equipment. The
28.1.8
L-100 also has two stretched versions.
28.1.7
Next generation
Main article: Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules

In the 1970s, Lockheed proposed a C-130 variant with
turbofan engines rather than turboprops, but the U.S.
Air Force preferred the takeo performance of the existing aircraft. In the 1980s, the C-130 was intended to
be replaced by the Advanced Medium STOL Transport
project. The project was canceled and the C-130 has remained in production.
Building on lessons learned, Lockheed Martin modied
a commercial variant of the C-130 into a High Technology Test Bed (HTTB). This test aircraft set numerous
short takeo and landing performance records and signicantly expanded the database for future derivatives of
the C-130.[8] Modications made to the HTTB included
extended chord ailerons, a long chord rudder, fast-acting
double-slotted trailing edge aps, a high-camber wing
leading edge extension, a larger dorsal n and dorsal ns,
Upgrades and changes
In 2000, Boeing was awarded a US$1.4 billion contract to

develop an Avionics Modernization Program kit for the
C-130. The program was beset with delays and cost overruns until project restructuring in 2007.[13] On 2 September 2009, Bloomberg news reported that the planned
Avionics Modernization Program (AMP) upgrade to the
older C-130s would be dropped to provide more funds
for the F-35, CV-22 and airborne tanker replacement
programs.[14] However, in June 2010, Department of Defense approved funding for the initial production of the
AMP upgrade kits.[15][16] Under the terms of this agreement, the USAF has cleared Boeing to begin low-rate initial production (LRIP) for the C-130 AMP. A total of
198 aircraft are expected to feature the AMP upgrade.
The current cost per aircraft is US$14 million although
Boeing expects that this price will drop to US$7 million
for the 69th aircraft.[13]
An engine enhancement program saving fuel and providing lower temperatures in the T56 engine has been approved, and the US Air Force expects to save $2 billion
and extend the eet life.[17]
28.1.9
Replacement
In October 2010, the Air Force released a capabilities

request for information (CRFI) for the development of a
new airlifter to replace the C-130. The new aircraft is to
carry a 190 percent greater payload and assume the mission of mounted vertical maneuver (MVM). The greater
payload and mission would enable it to carry mediumweight armored vehicles and drop them o at locations
without long runways. Various options are being considered, including new or upgraded xed-wing designs,
rotorcraft, tiltrotors, or even an airship. Development
could start in 2014, and become operational by 2024.
The C-130 eet of around 450 planes would be replaced
by only 250 aircraft.[18] The Air Force had attempted to
replace the C-130 in the 1970s through the Advanced
Medium STOL Transport project, which resulted in the
C-17 Globemaster III that instead replaced the C-141
Starlifter.[19] The Air Force Research Laboratory funded
Lockheed and Boeing demonstrators for the Speed Agile concept, which had the goal of making a STOL aircraft that can take o and land at speeds as low as 70 kn
(130 km/h; 81 mph) on airelds less than 2,000 ft (610
m) long and cruise at Mach 0.8-plus. Boeings design
used upper-surface blowing from embedded engines on
the inboard wing and blown aps for circulation control
on the outboard wing. Lockheeds design also used blown
aps outboard, but inboard used patented reversing ejector nozzles. Boeings design completed over 2,000 hours
of windtunnel tests in late 2009. It was a 5 percentscale model of a narrowbody design with a 55,000 lb
(25,000 kg) payload. When the AFRL increased the payload requirement to 65,000 lb (29,000 kg), they tested
a 5% scale model of a widebody design with a 303,000
lb (137,000 kg) take-o gross weight and an "A400Msize 158 in (4.0 m) wide cargo box. It would be powered by four IAE V2533 turbofans.[20] In August 2011,
the AFRL released pictures of the Lockheed Speed Agile
concept demonstrator. A 23% scale model went through
wind tunnel tests to demonstrate its hybrid powered lift,
which combines a low drag airframe with simple mechanical assembly to reduce weight and better aerodynamics.
The model had four engines, including two Williams FJ44
turbofans.[19][21] On 26 March 2013, Boeing was granted
a patent for its swept-wing powered lift aircraft.[22]
293
strategic missions, but which course to pursue is to be
decided before C-17s need to be retired.[23]

28.2.1 Military
USMC KC-130F Hercules performing takeos and landings

aboard the aircraft carrier Forrestal in 1963. The aircraft is now
displayed at the National Museum of Naval Aviation.
The rst production aircraft, C-130As were rst delivered beginning in 1956 to the 463d Troop Carrier Wing
at Ardmore AFB, Oklahoma and the 314th Troop Carrier Wing at Sewart AFB, Tennessee. Six additional
squadrons were assigned to the 322d Air Division in Europe and the 315th Air Division in the Far East. Additional aircraft were modied for electronics intelligence
work and assigned to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany
while modied RC-130As were assigned to the Military
Air Transport Service (MATS) photo-mapping division.
In 1958, a U.S. reconnaissance C-130A-II of the 7406th

Support Squadron was shot down over Armenia by MiGAs of January 2014, Air Mobility Command, Air Force 17s.[24]
Materiel Command and the Air Force Research Lab are
in the early stages of dening requirements for the C-X Australia became the rst non-American force to operate
next generation airlifter program to replace both the C- the C-130A Hercules with 12 examples being delivered
130 and C-17. An aircraft would be produced from the from late 1958. These aircraft were tted with AeroProdearly 2030s to the 2040s. If requirements are decided for ucts three-blade, 15-foot diameter propellers. The Royal
operating in contested airspace, Air Force procurement Canadian Air Force became another early user with the
of C-130s would end by the end of the decade to not delivery of four B-models (Canadian[25]designation C-130
have them serviceable by the 2030s and operated when Mk I) in October / November 1960.
they can't perform in that environment. Development of In 1963, a Hercules achieved and still holds the record
the airlifter depends heavily on the Armys tactical and for the largest and heaviest aircraft to land on an aircraft
operational maneuver plans. Two dierent cargo planes carrier.[26] During October and November that year, a
could still be created to separately perform tactical and USMC KC-130F (BuNo 149798), loaned to the U.S.
294
Naval Air Test Center, made 29 touch-and-go landings,

21 unarrested full-stop landings and 21 unassisted takeos on Forrestal at a number of dierent weights.[27] The
pilot, LT (later RADM) James H. Flatley III, USN, was
awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his role in this
test series. The tests were highly successful, but the idea
was considered too risky for routine "Carrier Onboard
Delivery" (COD) operations. Instead, the Grumman C-2
Greyhound was developed as a dedicated COD aircraft.
The Hercules used in the test, most recently in service
with Marine Aerial Refueler Squadron 352 (VMGR-352)
until 2005, is now part of the collection of the National
Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida.
In 1964, C-130 crews from the 6315th Operations Group
at Naha Air Base, Okinawa commenced forward air control (FAC; Flare) missions over the Ho Chi Minh Trail
in Laos supporting USAF strike aircraft. In April 1965
the mission was expanded to North Vietnam where C130 crews led formations of B-57 bombers on night reconnaissance/strike missions against communist supply
routes leading to South Vietnam. In early 1966 Project
Blind Bat/Lamplighter was established at Ubon RTAFB,
Thailand. After the move to Ubon the mission became a
four-engine FAC mission with the C-130 crew searching
for targets then calling in strike aircraft. Another littleknown C-130 mission own by Naha-based crews was
Operation Commando Scarf, which involved the delivery
of chemicals onto sections of the Ho Chi Minh Trail in
Laos that were designed to produce mud and landslides
in hopes of making the truck routes impassable.
In November 1964, on the other side of the globe, C130Es from the 464th Troop Carrier Wing but loaned to
322d Air Division in France, ew one of the most dramatic missions in history in the former Belgian Congo.
After communist Simba rebels took white residents of the
city of Stanleyville hostage, the U.S. and Belgium developed a joint rescue mission that used the C-130s to airlift
and then drop and air-land a force of Belgian paratroopers to rescue the hostages. Two missions were own, one
over Stanleyville and another over Paulis during Thanksgiving weeks.[28] The headline-making mission resulted
in the rst award of the prestigious MacKay Trophy to
C-130 crews.
In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Pakistan Air
Force modied/improvised several aircraft for use as
heavy bombers, and attacks were made on Indian bridges
and troop concentrations with some successes. No aircraft were lost in the operations, though one was slightly
damaged.
The C-130 Hercules were used in the Battle of Kham Duc in

1968, when the North Vietnamese Army forced U.S.-led forces
to abandon the Kham Duc Special Forces Camp.
stated purpose of COMMANDO VAULT was to clear

LZs, they were also used on enemy base camps and other
targets.
During the late 1960s, the U.S. was eager to get information on Chinese nuclear capabilities. After the failure
of the Black Cat Squadron to plant operating sensor pods
near the Lop Nur Nuclear Weapons Test Base using a
Lockheed U-2, the CIA developed a plan, named Heavy
Tea, to deploy two battery-powered sensor pallets near
the base. To deploy the pallets, a Black Bat Squadron
crew was trained in the U.S. to y the C-130 Hercules.
The crew of 12, led by Col Sun Pei Zhen, took o from
Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base in an unmarked U.S.
Air Force C-130E on 17 May 1969. Flying for six and a
half hours at low altitude in the dark, they arrived over the
target and the sensor pallets were dropped by parachute
near Anxi in Gansu province. After another six and a half
hours of low altitude ight, they arrived back at Takhli.
The sensors worked and uploaded data to a U.S. intelligence satellite for six months, before their batteries wore
out. The Chinese conducted two nuclear tests, on 22
September 1969 and 29 September 1969, during the operating life of the sensor pallets. Another mission to the
area was planned as Operation Golden Whip, but was
called o in 1970.[29] It is most likely that the aircraft used
on this mission was either C-130E serial number 64-0506
or 64-0507 (cn 382-3990 and 382-3991). These two aircraft were delivered to Air America in 1964.[30] After
being returned to the U.S. Air Force sometime between
1966 and 1970, they were assigned the serial numbers of
C-130s that had been destroyed in accidents. 64-0506 is
now ying as 62-1843, a C-130E that crashed in Vietnam
on 20 December 1965 and 64-0507 is now ying as 637785, a C-130E that had crashed in Vietnam on 17 June
1966.[31]
In October 1968, a C-130Bs from the 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing dropped a pair of M-121 10,000 pound bombs
that had been developed for the massive B-36 bomber but
had never been used. The U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force
resurrected the huge weapons as a means of clearing land- The A-model continued in service through the Vietnam
ing zones for helicopters and in early 1969 the 463rd War, where the aircraft assigned to the four squadrons at
commenced Commando Vault missions. Although the Naha AB, Okinawa and one at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan
performed yeomans service, including operating highly

classied special operations missions such as the BLIND
BAT FAC/Flare mission and FACT SHEET leaet mission over Laos and North Vietnam. The A-model was
also provided to the South Vietnamese Air Force as part
of the Vietnamization program at the end of the war, and
equipped three squadrons based at Tan Son Nhut AFB.
The last operator in the world is the Honduran Air Force,
which is still ying one of ve A model Hercules (FAH
558, c/n 3042) as of October 2009.[32] As the Vietnam
War wound down, the 463rd Troop Carrier/Tactical Airlift Wing B-models and A-models of the 374th Tactical
Airlift Wing were transferred back to the United States
where most were assigned to Air Force Reserve and Air
National Guard units.
295
ated two KC-130 tankers during the war, and these refueled both the Douglas A-4 Skyhawks and Navy DassaultBreguet Super tendards; some C-130s were modied to
operate as bombers with bomb-racks under their wings.
The British also used RAF C-130s to support their logistical operations.
USMC C-130T Fat Albert performing a rocket-assisted takeo

(RATO)
U.S. Marines disembark from C-130 transports at the Da Nang

Airbase on 8 March 1965
During the Gulf War of 1991 (Operation Desert Storm),

the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by the U.S.
Air Force, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps, along with
the air forces of Australia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia,
South Korea and the UK. The MC-130 Combat Talon
variant also made the rst attacks using the largest conventional bombs in the world, the BLU-82 Daisy Cutter
and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, also
known as the MOAB. Daisy Cutters were used to clear
landing zones and to eliminate mine elds. The weight
and size of the weapons make it impossible or impractical
to load them on conventional bombers. The GBU-43/B
MOAB is a successor to the BLU-82 and can perform the
same function, as well as perform strike functions against
hardened targets in a low air threat environment.
Another prominent role for the B model was with the

United States Marine Corps, where Hercules initially designated as GV-1s replaced C-119s. After Air Force C130Ds proved the types usefulness in Antarctica, the
U.S. Navy purchased a number of B-models equipped
with skis that were designated as LC-130s. C-130B-II
electronic reconnaissance aircraft were operated under
the SUN VALLEY program name primarily from Yokota
Air Base, Japan. All reverted to standard C-130B cargo
aircraft after their replacement in the reconnaissance role Since 1992, two successive C-130 aircraft named Fat
by other aircraft.
Albert have served as the support aircraft for the U.S.
The C-130 was also used in the 1976 Entebbe raid in Navy Blue Angels ight demonstration team. Fat Alwhich Israeli commando forces carried a surprise as- bert I was a TC-130G (15189), while Fat Albert II is
sault to rescue 103 passengers of an airliner hijacked a C-130T (164763). Although Fat Albert supports a
by Palestinian and German terrorists at Entebbe Airport, Navy squadron, it is operated by the U.S. Marine Corps
Uganda. The rescue force 200 soldiers, jeeps, and (USMC) and its crew consists solely of USMC personnel.
a black Mercedes-Benz (intended to resemble Ugandan At some air shows featuring the team, Fat Albert takes
Dictator Idi Amin's vehicle of state) was own over part, performing yovers. Until 2009, it also demon2,200 nmi (4,074 km; 2,532 mi) almost entirely at an al- strated its rocket-assisted takeo (RATO) capabilities;
titude of less than 100 ft (30 m) from Israel to Entebbe these ended due to dwindling supplies of rockets.[33]
by four Israeli Air Force (IAF) Hercules aircraft without The AC-130 also holds the record for the longest susmid-air refueling (on the way back, the planes refueled in tained ight by a C-130. From 22 to 24 October 1997,
Nairobi, Kenya).
two AC-130U gunships ew 36 hours nonstop from HurlDuring the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) of 1982, Argentine Air Force C-130s undertook
highly dangerous, daily re-supply night ights as blockade runners to the Argentine garrison on the Falkland
Islands. They also performed daylight maritime survey
ights. One was lost during the war. Argentina also oper-
burt Field Florida to Taegu (Daegu), South Korea while

being refueled seven times by KC-135 tanker aircraft.
This record ight shattered the previous record longest
ight by over 10 hours while the two gunships took on
410,000 lb (190,000 kg) of fuel. The gunship has been
used in every major U.S. combat operation since Viet-
296
nam, except for Operation El Dorado Canyon, the 1986

attack on Libya.[34]
C-130 Hercules performs a tactical landing on a dirt strip
During the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the ongoing support of the International Security Assistance Force
(Operation Enduring Freedom), the C-130 Hercules has
been used operationally by Australia, Belgium, Canada,
Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, the UK and the
United States.
companies to be converted into air tankers (see U.S. Forest Service airtanker scandal). After one of these aircraft crashed due to wing separation in ight as a result
of fatigue stress cracking, the entire eet of C-130A air
tankers was permanently grounded in 2004 (see 2002 airtanker crashes). C-130s have been used to spread chemical dispersants onto the massive oil slick in the Gulf Coast
in 2010.[37]
A recent development of a C-130based airtanker is the
Retardant Aerial Delivery System developed by Coulson
Aviation USA. The system consists of a C-130H/Q
retrotted with an in-oor discharge system, combined
with a removable 3,500- or 4,000-gallon water tank. The
combined system is FAA certied.[38]
28.3 Variants
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom), the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, the UK and the United States. After the initial invasion, C-130 operators as part of the Multinational force
in Iraq used their C-130s to support their forces in Iraq.
Since 2004, the Pakistan Air Force has employed C-130s
in the War in North-West Pakistan. Some variants had
forward looking infrared (FLIR Systems Star Sare III
EO/IR) sensor balls, to enable close tracking of Islamist
militants.[35]
C-130H Hercules ight deck
28.2.2
Civilian
A C-130E tted with a MAFFS1 dropping re retardant
The U.S. Forest Service developed the Modular Airborne

FireFighting System for the C-130 in the 1970s, which
allows regular aircraft to be temporarily converted to an
airtanker for ghting wildres.[36] In the late 1980s, 22
retired USAF C-130As were removed from storage at
Davis-Monthan Air Force Base and transferred to the
U.S. Forest Service who then sold them to six private
A U.S. JC-130 aircraft retrieving a reconnaissance satellite lm

capsule under parachute.
For civilian versions, see Lockheed L-100 Hercules.

Signicant military variants of the C-130 include:
28.3. VARIANTS
297
Brazilian Air Force C-130 (L-382)
C-130D/D-6 Ski-equipped version for snow and ice operations United States Air Force / Air National
Guard
CC-130E/H/J Hercules Designation for Canadian
Armed Forces / Royal Canadian Air Force Hercules aircraft. U.S. Air Force used the CC-130J
designation to dierentiate standard C-130Js
from stretched C-130Js (Company designation
C-130J-30s).
DC-130A/E/H USAF and USN Drone control
C-130s from the: U.S., Canada, Australia and Israel (foreground to background)
EC-130 EC-130E/J Commando Solo USAF / Air

National Guard psychological operations version
EC-130E Airborne Battleeld Command and Control
Center (ABCCC)
EC-130E Rivet Rider Airborne psychological warfare aircraft
EC-130H Compass Call Electronic warfare and electronic attack.[40]
EC-130V Airborne early warning and control
(AEW&C) variant used by USCG for counternarcotics missions[41]
RAAF C-130J-30 at Point Cook, 2006
GC-130 Permanently Grounded Static Display
HC-130 HC-130B/E/H Early model combat search

and rescue
C-130A/B/E/F/G/H/K/T Tactical airlifter basic models
C-130A-II Dreamboat Early version Electronic Intelligence/Signals Intelligence (ELINT/SIGINT)
aircraft[39]
C-130J Super Hercules Tactical airlifter, with new engines, avionics, and updated systems
HC-130P/N Combat King USAF aerial refueling

tanker and combat search and rescue
HC-130J Combat King II Next generation combat
search and rescue tanker
HC-130H/J USCG long-range surveillance and
search and rescue
C-130K Designation for RAF Hercules C1/W2/C3 aircraft (C-130Js in RAF service are the Hercules C.4 JC-130 Temporary conversion for ight test operations
and Hercules C.5)
KC-130F/R/T/J United States Marine Corps aerial reAC-130A/E/H/J/U/W Gunship variants
fueling tanker and tactical airlifter
298
LC-130F/H/R USAF / Air National Guard Skiequipped version for Arctic and Antarctic support
operations; LC-130F previously operated by USN
MC-130 MC-130E/H Combat Talon I/II Special
operations inltration/extraction variant
MC-130W Combat Spear/Dragon Spear Special
operations tanker/gunship[42]
MC-130P Combat Shadow Special operations
tanker
MC-130J Commando II (formerly Combat Shadow II)
Special operations tanker Air Force Special OperC-130H used by the Egyptian Air Force.
ations Command[43]
YMC-130H Modied aircraft under Operation Credible Sport for second Iran hostage crisis rescue attempt
NC-130 Permanent conversion for ight test operations
PC-130/C-130-MP Maritime patrol
RC-130A/S Surveillance aircraft for reconnaissance
SC-130J Sea Herc Proposed maritime patrol version of
the C-130J, designed for coastal surveillance and
anti-submarine warfare.[44][45]
TC-130 Aircrew training
C-130 Saudi Air Force
VC-130H VIP transport

WC-130A/B/E/H/J Weather
reconnaissance
("Hurricane Hunter") version for USAF / Air Force
Reserve Command's 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron in support of the NOAA/National
Weather Service's National Hurricane Center
28.4 Operators
Main article: List of C-130 Hercules operators
Philippine Air Force and Army servicemen unload a C-130 of
supplies for transfer to waiting U.S. helicopters for delivery to
Panay Island.
28.5 Accidents
Main article: List of accidents and incidents involving
the C-130 Hercules
Military operators of the C-130 Hercules aircraft;

Current operators
Former operators
The C-130 Hercules has had a low accident rate in general. The Royal Air Force recorded an accident rate
of about one aircraft loss per 250,000 ying hours over
the last 40 years, placing it behind Vickers VC10s and
Lockheed TriStars with no ying losses.[46] USAF C130A/B/E-models had an overall attrition rate of 5% as

of 1989 as compared to 1-2% for commercial airliners in
the U.S., according to the NTSB, 10% for B-52 bombers,
and 20% for ghters (F-4, F-111), trainers (T-37, T-38),
and helicopters (H-3).[47]
299
uary 1987. It was damaged in a re at Jeddah in December 1989. Restored for ground training by August 1993. At Riyadh Air Base Museum, November 2002, restored for ground display by using a tail
from another C-130H.[52]
A total of 70 aircraft were lost by the U.S. Air Force and

the U.S. Marine Corps during combat operations in the
Vietnam War in Southeast Asia. By the nature of the Her28.6.6 United Kingdom
cules worldwide service, the pattern of losses provides an
interesting barometer of the global hot spots over the past
Hercules C3 XV202, which served with the Royal
50 years.[48]
Air Force from 1967 to 2011, is on display at the
Royal Air Force Museum Cosford.[53]
On 17 August 1988, then President of Pakistan, General
Zia-ul-Haq was killed along with the then U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Arnold Lewis Raphel, when a Pakistan
Air Force C-130 carrying them crashed soon after takeo 28.6.7 United States
from Bahawalpur, Pakistan.[49]
C-130A, AF Ser. No. 55-0037 was used by
the 773 TCS, 483 TCW, 315 AD, 374 TCW,
815 TAS, 35 TAS, 109 TAS, belly-landed at Du28.6 Aircraft on display
luth, Minnesota, April 1973, repaired; 167 TAS,
180 TAS, to Chanute Technical Training Cen28.6.1 Australia
ter as GC-130A, May 1984; now displayed at
Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul Avi C-130A RAAF A97-214 used by 36 Squadron from
ation Complex (former Chanute AFB, Rantoul, Illiearly 1959, withdrawn from use late 1978; now
nois as of November 1995.[54]
at RAAF Museum, RAAF Base Williams, Point
C-130A, AF Ser. No. 56-0518 was by the 314
Cook.
TCW, 315 AD, 41 ATS, 328 TAS; to South Viet C-130E RAAF A97-160 used by 37 Squadron from
namese Air Force 435 Transport Squadron, NovemAugust 1966, withdrawn from use November 2000;
ber 1972; holds the C-130 record for taking o with
to RAAF Museum, 14 November 2000, cocooned
the most personnel on board, during evacuation of
as of September 2005.[50]
SVN, 29 April 1975, with 452. Returned to USAF,
185 TAS, 105 TAS; gate guard at Little Rock AFB
Visitor Center, Arkansas by March 1993.[55]
28.6.2
Canada
CC-130E RCAF 10313 (later 130313) is on display

at the National Air Force Museum of Canada, CFB
Trenton
28.6.3
Colombia
C-130B Colombian Air Force 1011 (serial number

3585, ex 59-1535) preserved at Colombian Air and
Space Museum in CATAM AFB, at El Dorado International Airport, Bogot.
28.6.4
Norway
C-130H Royal Norwegian Air Force 953: retired 10

June 2007 and moved to the Air Force museum at
Oslo Gardermoen in May 2008.[51]
28.6.5
Saudi Arabia
C-130H RSAF 460:was operated by 4 Squadron

Royal Saudi Air Force, December 1974 until Jan-
C-130A, AF Ser. No. 57-0453; operated from

1958 to 1991, last duty with 155th TAS, 164th
TAG, Tennessee Air National Guard, Memphis International Airport/ANGB, Tennessee, 19761991,
named Nite Train to Memphis"; to AMARC in
December 1991, then sent to Texas for modication into replica of C-130A-II Dreamboat aircraft,
AF Ser. No. 56-0528, shot down by Russian
ghters in Soviet airspace near Yerevan, Armenia
on 2 September 1958, while on ELINT mission
with loss of all crew, displayed in National Vigilance Park, National Security Agency grounds, Fort
George Meade, Maryland.[56]
C-130B, AF Ser. No. 59-0528; operated by 145th
Airlift Wing, North Carolina Air National Guard;
placed on static display at Charlotte Air National
Guard Base, North Carolina in 2010.[57]
C-130D, AF Ser. No. 57-0490 was used by the
61st TCS, 17th TCS, 139th TAS with skis, July
1975April 1983; to MASDC, 19841985, GC130D ground trainer, Chanute AFB, Illinois, 1986
1990; When Chanute AFB closed in September
1993, it moved to the Octave Chanute Aerospace
300

Museum (former Chanute AFB, Rantoul, Illinois.
In July 1994, it moved to the Empire State Air Museum, Schenectady County Airport, New York, until placed on the gate at Sratton Air National Guard
Base in October 1994.[58]
NC-130B, AF Ser. No. 57-0526:was the second

B model manufactured, initially delivered as JC130B; assigned to 6515th Organizational Maintenance Squadron for ight testing at Edwards AFB,
California on 29 November 1960; turned over to
6593rd Test Squadrons Operating Location No. 1
at Edwards AFB and spent next seven years supporting Corona Program; J status and prex removed from aircraft on October 1967; transferred
to 6593rd Test Squadron at Hickam AFB, Hawaii
and modied for mid-air retrieval of satellites; acquired by 6514th Test Squadron at Hill AFB, Utah
in Jan. 1987 and used as electronic testbed and
cargo transport; aircraft retired January 1994 with
11,000+ ight hours and moved to Hill Aerospace
Museum at Hill AFB by January 1994.[59]
C-130E, AF Ser. No. 62-1787; on display at the
National Museum of the United States Air Force,
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, was own to the museum on 18 August 2011. One of the greatest feats
of heroism during the Vietnam War involved the
C-130E, call sign Spare 617.[N 1] The C-130E attempted to airdrop ammunition to surrounded South
Vietnamese forces at An Loc, Vietnam. Approaching the drop zone, Spare 617 received heavy enemy
ground re that damaged two engines, ruptured a
bleed air duct in the cargo compartment, and set the
ammunition on re. Flight engineer TSgt Sanders
was killed, and navigator 1st Lt Lenz and co-pilot 1st
Lt Hering were both wounded. Despite receiving severe burns from hot air escaping from the damaged
air bleed duct, loadmaster TSgt Shaub extinguished
a re in the cargo compartment, and successfully jettisoned the cargo pallets, which exploded in mid-air.
Despite losing a third engine on nal approach, pilot Capt Caldwell landed Spare 617 safely. For their
actions, Caldwell and Shaub received the Air Force
Cross, the U.S. Air Forces second highest award for
valor. TSgt Shaub also received the William H. Pitsenbarger Award for Heroism from the Air Force
Sergeants Association.[60]
KC-130F, USN/USMC BuNo 149798; used in tests
in OctoberNovember 1963 by the U.S. Navy for
unarrested landings and unassisted take-os from
the carrier USS Forrestal (CV-59), it remains the
record holder for largest aircraft to operate from a
carrier ight deck, and carried the name Look Ma,
No Hook during the tests. Retired to the National
Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, Florida
in May 2003.[61]
C-130G, USN/USMC BuNo 151891; modied

to EC-130G, 1966, then testbed for EC-130Q
TACAMO in 1981. To TC-130G in May 1990
and assigned as the U.S. Navys Blue Angels USMC
support aircraft, serving as Fat Albert Airlines
from 1991 to 2002. Retired to the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida
in November 2002.[62]
C-130E, AF Ser. No. 64-0525; on display at the
82nd Airborne Division War Memorial Museum at
Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The aircraft was the
last assigned to the 43rd AW at Pope AFB, North
Carolina prior to retirement from the USAF.[63]
C-130E, AF Ser. No. 69-6579; operated by the 61st
TAS, 314th TAW, 50th AS, 61st AS; at Dyess AFB
as maintenance trainer as GC-130E, March 1998; to
Dyess AFB Linear Air Park, January 2004.[64]
MC-130E Combat Talon I, AF Ser. No. 64-0567;
unocially known as Wild Thing. It transported
captured Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega in
1989 during Operation Just Cause, and participated
in Operation Eagle Claw, the unsuccessful attempt
to rescue U.S. hostages from Iran in 1980. Wild
Thing was also the rst xed-wing aircraft to employ
night-vision goggles. On display at Hurlburt Field,
in Florida.[65]
C-130E, AF Ser. No. 69-6580; operated by the 61st
TAS, 314th TAW, 317th TAW, 314th TAW, 317th
TAW, 40th AS, 41st AS, 43rd AW, retired after
center wing cracks were detected in April 2002; to
the Air Mobility Command Museum, Dover AFB,
Delaware on 2 February 2004.[64]
C-130E, AF Ser. No. 70-1269; used by the 43rd
AW and is on display at the Pope Air Park, Pope
AFB, North Carolina as 2006.[66]
C-130H, AF Ser. No. 74-1686; used by the 463rd
TAW; one of three C-130H airframes modied to
YMC-130H for aborted rescue attempt of Iranian
hostages, Operation Credible Sport, with rocket
packages blistered onto fuselage in 1980, but these
were removed after mission was canceled. Subsequent duty with the 4950th Test Wing, then donated
to the Museum of Aviation at Robins AFB, Georgia,
in March 1988.[67]
28.7 Specications (C-130H)

Data from USAF C-130 Hercules fact sheet,[68] International Directory of Military Aircraft,[69] Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft,[70] Encyclopedia of Modern
Military Aircraft [71]
28.7. SPECIFICATIONS (C-130H)
301
length, 123 inches (3.12 meters); width, 119
inches (3.02 meters)
C-130J-30 cargo hold: length, 55 feet (16.9
meters); width, 119 inches (3.12 meters);
height, 9 feet (2.74 meters). Rear ramp:
length, 123 inches (3.12 meters); width, 119
inches (3.02 meters)
92 passengers or
64 airborne troops or
74 litter patients with 5 medical crew or
6 pallets or
23 Humvees or
2 M113 armored personnel carriers
Payload: 45,000 lb (20,400 kg)
Wing area: 1,745 ft (162.1 m)
Powerplant: 4 Allison T56-A-15 turboprops,
4,590 shp (3,430 kW) each
A Hercules deploying ares, sometimes referred to as Angel

Flares due to the characteristic pattern.
Propellers: 4 propellers
Propeller diameter: 13.5 ft (4.1 m)
Performance
at 20,000 ft (6,060 m)
Cruise speed: 292 kts (336 mph, 540 km/h)
Range: 2,050 nmi (2,360 mi, 3,800 km)
Service ceiling: 33,000 ft (10,060 m) empty;[72]
23,000 ft (7,077 m) with 42,000 pounds (19,090
kilograms) payload ()
Cargo compartment of a Swedish Air Force C-130
Crew: ve (two pilots, navigator, ight engineer and

loadmaster)
Capacity:
C-130E/H/J cargo hold: length, 40 feet (12.31
meters); width, 119 inches (3.12 meters);
height, 9 feet (2.74 meters). Rear ramp:
Takeo distance: 3,586 ft (1,093 m) at 155,000 lb

(70,300 kg) max gross weight;[71] 1,400 ft (427 m)
at 80,000 lb (36,300 kg) gross weight[73]
Avionics
Westinghouse Electronic Systems (now Northrop

Grumman) AN/APN-241 weather and navigational
radar[74]
302
28.8 See also

Related development
Lockheed AC-130
Lockheed DC-130
Lockheed EC-130
Lockheed EC-130H Compass Call
Lockheed HC-130
[2] Chase XCG-20 Avitruc. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved:

2 October 2010.
[3] Rhodes, Je. Willis Hawkins and the Genesis of the Hercules. Code One Magazine, Volume 19, Issue 3, 2004.
[4] Boyne, Walter J. Beyond the Horizons: The Lockheed
Story. New York: St. Martins Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0312-19237-2.
[5] Dabney, Joseph E. A. Mating of the Jeep, the Truck, and
the Airplane. lockheedmartin.com, 2004. Excerpted from
HERK: Hero of the Skies in Lockheed Martin Service
News, Lockheed Martin Air Mobility Support Volume
29, Issue 2, p. 3.
Lockheed Martin KC-130
[6] Olausson 2009, p. 129.
Lockheed LC-130
[7] C-130K in the Austrian Air Force. doppeladler.com.

Lockheed MC-130
Lockheed WC-130
Lockheed L-100 Hercules
[8] NASA and Lockheed Martin Partners In C-130 Technology Retrieved 21 May 2013.
[9] The High Technology Test Bed Lockheed Service News
Vol. 12 No. 3, September 1985. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Antonov An-12
[10] Norton, Bill (2002). STOL Progenitors: The Technology

Path to a Large STOL Aircraft and the C-17A. Reston,
Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 1-56347-538-3.
Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy
[11] ASN Aircraft Accident Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Blackburn Beverley
[12] Lockheed Unveils Two Future C-130 Variants
Shaanxi Y-8
Short Belfast
Transall C-160
Related lists
[13] Trimble, Stephen. Boeing outlines C-130H and KC-10

cockpit upgrades. Flightglobal. Retrieved: 2 October
2010.
[14] Capaccio, Tony. Air Force Would Cancel Boeing C-130
Upgrade, 15 Other Programs. Bloomberg, 2 September
List of accidents and incidents involving the C-130

Hercules
[15] Wall, Robert. Pentagon Approves C-130 AMP Production. Aviation Week, 25 June 2010.
List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft
[16] Boeing C-130 Avionics Modernization Program to Enter

Production. Boeing, 24 June 2010.
28.9 References
Notes
[1] The aircrew of Spare 617 were: Capt. William Caldwell, pilot; Lt. John Hering, co-pilot; Lt. Richard A.
Lenz, navigator; Tech. Sgt. Jon Sanders, ight engineer,
loadmasters Tech. Sgt. Charlie Shaub and A1C Dave
McAleece
Citations
[1] http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/
224/Article/104517/c-130-hercules.aspx
[17] "NOAA 'Hurricane Hunters First To Get T56 Series 3.5

Engine Enhancement" Aero News, November 14, 2013.
Accessed: December 1, 2013.
[18] USAF asks industry to answer C-130 replacement questions - Flightglobal.com, 22 October 2010
[19] Lockheeds stealth C-130 successor revealed - Flightglobal.com, 13 September 2011
[20] Fast STOL - Lockheeds Speed Agile - Aviationweek.com, 15 October 2010
[21] Lockheeds New STOL Airlifter Design - Defensetech.org, 15 September 2011
[22] Boeing awarded patent for Speed Agile stealth transport
concept - Flightglobal.com, 2 April 2013
28.9. REFERENCES
303
[23] Requirements Mulled for Next-Generation Airlifter - Airforcemag.com, 2 January 2014
[45] Lockheed Martins Sea Hercules unveiled.

post.com. StratPost. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
[24] The Shootdown of Flight 60528. National Vigilance

Park- NSA/CSS via nsa.gov, 12 January 2009. Retrieved
11 March 2011.
[46] Aircraft Air Accidents and Damage Rates. Defence Analytical Services Agency. Retrieved: 2 October 2010.
[25] Canadian Military Aircraft. Retrieved 6 September

2013.
[26] C-130 Hercules on Aircraft carrier. Defence Aviation, 2
May 2007. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
[27] USS Forrestal (CV 59). navysite.de (Unocial U.S.
Navy site). Retrieved: 2 October 2010.
[28] Odom, Maj. T. Dragon Operations: Hostage Rescues in
the Congo, 19641965. Combat Studies Institute, January
[29] Pocock, Chris. The Black Bats: CIA Spy Flights over
China from Taiwan 19511969. Atglen, Ennsylvania:
Schier Military History, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7643-35136.
[30] Leeker, Dr. Joe. Air America: Lockheed C-130 Hercules. The University of Texas at Dallas. 23 August 2010.
[31] Baugher, Joe 1964 USAF Serial Numbers Retrieved: 29
January 2012.
[32] Olausson 2010, p. 5.
[33] McCullough, Amy. Abort Launch: Air shows to do without Fat Alberts famed JATO. Marine Corps Times, 9
November 2009. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
[34] AFSOC Heritage. US Air Force Special Operations Command. Retrieved: 31 July 2009.
[35] (http://tribune.com.pk/story/291762/
paf-conducted-5500-bombing-runs-in-fata-since-2008/
[36] Modular Airborne FireFighting Systems. U.S. Forest
Service, 16 March 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
[37] http://www.internationalairresponse.com/customers.asp
[38] C-130H/Q Fire Fighting Air Tanker (PDF).
[39] http://www.7406suppron.com/history/c130aii.asp
[40] King, Capt. Vince, Jr. Compass Call continues to 'Jam'
enemy. Air Force Link, United States Air Force, 1 November 2006. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
[41] Lockheed EC-130V Hercules. Military Analysis Network, Federation of American Scientists, 10 February
strat-
[47] Diehl 2002, p. 45.

[48] Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Aviation Safety Network,
Flight Safety Foundation, 13 November 2004. Retrieved
2 October 2010.
[49] As Pakistan comes full circle, a light is shone on Zia ulHaqs death. Times Online, 16 August 2008.
[50] Olausson 2010, p. 62.
[51] Olausson 2010, p. 73.
[52] Olausson 2010, p. 85.
[53] Hercules makes nal ight into Cosford. Royal Air Force
Museum. Retrieved: 22 September 2011.
[54] Olausson 2010, p. 7.
[55] Olausson 2010, p. 11.
[56] Olausson 2010, p. 14.
[57] http://www.145aw.ang.af.mil/photos/mediagallery.asp?
galleryID=10575
[58] Olausson 2010, p. 16.
[59] Olausson 2010, p. 19.
[60] Factsheet: Lockheed C-130E Hercules. National Museum of the United States Air Force, 29 February 2011.
[61] Olausson 2010, p. 30.
[62] Olausson 2010, p. 43.
[63] Olausson 2010, p. 52.
[64] Olausson 2010, p. 74.
[65] Combat Talon Dedicated. Code One Magazine, 6 May
2011.
[66] Olausson 2010, p. 78.
[67] Olausson 2010, p. 91.
[68] USAF C-130 Hercules fact sheet. USAF, October 2009.
[69] Frawley 2002, p. 108.
[70] Donald 1997
[71] Eden 2004
[42] Housman, Damian. Highly modied C-130 ready for

war on terrorism. Air Force Link, United States Air Force,
29 June 2006. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
[72] Lockheed C-130 Hercules Heavy

aerospaceweb. Retrieved: 11 March 2011.
[43] MC-130 J name change promotes modern missions, preserves heritage. Afsoc.af.mil. Retrieved on 2013-08-16.
[73] C-130 characteristics. uscost.net.

2009.
[44] SC-130J Sea Herc. lockheedmartin.com. Lockheed

Martin. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
[74] Electronic Mission Aircraft: AN/APN-241 (United

States). Janes. Retrieved: 2 October 2010.
Transport.
Retrieved: 7 July
304
Bibliography
Borman, Martin W. Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 1999. ISBN
978-1-86126-205-9.
Diehl, Alan E., PhD, Former Senior USAF Safety
Scientist. Silent Knights: Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover-ups. Dulles, Virginia: Brasseys Inc., 2002. ISBN 1-57488-544-8.
Donald, David, ed. Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New
York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1997. ISBN 0-76070592-5.
Eden, Paul. Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of
Military Aircraft, 2002/03. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002. ISBN
1-875671-55-2.
Olausson, Lars. Lockheed Hercules Production List
19542011. Stens, Sweden: Self-published, 27th
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Olausson, Lars. Lockheed Hercules Production List
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This article incorporates public domain material

from the United States Air Force document Fact
Sheet: Lockheed C-130E Hercules.

C-130 Hercules USAF fact sheet
C-130 U.S. Navy fact le and C-130 history page on
Navy.mil
C-130 page on Globalsecurity.org
C-130hercules.net
C-130 page on amcmuseum.org
C-130 takes o and lands on a Carrier USS Forrestal
on YouTube
Newsreel footage from 1955 of blunt nose Hercules
prototype (1955) courtesy of British Pathe (Record
No:63598) at YouTube

Archive
C-130J Hercules Tactical Transport Aircraft USA
Images
Herculean Transport a 1954 Flight article
Chapter 29
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy

The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy is a large military transport
aircraft originally designed and built by Lockheed, and
now maintained and upgraded by its successor, Lockheed
Martin. It provides the United States Air Force (USAF)
with a heavy intercontinental-range strategic airlift capability, one that can carry outsize and oversize loads, including all air-certiable cargo. The Galaxy has many
similarities to its smaller Lockheed C-141 Starlifter predecessor, and the later Boeing C-17 Globemaster III. The
C-5 is among the largest military aircraft in the world.
cause it was not viewed as a signicant advance over the

C-141.[3] By late 1963, the next conceptual design was
named CX-X. It was equipped with four engines, instead
of six engines in the earlier CX-4 concept. The CX-X had
a gross weight of 550,000 pounds (249,000 kg), a maximum payload of 180,000 lb (81,600 kg) and a speed of
Mach 0.75 (500 mph or 805 km/h). The cargo compartment was 17.2 ft (5.24 m) wide by 13.5 feet (4.11 m)
high and 100 ft (30.5 m) long with front and rear access
doors.[3] To meet the power and range specications with
The C-5 Galaxy had a complicated development; signif- only four engines required a new engine with dramatically
icant cost overruns were experienced and Lockheed suf- improved fuel eciency.
fered signicant nancial diculties. Shortly after en- We started to build the C-5 and wanted to build the
tering service, fractures in the wings of many aircraft biggest thing we could... Quite frankly, the C-5 program
were discovered and the C-5 eet was restricted in ca- was a great contribution to commercial aviation. We'll
pability until corrective work was performed. The C-5M never get credit for it, but we incentivized that industry
Super Galaxy is an upgraded version with new engines by developing [the TF39] engine.
and modernized avionics designed to extend its service General Duane H. Cassidy, former MAC Commander in
life beyond 2040.
Chief[4]
The C-5 Galaxy has been operated by USAF since 1969.
In that time, it has been used to support US military operations in all major conicts including Vietnam, Iraq,
Yugoslavia and Afghanistan; as well as in support of
allies, such as Israel during the Yom Kippur War and
NATO operations in the Gulf War. The C-5 has also
been used to distribute humanitarian aid and disaster relief, and support the US Space Shuttle program run by
NASA.
29.1 Development
29.1.1
CX-X and Heavy Logistics System
The criteria were nalized and an ocial request for

proposal was issued in April 1964 for the Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) (previously CX-X). In May
1964, proposals for aircraft were received from Boeing,
Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Martin Marietta. General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt &
Whitney submitted proposals for the engines. After a
downselect, Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given
one-year study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines.[5] All
three of the designs shared a number of features; all three
placed the cockpit well above the cargo area to allow for
cargo loading through a nose door. The Boeing and Douglas designs used a pod on the top of the fuselage containing the cockpit, while the Lockheed design extended
the cockpit prole down the length of the fuselage, giving it an egg-shaped cross section. All of the designs had
swept wings, as well as front and rear cargo doors allowing
simultaneous loading and unloading. Lockheeds design
featured a T-tail, while the designs by Boeing and Douglas had conventional tails.[6]
In 1961, several aircraft companies began studying heavy

jet transport designs that would replace the Douglas C133 Cargomaster and complement Lockheed C-141 Starlifters. In addition to higher overall performance, the
United States Army wanted a transport aircraft with a
larger cargo bay than the C-141, whose interior was
too small to carry a variety of their outsized equipment. The Air Force considered Boeings design to be better
These studies led to the CX-4 design concept, but in than that of Lockheed, but Lockheeds proposal was the
1962 the proposed six-engine design was rejected, be305
306
CHAPTER 29. LOCKHEED C-5 GALAXY
lowest total cost bid.[7] Lockheed was selected the winner

in September 1965, then awarded a contract in December
1965.[6][8] General Electrics TF39 engine was selected in
August 1965 to power the new transport plane.[6] At the
time GEs engine concept was revolutionary, as all engines beforehand had a bypass ratio of less than two-toone, while the TF39 promised and would achieve a ratio
of eight-to-one, which had the benets of increased engine thrust and lower fuel consumption.[9][10]
29.1.2
Into production
The rst C-5A Galaxy (serial number 66-8303) was

rolled out of the manufacturing plant in Marietta, Georgia, on 2 March 1968.[11] On 30 June 1968, ight testing of the C-5A began with the rst ight, own by Leo
Sullivan, with the call sign eight-three-oh-three heavy".
Flight tests revealed that the aircraft exhibited a higher
drag divergence Mach number than predicted by wind
tunnel data. The maximum lift coecient measured in
ight with the aps deected 40-degree was higher than
predicted (2.60 vs. 2.38), but was lower than predicted
with the aps deected 25 degrees (2.31 vs. 2.38) and
with the aps retracted (1.45 vs. 1.52).[12]
After being one of the worst-run programs, ever, in its
early years, it has evolved very slowly and with great difculty into a nearly adequate strategic airlifter that unfortunately needs in-ight refuelling or a ground stop for
even the most routine long-distance ights. We spent a
lot of money to make it capable of operating from unnished airstrips near the front lines, when we never needed
that capability or had any intention to use it.
Robert F. Dorr, aviation historian[13]
Aircraft weight was a serious issue during design and development. At the time of the rst ight, the weight was
below the guaranteed weight, but by the time of the delivery of the 9th aircraft, had exceeded guarantees.[12]
In July 1969, during a fuselage upbending test, the wing
failed at 128% of limit load, which is below the requirement that it sustain 150% of limit load. Changes were
made to the wing, but during a test in July 1970, it failed
at 125% of limit load. A passive load reduction system,
involving uprigged ailerons was incorporated, but the
maximum allowable payload was reduced from 220,000
pounds to 190,000 pounds. At the time, it was predicted
that there was a 90% probability that no more than 10%
of the eet of 79 airframes would reach their fatigue life
of 19,000 hours without cracking of the wing.[12]
Cost overruns and technical problems of the C-5A were
the subject of a congressional investigation in 1968 and
1969.[14][15] The C-5 program has the dubious distinction
of being the rst development program with a one billion
dollar overrun.[8][16] Due to the C-5s troubled development, the Department of Defense abandoned Total Package Procurement.[17] In 1969 Henry Durham raised con-
The fourth C-5A Galaxy 66-8306 in 1980s European One color

scheme
cerns about the C-5 production process with Lockheed,

his employer; subsequently Durham was transferred and
subjected to abuse until he resigned. The Government
Accountability Oce (GAO) substantiated some of his
charges against Lockheed; later the American Ethical
Union honored Durham with the Elliott-Black Award.[18]
Upon completion of testing in December 1969, the rst
C-5A was transferred to the Transitional Training Unit at
Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma. Lockheed delivered
the rst operational Galaxy to the 437th Airlift Wing,
Charleston Air Force Base, SC, in June 1970. Due to
higher than expected development costs, in 1970 there
were public calls for the government to split the substantial losses that Lockheed was experiencing.[19] Production was nearly brought to a halt in 1971 due to Lockheed
going through nancial diculties, due in part to the C5 Galaxys development as well as a civilian jet liner, the
Lockheed L-1011.[20] The U.S. government gave loans to
Lockheed to keep the company operational.[21]
In the early 1970s, NASA considered the C-5 for the
Shuttle Carrier Aircraft role, to transport the Space Shuttle to Kennedy Space Center. However, they rejected it in
favor of the Boeing 747, in part due to the 747s low-wing
design.[22] In contrast, the Soviet Union chose to transport its shuttles using the high-winged An-225,[23] which
derives from the An-124, which is similar in design and
function to the C-5.
During static and fatigue testing cracks were noticed in
the wings of several aircraft,[16] and as a consequence
the C-5A eet was restricted to 80% of maximum design
loads. To reduce wing loading, load alleviation systems
were added to the aircraft.[24] By 1980, payloads were
restricted to as low as 50,000 lb (23,000 kg) for general
cargo during peacetime operations. A $1.5 billion program, known as H-Mod,[25] to re-wing the 76 completed
C-5As to restore full payload capability and service life
began in 1976.[26][27] After design and testing of the new
wing design, the C-5As received their new wings from
1980 to 1987.[28][29] During 1976, numerous cracks were
also found in the fuselage along the upper fuselage on the
29.2. DESIGN
307
centerline, aft of the refueling port, extending back to the 2009 with Lockheed reaching full production in May
wing. The cracks required a redesign to the hydraulic sys- 2011. 22 C-5M Super Galaxies have been completed as
tem for the visor, the front cargo entry point.
of August 2014.[43] The RERP upgrade program is to be
completed in early 2018.
29.1.3
As of 2014 Lockheed is investigating drag reduction by
Continued production and develop- plasma-heating of turbulent transonic airow in critical

ment
points, saving overall weight by reducing fuel consump-
tion. The Air Force Research Laboratory is looking at

In 1974, Iran, then holding good relations with the United shape-memory alloy for speed dependent vortex generaStates, oered $160 million to restart C-5 production tors.[44]
to enable Iran to purchase aircraft for their own air
force;[30][31] in a similar climate as to their acquisition of
F-14 Tomcat ghters.[32] However no C-5 aircraft were
ever ordered by Iran, as the prospect was rmly halted by 29.2 Design
the Iranian Revolution in 1979.[33][34]
29.2.1 Overview
A Galaxy undergoing the AMP and RERP upgrades, to become

a C-5M.
As part of President Ronald Reagan's military policy,

funding was made available for expansion of the USAFs
airlift capability. With the C-17 program still some years
from completion, Congress approved funding for a new
version of the C-5, the C-5B, in July 1982 to expand
airlift capacity.[35][36][37] The rst C-5B was delivered to
Altus Air Force Base in January 1986. In April 1989,
the last of 50 C-5B aircraft was added to the 77 C5As in the Air Forces airlift force structure. The C5B includes all C-5A improvements and numerous additional system modications to improve reliability and
maintainability.[38]
The C-5 is a large high-wing cargo aircraft with a distinctive high T-tail n (vertical) stabilizer, and with four
TF39 turbofan engines mounted on pylons beneath wings
that are swept 25 degrees. Similar in layout to its smaller
predecessor, the C-141 Starlifter, the C-5 has 12 internal
wing tanks and is equipped for aerial refueling. Above
the plane-length cargo deck, it provides an upper deck for
ight operations and for seating 75 passengers including
the embarked loadmaster crew, all who face to the rear
of the aircraft during ight. Full-open(able) bay doors
at both nose and tail enable drive-through loading and
unloading of cargo.[45]
The cargo hold of the C-5 is one foot longer than the
entire length of the rst powered ight by the Wright
Brothers at Kitty Hawk.[46] But, for its voracious consumption of fuel and its maintenance and reliability issues [47] the Galaxys aircrews have nicknamed it FRED,
for: fucking[N 1] (fantastic, or freaking) ridiculous, economic/environmental disaster.[47]
Takeo and landing distance requirements for the plane
at maximum-load gross weight are 8,300 ft (2,500 m)
and 4,900 ft (1,500 m), respectively. Its high otation
main landing gear provides 28 wheels to distribute gross
weight on paved or earth surfaces. The rear main landing gear can be steered to make a smaller turning radius; it is rotated 90 degrees after takeo before being
retracted. Kneeling landing gear permits lowering the
aircraft when parked, thereby presenting the cargo deck
at truck-bed height to facilitate loading and unloading
operations.[50]
In 1998, the Avionics Modernization Program (AMP)

began upgrading the C-5s avionics to include a glass
cockpit, navigation equipment, and a new autopilot
system.[39] Another part of the C-5 modernization eort
is the Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program
(RERP). The program will mainly replace the engines The C-5 features a Malfunction Detection Analysis and
with newer, more powerful ones.[40]
Recording (MADAR) system to identify errors throughA total of 52 C-5s are contracted to be modernized, out the aircraft.
consisting of 49 B-, two C- and one A-model aircraft
through the Reliability Enhancement and Re-Engining
Program (RERP). The program features over 70 changes
and upgrades, including the newer General Electric
engines.[41][42] Three C-5s underwent RERP for testing
purposes; low-rate initial production started in August
The cargo compartment is 121 ft (37 m) long, 13.5 ft (4.1

m) high, and 19 ft (5.8 m) wide, or just over 31,000 cu
ft (880 m3 ). It can accommodate up to 36 463L master
pallets or a mix of palletized cargo and vehicles. The nose
and aft cargo-bay doors open the full width and height of
the cargo bay to maximize ecient loading of oversized
308
Personnel unload cargo from a C-5 Galaxy at Pegasus Field, an

ice runway near McMurdo Station, Antarctica in 1989.
Heavy equipment stowed inside a C-5. Aircrew loadmasters ensure cargo is secured and balanced before takeo.
The rst C-5A was delivered to the USAF on 17 December 1969. Wings were built up in the early 1970s at
Altus AFB, Oklahoma; Charleston AFB, South Carolina;
Dover AFB, Delaware; and Travis AFB, California. The
C-5s rst mission was on 9 July 1970, in Southeast Asia
during the Vietnam War.[51] C-5s were used to transport
equipment and troops, including Army tanks and even
some small aircraft, throughout the later years of the US
action in Vietnam.[52] In the nal weeks of the war, prior
to the Fall of Saigon, several C-5s were involved in evacuation eorts; during one such mission a C-5A crashed
while transporting a large number of orphans, with over
140 killed.[53][54]
C-5s have also been used to deliver support and reinforce various US allies over the years. During the Yom
Kippur war in 1973, multiple C-5s and C-141 Starlifters
delivered critical supplies of ammunition, replacement
weaponry and other forms of aid to Israel, the US effort was named as Operation Nickel Grass.[55][56] The C-5
Galaxys performance in Israel was such that the Pentagon
began to consider further purchases.[57] The C-5 was regularly made available to support American allies, such
as the British-led peacekeeper initiative in Zimbabwe in
1979.[58]
C-5 Galaxy in-ight shortly after taking o
equipment. Full width ramps enable loading double rows

of vehicles from either end of the cargo hold.[45]
The Galaxy C-5 is capable of moving nearly every type of
military combat equipment, including such bulky items
as the Army armored vehicle launched bridge (AVLB),
at 74 short tons (67 t) , from the United States to any location on the globe;[45] and of accommodating up to six
Boeing AH-64 Apache helicopters or ve Bradley Fighting Vehicles at one time.[29]
On 24 October 1974, the Space and Missile Systems Organization successfully conducted an Air Mobile Feasibility Test where a C-5A Galaxy aircraft air dropped an
86,000 lb Minuteman ICBM from 20,000 ft over the Pacic Ocean. The missile descended to 8,000 ft before
its rocket engine red. The 10-second engine burn carried the missile to 20,000 ft again before it dropped into
the ocean. The test proved the feasibility of launching
an intercontinental ballistic missile from the air. Operational deployment was discarded due to engineering
and security diculties, though the capability was used
as a negotiating point in the Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks.[59][60] Aircraft 69-0014, Zero-One-Four used in
the test was retired to the Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base.[61]
29.4. VARIANTS
309
A C-5 taking o from Robins AFB
C-5A Minuteman Air Mobile ICBM Feasibility Demonstration

24 October 1974
The C-5 has been used for several unusual functions; during the development of the secretive stealth ghter, the
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, Galaxies were often used
to carry partly disassembled aircraft, leaving no exterior signs as to their cargo.[62] It remains the largest aircraft to ever operate in the Antarctic;[63] Williams Field
near McMurdo Station is capable of handling C-5 aircraft, the rst of which landed there in 1989.[64] The C5 Galaxy was a major supply asset in the international
coalition operations in 1990-91 against Iraq in the Gulf
War.[65][66][67] C-5s have routinely delivered relief aid
and humanitarian supplies to areas aicted with natural disasters or crisis, multiple ights were made over
Rwanda in 1994.[68]
placed set limits upon retirement plans for C-5A models in 2003.[76] As of November 2013, 45 C-5As have
been retired; 11 have been scrapped, parts of one (A/C
66-8306) are now a cargo load trainer at Lackland AFB,
Texas and one was sent to the Warner Robins Air Logistics Center (WR-ALC) for tear down and inspection to
evaluate structural integrity and estimate the remaining
life for the eet.[77]
The U.S. Air Force began to receive retted C-5M aircraft in December 2008.[78] Full production of C-5Ms
began in the summer of 2009.[79] In 2009, the Congressional ban on the retirement of C-5s was overturned.[80]
The Air Force seeks to retire one C-5A for each 10
new C-17s ordered.[81] In October 2011, the 445th Airlift Wing based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base retired or reassigned all of its remaining C-5s; it has since
reequipped with C-17s.[82] Sixteen C-5M aircraft have
been delivered as of December 2013.[83] The C-5Ms have
The wings on the C-5As were replaced during the 1980s been delivered late from the production schedule due to
to restore full design capability.[28] The USAF took de- unspecied complications.
livery of the rst C-5B on 28 December 1985 and the
On 13 September 2009, a C-5M set 41 new records; ight
nal one in April 1989.[69] The reliability of the C-5 eet
data was submitted to the National Aeronautic Associahas been a continued issue throughout its lifetime,[70][71]
tion for formal recognition. The C-5M had carried a payhowever the C-5M upgrade program seeks in part to
load of 176,610 lb (80,110 kg) to over 41,100 ft (12,500
address this issue.[40] Their strategic airlift capacity has
m) in 23 minutes, 59 seconds. Additionally, 33 time to
been a key logistical component of U.S. military operaclimb records at various payload classes were set, and the
tions in Afghanistan and Iraq; following an incident durworld record for greatest payload to 6,562 ft (2,000 m)
ing Operation Iraqi Freedom where one C-5 was damwas broken. The aircraft was in the category of 551,160
aged by a projectile, the installation of defensive systems
to 661,390 lb (250,000 to 300,000 kg) with a takeo
has become a stated priority.[72]
weight of 649,680 lb (294,690 kg) including payload,
The C-5 AMP and RERP modernization programs plan fuel, and other equipment.[84]
to raise mission-capable rate to a minimum goal of
75%.[40] Over the next 40 years, the U.S. Air Force estimates the C-5M will save over $20 billion.[73] The rst
C-5M conversion was completed on 16 May 2006; C- 29.4 Variants
5Ms began test ights at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in
June 2006.[73] The USAF decided to convert remaining 29.4.1 C-5A
C-5Bs and C-5Cs into C-5Ms with avionics upgrades and
re-engining in February 2008.[74] The C-5As will receive The C-5A is the original version of the C-5. From 1969 to
only the avionics upgrades.[74][75]
1973, 81 C-5As were delivered to U.S. Air Force bases.
In response to Air Force motions towards the retirement Due to cracks found in the wings in the mid-1970s, the
of the C-5 Galaxy, Congress implemented legislation that cargo weight was restricted. To restore the C-5s full ca-
310
Instrument panel of a C-5A

New C-5 cockpit avionics, installed under the Avionics Modernization Program
pability, the wing structure was redesigned. A program

to install new strengthened wings on 77 C-5As was conducted from 1981 to 1987. The redesigned wing made
use of a new aluminum alloy that did not exist during the many of the C-5As. The C-5 Avionics Modernization
Program (AMP) began in 1998 and includes upgrading
original production.[85]
avionics to Global Air Trac Management compliance,
improving communications, new at panel displays, improving navigation and safety equipment, and installing a
29.4.2 C-5B
new autopilot system. The rst ight of a C-5 with AMP
[91]
The C-5B is an improved version of the C-5A. It in- (85-0004) occurred on 21 December 2002.
corporated all modications and improvements made to The Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program
the C-5A with improved wings, simplied landing gear, (RERP) began in 2006. It includes new General Electric
upgraded TF-39-GE-1C turbofan engines and updated F138-GE-100 (CF6-80C2) engines, pylons and auxiliary
avionics. 50 of the new variant were delivered to the U.S. power units, upgrades to aircraft skin and frame, landAir Force from 1986 to 1989.[86][87]
ing gear, cockpit and pressurization systems.[40][92] The
CF6 engine produces 22% more thrust (for 50,000 lbf or
220 kN) from each engine,[93] providing a 30% shorter
29.4.3 C-5C
takeo, a 38% higher climb rate to initial altitude, an increased cargo load and a longer range.[40][94] Upgraded
The C-5C is a specially modied variant for transport- C-5s are designated C-5M Super Galaxy.[95] The C-5M
ing large cargo. Two C-5s (68-0213 and 68-0216) were reached initial operating capability (IOC) on 24 Februmodied to have a larger internal cargo capacity to ac- ary 2014 with 16 aircraft delivered.[96]
commodate large payloads, such as satellites. The major modications were the removal of the rear passenger
compartment oor, splitting the rear cargo door in the
middle, and installing a new movable aft bulkhead further
to the rear.[88] The ocial C-5 technical manual refers to 29.4.5 L-500
the version as C-5A(SCM) Space Cargo Modied. Modications also included adding a second inlet for ground Lockheed also planned a civilian version of the C-5
power, which can feed any power-dependent equipment Galaxy, the L-500, the company designation also used for
that may form part of the cargo. The two C-5Cs are oper- the C-5 itself. Both passenger and cargo versions of the
ated by U.S. Air Force crews for NASA, and are stationed L-500 were designed. The all-passenger version would
at Travis AFB, California.[89] Both 68-0213 and 68-0216 have been able to carry up to 1,000 travelers, while the
completed the Avionics Modernization Program by Jan- all-cargo version was predicted to be able to carry typical
uary 2007. 68-0213 is being upgraded in RERP to the C-5 volume for as little as 2 cents per ton-mile (in 1967
dollars).[97] Although some interest was expressed by carC-5M (SCM) standard.
riers, no orders were placed for either L-500 version, due
to operational costs caused by low fuel eciency, a signif29.4.4 C-5 AMP and C-5M Super Galaxy icant concern for a prot-making carrier, even before the
oil crisis of the 1970s, keen competition from Boeings
Following a study showing 80% of the C-5 airframe ser- 747, and high costs incurred by Lockheed in developing
vice life remaining,[90] AMC began an aggressive pro- the C-5 and later, the L-1011 which led to the governgram to modernize all remaining C-5Bs and C-5Cs and mental rescue of the company.[98]
29.5. OPERATORS
29.4.6
C-5 Shuttle Carrier
Lockheed proposed a twin body C-5 as a Shuttle Carrier

Aircraft to counter the Conroy Virtus, but the design was
turned down.
29.5 Operators
311
21st Airlift Squadron,
1993-2006
22nd
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 197275th Military Airlift
Squadron, 1970-92
The 60th AMW operates the 2 C-5Cs for
NASA. C-5C 68-0213 is undergoing RERP
modications, leaving one available.
436th Military Airlift Wing/Airlift Wing - Dover
Air Force Base, Delaware
People in line to enter the 445th Airlift Wings rst C-5A Galaxy
in 2005
3d
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1973-2007
9th
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 197131st
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1989-94
437th Military Airlift Wing - Charleston Air Force
Base, South Carolina
3d
Military
Airlift
Squadron, 1970-73
443d Military Airlift Wing - Altus Air Force Base,
Oklahoma
56th Military Airlift
Squadron, 1969-92
Air Education & Training Command
Air Force Reserve
A C-5 Galaxy from the Air Force Reserve Commands 433rd Airlift Wing
United States

The C-5 is limited to military and government
use. The U.S. Air Force has 71 C-5s in service
as of February 2014 and plans to reduce the
eet to 52 M models by 2017.[99]
Military Airlift Command / Air Mobility Command
60th Military Airlift Wing/Air Mobility Wing Travis Air Force Base, California
349th Military Airlift Wing/Air Mobility

Wing(Associate) - Travis Air Force Base, California
301st
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1973-2006
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1973 433d Military Airlift Wing/Airlift
Kelly/Lackland Air Force Base, Texas
68th
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1985356th Airlift Squadron,
2007-
Wing
312
439th Military Airlift Wing/Airlift Wing - Westover

Air Reserve Base, Massachusetts
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 198789th Airlift Squadron,
2006-12
512th
Military
Airlift
Wing/Airlift
Wing(Associate) - Dover Air Force Base, Delaware
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1973-2007
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1973-
29.6 Incidents and accidents
The ight deck from the C-5B crash at Dover AFB in April 2006
being loaded into another C-5
There have been ve C-5 Galaxy aircraft lost in crashes

along with two class-A losses resulting from ground re
and one loss resulting from damage sustained on the
ground, with a combined total of 169 fatalities. There
have been at least two other C-5 crashes that resulted in
major airframe damage, but the aircraft were repaired
and returned to service.
C-5A after crash landing at Shemya AFB, Alaska, July 1983
29.6.1 Notable accidents

On 27 May 1970, C-5A AF serial number 67-0172
was destroyed during a ground re at Palmdale, California after an Air Turbine Motor (ATM) started
backwards and quickly overheated, setting the hydraulic system on re and quickly consuming the aircraft. The engines were not running at the time of
the re. Five crew escaped, and seven reghters
suered minor injuries ghting the blaze.[100][101]
Emergency responders at the scene of a C-5B crash at Dover

AFB, Delaware, April 2006
On 17 October 1970, C-5A AF Ser. No. 66-8303

was destroyed during a ground re at the Lockheed
Aircraft plant at Dobbins AFB in Marietta, Georgia. The re started during maintenance in one of
the aircrafts 12 fuel cells. One worker was killed
and another injured. This was the rst C-5 aircraft
produced.[101]

On 27 September 1974, C-5A 68-0227 crashed after over-running the runway at Clinton, Oklahoma
Municipal Airport during an emergency landing following a serious landing gear re. The crew mistakenly aligned the aircraft for the visual approach
into the wrong airport, landing at Clinton Municipal
Airport, which has a 4,400 ft (1,300 m) runway
instead of the aireld at Clinton-Sherman Industrial
Airpark (former Clinton-Sherman AFB), which has
a 13,500 ft (4,100 m) runway. This was the rst operational loss of a C-5 Galaxy.[101]
On 4 April 1975, C-5A 68-0218 crashed while
carrying orphans out of Vietnam during Operation
Babylift. This crash is one of the most notorious C-5 accidents to date.[53] The crash occurred
while trying to make an emergency landing at Tan
Son Nhut Air Base, Saigon, following a rear pressure door lock failure in ight.[101][102] 144 people
(including 78 children) were killed out of the 313
aboard (243 children, 44 escorts, 16 ight crew and
10 medical crew).[54] Use of the C-5 was heavily restricted for several months following this high prole
accident.[103]
On 31 July 1983, C-5A 70-0446 crashed on landing
at Shemya, Alaska. The C-5 approached below the
glide slope, hit an embankment short of the runway
and bounced back into the air before coming to rest
on the runway. Structural damage was extensive and
the two aft main landing gear bogies were sheared
from the aircraft. There were no fatalities. A joint
USAF/Lockheed team made repairs enabling a onetime ferry ight from Shemya to the Lockheed plant
in Marietta, Georgia. There, the aircraft was quickly
christened Phoenix II and permanent repair eorts
got under way. In addition to the structural repairs,
Phoenix II also received an improved landing gear
system (common to the then-new C-5B), wing modication, and a color weather radar upgrade. The
aircraft was returned to service.[104]
In July 1985, C-5A 68-0216 landed gear up at Travis
Air Force Base, California. There were no injuries.
The accident occurred while the crew was performing touch-and-go landings, and did not lower the
landing gear during the nal approach of the day.
The aircraft received signicant damage to the lower
fuselage and main landing gear pods. The C-5A was
later own to Marietta for repairs. While there, the
aircraft was selected to be the rst C-5A converted
to the C-5C conguration.[105]
313
the runway, one of the thrust reversers suddenly deployed. This resulted in loss of control of the aircraft and the subsequent crash. Of the 17 people
on board, only four survived the crash.[107] All four
were in the rear troop compartment. The sole crew
member to survive, Sta Sgt. Lorenzo Galvan, Jr.,
was awarded the Airmans Medal for his actions in
evacuating the survivors from the wreckage.[101]
On 3 April 2006, C-5B 84-0059 crashed following a cockpit indication that a thrust reverser was
not locked. The C-5B assigned to the 436th Airlift
Wing and own by a reserve crew from the 709th
Airlift Squadron, 512th Airlift Wing crashed about
2,000 ft (610 m) short of the runway while attempting a heavyweight emergency landing at Dover Air
Force Base, Delaware. The aircraft had taken o
from Dover 21 minutes earlier and reported an inight emergency 10 minutes into the ight. All
17 people aboard survived, but two received serious injuries. The Air Forces accident investigation board report concluded the cause to be human error, most notably the crew had been manipulating the throttle of the (dead) number two
engine as if it was still running while keeping the
(live) number three engine at idle. The situation
was further worsened by the crews decision to use
a high ap setting that increased drag beyond normal two engine capabilities.[108][109] The aircraft was
one of the rst to receive the new avionics and glass
ight displays for C-5 avionics modernization program (AMP).[110] This accident led to a redesign of
the cockpit engine displays, particularly the visual
indicators of a non-active engine.[111] The aircraft
was a complete hull-loss and the airframe scrapped,
but the forward fuselage became a C-5 AMP test
bed.[112]

C-5A, AF Ser. No. 69-0014, is on display at the Air
Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base,
Delaware. This is the rst, and currently only, C-5 aircraft to go on museum display.[113][114]
29.8 Specications (C-5B)

Data from Quest for Performance,[115] International Directory of Military Aircraft,[116] and USAF fact sheet[83]
On 29 August 1990, C-5A 68-0228 crashed follow- General characteristics

ing an engine failure shortly after take-o. The aircraft took o from Ramstein Air Base in Germany
Crew: 7 typical (aircraft commander, pilot, two
in support of Operation Desert Shield. It was own
ight engineers, three loadmasters)
by a nine-member reserve crew from the 68th Air4 minimum (pilot, copilot, two ight engineers)
lift Squadron, 433rd Airlift Wing based at Kelly
AFB, Texas.[106] As the aircraft started to climb o
Payload: 270,000 lb (122,470 kg)
314

Wing loading: 120 lb/ft2 (610 kg/m2 )
Thrust/weight: 0.22
Takeo roll: 8,400 ft (2,600 m)
Landing roll: 3,600 ft (1,100 m)
Fuel capacity: 51,150 US gal (193,600 L)
29.9 See also

A detail of the C-5s nose assembly raised for loading and unloading.

Antonov An-124
Antonov An-225 Mriya
Boeing C-17 Globemaster III
Boeing 747
Related lists
A General Electric TF39 turbofan engine
29.10 References
Length: 247 ft 1 in (75.31 m)
Height: 65 ft 1 in (19.84 m)
Wing area: 6,200 ft2 (576 m2 )
Powerplant: 4 General Electric TF39-GE-1C
high-bypass turbofan, 43,000 lbf (190 kN) each
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 0.79 (503 kn, 579 mph,
932 km/h)
29.10.1 Notes
[1] sometimes written as fantastic[48][49]
29.10.2 Citations
[1] Bakse 1995, p. 91.
[2] Congressional Budget Oce 1986, p. 47.
[3] C-5 history. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 20 January
2010.
[4] Bakse 1995, p. 39.
[5] Norton 2003, pp. 89.
[6] Norton 2003, pp. 1213.
[7] Norton 2003, p. 11.
Cruise speed: Mach 0.77 (919 km/h)
[8] Erving 1993, pp. 189190.
Range: 2,400 nmi (2,760 mi, 4,440 km) with a

263,200 lb (119,400 kg) payload
[9] Bakse 1995, pp. 39, 74.
Service ceiling: 35,700 ft (10,600 m) at 615,000 lb

(279,000 kg) gross weight
[10] Phillips 2004, p. 127.

[11] Veronico and Dunn 2004, p. 62.
[12] Garrard, Wilfred C. The Lockheed C-5 Case Study in
Aircraft Design. AIAA Professional Study Series.
29.10. REFERENCES
315
[13] Tillman 2007, p. 82.
[38] Norton 2003, pp. 5658.
[14] Plane costs suppressed, Colonel says. Milwaukee Journal, 30 April 1969.
[39] Schanz, Marc V., Assoc. Editor. Life with the C-5.
Air Force Magazine, Volume 90, Issue 6, June 2007, pp.
5960. ISSN 0730-6784.
[15] C-5A Foe says Pentagon stripped him of duties. The

New York Times, 18 November 1969.
[16] Garwood, Darrell. Newest Air Force planes grounded.
Times-News, 17 January 1970.
[17] Nalty 2003, pp. 192193.
[18] A Whistle-blower on the C-5A Gets a New Life. People
Magazine, 15 July 1974.
[19] General asks U.S. to share Lockheed loss. Spokane
Daily Chronicle, 29 June 1970.
[20] New Life for TriStar. Time, 17 May 1971. Retrieved 6
January 2007.
[21] Aspin, Les. The Lockheed Loan revisited. The New
York Times, 29 August 1972.
[22] Miles, Marvin. Jumbo Jet will ferry Space Shuttle Piggyback across U.S. Los Angeles Times, 19 June 1974.
[23] Goebel, Greg. Antonov An-225 Mriya (Cossack).
The Antonov Giants: An-22, An-124, & An-225. vectorsite.net, 1 November 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2006.
[24] Norton 2003, pp. 3136.
[25] National Research Council 1997, p. 90.
[26] Finney, John W. C-5A jet repairs to cost 1.5 billion; Pentagon outs outlay to x Wing Defects at 1.3 Billion as
'Overruns continue. The New York Times, 15 December
1975.
[40] Tirpak, John A. Saving the Galaxy. Air Force Magazine,

January 2004.
[41] Lockheed Martin Delivers Second Production C-5M Super Galaxy To U.S. Air Force Lockheed Martin Press Release, 12 April 2011.
[42] Trimble, Stephen. Lockheed Martin inducts rst C-5B
for C-5M modications. Flight International, 21 August
2009.
[43] http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/news/
press-releases/2014/august/140825ae_double-deuce.
html
[44] Graham Warwick and Guy Norris. "AFRL Seeks DragReduction Technologies For Mobility Aircraft" Aviation
Week & Space Technology, 23 September 2014. Accessed: 26 September 2014. Archived on 26 September
2014
[45] C-5 design. Globalsecurity.org, 20 January 2010.
[46] The Five First Flights. thewrightbrothers.org, 23 July
2008.
[47] Lippincott 2006, p. 4.
[48] Goebel, Greg. The Lockheed C-141 Starlifter & C-5
Galaxy. Air Vectors, 1 April 14.
[49] Gustin, Emmanuel. Aircraft nicknames. mit.edu. Retrieved: 6 December 2012.
[27] Coates, James. Disputed C-5 jet gets Pentagon nod.

Chicago Tribune, 21 January 1982.
[50] Air International February 1984, p. 63.
[28] Norton 2003, pp. 5356.
[51] Coughlin, William J. C-5A in rst S. Viet ight. Los

Angeles Times, 10 July 1970.
[29] Congressional Budget Oce 1986, p. 46.

[30] Iran may fund new production of Lockheed C-5. Los
Angeles Times, 8 May 1974.
[31] Wright, Robert A. Lockheed considers Textron merger;
Protable division Iranian oer is reported. The New
York Times, 8 May 1974.
[32] Marder, Murray. Oil pact with U.S. rm: Iran signs
agreement. Victoria Advocate, 26 July 1973.
[33] Vital US military technology has been lost to new Iranian
regime. Lewiston Evening Journal, 16 February 1979.
[34] U.S. cuts o plane parts to Iran. Chicago Tribune, 9
November 1979.
[52] Norton 2003, pp. 4344.

[53] Portrait of tragedy. Evening Independent, 4 April 1975.
[54] http://babyliftrevisited.typepad.com/babylift_revisited/
2006/07/the_crew_of_the.html
[55] Norton 2003, pp. 4546.
[56] Dunstan 2007, pp. 56, 88.
[57] C-5 Performance in Israel may spur Pentagon to order
more. Los Angeles Times, 9 November 1973.
[58] U.S. Cargo Jets to play Zimbabwe role. Los Angeles
Times, 7 December 1979,
[35] Storer, Rowley. House gives Reagan victories on MX,

C-5. Chicago Tribune, 22 July 1982.
[59] Thursday, 01 January 1970 Sunday, 31 December

1989. U.S. Air Force, Inside the AF.MIL Heritage section.
[36] U.S. Air Force wants to double Airlift capacity. Times

Daily, 27 January 1982.
[60] Marti and Sarigul-Klijn. A Study of Air Launch Methods

for RLVs. Doc No. AIAA 20014619. Mechanical and
Aeronautical Engineering Dept, University of California,
Davis, California.
[37] Nalty 2003, p. 367.
316
[61] The 'radical' nuclear missile test that made history.

[62] Jenkins 2001, p. 84.
[63] Dole, Ronald D. Six Months On Ice": Living And
Working At The Bottom Of The World. KA1EFO . Retrieved: 23 August 2011.
[64] Runway Project Clears the Way for Improved Antarctic
Airlift. National Science Foundation, 20 February 2002.
[65] Evans, David. The Gulf airlift has moved only the tip of
the spear. Chicago Tribune, 24 August 1990.
[66] Brenner, Elliot. Massive airlift, sealift equals moving a
town. Daily Gazette, 22 August 1990.
[67] Chant 2001, p. 47.
[68] Plunkett, A.J. More troops leave on Rwandan mission.
Daily Press, 4 August 1994.
[69] Norton 2003, p. 58.
[70] Leary, William M. Strategic Airlift: Past, Present,
and Future. Air University Review, SeptemberOctober
1986.
[71] Anderson, Brian H. The Mobility Traid and Challenges
for the Operational Commander. Naval War College
Newport, 5 February 1999, p. 8.
[72] Government Accountability Oce 2006, pp. 125156.
[73] McGowan, Laura. C-5 still going strong. US Air Force,
21 June 2006.
[74] Warick, Graham. Pentagon cancels re-engining of
USAFs older Lockheed C-5s. Flightglobal.com, 15
February 2008.
[75] Air Force C-5 Galaxy modernization program certied.
U.S. Air Force, 15 February 2008.
[84] Lockheed Martin C-5M Super Galaxy Sets World Aviation Records. Lockheed Martin, 15 September 2009.
[85] C-5A. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
[86] C-5B. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved: 21 January 2010.
[87] Miller 2003, p. 53.
[88] Norton 2003, pp. 62, 78.
[89] C-5C. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved: 21 January 2010.
[90] Jablonski, David A. Air Force Fleet Viability Board releases C-5A assessment. Air Force Print News, 15 July
2004.
[91] First Flight For AMP C-5. Code One Magazine, April
2003.
[92] Hooker, John R., David L. Hoyle and Dwayne N. Bevis.
The Application of CFD for the Aerodynamic Development of the C-5M Galaxy. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, January 2006.
[93] C-5 modernization program. Lockheed Martin. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
[94] Lockheed Martin C-5M 'Super Galaxy' Expands U.S.
Air Force 'Global Reach' Capability at Lower Cost.
Lockheed Martin, 16 May 2006.
[95] Second C-5M Super Galaxy takes ight.
Force, 20 November 2006.
U.S. Air
[96] Upgraded C-5M Super Galaxies gain IOC designation Upi.com, 24 February 2014
[97] Aircraft: The Biggest Bird. TIME, 12 July 1968.
[98] Lockheed L-500 Galaxy proposed UAL colors, c.
1968. doraplane.com. Retrieved: 3 January 2011.
usaf-declares-ioc-for-c-5m
[76] Weinberger, Sharon. Congress Moves To Limit C-5A [100] San Bernardino Sun, 28 May 1970.
Retirement. Defense Daily, 14 November 2003.
[101] C-5 crash doesnt diminish historians view of aircraft.
US Air Force, 4 April 2006.
[77] http://www.amarcexperience.com
[78] Trimble, Stephen. Lockheed delivers rst upgraded C- [102] 305 aboard giant craft; 100 survive. Boca Raton News,
4 April 1975.
5M Super Galaxy. Flight International, 11 December
2008.
[103] Airforce imposes curbs on C-5 use. The New York
Times, 12 April 1975.
[79] Lockheed Martin delivers third C-5M Super Galaxy to
United States Air Force. Bloomberg, 27 February 2009.
[104] Lippincott 2006, p. 35.
[80] Trimble, Stephen. More C-17 sales possible after C-5A
[105] Lippincott 2006, p. 28.
retirement ban lifted. Flight International, 11 September
2009.
[106] San Antonio air base mourns reservists killed in C-5
crash. Austin American-Statesman, 30 August 1990.
[81] Rolfsen, Bruce, C-5A swap for new C-17s has hitch. Air
Force Times, 12 January 2010.
[107] U.S. plane crashes, killing 13. Deseret News, 29 August
1990.
[82] 445th C-5 era comes to an end 445th Airlift Wing Public
Aairs, 4 October 2011.
[108] C-5 accident investigation board complete. US Air
Force, 13 June 2006.
[83] C-5 A/B/C Galaxy and C-5M Super Galaxy fact sheet.
US Air Force, January 2014. Retrieved: 29 January 2014. [109] USAF Crash Investigation Video. youtube.com.
[110] Air Force blames crew for C-5 crash DelawareOnline,

14 June 2006.
[111] Pilot Performance Based Selection of Engine Display
Features. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 54, no. 1, September 2010, pp. 6569.
[112] Langley, Nicole. Gone with the wings: C-5 removal process in full swing. US Air Force, 19 January 2007.
[113] http://www.airforcetimes.com/article/20131104/
NEWS/311040018/C-5-goes-display-AMC-museum
[114] http://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/
c-5a-galaxy/
[115] Loftin, L.K., Jr. NASA SP-468: Quest for Performance:
The Evolution of Modern Aircraft. NASA, 1985.
[116] Frawley, Gerald. The International Directory of Military
Aircraft, 2002/2003. Fishwick, Act, Australia: Aerospace
29.10.3
Bibliography
Aging of U.S. Air Force Aircraft: Final Report.

Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, National Academies, 1997.
Bakse, Colin. Airlift Tanker: History of U.S. Airlift
and Tanker Forces. New York: Turner Publishing,
1995. ISBN 1-56311-125-X.
Chant, Christopher. Air War in the Gulf 1991. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-84176295-4.
Dunstan, Simon. The Yom Kippur War: the ArabIsraeli War of 1973. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-84603-288-1.
The Giants of Georgia. Air International, Vol. 26,
No. 2, February 1984, pp. 6168, 8790. ISSN
0306-5634.
Government Accountability Oce. Military Readiness: DOD Needs to Identify and Address Gaps and
Potential Risks in Program Strategies and Funding
Priorities for Selected Equipment. Darby, Pennsylvania: DIANE Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-4223-04442.
Improving Strategic Mobility: The C-17 Program
and Alternatives. Washington, D.C.: Congressional
Budget Oce, United States Congress, September
1986. ISBN 1-4379-0071-2.
Irving, Clive. Wide Body: The Triumph of the 747.
New York: W. Morrow, 1993. ISBN 0-688-099025.
Jenkins, Dannis J. Lockheed Secret Projects: Inside
the Skunk Works. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-0914-0.
317
Miller, David. Conict Iraq: Weapons and Tactics
of the US and Iraqi Forces. St. Paul, Minnesota:
Zenith Imprint, 2003. ISBN 0-7603-1592-2.
Nalty, Bernard C. Winged Shield, Winged Sword
19501997: A History of the United States Air Force.
Minerva Group, 2003. ISBN 1-4102-0902-4.
Lippincott, Richard. C-5 Galaxy in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 2006.
ISBN 0-89747-504-6.
Norton, Bill. Lockheed Martin C-5 Galaxy. North
Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2003. ISBN
1-58007-061-2.
Philips, Warren F. Mechanics of Flight. Hoboken,
New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2004. ISBN 0471-33458-8.
Reed, Chris. Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-76431205-7.
Tillman, Barrett. What We Need: Extravagance and
Shortages in Americas Military. Zenith Imprint,
2007. ISBN 076032-869-2.
Veronico, Nick and Jim Dunn. 21st Century U.S. Air
Power. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2004.
ISBN 0-7603-2014-4.

C-5 A/B/C Galaxy and C-5M Super Galaxy U.S.
Air Force fact sheet
C-5M page on LockheedMartin.com
C-5 Galaxy page on GlobalSecurity.org
Fatigue and Related Human Factors in the Near
Crash of a Large Military Aircraft. Aviation,
Space, and Environmental Medicine, Volume 77,
Number 9, September 2006, pp. 963970.
Chapter 30
Lockheed EC-130H Compass Call

The EC-130H Compass Call is an American airborne
tactical weapon system using a heavily modied version
of the C-130 Hercules airframe. It is based at DavisMonthan AFB. The system attempts to disrupt enemy
command and control communications and limits adversary coordination essential for enemy force management.
Compass Calls oensive counterinformation and electronic attack capabilities are used to support U.S. and
allied tactical air, surface, and special operations forces.
Programmed upgrades will give a secondary Electronic
Attack (EA) capability against early warning and acquisition radars.
U.S. airborne electronic warfare consists of four main elements: the EC-130H Compass Call, the EA-18 Growler,
EA-6B Prowler, and the F-16CJ Fighting Falcon suppress enemy air defenses while jamming communications, radar and command and control targets. Compass
Call can be deployed worldwide at short notice.
30.2 Design
30.2.1 Crew
The EC-130H aircraft carries a combat crew of thirteen people. Four members are responsible for aircraft
ight and navigation (aircraft commander, co-pilot, navigator and ight engineer), while nine members operate
and employ the EA mission equipment permanently integrated in the cargo/mission compartment. The mission
crew includes the mission crew commander (electronic
warfare ocer), weapon system ocer (electronic warfare ocer), mission crew supervisor (an experienced
cryptologic linguist), four analysis operators (linguists),
one acquisition operator and an airborne maintenance
technician.[1]

Compass Call has been used in locations including
Kosovo, Haiti, Panama, Iraq, Serbia, Afghanistan.
30.1 Development
30.4 Operators
The EC-130H eet is composed of a mix of state-of-theUnited States Air Force
art baseline aircraft.
Compass Call provides the Air Force with addi Air Combat Command (Langley Air Force Base,
tional capabilities to jam communication, Early WarnVirginia)
ing/Acquisition radar and navigation systems through
55th Wing (Outt Air Force Base, Nebraska)
higher eective radiated power, extended frequency
55th Electronic Combat Group (Davisrange and insertion of digital signal processing. The
Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona)
Block 35 will have the exibility to keep pace with adversary use of technology. It is highly recongurable and
41st Electronic Combat Squadron
permits incorporation of clip-ins with less crew impact.
42d Electronic Combat Squadron
It promotes enhanced crew prociency, maintenance and
43d Electronic Combat Squadron
sustainment with a common eet conguration, new operator interface, increased reliability and better fault de- Egyptian Air Force
tection.
Compass Call integrates into tactical air operations at any
level. The versatile and exible nature of the aircraft 30.5 Specications (EC-130H)
and its crew enable the power of electronic combat to be
Data from {Air Force Link: EC-130H Compass Call}[2]
brought to bear in virtually any combat situation.
318

319
30.8 External links
Crew: 13
Air Force Link: EC-130H Compass Call factsheet
Length: 97 ft, 9 in (29.3 m)
Air Force Link: Air Force news story (Compass

Call continues to 'Jam' enemy)
Wingspan: 132 ft, 7 in (39.7 m)

Height: 38 ft, 3 in (11.4 m)
Wing area: ft (m)
Air Force Link: Air Force news story ('Bats shield

Airmen from harm)
Air Force Link: Air Force news story (Airpower

supports Afghan elections)
Loaded weight: lb (kg)
Military.com: EC-130H Compass Call
Useful load: lb (kg)
AircraftGuru.com: EC-130H Compass Call

Powerplant: 4 Allison T56-A-15 turboprop,
4,591 hp (kW) each
Performance
Never exceed speed: knots (mph, km/h)
Maximum speed: knots (mph, km/h)
Cruise speed: knots (300 mph, mach 0.52)
Stall speed: knots (mph, km/h)
Range: 2,295 nm (mi, 3,694 km)
Rate of climb: ft/min (m/s)
Wing loading: lb/ft (kg/m)
Power/mass: hp/lb (W/kg)
30.6 See also

C-130 Hercules
EC-130E Rivet Rider
EC-130J Commando Solo
MC-130H Combat Talon II
30.7 References
[1] http://archive.is/20120720200900/http://www.af.mil/
information/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=190
[2] EC-130H Compass Call. United States Air Force.
Archived from the original on 2012-07-20. Retrieved
2006-01-15.
Chapter 31

The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is a
four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft. The C130J is a comprehensive update of the Lockheed C-130
Hercules, with new engines, ight deck, and other systems. The Hercules family has the longest continuous
production run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 50 years of service, the family has participated in military, civilian, and humanitarian aid operations. The Hercules has outlived several planned successor designs, most notably the Advanced Medium STOL
Transport contestants. Fifteen nations have placed orders
for a total of 300 C-130Js, of which 250 aircraft have
been delivered as of February 2012.[5]

The C-130J is the newest version of the Hercules and
the only model still in production. Externally similar to
the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J-model
features considerably updated technology. These dierences include new Rolls-Royce AE 2100 D3 turboprops
with Dowty R391[6] composite scimitar propellers, digital avionics (including head-up displays (HUDs) for each
CC-130J cockpit
pilot), and reduced crew requirements. These changes
have improved performance over its C-130E/H predecessors, such as 40% greater range, 21% higher maximum
this system enables rapid role changes to be carried out
speed, and 41% shorter takeo distance.[7] The J-model
the C-130Js time available to complete
is available in a standard-length or stretched 30 variant. and so extends
taskings.[8]
As a cargo and airlift aircraft, the C-130Js crew includes
two pilots and one loadmaster (no navigator or ight Lockheed Martin received the launch order for the Jengineer), while specialized USAF variants (e.g., AC- model from the RAF, which ordered 25 aircraft, with rst
130J, MC-130J, HC-130J) may have larger crews, such deliveries beginning in 1999 as Hercules C4 (C-130J-30)
C-130J had a
as navigators/Combat Systems Ocers. The U.S. Ma- and Hercules C5 (C-130J). The standard
[9]
yaway
cost
of
US$62
million
in
2008.
rine Corps KC-130J uses a crew chief for expeditionary
operations. The C-130Js cargo compartment is approx- In mid-June 2008, the United States Air Force awarded a
imately 41 feet (12.5 m) long, 9 feet (2.74 m) high, and $470 million contract to Lockheed Martin for six modi10 feet (3.05 m) wide, and loading is from the rear of ed KC-130J aircraft for use by the Air Force and Special
the fuselage. The aircraft can also be congured with the Operations Command. The contract led to C-130J varienhanced cargo handling system. The system consists ants that will replace aging HC-130s and MC-130s.[10]
of a computerized loadmasters station from which the The HC-130J Combat King II personnel recovery aircraft
user can remotely control the under-oor winch and also completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The
congure the ip-oor system to palletized roller or at- nal test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the rst
oor cargo handling. Initially developed for the USAF, ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircrafts re320
C-130J co-pilots head-up display (HUD)
321
RAF Hercules C4 (C-130J-30) in 2004

fueling receiver was installed during aircraft production.
This test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat The Super Hercules has been used extensively by the
Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special USAF and USMC in Iraq and Afghanistan. Canada has
also deployed its CC-130J aircraft to Afghanistan.
Operations Command.[11]
31.1.1
Harvest HAWK
Further information: Harvest HAWK

With the addition of the Marine Corpss ISR / Weapon
C-130Js from several countries have been deployed in

support of the US Operation Odyssey Dawn and NATO's
Operation Unied Protector during the 2011 Libyan civil
war.
From the rst ight on 5 April 1996 to 30 April 2013, 290
C-130J Super Hercules aircraft operated by 13 nations
surpassed 1 million ight hours.[15][16]
In January 2013, it was reported that some of Canadas
C-130J transports have counterfeit Chinese microchips in
their cockpit displays. These parts are more likely to fail
and cause such results as blank instrument screens during
ight.[17]
On 20 August 2013, the Indian Air Force performed
the highest landing of a C-130J at the Daulat Beg Oldi
airstrip in Ladakh at the height of 16614 feet (5065
meters).[18][19]
31.2.1 Civilian use

Main article: Modular Airborne FireFighting System
A KC-130J showing the AN/AAQ-30 Targeting Sight and AGM114 Hellres on the left wing in Afghanistan, 2011
Mission Kit, the KC-130J tanker variant will be able to

serve as an overwatch aircraft and can deliver ground
support re in the form of Hellre or Grin missiles,
precision-guided bombs, and eventually 30mm cannon
re in a later upgrade.[12] This capability, designated as
Harvest HAWK (Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), can
be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite,
such as area denial.[13] The aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The entire system can be removed within a day if necessary.[14]
The Modular Airborne FireFighting System (MAFFS) is

a self-contained unit used for aerial reghting that can
be loaded onto a C-130 Hercules, which then allows the
aircraft to be used as an air tanker against wildres.[20]
This allows the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) to utilize
military aircraft from the Air National Guard and Air
Force Reserve to serve as an emergency backup resource
to the civilian air tanker eet.[20][21] The latest generation MAFFS II system was used for the rst time on a
re in July 2010,[22] using the C-130J Super Hercules.[23]
The 146th Airlift Wing was the rst to transition to the
MAFFS II system in 2008, and it remains the only unit
ying the new system on the C-130J aircraft.[23]
322
CHAPTER 31. LOCKHEED MARTIN C-130J SUPER HERCULES
31.3 Orders and deliveries

The largest operator of the new model is the U.S. Air
Force, which has ordered the aircraft in increasing numbers. Current operators of the C-130J are the USAF
(to include the Air Force Reserve Command and the
Air National Guard), United States Marine Corps (being
their fourth variant after KC-130F, KC-130R and KC130T,[24] ) United States Coast Guard, Royal Air Force,
Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Australian Air Force,
Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force,
Indian Air Force, Israeli Air Force and the Italian Air
Force. As of July 2010, a total of 200 units have been Indian Air Force C-130J
produced[25] of the 284 on order at that time.[26]
31.3.1
International orders
(CISMOA), which resulted in the exclusion of high precision GPS and other sensitive equipment. However the
IAF added similar equipment produced indigenously to
the aircraft after delivery.[39] In October 2011, India announced its intent to exercise the option for the six additional aircraft, following the C-130Js favorable performance in the 2011 Sikkim earthquake relief operations.
In July 2012, the U.S. accepted Indias request for the six
more C-130Js through the FMS program.[40] On 20 December 2013, Indias CCS approved the order for 6 more
aircraft.[41]
The Iraqi Air Force ordered six C-130J-30s in July
2008.[42][43]
Qatar ordered four C-130Js in October 2008, along with

spare parts and training for the Qatar Emiri Air Force.
The contract is worth a total of US$393.6 million and
Australia was the second international customer for the deliveries are scheduled to begin in 2011.[44]
C-130J-30, with an initial order of twelve aircraft. An The United Arab Emirates Air Force announced an order
additional order for two more aircraft was planned, but for twelve C-130J transports at the 2009 IDEX, with an
canceled with the purchase of a fth Boeing C-17 Globe- announced value of US$1.3 billion.[45] The United Arab
master III.[27]
Emirates requested 12 C-130Js through a Direct ComRAAF C-130J-30 at Point Cook, 2006
The Royal Norwegian Air Force ordered four C-130J30s in 2007 to replace six aging C-130Hs in need of
additional repairs.[28][29] Aircraft were delivered from
November 2008[30][31] to 2010.[32] One of these was lost
in March 2012.
The Canadian Forces signed a US$1.4 billion contract
with Lockheed Martin for seventeen new C-130J-30s on
16 January 2008, as part of the procurement process to
replace the existing C-130E and H models.[33] The C130J will be ocially designated CC-130J Hercules in
Canadian service.[34] The rst C-130J was delivered to
CFB Trenton on 4 June 2010.[35] The nal C-130J was
delivered on 11 May 2012.[36]
mercial Sale in December 2009, with logistics support,

training and related systems to be provided through a Foreign Military Sales program.[46] A contract with Lockheed Martin has not been signed.[47]
The Israeli Air Force is seeking to purchase nine C-130J30s.[48] In April 2010 Israel ordered one C-130J-30 with
delivery in 2013, and was in contract talks for two more
aircraft in June 2010.[N 1][49] An option for a second C130J-30 was exercised on 8 April 2011, along with planning and advance long lead procurement of aircraft components to support the third C-130J Israeli aircraft.[50][51]
The rst Israeli C-130J, nicknamed Shimshon, was delivered on 26 June 2013. It was modied with Israeliunique systems to enter service in spring 2014.[16] Israel
ordered a fourth C-130J-30 on 25 July 2013.[52] The rst
Israeli C-130J was ocially delivered to the IAF on 9
April 2014.[53] The Israeli designation for the aircraft is
Samson.
The Indian Air Force purchased six C-130J-30s in early

2008 at a cost of up to US$1.059 billion[37] for its special
operations forces in a package deal with the US government under its Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program.
India has options to buy six more aircraft.[38] The Indian
government decided not to sign the Communications In- The Kuwait Air Force signed a contract for three KCteroperability and Security Memorandum of Agreement 130J air refueling tankers in May 2010, with deliveries
31.5. OPERATORS
323
to begin in late 2013.[54] The KC-130Js will extend the

range of its F-18s and augment its eet of three militarized L-100s.
Oman increased its C-130J order in August 2010 by
adding two C-130Js to the single C-130J-30 ordered in
2009. Deliveries are to be completed by early 2014.[55]
The Royal Saudi Air Force has purchased two KC-130J
aircraft to be delivered in 2016.
The Mexican Government has requested 2 C-130J30s.[56]
The Mongolian Air Force is planning to buy 3 CKC-130J Super Hercules, being towed from its assembly point at
130Js.[57]
Lockheed Martin in Marietta, Georgia, USA
On 7 June 2013, U.S. Congress was notied of a possible

foreign military sale of 2 C-130J-30s for the Free Libyan
Air Force. The deal would include 10 Rolls-Royce AE EC-130J Commando Solo III Variant for the Air
Force Special Operations Command, operated by
2100D3 engines, support and test equipment, and radios.
[58]
the Pennsylvania Air National Guard.
The deal would be worth $588 million.
In July 2013, the C-130J became part of a competition in HC-130J Combat King II Long range patrol and airthe Peruvian Air Force for a medium transport aircraft.
sea rescue variant for the United States Coast Guard.
The Super Hercules was a candidate along with the EADS
USAF HC-130J version has changes for in-ight reCASA C-295, the Alenia C-27J Spartan, the Antonov
fueling.
An-70, and the upgraded Antonov An-32.[59] The Peruvian Air Force selected the C-27J in November 2013.[60] KC-130J Aerial refueling tanker and tactical airlifter
version for United States Marine Corps.
As of December 2014 the Peruvian Air Force is still considering the C-130J to replace its aging L-100s and to MC-130J Commando II Designed for Air Force Speoperate alongside its 4 C-27Js currently in order.
cial Operations Command. Originally named Combat Shadow II.
31.3.2
Deliveries
31.4 Variants
WC-130J Weather
reconnaissance
("Hurricane
Hunter") version for the Air Force Reserve
Command.
Hercules C4 Royal Air Force designation for the C130J-30
Hercules C5 Royal Air Force designation for the C130J
L-100J A civilian version of the C-130J-30 was under
development, but the program was placed on hold
indenitely to focus on military development and
production.[73] In February 2014, Lockheed stated
it would sell a civilian version of the C-130J-30,
named LM-100J.[74]
Two USMC KC-130Js of VMGR-352 during a training exercise
SC-130J Sea Hercules Proposed maritime patrol version of the C-130J, designed for coastal surveillance
and anti-submarine warfare.[75][76]
C-130J Super Hercules Tactical airlifter
31.5 Operators
C-130J-30 Lockheed Martin designation for its 15 ft

Main article: List of C-130 Hercules operators
(4.6 m) extended fuselage variant.
CC-130J Super Hercules Ocial USAF and Royal
Canadian Air Force designation for the C-130J30[72]
Australia
324
Current and future operators of the C-130J shown in blue
Indian Air Force C 130J Super Hercules
Canada
Royal Canadian Air Force - 17 C-130J-30s in operation as of January 2014[77]

436 Transport Squadron[78]
An RAF Hercules C5 of 30 Sqn, RAF Lyneham
Denmark
Royal Danish Air Force - four C-130J-30s in service
as of January 2014[77]
India
Indian Air Force - ve C-130J-30s in service as of
January 2014.[77][79] A total of 12 C-130J-30s had
been ordered by December 2013.[80][81]
Iraq
USAF C-130J-30 taxis to the runway at RIAT 2010
Iraqi Air Force - three C-130J-30s in service as of

January 2014,[77] with a total of six C-130J-30s on
order.[43][82][83]
Israel
Israeli Air Force - six C-130J-30s on order with deliveries planned to begin in spring 2013.[51][84] It
planned to acquire a total of nine C-130J-30s in
2008.[85]
Royal Norwegian Air Force Hercules C-130J arrives at the 2014
Royal International Air Tattoo, England
Royal Australian Air Force - 12 C-130J-30s in service as of January 2014[77]
Italy
Italian Air Force - 20 aircraft (nine C-130Js, 10 C130J-30s, and one KC-130J) in service as of January
2014[77]
31.6. ACCIDENTS
Kuwait
Kuwait Air Force - three KC-130Js on order, with

an option to purchase three more[54]
Libya
Libyan Air Force - 2 C-130J-30 on order[86]

Norway
Royal Norwegian Air Force - four C-130J-30s in
service as of January 2014[77]
325
United States of America
United States Air Force - 125 aircraft (10 C-130Js,

76 C-130J-30s, three EC-130Js, 11 HC-130Js, 15
MC-130Js, and 10 WC-130Js) in service as of January 2014[77]
United States Marine Corps - 46 KC-130Js in use as
of January 2014[77]
United States Coast Guard - six HC-130Js in service
31.6 Accidents
Main article: List of C-130 Hercules crashes
Oman
Royal Air Force of Oman - one C-130J-30 in use

as of January 2014.[77] Two more C-130Js on order
with delivery in 2014.[55]
Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force - two KC-130J tankers on
order for delivery in 2016
South Korea
Republic of Korea Air Force - four C-130J-30s ordered with for delivery in 2014.[87] Two of four aircraft were delivered to Republic of Korea Air Force
in 2014.[88][89]
Tunisia
Tunisian Air Force - two C-130J-30 received as of
December 2014[90][91]
Qatar
Qatar Emiri Air Force - four C-130J-30s in use as

of January 2014[77]
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force - 24 aircraft (10 C-130Js, and 14

C-130J-30s) in service as of January 2014[77]
C-130Js have been involved in the following notable accidents.

On 12 February 2007, RAF Hercules C.4 C-130J30 ZH876, c/n 5460, seriously damaged during
landing, no casualties.[92][93]
On 15 March 2012, Royal Norwegian Air Force
C-130J-30, 10-5630, c/n 5630, on a ight from
Evenes, Norway to Kiruna, Sweden, impacted the
side of Kebnekaise mountain, and disintegrated. All
ve aboard were killed.[94] The aircraft was to collect soldiers and y back to the Norwegian base for
the NATO exercise "Cold Response".[95]
On 28 March 2014, Indian Air Force C-130J-30
KC-3803 crashed near Gwalior, India, killing all
5 personnel aboard.[96][97][98] The aircraft was conducting low level penetration training by ying at
around 300 ft when it ran into wake turbulence from
another aircraft in the formation, which caused it to
crash.[99]
31.7 Specications (C-130J)

Specications are for basic J-model; data for C-130J-30
noted.
Data from USAF C-130 Hercules fact sheet,[100] International Directory of Military Aircraft,[101] Encyclopedia of
Modern Military Aircraft [7]
Crew: 3 (two pilots, and one loadmaster are minimum crew)
Capacity:
326

Propellers: Dowty R391 6-blade composite propeller, 1 per engine
Performance
Range: 2,835 nmi (3,262 mi, 5,250 km)
Service ceiling: 28,000 ft (8,615 m) with 42,000
pounds (19,090 kilograms) payload
Absolute altitude 40,386 ft (12,310
m)[102]
Takeo distance: 3,127 ft (953 m) at 155,000 lb

(70,300 kg) gross weight
31.8 See also

A C-130J Super Hercules cleaned in the wash system at Keesler
Air Force Base, Mississippi.
Alenia C-27J Spartan - shares common engines and

other systems with C-130J
Related development
92 passengers (128 for C-130J-30) or

64 airborne troops (92 for C-130J-30) or
6 pallets (8 pallets for C-130J-30) or
Lockheed EC-130
74 litter patients with 2 medical personnel (97 litters for C-130J-30)
Lockheed HC-130
23 Humvees, or 1 LAV III (with turret

removed) or an M113 armored personnel
carrier
Lockheed Martin KC-130

Lockheed MC-130
Lockheed WC-130
Payload: 42,000 lb (19,050 kg) ; for C-130J-30:

44,000 lb/ 19,958 kg
Lockheed L-100 Hercules
Length: 97 ft 9 in, 29.79 m (for C-130J-30: 112 ft, Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
9 in, 34.36 m)
Height: 38 ft 10 in (11.84 m)
Wing area: 1,745 ft (162.1 m)
Airbus A400M
Antonov An-70
Embraer KC-390
Shaanxi Y-9
UAC/HAL Transport Aircraft
Max. takeo weight: up to 175,000 lb (79,378 Related lists

kg); normal 155,000 lb (70,305 kg)
List of active United Kingdom military aircraft
Powerplant: 4 Rolls-Royce AE 2100D3
turboprop, 4,637 shp (3,458 kW) each
31.9. REFERENCES
List of active Indian military aircraft
List of aircraft of the Royal Canadian Air Force
List of current Royal Australian Air Force aircraft
List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force
List of C-130 Hercules crashes
List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft
31.9 References
31.9.1
Notes
[1] Quote: Separately, Israel has held preliminary talks with

Lockheed Martin about acquiring more C-130J tactical
transports. The nation will receive its rst example in mid2013 ...
31.9.2
Citations
[1] Lockheed Martin Delivers Landmark 300th C-130J Super Hercules. lockheedmartin.com.
[2] FY 2014 Budget Estimates, p. Volume 147. U.S. Air
Force, April 2013.
[3] India - C-130J Aircraft - The Ocial Home of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency. dsca.mil.
[4] India Buys C-130J-30 Hercules for Special Forces. Defense Industry Daily. 22 July 2014.
[5] 250TH C-130J Super Hercules Built Is Delivered. Lockheedmartin.com, 16 February 2012. Retrieved: 21 August 2012.
[6] C-130J Advanced propeller system (six-blade R391 propeller). Dowty Propellers. Retrieved: 31 July 2009.
[7] Eden 2004.
[8] C-130J Spec Book. cc-130j.ca. Retrieved: 1 August
2010.
[9] FY 2009 Budget Estimates. United States Air Force via
sam.hq.af.mi, February 2008, p. 81.
[10] Trimble, Stephen. Lockheed Martin C-130J selected for
new special operations role. Flightglobal, 18 June 2008.
Retrieved: 17 July 2010.
[11] HC-130J Completes Developmental Testing. Lockheed
Martin Press Release, 22 March 2011.
[12] General James T. Conway on The Posture of the United
States Marine Corps. zumwaltfacts.info, 14 May 2009.
[13] McCullough, Amy. Refuel and Fire. Marine Corps
Times, 1 June 2009.
327
[14] Flurry, SSgt Christopher. KC-130J Harvest Hawk: Marine Corps teaches old plane new tricks in Afghanistan.
2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (Fwd), United States Marine
Corps, Camp Dwyer, Afghanistan, 1 April 2011. Retrieved: 5 April 2011.
[15] C-130J Super Hercules Worldwide Fleet Soars Past 1 Million Flight Hours - Lockheed press release, May 14, 2013
[16] Israel Receives First C-130J Super Hercules: Shimshon
- Lockheed press release, 26 June 2013
[17] Weston, Greg. Fake parts in Hercules aircraft called a
genuine risk. CBC News, 9 January 2013.
[18] IAFs C-130J transporter lands near India-China border.
Business Standard. 20 August 2013. Retrieved 20 August
2013.
[19] 10 reasons why IAFs C-130J Super Hercules landing in
Daulat Beg Oldie, Ladakh is important. India Today. 20
[20] Modular Airborne FireFighting System (MAFFS). U.S.
Forest Service, 19 March 2008. Retrieved: 9 October
2010.
[21] Modular Airborne FireFighting Systems (MAFFS)".
U.S. Forest Service, 24 June 2008. Retrieved: 9 October
2010.
[22] Gabbert, Bill. New MAFFS II used for rst time on a
re. Wildre Tody, 16 July 2010. Retrieved: 9 October
2010.
[23] Krenke, Lt. Col. Ellen. MAFFS responds to brush res
in California. national Guard, 16 July 2010. Retrieved:
9 October 2010.
[24] Pike, John, KC-130J. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 17
July 2010.
[25] Major Program Milestone Demonstrates Success For
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules Program.
Lockheed Martin, 20 July 2010. Retrieved: 10 August
2010.
[26] Kemp, Ian. Farnborough 2010: Lockheed Martin looks
to sell another 250 C-130J. Shephard, 21 July 2010. Retrieved: 10 August 2010.
[27] Australian Budget 2011-2012. Budget.australia.gov.au.
[28] Norway to Renew Tactical Transport Fleet. Defense Industry Daily, 23 November 2009.
[29] Trine, Jung Ling. Contract for new transport planes
signed. Norwegian Defence Force website, 29 June 2007.
[30] Lunde, Caroline. Work horse back in business. Norwegian Defence Force website, 25 November 2008.
[31] Hoyle, Craig. Norway takes delivery of rst Lockheed
Martin C-130J. Flight International, 17 November 2008.
[32] Last Super Hercules comes to Norway. Theforeigner.no,
4 July 2010. Retrieved: 21 August 2012.
328
[33] Warwick, Graham. Canada signs $1.4bn contract for 17

Lockheed Martin C-130Js. Flight International, 16 January 2008. Retrieved: 17 January 2008.
[54] Lockheed Martin Awarded Contract for Kuwait Air

Force KC-130J Tankers. defpro.com, 27 May 2010. Retrieved: 17 July 2010.
[34] PWGSC announces next step in procuring tactical airlift

eet. Public Works and Government Services Canada, 3
August 2007. Retrieved: 8 August 2007.
[55] Parsons, Gary. Oman orders extra C-130Js. AirForces

Monthly, 25 August 2010. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[35] New generation of CC-130J Hercules arrives in Canada.

Canadas Air Force, 4 June 2010. Retrieved: 2 October
2010.
[36] Final CC-130J Hercules Transport Aircraft Delivery
Ahead of Schedule.Canadas Air Force, 11 May 2012.
[37] India C-130J Aircraft. Defence Security Cooperation
Agency, 25 May 2007.
[38] India signs agreement for Hercules aircraft. Indian Defense Research Wing, 6 February 2008.
[39] U.S. Dilutes Defence Technology to India. India Defence Online, August 2010.
[56] Mexico C-130J-30 Aircraft. Defense-aerospace.com.

[57] Mongolia planning to buy U.S. Military airplanes.
EurasiaNet.org, 27 March 2013. Retrieved: 16 August
2013.
[58] US noties Congress of potential Libyan C-130J sale.
Flightglobal.com, 11 June 2013.
[59] Peru; Four contenders in the next generation transport
aircraft tender. -Dmilt.com, 30 July 2013.
[60] Peru to sign for two C-27J Spartans - Flightglobal.com,
25 November 2013
[61] 1998 Annual Report for Lockheed Martin Corporation.
Lockheed Martin. Retrieved: 28 August 2012.
[40] US accepts Indias request for supplying 6 more C-130J

planes. The Economic Times, 20 July 2012. Retrieved:
21 July 2012.
[62] Lockheed Martin Corporation Report Fourth Quarter

1999 Net Earnings. Lockheed Martin, 28 January 2000.
[41] Amid row over diplomats arrest, US bags key aircraft

deal. IBNLive.
[63] Lockheed Martin Reports 2001 Earnings. Lockheed

Martin, 25 January 2002.
[42] Iraq: C-130J-30 Aircraft. Defense Security Cooperation

[64] Lockheed Martin Completes C-130J Deliveries for

2001. Lockheed Martin Press Release. Retrieved: 16
April 2011.
[43] Iraq Orders C-130Js. Defense Industry Daily, 12 August

2009.
[44] Lockheed to Supply Planes to Qatar. Washington Post,
8 October 2008, p. D4.
[45] UAE Buys C-17s, Seeks C-130Js. Defenseindustrydaily.com, 21 September 2010. Retrieved: 26 February
2011.
[46] United Arab Emirates - Logistics Support and Training
for 12 C-130J-30 Aircraft. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 28 December 2009.
[65] Lockheed Martin Reports 2003 Results. Lockheed Martin, 27 January 2004.
[66] Lockheed Martin Announces 2004 Fourth Quarter And
Year-End Results. Lockheed Martin, 27 January 2005.
[67] Lockheed Martin Prepares to Deliver Two More New
C-130J Aircraft to the Hercules Center of Excellence in
Little Rock. cc-130j.ca, 20 December 2005.
[68] Lockheed Martin Corporation 2006 Annual Report.
Lockheed Martin. Retrieved: 4 May 2011.
[47] Lockheed expects delays for Middle East aircraft orders. FlightGlobal, 3 May 2011.
[69] Lockheed Martin Announces 2008 Fourth Quarter And

Year-End Results. Lockheed Martin, 22 January 2009.
[48] Israel: C-130J-30 Aircraft. asd-network.com.

trieved: 17 July 2010.
Re-
[70] Lockheed Martin Announces Fourth Quarter And YearEnd Results. Lockheed Martin, 28 January 2010.
[49] Egozi, Arie. Israel ditches Apache upgrade plan, commits to CH-53K. Flightglobal.com, 30 June 2010. Retrieved: 1 August 2010.
[71] Lockheed Martin Announces Fourth Quarter 2010 Results. Lockheed Martin, 27 January 2011.
[50] US DOD Contract No. 286-11. United States Department of Defense, 8 April 2011.
[51] Israel Acquires Additional Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules. Lockheed Martin, 28 April 2011.
[72] Simmons, Peter. More Lockheed Martin C-130J Aircraft Now on Contract. Lockheed Martin, March 2002.
[73] Frawley, Gerald. The Lockheed L-100 Hercules. Airliners.net, 2010. Retrieved: 10 February 2011.
[52] Pentagon contract announcements. Defense.gov, 25 July

2013.
[74] Cox, Matthew. Lockheed to Sell Special-Ops C-130s to

Civilians. DoDBuzz.com, 2014. Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
[53] Israel welcomes arrival of rst C-130J transport - Flightglobal.com, 9 April 2014
[75] SC-130J Sea Herc. lockheedmartin.com. Lockheed

Martin. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
329
[76] Lockheed Martins Sea Hercules unveiled.

post.com. StratPost. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
strat-
[98] IAFs C130 J Super Hercules transport aircraft crashes,

all ve personnel on board dead. The Economic Times.
[77] World Military Aircraft Inventory. 2014 Aerospace.

Aviation Week and Space Technology, January 2014.
[99] "Wake turbulence led to C-130 J aircraft crash. The

Indian Express.
[78] Kuglin, Ernst. Flying high for 50 years. Belleville In- [100] Fact sheet: USAF C-130 Hercules. af.mil. Retrieved: 1
telligencer, 19 November 2010. Retrieved: 3 December
May 2014.
2010.
[101] Frawley 2002, p. 108.
[79] Indian search nds no trace of Malaysian plane, MSN.com,
Redmond, WA: MSN (Microsoft), 15 March 2014, [102] Altitude. C-130J/CC-130J. Retrieved: 23 March 2012.
Sharma, A., Retrieved 15 March 2014.
[80] India Buys C-130J-30 Hercules for Special Forces. Defenseindustrydaily.com, 21 January 2013.
[81]
[82] Iraq Takes Delivery of Super Hercs. Lockheed press
release, December 12, 2012
[83] Final three C-130Js for Iraq set for delivery. Shephardmedia.com, 2 May 2013. Retrieved: 16 August 2013.
israel-orders-additional-c-130j-30-hercules-airlifters
[85] Eshel, David. Israel Considers Renewing its C-130 Fleet
with C-130J-30. Aviation Week, 8 November 2008.
[86] Government to spend $588 million on US military transport planes. Libya Herald. Retrieved: 16 August 2013.
[87] Kinder, Brian.
South Korea Super Hercules.
codeonemagazine.com, 2 December 2010. Retrieved: 10
February 2011.
[88] "
C-130J 2
". fnnews.com.
31.9.3 Bibliography
Borman, Martin W. Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 1999. ISBN
978-1-86126-205-9.
Eden, Paul. Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of
Military Aircraft, 2002/03. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002. ISBN
1-875671-55-2.
Reed, Chris. Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Its Variants. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing,
1999. ISBN 978-0-7643-0722-5.
[89] Republic Of Korea Air Force Accepts First Lockheed

Martin C-130J Super Hercules. March 30, 2014.
C-130 Hercules product page and C-130J brochure

on Lockheed Martin web site
[90] http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/
lockheed-completes-tunisian-c-130j-deliveries-407058/.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
C-130 Hercules Website
[91] Lockheed Martin delivered second C-130J Super Hercules airlifter to the Republic of Tunisia. December 12,
2014.
C-130J-30 Specication Book on CC-130j.ca
[92] Aircraft registration ZH876. airframes.org. Retrieved:

21 July 2012.
[93] MoD 'covered up' Hercules bombing. BBC, 18 March
[94] Ritter, Karl. 5 conrmed dead in Sweden plane crash.
The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 17 March 2012.
[95] Hoyle, Craig. Norway, Sweden investigate 'mystery' C130J. Flight Global, 19 March 2012. Retrieved: 23
March 2012.
[96] Air Forces new C-130J aircraft crashes near Gwalior,
ve killed. NDTV.com.
[97] IAF Super Hercules Crash:
5 crew member
IANS.
Air Force Personnel killed in Gwalior.
news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 28 March 2014.
USAF C-130 Hercules fact sheet
The C-130J: New Hercules & Old Bottlenecks on

defenseindustrydaily.com
C-130J Super Hercules Military transport aircraft on
airrecognition.com
Chapter 32
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

F-22 redirects here. For other uses, see F22 (disam- In 1981 the U.S. Air Force developed a requirement
biguation).
for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) as a new
air superiority ghter to replace the F-15 Eagle and
F-16 Fighting Falcon. Code named "Senior Sky",
The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is a single-seat,
twin-engine, all weather stealth tactical ghter aircraft this program was inuenced by the emerging worldwide threats, including development and proliferation of
developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). The
and MiG-29 Fulcrum-class
result of the USAFs Advanced Tactical Fighter pro- Soviet Su-27 Flankerghter aircraft.[12] It would take advantage of the new
gram, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority ghter, but has additional capabilities including technologies in ghter design on the horizon, includground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence ing composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced
roles.[6] Lockheed Martin is the prime contractor and was ight control systems, more powerful propulsion sysresponsible for the majority of the airframe, weapon systems, and stealth technology. The request for protems, and nal assembly of the F-22, while program part- posals (RFP) was issued in July 1986 and two conner Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics in- tractor teams, Lockheed/Boeing/General Dynamics and
Northrop/McDonnell Douglas, were selected on 31 Octotegration, and training systems.
ber 1986 to undertake a 50-month demonstration phase,
The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 culminating in the ight test of two technology demonprior to formally entering service in December 2005 as strator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23.[13][14][15]
the F-22A. Despite a protracted development as well as
operational issues, the USAF considers the F-22 a critical Each design team produced two prototype air vehicles,
component of its tactical air power, and states that the air- one for each of the two engine options. The Lockheed-led
craft is unmatched by any known or projected ghter.[7] team employed thrust vectoring nozzles on YF-22 for enThe Raptors combination of stealth, aerodynamic per- hanced maneuverability in dogghts. The ATFs increasing weight and cost drove out certain requirements durformance, and situational awareness gives the aircraft un[8][9]
precedented air combat capabilities.
Air Chief Mar- ing development. Side-looking radars were deleted, and
the dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system
shal Angus Houston, former Chief of the Australian Defence Force, said in 2004 that the F-22 will be the most was downgraded from multi-color to single color and then
deleted as well. However, space and cooling provisions
outstanding ghter plane ever built.[10]
were retained to allow for future addition of these comThe high cost of the aircraft, a lack of clear air-to-air mis- ponents. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded
sions due to delays in Russian and Chinese ghter pro- from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas
grams, a ban on exports, and development of the more ACES II.[16]
versatile and lower cost F-35 led to the end of F-22
production.[N 1] A nal procurement tally of 187 opera- After the ight test demonstration and validation of the
tional production aircraft was established in 2009 and the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF
Donald Rice announced the YF-22 as the winner of
last F-22 was delivered to the USAF in 2012.
the ATF competition.[17] The YF-23 design was considered stealthier and faster while the YF-22 was more
maneuverable.[18] The aviation press speculated that the
32.1 Development
YF-22 was also more adaptable to the U.S. Navys Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but by 1992, the
Navy had abandoned NATF.[19]
32.1.1 Origins
Main articles: Advanced Tactical Fighter and Lockheed
YF-22
330
32.1. DEVELOPMENT
331
The rst F-22, an engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) aircraft named Raptor 4001, was unveiled at Marietta, Georgia on 9 April 1997, and rst ew
on 7 September 1997.[30] In 2006, the Raptors development team, composed of over 1,000 contractors and the
USAF, won the Collier Trophy, American aviations most
prestigious award.[31] The F-22 was in production for 15
years, at a rate of roughly two per month during peak
production.[32]
A diagram of the various manufacturers of the F-22
32.1.2
Production and procurement
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed nal assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta,
Georgia; program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well
as avionics integration and training systems.[20] F-22 production was split up over many subcontractors across 46
states to increase Congressional support,[21][22] though
this production split may have contributed to increased
costs and delays.[23] Many capabilities were deferred
to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but
increasing total program cost.[24] Production supported
over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers and up to 95,000
jobs.[25]
The F-22 had several design changes from the YF-22.
The swept-back angle on the wings leading edge was
decreased from 48 to 42, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and their area decreased by
20%.[26] To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was
moved forward 7 inches (18 cm), and the engine intakes
moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the
wing and stabilator trailing edges were rened to improve
aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics.[27][28]
Due to increasing weight during development, range and
aerodynamic performance were slightly reduced.[29]
The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a

cost of $26.2 billion, with production beginning in 1994.
The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning
in 1996. By 1997, funding instability had further cut the
total to 339, which was again reduced to 277 F-22s by
2003.[33] In 2004, the Department of Defense (DoD) further reduced this to 183 operational aircraft, despite the
USAFs preference for 381.[34][35] In 2006, a multi-year
procurement plan was implemented to save $15 billion
but raise each aircrafts cost. That year the programs total cost was projected to be $62 billion for 183 F-22s distributed to seven combat squadrons.[36] In 2007, Lockheed Martin received a $7.3 billion contract to increase
the order to 183 production F-22s and extend manufacturing through 2011.[37]
In April 2006, the Government Accountability Oce
(GAO) assessed the F-22s cost to be $361 million per
aircraft, with $28 billion invested in development and
testing; the Unit Procurement Cost was estimated at
$178 million in 2006, based on a production run of 181
aircraft.[38] It was estimated by the end of production, $34
billion will have been spent on procurement, resulting in
a total program cost of $62 billion, around $339 million
per aircraft. The incremental cost for an additional F22 was estimated at about $138 million in 2009.[36][39]
In March 2012, the GAO increased the estimated cost to
$412 million per aircraft.[40]
32.1.3 Ban on exports

The F-22 cannot be exported under American federal
law.[41] Customers for U.S. ghters are acquiring earlier
designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon
or the newer F-35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter, which
contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to
be cheaper, more exible, and available for export.[42] In
September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F22 sales.[43] Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to prepare
a report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export
variant, and another report on the impact of F-22 export
sales on U.S. aerospace industry.[44][45]
The IAF would be happy to equip itself with 24 F-22s,
but the problem at this time is the U.S. refusal to sell the
aircraft, and its $200 million price tag.
F-22 being painted at the assembly plant at Marietta, Georgia
Israeli Air Force (IAF) chief procurement ocer Brigadier-
332
CHAPTER 32. LOCKHEED MARTIN F-22 RAPTOR

production aircraft to 187 and leaving the program in the
hands of the next administration.[59][60]
Two F-22s during ight testing, the upper one being the rst EMD
F-22, Raptor 4001
General Ze'ev Snir.[46]
Some Australian politicians and defense commentators

proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F22s instead of the planned F-35s,[47][48] citing the F-22s
known capabilities and F-35s delays and developmental uncertainties.[49] However, the Royal Australian Air
Force (RAAF) determined that the F-22 was unable to
perform the F-35s strike and close air support roles.[50]
The Japanese government also showed interest in the F22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air
Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require
fewer ghters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus
reducing engineering and stang costs. However, in
2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 would require increases to the defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of GDP.[51][52] With the ending of F-22
production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011.[53]
Israel also expressed interest, but eventually chose the F35 because of the F-22s price and unavailability.[46][54]
32.1.4
Production termination
Throughout the 2000s, the need for F-22s was debated

due to rising costs and the lack of relevant adversaries.
In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David
Walker found that the DoD has not demonstrated the
need for more investment in the F-22,[55] and further
opposition to the program was expressed by Secretary of
Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Deputy Secretary of Defense
Gordon R. England, Senator John McCain, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services Senator John Warner.[56][57] The F-22 program lost inuential
supporters in 2008 after resignation of Secretary of the
USAF Michael Wynne and General T. Michael Moseley.[58] Nevertheless, in 2008, Congress passed a defense
spending bill funding the F-22s continued production
and the Pentagon released $50 million of the $140 million for four additional aircraft, raising the total orders for
Two F-22As in close trail formation
In November 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates

stated that the Raptor was not relevant in post-Cold War
conicts such as in Iraq and Afghanistan,[61] and in April
2009, under the new Obama Administration, he called for
ending F-22 production in scal year (FY) 2011, leaving
the USAF with 187 production aircraft.[62] In July, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
of Sta, stated to the Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F-22 production, including shifting resources to the multirole F35 to allow proliferation of fth-generation ghters for
three service branches and preserving the F/A-18 production line to maintain the militarys electronic warfare
(EW) capabilities in the Boeing EA-18G Growler.[63] Issues with the F-22s reliability and availability also raised
concerns.[42][64] After President Obama threatened to
veto further production, the Senate voted in July 2009 in
favor of ending production and the House subsequently
agreed to abide by the 187 production aircraft cap.[65][66]
Gates stated that the decision was taken in light of the F35s capabilities,[67] and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major
regional conict preparations from two to one.[68]
In 2010, USAF initiated a study to determine the costs
of retaining F-22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).[69] A RAND Corporation paper from this study estimated that restarting production
and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost $17 billion, resulting in $227 million per aircraft or 54 million higher than the yaway cost.[70] Lockheed Martin
stated that restarting the production line itself would cost
about $200 million.[71] Production tooling will be documented in illustrated electronic manuals stored at the
Sierra Army Depot.[72] Retained tooling will produce additional components; due to the limited production run
there are no reserve aircraft, leading to considerable care
during maintenance.[73]
The Pentagon cannot continue with business as usual
32.2. DESIGN
333
when it comes to the F-22 or any other program in excess of our needs.
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, speaking on the
cancellation.[74]
Russian and Chinese ghter developments have fueled

concern, and in 2009, General John Corley, head of
Air Combat Command, stated that a eet of 187 F-22s
would be inadequate, but Secretary Gates dismissed this
concern.[58] In 2011, Gates explained that Chinese fthgeneration ghter developments had been accounted for
when the number of F-22s was set, and that the U.S.
would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in
2025, even with F-35 delays.[75] In December 2011, the
195th and nal F-22 was completed out of 8 test and 187
operational aircraft produced, the aircraft was delivered
to the USAF on 2 May 2012.[76]
32.1.5
Upgrades
The rst combat-capable Block 3.0 aircraft rst ew

in 2001.[77] Increment 2, the rst F-22 upgrade program, was implemented in 2005 and enables the aircraft
to employ Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). Increment 3.1 provides improved ground-attack capability
through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction nding, electronic attack and the GBU-39
Small Diameter Bomb (SDB); testing began in 2009 and
the rst upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2012.[78][79]
Increment 3.2 is a two-part upgrade process; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare, communications and identication, while 3.2B will allow the F-22 to fully exploit
the AIM-9X and AIM-120D missiles.[80][81] The subsequent Increment 3.3 may include the adoption of an open
avionics platform and air trac control updates.[76][82]
Upgrades due in 2015 will allow the F-22 to employ the
AIM-9X and have full Link 16 reception and transmission capability, and an upgrade scheduled in 2018 will
integrate the AIM-120D into the weapons suite.[83] The
F-22 eet is planned to have 36 Block 20 training and 149
Block 30/35 combat aircraft by 2016.
Scorpion HMCS
ment, development and integration (REDI) contract to

bidders, with a $16 billion budget.[89] In November 2011,
Lockheed Martins upgrade contract ceiling was raised
to $7.4 billion.[90] Nearly $2 billion was allocated for
structural repairs and to increase eet availability rate
from 55.5% to 70.6% by 2015.[91] Some F-35 technology, such as more durable stealth coatings, have been applied to the F-22.[92][93] By 2012, the update schedule
had slipped seven years due to instability in requirements
and funding.[94] In 2014 the USAF moved to cut upgrade
funding.[95]
The F-22 is currently being upgraded with a backup oxygen system, software upgrades and oxygen sensors to address the frequent oxygen deprivation issues and normalize operations.[96] In 2013, the faulty ight vest valves
were replaced and altitude restrictions lifted; distance
restrictions will be lifted once a backup oxygen system
is installed.[97] In April 2014 the USAF stated in Congressional testimony that installation of automatic backup
F-22 eet would be completed
To enable two-way communication with other platforms, oxygen systems on the
[98]
within
twelve
months.
the F-22 can use the Battleeld Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a gateway. The originally planned The F-22 was designed for a lifespan of 30 years and
MADL integration was cut due to the lack of system 8,000 ight hours, with a $100 million structures retrot
maturity.[84] Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman program.[99] Investigations are being made for upgrades
are currently competing to connect the F-22 with other to extend their useful lives further.[100] In the long
platforms while maintaining stealth.[85] Other upgrades term, the F-22 is expected to be superseded by a sixthbeing developed include infra-red search and track func- generation jet ghter to be elded in the 2030s.[101]
tionality for the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector
(MLD) and integration of the Visionix Scorpion helmetmounted cueing system (HMCS) to enable o-boresight
missile launches.[81][86] In March 2010, the USAF accelerated software portions of 3.2 to be completed in FY
32.2 Design
2013.[87][88]
In January 2011, the USAF opened the Raptor enhance-
334
Video of an F-22 ight demonstration
subsonic speeds. Computerized ight control system and

full authority digital engine control (FADEC) make the
F-22 ying with its F119-PW-100 engines on full afterburner
aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable at aggressive pilot inputs.[111][112] The Raptors relaxed stability and powerful thrust vectoring powerplants enable the
32.2.1 Overview
aircraft to turn tightly and perform very high alpha (angle
of attack) maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (JThe F-22 Raptor is a fth generation ghter that is con- turn) and Pugachevs Cobra. The aircraft is also capasidered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology ble of maintaining over 60 alpha while having some roll
by the USAF.[102] It is the rst operational aircraft to control.[113]
combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and
sensor fusion in a single weapons platform.[103] The Rap- The Raptors aerodynamic performance, sensor fusion,
tor has large shoulder-mounted trapezoidal wings, four and stealth work together for increased eectiveness. Alempennage surfaces, and a retractable tricycle landing titude, speed, and advanced active and passive sensors
gear. Flight control surfaces include leading and trailing- allow the aircraft to spot targets at considerable ranges
edge aps, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabi- and increase weapons range; altitude and speed also comlizers, and all-moving horizontal tails; these surfaces also plement stealths ability to increase the aircrafts survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air misserve as speed brakes.[104]
siles.[7][114][115]
The aircrafts dual Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100
afterburning turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range 32.2.2 Avionics
of 20 degrees; each engine has maximum thrust in
the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class.[7] The F-22s thrust to Key avionics include BAE Systems EI&S AN/ALRweight ratio in typical combat conguration is nearly
94 radar warning receiver (RWR),[116] Lockheed Marat unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full tin AN/AAR-56 infrared and ultraviolet Missile Launch
afterburner.[105] Maximum speed without external stores
Detector (MLD) and Northrop Grumman AN/APG-77
is estimated to be Mach 1.82 during supercruise and active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar. The
greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.[106][N 2]
MLD features six sensors to provide full spherical inThe F-22 is among only a few aircraft that can super- frared coverage.[86] The RWR is a passive radar detector
cruise, or sustain supersonic ight without using fuel- with more than 30 antennas are blended into the wings
inecient afterburners; targets can be intercepted which and fuselage for all-round coverage. Tom Burbage, forsubsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and mer F-22 program head at Lockheed Martin, described it
an afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to as the most technically complex piece of equipment on
reach.[7][108] The Raptors high operating altitude is also a the aircraft. The range of the RWR (250+ nmi) exceeds
signicant tactical advantage over prior ghters.[109] The the radars, and can cue radar emissions to be conned
use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to main- to a narrow beam (down to 2 by 2 in azimuth and eltain comparatively higher performance over most other evation) to increase stealth. Depending on the detected
combat-congured ghters due to a lack of aerodynamic threat, the defensive systems can prompt the pilot to redrag from external stores. The F-22s structure contains lease countermeasures such as ares or cha.[117]
extensive amounts of high-strength materials to withstand The AN/APG-77 radar features a low-observable, activestress and heat of sustained supersonic ight. Respec- aperture, electronically scanned array that can track multively, titanium alloys and composites comprise 39% and tiple targets under any weather conditions. Radar emis24% of the aircrafts structural weight.[110]
sions can also be focused to overload enemy sensors as an
The F-22 is highly maneuverable at both supersonic and electronic-attack capability.[118][119] The radar changes
32.2. DESIGN
The AN/APG-77 AESA radar
335
Cockpit of the F-22, showing instruments, head up display and

throttle top (lower left)
32.2.3 Cockpit
The F-22 has a glass cockpit with all-digital ight instruments. The monochrome head-up display oers a wide
eld of view and serves as a primary ight instrument;
information is also displayed upon six color liquid-crystal
display (LCD) panels.[127] The primary ight controls are
a force-sensitive side-stick controller and a pair of throttles. The USAF initially wanted to implement direct
voice input (DVI) controls, but this was judged to be too
technically risky and was abandoned.[128] The canopys
dimensions are approximately 140 inches long, 45 inches
wide, and 27 inches tall (355 cm x 115 cm x 69 cm) and
weighs 360 pounds.[129]
frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125
150 miles, though planned upgrades will allow a range of
250 miles (400 km) or more in narrow beams.[109] Radar
information is processed by two Raytheon Common Integrated Processor (CIP)s, each capable of processing up to
10.5 billion instructions per second. In a process known
as sensor fusion, data from the radar, other sensors, and
external systems is ltered and combined by the CIP into
a common view, reducing pilot workload.[120] However,
upgrading the aircrafts avionics was reportedly very challenging due to their highly integrated nature.[80]
The F-22 has integrated radio functionality, the signal
virtualized rather than as a sepaThe F-22s ability to operate close to the battleeld gives processing systems are[130]
rate
hardware
module.
There has been several reports
the aircraft threat detection and identication capability
on
the
F-22s
inability
to
communicate with other aircomparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint, and the abilcraft, and funding cuts have aected the integration of the
ity to function as a mini-AWACS", though the radar is
[84]
Voice
less powerful than those of dedicated platforms. The F- Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL). [131]
communication is possible, but not data transfer.
22 can designate targets for allies, and determine whether
two friendly aircraft are targeting the same aircraft. This The integrated control panel (ICP) is a keypad system
radar system can sometimes identify targets many times for entering communications, navigation, and autopilot
quicker than the AWACS.[109] The IEEE 1394B bus de- data. Two 3 in 4 in (7.6 cm 10.2 cm) up-front disveloped for the F-22 was derived from the commercial plays located around the ICP are used to display inteIEEE 1394 FireWire bus system.[121] In 2007, the F- grated caution advisory/warning data, communications,
22s radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver, trans- navigation and identication (CNI) data and also serve as
mitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at the stand-by ight instrumentation group and fuel quangigabit speed, far faster than the Link 16 system.[122]
tity indicator.[132][133] The stand-by ight group displays
The F-22s software has some 1.7 million lines of code, an articial horizon, for basic instrument meteorological
the majority involving processing radar data.[123] For- conditions. The 8 in 8 in (20 cm 20 cm) primary
mer Secretary of the USAF Michael Wynne blamed the multi-function display (PMFD) is located under the ICP,
use of the DoDs Ada for cost overruns and delays on and is used for navigation and situation assessment. Three
many military projects, including the F-22.[124] Cyber- 6.25 in 6.25 in (15.9 cm 15.9 cm) secondary multiPMFD for tactiattacks on subcontractors have reportedly raised doubts function displays are located around the [133]
cal
information
and
stores
management.
about the security of the F-22s systems and combateectiveness.[125] In 2009, former Navy Secretary John The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II (Advanced
Lehman considered the F-22 to be safe from cyberattack, Concept Ejection Seat) commonly used in USAF aircraft,
citing the age of its IBM software.[126]
with a center-mounted ejection control.[134] The F-22 has
336
a complex life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation system (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, and a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG)
valve controlling ow and pressure to the pilots mask
and garments. The pilot garments were developed under
the Advanced Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS) project
and are to protect against chemical/biological hazards and
cold-water immersion, counter g-forces and low pressure
at high altitudes, and provide thermal relief.[135] Suspicions regarding the performance of the OBOGS and life
support equipment have been raised by several mishaps,
including a fatal crash.[136]
F-22 with external weapons pylons
32.2.4
Armament
The F-22s high cruise speed and altitude increase the effective ranges of its munitions, it has 50% greater employment range for the AIM-120 AMRAAM than prior
platforms, and range will be further extended with the
introduction of the AIM-120D.[112] While specics are
classied, it is expected that JDAMs employed by F-22s
will have twice or more the eective range of legacy
platforms.[144] In testing, an F-22 dropped a GBU-32
JDAM from 50,000 feet (15,000 m) while cruising at
Mach 1.5, striking a moving target 24 miles (39 km)
away.[145]
AIM-120 AMRAAM (right) tted in a weapons bay of an F-22
The Raptor has three internal weapons bays: a large bay

on the bottom of the fuselage, and two smaller bays on
the sides of the fuselage, aft of the engine intakes.[137]
The main bay can accommodate six LAU-142/A launchers for beyond-visual-range missiles and each side bay
has an LAU-141/A launcher for short-range missiles.[138]
Four of the launchers in the main bay can be replaced with
two bomb racks that can each carry one 1,000 lb (450 kg)
or four 250 lb (110 kg) bombs.[7] Carrying armaments
internally maintains the aircrafts stealth and minimizes
additional drag. Missile launches require the bay doors
to be open for less than a second, during which hydraulic
arms push missiles clear of the aircraft; this is to reduce
vulnerability to detection and to deploy missiles during
high speed ight.[139]
The F-22 can also carry air-to-surface weapons such as
bombs with Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) guidance and the Small-Diameter Bomb, but cannot selfdesignate for laser-guided weapons.[140] Internal air-tosurface ordnance is limited to 2,000 lb.[141] An internally
mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm cannon is embedded
in the right wing root with the muzzle covered by a retractable door to maintain stealth.[142] The radar projection of the cannon res path is displayed on the pilots
head-up display.[143]
While the F-22 typically carries weapons internally, the

wings include four hardpoints, each rated to handle 5,000
lb (2,300 kg). Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600 gallon external fuel
tank or a launcher holding two air-to-air missiles; the
two inboard hardpoints are plumbed for external fuel
tanks. The use of external stores degrades the aircrafts
stealth and kinematic performance; after releasing stores
the external attachments can be jettisoned to restore those
characteristics.[146] A stealthy ordnance pod and pylon
was being developed to carry additional weapons in the
mid-2000s.[147]
32.2.5 Stealth
The F-22 was designed to be highly dicult to detect and
track by radar. Measures to reduce radar cross-section
include airframe shaping such as planform alignment of
edges, xed-geometry serpentine inlets that prevent lineof-sight of the engine faces from any exterior view, use of
radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail
such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar
return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased
radio emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye.[148]
The aircrafts at thrust vectoring nozzle reduces infrared
emissions to mitigate the threat of infrared homing (heat
seeking) surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles.[149] Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include
special paint and active cooling of leading edges to man-
337
32.3.1 Designation and testing
For stealth, the F-22 carries weapons in internal bays. The doors
for the center and side bays are open; note the six LAU-142/A
AMRAAM Vertical Eject Launchers (AVEL).
age the heat buildup from supersonic ight.[150]

Compared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the
F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenanceintensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled
hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the ight line or
in a normal hangar. The F-22 features a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair.[109] The F-22s
exact radar cross-section (RCS) is classied; however, in
2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating it
has an RCS (from certain angles) of 40 dBsm equivalent to the radar reection of a steel marble.[151] Eectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the
F-22s mission capable rate to 6270%.[N 3]
The eectiveness of the stealth characteristics is dicult
to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of
the aircrafts frontal or side area from the perspective of
a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a
completely dierent set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the
F-22s stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials
are chiey eective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The eects of Rayleigh
scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars
such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more
likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. However,
such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter,
and have low precision.[153] Additionally, while faint or
eeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth
aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging.[154][155] According to the USAF an F-22 surprised an Iranian F-4
Phantom II that was attempting to intercept an American
UAV, despite Irans claim of having military VHF radar
coverage over the Persian Gulf.[156]
An F-22 refuels from a KC-135 during testing; the attachment on

the back top is for a spin recovery chute
The YF-22 was originally given the unocial name

Lightning II, after the World War II ghter P-38,
by Lockheed, which persisted until the mid-1990s
when the USAF ocially named the aircraft Raptor.
The aircraft was also briey dubbed SuperStar and
Rapier.[157] In September 2002, USAF changed the
Raptors designation to F/A-22, mimicking the Navys
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet and intended to highlight a planned ground-attack capability amid debate over
the aircrafts role and relevance. The F-22 designation
was reinstated in December 2005, when the aircraft entered service.[7][158]
Flight testing of the F-22 began in 1997 with Raptor
4001, the rst EMD jet, and eight more F-22s would
participate in the EMD and ight test program.[159] Raptor 4001 was retired from ight testing in 2000 and
subsequently sent to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
(AFB) for survivability testing, including live re testing
and battle damage repair training.[160] EMD F-22s have
been used for testing upgrades, and also as maintenance
trainers.[161] The rst production F-22 was delivered to
Nellis AFB, Nevada, in January 2003.[162]
In May 2006, a released report documented a problem
with the F-22s forward titanium boom, caused by defective heat-treating. This made the boom on roughly
the rst 80 F-22s less ductile than specied and potentially shortened the parts life. Modications and inspections were implemented to the booms to restore life
expectancy.[100][163]
In August 2008, an unmodied F-22 of the 411th Flight
Test Squadron performed in the rst ever air-to-air refueling of an aircraft using synthetic jet fuel as part of
a wider USAF eort to qualify aircraft to use the fuel,
a 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a FischerTropsch processproduced, natural gas-based fuel.[164] In 2011, an F-22
ew supersonic on a 50% mixture of biofuel derived from
camelina.[165]
338
32.3.2
Introduction into service
An F-22 res an AIM-120 AMRAAM
In December 2005, the USAF announced that the F-22

had achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC).[166]
During Exercise Northern Edge in Alaska in June 2006,
in simulated combat exercises 12 F-22s of the 94th FS
downed 108 adversaries with no losses.[36] In the exercises, the Raptor-led Blue Force amassed 241 kills against
two losses in air-to-air combat, with neither loss being an
F-22. During Red Flag 07-1 in February 2007, 14 F22s of the 94th FS supported Blue Force strikes and undertook close air support sorties. Against superior numbers of Red Force Aggressor F-15s and F-16s, 68 F22s maintained air dominance throughout. No sorties
were missed because of maintenance or other failures,
a single F-22 was judged lost against the defeated opposing force.[N 4] F-22s also provided airborne electronic
surveillance.[167]
An F-22 from Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, intercepting a Russian

Tupolev Tu-95 near American airspace
sian Tu-95MS Bear-H bombers over Alaska.[174] Since

then, F-22s have also escorted probing Tu-160 Blackjack bombers.[175] The rst pair of F-22s assigned to the
49th Fighter Wing became operational at Holloman AFB,
New Mexico, in June 2008.[176] In 2014, Holloman F-22s
and their support personnel were reassigned to the reactivated 95th Fighter Squadron at Tyndall AFB.[177]
Secretary of Defense Gates initially refused to deploy F22s to the Middle East in 2007.[178] The type made its
rst deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in
the UAE in 2009. In April 2012, F-22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra Air Base, less than 200 miles from
Iran;[179][180] the Iranian defense minister referred to the
deployment as a security threat.[181] In March 2013 the
The Raptor achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) USAF announced that an F-22 had chased o an Iranian
in December 2007, when General John Corley of Air F-4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an
Combat Command (ACC) ocially declared the F- MQ-1 Predator ying o the Iranian coastline.[156]
22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and
Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully
operational.[168] This was followed by an Operational
Readiness Inspection (ORI) of the integrated wing in
April 2008, in which it was rated excellent in all categories, with a simulated kill-ratio of 2210.[169]
32.3.3
Deployments
F-22 units are frequently deployed to Kadena Air Base

in Okinawa, Japan.[170] In February 2007, on the aircrafts rst overseas deployment to Kadena Air Base,
six F-22s of 27th Fighter Squadron ying from Hickam
AFB, Hawaii, experienced multiple software-related system failures while crossing the International Date Line
(180th meridian of longitude). The aircraft returned to
Hawaii by following tanker aircraft. Within 48 hours, the
error was resolved and the journey resumed.[171][172] In
early 2013, F-22s were involved in U.S.-South Korean
military drills.[173]
An F-22 of the 43d Fighter Squadron alongside an F-15 Eagle

of the 27th Fighter Squadron, 2005
In June 2014, F-22s from the 199th Fighter Squadron

of the Hawaii Air National Guard were deployed to
Malaysia to participate in the Cope Taufan 2014 exercise conducted by the USAF Pacic Air Forces and Royal
Malaysian Air Force.[182]
In November 2007, F-22s of 90th Fighter Squadron On 22 September 2014, F-22s performed the types rst
performed their rst NORAD interception of two Rus- combat sorties during the American-led intervention in

Syria; a number of aircraft dropped 1,000-pound GPSguided bombs on Islamic State targets in the vicinity of
Tishrin Dam.[183][184] Combat operations by F-22s are
planned to continue into the foreseeable future. While
some missions involve striking targets, the F-22s main
role is intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR)
gathering.[185] By January 2015, the F-22 accounted for
three percent of Air Force sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve.[186] General Mike Hostage of ACC said the
USAF used tactics, techniques, and procedures to overcome the disparity between the F-22s communications
abilities and other assets during the deployment, and that
it performed awlessly, despite combat operations not
being the most challenging.[187]
339
reduced to 18.1, and 10.5 by 2009; lower than the Pentagons requirement of 12 maintenance hours per ight
hour.[191] When introduced, the F-22 had a Mean Time
Between Maintenance (MTBM) of 1.7 hours, short of the
required 3.0; in 2012 this rose to 3.2 hours.[64] By 2013,
the cost per ight hour was $68,362, over three times as
much as the F-16.[192]
Each aircraft requires a month-long packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 ight hours.[190] The stealth
system, including its radar absorbing metallic skin, account for almost one third of maintenance. The canopy
was redesigned after the original design lasted an average
of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours.[64] F-22
depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics
In late 2014, the USAF was testing a rapid deployment Complex at Hill AFB, Utah.[193]
concept involving four F-22s and one C-17 for support, In January 2007, the F-22 reportedly maintained 97%
rst proposed in 2008 by two F-22 pilots. The goal was sortie rate, ying 102 out of 105 tasked sorties while
for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat amassing a 144-to-zero kill ratio during Northern Edge
within 24 hours.[188][189]
air-to-air exercises in Alaska. According to Lieutenant
Colonel Wade Tolliver, squadron commander of the 27th
Fighter Squadron, the stealth coatings of the F-22 are
more robust than those used in earlier stealth aircraft,
being less sensitive to weather and wear and tear.[109]
However, rain caused shorts and failures in sophisticated electrical components when F-22s were posted to
Guam.[194]
To reduce operating costs and lengthen the F-22s service life, some pilot training sorties are performed using high delity ight simulators, while the T-38 Talon
is used for adversary training.[190] DoD budget cuts led
to F-22 demonstration ights being halted in 2013 before resuming in 2014.[195][196] In 2012, it was reported
that the F-22s maintenance demands have increased as
the eet aged, the stealth coatings being particularly
demanding.[197][198]
Operational problems
An F-22 refueling prior to combat operations in Syria, September

2014
32.3.4
Maintenance and training
F-22 had a mission capable rate of 62% in 2004, 70% in

2009, and was predicted to reach 85% as the eet reached
100,000 ight hours.[64][190] Early on, the F-22 required
more than 30 hours of maintenance per ight hour and
a total cost per ight hour of $44,000; by 2008 it was
Operational problems have been experienced and some

have caused eet-wide groundings. Critically, pilots
have experienced a decreased mental status, including
losing consciousness. There were reports of instances
of pilots found to have a decreased level of alertness
or memory loss after landing.[199] F-22 pilots have experienced lingering respiratory problems and a chronic
cough; other symptoms include irritability, emotional lability and neurological changes.[199] A number of possible causes were investigated, including possible exposure to noxious chemical agents from the respiratory tubing, pressure suit malfunction, side eects from oxygen delivery at greater-than-atmospheric concentrations,
and oxygen supply disruptions. Other problems include
minor mechanical problems and navigational software
failures.[200] The eet was grounded for four months in
2011 before resuming ight, but reports of oxygen issues
persisted.[201]
340
In 2005, the Raptor Aeromedical Working Group, a
USAF expert panel, recommended several changes to
deal with the oxygen supply issues.[202] In October
2011, Lockheed Martin was awarded a $24M contract to investigate the breathing diculties.[203] In July
2012, the Pentagon concluded that a pressure valve
on ight vests worn during high-altitude ights and a
carbon air lter were likely sources of at least some
hypoxia-like symptoms. Long-distance ights were resumed, but were limited to lower altitudes until corrections had been made. The carbon lters were changed
to a dierent model to reduce lung exposure to carbon particulates.[204][205] The breathing regulator/anti-g
(BRAG) valve, used to inate the pilots vest during
high G maneuvers, was found to be defective, inating
the vest at unintended intervals and restricting the pilots
breathing.[206] The on-board oxygen generating system
(OBOGS) also unexpectedly reduced oxygen levels during high-G maneuvers.[207] In late 2012, Lockheed Martin was awarded contracts to install a supplemental automatic oxygen backup system, in addition to the primary
and manual backup.[208] Changes recommended by the
Raptor Aeromedical Working Group in 2005 received
further consideration in 2012;[209] the USAF reportedly
considered installing EEG brain wave monitors on the pilots helmets for inight monitoring.[210][211]
32.4.1 Derivatives
The FB-22 was a proposed medium-range bomber for
the USAF.[218] The FB-22 was projected to carry up to
30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of
the F-22A, while maintaining the F-22s stealth and supersonic speed.[219] However, the FB-22 in its planned
form appears to have been canceled with the 2006
Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of a larger subsonic bomber with a much
greater range.[220][221]
The X-44 MANTA, or multi-axis, no-tail aircraft, was
a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with
enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic
surface backup.[222] The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this program was
halted in 2000.[223]
32.5 Operators
New backup oxygen generators and lters have been installed on the aircraft. The coughing symptoms have been
attributed to acceleration atelectasis, which may be exacerbated by the F-22s high performance; there is no
present solution to the condition. The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed to be
unrelated.[212] On 4 April 2013, the distance and altitude
ight restrictions were lifted after the F-22 Combined
Test Force and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron determined that breathing restrictions on the pilot were
responsible as opposed to an issue with the oxygen F-22 from Tyndall AFB, Florida cruising over the Florida Panhandle
provided.[213][214][215]
32.4 Variants
YF-22A pre-production technology demonstrator
for ATF demonstration/validation phase; two were
built.
F-22A single-seat production version, was designated F/A-22A in early 2000s.
F-22B planned two-seat variant, but was canceled
in 1996 to save development costs.[216]
Naval F-22 variant a carrier-borne variant of the
F-22 with variable-sweep wings for the U.S. Navy's
Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program
to replace the F-14 Tomcat. Program was canceled
in 1993.[216] Former SoAF Donald Rice has called
the possibility of the naval variant the deciding factor for his choice of the YF-22 over the YF-23.[217]
An F-22 landing at Holloman AFB, New Mexico
The United States Air Force is the only operator of the

F-22. It ordered 8 test and 187 operational production
aircraft. In November 2012, it had 184 production aircraft in inventory.[224]
32.6. ACCIDENTS
341
Pacic Air Forces
3d Wing, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska
90th Fighter Squadron[229]
15th Wing, Hickam AFB, Hawaii
19th Fighter Squadron Active Associate
squadron to the 199th Fighter Squadron
(Hawaii Air National Guard).[230]
Air National Guard
An F-22, based at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, over mountain terrain
192d Fighter Wing, Langley AFB, Virginia

149th Fighter Squadron, Virginia Air National Guard Associate ANG squadron
to the 1st Fighter Wing (Air Combat
Command).
154th Wing, Hickam AFB, Hawaii[231]
199th Fighter Squadron, Hawaii Air National Guard
44th Fighter Group, Tyndall AFB, Florida
F-22 with drop tanks in transit to Kadena Air Base, Japan, from
Langley AFB, Virginia
301st Fighter Squadron Associate

AFRC squadron to the 325th Fighter
Wing (Air Combat Command).
477th Fighter Group, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska
Air Combat Command

1st Fighter Wing, Langley AFB, Virginia
27th Fighter Squadron The rst combat
F-22 squadron. Began conversion in December 2005.[225]
53d Wing, Eglin AFB, Florida
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron[166]
57th Wing, Nellis AFB, Nevada
433d Weapons Squadron[226]
325th Fighter Wing, Tyndall AFB, Florida
43d Fighter Squadron The rst
squadron to operate the F-22 and continues to serve as the Formal Training
Unit.[227] Known as the Hornets, the
43d was re-activated at Tyndall in 2002.
95th Fighter Squadron[228]
302d Fighter Squadron Associate

AFRC squadron to the 3d Wing (Pacic
Air Forces).
32.6 Accidents
In April 1992, the second YF-22 crashed while landing at
Edwards AFB. The test pilot, Tom Morgenfeld, escaped
without injury. The cause of the crash was found to be a
ight control software error that failed to prevent a pilotinduced oscillation.[232]
The rst F-22 crash occurred during takeo at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot
ejected safely before impact.[233] The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to ight caused a ight-control system malfunction;[159][234] consequently the aircraft design
was corrected to avoid the problem. Following a brief
grounding, F-22s operations resumed after a review.[235]
On 25 March 2009, an EMD F-22 crashed 35 miles (56

km) northeast of Edwards AFB during a test ight, result 411th Flight Test Squadron Conducted ing in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P.
competition between YF-22 and YF-23 Cooley. An Air Force Materiel Command investigation
from 1989 to 1991. Continues to con- found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during
duct ight test on F-22 armaments and a high-G maneuver, then ejected when he found himself
too low to recover. Cooley was killed during ejection by
upgrades.
412th Test Wing, Edwards AFB, California
342
Orthographically projected diagram of the F-22A
Wreckage of the F-22 that crashed in November 2012
blunt-force trauma from windblast due to the aircrafts

speed. The investigation found no design issues.[236][237]
On 16 November 2010, an F-22 from Elmendorf AFB
crashed, killing the pilot, Captain Jerey Haney. F22s were restricted to ying below 25,000 feet, then
grounded during the investigation.[238] The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected, shutting down the
Environmental Control System (ECS) and OBOGS. The F-22 Raptor tail feathers
accident review board ruled Haney was to blame, as
he did not react properly and did not engage the emergency oxygen system.[239] Haneys widow sued Lockheed
Martin, claiming equipment defects. She later reached
a settlement.[240][241] After the ruling, the engagement
handle of the emergency oxygen system was redesigned;
the system should engage automatically if OBOGS shuts
down due to engine failure.[242] On 11 February 2013, the
DoDs Inspector General released a report stating that the
USAF had erred in blaming Haney, and that facts did not
suciently support conclusions; the USAF stated that it
stood by the ruling.[243]
During a training mission, an F-22 crashed to the east of
Tyndall AFB, on 15 November 2012. The pilot ejected
safely and no injuries were reported on the ground.[244]
The investigation determined that a chafed electrical USAF poster of key F-22 features and armament
wire ignited the uid in a hydraulic line, causing a re
that damaged the ight controls.[245]
Crew: 1
Length: 62 ft 1 in (18.92 m)
EMD F-22A 91-4003 is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.[246]
32.8 Specications (F-22A)
Airfoil:
NACA
64A?04.29 tip
Data from USAF,[7] F-22 Raptor Team web site,[247]

manufacturers data,[248][249] Aviation Week,[109] and
Journal of Electronic Defense,[117]
64A?05.92
root,
NACA
Loaded weight: 64,840 lb[250] (29,410 kg)
32.9. NOTABLE APPEARANCES IN MEDIA

Powerplant: 2 Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100
pitch thrust vectoring turbofans
343
AN/APG-77 radar: 125150 miles (200240 km)
against 1 m2 (11 sq ft) targets (estimated range)[109]
Dry thrust: 26,000 lb[250] (116 kN) each
AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD)[86]
Thrust with afterburner: 35,000+ lb (156+

kN) each
AN/ALR-94 radar warning receiver (RWR): 250

nmi (463 km) or more detection range[117]
Fuel capacity: 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) internally, or

26,000 lb (12,000 kg) with two external fuel tanks
MJU-39/40 ares for protection against IR

missiles[252]
Performance
Maximum speed:
Main article: F-22 Raptor in ction

At altitude: Mach 2.25 (1,500 mph, 2,410
km/h) [estimated][106]
Supercruise: Mach 1.82 (1,220 mph, 1,960
km/h)[106]
32.10 See also
Range: >1,600 nmi (1,840 mi, 2,960 km) with 2

external fuel tanks
Related development
Combat radius: 410 nmi (with 100 nmi in supercruise) (470 mi, 760 km)
Lockheed YF-22
Ferry range: 2,000 mi (1,740 nmi, 3,220 km)
Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA
Service ceiling: >65,000 ft (20,000 m)

Lockheed Martin FB-22

Chengdu J-20
Thrust/weight: 1.08
Sukhoi T-50
Maximum design g-load: 3.0/+9.0 g
[106]
Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A2 Vulcan 6barrel Gatling cannon in right wing root, 480 rounds
Air to air loadout:
Related lists
List of megaprojects, Aerospace
6 AIM-120 AMRAAM
2 AIM-9 Sidewinder
Air to ground loadout:
2 1,000 lb (450 kg) JDAM or 8 250 lb (110
kg) GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs
2 AIM-120 AMRAAM
2 AIM-9 Sidewinder
Hardpoints: 4 under-wing pylon stations can
be tted to carry 600 U.S. gallon drop tanks or
weapons, each with a capacity of 5,000 lb (2,270
kg).[251]
Avionics
32.11 References
32.11.1 Notes
[1] Referring to statements made by the Secretary of Defense Robert Gates: The secretary once again highlighted
his ambitious next-year request for the more-versatile F35s.[11]
[2] This capability was demonstrated in 2005 when General
John P. Jumper exceeded Mach 1.7 in the F-22 without
afterburners.[107]
[3] "noting that Raptors are ready for a mission around 62
percent of the time, if its low-observable requirements are
met (DAILY, 20 November). Reliability goes up above 70
percent for missions with lower stealth demands.[152]
344
[4] The F-22 was lost when a victim exited the area, regenerated and immediately re-engaged; the pilot had erroneously assumed it was still dead.
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Ocial website
F-22 Demo at 2007 Capital Airshow in Sacramento
with narrative by F-22 pilot Paul Max Moga
Chapter 33
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II

F-35 redirects here. For other uses, see F35 (disam- The JSF program was designed to replace the United
biguation).
States military F-16, A-10, F/A-18 (excluding newer E/F
Super Hornet variants) and AV-8B tactical ghter and
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family attack aircraft. To keep development, production, and
operating costs down, a common design was planned in
of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather stealth multirole
ghters undergoing testing and nal development by the three variants that share 80 percent of their parts:
United States. The fth generation combat aircraft is designed to perform ground attack, aerial reconnaissance,
and air defense missions. The F-35 has three main models: the F-35A conventional takeo and landing (CTOL)
variant, the F-35B short take-o and vertical-landing
(STOVL) variant, and the F-35C carrier-based Catapult
Assisted Take-O But Arrested Recovery (CATOBAR)
variant.
F-35A, conventional take o and landing (CTOL)

variant.
F-35B, short-take o and vertical-landing (STOVL)
variant.
F-35C, carrier-based CATOBAR (CV) variant.
The F-35 is descended from the X-35, which was the winning design of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. It
is being designed and built by an aerospace industry team
led by Lockheed Martin. Other major F-35 industry partners include Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney and
BAE Systems. The F-35 took its rst ight on 15 December 2006. The United States plans to buy 2,457 aircraft. The F-35 variants are intended to provide the bulk
of the manned tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force,
Navy, and Marine Corps over the coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled to
be completed in 2037.[11]
F-35 JSF development is being principally funded by the
United States with additional funding from partners. The
partner nations are either NATO members or close U.S.
allies. The United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada,
Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Turkey are part
of the active development program;[12][13] several additional countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the F-35.
33.1 Development
33.1.1
JSF program requirements and selection
Main article: Joint Strike Fighter program
An F-35 wind tunnel testing model in the Arnold Engineering

Development Center's 16-foot transonic wind tunnel
George Standridge, Vice President of Strategy and Business Development for Lockheed Martin Aeronautics, and
a Naval Aviator who ew the F/A-18 Hornet in both the
U.S. Navy and the Naval Reserve, predicted in 2006 that
the F-35 will be four times more eective than legacy
ghters in air-to-air combat, eight times more eective in
air-to-ground combat, and three times more eective in
reconnaissance and Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses
while having better range and requiring less logistics
support and having around the same procurement costs
(if development costs are ignored) as legacy ghters.[14]
The design goals call for the F-35 to be the premier strike
351
352
CHAPTER 33. LOCKHEED MARTIN F-35 LIGHTNING II
aircraft through 2040 and to be second only to the F-22 Lightning II, in honor of Lockheeds World War II-era
Raptor in air supremacy.[15]
twin-propeller Lockheed P-38 Lightning for the USAAF
War-era jet, the English Electric Lightning
The JSF development contract was signed on 16 Novem- and the Cold[27][N
1]
for
the
RAF.
ber 1996, and the contract for System Development and
Demonstration (SDD) was awarded on 26 October 2001
to Lockheed Martin, whose X-35 beat the Boeing X32. Although both aircraft met or exceeded requirements, the X-35 design was considered to have less risk
and more growth potential.[16] The designation of the new
ghter as F-35 is out-of-sequence with standard DoD
aircraft numbering,[17] by which it should have been F24. It came as a surprise even to the company, which had
been referring to the aircraft in-house by this expected
designation.[18]
The development of the F-35 is unusual for a ghter aircraft in that no two-seat trainer versions have been built
for any of the variants; advanced ight simulators mean
that no trainer versions were deemed necessary.[19] Instead F-16s have been used as bridge trainers between the
T-38 and the F-35. The T-X was intended to be used to
train future F-35 pilots, but this might succumb to budget
pressures in the USAF.[20]
33.1.2
Design phase
Based on wind tunnel testing, Lockheed Martin slightly

enlarged its X-35 design into the F-35. The forward
fuselage is 5 inches (130 mm) longer to make room
for avionics. Correspondingly, the horizontal stabilators
were moved 2 inches (51 mm) rearward to retain balance and control. The top surface of the fuselage was
raised by 1 inch (25 mm) along the center line. Also, it
was decided to increase the size of the F-35B STOVL
variants weapons bay to be common with the other two
variants.[16] Manufacturing of parts for the rst F-35 prototype airframe began in November 2003.[21] Because the
X-35 did not have weapons bays, their addition in the F35 would cause design changes which would lead to later
weight problems.[22][23]
The F-35B STOVL variant was in danger of missing performance requirements in 2004 because it weighed too
much; reportedly, by 2,200 lb (1,000 kg) or 8 percent.
In response, Lockheed Martin added engine thrust and
thinned airframe members; reduced the size of the common weapons bay and vertical stabilizers; re-routed some
thrust from the roll-post outlets to the main nozzle; and
redesigned the wing-mate joint, portions of the electrical
system, and the portion of the aircraft immediately behind the cockpit.[24] Many of the changes were applied to
all three variants to maintain high levels of commonality.
By September 2004, the weight reduction eort had reduced the aircrafts design weight by 2,700 pounds (1,200
kg),[25] but the redesign cost $6.2 billion and delayed the
project by 18 months.[26]
On 7 July 2006, the U.S. Air Force, the lead service for
the aircraft, ocially announced the name of the F-35:
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics is the prime contractor

and performs aircraft nal assembly, overall system integration, mission system, and provides forward fuselage,
wings and aircraft ight control system. Northrop Grumman provides active electronically scanned array (AESA)
radar, electro-optical AN/AAQ-37 Distributed Aperture
System (DAS), Communications, Navigation, Identication (CNI), center fuselage, weapons bay, and arrestor
gear. BAE Systems provides the Flight Control Software
(FCS1), the electronic warfare systems, crew life support
and escape systems, aft fuselage, empennages as well as
the horizontal and vertical tails. Alenia will perform nal assembly for Italy and, according to an Alenia executive, assembly of all European aircraft with the exception of Turkey and the United Kingdom.[29][30] The F35 program has seen a great deal of investment in automated production facilities. For example, Handling Specialty produced the wing assembly platforms for Lockheed Martin.[31]
On 19 December 2008, Lockheed Martin rolled out the
rst weight-optimized F-35A, designated AF-1. It was
the rst F-35 built at full production speed, and is structurally identical to the production F-35As that were delivered starting in 2010.[32] On 5 January 2009, six F-35s
had been built, including AF-1 and AG-1; another 13 preproduction test aircraft and four production aircraft were
being manufactured.[33] On 6 April 2009, U.S. Secretary
of Defense Robert Gates proposed speeding up production for the U.S. to buy 2,443 F-35s.[34]
33.1.3 Program cost increases and delays

The F-35 program has experienced a number of cost
overruns and developmental delays. The programs delays have come under re from the U.S. Congress and
some U.S. Department of Defense ocials. The program has undergone a number of reassessments and
changes since 2006. The Government Accountability Ofce (GAO) warned in March 2006 that excessive concurrency might result in expensive rets for several hundred
F-35 aircraft that are planned for production before design testing is completed.[35] In 2010, acquisition chief
Ashton Carter issued an Acquisition Decision Memorandum restructuring the F-35 program.[36] In November 2010, the GAO found that Managing an extensive,
still-maturing global network of suppliers adds another
layer of complexity to producing aircraft eciently and
on-time and that due to the extensive amount of testing still to be completed, the program could be required
to make alterations to its production processes, changes
to its supplier base, and costly retrots to produced and
elded aircraft, if problems are discovered.[37] USAF
budget data in 2010, along with other sources, projected
33.1. DEVELOPMENT
the F-35 to have a yaway cost from US$89 million to
US$200 million over the planned production run.[38][39]
In February 2011, the Pentagon put a price of $207.6 million on each of the 32 aircraft to be acquired in FY2012,
rising to $304.16 million ($9,732.8 million 32 aircraft)
if its share of research, development, test and evaluation
(RDT&E) spending is included.[40][41]
On 21 April 2009, media reports, citing Pentagon
sources, said that during 2007 and 2008, spies downloaded several terabytes of data related to the F-35s design and electronics systems, potentially compromising
the aircraft and aiding the development of defense systems against it.[42] Lockheed Martin rejected suggestions
that the project was compromised, stating it does not
believe any classied information had been stolen.[43]
Other sources suggested that the incident caused both
hardware and software redesigns to be more resistant to
cyber attack.[44] In March 2012, BAE Systems was reported to be the target of cyber espionage. BAE Systems
refused to comment on the report, although they did state,
"[Our] own cyber security capability can detect, prevent
and rectify such attacks.[45]
On 9 November 2009, Ashton Carter, under-secretary
of defense for acquisition, technology and logistics, acknowledged that the Pentagon joint estimate team
(JET) had found possible future cost and schedule overruns in the project and that he would be holding meetings to attempt to avoid these.[46] On 1 February 2010,
Gates removed the JSF Program Manager, U.S. Marine
Corps Major General David Heinz, and withheld $614
million in payments to Lockheed Martin because of program costs and delays.[47][48]
On 11 March 2010, a report from the Government Accountability Oce to United States Senate Committee
on Armed Services projected the overall unit cost of
an F-35A to be $113 million in todays money.[49] In
2010, Pentagon ocials disclosed that the F-35 program has exceeded its original cost estimates by more
than 50 percent.[50] An internal Pentagon report critical
of the JSF project states that aordability is no longer
embraced as a core pillar. In 2010, Lockheed Martin expected to reduce government cost estimates by 20
percent.[51] On 24 March 2010, Gates termed the cost
overruns and delays as unacceptable in a testimony before the U.S. Congress; and characterized previous cost
and schedule estimates as overly rosy. Gates insisted
the F-35 would become the backbone of U.S. air combat
for the next generation and informed the Congress that
he had expanded the development period by an additional
13 months and budgeted $3 billion more for the testing program while slowing down production.[52] In August 2010, Lockheed Martin announced delays in resolving a wing-at-mate overlap production problem, which
would slow initial production.[53]
353
sponsibility and Reform suggested cancelling the F-35B
and halving orders of F-35As and F-35Cs.[54][55][56] Air
Force Magazine reported that Pentagon ocials were
considering canceling the F-35B because its short range
meant that the forward bases or amphibious ships it would
operate from would be in range of hostile tactical ballistic missiles.[57] Lockheed Martin consultant Loren B.
Thompson said that this rumor was a result of the usual
tensions between the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, and
there was no alternative to the F-35B as an AV-8B Harrier II replacement.[58] He also conrmed further delays
and cost increases because of technical problems with the
aircraft and software, blaming most of the delays and extra costs on redundant ight tests.[59]
In November 2010, the Center for Defense Information
estimated that the program would be restructured with
an additional year of delay and $5 billion in additional
costs.[60] On 5 November 2010, the Block 1 software ew
for the rst time on BF-4.[61] As of the end of 2010, only
15% of the software remained to be written, but this was
reported to include the most dicult sections such as data
fusion.[62] In 2011, it was revealed that 50% of the eight
million lines of code had been written and that it would
take another six years to complete the software to the new
schedule.[63] By 2012, the total estimated lines of code
for the entire program (onboard and oboard) had grown
from 15 million lines to 24 million lines.[64]
In 2011, the program head and Commander of the Naval
Air Systems Command, Vice Admiral David Venlet, conrmed that the concurrency built into the program was
a miscalculation.[65] This was during a contract dispute where the Pentagon insisted that Lockheed Martin help cover the costs of applying xes found during
testing to aircraft already produced.[66] Lockheed Martin objected that the cost sharing posed an uninsurable
unbounded risk that the company could not cover, and
later responded that the concurrency costs for F-35 continue to reduce.[67][68] The Senate Armed Services Committee strongly backed the Pentagon position.[69] In December 2011, Lockheed Martin accepted a cost sharing agreement.[70] The Aerospace Industries Association
warned that such changes would force them to anticipate
cost overruns in future contract bids.[71] As of 2012, problems found in ight testing were expected to continue
to lead to higher levels of engineering changes through
2019.[72] The total additional cost for concurrency in the
program is around $1.3 billion.[73] By the next year the
cost had grown to $1.7 billion.[74]
In January 2011, Defense Secretary Robert Gates expressed the Pentagons frustration with the rising costs
of the F-35 program when he said, The culture of endless money that has taken hold must be replaced by a culture of restraint. Focusing his attention on the troubled
F-35B, Gates ordered a two-year probation, saying it
[75]
In November 2010, as part of a cost-cutting measure, should be canceled if corrections are unsuccessful.
[76]
Some
the co-chairs of the National Commission on Fiscal Re- Gates has stated his support for the program.
private analysts, such as Richard Aboulaa, of the Teal
354
Group state that the F-35 program is becoming a money

pit.[77] Gates successor, Leon Panetta, ended the F-35Bs
probation on 20 January 2012, stating The STOVL variant has madeI believe and all of us believesucient
progress.[78]
costs increase, and Canada has indicated it is not committed to a purchase yet.[98][99] The United States is projected to spend an estimated $323 billion for development and procurement on the program, making it the
most expensive defense program ever.[100] Testifying before a Canadian parliamentary committee in 2011, Rear
Admiral Arne Rksund of Norway estimated that his
countrys 52 F-35 ghter jets will cost $769 million each
over their operational lifetime.[101] In 2012, the total
life-cycle cost for the entire U.S. eet was estimated at
US$1.51 trillion over a 50-year life, or $618 million per
plane.[102] To reduce this high life-cycle cost over a 50year lifetime, the USAF is considering reducing Lockheed Martins role in Contractor Logistics Support.[103]
The company has responded that this cost estimate relies
on future costs beyond its control such as USAF reorganizations and yet to be specied upgrades.[104] Delays have
negatively aected the programs worldwide supply chain
and partner organizations.[105]
Former Pentagon manager Paul G. Kaminski has said that

the lack of a complete test plan has added ve years to the
JSF program.[79] Initial operating capability (IOC) will be
determined by software development rather than by hardware production or pilot training.[80] As of May 2013, the
USMC plan an IOC in mid-2015 for the F-35B with
Block 2B software which gives basic air-to-air and airto-ground capability. It has been reported that the USAF
is planning to bring forward IOC for the F-35A to the
Block 3I software in mid-2016 rather than waiting for
the full-capability Block 3F in mid-2017; the F-35C will
not enter service with the USN until mid-2018.[81] The
$56.4 billion development project for the aircraft should
be completed in 2018 when the Block ve conguration
is expected to be deliveredseveral years late and con- In 2012, General Norton A. Schwartz decried the foolsiderably over budget.[82]
ishness of reliance on computer models to settle the nal
ight testing found the isDelays in the F-35 program may lead to a ghter gap design of the aircraft before
[106]
sues
that
needed
redesign.
In 2013, JSF project team
where the United States and other countries will lack sufleader
USAF
Lieutenant
General
Chris Bogdan said that
[83]
cient ghters to cover their requirements. Israel may
A
large
amount
of
concurrency,
that is, beginning pro[84]
seek to buy second-hand F-15Es, while Australia also
duction
long
before
your
design
is
stable and long besought additional F/A-18 Super Hornets in the face of Ffore
you've
found
problems
in
test,
creates downstream
[85]
35 delays.
issues where now you have to go back and retrot airIn May 2011, the Pentagons top weapons buyer Ashton planes and make sure the production line has those xes
Carter said that its new $133 million unit price was not in them. And that drives complexity and cost.[107] Bogaordable.[86] In 2011, The Economist warned that the F- dan praised the improvement in the program ever since
35 was in danger of slipping into a death spiral where Lockheed Martin was forced to assume some of the increasing per-aircraft costs would lead to cuts in number nancial risks.[108]
of aircraft ordered, leading to further cost increases and
further order cuts.[87] Later that year, four aircraft were In 2012, in order to avoid further redesign delays, the U.S.
for the F-35A and
cut from the fth Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) or- DoD accepted a reduced combat radius
[109][110]
a
longer
takeo
run
for
the
F-35B.
The F-35Bs
[88]
der to pay for cost overruns;
in 2012, a further two
[111]
estimated
radius
has
also
decreased
by
15
percent.
In
[89]
aircraft were cut. Lockheed Martin acknowledged that
a
meeting
in
Sydney
in
March,
the
United
States
pledged
[90]
the slowing of purchases would increase costs. David
nations that there would be no more proVan Buren, U.S. Air Force acquisition chief, said that to eight partner
[112]
gram
delays.
Lockheed Martin needed to cut infrastructure to match
the reduced market for their aircraft.[91] The company In May 2012, Lockheed Martin Chief Executive Bob
said that the slowdown in American orders will free up Stevens complained that the Defense Departments recapacity to meet the urgent short-term needs of foreign quirements for cost data were driving up program
partners for replacement ghters.[92] Air Force Secre- cost.[113] Stevens also admitted that a strike might cause
tary Michael Donley said that no more money was avail- a production shortfall of the target of 29 F-35s that
able and that future price increases would be matched year.[114] Striking workers questioned the standards of
with cuts in the number of aircraft ordered.[93] Later that replacement workers, as even their own work had been
month, the Pentagon reported that costs had risen another cited for inattention to production quality with a 16%
4.3 percent, partially resulting from production delays.[94] rework rate.[115] The workers went on strike to protect
In 2012, the purchase of six out of 31 aircraft was tied to pensions whose costs have been the subject of negotiaperformance metrics of the program.[95] In 2013, Bog- tions with the Department of Defense over the next batch
dan repeated that no more money was available, but that of aircraft.[116] These same pension costs were cited by
he hoped to avoid the death spiral.[96] In 2014 it was re- Fitch in their downgrade of the outlook for Lockheed
ported that another eight aircraft would be cut from the Martins stock price.[117] Stevens said that while he hoped
to bring down program costs, the industrial base was
next years order.[97]
meeting the governments expectations of
Japan has warned that it may halt their purchase if unit not capable of
aordability.[118][119]
33.1. DEVELOPMENT
355
According to a June 2012 Government Accountability

Oce report, the F-35s unit cost has almost doubled,
an increase of 93% over the programs 2001 baseline
cost estimates.[120] In 2012, Lockheed Martin reportedly feared that the tighter policies for award fees of
the Obama administration would reduce their prots by
$500 million over the following ve years.[121] This was
demonstrated in 2012 when the Pentagon withheld the
maximum $47 million allowed for the companys failure to certify its program to track project costs and
schedules.[122] The GAO has also faulted the USAF and
USN for not fully planning the costs of extending legacy
F-16 and F-18 eets to cover for the delayed F-35.[123]
Due to cost cutting measures, the U.S. Government and
the GAO have stated that the yaway cost (including engines) has been dropping. The U.S. Government estimates that in 2020 an F-35 will cost some $85m each
or less than half of the 2009 initial examples cost. Adjusted to todays dollars the 2020 price would be $75m
each.[124]
On 21 August 2013, C-Span reported that Congressional Quarterly and the Government Accountability Ofce were indicating the total estimated program cost
now is $400bnearly twice the initial cost. The current investment was documented as approximately $50
billion. The projected $316 billion cost in development
and procurement spending was estimated through 2037
at an average of $12.6 billion per year. These were conrmed by Steve O'Bryan, Vice President of Lockheed
Martin on the same date.[137]
In 2013, Lockheed Martin began to lay o workers at the

Fort Worth plant where the F-35s were assembled.[125]
They said that the currently estimated concurrency costs
of retting the 187 aircraft built by the time testing concludes in 2016 are now less than previously feared.[126]
The GAOs Michael Sullivan said that the company had
failed to get an early start on the systems engineering and
had not understood the requirements or the technologies
involved at the programs start.[127] The Pentagon vowed
to continue funding the program during budget sequestration if possible.[128] The U.S. budget sequestration in
2013 could slow development of critical software,[129]
and the Congress has ordered another study to be made
on the software development delays.[130] As of 2014, software development remains the number one technical
challenge for the F-35.[131]
A 2014 Center for International Policy study cast doubt

on the number of indirect jobs created by the program, which has been a key selling point for the F-35 to
Congress. Lockheed stood by their job numbers and said
that their accounting was in line with industry norms.[140]
In June 2013, Frank Kendall, Pentagon acquisition, technology and logistics chief, declared major advances had
been made in the F-35 program over the last three years;
and that he intended to approve production rate increases
in September. Air Force Lt. Gen. Christopher Bogdan,
program executive ocer, reported far better communications between government and vendor managers, and
that negotiations over Lot 6 and 7 talks were moving fast.
It was also stated that operating costs had been better
understood since training started, and he predicted we
can make a substantial dent in projections of operating
costs.[132]
In 2013, a RAND study found that during development

the three dierent versions had drifted so far apart from
each other that having a single base design might now
be more expensive than if the three services had simply built entirely dierent aircraft tailored to their own
requirements.[138]
In 2014, the airframe cost went below $100 million for
the rst time, and the Air Force expected unit costs to
fall.[139]
A January 2014 report by J. Michael Gilmore said that

new software delays could delay Block 2B release by 13
months;[141] this was reduced to 4 months in the DOTE
report from November 2014.[142] The F-35 program ofce considers software to be the top technical risk to the
program, and the USMC has maintained their expectation of an IOC in July 2015.[143]
In 2014, U.S. Senator John McCain blamed cost increases in the program on cronyism.[144]
In 2014, the GAO found that the F-35 eet would
have operating costs 79% higher than the aircraft it
replaced.[145] The latest Selected Acquisition Report
stated that the program cost has increased 43% from 2001
with Program Acquisition Unit Cost up 68% and Unit Recurring Flyaway up 41%.[8] The F-35As cost per ying
hour is $32.5k while the F-16C/D is $25.5k but each F35A will only y 250 hours a year to the F-16s 316 hours
resulting in the same yearly operating cost.[8][146]
In July 2014, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and

BAE Systems announced they would invest a combined
$170M into the program, which is anticipated to save
over $10M per aircraft. This initiative has set the project
airIn July 2013, further doubt was cast on the latest (long on track for an $80M (including engine) price tag per
[147]
craft
(F-35A),
by
2018
when
full
production
starts.
delayed) schedule, with further software delays, and sensor, display and wing buet problems continuing.[133] In The December 2014 Selected Acquisition Report listed a
August it was revealed that the Pentagon was weighing cost decrease of $7.5 billion against a program cost of
cancellation of the program as one possible response to $391.1 billion ($320 billion in 2012 dollars). Lockheed
the budget sequestration,[134][135] and the United States Martin stated that there would be a decrease of nearly $60
Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense voted billion to the operations and support costs.[148]
to cut advanced procurement for the ghter.[136]
356
33.1.4
Concerns over performance and plan to equip the F-35 with six AIM-120D missiles by
2019.[160] Former RAND author John Stillion has writsafety
Considerable criticism followed in the wake of U.S. Ambassador Tom Schieer's conrmation to the Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Aairs (JSCFADT) on 21
June 2004: With regard to the stealth technology, the
airplane that Australia will get will be the stealthiest airplane that anybody outside the United States can acquire.
We have given assurances to Australia that we will give
you the absolute maximum that we can with regard to that
technology. Having said that, the airplane will not be exactly the same airplane as the United States will have. But
it will be a stealth ghter; it will have stealth capabilities;
and it will be at the highest level that anyone in the world
has outside the United States.[149][150] Lockheed Martins Tom Burbage stated in a 2006 article that export of
key technologies such as stealth would be limited by U.S.
national disclosure policy.[151] A Janes article in 2004
gave a hint that US$1B, spent on several contracts, may
provide for a less stealthy F-35 export conguration.[152]
Andrew Krepinevich has questioned the reliance on
short range aircraft like the F-35 or F-22 to manage China in a future conict and has suggested reducing
the number of F-35s ordered in favor of a longer range
platform like the Next-Generation Bomber, but Michael
Wynne, then United States Secretary of the Air Force
rejected this plan of action in 2007.[153][154] By 2012,
Wynne had conceded that Americas short ranged fthgeneration ghters would need drop tanks in order to
be eective, with resultant compromises to their radar
low observable stealth characteristics.[155] In 2011, the
Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments (CSBA)
pointed to the restructuring of the F-35 program and the
return of the bomber project as a sign of their eectiveness, while Rebecca Grant said that the restructuring was
a vote of condence in the F-35 and there is no other
stealthy, survivable new ghter program out there.[156]
Lockheed Martin has also said that the F-35 is designed to
launch internally carried bombs at supersonic speed and
internal missiles at maximum supersonic speed.[157]
ten of the F-35As air-to-air combat performance that it

can't turn, can't climb, can't run"; Lockheed Martin test
pilot Jon Beesley has stated that in an air-to-air conguration the F-35 has almost as much thrust as weight and a
ight control system that allows it to be fully maneuverable even at a 50-degree angle of attack.[161][162] Consultant to Lockheed Martin Loren B. Thompson has said that
the electronic edge F-35 enjoys over every other tactical
aircraft in the world may prove to be more important in
future missions than maneuverability.[163]
In an April 2009 interview with the state-run[164] Global
Times, Chen Hu, editor-in-chief of World Military Affairs magazine said that the F-35 is too costly because it
attempts to provide the capabilities needed for all three
American services in a common airframe.[165] U.S. defense specialist Winslow T. Wheeler and aircraft designer
Pierre Sprey have commented of the F-35 being heavy
and sluggish and possessing pitifully small load for all
that money, further criticizing the value for money of the
stealth measures as well as lacking re safety measures;
his nal conclusion was that any air force would be better
o maintaining its eets of F-16s and F/A-18s compared
to buying into the F-35 program.[166] A senior U.S. defense ocial was quoted as saying that the F-35 will be
the most stealthy, sophisticated and lethal tactical ghter
in the sky, and added Quite simply, the F-15 will be no
match for the F-35.[167] After piloting the aircraft, RAF
Squadron Leader Steve Long said that, over its existing
aircraft, the F-35 will give the RAF and Navy a quantum leap in airborne capability.[168]
In November 2009, Jon Schreiber, head of F-35 international aairs program for the Pentagon, said that the
U.S. will not share the software code for the F-35 with
its allies.[169] The US plans to set up a reprogramming facility that will develop JSF software and distribute it to
allies.[170]
In 2011, Canadian politicians raised the issue of the
safety of the F-35s reliance on a single engine (as opposed to a twin-engine conguration, which provides a
backup in case of an engine failure). Canada, and other
operators, had previous experience with a high-accident
rate with the single-engine Lockheed CF-104 Starghter
with many accidents related to engine failures. Defence
Minister Peter MacKay, when asked what would happen
if the F-35s single engine fails in the Far North, stated
It wont.[171]
A Lockheed Martin press release points to USAF simulations regarding the F-35s air-to-air performance against
adversaries described as "4th generation" ghters, in
which it claims the F-35 is 400 percent more eective. Major General Charles R. Davis, USAF, the F-35
program executive ocer, has stated that the F-35 enjoys a signicant Combat Loss Exchange Ratio advantage over the current and future air-to-air threats, to inIn November 2011, a Pentagon study team identied the
clude Sukhois.[158]
following 13 areas of concern that remained to be adIn September 2008, in reference to the original plan dressed in the F-35:[172][173]
to t the F-35 with only two air-to-air missiles (interIn March 2012, Tom Burbage, and Gary Liberson, of
nally), Major Richard Koch, chief of USAF Air ComLockheed Martin addressed an Australian Parliamentary
bat Commands advanced air dominance branch is reCommittee about earlier assessments. Liberson stated:
ported to have said that I wake up in a cold sweat at the
Our current assessment that we speak of is: greater than
thought of the F-35 going in with only two air-dominance
six to one relative loss exchange ratio against in four ver[159]
The Norwegians have been briefed on a
weapons.
33.1. DEVELOPMENT
sus eight engagement scenariosfour blue [F-35s] versus eight advanced red threats in the 2015 to 2020 time
frame. Later stating: And it is very important to note
that our constructive simulations that Mr Burbage talks
about without the pilot in the loop are the lowest number
that we talk aboutthe greater than six to one. When we
include the pilot in the loop activities, they even do better. Burbage said: We actually have a fth-gen airplane
ying today. The F-22 has been in many exercises. We
have one of the pilots here who ew it and they can tell
you that in any real-world event it is much better than the
simulations forecast. We have F-35 ying today; it has
not been put into that scenario yet, but we have very high
quality information on the capability of the sensors and
the capability of the airplane, and we have represented
the airplane fairly and appropriately in these large-scale
campaign models that we are using. But it is not just
us...it is our air force; it is your air force; it is all the other
participating nations that do this; it is our navy and our
marine corps that do these exercises. It is not Lockheed
in a closet genning up some sort of result.[174]
In May 2012, Michael Auslin of the American Enterprise
Institute has questioned the capability of the F-35 to engage modern air defenses.[175] In July 2012, the Pentagon
awarded Lockheed Martin $450 million to improve the
F-35 electronic warfare systems and incorporate Israeli
systems.[176]
In a negative assessment of the Joint Strike Fighter, the
think tank Air Power Australia declared that the Joint
Strike Fighter is not designed to perform air superiority roles and also is not adapted to performing the longrange penetration strike role lled by previous Australian
aircraft like the General Dynamics F-111C. Critically,
they also stated that the F-35s intended survivability and
lethality are mismatched against the operational environment in which the aircraft is intended to be used.[177]
357
the fuel tank and fueldraulic (fuel-based hydraulic) systems have left it considerably more vulnerable to lightning strikes and other re sources, including enemy re
than previously revealed, especially at lower altitudes.[179]
This report updated a separate report from 2010, in which
Lockheed Martin spokesman John Kent said that adding
re-suppression systems would oer very small improvement to survivability.[180] The same 2010 report
also noted performance degradation of the three variants,
the sustained turn rates had been reduced to 4.6 g for the
F-35A, 4.5 g for the F-35B, and 5.0 g for the F-35C. The
acceleration performance of all three variants was also
downgraded, with the F-35C taking 43 seconds longer
than an F-16 to accelerate from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2;
this was judged by several ghter pilots to be a lower performance level than expected from a fourth generation
ghter.[181] On 30 August 2013, it was reported that the
F-35B and F-35C models take several complex maneuvers in order to accelerate to their top speed of Mach
1.6, which consumed almost all of the onboard fuel.[182]
The F-35 program oce is reconsidering addition of previously removed safety equipment.[183] In 2012, Lockheed Martin program manager Tom Burbage said that
while the relatively large cross-sectional area of the ghter
that was required by the internal weapons bays gave it a
disadvantage against fourth generation ghters that were
operating in a clear conguration, the F-35 armed with
weapons carried internally had the advantage over ghters carrying their weapons outside the aircraft.[184]
In March 2013, USAF test pilots, ying with preoperational software that did not utilize the all-aspect infrared AAQ-37 DAS sensor, noted a lack of visibility
from the F-35 cockpit during evaluation ights, which
would get them consistently shot down in combat. Defense spending analyst Winslow Wheeler concluded from
ight evaluation reports that the F-35A is awed beyond redemption";[185] in response, program manager
Bogdan suggested that pilots worried about being shot
down should y cargo aircraft instead.[186] The same report found (in addition to the usual problems with the aircraft listed above):
In June 2012, Australias Air Vice Marshal Osley responded to Air Power Australias criticisms by saying
Air Power Australia (Kopp and Goon) claim that the F35 will not be competitive in 2020 and that Air Power
Australias criticisms mainly center around F-35s aerodynamic performance and stealth capabilities. Osley
Current aircraft software is inadequate for even bacontinued with, these are inconsistent with years of desic pilot training.
tailed analysis that has been undertaken by Defence, the
Ejection seat may fail, causing pilot fatality.
JSF program oce, Lockheed Martin, the U.S. services
and the eight other partner nations. While aircraft de Several pilot-vehicle interface issues, including lack
velopments, such as the Russian PAK-FA or the Chinese
of feedback on touchscreen controls.
J20, as argued by Airpower Australia, show that threats
we could potentially face are becoming increasingly so The radar performs poorly, or not at all.
phisticated, there is nothing new regarding development
Engine replacement takes an average of 52 hours,
of these aircraft to change Defences assessment. He
instead of the two hours specied.
then said that he thinks that the Air Power Australias
analysis is basically awed through incorrect assump Maintenance tools do not work.[187]
tions and a lack of knowledge of the classied F-35 performance information.[178]
The JPO responded that more experienced pilots would
In a report released in 2013, it was stated that aws in be able to safely operate the aircraft and that procedures
would improve over time.[188]
358
Even in the nal 3F software version, the F-35 will lack

ROVER, in spite of having close air support as one of its
primary missions.[189]
In 2014, David Axe stated design aws related to
its single-engine conguration could vex the F-35 for
decades to come, forcing the Pentagon to suspend ying
too often for the majority of its ghter eet.[190]
In November 2014, China unveiled the portable JY26 Skywatch-U UHF 3-D long-range surveillance radar
system, specically designed to defeat stealth aircraft
like the F-35.[191] Responding to a reporters question
about the High-Frequency radar threat General Welsh
said while we may have a new radar developed that allows an acquisition radar to see an airplane, that doesn't
mean you can pass the track o to a radar that will
then guide a weapon to be able to destroy the airplane.
As long as we break the kill chain sometime between
when you arrive in the battle space and when the enemy
weapon approaches your airplane, you're successful at using stealth.[192]
A 2014 Pentagon report found these issues:
First two mission data sets available November
2015, after USMC IOC.
Overall operational suitability relies heavily on contractor support and unacceptable workarounds.
Aircraft availability reached 51% but short of 60%
goal.
Fuel Tanks don't retain inerting for required 12
hours after landing.
High dynamic loads on the rudder at lower altitudes
in 20-26 AoA preventing testing.
82 pounds added to F-35B in last 38 months, 337
pounds below limit.
Transonic Roll-O (TRO) and airframe buet continue to be program concerns.
572 deciencies remain aecting Block 2B capability, 151 of which are critical.
VSim would likely not support planned Block 2B operational testing in 2015.
Maintainability hours still an issue.
Testing is continuing to reveal the need for more

tests, but the majority of the xes and for capability
deciencies being discovered are being deferred to
later blocks rather than being resolved;
The F-35 has a signicant risk of re due to extensive fuel tank vulnerability, lightning vulnerability
and an OBIGGS system unable to suciently reduce re-sustaining oxygen, despite redesigns;
Wing drop concerns are still not resolved after six
years, and may only be mitigated or solved at the
expense of combat maneuverability and stealth;
The June engine problems are seriously impeding or
preventing the completion of key test points, including ensuring that the F-35B delivered to the Marine
Corps for IOC meets critical safety requirements; no
redesign, schedule, or cost estimate for a long-term
x has been dened yet, thereby further impeding g
testing;
Even in its third iteration, the F-35s helmet continues to show high false-alarm rates and computer stability concerns, seriously reducing pilots situational
awareness and endangering their lives in combat;
The number of Block 2Bs already limited combat
capabilities being deferred to later blocks means that
the Marine Corps FY2015 IOC squadron will be
even less combat capable than originally planned;
ALIS software failures continue to impede operation, mission planning, and maintenance of the F35, forcing the Services to be overly reliant on contractors and unacceptable workarounds;
Deciencies in Block 2B software, and deferring
those capabilities to later blocks, is undermining
combat suitability for all three variants of the F-35;
The programs attempts to save money now by reducing test points and deferring crucial combat capabilities will result in costly retrots and xes later
down the line, creating a future unaordable bow
wave that, based on F-22 experience, will add at
least an additional $67 billion in acquisition costs;
and
Low availability and reliability of the F-35 is driven
by inherent design problems that are only becoming
more obvious and dicult to x.
Three dierent types of data massaging are identied

in the DOT&E report:[194] moving failures from one category to another, less important one; ignoring repetitive
A 2015 Pentagon report[193] found these issues:
failures, thus inating numbers of failure-free hours; and
improper scoring of reliability.[195] In all these instances,
The Joint Program Oce is re-categorizing or fail- data reporting and processing rules were changed during
ing to count aircraft failures to try to boost maintain- the year for no other reason than to paint a more favorable
ability and reliability statistics;
picture. Maintenance problems were determined to be so
ALIS requires many manual workarounds.[142]
33.2. DESIGN
severe that the F-35 is only able to y twice a week. To
address the issue of wing drop and buet maneuvering,
the required control law modications will reduce the maneuverability of the F-35, only exacerbating the planes
performance problems in this area. The F-35Cs wing
drop problem is worse than other variants.
33.1.5
PentagonLockheed Martin relation issues
In September 2012, the Pentagon criticized, quite publicly, Lockheed Martins performance on the F-35 program and stated that it would not bail out the program
again if problems with the planes systems, particularly
the helmet-mounted display, were not resolved. The
deputy F-35 program manager said that the governments
relationship with the company was the worst I've ever
seen in many years of working on complex acquisition
programs. Air Force Secretary Michael Donley told reporters the Pentagon had no more money to pour into the
program after three costly restructurings in recent years.
He said the department was done with major restructuring and that there was no further exibility or tolerance for that approach. This criticism followed a very
painful 7 September review that focused on an array
of ongoing program challenges. Lockheed Martin responded with a brief statement saying it would continue
to work with the F-35 program oce to deliver the new
ghter.[196]
On 28 September 2012, the Pentagon announced that the
F-35 Joint Strike Fighter support program would become
an open competition. They invited companies to participate in a two-day forum on 1415 November for possible
opportunities to compete for work managing the supply
chain of the aircraft. Their reason is to reduce F-35 lifecycle costs by creating competition within the program
and to rene its acquisition strategy and evaluate alternatives that will deliver the best value, long-term F-35 sustainment solution. This could be hazardous to Lockheed
Martin, the current prime contractor for sustainment of
all three variants, and selection of another company could
reduce their revenues.[197]
359
The aircraft are expected to be upgraded throughout their
operational lives.[200]
In September 2013, Northrop Grumman revealed the
development of a company-funded Directional Infrared
Counter Measures system in anticipation of a requirement to protect the F-35 from heat-seeking missiles. A
laser jammer is expected to be part of the F-35 Block
5 upgrade; it must meet low-observability (LO) requirements and t in the F-35s restricted space. Called the
Threat Nullication Defensive Resource (ThNDR), it is
to have a small, powerful laser, beam steering and LO
window, use liquid cooling, and t alongside the distributed aperture system (DAS) to provide spherical coverage with minimal changes; the DAS would provide missile warning and cue the jam head.[201]
Combat capabilities of the F-35 are made possible
through software increments to advance technical abilities. Block 2A software enhanced simulated weapons,
data link capabilities, and early fused sensor integration.
Block 2B software enables the F-35 to provide basic close
air support with certain JDAMs and the 500 lb GBU-12
Paveway II, as well as re the AIM-120 AMRAAM. The
Air Force is to declare the F-35 initially operational with
Block 3i software. Full operational capability will come
from Block 3F software; Block 3F enhances its ability to
suppress enemy air defenses and enables the Lightning
II to deploy the 500 lb JDAM, the GBU-53/B SDB II,
and the AIM-9X Sidewinder. Block 4 software will increase the weapons envelope of the F-35 and is made to
counter air defenses envisioned to be encountered past
the 2040s. Block 4 upgrades will be broken into two
increments; Block 4A in 2021 and Block 4B in 2023.
This phase will also include usage of weaponry unique to
British, Turkish, and other European countries who will
operate Lightning II.[202]
Lockheed has oered the potential of Higher Denition
Video, longer range target detection and identication,
Video Data Link, and Infrared (IR) Marker and Pointer
for the EOTS in future upgrades.[203]
33.2 Design
In 2013, the ocer in charge of the program blamed

Lockheed Martin and Pratt & Whitney for gouging the 33.2.1 Overview
government on costs, instead of focusing on the long-term
future of the program.[198]
The F-35 appears to be a smaller, single-engine sibling
In 2014, Lockheed was reported to be having problems of the twin-engine Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, and
with build quality, including one aircraft with a valve in- indeed drew elements from it. The exhaust duct design
stalled backwards and another with gaps in the stealth was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200 design,
proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL ghter requirecoating.[199]
ment for the Sea Control Ship.[204] Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s,
such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B
33.1.6 Upgrades
is to be the rst operational supersonic, STOVL stealth
[205]
Lockheed Martins development roadmap extends until ghter.
2021, including a Block 6 engine improvement in 2019. Acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air
360

High speed data networking including IEEE
1394b[212] and Fibre Channel.[213] (Fibre Channel
is also used on Boeings Super Hornet.[214] )
F-35A prototype being towed to its inauguration ceremony on 7

July 2006
The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment

(ALGS), Autonomic Logistics Information System
(ALIS) and Computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) are to help ensure aircraft
uptime with minimal maintenance manpower.[215]
The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive
bidding by other companies.[216] This was after
Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing
twenty percent less than the F-16 per ight hour, the
F-35 would actually cost twelve percent more.[217]
Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including
the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership
calculations.[218] The USMC have implemented
a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the
system.[219]
Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-bywire ight-control system.[220]
A modern and updated ight simulator, which may
be used for a greater fraction of pilot training in order to reduce the costly ight hours of the actual
aircraft.[221]
F-35Bs thrust vectoring nozzle and lift fan
Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. Shack Shackelford has

said that the F-35 is designed to be Americas premier
surface-to-air missile killer and is uniquely equipped for
this mission with cutting edge processing power, synthetic
aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition.[206][207] Lockheed Martin states the F35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor.[208] Lockheed Martin has said that the F-35 has the advantage over
the F-22 in basing exibility and advanced sensors and
information fusion.[209] Lockheed Martin has suggested
that the F-35 could replace the USAFs F-15C/D ghters
in the air superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in
the ground attack role.[210]
Lightweight, powerful and volatile Lithium-ion batteries similar to those that have grounded the
Boeing 787 Dreamliner eet.[222] These are required to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency,[223] and have been strenuously tested.[224]
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22).[225] The majority of these are bismaleimide (BMI) and composite epoxy
material.[226] The F-35 will be the rst mass produced
aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely
carbon nanotube reinforced epoxy.[227] Experience of the
F-22s problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap
ller that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframes
skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring ller and implementing better drainage.[228] The relatively short 35-foot
Some improvements over current-generation ghter air- wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35Bs
requirement to t inside the Navys current amphibious
craft are:
assault ship parking area[229] and elevators; the F-35Cs
longer wing is considered to be more fuel ecient.[230]
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using
structural ber mat instead of the high-maintenance A United States Navy study found that the F-35 will
cost 30 to 40 percent more to maintain than current jet
coatings of legacy stealth platforms;[211]
ghters;[231] not accounting for ination over the F-35s
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1
information from o- and on-board sensors to in- trillion maintenance cost for the entire eet over its lifescrease the pilots situational awareness and improve pan, not accounting for ination.[232] The F-35 program
target identication and weapon delivery, and to re- oce found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35
lay information quickly to other command and con- eet over a 53-year life cycle was $857 billion. Costs for
trol (C2) nodes;
the ghter have been dropping and accounted for the 22
33.2. DESIGN
percent life cycle drop since 2010.[233] Lockheed claims
that by 2019, pricing for the fth-generation aircraft will
be less than fourth-generation ghters. An F-35A in 2019
is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with
engines and full mission systems, ination adjusted from
$75 million in December 2013.[234]
33.2.2
Engines
An F-35A powerplant on display, 2014
361
Rolls-Royce. This system more resembles the German
VJ 101D/E than the preceding STOVL Harrier Jump Jet
and the Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine.[242][243][244] The Lift
System is composed of a lift fan, drive shaft, two roll
posts and a Three Bearing Swivel Module (3BSM).[245]
The 3BSM is a thrust vectoring nozzle which allows the
main engine exhaust to be deected downward at the tail
of the aircraft. The lift fan is near the front of the aircraft and provides a counterbalancing thrust using two
counter-rotating blisks.[246] It is powered by the engines
low-pressure (LP) turbine via a drive shaft and gearbox.
Roll control during slow ight is achieved by diverting
unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust
nozzles called Roll Posts.[247][248]
F136 funding came at the expense of other program
elements, impacting on unit costs.[249] The F136 team
claimed their engine had a greater temperature margin,
potentially critical for VTOL operations in hot, high altitude conditions.[250] Pratt & Whitney tested higher thrust
versions of the F135, partly in response to GEs claims
that the F136 is capable of producing more thrust than the
43,000 lbf (190 kN) of early F135s. In testing, the F135
has demonstrated a maximum thrust of over 50,000 lbf
(220 kN);[251] making it the most powerful engine ever
installed in a ghter aircraft as of 2010.[252] It is much
heavier than previous ghter engines; the Heavy Underway Replenishment system needed to transfer the F135
between ships is an unfunded USN requirement.[253]
Thermoelectric-powered sensors monitor turbine bearing
health.[254]
The Pratt & Whitney F135 powers the F-35. An alternative engine, the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136, was
being developed until it was cancelled by its manufacturers in December 2011.[235][236] Neither the F135 or
F136 engines are designed to supercruise,[237] the F-35
can achieve a limited supercruise of Mach 1.2 for 150
miles.[238] The F135 is the second (radar) stealthy afterburning jet engine. Like the Pratt & Whitney F119 33.2.3
from which it was derived, the F135 has suered afterburner pressure pulsations, or 'screech' at low altitude and
high speed.[239] The F-35 has a maximum speed of over
Mach 1.6. With a maximum takeo weight of 60,000
lb (27,000 kg),[N 2][241] the Lightning II is considerably
heavier than the lightweight ghters it replaces.
Armament
Weapons bay on an F-35 mock-up
The F-35A is armed with a GAU-22/A, a four-barrel

version of the 25 mm GAU-12 Equalizer cannon.[255]
The Pratt & Whitney F135 engine with Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, The cannon is mounted internally with 182 rounds for
including roll posts, and rear vectoring nozzle for the F-35B, at the F-35A or in an external pod with 220 rounds for
the F-35B and F-35C;[256][257] the gun pod has stealth
the 2007 Paris Air Show
features.[258] The F-35 has two internal weapons bays,
The STOVL F-35B is outtted with the Rolls-Royce Lift- and external hardpoints for mounting up to four underSystem, designed by Lockheed Martin and developed by wing pylons and two near wingtip pylons. The two outer
362
hardpoints can carry pylons for the AIM-9X Sidewinder

and AIM-132 ASRAAM short-range air-to-air missiles
(AAM) only.[259] The other pylons can carry the AIM120 AMRAAM BVR AAM, Storm Shadow cruise missile, AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Stand-o Missile
(JASSM) cruise missile, and guided bombs. The external
pylons can carry missiles, bombs, and external fuel tanks
at the expense of increased radar cross-section, and thus
reduced stealth.[260]
IOC due to weight and dimension constraints; F-35B bay

changes are to be incorporated to increase SDB II loadout
around 2022 in line with the Block 4 weapons suite.[269]
The Meteor (missile) air-to-air missile may be adapted
for the F-35, a modied Meteor with smaller tailns for
the F-35 was revealed in September 2010; plans call for
the carriage of four Meteors internally.[270] The United
Kingdom planned to use up to four AIM-132 ASRAAM
missiles internally, later plans call for the carriage of two
[271]
The external
There are a total of four weapons stations between the internal and two external ASRAAMs.
ASRAAMs are planned to be carried on stealthy pytwo internal bays. Two of these can carry air-to-surface
to slightly beyond visual
missiles up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) in A and C models, or lons; the missile allows attacks [259][272]
range without employing radar.
two bombs up to 1,000 lb (450 kg) in the B model; the
other two stations are for smaller weapons such as air- Norway and Australia are funding an adaptation of the
to-air missiles.[261][262] The weapon bays can carry AIM- Naval Strike Missile (NSM) for the F-35. Under the des120 AMRAAM, AIM-132 ASRAAM, the Joint Direct ignation Joint Strike Missile (JSM), it is to be the only
Attack Munition (JDAM), Paveway series of bombs, cruise missile to t the F-35s internal bays; according to
the Joint Stando Weapon (JSOW), Brimstone anti-tank studies two JSMs can be carried internally with an addimissiles, and cluster munitions (Wind Corrected Muni- tional four externally.[273] The F-35 is expected to take
tions Dispenser).[261] An air-to-air missile load of eight on the Wild Weasel mission, though there are no planned
AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is possible using internal and anti-radiation missiles for internal carriage.[274] The B61
external weapons stations; a conguration of six 2,000 lb nuclear bomb was initially scheduled for deployment in
(910 kg) bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s can also 2017;[275] as of 2012 it was expected to be in the early
be arranged.[261][263] The Terma A/S multi-mission pod 2020s,[276] and in 2014 Congress moved to cut funding
(MMP) could be used for dierent equipment and pur- for the needed weapons integration work.[277] Norton A.
poses, such as electronic warfare, aerial reconnaissance, Schwartz agreed with the move and said that F-35 inor rear-facing tactical radar.[258][264]
vestment dollars should realign to the long-range strike
bomber".[278] NATO partners who are buying the F-35
but cannot aord to make them dual-capable want the
USAF to fund the conversions to allow their Lightning IIs
to carry thermonuclear weapons. The USAF is trying to
convince NATO partners who can aord the conversions
to contribute to funding for those that cannot. The F-35
Block 4B will be able to carry two B61 nuclear bombs
internally by 2024.[279]
According to reports in 2002, solid-state lasers were
being developed as optional weapons for the F35.[280][281][282] The F-35 is also one of the target platforms for the High Speed Strike Weapon, assuming that
hypersonic missile is successful.[283]
F-35B, internal bay test release of a GBU-12 Paveway II 500
lb bomb. Also visible is an external AIM-9 Sidewinder and an
AIM-120 AMRAAM, 2012
Lockheed Martin states that the weapons load can be congured as all-air-to-ground or all-air-to-air, and has suggested that a Block 5 version will carry three weapons per
bay instead of two, replacing the heavy bomb with two
smaller weapons such as AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air
missiles.[265] Upgrades are to allow each weapons bay to
carry four GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB) for A
and C models, or three in F-35B.[266] Another option is
four GBU-53/B Small Diameter Bomb IIs in each bay on
all F-35 variants.[267] The F-35A has been outtted with
four SDB II bombs and an AMRAAM missile to test adequate bay door clearance,[268] as well as the C-model, but
the VTOL F-35B will not be able to carry the required
load of four SDB IIs in each weapons bay upon reaching
The Air Force plans to use the F-35A to primarily take up

the close air support (CAS) mission in contested environments. Amid criticism that the aircraft is not well suited
for the role compared to a dedicated attack platform,
Air Force chief of sta Mark Welsh is putting focus on
weapons for the F-35 to employ on CAS sorties including
guided rockets, fragmentation rockets that would shatter into individual projectiles before impact, and lighter,
smaller ammunition in higher capacity gun pods.[284]
Fragmentary rocket warheads would have greater eects
than cannon shells red from a gun because a single rocket
would create a thousand-round burst, delivering more
projectiles than a strang run could. Other weapons
could take advantage of the aircrafts helmet-mounted
cueing system to aim rather than needing to point the nose
at a target.[285]
33.2. DESIGN
33.2.4
363
Stealth and signatures
Radar
F-35A front prole in ight. The doors are opened to expose the
aerial refueling inlet valve.
from the aircrafts physical size. However, such radars

are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low
Landing gear door of the F-35 mockup, showing its stealthy sawprecision.[293][294] Because the aircrafts shape is importooth design
tant to the radar cross-section (RCS), special care must be
taken to match the "boilerplate" during production.[295]
The F-35 has been designed to have a low radar crossGround crews require Repair Verication Radar (RVR)
section primarily due to the shape of the aircraft and the
test sets to verify the RCS after performing repairs, which
use of stealthy radar-absorbent materials in its construcis not a concern for non-stealth aircraft.[296][297]
tion, including ber-mat.[211] Unlike the previous generation of ghters, the F-35 was designed for very-lowobservable characteristics.[286] Besides radar stealth measures, the F-35 incorporates infrared signature and visual
signature reduction measures.[287][288]
Acoustic
The Fighter Teen Series (F-15, F-16, F/A-18) carried
large external fuel tanks, but to avoid negating its stealth
characteristics the F-35 must y most missions without
them. Unlike the F-16 and F/A-18, the F-35 lacks leading
edge extensions and instead uses stealth-friendly chines
for vortex lift in the same fashion as the SR-71 Blackbird.[264] The small bumps just forward of the engine
air intakes form part of the diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) which is a simpler, lighter means to ensure
high-quality airow to the engine over a wide range of
conditions. These inlets also crucially improve the aircrafts very-low-observable characteristics (by eliminating radar reections between the diverter and the aircrafts skin).[289] Additionally, the bump surface reduces the engines exposure to radar, signicantly reducing a strong source of radar reection[290] because
they provide an additional shielding of engine fans against
radar waves. The Y-duct type air intake ramps also help
in reducing RCS, because the intakes run parallel and not
directly into the engine fans.
The F-35s radar-absorbent materials are designed to be
more durable and less maintenance-intensive than those
of its predecessors. At optimal frequencies, the F-35
compares favorably to the F-22 in stealth, according to
General Mike Hostage, Commander of the Air Combat Command.[291][292] Like other stealth ghters, however, the F-35 is more susceptible to detection by low
frequency radars due to the Rayleigh scattering resulting
In 2008, the Air Force revealed that the F-35 would be

about twice as loud at takeo as the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and up to four times as loud during
landing.[298] Residents near Luke Air Force Base, Arizona and Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, possible F-35
bases, requested environmental impact studies be conducted regarding the F-35s noise levels.[298] In 2009, the
city of Valparaiso, Florida, adjacent to Eglin AFB, threatened to sue over the impending F-35 arrival; this lawsuit
was settled in March 2010.[299][300][301] In 2009, testing
reportedly revealed the F-35 to be: only about as noisy
as an F-16 tted with a Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200
engine...quieter than the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
and the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.[302] An acoustics study by Lockheed Martin and the Air Force found
F-35s noise levels to be comparable to the F-22 and F/A18E/F.[303] A USAF environmental impact study found
that replacing F-16s with F-35s at Tucson International
Airport would subject more than 21 times as many residents to extreme noise levels.[304] The USN will need to
redesign hearing protection for sailors to protect against
the thundering 152 decibels of the F-35.[305] The Joint
Strike Fighter program oce found in October 2014 that
the F-35Bs take-o noise was only two decibels higher
than a Super Hornet, a virtually indistinguishable dierence to the human ear, and is even 10 decibels quieter
when ying formations or landing.[306]
364
F-35 cockpit mock-up
33.2.5
Cockpit
Electro-optical target system (EOTS) under the nose of a mockup

of the F-35
system is an improved version of the F-22s AN/ALR-94

electronic warfare suite, providing sensor fusion of Radio
frequency and Infrared tracking functions, advanced
radar warning receiver including geolocation targeting
of threats, multispectral image countermeasures for
self-defense against missiles, situational awareness and
electronic surveillance, employing 10 radio frequency
antennae embedded into the edges of the wing and
tail.[321][322]
The F-35 features a full-panel-width glass cockpit

touchscreen[307] panoramic cockpit display (PCD),
with dimensions of 20 by 8 inches (50 by 20
centimeters).[308] A cockpit speech-recognition system
(DVI) provided by Adacel has been adopted on the F-35
and the aircraft will be the rst operational U.S. xedwing aircraft to employ this DVI system, although similar systems have been used on the AV-8B Harrier II and
trialled in previous aircraft, such as the F-16 VISTA.[309] Six additional passive infrared sensors are distributed
A helmet-mounted display system (HMDS) will be t- over the aircraft as part of Northrop Grumman's
ted to all models of the F-35.[310] While some ghters electro-optical AN/AAQ-37 Distributed Aperture Sys[29]
which acts as a missile warning system,
have oered HMDS along with a head up display (HUD), tem (DAS),
reports
missile
launch
locations, detects and tracks apthis will be the rst time in several decades that a front
[311]
proaching
aircraft
spherically
around the F-35, and reline ghter has been designed without a HUD.
The Fplaces
traditional
night
vision
devices. All DAS func35 is equipped with a right-hand HOTAS side stick contions
are
performed
simultaneously,
in every direction,
troller. The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is used
[312]
at
all
times.
The
Electronic
warfare
systems are dein all F-35 variants.
The US16E seat design balances
signed
by
BAE
Systems
and
include
Northrop
Grumman
major performance requirements, including safe-terrain[323]
components.
Functions
such
as
the
Electro-Optical
clearance limits, pilot-load limits, and pilot size; it uses
a twin-catapult system housed in side rails.[313] The F-35 Targeting System and the Electronic Warfare system are
[324]
The F-35s DAS is
employs an oxygen system derived from the F-22s own not usually integrated on ghters.
so
sensitive,
it
reportedly
detected
the
launch of an airsystem, which has been involved in multiple hypoxia into-air
missile
in
a
training
exercise
from
1,200 mi (1,900
cidents on that aircraft; unlike the F-22, the ight prole
km)
away,
which
in
combat
would
give
away the locaof the F-35 is similar to other ghters that routinely use
[314][315]
tion
of
an
enemy
aircraft
even
if
it
had
a
very low radar
such systems.
cross-section.[325]
33.2.6
Sensors and avionics
The F-35s sensor and communications suite has

situational awareness, command and control and
network-centric warfare capabilities.[208][316] The main
sensor on board is the AN/APG-81 Active electronically
scanned array-radar, designed by Northrop Grumman
Electronic Systems.[317] It is augmented by the nosemounted Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS),[318]
it provides the capabilities of an externally mounted
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod pod with a reduced radar
cross-section.[319][320] The AN/ASQ-239 (Barracuda)
The communications, navigation and identication (CNI)

suite is designed by Northrop Grumman and includes the
Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), as one of a
half dozen dierent physical links.[326] The F-35 will be
the rst ghter with sensor fusion that combines radio frequency and IR tracking for continuous all-direction target
detection and identication which is shared via MADL
to other platforms without compromising low observability.[240] The non-encrypted Link 16 is also included for
communication with legacy systems.[327] The F-35 has
been designed with synergy between sensors as a specic
requirement, the aircrafts senses being expected to
provide a more cohesive picture of the battlespace around
33.2. DESIGN
365
software-dened radio systems.[331]
Lockheed Martins Dave Scott claims that sensor fusion
boosts engine thrust and oil eciency, increasing the aircrafts range.[339] Air Force ocial Ellen M. Pawlikowski
has proposed using the F-35 to control and coordinate
multiple unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs). Using its sensors and communications equipment, a single
F-35 could orchestrate an attack made by up to 20 armed
UCAVs.[340]
33.2.7 Helmet-mounted display system
AN/APG-81 AESA-radar
it and be available for use in any possible way and combination with one another; for example, the AN/APG-81
multi-mode radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system.[328] The Program Executive Ocer (PEO)
General Bogdan has described the sensor fusion software
as one of the most dicult parts of the program.[329]
Much of the F-35s software is written in C and C++ due
to programmer availability, Ada83 code also is reused
from the F-22.[330] The Integrity DO-178B real-time operating system (RTOS) from Green Hills Software runs
on COTS Freescale PowerPC processors.[331] The nal Block 3 software is planned to have 8.6 million
lines of code.[332] In 2010, Pentagon ocials discovered that additional software may be needed.[333] General Norton Schwartz has said that the software is the
biggest factor that might delay the USAFs initial operational capability.[334] In 2011, Michael Gilmore, Director
of Operational Test & Evaluation, wrote that, the F-35
mission systems software development and test is tending towards familiar historical patterns of extended development, discovery in ight test, and deferrals to later
increments.[335]
VSI Helmet-mounted display system for the F-35
The F-35 does not need to be physically pointing at its

target for weapons to be successful.[261][341] Sensors can
track and target a nearby aircraft from any orientation,
provide the information to the pilot through their helmet (and therefore visible no matter which way the pilot is looking), and provide the seeker-head of a missile
with sucient information. Recent missile types provide a much greater ability to pursue a target regardless
of the launch orientation, called High O-Boresight
capability. Sensors use combined radio frequency and
infra red (SAIRST) to continually track nearby aircraft
while the pilots helmet-mounted display system (HMDS)
displays and selects targets; the helmet system replaces
The electronic warfare and electro-optical systems are the display-suite-mounted head-up display used in earlier
intended to detect and scan aircraft, allowing engage- ghters.[342]
ment or evasion of a hostile aircraft prior to being
detected.[328] The CATbird avionics testbed has proved The F-35s systems provide the edge in the observe, oricapable of detecting and jamming radars, including the ent, decide, and act OODA loop; stealth and advanced
F-22s AN/APG-77.[336] The F-35 was previously con- sensors aid in observation (while being dicult to obsidered a platform for the Next Generation Jammer; at- serve), automated target tracking helps in orientation,
tention shifted to using unmanned aircraft in this capacity sensor fusion simplies decision making, and the airon the
instead.[337] Several subsystems use Xilinx FPGAs;[338] crafts controls allow the pilot to keep their focus
[343][N 3]
targets,
rather
than
the
controls
of
their
aircraft.
these COTS components enable supply refreshes from
the commercial sector and eet software upgrades for the Problems with the Vision Systems International helmet-
366
mounted display led Lockheed Martin-Elbit Systems to

issue a draft specication for alternative proposals in
early 2011, to be based around the Anvis-9 night vision
goggles.[344] BAE Systems was selected to provide the alternative system in late 2011.[345] The BAE Systems alternative helmet was to include all the features of the VSI
system.[346] Adopting the alternative helmet would have
required a cockpit redesign,[347] but in 2013 development
on the alternative helmet was halted due to progress on
the baseline helmet.[348] The third generation helmet will
begin ight tests in 2014.[349]
predecessors did at a similar stage of development. The

stealth type has proved relatively stable from a maintenance standpoint. Part of the improvement is attributed
to better maintenance training, as F-35 maintainers have
received far more extensive instruction at this early stage
of the program than on the F-22 Raptor. The F-35s
stealth coatings are much easier to work with than those
used on the Raptor. Cure times for coating repairs are
lower and many of the fasteners and access panels are
not coated, further reducing the workload for maintenance crews. Some of the F-35s radar-absorbent mawhich
In 2011, Lockheed Martin-Elbit granted VSI a contract terials are baked into the jets composite skin, [358]
means its stealthy signature is not easily degraded.
It
to x the vibration, jitter, night-vision and sensor display
is
still
harder
to
maintain
(due
to
its
stealth)
than
fourth[350]
problems in their helmet-mounted display.
A specgeneration aircraft.[359]
ulated potential improvement is the replacement of Intevacs ISIE-10 day/night camera with the newer ISIE11 model.[351] In October 2012, Lockheed Martin-Elbit
stated that progress had been made in resolving the tech- 33.3 Operational history
nical issues of the helmet-mounted display, and cited positive reports from night ying tests; it had been questioned
whether the helmet system allows pilots enough visibility 33.3.1 Testing
at night to carry out precision tasks.[352] In 2013, in spite
of continuing problems with the helmet display, the F- The rst F-35A (designated AA-1) was rolled out in
35B model completed 19 nighttime vertical landings on- Fort Worth, Texas, on 19 February 2006. In Septemboard the USS Wasp at sea,[353] by using the DAS instead ber 2006, the rst engine run of the F135 in an airframe
[360]
On 15 December 2006, the F-35A comof the helmets built-in night vision capabilities, which of- took place.
[354]
pleted its maiden ight.[361] A modied Boeing 737300,
fer at best 20/35 vision.
the Lockheed CATBird has been used as an avionics testIn October 2013, development of the alternate helmet
bed for the F-35 program, including a duplication of the
was halted. The current Gen 2 helmet is expected to
cockpit.[265]
meet the requirements to declare, in July 2015, that the
F-35 has obtained initial operational capability. Begin- The rst F-35B (designated BF-1) made its maiden ight
ning in 2016 with low rate initial production (LRIP) on 11 June 2008, piloted by BAE Systems test pilot Gralot 7, the program will introduce a Gen 3 helmet that ham Tomlinson. Flight testing of the STOVL propulsion
[362]
The F-35Bs rst
features an improved night vision camera, new liquid system began on 7 January 2010.
crystal displays, automated alignment and other software hover was on 17 March 2010, followed by its rst vertical landing the next day.[363] During a test ight on 10
enhancements.[348]
June 2010, the F-35B STOVL aircraft achieved supersonic speeds[364] as had the X-35B before.[365] In January
2011, Lockheed Martin reported that a solution had been
33.2.8 Maintenance
found for the cracking of an aluminum bulkhead during
ground testing of the F-35B.[366] In 2013, the F-35B sufThe programs maintenance concept is for any F-35 to be
[367]
This will
maintained in any F-35 maintenance facility and that all fered another bulkhead cracking incident.
require redesign of the aircraft, which is already very
F-35 parts in all bases will be globally tracked and shared
[368]
as needed.[355] The commonality between the dierent close to the ultimate weight limit.
By June 2009, many of the initial ight test targets
had been accomplished but the program was behind
schedule.[369] During 2008, a Pentagon Joint Estimate
Team (JET) estimated that the program was two years
behind the public schedule, a revised estimate in 2009
predicted a 30-month delay.[370] Delays reduced planned
production numbers by 122 aircraft through 2015 to provide an addition 2.8 billion for development; internal
memos suggested that the ocial timeline would be extended by 13 months.[370][371] The success of the JET
led Ashton Carter calling for more such teams for other
[372]
The F-35 has received good reviews from pilots and poorly performing projects.
maintainers, suggesting it is performing better than its Nearly 30 percent of test ights required more than
variants has allowed the USMC to create their rst aircraft maintenance Field Training Detachment to directly
apply the lessons of the USAF to their F-35 maintenance
operations.[356] The aircraft has been designed for ease
of maintenance, with 95% of all eld replaceable parts
one deep where nothing else has to be removed to get
to the part in question. For instance the ejection seat
can be replaced without removing the canopy, the use of
low-maintenance electro-hydrostatic actuators instead of
hydraulic systems and an all-composite skin without the
fragile coatings found on earlier stealth aircraft.[357]
367
During testing in 2011, all eight landing tests of the
F-35C failed to catch the arresting wire; a redesigned
tail hook was developed and delivered two years later
in response.[392][393] In October 2011, two F-35Bs conducted three weeks of initial sea trials aboard USS
Wasp.[394]
The rst delivered USAF F-35 on its delivery ight to Eglin Air
Force Base in July 2011.
routine maintenance to make the aircraft ightworthy

again.[373] As of March 2010, the F-35 program had used
a million more man-hours than predicted.[374] The United
States Navy projected that lifecycle costs over a 65-year
eet life for all American F-35s to be $442 billion higher
than U.S. Air Force projections.[375] F-35 delays have led
to shortfall of up to 100 jet ghters in the Navy/Marines
team, although measures have been taken using existing
assets to manage and reduce this shortfall.[376]
The F-35Cs maiden ight took place on 7 June 2010, at
NAS Fort Worth JRB. A total of 11 U.S. Air Force F-35s
arrived in scal year 2011.[377] On 9 March 2011, all F35s were grounded after a dual generator failure and oil
leak in ight;[378] the cause of the incident was discovered to have been the result of faulty maintenance.[379]
In 2012, Navy Commander Erik Etz of the F-35 program oce commented that rigorous testing of the F35s sensors had taken place during exercise Northern
Edge 2011, and had served as a signicant risk-reduction
step.[380][381]
On 6 October 2012, the F-35A dropped its rst

bomb,[395] followed three days later by an AIM-120 AMRAAM.[396] On 28 November 2012, an F-35C performed a total of eleven weapon releases, ejecting a GBU31 JDAM and GBU-12 Paveway from its weapons bay in
the rst ground weapons ejections for the F-35C.[397] On
5 June 2013, an F-35A at the Point Mugu Sea Test Range
completed the rst in-ight missile launch of an AIM-120
C5 AAVI (AMRAAM Air Vehicle Instrumented). It was
launched from the internal weapons bay.[398]
On 16 November 2012, the U.S. Marines received the
rst F-35B at MCAS Yuma, and the VMFA(AW)121
unit is to be redesignated from a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet unit to an F-35B squadron.[399] A February 2013
Time article revealed that Marine pilots are not allowed
to perform a vertical landingthe maneuver is deemed
too dangerous, and it is reserved only for Lockheed test
pilots.[400] On 10 May 2013, the F-35B completed its rst
vertical takeo test.[401] On 3 August 2013, the 500th
vertical landing of an F-35 took place.[402]
On 18 January 2013, the F-35B was grounded after the
failure of a fueldraulic line in the propulsion system on 16
January.[403] The problem was traced to an improperly
crimped uid line manufactured by Stratoex.[404][405]
The Pentagon cleared all 25 F-35B aircraft to resume
ight tests on 12 February 2013.[406] On 22 February
2013, the U.S. Department of Defense grounded the entire eet of 51 F-35s after the discovery of a cracked turbine blade in a U.S. Air Force F-35A at Edwards Air
Force Base.[407] On 28 February 2013, the grounding
was lifted after an investigation concluded that the cracks
in that particular engine resulted from stressful testing,
including excessive heat for a prolonged period during
ight, and did not reect a eetwide problem.[408][409] The
F-35C Lightning II carrier variant Joint Strike Fighter
conducted its rst carrier-based night ight operations
aboard an aircraft carrier o the coast of San Diego on
13 November 2014.[410]
On 2 August 2011, an F-35s integrated power package

(IPP) failure during a standard engine test at Edwards Air
Force Base led to the F-35 being immediately grounded
for two weeks.[382][383] On 10 August 2011, ground operations were re-instituted; preliminary inquiries indicated
that a control valve did not function properly, leading to
the IPP failure.[384][385] On 18 August 2011, the ight ban
was lifted for 18 of the 20 F-35s; two aircraft remained
grounded due to a lack of monitoring systems.[386] The 33.3.2 Training
IPP suered a second software-related incident in 2013,
this resulted in no disruption as the eet was already In 2011, the Director of Operational Test and Evalgrounded due to separate engine issues.[387]
uation warned that the USAFs plan to start unmonitraining risks the occurrence of a serious
On 25 October 2011, the F-35A reached its designed top tored ight
[411]
The leaders of the United States Senate
mishap.
[388]
speed of Mach 1.6 for the rst time.
Further testing
Committee
on
Armed Services called on Defense Sec[389]
demonstrated Mach 1.61 and 9.9g.
On 11 February
Leon
Panetta
to address the issue.[412] Despite the
retary
2013, an F-35A completed its nal test mission for clean
expanded trial ights began in September
wing utter, reporting to be clear of utter at speeds up to objections,
[413]
2012.
[390]
On 15 August 2012, an F-35B completed
Mach 1.6.
airborne engine start tests.[391]
The F-35A and F-35B were cleared for ight training in
368

mum capacity of 100 military pilots and 2,100 maintainer
students.[425]
On 23 June 2014, an F-35A experienced a re in the engine area during its takeo at Eglin AFB. In response, the
Pentagons Joint Program Oce halted training in all F35 models the next day,[426][427] and on 3 July, the F-35
eet was formally grounded.[428] The eet was returned
to ight on 15 July,[429] but the engine inspection regimen caused the aircrafts debut at the Farnborough 2014
Air Show to be canceled.[430][431]
(From the top) 33rd FW F-35A, F-35B and F-35C near Eglin
AFB in May 2014.
early 2012.[414] A military ight release for the F-35A

was issued on 28 February 2012.[415] The aircraft were
restricted to basic maneuvers with no tactical training
allowed.[416] On 24 August 2012, an F-35 ew its 200th
sortie while at Eglin Air Force Base, own by a Marine
pilot. The pilot said, The aircraft have matured dramatically since the early days. The aircraft are predictable and
seem to be maintainable, which is good for the sortie production rate. Currently, the ight envelope for the F-35
is very, very restricted, but there are signs of improvement there too. The F-35s at the base no longer need
to y with a chase aircraft and are operating in a normal
two-ship element.[417]
In 2013, Lockheed Martin produced and delivered 36 F35s, increasing the total number of F-35s produced to 106
(46 F-35As, 42 F-35Bs, and 13 F-35Cs).[432] However in
November 2014, the total number of F-35s produced, has
increased minimally to 115.
33.3.3 Basing plans for future US F-35s

On 9 December 2010, a media report stated that the
USMC will base 216 F-35Bs on the East Coast and
184 of them on the West Coast, documents showed.
This report continued to state that, Cherry Point will
get 128 jets to form eight squadrons; Beaufort will have
three squadrons and a pilot training center using 88 aircraft; Miramar will form six operational squadrons with
96 jets and 88 F-35s will go to Yuma for ve operational
squadrons with an additional test and evaluation unit.[433]
In 2011, the USMC and USN signed an agreement that

On 21 August 2012, J. Michael Gilmore wrote that he the USMC will purchase 340 F-35B and 80 F-35C ghtwould not approve the Operational Test and Evaluation ers. The ve squadrons of USMC F-35Cs would be
to Navy carriers while F-35Bs would be used
master plan until his concerns about electronic warfare assigned
[434][435]
ashore.
[418]
testing, budget and concurrency were addressed.
On
7 September 2012, the Pentagon failed to approve a com- On 11 March 2014, the rst F-35A Lightning II assigned
prehensive operational testing plan for the F-35.[419] In- to Luke Air Force Base arrived at the base. A total of 16
stead, on 10 September 2012, the USAF began an oper- F-35s are to be delivered to the base by the end of 2014,
ational utility evaluation (OUE) of the F-35A entire sys- with 144 Lightning IIs to be stationed there arriving over
tem, including logistical support and maintenance, main- the course of the next decade.[436][437]
tenance training, pilot training, and pilot execution.[420]
On 8 January 2015, the Royal Air Force base, RAF LakBy 1 October, the OUE was reported as proceeding
enheath in the UK, was chosen as the rst U.S. Air Force
smoothly, pilots started on simulators prior to ying on
European
base to station two F-35 squadrons, following
26 October.[421] The OUE was completed on 14 Noveman announcement by the Pentagon. A total of 48 F-35s,
ber with the 24th ight, the four pilots involved having
making up two squadrons, will add to the 48th Fighter
completed six ights each.[422]
Wing's already existing F-15C and F-15E Strike Eagle
During the Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase of jets.[438]
the aircraft, the U.S. had taken a tri-service approach
to developing tactics and procedures for the F-35 using
ight simulators prior to the type entering service. Sim33.4 Procurement and internaulated ights had tested the ight controls eectiveness,
helping to discover technical problems and rene aircraft
tional participation
design.[423] Maintenance personnel have discovered that
it is possible to correct deciencies in the F-35, which is Main article: Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II proa software-dened aircraft, simply by rebooting the air- curement
crafts software and onboard systems.[424]
While the United States is the primary customer and Air Force pilot training F-35A began in January 2013 at nancial backer, the United Kingdom, Italy, the NetherEglin Air Force Base; the program currently has a maxi- lands, Canada, Turkey, Australia, Norway, and Den-
33.5. VARIANTS
369
35As.[450][451] Turkey will buy four F-35s to be delivered in 2015 and 2016, while the order may be increased
from 100 to 120 aircraft.[452] These changes resulted in
increased procurement prices, and increased the likelihood of further cuts.[453][454]
On 3 April 2012, the Auditor General of Canada Michael

Ferguson published a report outlining problems with
Canadas procurement of the jet, including misinformation over the nal cost. According to the Auditor General,
Participant nations:
the government knowingly understated the nal price of
Primary customer: United States
the 65 jets by $10 billion.[455] Canadas Conservative govLevel 1 partner: United Kingdom
Level 2 partners: Italy and the Netherlands
ernment had stated it would not reduce its order, claimLevel 3 partners: Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, and ing an anticipated $7580 million unit cost; the procureTurkey
ment was termed a scandal and asco by the meSecurity Cooperative Participants: Israel and Singapore
dia and faced a full review to determine any Canadian
F-35 purchase.[456][457][458] On 13 December 2012, in
a scathing editorial published by CBC News, journalist
mark have agreed to contribute US$4.375 billion to- Brian Stewart termed the F-35 project a global wrecking
and lack of aordability for
wards development costs.[439] Total development costs ball due to its run-away costs
[459]
many
participating
nations.
are estimated at more than US$40 billion. The purchase of an estimated 2,400 aircraft is expected to cost In May 2013, Lockheed Martin declared that Turkey is
an additional US$200 billion.[440] The initial plan was projected to earn $12 billion from licensed production of
that the nine major partner nations would acquire over F-35 components.[460][461]
3,100 F-35s through 2035.[441] Sales to partner nations
In November 2014, the United Kingdom conrmed its
are made through the Pentagons Foreign Military Sales
rst order for 14 F-35Bs to be delivered in 2016.[462]
program.[442]
There are three levels of international participation.[443]
The levels generally reect nancial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcon- 33.4.1 Procurement costs
tracts open for bid by national companies, and the order
in which countries can obtain production aircraft. The Estimated cost of airplane in Low Rate Initial Production
United Kingdom is the sole Level 1 partner, contribut- (LRIP) and Full Rate Production (FRP) batches:
ing US$2.5 billion, which was about 10% of the planned
development costs[444] under the 1995 Memorandum of
Understanding that brought the UK into the project.[445]
Level 2 partners are Italy, which is contributing US$1 33.5 Variants
billion; and the Netherlands, US$800 million. Level 3
partners are Turkey, US$195 million; Canada, US$160
million; Australia, US$144 million; Norway, US$122
million and Denmark, US$110 million. Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants
(SCP).[446][447][448] Japan announced on 20 December
2011 its intent to purchase 42 F-35s with deliveries beginning in 2016 to replace the F-4 Phantom II; Japan seeks
38 F-35s, to be assembled domestically.[449]
By 2012, many changes had occurred in the order book.
Italy became the rst country to announce a reduction
of its overall eet procurement, cutting its buy from 131
to 90 aircraft. Other nations reduced initial purchases
or delayed orders while still intending to purchase the
same nal numbers. The United States canceled the initial purchase of 13 F-35s and postponed orders for another 179. The United Kingdom cut its initial order and Conguration of the three original F-35 variants
delayed a decision on future orders. Australia decided
to buy the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet as an interim measure. Turkey also cut its initial order of four The F-35 is being built in three dierent main versions to
aircraft to two, but conrmed plans to purchase 100 F- suit various combat missions.
370
33.5.1
F-35A
33.5.2 F-35B
The F-35A is the conventional takeo and landing

(CTOL) variant intended for the U.S. Air Force and other
air forces. It is the smallest, lightest F-35 version and
is the only variant equipped with an internal cannon, the
GAU-22/A. This 25 mm cannon is a development of the
GAU-12 carried by the USMCs AV-8B Harrier II. It is
designed for increased eectiveness against ground targets compared to the 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon carried
by other USAF ghters.
An F-35B lands aboard the amphibious assault ship USS Wasp,

in August 2013.
US Air Force F-35A maneuvers to refuel from a KC-135
The F-35A is expected to match the F-16 in maneuverability and instantaneous and sustained high-g performance, and outperform it in stealth, payload, range on
internal fuel, avionics, operational eectiveness, supportability, and survivability.[471] It is expected to match an
F-16 that is carrying the usual external fuel tank in accelF-35B short-takeo from USS Wasp during its rst sea trials,
eration performance.[472]
October 2011.
The A variant is primarily intended to replace the USAFs
F-16 Fighting Falcon. At one point it was also intended to The F-35B is the short takeo and vertical landing
replace the A-10 Thunderbolt II starting in 2028.[473][474] (STOVL) variant of the aircraft. Similar in size to the A
The F-35A can be outtted to receive fuel via either of the variant, the B sacrices about a third of the other versions
two main aerial refueling methods; this was a considera- fuel volume to accommodate the vertical ight system.
tion in the Canadian procurement and a deciding factor Vertical takeos and landings are riskier due to threats
for the Japanese purchase.[475][476][477] On 18 December such as foreign object damage.[480][481] Whereas the F2013, the Netherlands became the second partner coun- 35A is stressed to 9 g,[482][483] the F-35Bs stress goal is
try to operate the F-35A, when Maj. Laurens J.W. Vijge 7 g. As of 2014, the F-35B is limited to 4.5 g and 400
of the Royal Netherlands Air Force took o from Eglin knots. Next software upgrade includes weapons, 5.5 g
Air Force Base.[478]
and Mach 1.2, with a nal target of 7 g and Mach 1.6.[484]
test ight of the F-35B was conducted on 11 June
On 27 January 2014, General Mike Hostage, head of Air The rst
[485]
2008.
Combat Command, stated he would ght to the death to
not have a single plane of the USAFs 1,763 plane planned
F-35 purchase be cut, because the allies and partners of
the US got weak in the knees when seeing the USAF
back away from the F-35. He said the F-15 and F16 eets would become tactically obsolete in the middle
of the next decade regardless of improvements. Hostage
also commented that the F-35 would be irrelevant without the F-22 eet being viable as the F-35 was not an air
superiority ghter.[479]
Unlike other variants, the F-35B has no landing hook.

The STOVL/HOOK control instead engages conversion between normal and vertical ight.[486] Jet thrust is
sent directly downwards during vertical ight; the nozzle
is being redesigned to spread the output across an oval
rather than circular shape in order to limit damage to
asphalt and ship decks.[487] The variants three-bearing
swivel nozzle that directs the full thrust of the engine
is moved by a fueldraulic actuator using pressurized
33.5. VARIANTS
fuel.[488]
371
Amos has said that, in spite of increasing costs and schedule delays, there is no plan B to the F-35B.[511] The
F-35B is larger than the aircraft it replaces, which required USS America to be designed without well deck
capabilities.[512] In 2011, the USMC and USN signed an
agreement that the USMC will purchase 340 F-35B and
80 F-35C ghters while the USN will purchase 260 F35C ghters. The ve squadrons of USMC F-35Cs will
be assigned to Navy carriers while F-35Bs will be used
on amphibious ships and ashore.[434][435]
The United States Marine Corps plans to purchase 340 F35Bs,[80] to replace current inventories of both the F/A18 Hornet (A, B, C and D-models), and the AV-8B Harrier II, in the ghter and attack roles.[489] The Marines
plan to use the F-35B from unimproved surfaces at austere bases but with special, high-temperature concrete
designed to handle the heat.[490][491] The USMC intends
to declare Initial Operational Capability with about 50
F-35s running interim Block 2B software in the 2014 to
2015 timeframe.[492] The USAF had considered replac- Although the Australian Canberra-class landing heliing the A-10 with the F-35B, but will not do so due to the copter dock ships were not originally planned to operate
F-35Bs inability to generate enough sorties.[493]
xed-wing aircraft, in May 2014, the Minister for DeOn 6 January 2011, Gates said that the 2012 budget fence David Johnston stated in media interviews that the
would call for a two-year pause in F-35B production dur- government was considering acquiring F-35B ghters for
ing which the aircraft faced redesign, or cancellation if the Canberra 's, and Prime Minister Tony Abbott has
unsuccessful.[75][494] In 2011, Lockheed Martin execu- instructed 2015 Defence White Paper planners to conof embarking F-35B squadrons aboard
tive vice president Tom Burbage and former Pentagon di- sider the option
[513][514][515]
the
two
ships.
Supporters of the idea claim
rector of operational testing Tom Christie stated that most
that
providing
xed-wing
support
to amphibious operaprogram delays were due to the F-35B, which forced mastions
maximises
aircraft
capability,
and the presence of a
[495]
sive redesigns of other versions.
Lockheed Martin
ski-jump
ramp
inherited
from
the
original
design means
Vice President Steve OBryan has said that most F-35B
that
the
vessels
are
better
suited
to
STOVL
operations
landings will be conventional to reduce stress on vertical
[516]
than
equivalent
ships
with
at
ight
decks.
Opponents
[496]
lift components.
These conventional mode takeos
and landings cause an unacceptable wear rate to the air- to the idea counter that embarking enough F-35Bs to be
crafts poorly designed tires.[497] USMC Lt. Gen. Robert eective requires abandoning the ships amphibious caSchmidle has said that the vertical lift components would pability and would make the pseudo-carriers more valuonly be used a small percentage of the time to transfer able targets, modications would be required to make the
the aircraft from carriers to land bases.[498] On 3 Octo- ight deck capable of handling vertical-landing thrust and
to increase fuel and ordnance capacity for sustained opber 2011, the F-35B began its initial sea-trials by performing a vertical landing on the deck of the amphibious erations, and that the F-35B project itself has been the
most expensive and most problematic of the Joint Strike
assault ship USS Wasp,[499] to continue in 2015.[500] Pro[517][518][519]
bation status was reportedly ended by Defense Secretary Fighter variants.
Leon Panetta in January 2012 due to progress made.[78] A The U.S Marine Corps plans to disperse its F-35Bs
heat-resistant anti-skid material called Thermion is being among forward deployed bases to enhance survivability
tested on Wasp, also useful against the V-22 exhaust.[501] while remaining close to a battlespace, similar to RAF
The Royal Air Force and Royal Navy plan for the F- Harrier deployment late in the Cold War which relied on
35B is to replace the Harrier GR9s, which were retired the use of o-base locations that oered short runways,
in 2010. One of the Royal Navy requirements for the F- shelter, and concealment. Known as distributed STOVL
35B design was a Shipborne Rolling and Vertical Land- operations (DSO), Marine F-35Bs would sustain operaing (SRVL) mode to increase maximum landing weight tions from temporary bases in allied territory within the
to bring back unused ordnance by using wing lift during range of hostile ballistic and cruise missiles, but be moved
landing.[502][503] In July 2013, Chief of the Air Sta, Air between temporary locations inside the enemys 24-48
Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton announced that 617 hour targeting cycle. This strategy accounts for the FSquadron would be the rst operational Royal Air Force 35Bs short range, the shortest of the three variants, with
squadron to receive the F-35.[504][505] The second opera- mobile forward arming and refueling points (M-Farps)
tional squadron will be the Fleet Air Arms 809 NAS.[506] accommodating KC-130 and MV-22 Osprey aircraft to
As of June 2013, the Royal Air Force has received three rearm and refuel the jets, as well as littoral areas for sea
aircraft of the 48 on order, the three aircraft were based links of mobile distribution sites on land. M-Farps could
at Eglin Air Force base.[507] The aircraft are projected to be based on small airelds, multi-lane roads, or damaged main bases, while F-35Bs would return to U.S. Navy
be operational in 2018.[508][509]
ships, rear-area U.S. Air Force bases, or friendly carriIn 2011, the Italian Navy was preparing Grottaglie Air ers for scheduled maintenance; metal planking would be
Station for F-35B operations; they are to receive 22 air- needed to protect unprepared roads from the F-35Bs encraft between 2014 and 2021, with the aircraft carrier gine exhaust, which would be moved between sites by heCavour set to be modied to operate them by 2016.[510] licopters, and the Marines are studying lighter and more
Commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps, General James heat-resistant products.[520]
372
33.5.3
F-35C
F-35s in formation; the greater wing area of the F-35C with on

left, compared to the F-35B in the middle.
A F-35C of VX-23 making the rst arrested landing aboard USS

Nimitz (CVN-68) on 3 November 2014.
The United States Navy intends to buy 480 F-35Cs to

replace the F/A-18A, B, C, and D Hornets and complement the Super Hornet eet.[521] On 27 June 2007, the
F-35C completed its Air System Critical Design Review
(CDR), allowing the production of the rst two functional
prototypes.[522] The C variant was expected to be available beginning in 2014.[523] The rst F-35C was rolled
out on 29 July 2009.[524] The United States Marine Corps
will also purchase 80 F-35Cs, enough for ve squadrons,
for use with navy carrier air wings in a joint service
agreement signed on 14 March 2011.[434][435] A recent
2014 document stated that the USMC will also have 4
squadrons of F-35Cs with 10 aircraft per squadron for
the Marine Corps contribution to U.S. Navy carrier air
wings.[525]
On 6 November 2010, the rst F-35C arrived at Naval
Air Station Patuxent River. The replacement engines for
at-sea repair are too large to be transported by current underway replenishment systems.[526] In 2011, the F-35Cs
were grounded for six days after a software bug was found
that could have prevented the control surfaces from being used during ight.[527] On 27 July 2011, the F-35C
test aircraft CF-3 completed its rst steam catapult launch
during a test ight at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst; the TC-13 Mod 2 test steam catapult, representative of current eet technology, was used. In addition to
catapult launches at varying power levels, a three-week
test plan included dual-aircraft jet blast deector testing
and catapult launches using a degraded catapult conguration to measure the eects of steam ingestion on the
aircraft.[528]
On 13 August 2011, the F-35 successfully completed jet
blast deector (JBD) testing at Lakehurst. F-35C test aircraft CF-1 along with an F/A-18E tested a combined JBD
cooling panel conguration. The tests measured temperature, pressure, sound level, velocity, and other environmental data; the JBD model will enable the operation
of all carrier aircraft, including the F-35C. Further carrier suitability testing continued in preparation for initial
ship trials in 2013.[529] On 18 November 2011, the U.S.
Navy used its new Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) to launch an F-35C into the air for the rst
time.[530]
On 22 June 2013, Strike Fighter Squadron VFA-101 received the Navys rst F-35C at Eglin Air Force Base,
Florida.[531][532]
First carrier launch of a F-35C from USS Nimitz.
Compared to the F-35A, the F-35C carrier variant features larger wings with foldable wingtip sections, larger
wing and tail control surfaces for improved low-speed
control, stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier
arrested landings, a twin-wheel nose gear, and a stronger
tailhook for use with carrier arrestor cables. The larger
wing area allows for decreased landing speed while increasing both range and payload.
The USN is dealing with the following issues in adapting

their carriers to operate the F-35C.[533]
The F135 engine exceeds the weight capacity of traditional replenishment systems and generates more
heat than previous engines.
The stealthy skin requires new repair techniques; extensive skin damage will necessitate repairs at Lockheeds land-based facilities.
The adoption of volatile lithium-ion batteries and
33.6. OPERATORS
higher voltage systems than traditional ghters.
Storing of new weapons not previously employed on
carrier aircraft.
Large quantities of classied data generated during
missions shall require additional security.
In February 2014, Lockheed said the F-35C was on
schedule for sea trials after the tailhook was redesigned.
The new tailhook has a dierent shape to better catch
arresting wires. Testing on land achieved 36 successful
landings. Sea trials are scheduled for October 2014.[534]
On 3 November 2014, an F-35C of VX-23, one of the
Navys ight test units, made its rst landing on an aircraft carrier when it recovered aboard USS Nimitz; this
started a 2 week deployment of a pair of aircraft for the
initial at sea Development Testing I or DTI, the rst of
three at sea tests planned for the F-35C.[535][536] The initial deployment was completed on November 14.[537]
The U.S. Navy may use the F-35C as part of its UCLASS
eort to operate a carrier-based unmanned aerial vehicle. Though it has been suggested that the UCLASS could
carry air-to-air weapons, an unmanned aircraft lacks situational awareness and is more vulnerable to electronic
countermeasures than manned aircraft, and autonomy for
deploying lethal weapons is not under development. With
the F-35C as the center of a network of naval systems, it
could feed information to the UCLASS and order it to re
on a certain target. Large numbers of F-35Cs operating
in contested environments can generate a clear picture of
the battlespace, and share it with unmanned assets that
can be directed to attack.[538]
33.5.4
373
IAI executive stated: There is a known demand for two
seats not only from Israel but from other air forces.[542]
IAI plans to produce conformal fuel tanks.[543] A senior
IAF ocial stated that elements of the F-35s stealth may
be overcome in 5 to 10 years, while the aircraft will be
in service for 30 to 40 years, which is why Israel insisted
on installing their own electronic warfare systems: The
basic F-35 design is OK. We can make do with adding
integrated software.[544] Israel is interested in purchasing
up to 75 F-35s.[545]
CF-35
Main article: Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Canadian procurement
The Canadian CF-35 is a proposed variant that would
dier from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue
parachute and may include an F-35B/C-style refueling
probe.[546] Norway may also use the drag chute option,
as they also have icy runways.[287] Norway will be the
rst country to adopt the drag chute pod.[547] In 2012,
it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same
boom refueling system as the F-35A.[548] One alternative
proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for
its probe refueling and lower landing speed; the Parliamentary Budget Ocers report cited the F-35Cs limited performance and payload as being too high a price to
pay.[549]
33.6 Operators
Other versions
F-35I
Main article: Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Israeli
procurement
The F-35I is an F-35A with Israeli modications. A senior Israel Air Force ocial stated the aircraft will be
designated F-35I, as there will be unique Israeli features
installed in them. Despite an initial refusal to allow such
modications, the U.S. has agreed to let Israel integrate
its own electronic warfare systems, such as sensors and
One of Australias rst two F-35As in December 2014
countermeasures, into the aircraft. The main computer
will have a plug-and-play feature to allow add-on Israeli
electronics to be used; proposed systems include an exterAustralia
nal jamming pod, and new air-to-air missiles and guided
bombs in the internal weapon bays.[539][540] Israeli pilots
are scheduled to start F-35 training in December 2016 at
Royal Australian Air Force (F-35A: 72 on order, up
Eglin AFB Florida with the rst squadron activated about
to 28 more planned for 2030)[550][551]
a year later.[541]
Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has considered playing
a role in the development of a proposed two-seat F-35; an
Israel
374
Israeli Air Force (F-35I: 33 on order, rst 2 to be

delivered early 2017. 75 planned)[545][552]
Italy
Italian Air Force (F-35A: 6 on order, 60 planned;

F-35B: 15 planned)[553][554]
Italian Navy (F-35B: 15 planned)[553][554]
Japan
Japan Air Self-Defense Force (F-35A: 5 on order;

42 planned)[554]
Netherlands
Royal Netherlands Air Force (F-35A: 2 in testing, 8

ordered, 37 total planned)[554][555]
323 Squadron RNLAF[556]
Royal Air Force (F-35B: 4 delivered and in testing,

48 ordered, 80 currently committed to, with a possible 138 in total)[560][561][562][563][564]
No. 17 Squadron RAF
United States
United States Air Force (F-35A) 1,763
planned[554][565]
Air Combat Command
53d Wing Eglin AFB, Florida
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron (Nellis
AFB, NV)[566]
Air Education and Training Command
33d Fighter Wing Eglin AFB,
Florida
58th
Fighter
Squadron[567]
56th Fighter Wing Luke AFB,
Arizona
61st
Fighter
Squadron[568]
Norway

Royal Norwegian Air Force (F-35A: 4 on order, 52
total planned)[557]
412th Test Wing Edwards AFB,

California
461st Flight
Squadron[569]
Turkey
Test
United States Marine Corps (F-35B/C) 420

planned[554][565]
Turkish Air Force (F-35A: 2 to be ordered by 2015,
100 planned)[558][559]
VMX-22 - Edwards Air Force Base,

California[570]
VMFA-121 - Marine Corps Air
Station Yuma, Arizona[571]
VMFAT-501 - Marine Corps
Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina[572]
United States Navy (F-35C) 260 planned[554][565]
VX-23 - Naval Air Station Patuxent
River, Maryland[573]
VFA-101 - Eglin AFB, Florida[574]
A British F-35B near Eglin AFB in May 2014.
33.6.1 Planned purchases

United Kingdom
Royal Navy
Canada
Royal Canadian Air Force (F-35A: 65 planned)[554]
33.8. SPECIFICATIONS (F-35A)
375
South Korea
Republic of Korea Air Force (F-35A: 40
planned)[575][576][577]
33.7 Accidents
On 23 June 2014, an F-35A preparing to take o on a
training ight at Eglin Air Force Base experienced a re
in the engine area. The pilot escaped unharmed. The accident caused all training to be halted on 25 June, and all
ights halted on 3 July.[426][427][428] During the incident F-35B cutaway with LiftFan
investigation, engine parts from the burned aircraft were
discovered on the runway, indicating it was a substantial
engine failure.[578] The eet was returned to ight on 15
July with restrictions in the ight envelope.[429] Preliminary ndings suggests that excessive rubbing of the engine
fan blades created increased stress and wear and eventually resulted in catastrophic failure of the fan.[579]
33.8 Specications (F-35A)
Aircraft ying inverted shows external hard point stations, including the external Gatling gun pod.
Crew: 1
Length: 50.5 ft[583] (15.67 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft[N 4] (10.7 m)
Height: 14.2 ft[N 5] (4.33 m)
Wing area: 460 ft[261] (42.7 m)
Empty weight: 29,098 lb[584] (13,199 kg)
Loaded weight: 49,540 lb[240][N 6][585] (22,470 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 70,000 lb[N 7] (31,800 kg)
Powerplant: 1 Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan
Dry thrust: 28,000 lbf[586][N 8] (125 kN)
The rst of 15 pre-production F-35s
Data from Lockheed Martin specications,[241][580][581]

F-35 Program brief,[261] F-35 JSF Statistics[256] F-35
Program Status,[582]
Thrust with afterburner: 43,000 lbf[586][587]

(191 kN)
Internal fuel capacity:
kg)[588][N 9]
18,498 lb (8,382
376

Bombs:
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 1.6+[256][589] (1,200 mph,
1,930 km/h) (tested to Mach 1.61)[389]
Mark 84 or Mark 83 or Mark 82 GP

bombs
Mk.20 Rockeye II cluster bomb
Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser
(WCMD) capable
Paveway series laser-guided bombs
Small Diameter Bomb (SDB)
Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) series
AGM-154 JSOW
B61 mod 12 nuclear bomb[594]
Range: 1,200 nmi (2,220 km) on internal fuel

Combat radius: 613 nmi[590] (1,135 km) on internal fuel
Wing loading: 107.7 lb/ft (526 kg/m; 745 kg/m
max loaded)
Thrust/weight:
With full fuel: 0.87
Avionics
With 50% fuel: 1.07

Maximum g-load: 9 g[N 10]
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems AN/APG81 AESA radar
Armament
Lockheed Martin AAQ-40 E/O Targeting System

(EOTS)
Guns: 1 General Dynamics 25 mm (0.984

in) GAU-22/A 4-barrel Gatling gun, internally
mounted with 180 rounds[N 11][256]
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems AN/AAQ37 Distributed Aperture System (DAS) missile
warning system
Hardpoints: 6 external pylons on wings with a

capacity of 15,000 lb (6,800 kg)[256][261] and two internal bays with two pylons with a capacity of 3,000
(1,360 kg)[261] for a total weapons payload of 18,000
lb (8,100 kg)[241] and provisions to carry combinations of:
BAE Systems AN/ASQ-239 (Barracuda) electronic

warfare system
Missiles:
AIM-120 AMRAAM
AIM-9X Sidewinder
IRIS-T
MBDA Meteor (pending
funding)[270]
Air-to-surface missiles:
AGM-88 AARGM[591]
AGM-158 JASSM[263]
Brimstone missile /
SPEAR[592]
Joint
Air-to-Ground
(JAGM)
Storm Shadow missile
SOM
Anti-ship missiles:
Joint Strike Missile (JSM)
Long Range Anti-Ship
(LRASM)[593]
Northrop Grumman AN/ASQ-242 CNI system,[595]

which includes
The Harris Corporation Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) communication
system
The legacy Link 16 data link
SINCGARS
An IFF interrogator and transponder
HAVE QUICK
further
AM, VHF, UHF AM, and UHF FM Radio

GUARD survival radio
A radar altimeter
An instrument landing system
MBDA
A TACAN system
Missile
A JPALS
An instrument carrier landing system

TADIL-J JVMF/VMF

Missile Main article: Aircraft in ction F-35 Lightning II
33.11. REFERENCES
33.10 See also

Related development
Lockheed Martin X-35
HAL AMCA
KAI KF-X
Mikoyan LMFS
Mitsubishi ATD-X
Shenyang J-31
TAI TFX
Related lists
List of megaprojects, Aerospace
377
33.11.2 Citations
[1] http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/
us-marines-stick-to-f-35b-dates-despite-new-problems-410518/
f-35b-on-track-for-operational-readiness-despite-software-challenges
[3] http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/07/
us-lockheed-martin-fighter-airforce-idUSKBN0MY26Q20150407
[4] The Current Status of the F-35, in Three Charts. Intercepts - Defense News.
[5] King, Samuel Jr. First F-35 arrives at Eglin. U.S. Air
Force, 15 July 2011. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.
[6] UK steps up F-35 preparations, Royal Aeronautical Society. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
[7] http://www.lockheedmartin.ca/content/dam/lockheed/
data/australia/documents/F-35FastFactsDecember2014.
pdf
[8] http://breakingdefense.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/
2014/04/F-35-2013-SAR.pdf
[9] About: Fast Facts: Cost - F-35 Lightning II. F-35 Lightning II. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
[10] F-35 Deal Targets Unit Cost Below $100 Million.
33.11 References
33.11.1
Notes
[11] Osborn, Kris (17 December 2013). Air Force Seeks Jets
Beyond C-17 and Even JSF. military.com. Military Advantage. Archived from the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
[1] Quote: The F-35 Lightning II will carry on the legacy of

two of the greatest and most capable ghter aircraft of all
time. Just as the P-38 and the British Lightning were at the
top of their class during their day, the F-35 will redene
multi-role ghter capability in the 21st century. Ralph D.
Heath, president of Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Co.[28]
[12] F-35 Global Partnerships. Lockheed Martin. Retrieved:

31 October 2012.
[2] Quote: The F-35A, with an air-to-air mission takeo

weight of 49,540 lb.[240]
[14] Lockheed Martin F22 and F35 5th Gen Revolution In

Military Aviation. Space Daily, 22 February 2006.
[3] Quote: Brigadier Davis was more forthright in his comments to media in Canberra, saying the Raptor lacks
some of the key sensors and the enhanced man-machine
interface of the F-35.[343]
[4] C is 51.5 ft (15.7 m)
[5] B is the same, C: 14.9 ft (4.54 m)
[6] F-35B: 47,996 lb (21,771 kg); F-35C: 57,094 lb (25,896
kg)
[7] C is same, B: 60,000 lb (27,000 kg)
[8] F-35B: vertical thrust 39,700 lbf (176 kN)
[9] F-35B: 13,326 lb (6,352 kg); F-35C: 19,624 lb (9,110 kg)
[10] F-35B: 7.5 g, F-35C: 7.5 g
[11] F-35B and F-35C have the cannon in an external pod with
220 rounds
[13] Dudley, Richard. Program Partners Conrm Support

for F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. Defence Update, 5 March
[15] F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Lightning II. Global Security. Retrieved: 7 April 2010.
[16] Keijsper 2007, p. 119.
[17] Polmar 2005, p. 398.
[18] Parsch, Andreas. Designation Systems. Designation
Systems, 27 April 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
[19] Thompson, Mark. The Most Expensive Weapon Ever
Built. Time magazine, 25 February 2013, pp. 2630
(lack of 2-seat trainer variants cited on p. 27).
[20] Orlando, Dave (22 February 2013). USAF may not
be able to aord T-X jet trainer project. Flightglobal.
Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[21] Keijsper 2007, pp. 122, 124.
378
[22] Hehs, Eric (15 May 2008). X to F: F-35 Lightning II And

Its X-35 Predecessors. Code One Magazine. Lockheed
Martin. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
[23] Outgoing F-35 programme boss shares hard won
lessons. ightglobal.com. Archived from the original on
20 October 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
[24] Fulghum, David A. and Robert Wall. USAF Plans for
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19 September 2004.
[25] Keijsper 2007, p. 124,
[40] U.S. Program Acquisition Costs by Weapon System.

defense-aerospace.com. 14 February 2011. Archived
from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 6 April
2011.
[41] Oce of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)
/ CFO (February 2011). Program Acquisition Costs
By Weapon System (PDF). comptroller.defense.gov.
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[42] Gorman, Siobhan. Computer Spies Breach Fighter-Jet
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[26] Pappalardo, Joe (November 2006). Weight Watchers:

How a team of engineers and a crash diet saved the Joint
Strike Fighter. Air & Space Magazine. Archived from
the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
[43] Cullen, Simon. Jet maker denies F-35 security breach.

Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 22 April 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
[27] "'Lightning II' moniker given to Joint Strike Fighter. Air

Force Link, United States Air Force, 7 June 2006. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
[44] Fulghum, David; Sweetman, Bill; Butler, Amy (8 February 2012). Chinas Role In JSFs Spiraling Costs. Aviation Week.
[28] Kent, John R.; Smith, John (7 July 2006). F-35 Joint
Strike Fighter was ocially named Lightning II.. Lockheed Martin. Archived from the original on 3 January
2013. (DOC) via jsf.mil
[45] Baker, Berenice (12 March 2012). BAE Systems 'hacked

by Chinese spies. Strategic Defense Intelligence. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
[29] F-35 Distributed Aperture System (EO DAS). Northrop

Grumman. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
[46] Bennett, John T. Plan Afoot to Halt F-35 Cost Hikes,

Delays. defensenews.com, 9 November 2009. Retrieved
23 November 2009.
[30] Italy Wins JSF Final Assembly: U.K. Presses Maintenance, Support. Aviation Week, February 2013.
[47] Clark, Colin. Gates Fires JSF Program Manager. dodbuzz.com, 1 February 2010. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
[31] Handling Specialty Turn Key Capabilities. handling.com. Retrieved: 16 November 2010.
[48] Cox, Bob (2 February 2010). Gates Criticizes F35 Progress, Fires Top Ocer (PDF). Star-Telegram
(Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas). Retrieved 24 June 2011.
[32] Kent, John R.; Stout, Joseph W. (23 December 2008).

Weight-Optimized F-35 Test Fleet Adds Conventional
Take o And Landing Variant.. Lockheed Martin.
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23 November 2009.
[49] JSF faces US Senate grilling. australianaviation.com.au,

12 March 2010.
[50] Shalal-Esa, Andrea and Tim Dobbyn, ed. Price of F35
ghter soars. Reuters. Retrieved: 12 September 2011.
[33] Moore, Mona. F-35 production on target. Northwest

Florida Daily News, 5 January 2009, Volume 62, Number 341, p. A1.
[51] Shalal-Esa, Andrea (1 June 2010). Lockheed F-35 to

beat Pentagon estimate by 20 pct. Reuters. Retrieved 18
July 2014.
[34] Gearan, Anne. Defense Secretary Gates proposes

weapons cuts. The Seattle Times, 7 April 2009.
[52] Thompson, Mark. The Costly F-35: The Saga of Americas Next Fighter Jet. Time, 25 March 2010.
[35] GAO-06-356, DOD Plans to Enter Production before

Testing Demonstrates Acceptable Performance. GAO,
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[53] Trimble, Stephen. Fix for F-35 nal assembly problem

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[36] http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc31394/
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Selected Weapon Programs. Gao.gov, 29 August 2008.
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[38] FY 2011 Budget Estimates. U.S. Air Force, February

2010, pp. 147.
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2010.
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[82] Program Restructuring Should Improve Outcomes, but

Progress Is Still Lagging Overall. star-telegram.com, 15
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[64] Charette, Robert N. F-35 Program Continues to Struggle

with Software. IEEE Spectrum, 19 September 2012.
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[85] Australia may buy more Super Hornets amid F-35 delays:
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[66] Cox, Bob. Pentagon takes a harder line with Lockheed

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[86] Lockheed Addressing F-35 Development Risks,

Congress Told. Bloomberg News, 19 May 2011.
[87] The last manned ghter. The Economist, 14 July 2011.
[67] Thompson, Loren. Why Pentagon Weapon 'Eciencies

Are Often An Illusion. Forbes, 1 November 2011.
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companies warn of layos, higher costs. Reuters, 12 December 2011.
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GAO. 20 March 2012.
[73] Pincus, Walter. Slack budgeting at Defense. Washington Post, 6 June 2012.
[74] Howell, Martin; Briand, Xavier, eds. (9 March 2013).
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From Next Order, Pentagon Says. Bloomberg, 26 October 2011.
[89] Lerman, David. Pentagon Budget for 2013 Calls for Two
Fewer of Lockheeds F-35 Fighters. Bloomberg News. 13
February 2012.
[90] Gibbs, Walter. U.S. slowdown on F-35 jet buy to raise
cost: Lockheed. Reuters, 14 February 2012.
[91] Pentagon, Lockheed see price of F-35 going up.
Reuters, 14 February 2012.
[92] Japan tells U.S. it may halt F-35 purchase if prices rise.
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south-korea-to-buy-40-lockheed-martin-f35s
[578] Shalal, Andrea (27 June 2014). Engine pieces found on
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Ocial JSF web site, Ocial JSF videos
Ocial F-35 Team web site
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F-35 prole on Scramble Dutch Aviation Society
Comparative Analysis of the F-35 by the independent think-tank Air Power Australia
393
Chapter 34
McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II

This article is about the US Harrier II models. For the
rst generation Harrier, see Hawker Siddeley Harrier.
For the British Harrier II models, see British Aerospace
Harrier II. For an overview of the Harrier family, see
Harrier Jump Jet.
Aerospace, re-joined the improved Harrier project as a

partner in 1981, giving it a signicant work-share in the
project. After corporate mergers in the 1990s, Boeing
and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program.
Approximately 340 aircraft were produced in a 22-year
production program that ended in 2003.
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) AV-8B Harrier II is a single-engine ground-attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier Jump Jet
family. Capable of vertical or short takeo and landing
(V/STOL), the aircraft was designed in the late 1970s as
an Anglo-American development of the British Hawker
Siddeley Harrier, the rst operational V/STOL aircraft.
Named after a bird of prey,[8] it is primarily employed
on light attack or multi-role missions, ranging from close
air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance.
The AV-8B is used by the United States Marine Corps
(USMC), the Spanish Navy, and the Italian Navy. A
variant of the AV-8B, the British Aerospace Harrier II,
was developed for the British military, while another, the
TAV-8B, is a dedicated two-seat trainer.
Typically operated from small aircraft carriers, large

amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating
bases, AV-8Bs have participated in numerous military
and humanitarian operations, proving themselves versatile assets. US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf
named the USMC Harrier II as one of the seven most
important weapons of the Gulf War. The aircraft took
part in combat during the Iraq War beginning in 2003.
The Harrier II has served in Operation Enduring Freedom
in Afghanistan since 2001, and was used in Operation
Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011. Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs have taken part in overseas conicts in conjunction with NATO coalitions. During its service history,
the AV-8B has had a high accident rate, related to the
percentage of time spent in critical take-o and landing
The project that eventually led to the AV-8Bs creation phases. USMC and Italian Navy AV-8Bs are to be restarted in the early 1970s as a cooperative eort between placed by the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II, with
the former expected to operate its Harriers until 2025.
the United States and United Kingdom (UK), aimed
at addressing the operational inadequacies of the rstgeneration Harrier. Early eorts centered on a powerful revamped Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine to dramatically 34.1 Development
improve the capabilities of the Harrier. Due to budgetary
constraints, the United Kingdom abandoned the project 34.1.1 Origins
in 1975.
Following the withdrawal of the UK, McDonnell Douglas
extensively redesigned the earlier AV-8A Harrier to create the AV-8B. While retaining the general layout of its
predecessor, the aircraft incorporates a new wing, an elevated cockpit, a redesigned fuselage, one extra hardpoint
per wing, and other structural and aerodynamic renements. The aircraft is powered by an upgraded version of
the Pegasus, which gives the aircraft its V/STOL ability.
The AV-8B made its maiden ight in November 1981 and
entered service with the USMC in January 1985. Later
upgrades added a night-attack capability and radar, resulting in the AV-8B(NA) and AV-8B Harrier II Plus,
respectively. An enlarged version named Harrier III was
also studied, but not pursued. The UK, through British
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the rst-generation

Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF)
and United States Marine Corps (USMC), but were handicapped in range and payload. In short takeo and landing conguration, the AV-8A (the American designation
for the Hawker Siddeley Harrier) carried less than half
the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) payload of the smaller A-4 Skyhawk, over a more limited radius.[9] To address this issue, in 1973 Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas
began joint development of a more capable version of
the Harrier. Early eorts concentrated on an improved
Pegasus engine, designated the Pegasus 15, which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley.[10] Although more powerful, the engines diameter was 2.75 in (70 mm) too large
394
34.1. DEVELOPMENT
395
to t into the Harrier easily.[11]

In December 1973, a joint American and British team
completed a project document dening an Advanced Harrier powered by the Pegasus 15 engine. The Advanced
Harrier was intended to replace the original RAF and
USMC Harriers, as well as the USMCs A-4.[11][12] The
aim of the Advanced Harrier was to double the AV8s payload and range, and was therefore unocially
named AV-16. The British government pulled out of the
project in March 1975 owing to decreased defense funding, rising costs, and the RAFs insucient 60-aircraft
requirement.[10][12][13] With development costs estimated
to be around 180200 million (1974 British pounds),[14]
the United States was unwilling to fund development by A YAV-8B undergoes conversion from an AV-8A, and as such
itself, and ended the project later that year.[15]
does not feature the raised cockpit found on AV-8Bs.
Despite the projects termination, the two companies continued to take dierent paths toward an enhanced Harrier. Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that
could be retrotted to existing operational aircraft, while
McDonnell Douglas independently pursued a less ambitious, though still expensive, project catering to the needs
of the US military. Using knowledge gleaned from the
AV-16 eort, though dropping some itemssuch as the
larger Rolls-Royce Pegasus engineMcDonnell Douglas
kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored
for the USMC.[10][16]
34.1.2
Designing and testing
As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier

without the development of a new engine, the plan for
Harrier II development was authorized by the United
States Department of Defense (DoD) in 1976.[17][18] The
United States Navy (USN), which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC, insisted that the
new design be veried with ight testing.[19] McDonnell
Douglas modied two AV-8As with new wings, revised
intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles, and other aerodynamic changes; the modied forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes.[20][21] Designated YAV-8B,
the rst converted aircraft ew on 9 November 1978, at
the hands of Charles Plummer. The aircraft performed
three vertical take-os and hovered for seven minutes
at LambertSt. Louis International Airport.[22] The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979, but crashed
that November due to engine ameout; the pilot ejected
safely.[21][23] Flight testing of these modied AV-8s continued into 1979.[17] The results showed greater than expected drag, hampering the aircrafts maximum speed.
Further renements to the aerodynamic prole yielded
little improvement.[21] Positive test results in other areas,
including payload, range, and V/STOL performance, led
to the award of a development contract in 1979. The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially, followed by a further 324.[2][24]
Between 1978 and 1980, the DoD and USN repeatedly

attempted to terminate the AV-8B program. There had
previously been conict between the USMC and USN
over budgetary issues. At the time, the USN wanted to
procure A-18s for its ground attack force and, to cut costs,
pressured the USMC to adopt the similarly-designed F18 ghter instead of the AV-8B to fulll the role of close
air support (both designs were eventually amalgamated
to create the multirole F/A-18 Hornet).[25] Despite these
bureaucratic obstacles, in 1981, the DoD included the
Harrier II in its annual budget and ve-year defense plan.
The USN declined to participate in the procurement, citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft.[26]
In August 1981, the program received a boost when
British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed
a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), marking the
UKs re-entry into the program.[10] The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers
promised by a large production run, and the fact that the
US was shouldering the expense of development.[27] Under the agreement BAe was relegated to the position of a
subcontractor, instead of the full partner status that would
have been the case had the UK not left the program. Consequently, the company received, in man-hours, 40 percent of the airframe work-share.[10] Aircraft production
took place at McDonnell Douglas facilities in suburban
St. Louis, Missouri, and manufacturing by BAe at its
Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey, England.[28]
Meanwhile, 75 percent work-share for the engine went to
Rolls-Royce, which had previously absorbed Bristol Siddeley, with the remaining 25 percent assigned to Pratt &
Whitney.[10] The two companies planned to manufacture
400 Harrier IIs, with the USMC expected to procure 336
aircraft and the RAF, 60.[29][30]
Four full-scale development (FSD) aircraft were constructed. The rst of these (BuNo 161396), used
mainly for testing performance and handling qualities,
made its maiden ight on 5 November 1981, piloted by
Plummer.[31] The second and third FSD aircraft, which
396
CHAPTER 34. MCDONNELL DOUGLAS AV-8B HARRIER II
introduced wing leading-edge root extensions and revised engine intakes, rst ew in April the following year;
the fourth followed in January 1984.[2] The rst production AV-8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 (VMAT-203) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point (MCAS Cherry Point) on 12 December
1983,[32] and ocially handed over one month later.[33]
The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front-line Marine Attack Squadron 331
(VMA-331).[2][34] The engine used for these aircraft was
the F402-RR-404A, with 21,450 lb (95.4 kN) of thrust;
aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines.[2]
34.1.3
Upgrades
In June 1987, as a private venture, BAe, McDonnell Douglas, and Smiths Industries signed an MoU for the development of what was to become the AV-8B Plus, which
saw the addition of radar and increased missile compatibility. The agreement was endorsed by the USMC and,
after much consideration, the Spanish and Italian navies
developed a joint requirement for a eet of air-defense
Harriers.[42] The United States, Spain, and Italy signed an
MoU in September 1990 to dene the responsibilities of
the three countries and establish a Joint Program Oce to
manage the program. On 30 November 1990, the USN,
acting as an agent for the three participating countries,
awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the
improved Harrier.[43] The award was followed by an order
from the USMC in December 1990 for 30 new aircraft,
and 72 rebuilt from older aircraft.[44] The Italians ordered
16 Harrier II Plus and two twin-seat TAV-8B aircraft,
while the Spaniards signed a contract for eight aircraft.[45]
Production of the AV-8B Harrier II Plus was conducted,
in addition to McDonnell Douglas plant, at CASA's facility in Seville, Spain, and Alenia Aeronautica's facility
in Turin, Italy. The UK also participated in the program
by manufacturing components for the AV-8B.[45]
A USMC AV-8B Harrier II demonstrating its hover capabilities
During the initial pilot conversion course, it became apparent that the AV-8B exhibited ight characteristics that
diered from the AV-8A. These dierences, as well as
the digital cockpit tted instead of the analog cockpit of
the TAV-8A, necessitated additional pilot training.[35] In
1984, funding for eight AV-8Bs was diverted to the development of a two-seat TAV-8B trainer. The rst of the A Spanish Navy AV-8B Plus in-ight. The nose houses the
28 TAV-8Bs eventually procured had its maiden ight on Hughes APG-65 pulse-Doppler radar.
21 October 1986.[35][36][N 2] This aircraft was delivered
to VMAT-203 on 24 July 1987;[35][37] the TAV-8B was
also ordered by Italy and Spain.[36]
Production was authorized on 3 June 1992. The maiden
With export interest from Brazil, Japan, and Italy serving ight of the prototype (BuNo 164129) took place on 22
as a source of encouragement to continue development of September, marking the start of a successful ight-test
the Harrier II, McDonnell Douglas commenced work on program.[45] The rst production aircraft was delivered to
a night-attack variant in 1985.[38] With the addition of an St. Louis and made its initial ight on 17 March 1993.[46]
infrared sensor and cockpit interface enhancements,[39] Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to
the 87th production single-seat AV-8B became the rst 1995.[47] At the same time, the plan to remanufacture exHarrier II to be modied for night attacks, leaving the isting AV-8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded. On 11
McDonnell Douglas production line in June 1987. Flight March 1994, the Defense Acquisition Board approved
tests proved successful and the night attack capability was the program,[48] which initially involved 70 aircraft, with
validated. The rst of 66 AV-8B(NA)s was delivered to four converted in nancial year 1994.[49] The program
the USMC in September 1989. An equivalent version aimed to use new and refurbished components to rebuild
of the AV-8B(NA) also served with the RAF under the aircraft at a lower cost than manufacturing new ones.[49]
designation GR7; earlier GR5 aircraft were subsequently Conversion began in April 1994, and the rst aircraft was
delivered to the USMC in January 1996.[7]
upgraded to GR7 standards.[40][41]
34.2. DESIGN
34.1.4
397
End of production and further im- Harriers have more service life left than USMC F/A-18
Hornets.[60] However, by 2014 the USMC had decided to
provements
retire the AV-8B sooner because changing the transition

orders of Harrier II and Hornet eets to the Lightning II
would save $1 billion. Expected to become operational in
2015, the F-35B will start to replace the AV-8B in 2016,
and continue in service until 2025. Meanwhile, the AV8B will receive revamped defensive measures, updated
data-link capability and targeting sensors, and improved
missiles, among other enhancements.[61][62]
In March 1996, the US General Accounting Oce

(GAO) stated that it was cheaper to buy Harrier II Plus
aircraft outright than to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs.
The USN estimated the cost for remanufacture of each
aircraft to be US$2330 million, instead of $30 million for each new-built aircraft, while the GAO estimated the cost per new aircraft at $24 million.[7] Nevertheless, the program continued and, in 2003, the 72nd
and last AV-8B to be remanufactured for the USMC was
delivered.[44][N 3] Spain also participated in the program, 34.2
the delivery of its last refurbished aircraft occurring in
December 2003, which marked the end of the AV-8Bs 34.2.1
production; the nal new AV-8B had been delivered in
1997.[48][51]
Design
Overview
In the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems assumed management of the Harrier family following corporate mergers that saw Boeing acquire McDonnell Douglas and BAe
amalgamate with other defense companies to form BAE
Systems. Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harriers of all
models were delivered.[51] In 2001, Flight International
reported that Taiwan might meet its requirement for a
short take o and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft by
purchasing AV-8Bs, outtted with the F-16 Fighting Falcon's APG-66 radar. A Taiwanese purchase would have
allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005.[52]
Despite the possibility of leasing AV-8Bs,[53] interest in
the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to Underside of an AV-8B Harrier II
procuring the F-35 and upgrading its eet of F-16s.[54][55]
Although there have been no new AV-8B variants, in
1990 McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace began
discussions on an interim aircraft between the AV-8B and
the next generation of advanced STOVL aircraft. The
Harrier III would have presented an evolutionary approach to get the most from the existing aircraft, as many
of the structures employed on the Sea Harrier and AV-8B
would be used.[56] The wing and the torsion box were to
be enlarged to accommodate extra fuel and hardpoints to
improve the aircrafts endurance. Due to the increase in
size, the wing would have had folding wingtips. To meet
the heavier weight of the aircraft, Rolls-Royce was expected to design a Pegasus engine variant that would have
produced 4,000 lbf (18 kN) more thrust than the latest
production variant at the time. The Harrier III would have
carried weapons such as AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM132 ASRAAM missiles.[56][57][58] Boeing and BAE Systems continued studying the design until the early 2000s,
when the project was abandoned.[59]
In 2013, the USMC was studying potential enhancements
to keep the AV-8B Harrier IIs up to date until its planned
retirement, such as a helmet-mounted cueing system. It is
also predicted that additional work on the aircrafts radars
and sensor systems may take place. The Marines Corps
Harrier II eet was planned to remain in service until
2030, owing to delays with the F-35B and the fact that the
The AV-8B Harrier II is a subsonic attack aircraft of

metal and composite construction that retains the basic
layout of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, with horizontal
stabilizers and shoulder-mounted wings featuring prominent anhedral (downward slope). The aircraft is powered
by a single Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine, which
has two intakes and four synchronized vectorable nozzles
close to its turbine. Two of these nozzles are located near
the forward, cold end of the engine and two are near the
rear, hot end of the engine. This arrangement contrasts
with most xed-wing aircraft, which have engine nozzles
only at the rear. The Harrier II also has smaller valvecontrolled nozzles in the nose, tail, and wingtips to provide control at low airspeeds.[63]
The AV-8B is equipped with one centerline fuselage and
six wing hardpoints (compared to four wing hardpoints
on the original Harrier),[64] along with two fuselage stations for a 25 mm GAU-12 cannon and ammunition
pack.[65][66] These hardpoints give it the ability to carry a
total of 9,200 lb (4,200 kg) of weapons, including airto-air, air-to-surface, and anti-ship missiles, as well as
unguided and guided bombs.[51][67] The aircrafts internal
fuel capacity is 7,500 lb (3,400 kg), up 50 percent compared to its predecessor. Fuel capacity can be carried in
hardpoint-compatible external drop tanks, which give the
aircraft a maximum ferry range of 2,100 mi (3,300 km)
398
and a combat radius of 300 mi (556 km).[51][67] The AV8B can also receive additional fuel via aerial refueling using the probe-and-drogue system. The British Aerospace
Harrier II, a variant tailored to the RAF, uses dierent
avionics, and has one additional missile pylon on each
wing.[68]
The Harrier II retains the tandem landing gear layout
of the rst-generation Harriers, although each outrigger
landing gear leg was moved from the wingtip to mid-span
for a tighter turning radius when taxiing.[69] The engine
intakes are larger than those of the rst-generation Harrier, and have a revised inlet. On the underside of the
fuselage, McDonnell Douglas added lift-improvement
devices, which capture the reected engine exhaust when
close to the ground, giving the equivalent of up to 1,200
lb (544 kg) of extra lift.[69][70]
The technological advances incorporated into the Harrier
II, compared with the original Harrier, signicantly reduce the workload on the pilot. The supercritical wing,
hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) control principle,
and increased engineered lateral stability make the aircraft fundamentally easier to y.[71][72] Ed Harper, general manager for the McDonnell Douglas Harrier II development program, summarized: The AV-8B looks a lot
like the original Harrier and it uses the same operating
fundamentals. It just uses them a lot better.[73] A large
cathode-ray tube multi-purpose display, taken from the
F/A-18, makes up much of the instrument panel in the
cockpit. It has a wide range of functions, including radar
warning information and weapon delivery checklist.[67]
The pilots sit on UPC/Stencel 10B zero-zero ejection
seats, meaning that they are able to eject from a stationary
aircraft at zero altitude.[74][75]
34.2.2
Airframe
For the AV-8B, McDonnell Douglas redesigned the entire

airframe of the Harrier, incorporating numerous structural and aerodynamic changes. To improve visibility
and better accommodate the crew and avionics hardware,
McDonnell Douglas elevated the cockpit by 10.5 in (27
cm) and redesigned the canopy. This improved the forward (17 down), side (60), and rear visibility.[76][77]
The front fuselage is composed of a molded skin with
an epoxy-based core sandwiched between two carbonber sheets.[77] To compensate for the changes in the front
fuselage, the rear fuselage was extended by 18 in (46 cm),
and the taller vertical stabilizer of the Sea Harrier was
used.[77] The tail assembly is made up of composites to
reduce weight.[76]
Made of composites, the wing is thicker and has a longer

span than that of the AV-8A. Compared to the AV-8As
wing, it has a higher aspect ratio, reduced sweep (from
40 to 37), and an area increased from 200 sq ft (18.6
m2 ) to 230 sq ft (21.4 m2 ). The wing has a high-lift
conguration, employing aps that deploy automatically
when maneuvering, and drooped ailerons. Using the leading edge root extensions, the new wing allows for a 6,700
lb (3,035 kg) increase in payload compared with the
rst-generation Harriers after a 1,000 ft (300 m) takeo
roll.[79] Because the wing is almost exclusively composite, it is 330 lb (150 kg) lighter than the AV-8As smaller
wing.[78]
Marines replacing the one-piece supercritical wing of an AV-8B

at Camp Bastion, Afganistan (2012)
The Harrier II was the rst combat aircraft to extensively

employ carbon-ber composite materials, exploiting their
light weight and high strength;[80][81] they are used in
the wings, rudder, aps, nose, forward fuselage, and tail.
Twenty-six percent of the aircrafts structure is made of
composites, reducing its weight by 480 lb (217 kg) compared to a conventional metal structure.[76]
34.2.3 Dierences between versions
Most of the rst day attack AV-8B Harrier IIs were upgraded to Night Attack Harrier or Harrier II Plus standards, with the remainder being withdrawn from service.
The AV-8B cockpit was also used for the early trialing
of Direct Voice Input (DVI), which allows the pilot to
use voice commands to issue instructions to the aircraft,
using a system developed by Smiths Industries.[82] The
main attack avionics system in original aircraft was the
nose-mounted Hughes AN/ASB-19 angle-rate bombing
system.[66] The system combined a TV imager and laser
tracker to provide a highly accurate targeting capability.
Defensive equipment include several AN/ALE-39 chawarning receiver,
Perhaps the most thorough redesign was of the wing, the are dispensers, an AN/ALR-67 radar
[81]
and
an
AN/ALQ-126C
jammer
pod.
objective being to match the performance of the cancelled AV-16 while retaining the Pegasus engine of the The trainer version of the AV-8B is the TAV-8B, seating
AV-8A.[78] Engineers designed a new, one-piece super- two pilots in tandem. Among other changes, the forward
critical wing, which improves cruise performance by de- fuselage features a 3 ft 11 in (1.19 m) extension to aclaying the rise in drag and increasing lift-to-drag ratio.[78] commodate the second cockpit.[36] To compensate for the

slight loss of directional stability, the vertical stabilizers
area was enlarged through increases in chord (length of
the stabilizers root) and height.[35][36] USMC TAV-8Bs
feature the AV-8Bs digital cockpit and new systems, but
have only two hardpoints and are not combat capable.[36]
Initial TAV-8Bs were powered by a 21,450 lbf (95.4 kN)
F402-RR-406A engine, while later examples were tted
with the 23,000 lbf (105.8 kN) F402-RR-408A.[36] In
the early 2000s, 17 TAV-8Bs were upgraded to include
a night-attack capability, the F402-RR-408 engine, and
software and structural changes.[83]
A USMC AV-8B prepares to launch from USS Bonhomme

Richard
Fielded in 1991, the Night Attack Harrier was the rst

upgrade of the AV-8B. It diered from the original aircraft in having a forward looking infrared (FLIR) camera added to the top of the nose cone, a wide Smiths
Industries head-up display (HUD), provisions for night
vision goggles, and a Honeywell digital moving map system. The FLIR uses thermal imaging to identify objects
by their heat signatures.[39][84] The variant was powered
by the F402-RR-408 engine, which featured an electronic
control system and was more powerful and reliable.[85]
The are and cha dispensers were moved, and the ram
air intake was lengthened at the ns base. Initially known
as the AV-8D, the night-attack variant was designated the
AV-8B(NA).[86][87]
The Harrier II Plus is very similar to the Night Attack
variant, with the addition of an APG-65 multi-mode
pulse-Doppler radar in an extended nose, allowing it to
launch advanced beyond-visual-range missiles such as
the AIM-120 AMRAAM.[51] To make additional space
for the radar, the angle-rate bombing system was removed. The radars used were taken from early F/A18 aircraft, which had been upgraded with the related
APG-73. In addition to the AIM-120, the AV-8B Plus
can also carry AGM-65 Maverick and AGM-84 Harpoon missiles.[88][89] According to aviation author Lon
Nordeen, the changes had a slight increase in drag and
a bit of additional weight, but there really was not much
dierence in performance between the [408-powered]
Night Attack and radar Harrier II Plus aircraft.[90]
399

34.3.1 United States Marine Corps
The AV-8B underwent standard evaluations to prepare
for its USMC service. In the operational evaluation
(OPEVAL), lasting from 31 August 1984 to 30 March
1985, four pilots and a group of maintenance and support
personnel tested the aircraft under combat conditions.
The aircraft was graded for its ability to meet its mission
requirements for navigating, acquiring targets, delivering
weapons, and evading and surviving enemy actions, all at
the specied range and payload limits. The rst phase of
OPEVAL, running until 1 February 1985, required the
AV-8B to y both deep and close air support missions
(deep air support missions do not require coordination
with friendly ground forces) in concert with other closesupport aircraft, as well as ying battleeld interdiction
and armed reconnaissance missions. The aircraft ew
from military installations at Marine Corps Base Camp
Pendleton and Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in
California, Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake in Canada,
and MCAS Yuma in Arizona.[91]
The second phase of OPEVAL, which took place at
MCAS Yuma from 25 February to 8 March, required
the AV-8B to perform ghter escort, combat air patrol, and deck-launched intercept missions. Although
the evaluation identied shortfalls in the design (subsequently rectied), OPEVAL was deemed successful.[92]
The AV-8B Harrier II reached initial operating capability (IOC) in January 1985 with USMC squadron VMA331.[93][94][N 4]
An AV-8B hovering during the 2012 Miramar Air Show
The AV-8B saw extensive action in the Gulf War of

199091. Aircraft based on USS Nassau and Tarawa,
and at on-shore bases, initially ew training and support
sorties, as well as practicing with coalition forces. The
AV-8Bs were to be held in reserve during the initial phase
of the preparatory air assault of Operation Desert Storm.
The AV-8B was rst used in the war on the morning
of 17 January 1991, when a call for air support from
an OV-10 Bronco forward air controller against Iraqi artillery that was shelling Khafji and an adjacent oil ren-
400
ery, brought the AV-8B into combat.[95] The following

day, USMC AV-8Bs attacked Iraqi positions in southern Kuwait. Throughout the war, AV-8Bs performed
armed reconnaissance and worked in concert with coalition forces to destroy targets.[95]
During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, 86
AV-8Bs amassed 3,380 ights and about 4,100 ight
hours,[96][97] with a mission availability rate of over 90
percent.[98] Five AV-8Bs were lost to enemy surface-toair missiles, and two USMC pilots were killed. The AV8B had an attrition rate of 1.5 aircraft for every 1,000 sorties own. US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf later
named the AV-8B among the seven weaponsalong with
the F-117 Nighthawk and AH-64 Apachethat played
a crucial role during the war.[99][100] In the aftermath of
the war, from 27 August 1992, until 2003, USMC AV8Bs and other aircraft patrolled Iraqi skies in support of
Operation Southern Watch. The AV-8Bs launched from
amphibious assault ships in the Persian Gulf, and from
forward operating bases such as Ali Al Salem Air Base,
Kuwait.[101]
A USMC AV-8B hovers as many more are parked on the deck of

amphibious assault ship USS Bataan, one month after the start of
Operation Iraqi Freedom
operations.[104] USMC commander Lieutenant General

Earl B. Hailston said that the Harriers were able to provide 24-hour support for ground forces, and noted that
The airplane ... became the envy of pilots even from my
In 1999, the AV-8B participated in NATO's bombing of
background ... theres an awful lot of things on the HarYugoslavia during Operation Allied Force. Twelve Harrier that I've found the Hornet pilots asking me [for] ...
riers were split evenly between the 24th and 26th Marine
We couldn't have asked for a better record.[104]
Expeditionary Units (MEU). AV-8Bs of the 24th MEU
were introduced into combat on 14 April, and over the USMC sources documented the Harrier as holding an
next 14 days ew 34 combat air support missions over 85 percent aircraft availability record in the Iraq War;
Kosovo. During their six-month deployment aboard USS in just under a month of combat, the aircraft ew over
Nassau, 24th MEU Harriers averaged a high mission- 2,000 sorties. When used, the LITENING II targeting
capable rate of 91.8 percent.[102] On 28 April, the 24th pod achieved greater than 75 percent kill eectiveness
[104]
In a single sortie from USS Bonhomme
MEU was relieved by the 26th MEU, based on USS on targets.
Kearsarge. The rst combat sorties of the units AV-8Bs Richard, a wave of Harriers inicted heavy damage on
occurred two days later, one aircraft being lost. The 26th a Republican Guard tank battalion in advance of a ma[105]
Harriers regularly opMEU remained in the theater of operations until 28 May, jor ground assault on Al Kut.
[102]
erated in close support roles for friendly tanks, one of
when it was relocated to Brindisi, Italy.
the aircraft generally carrying a LITENING pod. DeUSMC AV-8Bs took part in Operation Enduring Freespite the Harriers high marks, the limited amount of time
dom in Afghanistan from 2001. The USMC 15th MEU
that each aircraft could remain on station, around 1520
arrived o the coast of Pakistan in October 2001. Opminutes, led to some calls from within the USMC for the
erating from the units ships, four AV-8Bs began attack
procurement of AC-130 gunships, which could loiter for
missions into Afghanistan on 3 November 2001. The
six hours and had a heavier close air support capability
26th MEU and its AV-8Bs joined 15th MEU later that
than the AV-8B.[106] AV-8Bs were later used in combimonth. In December 2001, AV-8Bs began moving into
nation with artillery to provide constant re support for
Afghanistan to a forward base at Kandahar. More AVground forces during heavy ghting in 2004 around the
8Bs were deployed with other USMC units to the region
insurgent stronghold of Fallujah. The urban environment
in 2002. The VMA-513 squadron deployed six Night Atthere required extreme precision for airstrikes.[107]
tack AV-8Bs to Bagram in October 2002. These aircraft
each carried a LITENING targeting pod to perform re- On 20 March 2011, USMC AV-8Bs were launched from
connaissance missions along with attack and other mis- USS Kearsarge in support of Operation Odyssey Dawn,
enforcing the UN no-y zone over Libya.[108] They carsions, primarily at night.[103]
ried out airstrikes on Sirte on 5 April 2011.[109] Multiple
The aircraft participated in Operation Iraqi Freedom
AV-8Bs were involved in the defense of a downed F-15E
in 2003, acting primarily in support of USMC ground
pilot, attacking approaching Libyans prior to the pilots
units. During the initial action, 60 AV-8Bs were deextraction by a MV-22 Osprey.[110]
ployed on ships such as the USS Bonhomme Richard
and Bataan, from which over 1,000 sorties were own In addition to major conicts, USMC AV-8Bs have been
throughout the war. When possible, land-based forward deployed in support of contingency and humanitarian oparming and refuelling points were set up to enable prompt erations, providing xed-wing air cover and armed reconnaissance. The aircraft served in Somalia throughout the
401
1990s, Liberia (1990, 1996, and 2003), Rwanda (1994), craft were quickly replaced by those from VMA-231.[128]
Central African Republic (1996), Albania (1997), Zaire On 27 July 2014, the USS Bataan began deploying
(1997), and Sierra Leone (1997).[111][112]
USMC AV-8Bs over Iraq to provide surveillance of
During its service with the USMC, the Harrier has had Islamic State (IS) forces. Surveillance operations continan accident rate three times that of the Corps F/A-18s. ued after the start of Operation Inherent Resolve against
The AV-8 was dubbed a "widow maker" by some in the IS militants. In early September 2014, a USMC Harrier
military.[99][113] The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 from the 22nd MEU struck an IS target near the Haditha
that the Harrier family had the highest rate of major ac- Dam in Iraq, marking the rst time a USMC unit dropped
cidents among military aircraft in service then, with 148 ordnance in the operation.[129]
accidents and 45 people killed.[114] Lon Nordeen notes
that several other USMC single-engine strike aircraft, like
the A-4 Skyhawk and A-7 Corsair II, had worse accident 34.3.2 Italian Navy
rates.[115] The Harriers high accident rate is largely due
to the higher percentage of time it spends taking o and In the late 1960s, following a demonstration of the
Hawker Siddeley Harrier on the Italian Navy (Marina
landing, which are the most critical times in ight.[116]
Militare) helicopter carrier Andrea Doria, the country began investigating the possibility of acquiring the
Harrier.[130] Early eorts were hindered by a 1937 Italian
law that prohibited the navy from operating xed-wing
aircraft because they were the domain of the air force.
In early 1989, the law was changed to allow the navy to
operate any xed-wing aircraft with a maximum weight
of over 3,300 lb (1,500 kg).[131][132] Following a lengthy
evaluation of the Sea Harrier and AV-8B, an order was
placed for two TAV-8Bs in May 1989. Soon, a contract
for a further 16 AV-8B Plus aircraft was signed.[132] After
the TAV-8Bs and the rst three AV-8Bs, all subsequent
Italian Navy Harriers were locally assembled by Alenia
Aeronautica from kits delivered from the US.[133] The
two-seaters, the rst to be delivered, arrived at Grottaglie
An AV-8B of VX-31 during a test ight over China Lake, 2011 in August 1991. They were used for proving ights with
the navys helicopter carriers and on the light aircraft carThe AV-8B is to be replaced by the F-35B version of rier Giuseppe Garibaldi.[130][134]
the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which had been
slated to enter service in 2012.[117] The USMC had sought In early 1994, the initial batch of US-built aircraft arrived
a replacement since the 1980s,[118][119] and has argued at MCAS Cherry Point for pilot conversion training. The
Harrier was rolled out the followstrongly in favor of the development of the F-35B. The rst Italian-assembled
ing year.[133] In mid-January 1995, Giuseppe Garibaldi
Harriers performance in Iraq, including its ability to
use forward operating bases, reinforced the need for a set o from Taranto to Somalia, with three Harriers on
board, to maintain stability following the withdrawal of
V/STOL aircraft in the USMC arsenal.[105] In Novem[135]
The Harriers, own by ve Italian pilots,
ber 2011, the USN purchased the UKs eet of 72 retired UN forces.
accumulated more than 100 ight hours and achieved
BAe Harrier IIs (63 single-seat GR.7/9/9As plus 9 twinseat T.12/12As)[120] and replacement engines to provide 100 percent availability during the three-month deployment, performing reconnaissance and other missions.
spares for the existing USMC Harrier II eet.[121][122] Al[130][133][136]
though the March 2012 issue of the magazine AirForces The squadron returned to port on 22 March.
Monthly stated that the USMC intended to y some of the In 1999, Italian AV-8Bs were used for the rst time
ex-British Harrier IIs, instead of using them just for spare in combat missions when they were deployed aboard
parts,[120] the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) Giuseppe Garibaldi, which was participating in Operation
has since stated that the USMC has never had any plans Allied Force in Kosovo. Italian pilots conducted more
to operate those Harriers.[123]
than 60 sorties alongside other NATO aircraft, attacking
On 14 September 2012, a Taliban raid destroyed six AV- the Yugoslav army and paramilitary forces and bombing
with conventional and laser8Bs and severely damaged two others while they were the countrys infrastructure
[137]
(LGB).
guided
bombs
parked on the tarmac at Camp Bastion in Afghanistans
Helmand Province. All of the aircraft belonged to VMA211. The two damaged AV-8Bs were own out of
Afghanistan in the hours after the attack.[124][125][126] The
attack was described as the worst loss of U.S. airpower in
a single incident since the Vietnam War.[127] The lost air-
In 2000, the Italian Navy was looking to acquire a further seven remanufactured aircraft to equip Giuseppe
Garibaldi and a new carrier, Cavour. Existing aircraft,
meanwhile, were updated to allow them to carry AIM120 AMRAAMs and JDAM guided bombs.[59][133] From
402
An Italian Navy AV-8B Harrier II taking o from the Cavour
November 2001-March 2002, eight AV-8Bs were embarked aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi and were deployed
to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring
Freedom. The aircraft, equipped with LGBs, operated
throughout January and February 2002, during which 131
missions were logged for a total of 647 ight hours.[138]
In 2011, Italian Harriers, operating from Giuseppe
Garibaldi, worked alongside Italian Euroghters and aircraft of other nations during Operation Unied Protector, as part of the 2011 military intervention in
Libya.[139] They conducted airstrikes as well as intelligence and reconnaissance sorties over Libya, using the
LITENING targeting pods while armed with AIM-120
AMRAAMs and AIM-9 Sidewinders.[139] In total, Italian military aircraft delivered 710 guided bombs and
missiles during sorties: Italian Air Force Tornados and
AMX ghter bombers delivered 550 bombs and missiles,
while the eight Italian Navy AV-8Bs ying from Giuseppe
Garibaldi dropped 160 guided bombs during 1,221 ight
hours.[140]
Two EAV-8B Harrier II Plus aircraft from the Spanish aircraft

carrier Prncipe de Asturias
cuadrilla. This unit was disbanded on 24 October 1986,

following the sales of AV-8S Matadors to Thailand.[143]
Instead, 9a Escuadrilla was formed on 29 September
1987, to become part of the Alpha Carrier Air Group
and operate the EAV-8B.[143]
In March 1993, under the September 1990 Tripartite

MoU between the US, Italy, and Spain, eight EAV8B Plus Matadors were ordered, along with a twin-seat
TAV-8B.[142][143] Deliveries of the Plus-standard aircraft
started in 1996.[142] On 11 May 2000, Boeing and the
NAVAIR nalized a contract to remanufacture Spanish
EAV-8Bs to bring them up to Plus standard. Boeing said
the deal required it to remanufacture two EAV-8Bs, with
Italian Navy AV-8Bs are slated to be replaced by 15
an option for another seven aircraft;[144] other sources
(originally 22) F-35Bs, which will form the air wing of
say the total was 11 aircraft.[142] The remanufacture alCavour.[141]
lowed the aircraft to carry four AIM-120 AMRAAMs,
enhanced the pilots situational awareness through the installation of new radar and avionics, and provided a new
34.3.3 Spanish Navy
engine.[142][144] Eventually, ve aircraft were modied,
the last having been delivered on 5 December 2003.[145]
Spain, already using the AV-8S Matador, became the rst
international operator of the AV-8B by signing an or- Spanish EAV-8Bs joined Operation Deny Flight,
der for 12 aircraft in March 1983.[142] Designated VA-2 enforcing the UNs no-y zone over Bosnia and
Matador II by the Spanish Navy (Armada Espaola), this Herzegovina.[142] Spain did not send its aircraft carrier
variant is known as EAV-8B by McDonnell Douglas.[143] to participate in the Iraq War in 2003, instead deploying
Pilot conversion took place in the US. On 6 October F/A-18s and other aircraft to Turkey to defend that
1987, the rst three Matador IIs were delivered to Naval country against potential Iraqi attacks.[146] In 2007,
Station Rota.[143] The new aircraft were painted in a two- Spain conducted a contractual study into a replacement
tone matt grey nish, similar to US Navy aircraft, and for the Harrier II, the likely option being the F-35B.[147]
According to a Lockheed Martin vice-president, Spain
deliveries were complete by 1988.[143]
[148]
BAe test pilots cleared the aircraft carrier Principe de was still evaluating the F-35B as of 2010.
Asturias' for Harrier operations in July 1989. The carrier, which replaced the World War II-era Ddalo, has a
12 ski-jump ramp.[142][143] It was originally planned that
the rst unit to operate the aircraft would be the 8a Es-
Following the decommissioning of the Prncipe de Asturias in February 2013,[149] the sole naval platform from
which Spanish Harrier IIs can operate is the Juan Carlos
amphibious assault ship.[150]
34.6. INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS
403
34.4 Variants
9a Escuadrilla
present)[155]
Aeronaves
(1987
Main article: List of Harrier variants

United States
YAV-8B Two prototypes converted in 1978 from
existing AV-8A airframes (BuNos 158394 and
158395).[21]
United States Marine Corps

VMA-211 Wake Island Avengers (1990
present)[156]
AV-8B Harrier II sans sux The initial day attack

variant.[151]
VMA-214 The Black Sheep (1989

present)[157]
AV-8B Harrier II Night Attack Improved

version
with a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera,
an upgraded cockpit with night-vision goggle
compatibility, and the more powerful Rolls Royce
Pegasus 11 engine.[152] This variant was originally
planned to be designated AV-8D.[41]
VMA-223 Bulldogs (1987present)[158]

VMA-231 Ace
present)[159]
of
Spades
(1985
VMA-311 Tomcats (1988present)[160]

VMA-331 Bumblebees (19851992)[34]
VMA-513
2013)[161]
AV-8B Harrier II Plus Similar to the Night Attack

variant, with the addition of an APG-65 radar. It
is used by the USMC, Spanish Navy, and Italian
Navy. Forty-six new-built aircraft were assembled
from 1993-1997.[153]
Flying
Nightmares
(1987
VMA-542 Tigers (1986present)[162]

VMAT-203 Hawks (1983present)[32]
United States Navy
[153]
TAV-8B Harrier II Two-seat trainer version.
VX-9 The Vampires (unknown)[163]

VX-31 Dust Devils (unknownpresent)[164]
EAV-8B Matador II Company designation for the

Spanish Navy version.[153]
EAV-8B Matador II Plus The AV-8B Harrier II Plus,
ordered for the Spanish Navy.[153]
34.6 Incidents and accidents
Main article: List of Harrier Jump Jet family losses

Harrier GR5, GR7, GR9 See British Aerospace Harrier II.
Throughout its operational history, the AV-8B has gained
a reputation as a widow maker with its operators,[99]
mainly the USMC, because of the number of accidents
in which the AV-8B has been involved. Accidents have
34.5 Operators
in particular been connected to the amount of time the
aircraft spends taking o and landing, which are the most
Main article: List of Harrier operators
critical phases in ight.[99][116] As of July 2013, approximately 110 aircraft have been damaged beyond repair
since the type entered service in 1985,[165] the rst acciItaly
dent having occurred in March that year.[166]
Italian Navy
Gruppo Aerei
present)[154]
Spain
Spanish Navy

Imbarcati
(1991
AV-8B
BuNo 161396 National Museum of the Marine
Corps, Triangle, Virginia.[167]
BuNo 161397 Carolinas Aviation Museum,
Charlotte, North Carolina.[168]
404
34.8 Specications (AV-8B Harrier

II Plus)
Powerplant: 1 Rolls-Royce F402-RR-408 (Mk

107) vectored-thrust turbofan, 23,500 lbf (105 kN)
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 0.9 (585 knots, 673 mph,
1,083 km/h)
Range: 1,200 nmi (1,400 mi, 2,200 km)
Ferry range: 1,800 nmi (2,100 mi, 3,300 km)
Rate of climb: 14,700 ft/min (4,481 m/min)
Wing loading: 94.29 lb/ft (460.4 kg/m)
Orthographic projection of the AV-8B Harrier II
Armament
Guns: 1 General Dynamics GAU-12 Equalizer 25

mm (0.984 in) 5-barreled Gatling cannon mounted
under-fuselage in the left pod, with 300 rounds of
ammunition in the right pod
Hardpoints: 6 under-wing pylon stations holding
up to 9,200 lb (4,200 kg) of payload:
Rockets:
4 LAU-5003 rocket pods (each with 19
CRV7 70 mm rockets)
A detached 25 mm cannon pod being worked upon by ground
crew
Data from Nordeen,[169] Boeing,[97] and Airforcetechnology.com[51]

Crew: 1 pilot
Length: 46 ft 4 in (14.12 m)
Wing area: 243.4 ft (22.61 m)
Missiles:
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder or similar-sized
infrared-guided missiles
6 AIM-120 AMRAAM (on radar
equipped AV-8B Plus variants)
6 AGM-65 Maverick; or
2 AGM-84 Harpoon; or
2 AGM-88 HARM
Bombs:
Airfoil: supercritical airfoil
CBU-100 cluster bombs (CBUs)
Mark 80 series of unguided bombs (including

3 kg [6.6 lb] and 14 kg [31 lb] practice bombs)

Max. takeo weight:
Paveway series of laser-guided bombs (LGBs)

Joint Direct Attack Munitions (GBU-38,
GBU-32, and GBU-54)
Rolling: 31,000 lb (14,100 kg)
Mark 77 napalm canisters
Vertical: 20,755 lb (9,415 kg)
B61 nuclear bomb
34.12. REFERENCES
405
Others:
up to 4 300/330/370 US Gallon drop tanks
(pylon stations No. 2, 3, 4, & 5 are wet
plumbed)
Intrepid Tiger II electronic jammer[170]
Avionics
remanufactured USMC Harrier IIs, meaning 337 newbuilt AV-8Bs were manufactured. Two YAV-8B prototypes were also converted from AV-8As.[4] Quote from St.
Louis Post-Dispatch (2003): Boeing and its predecessor
in St. Louis, McDonnell Douglas Corp., have been building or modifying a second-generation Harrier -- known
as the Harrier II or AV-8B -- since 1981. Collectively,
they've produced about 340 of the aircraft.[5]
[2] According to Lon Nordeen, the rst TAV-8B ew on 21
November 1986.[37]
Raytheon APG-65 radar

AN/AAQ-28V LITENING targeting pod (on radarequipped AV-8B Plus variants)
34.9 Popular culture

Main article: Harrier family in ction
As part of its 1996 Pepsi Stu marketing campaign, Pepsi
ran an advertisement promising a Harrier jet to anyone
who collected 7,000,000 Pepsi Points, a gag that backred when a participant attempted to take advantage of
the ability to buy additional points for 10 cents each to
claim a jet for US$700,000. When Pepsi turned him
down, a lawsuit ensued, in which the judge ruled that any
reasonable person would conclude that the advertisement
was a joke.[171]
[3] Quote from Nordeen 2006: The Marine Corps supported

this concept as an economical way to upgrade their Harrier
II V/STOL force and achieve operational requirement for
72-radar equipped AV-8Bs. Deliveries of remanufactured
Harrier II Plus aircraft continued from 1996 to 2003.[48]
Part 1 of Appendix B claims that 74 AV-8Bs have been
remanufactured for the USMC.[50]
[4] According to Lon Nordeen, USMC squadron VMA331 was reassigned to the AV-8B in January 1985 and
achieved IOC in August 1985.[34]
34.12 References
[1] Nordeen 2006, p. 49.
[2] Wilson 2000, p. 29.
[3] Nordeen 2006, Appendix A.
[4] Nordeen 2006, pp. 48, 165.
[5] Carey, Christopher (6 December 2003). Final Harrier
Aircraft Rolls o Boeings St. Louis Production Line.
St. Louis Post-Dispatch (HighBeam Research (subscription required)). Retrieved 5 November 2013.
34.10 See also

Related development
[6] Moxon 1987, p. 11.
Harrier Jump Jet
[7] Lopez 1996, p. 19.
British Aerospace Harrier II
[172]

Boeing X-32[173]
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II[174]
[8] Searle, Adrian (29 June 2010). Fiona Banners toys

for boys are a turn-on at Tate Britain. The Guardian.
Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2013. the Harrier is in any case named
after a bird of prey.
[10] Wilson 2000, p. 26.
Related lists
[11] Jenkins 1998, pp. 6970.
List of Harrier Jump Jet family losses
[12] Nordeen 2006, p. 41.
[13] Eden 2004, p. 288.

[14] Flight International 1974, p. 762.
34.11 Notes
[1] According to Lon Nordeen, 507 Harrier IIs had been completed, including 96 British Aerospace Harrier IIs and 74
[15] Jackson 1987, p. 138.

[16] Jenkins 1998, pp. 7072.
[17] Nordeen 2006, pp. 4244, 4849.
406
[18] Is The AV-8B Advanced Harrier Aircraft Ready For FullScale Development? (PDF). General Accounting Oce
(Washington, D.C.: General Accounting Oce). 30 January 1979. p. 1. OCLC 4711266.
[19] Nordeen 2006, pp. 4143.
[20] Jenkins 1998, pp. 6970, 7273.
[21] Wilson 2000, p. 28.
[24] Nordeen 2006, pp. 4849.
[25] Nordeen 2006, p. 46.
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[28] Gaines 1985, p. 148.
[30] Nordeen 2006, p. 52.
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411
Chapter 35

F-15 redirects here. For other uses, see F15 (disambiguation).
This article is about the initial F-15 ghter versions. For
the current production versions, see McDonnell Douglas
F-15E Strike Eagle.
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle is
an American twin-engine, all-weather tactical ghter designed by McDonnell Douglas to gain and maintain air
superiority in aerial combat. It is among the most successful modern ghters, with over 100 aerial combat
victories.[3][4] Following reviews of proposals, the United
States Air Force selected McDonnell Douglas' design in
1967 to meet the services need for a dedicated air superiority ghter. The Eagle rst ew in July 1972, and
entered service in 1976.
The Eagle has since been exported to Israel, Japan, and
Saudi Arabia, among other nations. The F-15 was originally envisioned as a pure air superiority aircraft. Its design included a secondary ground-attack capability[5] that
was largely unused. The design proved exible enough
that an all-weather strike derivative, the F-15E Strike Eagle, was later developed, entering service in 1989. The
F-15 Eagle is expected to be in service with the U.S. Air
Force past 2025.[6] Newer models are still being produced
for foreign users. The F-15 production line is set to end
in 2019, 47 years after the types rst ight.[7]
35.1 Development
35.1.1
Origins
The F-15 can ultimately trace its origins to the Vietnam

War, when the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Navy fought
over tactical aircraft being used in the war. At the time,
Defense Secretary Robert McNamara was pressing for
both services to use as many common aircraft as possible, even if there were performance sacrices involved.
As part of this policy, the USAF and Navy were involved
in the TFX program, aiming to deliver a medium-range
interdiction aircraft in Air Force use that would also serve
as a long-range interceptor aircraft for the Navy.[8]
In January 1965, McNamara asked the Air Force to consider a new low-cost tactical ghter design for short-range
roles and close air support to replace several types like
the F-100 Super Sabre and various light bombers then in
service. Two basic designs could ll this role; the Navy
favored designs like the A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II, pure attack aircraft, while the Air Force was more
interested in ghter-bombers like the Northrop F-5, ghters with a secondary attack capability. The former were
more capable in the tactical role, while the latter might
be less so but could defend themselves. If the Air Force
did choose an attack design, maintaining air superiority
would be a top priority. The next month, a report on light
tactical aircraft suggested the Air Force purchase the F-5
or A-7, and consider a new higher-performance aircraft
to ensure its air superiority. This point was driven home
after the loss of two F-105 Thunderchief aircraft to obsolete MiG-15s or MiG-17s on 4 April 1965.[8]
In April 1965, Harold Brown, at that time director of
the DDR&E, stated the favored position was to consider
the F-5, and begin studies of the F-X.[N 1] These early
studies envisioned a production run of 800 to 1,000 aircraft, and stressed maneuverability over speed; it also
stated that the aircraft would not be considered without
some level of ground attack capability.[9] On 1 August
Gabriel Disosway took command of Tactical Air Command (TAC) and reiterated calls for the F-X, but lowered
the required performance from Mach 3 to 2.5 to lower
costs.[10] Ultimately, the Air Force chose the A-7 over
the F-5 for the support role on 5 November 1965,[11] giving further impetus for an air superiority design as the
A-7 lacked any credible air-to-air capability.
An ocial requirements document was nalized in October, and sent out as a request for proposals (RFP) to
13 companies on 8 December 1965. Eight companies
responded with proposals. Following a downselect, four
companies were asked to provide further developments.
In total, they developed some 500 design concepts. Typical designs featured variable-sweep wings, weighed over
60,000 pounds (27,000 kg), included a top speed of Mach
2.7 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.75.[12] When the proposals were studied in July 1966, the aircraft were roughly
the size and weight of the TFX, and like that aircraft,
a design that could not be considered an air superiority
412
35.1. DEVELOPMENT
ghter.[13]
35.1.2
Smaller, lighter
Through this period, studies of combat over Vietnam

were producing worrying results. Previous doctrine had
stressed long-range combat using missiles, and optimized
aircraft for this role. The result was highly loaded aircraft with large radars and excellent speed, but limited
maneuverability and often lacking a gun. The canonical example was the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,
used by the USAF, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps to
provide air superiority over Vietnam, the only ghter with
enough power, range, and maneuverability to be given the
primary task of dealing with the threat of Soviet ghters
while ying with visual engagement rules.[14]
In practice, both due to policy and practical reasons,[14]
aircraft were closing to visual range and maneuvering,
placing the larger US aircraft at a disadvantage to the
much less expensive day ghters like the MiG-21. Moreover, missiles proved to be much less reliable than predicted, especially in close range combat. Although improved training and the introduction of the M61 Vulcan
cannon did much to address the disparity, these early
outcomes led to considerable re-evaluation of the 1963
Project Forecast doctrine.[15] This led to John Boyd's
Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory, which stressed
that extra power and maneuverability were key aspects of
a successful ghter design, and these were more important than outright speed. Through tireless championing
of the concepts, and good timing with the failure of
the initial F-X project, the "ghter maa" pressed for a
lightweight day ghter that could be built and operated
in large numbers in order to ensure air superiority.[16]
In early 1967, they proposed that the ideal design had
a thrust-to-weight ratio of near 1:1, a maximum speed
further reduced to Mach 2.3, a weight of 40,000 pounds
(18,000 kg) and a wing loading of 80 lb/ft.[17]
413
high speed, over Mach 2.8, which demanded the use of
stainless steel instead of aluminum in many locations on
the aircraft. The added weight demanded a much larger
planform to allow the aircraft to operate at the required
high altitudes. However, to observers, it appeared outwardly similar to the very large F-X studies, an aircraft
with high speed and a large wing oering high maneuverability; leading to serious concerns throughout the Department of Defense and the various arms that the US was
being outclassed. The MiG-23 was likewise a subject of
concern and it was generally believed this was a better aircraft than the F-4. The F-X would outclass the MiG-23,
but now it appeared that that MiG-25 would be superior
in speed, ceiling and endurance to all existing US ghters, even the F-X.[21] Thus, an eort to improve the F-X
followed.[22]
Both Headquarters USAF and the TAC continued to call
for a multipurpose aircraft, while both Disosway and Air
Chief of Sta Bruce K. Holloway pressed for a pure air
superiority design that would be able to meet the expected performance of the MiG-25. During the same
period, the Navy had ended its VFAX program and instead accepted a proposal from Grumman Aircraft for a
smaller and more maneuverable design known as VFX.
VFX was considerably closer to the evolving F-X requirements. The Air Force in-ghting eventually ended by the
worry that the Navys VFAX would be forced on them;
in May 1968 it was stated that We nally decided - and I
hope there is no one who still disagrees - that this aircraft
is going to be an air superiority ghter.[18]
35.1.4 Final design
By this time, the Navy had decided the F-111 would not
meet their requirements, and began development of a new
dedicated ghter design, the VFAX program. In May
1966, McNamara again asked the forces to study the designs and see if the VFAX would meet the Air Forces
F-X needs. The resulting studies took eighteen months,
and concluded that the desired features were too dierent; the Navy stressed loiter time and mission exibility, while the Air Force was now looking primarily for F-15A cockpit
maneuverability.[18]
In August 1968 a new SRP was prepared. The new requirements called for single-seat ghter having a maximum take-o weight of 40,000 pounds (18,000 kg) for
35.1.3 Focus on air superiority
the air-to-air role with a maximum speed of Mach 2.5 and
In 1967 the Soviet Union revealed the MiG-25 'Foxbat' at a thrust to weight ratio of nearly 1:1 at mission weight.[23]
the Domodedovo aireld near Moscow.[14][19] The MiG- It also called for a twin-engine arrangement as it was
25 was designed as a high-speed, high-altitude interceptor believed this would respond to throttle changes more
aircraft, and made many performance tradeos to excel rapidly, and might oer commonality with the Navys
in this role.[20] Among these was the requirement for very VFX program. However, details of the avionics were left
414
CHAPTER 35. MCDONNELL DOUGLAS F-15 EAGLE
largely undened, as it was not clear whether to build a

larger aircraft with a powerful radar that could detect the
enemy at longer ranges, or alternately a smaller aircraft
that would make it more dicult for the enemy to detect
it.[24]
The F-15 was favored by customers such as the Israel

and Japan air arms. Criticism from the ghter maa that
the F-15 was too large to be a dedicated dogghter, and
too expensive to procure in large numbers, led to the
Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program, which led to the
Four companies submitted proposals, with the Air Force USAF General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the
Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Horeliminating General Dynamics and awarding contracts middle-weight
[29]
net.
to Fairchild Republic, North American Rockwell, and
McDonnell Douglas for the denition phase in December 1968. The companies submitted technical proposals 35.1.5 Further development
by June 1969. The Air Force announced the selection of
McDonnell Douglas on 23 December 1969.[25] The win- The single-seat F-15C and two-seat F-15D models enning design resembled the twin-tailed F-14, but with xed tered production in 1978 and conducted their rst ights
wings; both designs were based on congurations studied in February and June of that year.[30] These models were
in wind tunnel testing by NASA.[26]
tted with the Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000),
which included 2,000 lb (900 kg) of additional internal
fuel, provisions for exterior conformal fuel tanks, and
an increased maximum takeo weight of up to 68,000
lb (30,700 kg).[31] The increased takeo weight allows
internal fuel, a full weapons load, conformal fuel tanks,
and three external fuel tanks to be carried. The APG-63
radar uses a programmable signal processor (PSP), enabling the radar to be reprogrammable for additional purposes such as the addition of new armaments and equipment. The PSP was the rst of its kind in the world, and
the upgraded APG-63 radar was the rst radar to use it.
Other improvements included strengthened landing gear,
a new digital central computer,[32] and an overload warning system, which allows the pilot to y up to 9 g at all
weights.[30]
McDonnell Douglas F-15A (S/N 71-0280) during the types rst
ight
The Eagles initial versions were the F-15 single-seat variant and TF-15 twin-seat variant. (After the F-15C was
rst own the designations were changed to F-15A and
F-15B). These versions would be powered by new Pratt
& Whitney F100 engines to achieve a combat thrust-toweight ratio in excess of 1:1. A proposed 25 mm FordPhilco GAU-7 cannon with caseless ammunition suered
development problems. It was dropped in favor of the
standard M61 Vulcan gun. The F-15 used conformal carriage of four Sparrow missiles like the Phantom. The
xed wing was put onto a at, wide fuselage that also provided an eective lifting surface. The rst F-15A ight
was made on 27 July 1972 with the rst ight of the twoseat F-15B following in July 1973.[27]
The F-15 has a "look-down/shoot-down" radar that can
distinguish low-ying moving targets from ground clutter.
The F-15 would use computer technology with new controls and displays to lower pilot workload and require only
one pilot to save weight. Unlike the F-14 or F-4, the F-15
has only a single canopy frame with clear vision forward.
The USAF introduced the F-15 as the rst dedicated
USAF air superiority ghter since the North American
F-86 Sabre.[28]
USAF McDonnell Douglas F-15E arrives for the 2014 Royal International Air Tattoo, England
The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program (MSIP) was

initiated in February 1983 with the rst production MSIP
F-15C produced in 1985. Improvements included an
upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament
Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded
Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and
ALQ-135 countermeasure set. The nal 43 F-15Cs included the Hughes APG-70 radar developed for the F15E; these are sometimes referred as Enhanced Eagles.
Earlier MSIP F-15Cs with the APG-63 were upgraded
35.2. DESIGN
415
to the APG-63(V)1 to improve maintainability and to afterburners mounted side-by-side in the fuselage, fed by
perform similar to the APG-70. Existing F-15s were intake ramps. The cockpit is mounted high in the forward
retrotted with these improvements.[33]
fuselage with a one-piece windscreen and large canopy to
In 1979, McDonnell Douglas and F-15 radar manufac- increase visibility. The airframe began to incorporate adturer, Hughes, teamed to privately develop a strike ghter vanced superplastically formed titanium components in
version of the F-15. This version competed in the Air the 1980s.
Forces Dual-Role Fighter competition starting in 1982.
The Boeing F-15E strike variant was selected for production in 1984.[34] Beginning in 1985, F-15C and D models
were equipped with the improved P&W F100-220 engine
and digital engine controls, providing quicker throttle response, reduced wear, and lower fuel consumption. Starting in 1997, original F100-100 engines were upgraded to
a similar conguration with the designation F100-220E
starting.[35]
Beginning in 2007, 178 USAF F-15Cs were retrotted
with the AN/APG-63(V)3 Active Electronically Scanned
Array (AESA) radar.[36] A signicant number of F-15s
are to be equipped with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS).[37] Lockheed Martin is working on
an IRST system for the F-15C.[38] A follow-on upgrade
called the Eagle passive/active warning survivability system (EPAWSS) was planned but remained unfunded.[39]
The EPAWSS upgrade will include sophisticated jamming, integrated digital RWR/ geo-location and electrooptical/ IR threat detection and decoy capabilities.[40]
35.2 Design
35.2.1
The F-15s maneuverability is derived from low wing

loading (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrustto-weight ratio enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed. The F-15 can climb to 30,000 ft
(10,000 m) in around 60 seconds. The thrust output of
the dual engines is greater than the aircrafts weight, thus
giving it the ability to accelerate in a vertical climb. The
weapons and ight control systems are designed so that
one person can safely and eectively perform air-to-air
combat.[41] The A and C-models are single-seat variants;
these were the main air superiority versions produced. B
and D-models add a second seat behind the pilot for training. E-models use the second seat for a weapon systems
ocer. Visibly, the F-15 has a unique feature vis--vis
other modern ghter aircraft: it does not have the distinctive turkey feather aerodynamic exhaust petals covering
its engine nozzles. This is because the petal design on the
F-15 was problematic and could fall o in ight; therefore they were removed, resulting in a 3% Aerodynamic
drag increase.[42]
35.2.2 Avionics
Overview
A wing over maneuver displays the clean lines and high-wing

design of an F-15E from Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.
F-15C executing a maximum performance takeo.
A multi-mission avionics system includes a heads-up display (HUD), advanced radar, AN/ASN-109 inertial guidance system (INS), ight instruments, ultra high frequency (UHF) communications, and Tactical air navigation system (TACAN) and Instrument landing system
(ILS) receivers. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic warfare system, Identication friend or foe
(IFF) system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer.[43]
The F-15 has an all-metal semi-monocoque fuselage

with a large cantilever shoulder-mounted wing. The
empennage is metal and composite construction, with
twin aluminium/composite material honeycomb structure ns with boron-composite skin, resulting in an exceptionally thin tailplane and rudders with all-moving
composite horizontal tail surfaces outboard of the ns.
The F-15 has a spine-mounted air brake and retractable The head-up display projects, through a combiner, all
tricycle landing gear. It is powered by two Pratt & essential ight information gathered by the integrated
Whitney F100 Axial compressor turbofan engines with avionics system. This display, visible in any light condi-
416
M61 Vulcan mounted on the side of right engine intake
or AIM-120 AMRAAM advanced medium range airto-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, AIM-9L/M
Sidewinder or AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal 20 millimetres (0.79
in) M61 Vulcan Gatling gun in the right wing root.[47]
AN/APG-63 radar
tion, provides the pilot information necessary to track and

destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at
cockpit instruments.[44]
The F-15s versatile APG-63 and 70 pulse-Doppler radar
systems can look up at high-ying targets and lookdown/shoot-down at low-ying targets without being confused by ground clutter. These radars can detect and track
aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond
visual range down to close range, and at altitudes down
to treetop level. The APG-63 has a basic range of 100
miles (87 nmi; 160 km). The radar feeds target information into the central computer for eective weapons
delivery. For close-in dogghts, the radar automatically
acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected
on the head-up display. The F-15s electronic warfare
system provides both threat warning (radar warning receiver) and automatic countermeasures against selected
threats.[45]
35.2.3
Weaponry and external stores
A variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the

F-15. An automated weapon system enables the pilot to
release weapons eectively and safely, using the headup display and the avionics and weapons controls located
on the engine throttles or control stick. When the pilot
changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the required weapon automatically appears on
the head-up display.[46]
The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: AIM-7F/M Sparrow missiles
F-15C external stores stations
Low-drag conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) were developed

for the F-15C and D models. They can be attached to the
sides of the engine air intake ramps under each wing and
are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft.[47] They degrade performance by
increasing drag and cannot be jettisoned in-ight (unlike
conventional external tanks). Each conformal fuel tank
can hold 750 U.S. gallons (2,840 L) of fuel.[48] These
tanks increase range and reduce the need for in-ight refueling. All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use. Moreover, Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles can be attached to the corners of the conformal fuel tanks.[31] The 57 FIS based at Keavik NAS,
Iceland was the only C-model squadron to use CFTs on a
regular basis due to its extended operations over the North
Atlantic. With the closure of the 57 FIS, the F-15E is the
only variant to carry them on a routine basis. CFTs have
also been sold to Israel and Saudi Arabia.
417

35.3.1 Introduction and early service
The largest operator of the F-15 is the United States Air
Force. The rst Eagle (F-15B) was delivered 13 November 1974.[51] In January 1976, the rst Eagle destined
for a combat squadron, the 555th TFS, was delivered.[51]
These initial aircraft carried the Hughes Aircraft (now
Raytheon) APG-63 radar.
F-15E with speed brake deployed and conformal tanks tted
35.2.4
Upgrades
The McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle is a two-seat,

dual-role, totally integrated ghter for all-weather, air-toair and deep interdiction missions. The rear cockpit is
upgraded to include four multi-purpose cathode ray tube
displays for aircraft systems and weapons management.
The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler aircraft ight
control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system.[49] For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse
weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution APG-70
radar and LANTIRN pods to provide thermography.[45]
The APG-63(V)2 active electronically scanned array
(AESA) radar has been retrotted to 18 U.S. Air Force F15C aircraft.[50] This upgrade includes most of the new
hardware from the APG-63(V)1, but adds an AESA to
provide increased pilot situation awareness. The AESA
radar has an exceptionally agile beam, providing nearly
instantaneous track updates and enhanced multi-target
tracking capability. The APG-63(V)2 is compatible with
current F-15C weapon loads and enables pilots to take
full advantage of AIM-120 AMRAAM capabilities, simultaneously guiding multiple missiles to several targets
widely spaced in azimuth, elevation, or range.
The rst kill by an F-15 was scored by Israeli Air Force

(IAF) ace Moshe Melnik in 1979.[52] In 197981, during Israeli raids against Palestinian factions in Lebanon,
F-15As claimed downing 13 Syrian MiG-21 Fishbeds
and two Syrian MiG-25 Foxbats. This diers from Syrian claims of thirteen aircraft lost with ve F-15s shot
down in the process. Another two F-15s were reportedly downed by SAMs.[53] Israeli F-15As and Bs participated as escorts in Operation Opera, an airstrike on an
Iraqi nuclear reactor. In the 1982 Lebanon War, Israeli
F-15s were credited with 41 Syrian aircraft destroyed (23
MiG-21 Fishbeds and 17 MiG-23 Floggers) including a SA.342L Gazelle helicopter. Syrian accounts say
eight F-15s were shot down, ve by MiG-21s and three
by MiG-23MLs.[54][55] Later in 1985, IAF Eagles carried
out Operation Wooden Leg, bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunisia.[56]
Royal Saudi Air Force F-15C pilots reportedly shot down
two Iranian Air Force F-4E Phantom IIs in a skirmish on
5 June 1984.[57][58]
Anti-satellite trials
The ASM-135 missile was designed to be a stando antisatellite (ASAT) weapon, with the F-15 acting as a rst
stage. The Soviet Union could correlate a U.S. rocket
launch with a spy satellite loss, but an F-15 carrying an
ASAT would blend in among hundreds of F-15 ights.
From January 1984 to September 1986, two F-15As were
used as launch platforms for the ASAT missile. The F15As were modied to carry one ASM-135 on the centerline station with extra equipment within a special centerline pylon.[59][60] The launch aircraft executed a Mach
1.22, 3.8 g climb at 65 to release the ASAT missile at an
altitude of 38,100 ft (11,600 m).[61][62] The ight computer was updated to control the zoom-climb and missile
release.
The third test ight involved a retired P78-1 solar observatory satellite in a 345-mile (555 km) orbit, which
was destroyed by kinetic energy.[61] The pilot, USAF Major Wilbert D. Doug Pearson, became the only pilot to
destroy a satellite.[62] The ASAT program involved ve
test launches. The program was ocially terminated in
1988.[59][62]
418

storm.[67] According to the Saudis, one F-15C was lost
to a crash during the Gulf War in 1991.[68] According
to IRAF claims this ghter was part of two F-15Cs that
engaged two Iraqi MiG-25PDs, and was hit by an R-40
missile before crashing.[69]
A Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 approaches a KC-135 for refueling

during Operation Desert Shield.
They have since been deployed to support Operation

Southern Watch, the patrolling of the No-Fly Zone in
Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in
ASM-135 ASAT test launch from F-15A 76-0084 in 1985
support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments. In 1994, two U.S. Army
Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawks were mistakenly downed
35.3.2 Gulf War and aftermath
by USAF F-15Cs in northern Iraq in a friendly re inci[70]
USAF F-15Cs shot down four Yugoslav MiGThe USAF began deploying F-15C, D and E model air- dent.
29s
using
AIM-120 missiles during NATOs 1999 intercraft to the Persian Gulf region in August 1990 for Opervention
in
Kosovo, Operation Allied Force.[71]
ations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. During Gulf War
combat against Iraqi forces, the F-15 accounted for 36
of the 39 air-to-air victories by the U.S Air Force. Iraq
35.3.3 Structural defects
has conrmed the loss of 23 of its aircraft in air-to-air
[63]
combat.
The F-15C and D ghters were used in the
air superiority role while F-15E Strike Eagles were used All F-15 aircraft were grounded by the US Air Force after a Missouri Air National Guard F-15C came apart in
in air-to-ground attacks mainly at night, hunting modied
Scud missile launchers and artillery sites using the LAN- ight and crashed on 2 November 2007. The newer F15E eet was later cleared for continued operations. The
TIRN system.[64] According to the USAF, its F-15Cs had
34 conrmed kills of Iraqi aircraft during the 1991 Gulf US Air Force reported on 28 November 2007 that a critical location in the upper longerons on the F-15C model
War, most of them by missile re: ve MiG-29 Fulcrums, two MiG-25 Foxbats, eight MiG-23 Flog- was suspected of causing the failure, causing the fuselage forward of the air intakes, including the cockpit and
gers, two MiG-21 Fishbeds, two Su-25 Frogfoots,
[72]
four Su-22 Fitters, one Su-7, six Mirage F1s, one Il-76 radome, to separate from the airframe.
cargo plane, one Pilatus PC-9 trainer, and two Mi-8 he- F-15A through D-model aircraft were grounded until the
licopters. Air superiority was achieved in the rst three location received more detailed inspections and repairs as
days of the conict; many of the later kills were report- needed.[73] The grounding of F-15s received media attenedly of Iraqi aircraft eeing to Iran, rather than engaging tion as it began to place strains on the nations air defense
U.S. aircraft. A Strike Eagle achieved an aerial kill of eorts.[74] The grounding forced some states to rely on
an Iraqi Mi-8 helicopter with a laser-guided bomb. Two their neighboring states ghters for air defense protecF-15Es were lost to ground re, another was damaged on tion, and Alaska to depend on Canadian Forces' ghter
support.[74]
the ground by a Scud strike on Dhahran air base.[65]
On 11 November 1990, a Saudi air force pilot defected
to Sudan with an F-15C ghter during Operation Desert
Shield. Saudi Arabia paid US$40 million for return
of the aircraft three months later.[66] RSAF F-15s shot
down two Iraqi Mirage F1s during the Operation Desert
On 8 January 2008, the USAF Air Combat Command

(ACC) cleared a portion of its F-15A through D-model
eet for return to ying status. It also recommended a
limited return to ight for units worldwide using the affected models.[75] The accident review board report was
35.4. VARIANTS
419
released on 10 January 2008. The report stated that analysis of the F-15C wreckage determined that the longeron
did not meet drawing specications, which led to fatigue cracks and nally a catastrophic failure of the remaining support structures and breakup of the aircraft in
ight.[76] In a report released on 10 January 2008, nine
other F-15s were identied to have similar problems in
the longeron. As a result of these problems, General
John D. W. Corley stated that the long-term future of
the F-15 is in question.[77] On 15 February 2008, ACC
cleared all its grounded F-15A/B/C/D ghters for ight
pending inspections, engineering reviews and any needed
repairs. ACC also recommended release of other U.S.
F-15A/B/C/D aircraft.[78]
With the retirement of the F-15A and B models, the F15C and D models are being supplemented in U.S. service by the F-22 Raptor. However since F-22 production
has been halted, the F-15 may be in service in current
squadrons much longer than originally thought. As of
2013, regular Air Force F-15C and F-15D ghters are
based overseas with the Pacic Air Forces (PACAF) at
Kadena AB in Japan[86] and with the U.S. Air Forces
in Europe (USAFE) at RAF Lakenheath in the United
Kingdom.[87] Other Regular Air Force F-15s are operated by Air Combat Command as adversary/aggressor
platforms at Nellis AFB, Nevada, and by Air Force Material Command in test and evaluation roles at Edwards
AFB, California and Eglin AFB, Florida. All remaining
combat coded F-15Cs and F-15Ds are operated by the
Air National Guard.
35.3.4
USAF is upgrading 178 F-15C/Ds with the AN/APG63(V)3 AESA radar,[36] and upgrade other F-15s with the
Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System.[37] The Air Force
plans to keep 178 F-15C/Ds along with 224 F-15Es in
service beyond 2025. The F-15E will remain in service
for years to come because of the models primary air-toground role and the lower number of hours on the F-15E
airframes.[6]
Recent service
Indian Air Force (IAF) Su-30MKs, MiG-29s and other

ghters achieved success in air combat exercises against
USAF F-15Cs during Cope India in February 2004.
The USAF and IAF agreed not to use BVR missiles,
AIM-120 AMRAAM and AA-12 Adder respectively, for
the exercise.[79][80][81] Only 18 F-15 aircraft (of all applicable) could use the AIM-120 missile without aid from
other equipment, such as the radar. The Indian Su-30
could not use long-range missiles without the help of
other equipment.[82] During the USAFs Red Flag advanced combat training exercises in 2008, American F15Cs, F-16Cs, and F-22s bested Indian Su-30MKIs; the
Su-30s reportedly operated with their radars in training
mode to keep their signals secret.[83]
In service with all nations the F-15 has an air-to-air combat record of 104 kills to 0 losses as of February 2008.
The F-15s air superiority versions, the A/B/C/D models
have not suered any losses to enemy action.[3][84] Over
half of F-15 kills have been achieved by Israeli Air Force
pilots.
As part of the Air Forces FY 2015 budget, the F-15C

faces cuts or retirement in response to sequestration. Cuts
are principally directed at platforms with single-mission
capabilities. The retirement of some 250 F-15C ghters
would save maintenance and upgrade costs, which could
be redirected to speed procurement of the F-35 Lightning
II. The air-to-air combat role would be taken up preeminently by the F-22 Raptor, while the F-35 would support
it in conjunction with the Raptor. Even if this option is
pursued, at least part of the F-15C eet is likely to be
preserved.[88][89] The Air Forces FY 2015 budget proposal would reduce the F-15C eet by 51 aircraft.[90]
35.4 Variants
On 16 September 2009, the last F-15A, an Oregon Air

National Guard aircraft, was retired marking the end of
service for the F-15A and F-15B models in the United 35.4.1
States.[85]
Basic models
USAF F-15C res an AIM-7 Sparrow in 2005
A USAF F-15C ying over Fresno, California, in 2013
F-15A Single-seat all-weather air-superiority ghter ver-
420

F-15E Strike Eagle See McDonnell Douglas F-15E
Strike Eagle for F-15E, F-15I, F-15S, F-15K, F15SG, and other F-15E-based variants.
F-15SE Silent Eagle See Boeing F-15SE Silent Eagle
for proposed F-15E variant with a reduced radar signature.
35.4.2 Prototypes
F-15A 71-0280, the rst prototype

A view of an F-15E cockpit from an aerial refueling tanker
Twelve prototypes were built and used for trials by the

F-15 Joint Test Force at Edwards Air Force Base using
McDonnell Douglas and United States Air Force person[91]
sion, 384 built 197279.
nel. Most prototypes were later used by NASA for trials
F-15B Two-seat training version, formerly designated and experiments.
TF-15A, 61 built 197279.[91]
F-15A-1, AF Ser. No. 71-0280 Was the rst F-15 to y
F-15C Improved single-seat all-weather air-superiority
on 11 July 1972 from Edwards Air Force Base, it
ghter version, 483 built 197985.[91] The last 43
was used as a trial aircraft for exploring the ight
F-15Cs were upgraded with AN/APG-70 radar and
envelope, general handling and testing the carriage
later the AN/APG-63(V)1 radar.
of external stores.
[91]
F-15D Two-seat training version, 92 built 197985.
F-15A-1, AF Ser. No. 71-0281 The second prototype
rst ew on 26 September 1972 and was used to test
F-15J Single-seat all-weather air-superiority ghter verthe F100 engine.
sion for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force 139 built
under license in Japan by Mitsubishi 198197, two
F-15A-2, AF Ser. No. 71-0282 First ew on 4 Novembuilt in St. Louis.[91]
ber 1972 and was used to test the APG-62 radar and
avionics.
F-15DJ Two-seat training version for the Japan Air SelfDefense Force. 12 built in St. Louis, and 25 built
F-15A-2, AF Ser. No. 71-0283 First ew on 13 Janunder license in Japan by Mitsubishi during 1981
uary 1973 and was used as a structural test aircraft,
[91]
97.
it was the rst aircraft to have the smaller wingtips
to clear a severe buet problem found on earlier airF-15N Sea Eagle The F-15N was a carrier-capable
craft.
variant proposed in the early 1970s to the U.S.
Navy as an alternative to the heavier and, at the F-15A-2, AF Ser. No. 71-0284 First ew on 7 March
time, considered as riskier technology program,
1973 it was used for armament development and was
the Grumman F-14 Tomcat. The F-15N-PHX was
the rst aircraft tted with an internal cannon.
another proposed naval version capable of carrying
the AIM-54 Phoenix missile. These featured fold- F-15A-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0285 First ew on 23 May
ing wingtips, reinforced landing gear and a stronger
1973 and was used to test the missile re control
tailhook for shipboard operation.[92]
system and other avionics.
35.5. OPERATORS
421
F-15A-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0286 First ew on 14 June F-15 STOL/MTD (AF Ser. No. 71-0290) The rst F1973 and was used for armament trials and testing
15B was converted into a short takeo and landexternal fuel stores.
ing, maneuver technology demonstrator aircraft.[93]
In the late 1980s it received canard ight surF-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0287 First ew on 25 August
faces in addition to its usual horizontal tail, along
1973 and was used for spin recovery, angle of attack
with square thrust-vectoring nozzles. It was used
and fuel system testing, it was tted with an antias a short-takeo/maneuver-technology (SMTD)
spin recovery parachute. The aircraft was loaned to
demonstrator.[94]
NASA from 1976 for engine development trials.
F-15 ACTIVE (AF Ser. No. 71-0290) The
F-15
S/MTD
was
later
converted
into
an
advanced
ight
F-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0288 First ew on 20 Octocontrol technology research aircraft with thrust
ber 1973 and was used to test integrated aircraft and
vectoring nozzles.[93]
engine performance, it was later used by McDonnell
Douglas as a test aircraft in the 1990s.
F-15 IFCS (AF Ser. No. 71-0290) The F-15 ACTIVE

was then converted into an intelligent ight conF-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0289 First ew on 30 Jantrol systems research aircraft. F-15B 71-0290 was
uary 1974 and was used for trials on the radar, avionthe oldest F-15 still ying when retired in January
ics and electronic warfare systems.
2009.[94]
F-15B-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0290 The rst two-seat prototype originally designated the TF-15A, it rst ew F-15 MANX Concept name for a tailless variant of the
F-15 ACTIVE, but the NASA ACTIVE experimenon 7 July 1973.
tal aircraft was never modied to be tailless.
F-15B-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0291 First ew on 18 Octo- F-15 Flight Research Facility (AF Ser. No. 71-0281
ber 1973 as a TF-15A and used as a test and demon- and AF Ser. No. 71-0287)
Two F-15A aircraft were acquired in 1976 for use
stration aircraft. In 1976 it made an overseas sales
by NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center for
tour painted in markings to celebrate the bicentenumerous experiments such as: Highly Integrated
nary of the United States.
Digital Electronic Control (HiDEC), Adaptive
Engine Control System (ADECS), Self-Repairing
and Self-Diagnostic Flight Control System (SR35.4.3 Research and test
FCS) and Propulsion Controlled Aircraft System
(PCA).[95] 71-0281, the second ight-test F-15A,
was returned to the Air Force and became a static
display at Langley AFB in 1983.
F-15B Research Testbed (AF Ser. No. 74-0141)
Acquired in 1993, it was an F-15B modied and
used by NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center
for ight tests.[96]
35.5 Operators
NASA F-15B Research Testbed, aircraft No. 836 (AF Ser. No.
74-0141). Note the Quiet Spike adaption to reduce and control
sonic booms
F-15 Streak Eagle (AF Ser. No.72-0119) One

stripped of most avionics and unpainted F15A, demonstrated the ghters acceleration
broke eight time-to-climb world records between
16 January and 1 February 1975 at Grand Forks
AFB, ND. It was delivered to the National Museum
of the United States Air Force in December 1980.[2]
Current operators of the F-15 in cyan, F-15E in red, both in dark

blue
Main article: List of F-15 operators

This article is about F-15A, B, C, and D variants. For
operators of F-15E, F-15I, F-15S, F-15K, F-15SG, and
422
other F-15E-based variants, see McDonnell Douglas

F-15E Strike Eagle.
Israel
Israeli Air Force has operated F-15s since 1977.

The IAF has 43 F-15A/B/C/D (20 F-15A, 6 F-15B,
11 F-15C, and 6 F-15D) aircraft in service as of January 2011.[97]
USA
United States Air Force operates 254 F-15C/D aircraft (114 Regular Air Force and 140 Air National
Guard) as of September 2010.[98][99]
NASA used F-15 #835 to test Highly Integrated
Digital Engine Control system (HIDEC) at Edwards
AFB in 1988.[100][101]
Two Israeli Air Force F-15I Ra'am from the 69th Squadron
Japan
Two F-15s over the coast of Oregon
Main article: List of F-15 losses

Japan Air Self-Defense Force operates Mitsubishi
F-15J and F-15DJ ghters.
A total of 162 F-15s have been lost to non-combat causes.
However, the F-15 aircraft is very reliable (1 loss per
50,000 ight hours).[102][103]
Japan Air Self Defense Force F-15DJ and F-15J of the 306nd
TFS
Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force has 70 F-15C/D (49 F-15C

and 21 F-15D) Eagles in operation as of January
2011.[97]
On 1 May 1983, an Israeli Air Force F-15D collided

with a Douglas A-4 Skyhawk during training. Unknown to pilot Zivi Nedivi and his copilot, the right
wing was sheared o roughly two feet (60 cm) from
the fuselage. The A-4 disintegrated and its pilot
safely ejected, while the F-15 nosed down and entered a violent roll. Zivi decided to attempt recovery
and engaged afterburner to increase speed. He was
able to prevent stalling and maintain control due to
the lift generated by the large horizontal surface area
of the fuselage, the stabilators, and remaining wing
areas. The F-15 landed at twice the normal speed
to maintain the necessary descent and its tailhook
was torn o during the landing. Zivi managed to
bring his F-15 to a stop approximately 20 ft (6 m)
from the end of the runway. He was later quoted as
saying Its highly likely that if I would have seen it
clearly, I would have ejected..."; leaking fuel along
the wing had obstructed visibility of the wing itself.
The aircraft was repaired and saw further combat
service.[104][105][106]
35.7. SPECIFICATIONS (F-15C)
423
On 19 March 1990, an F-15 from the 3rd Wing sta On 27 August 2014, an F-15C operated by the 104th
tioned at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska accidentally red
Fighter Wing of the Massachusetts Air National
an AIM-9M Sidewinder missile at another F-15.
Guard crashed in Virginia during a ferry ight,[119]
The damaged aircraft was able to make an emerkilling the pilot.[120]
gency landing; it was subsequently repaired and returned to service.[107]
For accidents involving F-15E and related variants, see
On 22 November 1995, during air-intercept train- List of F-15 losses.
ing over the Sea of Japan, a Japanese F-15J own by
Lt. Tatsumi Higuchi was shot down by an AIM-9L
Sidewinder missile inadvertently red by his wingman. The pilot ejected safely. Both F-15Js involved were from JASDF 303rd Squadron, Komatsu
AFB.[108]
35.7 Specications (F-15C)
On 26 March 2001, two US Air Force F-15Cs

crashed near the summit of Ben Macdui in the
Cairngorms during a low ying training exercise
over the Scottish Highlands.[109] Both Lieutenant
Colonel Kenneth John Hyvonen and Captain Kirk
Jones died in the accident, which resulted in a court
martial for an RAF air trac controller, who was
later found not guilty.[110][111]
On 2 November 2007, a 27-year-old F-15C (AF
Ser. No. 80-0034) of the 131st Fighter Wing,
Missouri Air National Guard), crashed following
an in-ight breakup due to structural failure during combat training near St. Louis, Missouri. The
pilot, Major Stephen W. Stilwell, ejected but suffered serious injuries. On 3 November 2007, all
non-mission critical F-15s were grounded pending
the crash investigations outcome.[112][113] By 13
November 2007, over 1,100 F-15s were grounded
worldwide after Israel, Japan and Saudi Arabia
grounded their aircraft as well.[114] F-15Es were
cleared on 15 November 2007 pending individual inspections.[115] On 8 January 2008, the USAF
cleared 60 percent of the F-15A/B/C/D eet to
y.[75] On 10 January 2008, the accident review
board released its report, which attributed the crash
to the longeron not meeting specications.[76] On
15 February 2008, the Air Force cleared all F15s for ight, pending inspections and any needed
repairs.[78] In March 2008, Stilwell led a lawsuit Front view of an F-15C. Note the conformal FAST PACK fuel
tanks on the trailers
against Boeing.[116]
On 20 February 2008, two F-15Cs from the 58th
Fighter Squadron, 33rd Fighter Wing at Eglin AFB,
Florida, own by 1st Lt Ali Jivanjee and Capt
Tucker Hamilton collided over the Gulf of Mexico during a training mission. Both pilots ejected
and were rescued, but one died later from his
injuries.[117] The accident investigation report released 25 August 2008 found that the accident was
the result of pilot error. Both pilots failed to clear
their ight paths and anticipate their impending
high-aspect, midair impact according to Brig Gen
Joseph Reynes Jr., the leader of the investigation
team.[118]
Data from USAF fact sheet,[121] Janes All the Worlds

Aircraft,[122] Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle[123]
Crew: 1: pilot
Length: 63 ft 9 in (19.43 m)
424

Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan 6barreled Gatling cannon, 940 rounds
Hardpoints: Total 11 (not including CFTs): two
under-wing (each with additional two missile launch
rails), four under-fuselage (for semi-recessed carriage of AIM-7 Sparrows) and a single centerline
pylon station, optional fuselage pylons (which may
include conformal fuel tanks, known initially as Fuel
And Sensor Tactical (FAST) pack for use on the C
model) with a capacity of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) and
provisions to carry combinations of:
Missiles:
Diagram of the F-15A Eagles weapon loadout
4 AIM-7 Sparrow
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder
8 AIM-120 AMRAAM
Airfoil: NACA 64A006.6 root, NACA 64A203 tip

Bombs:

Powerplant: 2 Pratt & Whitney F100100 or
220 afterburning turbofans
Dry thrust: 14,590 lbf[124] (64.9 kN) each
Mark 82
Mark 84
GBU-10
GBU-31
Other:
Thrust with afterburner: 23,770 lbf for

220[124] (105.7 kN for 220) each
up to 3 600 US gallons (2,300 L) external drop tanks for ferry ight or extended
range/loitering time.
MXU-648 Cargo/Travel Pod to carry
personal belongings, and small pieces of
maintenance equipment.[91]
Fuel capacity: 13,455 lb (6,100 kg) internal[125]

Performance
Maximum speed:
Avionics
High altitude: Mach 2.5+ (1,650+ mph,
2,665+ km/h)
Low altitude: Mach 1.2 (900 mph, 1,450
km/h)
Combat radius: 1,061 nmi (1,222 mi, 1,967 km)
for interdiction mission
Ferry range: 3,450 mi (3,000 nmi, 5,550 km) with
conformal fuel tanks and three external fuel tanks
Rate of climb: >50,000 ft/min (254 m/s)
Thrust/weight: 1.07 (220)
Maximum design g-load: 9 g
Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System[126]

Radar:
Raytheon AN/APG-63
70[127][N 2] or
or
AN/APG-
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)1 or
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) or
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)3 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA)[126][N 3]
Countermeasures:
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems
AN/ALQ-131 electronic countermeasures
pod[128]
425
Hazeltine
AN/APX-76
or
Raytheon 35.8.5
AN/APX-119 Identify Friend/Foe (IFF)
F-15A
interrogator[129]
Magnavox AN/ALQ-128 Electronic Warfare
Warning Set (EWWS) part of Tactical Electronic Warfare Systems (TEWS)[128]
Loral AN/ALR-56 Radar warning receivers
(RWR) part of TEWS[130]
74-0131 Wings of Liberty Memorial Park, RAF

Lakenheath.[138]
76-0020 American Air Museum, Duxford.[139]
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems 35.8.6

ALQ-135 Internal Countermeasures System
(ICS) part of TEWS[128]
F-15A
Marconi AN/ALE-45 Cha/Flares dispenser
system part of TEWS[131]
United Kingdom
United States
71-0280 Lackland AFB, Texas.[140]

71-0281 Langley AFB, Virginia.[141]
71-0283 Defense Supply Center Richmond,

Richmond, Virginia.[142]
Although the F-15 continues to be a front-line ghter, a

number of older USAF and IAF models have been retired, with several placed on outdoor display or in museums. These include:
71-0285 USAF Personnel Recruiting Oce, St.

Louis, Missouri.[143]
35.8.1
72-0119 Streak Eagle in storage at the National

Museum of the United States Air Force, WrightPatterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio.[145]
Germany
F-15A
74-0085 Spangdahlem AB.
[132]
74-0109 Auto Technik Museum, Speyer.[133]
35.8.2
Netherlands
74-0083 (Marked as 77-0132) Militaire Luchtvaart Museum, Kamp Zeist.[134]
Japan
F-15A
73-0086 Louisiana Military Museum, Jackson

Barracks, New Orleans, Louisiana.[147]
73-0099 (Marked as 77-0099) Robins AFB,
Warner Robins, Georgia.[148]
74-0084 Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum,

Anchorage, Alaska.[150]
74-0095 Tyndall AFB, Panama City, Florida.[151]
74-0114 Mountain Home AFB, Idaho.[152]
74-0117 Langley AFB, Virginia.[153]
74-0118 Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to
Davis-Monthan AFB, Tucson, Arizona.[154]
74-0088 Kadena AB.[135]
35.8.4

Warner Robins, Georgia.[146]
74-0081 Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.[149]
F-15A
35.8.3
71-0286 Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum,

Rantoul, Illinois.[144]
Israel
F-15A
73-0098 Israeli Air Museum, Hatzerim.[136]
73-0107 gate guard at Tel Nof AB.[137]
74-0119 Castle Air Museum, Atwater, California.[155]

AFB, Florida.[156]
75-0026 National Warplane Museum, Elmira
Corning Regional Airport, New York.[157]
75-0045 USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park,
Mobile, Alabama.[158]
426
76-0008 March Field Air Museum at March ARB, F-15B

Riverside, California.[159]
73-0108 Luke AFB, Arizona.[180]
76-0009 Kingsley Field Air National Guard Base,
73-0114 Air Force Flight Test Center Museum,
Klamath Falls, Oregon.[160]
Edwards AFB, California.[181]
76-0014 Evergreen Aviation Museum,
75-0084 On display at the Russell Military MuMcMinnville, Oregon.[161]
seum located in Russell, Illinois.
76-0018 Hickam Field, Joint Base Pearl Harbor 77-0161 Seymour Johnson AFB, Goldsboro,
Hickam, Oahu, Hawaii.[162]
North Carolina.[182]
76-0024 Peterson Air and Space Museum,
Peterson AFB, Colorado.[163]
76-0027 National Museum of the United

States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton,
Main article: F-15 Eagle in ction
Ohio.[164]
76-0037 Holloman AFB, New Mexico.[165]
The F-15 was the subject of the IMAX movie Fighter

76-0040 USAF Academy, Colorado Springs, Col- Pilot: Operation Red Flag, about the RED FLAG exercises. In Tom Clancys nonction book, Fighter Wing
orado.[166]
(1995), a detailed analysis of the Air Forces premier
76-0048 McChord Air Museum, McChord AFB, ghter aircraft, the F-15 Eagle and its capabilities are
Washington.[167]
showcased.[183]
76-0063 Pacic Aviation Museum, Ford Island, The F-15 has also been a popular subject as a toy, and
a ctional likeness of an aircraft similar to the F-15 has
Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii.[168]
been used in cartoons, books, video games, animated
76-0066 Portland Air National Guard Base, television series, and animated lms. The F-15 was
Oregon.[169]
mentioned in a veterans old war story in the 2005 song
[184]
76-0076 (Marked as 33rd Fighter Wing F-15C 85- Something to Be Proud Of by Montgomery Gentry.
0125) roadside park, DeBary, Florida.[170]
76-0080 Jacksonville Air National Guard Base,

Florida.[171]
76-0088 St. Louis Air National Guard Station,
Lambert Field, Missouri.[172]
76-0108 Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex,
Texas.[173]
76-0110 gate guard, Mountain Home AFB,
Idaho.[174]
77-0068 Arnold AFB, Manchester,
nessee.[175]
Ten-

Utah.[176]
77-0102 Pacic Coast Air Museum, Charles M.
Schulz-Sonoma County Airport, Santa Rosa, California. One of two Massachusetts Air National
Guard 102d Fighter Wing aircraft scrambled in rst
response to terrorist air attacks on 11 September
2001.[177]
77-0146 Veterans Park, Callaway, Florida.[178]
77-0150 Yanks Air Museum, Chino, California.[179]
35.10 See also

Related development
McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle
McDonnell Douglas F-15 STOL/MTD
Boeing F-15SE Silent Eagle
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
Mikoyan MiG-29M
Panavia Tornado ADV
Sukhoi Su-27/Shenyang J-11
Dassault Mirage 4000
Related lists
35.11. REFERENCES
35.11 References
Notes
427
[20] Bowman 1980, p. 193.

[21] Neufeld 2007, p. 48.
[22] Davies and Dildy 2007, p. 12.
[1] F-X should be read as Fighter, Unknown designation number, but is often translated as FighterExperimental.
[23] Jenkins 1998, p. 10.

[24] Neufeld 2007, p. 52.
[2] Although several F-15C aircraft were produced with

APG-70 radar, all have been retrotted to the AN/APG63(V)1 conguration.
[25] Jenkins 1998, pp. 911.
[3] Both active AF and ANG F-15Cs will receive another (up
to) 48 V3 units between 20092015, over the existing 19
aircraft.
[27] Spick 2000, pp. 130131.
Citations
[28] Chapter 5: Return of the Air Superiority Fighter. A

Half Century of U.S. Fighter Aircraft R&D. Santa Monica, California: RAND, 1998. ISBN 0-8330-2595-3.
[29] Jenkins 2000, pp. 18.

[30] Jenkins 1998, pp. 3334.
[2] McDonnell Douglas F-15 Streak Eagle fact sheet. National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved:
24 September 2010.
[3] Davies and Dildy 2007, inside cover.
[31] Green and Swanborough 1998, p. 371.

[33] Davies and Dildy 2007, pp. 16165.
[4] Spick 2000, p. 127.

[34] Davies 2003, pp. 1516, 25, 3132.
[5] PS 940 F-15 Armament Handbook, Oct-1979.
scribd.com. Retrieved: 29 November 2012.
Air Force magazine, March 2007.
[7] South Korean ghter order: AF backs F-35. Aviationweek.com. Retrieved: 26 August 2013.
[8] Neufeld 2007, p. 42.
[9] Neufeld 2007, p. 43.
[10] Neufeld 2007, p. 44.
[11] Munzenmaier, Walter. "'LTV A-7D/K Corsair II: The
'SLUF' in USAF and USANG Service 1968-1993, Famous Aircraft of the USAF and USAG, Volume 1.

[36] Boeing Awarded $70 Million Contract for Enhanced F15C Radar. Boeing, 9 October 2007. Retrieved: 1
September 2011.
[37] Air Force will get new bomber, ppgrades to ghters.
Spacewar.com, 5 October 2006. Retrieved: 1 September
2011.
[38] Lockheed Martin Developing System Requirements for
F-15C IRST Program. Lockheed Martin. Retrieved: 30
December 2010
[39] Trimble, Stephen. US Air Force looks to dramatically extend F-15 service life. Flightglobal, 23 November
2011.
[12] Jenkins 1998, pp. 57.

[13] Neufeld 2007, p. 46.
[40] Northrop Grumman EPAWSS. Northrop Grumman,

2013.
[14] Davies 2002, pp. 911.
[41] Eden and Moeng 2002, p. 944.
[15] Michael Gorn, Technology and the Air Force: A Retrospective Assessment, pp. 44-47. See also Harnessing
the genie: science and technology forecasting for the Air
Force.
[16] Neufeld 2007, p. 46-47.

[17] Neufeld 2007, p. 47.
[18] Neufeld 2007, p. 49.
[19] In July 1967 at Domodedovo aireld near Moscow, the
Soviet Union unveiled a new generation of combat aircraft [codenamed] Foxbat by NATO": Development
in Modern Fighting Aircraft, 1983
[43] Gunston 1986, p. 194.

[44] Huenecke 1987, pp. 22730.
[45] Jenkins 1998, pp. 97104.
[46] Huenecke 1987, pp. 232236.
[47] Lambert 1993, p. 521.
[48] Jenkins 1998, p. 111.
[49] Lambert 1993, p. 523.
428
[50] 18 APG-63(V)2. Fas.org, 8 December 1999.

trieved: 30 December 2010.
Re-
[51] Scutts 1989, p. 47.

[52] {An Eagle evolves. Boeing, January 2004. Rtrieved: 24
September 2010.
[53] Aviatciya i vremya, Vladimir Iliyn, 2, 2004
[75] Air Combat Command clears selected F-15s for ight.

Air Force, 9 January 2008. Retrieved: 1 September 2011.
[76] F-15 Eagle accident report released. US Air Force, 10
January 2008. Retrieved: 26 January 2008.
[77] Air Force leaders discuss F-15 accident, future. U.S. Air
Force, 10 January 2008. Retrieved: 26 January 2008.
[54] Israeli air-to-air victories since 1974. ACIG.org, 24

September 2003. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[78] ACC issues latest release from stand down for F-15s. US
Air Force 15 February 2008.
[55] Poteri VVS Israilya v Livane. Granovsky, Oleg, 2003
[79] Fulghum, David A. USAF explains 'Cope India' Results.

Aviation Week & Space Technology, 7 October 2004
[56] McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle air superiority ghter. aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[80] Cope India brings out ghter ops. US Air Force 24

February 2004
[57] Smith, William E.Pushing the Saudis too far. Time, 18

June 1984. Retrieved: 26 January 2008.
[81] General suggests U.S. dominance of skies may wane.

USA Today 23 June 2004.
[58] Halloran, Richard. 2 Iranian ghters reported downed by

Saudi Air Force. The New York Times, 6 June 1984, p.
1. Retrieved: 26 January 2008.
[82] http://www.raytheon.com/
[59] Jenkins 1998, p. 31.

[60] F-15A 76-0084. US Air Force. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[61] Karambelas, Gregory and Sven Grahn, eds. The F-15
ASAT story. svengrahn.pp.se. Retrieved: 30 December
2010.
[62] Grier, Peter. The ying tomato can. Air Force magazine,
February 2009. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[63] The First Night by Cooper, Sadik (IAPR, Vol.26)
[64] Davies 2002, pp. 3140.
[65] 1st. Fighter Wing timeline. istghter.com Retrieved: 24
September 2010.
[66] Defection of Saudi F-15 Fighter Pilot Damaging to US
War Eort, Defence and Foreign Aairs Weekly, 23 December 1990
[83] Fornof, USAF Col. Terrence. Red Flag 20084: Lecture by USAF Col. Terrence Fornof. vayusena.indianmilitaryhistory.org 2008.
Retrieved: 24
September 2010.
[84] Correll, John. The Reformers. Air Force Magazine,
February 2008, Vol. 91 Number 2, p. 44.
[85] Hughel, Sta Sgt. John. Final F-15A model retired from
Oregon Guard. ng.mil, 13 October 2009. Retrieved: 26
August 2011.
[86] 18th Operations Group. Kadena Air Base, 11 September
[87] 48th Operations Group. RAF Lakenheath website, 1 August 2013. Retrieved: 2 February 2014.
[88] USAF weighs scrapping KC-10, A-10 eets. Defensenews.com. Retrieved: 15 September 2013.
[89] Sequester may force USAF to retire entire eets of aircraft. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved: 17 September 2013.
[67] Peeters, Sander. Dierent Middle Eastern air-to-air victories since 1964. acig.info. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
[90] Pentagon proposes buying fewer ghters, unmanned aircraft in FY2015 budget. Flightglobal.com, 4 March 2014.
[68] Cikhart, Jakub. Damaged and lost allied planes and helos. dstorm.eu. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
[91] Davies 2002
[69] Cooper, Tom. Operation Samarrah, October 2010.

[70] Jenkins 1998, p. 47.
[71] U.S. Air Force Historical Research Agency.
[72] Air Force World, Animated image (frames from an animated image by Boeing recreating the breakup.) Air Force
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[92] Jenkins 1998, pp. 7172.

[93] Jenkins 1998, pp. 6570.
[94] Sonic Solutions. Aviation Week & Space Technology(online version, subscription required), 5 January
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[95] F-15 Flight Research Facility fact sheet. Dryden Flight
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[73] F-15 A-D models ordered to stand down for additional

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[74] Lindlaw, Scott (for Associated Press). F-15 grounding

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[122] Lambert 1993, p. 522.
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[114] Warwick, Graham.
F-15 operators follow USAF [135] F-15 Eagle/74-0088.
grounding after crash. Flight International, 14 November
26 March 2013.
[136] F-15 Eagle/73-0098.
[115] Wicke, Tech. Sgt. Russell. Ocials begin to clear F26 March 2013.
15Es to full-mission status. US Air Force, 15 November
[137] F-15 Eagle/73-0107.
26 March 2013.
[116] Lawsuit. CNN Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[138] F-15 Eagle/74-0131.
[117] White, Josh. 2 F-15 Jets Crash: 1 Pilot Dies. The Wash26 March 2013.
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[139] F-15 Eagle/76-0020.
[118] Sirak, Michael with Marc Schanz. Airman dies: Pilot
26 March 2013.
error blamed. Air Force Magazine, Volume 91, Number
11, November 2008, p. 20.
[140] F-15 Eagle/71-0280.
26 March 2013.
[119] Press Release: 104th Fighter Wing aircraft crash over
Shenandoah Valley Virginia. Air National Guard, 27 Au- [141] F-15 Eagle/71-0281.
gust 2014.
26 March 2013.
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[142] F-15 Eagle/71-0283. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved: [166] F-15 Eagle/76-0040. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[143] F-15 Eagle/71-0285. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved: [167] F-15 Eagle/76-0048. McChord Air Museum. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[144] F-15 Eagle/71-0286. Octave Chanute Aerospace Mu- [168] F-15 Eagle/76-0063. Pacic Aviation Museum. Reseum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
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[145] F-15 Eagle/72-0119. warbirdregistry.org Retrieved: 26 [169] F-15 Eagle/76-0066. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
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26 March 2013.
[146] F-15 Eagle/73-0085. Museum of Aviation. Retrieved: [170] F-15 Eagle/76-0076. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
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26 March 2013.
[147] F-15 Eagle/73-0086. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved: [171] F-15 Eagle/76-0080. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
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[150] F-15 Eagle/74-0084. Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum.
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[176] F-15 Eagle/77-0090. Hill Aerospace Museum. Re26 March 2013.
[153] F-15 Eagle/74-0117. warbirdregistry.org Retrieved: 26
[177] F-15 Eagle/77-0102. Pacic Coast Air Museum. ReMarch 2013.
[154] F-15 Eagle/74-0118. Pima Air & Space Museum. Re[178] F-15 Eagle/77-0146. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
[155] F-15 Eagle/74-0119. Castle Air Museum. Retrieved: 26
[179] F-15 Eagle/77-0150. Yanks Air Museum. Retrieved: 26
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March 2013.
[156] F-15 Eagle/74-0124. Air Force Armament Museum. Re[180] F-15 Eagle/73-0108. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
[157] F-15 Eagle/75-0026. National Warplane Museum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[158] F-15 Eagle/75-0045. USS Alabama Battleship Memorial
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26 March 2013.
[159] F-15 Eagle/76-0008. March Field Air Museum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
[183] Clancy, Tom. Fighter Wing: A Guided Tour of an Air
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[161] F-15 Eagle/76-0014. Evergreen Aviation Museum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
[162] F-15 Eagle/76-0018. Hickam Field.
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[184] Something To Be Proud Of: Lyrics. Cowboylyrics.com.

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[164] F-15 Eagle/76-0027. National Museum of the USAF.

Aloni, Shlomo. Israeli F-15 Eagle Units in Combat

(Osprey Combat Aircraft #67). Oxford, UK: Osprey
Publishing Limited, 2006. ISBN 978-1-84603-0475.

26 March 2013.
Bowman, Martin W. US Military Aircraft. London:

Bison Books, 1980. ISBN 0-89009-292-3.
[163] F-15 Eagle/76-0024. Peterson Air and Space Museum.


Davies, Steve. Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle, AllWeather Attack Aircraft. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1-84037-378-4.
Davies, Steve. Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and
Strike Eagle. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd.,
2002. ISBN 1-84037-377-6.
Davies, Steve. F-15C/E Eagle Units of operation
Iraqi Freedom (Osprey Combat Aircraft #47). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004. ISBN
978-1-84176-802-1.
Davies, Steve and Doug Dildy. F-15 Eagle Engaged,
The Worlds Most Successful Jet Fighter. Oxford,
UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2007. ISBN 9781-84603-169-4.
Eden, Paul and Soph Moeng, eds. The Complete
Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. London: Amber
Books Ltd., 2002. ISBN 0-7607-3432-1.
Gething, Michael J. F-15 Eagle (Modern Fighting
Aircraft). New York: Arco, 1983. ISBN 0-66805902-8.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The
Complete Book of Fighters. New York: Barnes &
Noble Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-7607-0904-1.
Gunston, Bill. American Warplanes. New York:
Crescent Books. 1986. ISBN 0-517-61351-4.
Huenecke, Klaus. Modern Combat Aircraft Design.
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ISBN 0-87021-426-8.
431

Braybrook, Roy. F-15 Eagle. London: Osprey
Aerospace, 1991. ISBN 1-85532-149-1.
Crickmore, Paul. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
(Classic Warplanes series). New York: Smithmark
Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8317-1408-5.
Drendel, Lou. Eagle (Modern Military Aircraft Series). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1985. ISBN 0-8974-7271-3.
Drendel, Lou and Don Carson. F-15 Eagle in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1976. ISBN 0-89747-023-0.
Fitzsimons, Bernard. Modern Fighting Aircraft, F15 Eagle. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1983.
ISBN 0-86101-182-1.
Gething, Michael J. and Paul Crickmore. F-15
(Combat Aircraft series). New York: Crescent
Books, 1992. ISBN 0-517-06734-X.
Kinzey, Bert. The F-15 Eagle in Detail & Scale (Part
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1978. ISBN 0-8168-5028-3.
Rininger, Tyson V. F-15 Eagle at War. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2009. ISBN 978-07603-3350-1.

F-15 Eagle USAF Fact Sheet

Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, pp. 18.
ISBN 0-07-134696-1.
F-15 Eagle history page on Boeing.com
Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Hinckley, UK:
F-15 Eagle in service with Israel
Lambert, Mark, ed. Janes All the Worlds Aircraft

199394. Alexandria, Virginia: Janes Information
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The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle page on Vectorsite.net
Neufeld, Jacob, The F-15 Eagle Origins and Development 1964- 1972, Air Power History, Spring
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Scutts, Jerry. Supersonic Aircraft of USAF. New
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Spick, Mike, ed. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2000. ISBN 07603-0893-4.
McDonnell Douglas F-15A, and F-15C on USAF

National Museum web site
Chapter 36
McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle

For the game, see F-15 Strike Eagle (video game).
ther F-111Fs. TAWRS recommended the F-15E as the

USAFs future strike platform.[8] In 1979, McDonnell
Douglas and Hughes began a close collaboration on the
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15E Strike
[9]
Eagle is an American all-weather multirole strike development of the F-15Es air-to-ground capabilities.
ghter,[3] derived from the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Ea- To assist in the F-15Es development, McDonnell Dougle. The F-15E was designed in the 1980s for long- glas modied the second TF-15A prototype, serial numrange, high speed interdiction without relying on escort ber 71-0291, as a demonstrator. The aircraft, known as
or electronic-warfare aircraft. United States Air Force the Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator, rst ew
(USAF) F-15E Strike Eagles can be distinguished from on 8 July 1980.[8] It was previously used to trial conformal
other U.S. Eagle variants by darker aircraft camouage fuel tanks (CFT), initially designed for the F-15 under the
and conformal fuel tanks mounted along the engine intake designation FAST Pack, with FAST standing for Fuel
and Sensor, Tactical.[8] It was subsequently tted with a
ramps.
to allow the inThe Strike Eagle has been deployed for military oper- Pave Tack laser designator targeting pod
[10]
dependent
delivery
of
guided
bombs.
The
demonstraations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Libya, among others.
[11]
tor
was
displayed
at
the
1980
Farnborough
Airshow.
During these operations the F-15E has carried out deep
strikes against high-value targets, combat air patrols, and
provided close air support for coalition troops. It has also
36.1.2
been exported to several countries.
36.1 Development
36.1.1
Origins
The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle had been introduced

by the United States Air Force (USAF) as a replacement for its eet of McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom
IIs. However, unlike the F-4, the F-15 was strictly designed for the air-superiority mission with little consideration for a ground-attack role; the F-15 Special Project Ofce opposed the idea of F-15s performing the interdiction
mission, giving rise to the phrase Not a pound for air
to ground.[4] In service, the F-15 was a very successful ghter, with over 100 aerial combat victories and no
losses in air-to-air combat.[5][6]
Despite a lack of ocial interest, McDonnell Douglas
quietly worked on an F-15-derived interdictor ghter.
The company envisaged the aircraft as a replacement for
the General Dynamics F-111 and the remaining F-4s, as
well as to augment the existing F-15s.[7] In 1978, the
USAF initiated the Tactical All-Weather Requirement
Study (TAWRS) which looked at McDonnell Douglass
proposal and other options such as the purchase of fur-
Enhanced Tactical Fighter
In March 1981, the USAF announced the Enhanced Tactical Fighter (ETF) program to procure a replacement for
the F-111. The program was later renamed the Dual-Role
Fighter (DRF) competition. The concept envisioned an
aircraft capable of launching deep air interdiction missions without requiring additional support by ghter escort or jamming.[12] General Dynamics submitted the F16XL, while McDonnell Douglas submitted the F-15E.
The Panavia Tornado was also a candidate, but since the
aircraft lacked a credible air superiority ghter capability, coupled with the fact that it is not American-made, it
was not seriously considered.[11]
The DRF evaluation team, under the direction of
Brigadier General Ronald W. Yates, ran from 1981
through 30 April 1983, during which the F-15E logged
more than 200 ights, demonstrated take o weight
of more than 75,000 pounds (34 t), and validated
sixteen dierent weapons-carrying congurations.[13][14]
McDonnell Douglas, to assist 71-0291 in the evaluation,
added to the program other F-15s, designated 78-0468,
800055 and 81-0063. The single-engine F-16XL was
a promising design which, with its radically redesigned
cranked-delta wing, greatly boosted performance; if selected, the single- and two-seat versions were to be designated F-16E and F-16F, respectively.[14] On 24 February
432
36.1. DEVELOPMENT
433
First production F-15E, 86-0183

The second TF-15A, designated 71-0291, used as an F-15E
demonstrator
Modernization Program.[21] The new radar was named

APG-63(V)4 until it received the APG-82 designation in
2009.[22] The RMP also includes a wideband radome (to
allow the AESA to operate on more radar frequencies),
and improvements to the environment control and electronic warfare systems.[23]
1984, the USAF chose the F-15E; key factors in the decision were the F-15Es lower development costs compared to the F-16XL (US$270 million versus US$470
million), a belief that the F-15E had future growth potential, and possessing twin-engine redundancy.[13][15] The Having a sturdier airframe rated for twice the lifetime of
USAF was initially expected to procure 400 aircraft, a earlier variants, the F-15E is expected to remain in sergure later revised to 392.[14][16]
vice past 2025.[24] As of December 2012, the USAFs
Construction of the rst three F-15Es started in July F-15E eet has an average age of 21 years and an aver1985. The rst of these, 86-0183, made its maiden ight age airframe ying time of 6,000 hours. In 2012, the Air
on 11 December 1986.[13][15] Piloted by Gary Jennings, Force was reportedly considering future options; there is
the aircraft reached a maximum speed of Mach 0.9 and no slated replacement for the F-15E. One choice is the Fan altitude of 40,000 feet (12,000 m) during the 75- 35 Lightning II, set to replace other attack aircraft such as
minute ight.[13] This aircraft had the full F-15E avionics the F-16 Falcon and A-10 Thunderbolt II; a F-35E varisuite and the redesigned front fuselage, but not the aft ant was studied. It would be complex, and thus expensive,
fuselage and the common engine bay.[13] The latter was to add a second seat to the F-35, especially to preserve its
featured on 86-0184, while 86-0185 incorporated all the stealth prole; providing for greater range and payload
changes of the F-15E from the F-15.[13] On 31 March would also be dicult tasks. Alternatively, the role could
1987, the rst ocially completed F-15E made its rst be covered by a combination of ghter and bomber aircraft, such as the planned Long Range Strike Bomber.
ight.[17]
The F-15E may also be replaced by a clean-sheet sixthThe rst production F-15E was delivered to the 405th
generation aircraft design.[25][26]
Tactical Training Wing, Luke Air Force Base, Arizona in
April 1988. The F-15E reached initial operational capability on 30 September 1989 at Seymour Johnson AFB 36.1.4 ALASA
in North Carolina with the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing,
336th Tactical Fighter Squadron.[15] Production contin- On 24 March 2014, Boeing won a $30.6 million conued into the 2000s with 236 produced for the USAF tract from DARPA as part of the Airborne Launch Assist
through 2001.[18]
Space Access (ALASA) program. The goal of the program is to cut the cost of putting microsatellites into orbit
by 66 percent through advances in launch systems. Under
36.1.3 Upgrade programs and replace- the 11-month contract, Boeing will build twelve 24 ft (7.3
ment
m) launch vehicles, each with a payload capability of up
to 100 lb (45 kg). An ALASA vehicle is to be tted under
The F-15E will be upgraded with the Raytheon APG-82 an F-15E, which will climb to 40,000 ft, then be released
Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar af- and re its four engines to reach low-Earth orbit. Awardter 2007, and the rst test radar was delivered to Boe- ing the contract to Boeing would make use of the F-15E
ing in 2010.[19] It combines the processor of the APG-79 as the carriage vehicle, as previous design contracts had
used on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet with the antenna been given to Lockheed Martin to use the F-22 Raptor
of the APG-63(V)3 AESA being tted on the F-15C.[20] and Virgin Galactic to use their SpaceShip Two aircraft.
The new radar upgrade is to be part of the F-15E Radar DARPA had previously insisted they wanted to select an
434
CHAPTER 36. MCDONNELL DOUGLAS F-15E STRIKE EAGLE
aircraft they would not need to modify heavily to carry

and launch the ALASA payload.[27][28]
36.2 Design
The F-15Es deep strike mission is a radical departure
from the original intent of the F-15, since the F-15 was
designed as an air superiority ghter under the mantra
not a pound for air-to-ground.[29] The basic airframe,
however, proved versatile enough to produce a very capable strike ghter. The F-15E, while designed for ground
attack, retains the air-to-air lethality of the F-15, and can
defend itself against enemy aircraft.[30]
The F-15E prototype was a modication of the two-seat
F-15B. The F-15E, despite its origins, includes signicant structural changes and much more powerful engines.
The aft fuselage was designed to incorporate the more
powerful engines with advanced engine bay structures
and doors. The advanced structures utilized Superplastic
forming and diusion bonding (SPF/DB) technologies.
The back seat is equipped for a Weapon Systems Ocer (WSO pronounced 'wizzo') to work the new air-toground avionics. The WSO uses multiple screens to display information from the radar, electronic warfare, or
Thermographic cameras, monitor aircraft or weapons status and possible threats, select targets, and use an electronic moving map to navigate. Two hand controls are
used to select new displays and to rene targeting information. Displays can be moved from one screen to another, chosen from a menu of display options. Unlike
earlier two-place jets (e.g. the F-14 Tomcat and Navy
variants of the F-4), whose back seat lacked ying controls, the back seat of the F-15E cockpit is equipped with
its own stick and throttle so the WSO can take over ying,
albeit with reduced visibility.[31]
An underside view of an F-15E Strike Eagle with landing gear

down.
131 ECM pod which is carried on the centerline pylon

when required.
The APG-70 radar system allows air crews to detect

ground targets from longer ranges. One feature of this
system is that after a sweep of a target area, the crew
freezes the air-to-ground map then goes back into air-toair mode to clear for air threats. During the air-to-surface
weapon delivery, the pilot is capable of detecting, targeting and engaging air-to-air targets while the WSO designates the ground target. The APG-70 is to be replaced by
the AN/APG-82(v)1 active electronically scanned array
To extend its range, the F-15E is tted with two Radar (AESA) radar, which will begin ight tests in January 2010 with initial operational capability expected in
conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) that hug the fuselage.
[32]
These produce lower drag than conventional under- 2014.
wing/underbelly drop tanks. They carry 750 U.S. gallons Its inertial navigation system uses a laser gyroscope to
(2,800 liters) of fuel, and house six weapons hardpoints continuously monitor the aircrafts position and provide
in two rows of three in tandem. Unlike conventional information to the central computer and other systems,
drop tanks, CFTs cannot be jettisoned, thus the increased including a digital moving map in both cockpits. The
range is oset by the degraded performance from the in- low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night
creased drag and weight compared to a clean congura- (LANTIRN) system is mounted externally under the ention. Similar tanks can be mounted on the F-15C/D and gine intakes; it allows the aircraft to y at low altitudes,
export variants, and the Israeli Air Force makes use of at night and in any weather conditions, to attack ground
this option on their ghter-variant F-15s as well as their targets with a variety of precision-guided and unguided
F-15I variant of the Strike Eagle, but the F-15E is the weapons. The LANTIRN system gives the F-15E exceptional accuracy in weapons delivery day or night and in
only U.S. variant to be routinely tted with CFTs.
The Strike Eagles tactical electronic warfare system poor weather, and consists of two pods attached to the
(TEWS) integrates all countermeasures on the craft: exterior of the aircraft. At night, the video picture from
HUD, producing
radar warning receivers (RWR), radar jammer, radar, the LANTIRN can be projected on the
[33]
an
infrared
image
of
ground
contour.
and cha/are dispensers are all tied to the TEWS to provide comprehensive defense against detection and track- The navigation pod contains a terrain-following radar
ing. This system includes an externally mounted ALQ- which allows the pilot to safely y at a very low altitude
435

Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm
F-15E cockpit
following cues displayed on a heads up display. This system also can be coupled to the aircrafts autopilot to provide hands o terrain-following capability. Additionally, the pod contains a forward looking infrared system
which is projected on the pilots HUD which is used dur- F-15Es parked during Operation Desert Shield
ing nighttime or low visibility operations. The AN/AAQThe F-15E saw action in response to Iraq's invasion of
13 Nav Pod is installed beneath the right engine intake.
Kuwait in August 1990 for Operation Desert Shield.
The targeting pod contains a laser designator and a track- The 336th Tactical Fighter Squadron ew to Seeb Air
ing system that mark an enemy for destruction as far away Base in Oman to begin training exercises in anticipaas 10 mi (16 km). Once tracking has been started, tar- tion of an Iraqi attack on Saudi Arabia; in December,
geting information is automatically handed o to infrared the 335th and 336th squadrons relocated to Al Kharj
homing air-to-surface missiles or laser-guided bombs. Air Base in Saudi Arabia, closer to Iraqs border.[39]
The targeting pod is mounted beneath the left engine in- Operation Desert Storm began on 17 January 1991; 24
take; congurations may be either the AN/AAQ-14 Tar- F-15Es launched an attack upon ve xed Scud instalget Pod, AN/AAQ-28 LITENING Target Pod or the lations in western Iraq; missions against Scud sites conAN/AAQ-33 Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod.
tinued through that night with a second strike consist of
The F-15E carries most weapons in the USAF inven- 21 F-15Es. At night-time, F-15Es ew hunter missions
tory. It is also armed with AIM-9 Sidewinders and AIM- over western Iraq, searching for mobile SCUD launch120 AMRAAMs. Since the Strike Eagle retains the ers. By conducting random bombings in suspected areas,
counter-air capabilities from its Eagle lineage, it is reg- it was hoped to deter the Iraqis from setting up for a Scud
ularly trained for counter-air missions, and fully capable launch.[40]
for Oensive-Counter-Air. Like the F-15C, the Strike On the opening night of the war, an F-15E red a AIMEagle also carries an internally mounted General Electric
9 Sidewinder at a MiG-29, which failed to hit its target.
M61A1 20 mm cannon with 650 rounds, which is eec- Other F-15Es simultaneously and unsuccessfully engaged
tive against enemy aircraft and soft ground targets.
the lone MiG-29, it was eventually brought down by a
The MIDS Fighter Data Link Terminal, produced by missile of unknown source.[41][42] The same night another
BAE Systems, improves situational awareness and com- ight was attacked by a MiG-29. A low altitude engagemunications capabilities via the Link 16 datalink.[34]
ment ensued and the MiG-29 hit the ground. On 18 JanSince 2004, South Korean rm LIG Nex1 has been man- uary, during a strike against a petrol oil and lubricant plant
ufacturing the F-15s Head-up display; a total number of near Basrah, an F-15E was lost to enemy re, the pilot and
150 HUDs were delivered by 2011.[35][36] LIG Nex1 had WSO were killed. F-15E crews described this mission
been a participant in the F-15K program as a subcontrac- as the most dicult and dangerous of the war as it was
tor to Rockwell Collins.[35][36] LIG Nex1 is also prepar- heavily defended by SA-3s, SA-6s, SA-8s and Rolands as
ing to manufacture F-15s new multi-function display well as by anti-aircraft artillery. Two nights later, a secand ight control computer.[35] Also since 2004, Korea ond and nal F-15E was downed by an Iraqi SA-2; the
Aerospace Industries (KAI) has produced the wings and crew survived and managed to evade capture for several
forward fuselages of the F-15; in 2008, KAI established days and even made in contact with coalition aircraft, but
another production line for Singapores F-15SG.[37] KAI rescue was unable to be launched due to security issues,
codes.
is involved in the development and manufacture of the one airman failed to identify himself with proper[43]
The
two
airmen
were
later
captured
by
the
Iraqis.
Conformal Weapons Bay (CWB) to be used on the F-15
Silent Eagle.[38]
Strike Eagles were able to destroy 18 Iraqi jets on the
436
Following Desert Storm, two no-y zones over Iraq were

set up, and enforced typically by US and UK aircraft. In
one incident, an attack on up to 600 Kurdish refugees by
Iraqi helicopters at Chamchamal, northern Iraq, was observed by a ight of F-15Es. As they were not allowed
to open re, the F-15Es instead conducted several high
speed passes as close as possible to the Iraqi helicopters
to create severe wake-turbulence, while aiming lasers at
the helicopters cockpits to attempt to blind their crews;
this caused the crash of one Hind. Afterwards, USAF
A 492 FS F-15E of the 48th Fighter Wing taking o from RAF
leadership ordered F-15Es not to y below 10,000 feet
Lakenheath
(3,000 m) to deter a repetition.[45]
ground at Tallil air base using GBU-12s and CBU-87s.
On 14 February, an F-15E scored its only air-to-air kill:
a Mil Mi-24 helicopter. While responding to a request
for help by US Special Forces, ve Iraqi helicopters were
spotted. The lead F-15E of two acquired a helicopter via
its FLIR in the process of unloading Iraqi soldiers, and
released a GBU-10 bomb. The F-15E crew thought the
bomb had missed its target and were preparing to use a
Sidewinder when the helicopter was destroyed. The Special Forces team estimated that the Hind was roughly 800
feet (240 m) over the ground when the 2,000 lb (910 kg)
bomb hit its target.[44] As Coalition bombing operation
had commenced, the F-15Es disengaged from combat
with the remaining helicopters.[41]
F-15Es attacked various heavily defended targets
throughout Iraq, prioritizing SCUD missile sites. Missions with the objective of killing Iraqi President Saddam
Hussein were undertaken, several suspected locations
were bombed by F-15Es. Prior to the operations ground
war phase, F-15Es conducted tank plinking missions
against Iraqi vehicles in Kuwait. Following 42 days of
heavy combat, a cease re came into eect on 1 March
1991, leading to the establishment of Northern and
Southern no-y zones over Iraq.[45]
Operations Southern Watch and Northern Watch
F-15Es of the 391st Fighter Squadron, 492d Fighter

Squadron, and 494th Fighter Squadron regularly deployed to Turkey throughout the 1990s. In January 1993,
Iraqi targets in breach of the ceasere agreement below
the 32nd parallel north were attacked; 10 F-15Es conducted a punitive strike days later.[46] Most missions were
of a defensive nature, the Strike Eagles carried a exible range of weapons on a typical mission. AWACS aircraft were in close contact with F-15E crews, who would
receive new taskings while airborne and thus could y
unplanned attacks on Iraqi targets.[46] After 1993, violations of the no-y zones were minimal as Iraq staged a
minor withdrawal; in 1997 Turkey approved the creation
of Operation Northern Watch (ONW) and permitted US
forces to use the Incirlik air base.
In December 1998, Operation Desert Fox was conducted
when Iraq refused UNSCOM inspections. On 28 December 1998, three F-15Es each dropped two GBU-12
500-pound precision-guided munitions (PGMs) to successfully strike an SA-3 tracking radar and optical guidance unit.[47] After Desert Fox, Iraq stepped up its violations of the no-y zones, thus a number of retaliatory and pre-planned strikes were conducted by F-15Es;
in ONW alone, weapons were expended on at least 105
days.[48] Between 24 and 26 January 1999, F-15Es expended several AGM-130s and GBU-12s against SAM
sites in northern Iraq near Mosul.[49] Several F-15Es also
ew in support of Operation Provide Comfort and Operation Provide Comfort II.[45]
Operations in the Balkans
An F-15E over Iraq in 1999 for Operation Northern Watch
Operation Deny Flight was a United Nations-enforced

no-y zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina due to the deteriorating situation in the Balkans. In August 1993,
F-15Es from 492d and 494th FS deployed to Aviano,
Italy. In late 1993, NATO ordered a limited F-15E strike
at Udbina aireld, targeting Serbian forces in neighboring Croatia. Eight F-15Es armed with GBU-12s took
o to attack an SA-6 anti-aircraft vehicle; the mission
was cancelled mid-ight over the application of stringent Rules of Engagement.[50] In December 1993, F15Es launched to destroy a pair of SA-2 sites which had
red upon two Royal Navy Sea Harrier FRS 1s.[51] In
August 1995, F-15Es of 90th Fighter Squadron joined
437
F-15E departing Aviano Air Base, Italy, for a strike mission in

Operation Allied Force on 28 March 1999
the two other squadrons. The 492d and 494th ew over

2,500 sorties since Deny Flight had begun, 2,000 of these
were by 492d. In August 1995, in support of NATOs
Operation Deliberate Force, F-15Es ew strike missions
against Serbian armor and logistics around the Bosnian
A F-15E over Afghanistan during Operation Mountain Lion,
capital, Sarajevo. On 9 September, an F-15E deployed 2006
the rst GBU-15 bomb for the type; a total of nine were
dropped against Bosnian-Serb ground forces and air defense targets around Banja Luka.[51]
GBU-24s and GBU-28s were used against reinforced tarIn response to the displacement of Kosovars and the gets, command and control centers and cave entrances.
Serbian governments rejection of a NATO ultimatum, F-15Es often operated in pairs alongside pairs of FOperation Allied Force was launched in March 1999. A 16Cs. Within weeks of the start of combat operations,
total of 26 F-15Es ew the rst strikes of Allied Force there was a lack of targets to strike as nearly all taragainst Serb surface-to-air-missile sites, anti-aircraft bat- gets had been already destroyed. The Taliban had acteries and Early Warning radar stations.[52] Strike Eagles cess to SA-7 and FIM-92 Stinger portable surface-to-air
were deployed to Aviano as well as RAF Lakenheath in missiles, posing no threat to most aircraft ying above
the UK. In-theater, F-15Es conducted Close Air Support 7,000 feet (2,100 m). Additionally, xed SAM sites near
missions, a new idea in the late 1990s which has since cities as Mazar-i-Sharif and Bagram were struck early
become a popular concept within the USAF.[53] Missions on; Afghanistan had rapidly became a low-threat envitypically lasted around 7.5 hours, included two aerial re- ronment for air operations.[56]
fuelings; F-15Es would carry a mix of air-to-air and airAircraft commonly ew on-call support missions for alto-ground munitions to perform both Combat Air Patrol
lied ground forces, F-15Es usually carried MK-82 and
duties as well as strike missions in the same mission.[53]
GBU-12 bombs in this role, other weapons were someMobile SAM launchers posed a considerable threat to
times carried, during one mission a GBU-28, two GBUNATO aircraft and had made successful shoot-downs,
24s and six GBU-12s were released.[56] Frequent targets
most notably of a Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk. In orduring the rest of the war were individual insurgents, light
der to strike from increased distances, the F-15E was
vehicles and supply convoys; cannon re was often exequipped with the AGM-130, which provided a stand-o
pended as well as bombs from F-15Es.[57] It was during
strike capability.[54]
combat over Afghanistan that four 391st crews conducted
the longest ghter mission in history; lasting a total of
15.5 hours, nine of those hours spent ying over the tarOperation Enduring Freedom
get area. Two F-15Es attacked two Taliban command and
Weeks after the September 11 attacks in 2001, the control facilities, two buildings suspected of being used
block; the F-15Es refueled
391st Fighter Squadron deployed to Ahmed Al Jaber air by Taliban ghters, and a road
[58]
12
times
during
the
mission.
base, Kuwait, to support Operation Enduring Freedom in
Afghanistan. F-15Es met little resistance during initial
missions, in the rst night targets ranged from Taliban
military structures and supply depots, to al-Qaeda training camps and caves were the main targets. Both the
AGM-130 and GBU-15 2,000 lb (910 kg) bombs were
expended, this was the GBU-15s rst combat usage.[55]
On 4 March, another incident now known as the Battle

of Roberts Ridge involved several F-15Es that had embarked on a Close Air Support mission for ground forces.
Aircraft destroyed a Taliban observation post and responded to nearby enemy mortar re upon Navy SEAL
forces on a search for an ambushed MH-47E Chinook in
438
A F-15E of the 391st Expeditionary Fighter Squadron launching

heat decoys over Afghanistan, 2008
the Shah-i-Kot Valley.[59] Several bombs were dropped

as the SEAL team still took re, however one bomb
missed due to the wrong coordinates being entered by
the aircrew.[59] An MH-47 carrying a rescue team was
downed by an RPG while attempting to support the
SEALs.[60] Following refueling, the F-15Es dropped a
further 11 GBU-12s in coordination with ground forces,
and red their cannons on Taliban forces in close proximity to the survivors of the downed MH-47.[60] A section of
F-16s from 18th Fighter Squadron made strang passes
as well until cannon ammunition was depleted, before resorting to further bomb drops. The F-15Es were aected
A F-15E disengaging from a KC-10 during Operation Iraqi Freeby technical problems involving both radios and weapons
dom. Note the visible wingtip vortices
that had failed, several GBU-12s were dropped before
returning to Al Jaber in Kuwait.[61]
Years later, several incidents have occurred. On 23 August 2007, a friendly re incident involved an F-15E
mistakenly dropping a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb on British
forces; three soldiers were killed.[62] The stated cause
was confusion between the air controller and the F-15E
crew on the bombing coordinates.[63] On 13 September 2009, an F-15E shot down a non-responsive MQ-9
Reaper drone over Northern Afghanistan to prevent it entering foreign airspace.[64]
Operation Iraqi Freedom
In late 2002, during tension over suspected Iraqi possession of weapons of mass destruction, the 4th Fighter
Wing at Seymour Johnson AFB was ordered to maintain at least one squadron ready to deploy to the Persian
Gulf. During January 2003, the 336th was deployed to
Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, a total of 24 aircraft were deployed to Al Udeid in coordination with planners of the
Combined Air Operations Center at Prince Sultan Air
Base, Saudi Arabia.[65] In late January, the F-15Es began
ying in support of Operation Southern Watch, typically
performing surveillance and reconnaissance missions, additional missions included simulated combat against potential Iraqi targets and regional familiarization with local
procedures and Rules of Engagements.[65] During OSW,
F-15Es attacked a number of targets in southern and

western Iraq, including radars, radio communications and
relay stations, command and control sites, and air defences. On one night, four F-15Es red multiple GBU24s at the Iraqi Republican Guard/Baath Party HQ in
Basrah while another ight of four destroyed a nearby Air
Defense Sector HQ with six GBU-10s.[66]
Towards the end of February, the 336th received additional aircrews, many of which being drafted from the
two non-deployable squadrons at Seymour Johnson (the
333d and 334th Fighter Squadrons) and 391st Fighter
Squadron at Mountain Home Air Force Base, for a total of four aircrews per F-15E.[66] In early March, the
335th Fighter Squadrons personnel and aircraft joined
the 336th at Al Udeid. One objective was the destruction
of Iraqs air defenses and Early Warning radar network
near the border with Jordan, allowing F-16s and Special
Forces helicopters to operate from Jordan at the outset
of the war. Several radar sites and radio relay stations
were hit in western Iraq near the H3 aireld, during
these missions coalition jets met with heavy anti-aircraft
re.[67]
On 19 March, as F-117 Nighthawks dropped bombs over
Baghdad, targeting a house where Saddam Hussein was
believed to be; F-15Es dropped GBU-28s around the
H3 aireld. On 20 March, when the war eectively be-

gan, F-15Es red AGM-130s against key communication, command and control buildings, and other key targets in Baghdad; a few of the weapons missed intended
targets, possibly caused by the jamming operations of
EA-6B Prowlers in the vicinity.[68]
439
Operation Inherent Resolve
F-15Es are being used by the U.S. in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State militants in Iraq and
Syria. In the early morning on 23 September 2014, Strike
Eagles and other American and Gulf Arab aircraft conducted attacks in Syria against ISIS ghters, training compounds, headquarters and command and control facilities, storage facilities, a nance center, supply trucks,
and armed vehicles.[77] The Pentagon has been releasing
videos of targets being hit by ordnance deployed from F15Es, taken by their own AN/AAQ-33 Sniper targeting
pods.[78][79] From the beginning of OIR in August 2014
to January 2015, F-15Es ew 37 percent of Air Force
sorties.[80]
36.3.2 Israel
Rear view of the F-15E
On 3 April 2003 a F-15E pilot mistook a M270 Multiple

Launch Rocket System (MLRS) for an Iraqi surface-toair missile site and dropped a 500 lb (230 kg) laser-guided
bomb, killing three and wounding ve others.[69] On 7
April 2003, an F-15E (881694), crewed by Captain
Eric Das and Major William Watkins performed a critical interdiction mission in support of special forces.[70]
On the following day, Das and Watkins crashed while
bombing targets around Tikrit[71] probably shot down by
AAA re.[72] The crew were posthumously awarded the
Distinguished Flying Cross and the Purple Heart for their
actions.[70]
During the war, F-15Es were credited with destroying
60% of the total force of the Iraqi Medina Republican Guard. They also scored hits on 65 MiGs on the
ground,[67] and destroyed key air defense and command
buildings in Baghdad. During the war F-15Es worked
closely with other jets that were deployed to Al Udeid, including RAAF F/A-18s, USAF F-16s and F-117s, RAF
Panavia Tornado ghters and a detachment of US Navy
F-14s from VF-154.
The F-15I is operated by the Israeli Defence Force/Air

Force No 69 Squadron, which had previously operated
the F-4 Phantom II. After the Gulf War in 1991, in which
Israeli towns were attacked by SCUD missiles based in
Iraq, the Israeli government decided that it needed a long
range strike aircraft and issued a Request for Information
(RFI). In response, Lockheed Martin oered a version
of the F-16 Fighting Falcon, while McDonnell Douglas
oered both the F/A-18 Hornet and the F-15E. On 27
January 1994, the Israeli government announced that the
intention to purchase 21 modied F-15Es, designated F15I. On 12 May 1994, the US Government authorized
the purchase of up to 25 F-15Is by Israel. In November
1995, Israel ordered four extra F-15Is, thus 25 were built
from 1996 to 1998.[81]
The rst F-15I combat mission was own in Lebanon
on 11 January 1999. The aircraft can carry: the AIM9L, Rafael Python 4 and the Rafael Python 5 infraredhoming missiles; and the AIM-7 Sparrow and the AIM120 AMRAAM radar-guided missiles. The Python 4 can
be launched at up to 90 degrees o boresight, with the
pilot aiming using the helmet-mounted sight. In 1999,
Israel announced its intention to procure more ghter aircraft, and the F-15I was a possible contender. However,
it was announced that the contract would go to the F-16I.
Operation Odyssey Dawn

Following the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on 17 March 2011, 18 USAF F15E ghters, and a variety of other NATO and allied aircraft were deployed to enforce the Libyan no-y zone as
part of Operation Odyssey Dawn. On 21 March 2011,
an F-15E Strike Eagle, Tail #91304, from the 492nd
FS crashed near Bengazi, Libya.[73] Both crew members
parachuted into territory held by resistance elements of
the Libyan population and were eventually rescued by US
Marines.[74][75] Equipment problems caused a weight imbalance and contributed to the crash when leaving the target area.[76]
36.3.3 Saudi Arabia

In November 2009, Royal Saudi Air Force F-15s, along
with Saudi Tornados, performed air raids during the Shia
insurgency in north Yemen. This was the Saudi Air
Forces rst military action over hostile territory since
Operation Desert Storm in 1991.[82]
Saudi Arabia requested 84 F-15SA (Saudi Advanced)
aircraft, upgrade of its F-15S eet to F-15SA standard,
and related equipment and weapons through a Foreign
Military Sale in October 2010.[83] On 29 December
2011, the U.S. signed a $29.4 billion contract to sell 84 F-
440
15s in the SA (Saudi Advanced) conguration. The sale

includes upgrades for the older F-15Ss up to the SA standard and related equipment and services.[84] A Foreign
Military Sales contract for 68 F-15S to F-15SA modication kits was placed with Boeing in June 2012.[85] First
ight of a new-build F-15SA occurred on 20 February
2013.[86]
for Israeli F-16s. The Sharpshooter pod was less capable

than the LANTIRN pods used on USAF F-15Es; Israel
later purchased 30 LANTIRN pods. The F-15Is initially
lacked Radar Warning Receivers, Israel installed its own
electronic warfare equipment, the Elisra SPS-2110, as
well as a new central computer and embedded GPS/INS
system. All sensors can be slaved to the Display And
Sight Helmet (DASH) helmet-mounted sight, providing
both crew members a means of targeting which the F15E lacks. The F-15I uses the APG-70I radar; its ter36.4 Variants
rain mapping capability can locate targets dicult to spot
while under adverse weather conditions. The radar can
For earlier F-15A, F-15B, F-15C, F-15D, F-15J, F-15DJ
detect large airliner-sized targets at 150 nautical miles,
and other F-15-based variants, see F-15 Eagle.
and ghter-sized targets at 56 nautical miles, it has a
reduced resolution one-third below the standard USAF
APG-70.[87]
36.4.1
F-15E
36.4.3 F-15K
Two-seat all-weather long-range strike and ground-attack

aircraft for the USAF. A total of 236 were built from
) is a
The F-15K Slam Eagle (Korean: F-15K
1985 to 2001.[18][81]
derivative of the F-15E, operated by the Republic of
Korea Air Force. Several major components were outsourced to Korean companies under an oset agreement,
36.4.2 F-15I
wherein Korea was responsible for 40% of production
and 25% of assembly.[88] Fuselage and wings are supplied by Korea Aerospace Industries,[89] ight control actuator by Hanwha Corporation,[90] electronic jammer and
radar warning receiver by Samsung Thales,[91] head-up
display, airborne communication system, and radar by
LIG Nex1,[36][92] and engines by Samsung Techwin under license[93] before nal assembly at Boeings St. Louis
facility.
An IAF F-15I (Ra'am) of the No 69 Hammers Squadron maneuvers away after receiving fuel from a KC-135 during Red
Flag 2004
The F-15I is operated by the Israeli Air Force where it is

known as the Ra'am ( Thunder). It is a dual-seat
ground attack aircraft powered by two Pratt & Whitney
F100-PW-229 engines, and is based on the F-15E.
The F-15I Ra'am is similar to the F-15E, but features
several dierent avionic systems to meet Israeli requirements. To facilitate night-time strikes, the F-15Is were
initially tted with Sharpshooter targeting pods designed
F-15K at Nellis AFB, Nevada, 2008 for the Red Flag 08-4 exercise
In 2002, ROKAF selected the F-15K for its F-X ghter

program, during which the F-15K, the Dassault Rafale,
the Euroghter Typhoon and Sukhoi Su-35 were evaluated. A total of 40 aircraft were ordered, deliveries began in 2005.[94] On 25 April 2008, a second batch of
21 F-15Ks were ordered, worth 2.3 trillion Korean won
(US$ 2.3 billion). This second batch diers from rst
batch aircraft in having Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229
(EEP) engines, license-produced by Samsung Techwin,
for commonality with the KF-16 eet.[95][96] ROKAF had
36.4. VARIANTS
441
received 50 F-15Ks by June 2011.[97] ROKAF expects

the F-15K to be in service until 2060.[98]
The F-15K variant has several features not typically
found on F-15Es, such as an AAS-42 Infra-red search and
track,[99] a customized Tactical Electronics Warfare Suite
to reduce weight and increase jamming eectiveness,[99]
cockpit compatibility with night vision device, ARC232 U/VHF radio with Fighter Data Link system, and
advanced APG-63(V)1 mechanical-scanned array radar.
The APG-63(V)1 radar has common digital processing equipment with the APG-63(V)3 AESA radar,
and thus is upgradable to an AESA radar via antenna
replacement.[87] The F-15K is equipped with the Joint F-15SG of the 428th Fighter Squadron at Mountain Home Air
Helmet Mounted Cueing System.[99] Weapons such as Force Base
AGM-84K SLAM-ER, AGM-84H Harpoon Block II,
and JASSM have been integrated.[100]
36.4.4
F-15S and SA
The F-15S is a variant of the F-15E supplied to the Royal

Saudi Air Force in the 1990s. Saudi Arabia previously
sought to up to 24 F-15Fs, a proposed single-seat variant, but was blocked by the U.S. Congress.[101] The F15S, initially referred to as F-15XP, is almost identical
to the USAF F-15E, the only major dierence in the
AN/APG-70 radars performance in synthetic aperture
mode.[81][101] 72 were built from 1996 to 1998.[81] In OcF-15SG on approach to Darwin International Airport, 2011
tober 2007, GE announced a US$300 million contract
with Saudi Arabia for 65 GE F110-GE-129C engines for
the F-15S.[102]
tion Agency (DSCA) notied US Congress about a potenThe F-15SA is a new version for the Saudi Arabian tial Foreign Military Sale (FMS) of weapons, logistics and
Air Force. The F-15SA will have a modern y-by- training in the event that the Boeing F-15 was selected
wire ight control system in place of the hybrid elec- by Singapore. The packages options include AIM-120C
tronic/mechanical system used by all previous F-15s. and AIM-9X missiles; GBU-38 JDAM and AGM-154
The variant includes the APG-63(v)3 active electron- JSOW air-to-ground weapons, Night Vision Goggles and
[110][111]
ically scanned array (AESA) radar, digital electronic Link 16 terminals.
warfare systems (DEWS), infrared search and track The Singapore Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) on 22
(IRST) systems, and other advanced systems. It also in- October 2007, exercised the option to purchase eight
cludes a redesigned cockpit originally intended for the F- more F-15SG ghters which was part of the original con15SE.[83][103][104] The y-by-wire system will allow the tract. Along with this buy, an additional order of four
carriage of weapons on the previously unused outer wing F-15SGs increased the total order to 24 ghters.[112] The
weapon stations.[105]
rst F-15SG was rolled out on 3 November 2008. Deliveries of F-15SGs began in 2009[113] and all 24 were
declared operationally ready in September 2013.[114] Me36.4.5 F-15SG
dia reports in March 2013 suggested Singapore may buy
more F-15SG ghters.[115]
The F-15SG (formerly F-15T) is a variant of the F-15E,
ordered by the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF)
after a seven-year evaluation period involving ve other 36.4.6 Proposed variants
ghter aircraft under consideration. The F-15SG was
chosen on 6 September 2005 over the Dassault Rafale, F-15H Strike Eagle (H for Hellas) was a 1990s prothe only other remaining aircraft in contention.[106][107] posed export version of F-15E for Greece, which was seAn order for 12 F-15SG ghter was placed in December lected by the Greek Ministry of Defence and the Greek
2005.[108] The F-15F designation was also reserved for Air Force,[116] but the government chose new F-16s and
Mirage 20005s instead.[117]
the RSAF.[109]
On 22 August 2005, the US Defense Security Coopera- F-15G Wild Weasel was a proposed two-seat version to
442
replace the F-4G Wild Weasel in the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) role. The F-15G was studied in 1986. A proposed modication to F-15Cs for the
SEAD role was studied in 199495, but F-16Cs were
modied to perform this role instead.[118] F-15Es are capable of carrying ARMs such as the AGM-88 HARM
and performing the SEAD role.
F-15SE Silent Eagle is a proposed variant with fth generation ghter features, such as internal weapons carriage
and radar-absorbent material. The Silent Eagle features
conformal weapons bays (CWB) to hold weapons internally instead of conformal fuel tanks, the twin vertical
tails are canted outward 15 degrees to reduce radar cross
section; the majority of the CWBs area is for weapons
storage, a minority is used for fuel storage.[119] The F15SE is optimized for air-to-air missions, lacking allaspect stealth features for missions inside areas protected
by ground-based anti-aircraft systems.[120] The rst production F-15E, s/n 86-0183, was modied to become a
Silent Eagle demonstrator. It rst ew in July 2010 with
a left-side conformal weapons bay,[121] and successfully
launched an AMRAAM missile from the CWB in July
2010.[122] Potential customers were Saudi Arabia, Israel,
Japan, and South Korea;[119] however the Saudis choose
to procure the F-15SA,[123] while Israel,[124] Japan,[125]
and South Korea selected the F-35.[126]
36.5 Operators
Israel
Israeli Air Force - 25 F-15I "Ra'am" aircraft in use
Republic of Korea
Republic of Korea Air Force - 58 F-15Ks in service
in January 2014.[127] It ordered a combined 61 F15K Slam Eagle ghters including one lost in an
accident.[128]
Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force - 70 F-15S Eagles in service
Singapore
Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) - 24 F15SGs in use as of January 2014.[127] It ordered 24
F-15SG ghters.[129]
United States
United States Air Force - 213 F-15Es in operation as of

January 2014[127][130]
Air Combat Command
Current operators of the F-15 in light blue, F-15E Strike Eagle in

red, both in dark blue
4th Fighter Wing - Seymour-Johnson AFB, North

Carolina 1988-present
53d Wing - Eglin AFB, Florida 1992-present
85th Test and Evaluation Squadron
56th Fighter Wing - Luke AFB, Arizona 1992-95
An F-15E Strike Eagle breaking away from a tanker.
Main article: List of F-15 operators

57th Wing - Nellis AFB, Nevada 1992-present
36.6. ACCIDENTS AND LOSSES

17th Weapons Squadron
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron
366th Fighter Wing - Mountain Home AFB, Idaho
1992-present
389th Fighter Squadron 2007present
428th Fighter Squadron (F-15SG)
United States Air Forces Europe
443
Tactical Air Command
405th Tactical Training Wing/58th Tactical Training Wing - Luke AFB, Arizona 1988-92
461st Tactical Training Squadron
550th Tactical Training Squadron
36.6 Accidents and losses
48th Fighter Wing - RAF Lakenheath, England Main article: List of F-15 losses
1992-present
36.7 Specications (F-15E)

414th Fighter Group (Associate) - SeymourJohnson AFB, NC 2010-present
926th Group - Nellis AFB, Nevada 2007-present
Air Force Systems Command
6510th Test Wing - Edwards AFB, California 198192
3246th Test Wing/46th Test Wing - Eglin AFB,
Florida 1989-present
F-15E deploys ares during a ight over Afghanistan, 12

November 2008
Data from USAF fact sheet,[2] Davies[131]

Crew: 2
Length: 63.8 ft (19.43 m)
40th Flight Test Squadron 1992present

3247th Flight Test Squadron 198992
412th Test Wing - Edwards AFB, CA 1992-2001
Pacic Air Forces
3d Wing - Elmendorf AFB, Alaska 1991-2007
Wingspan: 42.8 ft (13.05 m)

Height: 18.5 ft (5.63 m)
Airfoil: NACA 64A006.6 root, NACA 64A203 tip
Powerplant: 2 Pratt & Whitney F100229 afterburning turbofans, 29,000 lbf (129 kN) each
Performance
444
Maximum speed:
2,655+ km/h)

Mach 2.5+ (1,650+ mph,
4 AIM-7 Sparrow
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder
8 AIM-120 AMRAAM
Combat radius: 790 mi (687 nmi, 1,270 km)

Ferry range: 2,400 mi (2,100 nmi, 3,900 km) with
conformal fuel tank and three external fuel tanks

Rate of climb: 50,000+ ft/min (254+ m/s)
Thrust/weight: 0.93
Maximum g-load: +9 g
6 AGM-65 Maverick
2 AGM-84 Harpoon
2 AGM-84H/K SLAM-ER
AGM-130
AGM-154 JSOW
AGM-158 JASSM
Bombs:
B61 or B83 nuclear bomb
Mark 82 bomb
Mark 84 bomb
CBU-87 or CBU-103 (CEM)
CBU-89 or CBU-104 (GATOR)
CBU-97 or CBU-105 (SFW)
CBU-107 Passive Attack Weapon
GBU-15
GBU-10 Paveway II
An F-15E undergoing maintenance showing the M61 Vulcan

Gatling gun with its cover removed.
GBU-12 Paveway II
GBU-24 Paveway III
GBU-27 Paveway III
GBU-28 (Bunker buster)
GBU-31 or GBU-38 {8 GBU-31s or 16
GBU-38s} (JDAM)
GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb (SDB)
GBU-54 Laser JDAM (LJDAM)
Others:
up to 3 600 US gallons (2,300 L) external drop tanks for ferry ight or extended
range/loitering time.
A F-15E releasing a GBU-28 Bunker Buster during a test
Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan 6barreled Gatling cannon, 510 rounds of either M-56
or PGU-28 ammunition
Hardpoints: 2 wing pylons, fuselage pylons, bomb
racks on CFTs with a capacity of 23,000 lb (10,400
kg) of external fuel and ordnance
Missiles:
1x 1,800 litres (480 US gal) Super cruise drop

tank.
Avionics
Radar:
Raytheon AN/APG-70
Targeting pods:
LANTIRN or Lockheed Martin Sniper XR or
LITENING targeting pods
Countermeasures:
36.9. REFERENCES
445
36.9 References
36.9.1 Notes
[1] Number built for F-15E= 237,[1] F-15I= 25,[1] F-15S=
72,[1] F-15K= 61, F-15SG= 24, and F-15SA= 1; total=
421.,<ref am D Unit cost 5
F-15E: US$31.1 million (yaway cost, 1998)[2]
F-15K: US$100 million (2006)} |sF-15E Eagle.
Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
36.9.2 Citations
LANTIRN pods mounted underneath the engine intakes of an F15E Strike Eagle, the AN/AAQ-13 navigation pod to the left with
the AN/AAQ-14 targeting pod to the right
[1] Davies 2002, p. 90.

[2] F-15E Strike Eagle fact sheet, US Air Force, 22 October
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems [3] Boeing: F-15E Strike Eagle. Boeing Defense, Space &
Security. The Boeing Company. Retrieved 2015-01-18.
AN/ALQ-131 electronic countermeasures
pod[132]
[4] Davies and Dildy 2007, pp. 9, 15, 20, 35.
Hazeltine
AN/APX-76
or
Raytheon
AN/APX-119 Identify Friend/Foe (IFF) [5] Davies and Dildy 2007, inside cover.
interrogator[133]
[6] Spick 2000, p. 127.
Magnavox AN/ALQ-128 Electronic Warfare
Warning Set (EWWS) part of Tactical Elec- [7] Donald 1995, p. 40.
tronic Warfare Systems (TEWS)[132]
[8] Donald 1995, p. 42.
Loral AN/ALR-56 Radar warning receivers
[9] Davies 2003, pp. 1516.
(RWR) part of TEWS[134]
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems [10] Jenkins 1997, p. 42.
ALQ-135 Internal Countermeasures System
[11] Donald 1995, p. 44.
(ICS) part of TEWS[132]
Marconi AN/ALE-45 Cha/Flares dispenser [12] Rininger 2009, pp. 85, 88.
system part of TEWS[135]
[13] Jenkins 1998, p. 36.
36.8 See also

Related development
Boeing F-15SE Silent Eagle
Sukhoi Su-30
Sukhoi Su-35
Shenyang J-16
Related lists
[14] Donald 1995, p. 45.

[15] Ciborski, James R. The F-15 Eagle: A Chronology. History Oce, Aeronautical Systems Center, Air Force Materiel Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, June 2002.
[16] Ulsamer, Edgar. In Focus: The Dual-Role Eagle. Air
Force magazine, April 1984.
[17] Rininger 2009, p. 89.
[18] Boeing F-15E Eagle. Janes All the Worlds Aircraft,
Janes Information Group, 2010 (subscription article,
dated 26 February 2010).
[19] Frost, Patricia. Boeing Receives 1st F-15E Radar Modernization Program Test Asset from Raytheon. Boeing.
[20] Trimble, Stephen. Raytheon claims AESA upgrade contract for F-15E. Flightglobal.com, 1 November 2007.
[21] Frost, Patricia. Boeing Selects Raytheon to Provide
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[22] Trimble, Stephen. Raytheon trumps Northrop with new

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[23] F-15E, B-1B Modernization and Upgrades. Defense
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[25] USAF mulls options for replacement of Boeing F-15E
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[26] What will replace the F-15E Strike Eagle? - Flightglobal.com, 17 December 2012.
[27] Boeing wins contract to design DARPA Airborne Satellite
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[30] Jenkins 1998, pp. 3536.
[60] Davies 2005, p. 73.
[31] Davies 2003, pp. 6364.

[32] Frost, Patricia. Boeing F-15E Radar Modernization Program Receives New Designation. Boeing, 15 September
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[33] Jenkins 1998, pp. 100101.
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[37] F-15/Apache Fuselage Monopolization Program. koreaaero.com. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
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[61] Davies 2005, p. 76.

[62] Harding, Thomas, Tom Coghlan and Aislinn Simpson.
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[66] Davies 2005, p. 80.
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[38] Carder, Phil and Changgyun Koh. Boeing, Korea

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[41] Tim Bennetts War. Air Force magazine online, January
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36.9.3
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(Osprey Combat Aircraft #67). Oxford, UK: Osprey
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Clancy, Tom. Fighter Wing. London: HarperCollins, 1995. ISBN 0-00-255527-1.
Smallwood, William L. Strike Eagle: Flying the F15E In The Gulf War. London: Brasseys, 1994.
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F-15E USAF fact sheet
F-15E page and F-15K page on Boeing.com
F-15E on USAF National Museum web site
F-15E.info, a dedicated F-15E site
Chapter 37
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet

F-18 redirects here. For other uses, see F18.
37.1.1 Origins
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F/A-18 Hornet

is a twin-engine supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable
multirole combat jet, designed as both a ghter and attack
aircraft (F/A designation for Fighter/Attack). Designed
by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop, the F/A-18 was derived from the latters YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the
United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also
used by the air forces of several other nations. The U.S.
Navys Flight Demonstration Squadron, the Blue Angels,
has used the Hornet since 1986.
The U.S. Navy started the Naval Fighter-Attack, Experimental (VFAX) program to procure a multirole aircraft
to replace the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, the A-7 Corsair
II, and the remaining McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom
IIs, and to complement the F-14 Tomcat. Vice Admiral Kent Lee, then head of Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), was the lead advocate for the VFAX
against strong opposition from many Navy ocers, including Vice Admiral William D. Houser, deputy chief
of naval operations for air warfare the highest ranking
naval aviator.[3]
The F/A-18 has a top speed of Mach 1.8 (1,034 knots,

1,190 mph or 1,915 km/h at 40,000 ft or 12,190 m). It
can carry a wide variety of bombs and missiles, including
air-to-air and air-to-ground, supplemented by the 20 mm
M61 Vulcan cannon. It is powered by two General Electric F404 turbofan engines, which give the aircraft a high
thrust-to-weight ratio. The F/A-18 has excellent aerodynamic characteristics, primarily attributed to its leading
edge extensions (LEX). The ghters primary missions
are ghter escort, eet air defense, Suppression of Enemy
Air Defenses (SEAD), air interdiction, close air support
and aerial reconnaissance. Its versatility and reliability
have proven it to be a valuable carrier asset, though it has
been criticized for its lack of range and payload compared
to its earlier contemporaries, such as the Grumman F14 Tomcat in the ghter and strike ghter role, and the
Grumman A-6 Intruder and LTV A-7 Corsair II in the
attack role.
In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue

a lower-cost alternative to the F-14. Grumman proposed
a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell
Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both
were nearly as expensive as the F-14.[4] That summer,
Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to
evaluate the competitors in the Air Forces Lightweight
Fighter (LWF) program, the General Dynamics YF-16
and Northrop YF-17.[5] The Air Force competition specied a day ghter with no strike capability. In May 1974,
the House Armed Services Committee redirected $34
million from the VFAX to a new program, the Navy Air
Combat Fighter (NACF),[5] intended to make maximum
use of the technology developed for the LWF program.[4]
37.1.2 Redesigning the YF-17
The Hornet saw its rst combat action in 1986 during

the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq
War. The F/A-18 Hornet provided the baseline design
for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, a larger, evolutionary redesign of the F/A-18.
37.1 Development
The Northrop YF-17 Cobra was developed into the carriercapable F/A-18.
449
450
CHAPTER 37. MCDONNELL DOUGLAS F/A-18 HORNET
Though the YF-16 won the LWF competition, the Navy

was skeptical that an aircraft with one engine and narrow
landing gear could be easily or economically adapted to
carrier service, and refused to adopt an F-16 derivative.
On 2 May 1975 the Navy announced its selection of the
YF-17.[6] Since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas
and Northrop to develop a new aircraft from the design
and principles of the YF-17. On 1 March 1977 Secretary
of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced that the F-18
would be named Hornet.[4]
Northrop had partnered with McDonnell Douglas as a
secondary contractor on NACF to capitalize on the latters experience in building carrier aircraft, including the
widely used F-4 Phantom II. On the F-18, the two companies agreed to evenly split component manufacturing,
with McDonnell Douglas conducting nal assembly. McDonnell Douglas would build the wings, stabilators, and
forward fuselage; while Northrop would build the center
and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the prime contractor for the naval versions, and
Northrop would be the prime contractor for the F-18L
land-based version which Northrop hoped to sell on the
export market.[4][5]
The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model
267, was drastically modied from the YF-17. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and tailhook
were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear widened.[7] To
meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell
increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds (2,020 kg), by
enlarging the dorsal spine and adding a 96 gallon fuel tank
to each wing. A snag was added to the wings leading
edge and stabilators to prevent an Aeroelastic utter discovered in the F-15 stabilator. The wings and stabilators
were enlarged, the aft fuselage widened by 4 inches (102
mm), and the engines canted outward at the front. These
changes added 10,000 lb (4,540 kg) to the gross weight,
bringing it to 37,000 lb (16,800 kg). The YF-17s control
system was replaced with a fully digital y-by-wire system with quadruple-redundancy, the rst to be installed
in a production ghter.[7]
A-18A attack aircraft, diering only in avionics; and the

dual-seat TF-18A, which retained full mission capability
of the F-18 with a reduced fuel load.[8] Following improvements in avionics and multifunction displays, and a
redesign of external stores stations, the A-18A and F-18A
were able to be combined into one aircraft.[4] Starting in
1980, the aircraft began to be referred to as the F/A-18A,
and the designation was ocially announced on 1 April
1984. The TF-18A was redesignated F/A-18B.[4]
37.1.3 Northrops F-18L

Northrop developed the F-18L as a potential export aircraft. Since it was not strengthened for carrier service,
it was expected to be lighter and better performing, and
a strong competitor to the F-16 Fighting Falcon then being oered to American allies. The F-18Ls maximum
gross weight was 7,700 pounds (3,490 kg) (approximately
30%) lighter than the F/A-18A, via lighter landing gear,
lack of wing folding mechanism, reduced part thickness
in areas, and lower fuel-carrying capacity. Though the
aircraft retained a lightened tailhook, the most obvious
external dierence was removed snags on the leading edge of the wings and stabilators. It still retained
71% commonality with the F/A-18 by parts weight, and
90% of the high-value systems, including the avionics,
radar, and electronic countermeasure suite, though alternatives were oered. Unlike the F/A-18, the F-18L carried no fuel in its wings and lacked weapons stations on
the intakes. It had three underwing pylons on each side
instead.[9]
The F/A-18L version followed to coincide with the US
Navys F/A-18A as a land-based export alternative. This
was essentially an F/A-18A lightened by approximately
2,500 to 3,000 pounds (1,130 to 1,360 kg); weight was
reduced by removing the folding wing and associated
actuators, by implementing a simpler landing gear (single wheel nose gear and cantilever oleo main gear), and
change to a land-based tail-hook. The revised F/A-18L
included wing fuel tanks and fuselage stations of the F/A18A. Its weapons capacity would increase from 13,700
to 20,000 pounds (6,210 to 9,070 kg); largely due to
the addition of a third underwing pylon and strengthened
wingtips (11 stations in total vs 9 stations of the F/A18A). Compared to the F-18L, the outboard weapons pylons are moved closer to the wingtip missile rails. Because of the strengthened non-folding wing, the wingtip
missile rails were designed to carry either the AIM-7
Sparrow or Skyash medium-range air-to-air missiles, in
addition to the AIM-9 Sidewinder as found on the F/A18A. The F/A-18L was strengthened for a 9 g design load
factor compared to the F/A-18As 7.5 g factor.[10]
The partnership between McDonnell Douglas and

Northrop soured over competition for foreign sales for
the two models. Northrop felt that McDonnell Douglas
Originally, it was planned to acquire a total of 780 air- would put the F/A-18 in direct competition with the Fcraft of three variants: the single seat F-18A ghter and 18L. In October 1979, Northrop led a series of lawThe rst pre-production F-18A on display in October 1978.
37.2. DESIGN
suits charging that McDonnell was using Northrop technology developed for the F-18L for foreign sales in violation of their agreement, and asked for a moratorium on
foreign sales of the Hornet via McDonnell Douglas. The
case was resolved in 1985 when McDonnell agreed to pay
Northrop $50 million for complete rights to the design,
with no admission of wrongdoing. By then Northrop had
ceased work on the F-18L, and most export orders were
captured by the F-16 or the F/A-18.[9]
37.1.4
Into production
451
37.1.5 Improvements and design changes

In the 1990s, the U.S. Navy faced the need to replace
its aging A-6 Intruders, and A-7 Corsair IIs with no replacement in development.[13] To answer this deciency,
the Navy commissioned development of the F/A-18E/F
Super Hornet. Despite its designation, it is not just an
upgrade of the F/A-18 Hornet, but rather, a new, larger
airframe using the design concepts of the Hornet.
Hornets and Super Hornets will serve complementary
roles in the U.S. Navy carrier eet until the Hornet A-D
models are completely replaced by the F-35C Lightning
II. The Marines have chosen to extend the use of certain
of their F/A-18s up to 10000 ight hours, due to delays
in the F-35B version.[14]
37.2 Design
A US Navy F/A-18C on a mission during Operation Enduring

Freedom in 2002
During ight testing, the snag on the leading edge of the

stabilators was lled in, and the gap between the Leading
edge extensions (LEX) and the fuselage mostly lled in.
The gaps, called the boundary layer air discharge (BLAD)
slots, controlled the vortices generated by the LEX and
presented clean air to the vertical stabilizers at high angles of attack, but they also generated a great deal of
parasitic drag, worsening the problem of the F/A-18s
inadequate range. McDonnell lled in 80% of the gap,
leaving a small slot to bleed air from the engine intake.
This may have contributed to early problems with fatigue
cracks appearing on the vertical stabilizers due to extreme
Structural loads, resulting in a short grounding in 1984
until the stabilizers were strengthened. Starting in May
1988, a small vertical fence was added to the top of each
LEX to broaden the vortices and direct them away from
the vertical stabilizers. This also provided a minor increase in controllability as a side eect.[11] F/A-18s of
early versions had a problem with insucient rate of roll,
exacerbated by the insucient wing stiness, especially
with heavy underwing ordnance loads.
A F/A-18C Hornet performing a high-g pull-up during an air

show. The high angle of attack causes powerful vortices to form
at the leading edge extensions.
The F/A-18 is a twin engine, mid wing, multi-mission

tactical aircraft. It is highly maneuverable, owing to its
good thrust to weight ratio, digital y-by-wire control system, and leading edge extensions (LEX). The LEX allow
the Hornet to remain controllable at high angles of attack. The trapezoidal wing has a 20-degree sweepback
on the leading edge and a straight trailing edge. The wing
has full-span leading edge aps and the trailing edge has
single-slotted aps and ailerons over the entire span.[15]
Canted vertical stabilizers are another distinguishing design element, one among several other such elements that
enable the Hornets excellent high angle of attack ability
include oversized horizontal stabilators, oversized trailThe rst production F/A-18A ew on 12 April 1980. Af- ing edge aps that operate as aperons, large full-length
ter a production run of 380 F/A-18As[12] (including the leading edge slats, and ight control computer programnine assigned to ight systems development), manufac- ming that multiplies the movement of each control surture shifted to the F/A-18C in September 1987.[8]
face at low speeds and moves the vertical rudders inboard
452
instead of simply left and right. The Hornets normally

high angle of attack performance envelope was put to
rigorous testing and enhanced in the NASA F-18 High
Alpha Research Vehicle (HARV). NASA used the F18 HARV to demonstrate ight handling characteristics
at high angle-of-attack (alpha) of 6570 degrees using
thrust vectoring vanes.[16] F/A-18 stabilators were also
used as canards on NASAs F-15S/MTD.
Exhaust nozzles of an RAAF F/A-18 at the Whenuapai Air Show

in New Zealand in March 2009
number 2 speeds, which is within the designed mission

requirements.[19]
A F/A-18C Hornet in transonic ight exhibiting Prandtl-Glauert

condensation
The Hornet was among the rst aircraft to heavily use

multi-function displays, which at the switch of a button
allow a pilot to perform either ghter or attack roles or
both. This force multiplier ability gives the operational
commander more exibility to employ tactical aircraft in
a fast-changing battle scenario. It was the rst Navy aircraft to incorporate a digital multiplexing avionics bus,
enabling easy upgrades.[8]
The Hornet is also notable for having been designed to
reduce maintenance, and as a result has required far less
downtime than its heavier counterparts, the F-14 Tomcat and the A-6 Intruder. Its mean time between failures is three times greater than any other Navy strike
aircraft, and requires half the maintenance time.[8] Its
General Electric F404 engines were also innovative in
that they were designed with operability, reliability and
maintainability rst. The engine, while unexceptional
in rated performance, demonstrates exceptional robustness under various conditions and is resistant to stall and
ameout.[17] The F404 engine connects to the airframe at
only 10 points and can be replaced without special equipment; a four-person team can remove the engine within
20 minutes.[18]
The engine air inlets of the Hornet, like that of the F-16,
are of a simpler xed design, while those of the F-4, F14, and F-15 have variable geometry or variable intake
ramp air inlets. This is a speed limiting factor in the
Hornet design. Instead, the Hornet uses bleed air vents
on the inboard surface of the engine air intake ducts to
slow and reduce the amount of air reaching the engine.
While not as eective as variable geometry, the bleed air
technique functions well enough to achieve near Mach
A 1989 USMC study found that single-seat ghters were

well suited to air-to-air combat missions while dual-seat
ghters were favored for complex strike missions against
heavy air and ground defenses in adverse weatherthe
question being not so much as to whether a second pair
of eyes would be useful, but as to having the second crewman sit in the same ghter or in a second ghter. Singleseat ghters that lacked wingmen were shown to be especially vulnerable.[20]

Entry into service
F/A-18 Hornets on the ight deck of USS Harry S. Truman

(CVN-75) supercarrier
McDonnell Douglas rolled out the rst F/A-18A on 13

September 1978,[12] in blue-on-white colors marked with
Navy on the left and Marines on the right. Its rst
ight was on 18 November.[12] In a break with tradition,
the Navy pioneered the principal site concept[5] with
the F/A-18, where almost all testing was done at Naval
Air Station Patuxent River,[8] instead of near the site of
manufacture, and using Navy and Marine Corps test pilots instead of civilians early in development. In March
453
1979, Lt. Cdr. John Padgett became the rst Navy pilot
to y the F/A-18.[21]
Following trials and operational testing by VX-4 and VX5, Hornets began to ll the Fleet Replacement Squadrons
(FRS) VFA-125, VFA-106, and VMFAT-101, where pilots are introduced to the F/A-18. The Hornet entered
operational service with Marine Corps squadron VMFA314 at MCAS El Toro on 7 January 1983,[12] and with
Navy squadron VFA-25 in March 1983, replacing F-4s
and A-7Es, respectively.[8]
The initial eet reports were complimentary, indicating that the Hornet was extraordinarily reliable, a major change from its predecessor, the F-4J.[22] Other
squadrons that switched to F/A-18 are VFA-146 Blue
diamonds, and VFA-147 Argonauts. In January 1985,
the VFA-131 Wildcats and the VFA-132 Privateers
moved from Naval Air Station Lemoore, California to
Naval Air Station Cecil Field, Florida, and became the
Atlantic Fleets rst F/A-18 squadrons.
The Blue Angels' No.6 F/A-18A
An F/A-18C Hornet lands on the ight deck of the aircraft carrier

USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77).
During the Gulf War of 1991, the Navy deployed 106

F/A-18A/C Hornets and Marine Corps deployed 84 F/A18A/C/D Hornets.[24] F/A-18 pilots were credited with
two kills during the Gulf War, both MiG-21s.[25] On 17
January, the rst day of the war, U.S. Navy pilots Lieutenant Commander Mark I. Fox and his wingman, Lieutenant Nick Mongilio were sent from USS Saratoga in
the Red Sea to bomb an aireld in southwestern Iraq.
While en route, they were warned by an E-2C of approaching MiG-21 aircraft. The Hornets shot down the
two MiGs with AIM-7 and AIM-9 missiles in a brief dogght. The F/A-18s, each carrying four 2,000 lb (910 kg)
bombs, then resumed their bombing run before returning
to Saratoga.[12][26]
The Hornets survivability was demonstrated when a Hornet took hits in both engines and ew 125 mi (201 km)
back to base. It was repaired and ying within a few
days. F/A-18s ew 4,551 sorties with 10 Hornets damaged including two losses.[27] The two losses were U.S.
Navy F/A-18s and their pilots were lost. On 17 January
1991, Lieutenant Commander Scott Speicher of VFA-81
was shot down and killed in the crash of his aircraft.[28]
An unclassied summary of a 2001 CIA report suggests
that Speichers aircraft was shot down by a missile red
from an Iraqi Air Force aircraft,[29][30] most likely a MiG25.[31] The other F/A-18, piloted by Lieutenant Robert
Dwyer was lost over the North Persian Gulf after a successful mission to Iraq; he was ocially listed as killed in
action, body not recovered.
The US Navys Blue Angels Flight Demonstration

Squadron switched to the F/A-18 Hornet in 1986,[12]
when it replaced the A-4 Skyhawk. The Blue Angels perform in F/A-18A, B, C, and D models at air shows and
other special events across the US and worldwide. Blue
Angels pilots must have 1,350 hours and an aircraft carrier certication. The two-seat B and D models are typically used to give rides to VIPs, but can also ll in for As the A-6 Intruder was retired in the 1990s, its role
other aircraft in the squadron in a normal show, if the was lled by the F/A-18. The F/A-18 demonstrated its
need arises.
versatility and reliability during Operation Desert Storm,
shooting down enemy ghters and subsequently bombing
enemy targets with the same aircraft on the same misCombat operations
sion. It broke records for tactical aircraft in availability,
The F/A-18 rst saw combat action in April 1986, when reliability, and maintainability.
VFA-131, VFA-132, VMFA-314, and VMFA-323 Hornets from USS Coral Sea ew SEAD missions against
Libyan air defenses during Operation Prairie Fire and
an attack on Benghazi as part of Operation El Dorado
Canyon.[23]
Both U.S. Navy F/A-18A/C models and Marine F/A18A/C/D models were used continuously in Operation
Southern Watch and over Bosnia and Kosovo in the
1990s. U.S. Navy Hornets ew during Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 from carriers operating in the North
454
An F/A-18C taking o from USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)
Three RAAF F/A-18As in 2013
Arabian Sea. Both the F/A-18A/C and newer F/A-18E/F

variants were used during Operation Iraqi Freedom in
2003, operating from aircraft carriers as well from an air
base in Kuwait. Later in the conict USMC A+, C, and
primarily D models operated from bases within Iraq.
Australia selected the F/A-18 in October 1981.[35] Original dierences between the Australian and US Navys
standard F/A-18 were the removed nose wheel tie bar
for catapult launch (later re-tted with a dummy version
to remove nose wheel shimmy), addition of a high frequency radio, an Australian fatigue data analysis system,
an improved video and voice recorder, and the use of
ILS/VOR (Instrument Landing System/Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range) instead of the carrier
landing system.[37]
An F/A-18C was accidentally downed in a friendly re

incident by a Patriot missile when a pilot tried to evade
two missiles red at him and crashed.[32] Two others collided over Iraq in May 2005. In January 2007, two Navy
F/A-18E/F Super Hornets collided in midair and crashed
The rst two aircraft were produced in the US, with the
in the Persian Gulf.[33]
remainder assembled in Australia at Government Aircraft
Factories. F/A-18 deliveries to the RAAF began on 29
October 1984, and continued until May 1990.[38] In 2001,
37.3.2 Non-U.S. service
Australia deployed four aircraft to Diego Garcia, in an
Though U.S. Navy aircraft have generally not sold well on air defense role, during coalition operations against the
the export market, the F/A-18 has been purchased and Taliban in Afghanistan. In 2003, 75 Squadron deployed
is in operation with several foreign air services. Export 14 F/A-18s to Qatar as part of Operation Falconer and
[39]
Hornets are typically similar to U.S. models of a simi- these aircraft saw action during the invasion of Iraq.
lar manufacture date. Since none of the customers op- Australia had 71 Hornets in service in 2006, after four
[34]
erate aircraft carriers, all export models have been sold were lost to crashes.
without the automatic carrier landing system, and Royal The eet was upgraded beginning in the late 1990s to exAustralian Air Force further removed the catapult attach- tend their service lives to 2015.[40] They were expected
ment on the nose gear.[22] Except for Canada, all ex- to be retired then and replaced by the F-35 Lightning
port customers purchased their Hornets through the U.S. II.[41][42] Several of the Australian Hornets have had reNavy, via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales (FMS) Pro- ts applied to extend their service lives until the planned
gram, where the Navy acts as the purchasing manager but retirement date of 2020.[43] In addition to the F/A-18A
incurs no nancial gain or loss. Canada is the largest Hor- and F/A-18B Hornets, Australia has purchased 24 F/Anet operator outside of the U.S.
18F Super Hornets, with deliveries beginning in 2009.
Australia
Main article: McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet in Australian service
The Royal Australian Air Force purchased 57 F/A18A ghters and 18 F/A-18B two-seat trainers to replace
its Dassault Mirage IIIOs.[34][35] Numerous options were
considered for the replacement, notably the F-15A Eagle, the F-16 Falcon, and the then new F/A-18 Hornet.[36]
The F-15 was discounted because the version oered
had no ground-attack capability. The F-16 was considered unsuitable largely due to having only one engine.[37]
In March 2015 six F/A-18As from No. 75 Squadron were

deployed to the Middle East as part of Operation Okra,
replacing a detachment of Super Hornets.[44]
Canada
Main article: McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet
Canada was the rst export customer for the Hornet, replacing the CF-104 Starghter (air reconnaissance and
strike), the McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo (air interception) and the CF-116 Freedom Fighter (ground attack).
455
Canadian CF-188A Hornet o the coast of Hawaii. Note the

false cockpit painted on the underside of the aircraft, intended
to confuse enemy pilots during dogghts.
A Finnish Air Force F-18C at RIAT 2005
In 1991, Canada committed 26 CF-18s to the Gulf

War, based in Qatar. These aircraft primarily provided
Combat Air Patrol duties, although late in the air war began to perform air strikes on Iraqi ground targets. On 30
January 1991, two CF-18s on CAP detected and attacked
an Iraqi TNC-45 patrol boat. The vessel was repeatedly
strafed and damaged by 20mm cannon re, but an attempt to sink the ship with an air-to-air missile failed.
The ship was subsequently sunk by American aircraft,
but the Canadian CF-18s received partial credit for its
destruction.[45] In June 1999, 18 CF-18s were deployed to
Aviano AB, Italy, where they participated in both the airto-ground and air-to-air roles in the former Yugoslavia.
built into a F-18D using the forward section of a Canadian

CF-18B that was purchased.[51][52] The modied ghter
crashed during a test ight in January 2010,[53][52] due to
a faulty tailplane servo cylinder.[54]
the ASPJ (Airborne-Self-Protection-Jammer) jamming

pod ALQ-165.[50] The US Navy later included the ALQThe Canadian Forces Air Command ordered 98 A mod- 165 on their F/A-18E/F Super Hornet procurement.
els (Canadian designation CF-188A/CF-18A) and 40 B One ghter was destroyed in a mid-air collision in 2001.
models (designation CF-188B/CF-18B).
A damaged F-18C, nicknamed Frankenhornet, was re-
Finland is upgrading its eet of F-18s with new avionics, including helmet mounted sights (HMS), new cockpit
displays, sensors and standard NATO data link. Several
of the remaining Hornets are going to be tted to carry
air-to-ground ordnance such as the AGM-158 JASSM, in
eect returning to the original F/A-18 multi-role conguration. The upgrade includes also the procurement and
integration of new AIM-9X Sidewinder and AIM-120C7 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles. This Mid-Life Upgrade
(MLU) is estimated to cost between 11.6 billion and
work is scheduled to be nished by 2016. After the upgrades the aircraft are to remain in active service until
20202025.[55][56] In October 2014 the Finnish broadcaster Yle announced that consideration was being given
to the replacement of the Hornet.[57]
62 CF-18A and 18 CF-18B aircraft took part in the Incremental Modernization Project which was completed in
two phases. The program was launched in 2001 and the
last updated aircraft was delivered in March 2010. The
aims were to improve air-to-air and air-to-ground combat
abilities, upgrade sensors and the defensive suite, and replace the datalinks and communications systems on board
the CF-18 from the F/A-18A and F/A-18B standard to
Kuwait
the current F/A-18C and F/A-18D standard.[46][47]
In July 2010 the Canadian government announced plans The Kuwait Air Force (Al Quwwat Aj Jawwaiya Al
to replace the remaining CF-18 eet with 65 F-35 Light- Kuwaitiya) ordered 32 F/A-18C and eight F/A-18D Horning IIs, with deliveries scheduled to start in 2016.[48]
nets in 1988. Delivery started in October 1991 until August 1993.[58][59] The F/A-18C/Ds replaced A-4KU Skyhawk. Kuwait Air Force Hornets have own missions
Finland
over Iraq during Operation Southern Watch in the 1990s.
They have also participated in military exercises with the
The Finnish Air Force (Suomen ilmavoimat) ordered 64 air forces of other Gulf nations.[60] Kuwait had 39 F/AF-18C/Ds (57 C models, seven D models). All F-18D 18C/D Hornets in service in 2008.[61]
were built at St Louis, and then all F-18C were assembled
in Finland. Delivery of the aircraft started in November 1995 until August 2000.[49] The Hornet replaced the Malaysia
MiG-21bis and Saab 35 Draken in Finnish service. The
Finnish Hornets were initially to be used only for air de- The Royal Malaysian Air Force (Tentera Udara Diraja
fense, hence the F-18 designation. The F-18C includes Malaysia) has eight F/A-18Ds.[62] Delivery of the aircraft
456

the rst sale of USN surplus Hornets.
RMAF F/A-18D returning to base after a national day ypast
started in March 1997 until August 1997.[49] The air force

split their order between the F/A-18 and the Mikoyan
MiG-29.[63] Three Hornets were employed together with
ve UK-made BAE Hawk 208 in an airstrike on the Royal
Security Forces of the Sultanate of Sulu and North Borneo terrorist hideout on 5 March 2013, occupying part of
Borneo, just before the joint forces of Malaysian Army
and Royal Malaysia Police operatives launched an assault
in the 2013 Lahad Datu stando.[64] This was the rst
shot red in combat by the Malaysian Hornets.
Spain
Spanish Hornets operate as an all-weather interceptor

60% of the time and as an all-weather day/night attack
aircraft for the remainder. In case of war, each of the
front-line squadrons would take a primary role: 121 is
tasked with tactical air support and maritime operations;
151 and 122 are assigned to all-weather interception and
air combat roles; and 152 is assigned the SEAD mission. Air refueling is provided by KC-130Hs and Boeing
707TTs. Pilot conversion to EF-18 is centralized in 153
Squadron (Ala 15). Squadron 462s role is air defense
of the Canary Islands, being responsible for ghter and
attack missions from Gando AB.
Spanish Air Force EF-18 Hornets have own Ground Attack, SEAD, combat air patrol (CAP) combat missions in
Bosnia and Kosovo, under NATO command, in Aviano
detachment (Italy). They shared the base with Canadian
and USMC F/A-18s. Six Spanish Hornets had been lost
in accidents by 2003.[65]
Over Yugoslavia, eight EF-18s, based at Aviano AB,
participated in bombing raids in Operation Allied Force
in 1999. Over Bosnia, they also performed missions
for air-to-air combat air patrol, close air support airto-ground, photo reconnaissance, forward air controllerairborne, and tactical air controller-airborne. Over Libya,
four Spanish Hornets participated in enforcing a no-y
zone.[69]
Switzerland
Spanish Air Forces EF-18
The Spanish Air Force (Ejrcito del Aire) ordered 60 EF18A model and 12 EF-18B model Hornets (the E standing for Espaa, Spain), named respectively as C.15 and
CE.15 by Spanish AF.[65] Delivery of the Spanish version started on 22 November 1985 until July 1990.[12][66]
These ghters were upgraded to F-18A+/B+ standard,
close to F/A-18C/D (plus version includes later mission
and armament computers, databuses, data-storage set,
new wiring, pylon modications and software, new abilities as AN/AAS-38B NITE Hawk targeting FLIR pods).
In 1995 Spain obtained 24 ex-USN F/A-18A Hornets,
with six more on option. These were delivered from December 1995 until December 1998.[67] Before delivery,
they were modied to EF-18A+ standard.[68] This was
F/A-18D Hornet dual at Payerne
The Swiss Air Force purchased 26 C models and eight

D models.[65] Delivery of the aircraft started in January
1996 until December 1999.[12][70] Two D models had
been lost in crashes as of 2013.[71]
In late 2007, Switzerland requested to be included in F/A18C/D Upgrade 25 Program, to extend the useful life of
its F/A-18C/Ds. The program includes signicant upgrades to the avionics and mission computer, 20 ATFLIR
surveillance and targeting pods, and 44 sets of AN/ALR67v3 ECM equipment. In October 2008 the Swiss Hornet eet reached the 50,000 ight hour milestone.[72]
37.4. VARIANTS
37.3.3
457
Potential operators
37.4.1 A/B
The F/A-18C and F/A-18D were considered by the

French Navy (Marine Nationale) during the 1980s for
deployment on their aircraft carriers Clemenceau and
Foch[73] and again in the 1990s for the later nuclearpowered Charles de Gaulle,[74] in the event that the
Dassault Rafale M was not brought into service when
originally planned.
The F/A-18A is the single-seat variant and the F/A-18B is

the two-seat variant. The space for the two-seat cockpit is
provided by a relocation of avionics equipment and a 6%
reduction in internal fuel; two-seat Hornets are otherwise
fully combat-capable. The B-model is used primarily for
training.
In 1992, the original Hughes AN/APG-65 radar was replaced with the Hughes (now Raytheon) AN/APG-73,
Austria,
Chile,
Czech Republic,
Hungary,
[75]
[75]
[22]
Philippines,
Poland,
and Singapore
evaluated a faster and more capable radar. A-model Hornets that
the Hornet but did not purchase it. Thailand ordered four have been upgraded to the AN/APG-73 are designated
C and four D model Hornets but the Asian nancial cri- F/A-18A+.
sis in the late 1990s resulted in the order being canceled.
The Hornets were completed as F/A-18Ds for the U.S.
Marine Corps.[22]
37.4.2 C/D
[75]
[22]
[75]
[75]
The F/A-18A and F-18L land-based version competed

for a ghter contract from Greece in the 1980s.[76] The The F/A-18C is the single-seat variant and the F/A-18D
Greek government chose F-16 and Mirage 2000 instead. is the two-seat variant. The D-model can be congured
for training or as an all-weather strike craft. The missionized D models rear seat is congured for a Marine
Corps Naval Flight Ocer who functions as a Weapons
and Sensors Ocer to assist in operating the weapons sys37.4 Variants
tems. The F/A-18D is primarily operated by the U.S.
Marine Corps in the night attack and Forward Air Controller (Airborne) (FAC(A)) roles.[77]
An F/A-18B Hornet assigned to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School
The F/A-18C and D models are the result of a block upgrade in 1987[12] incorporating upgraded radar, avionics,
and the capacity to carry new missiles such as the AIM120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile and AGM-65 Maverick[8] and AGM-84 Harpoon air-to-surface missiles.
Other upgrades include the Martin-Baker NACES (Navy
Aircrew Common Ejection Seat), and a self-protection
jammer. A synthetic aperture ground mapping radar enables the pilot to locate targets in poor visibility conditions. C and D models delivered since 1989 also
have improved night attack abilities, consisting of the
Hughes AN/AAR-50 thermal navigation pod, the Loral
AN/AAS-38 NITE Hawk FLIR (forward looking infrared array) targeting pod, night vision goggles, and two
full-color (formerly monochrome) multi-function display
(MFDs) and a color moving map.[8]
In addition, 60 D-model Hornets are congured
as the night attack F/A-18D (RC) with ability for
reconnaissance.[77] These could be outtted with the
ATARS electro-optical sensor package that includes a
sensor pod and equipment mounted in the place of the
M61 cannon.[78]
A Marine F/A-18D of VMFAT-101 prepares for takeo
Beginning in 1992, the F404-GE-402 enhanced performance engine, providing approximately 10% more maximum static thrust became the standard Hornet engine.[79]
Since 1993, the AAS-38A NITE Hawk added a designator/ranger laser, allowing it to self-mark targets. The later
AAS-38B added the ability to strike targets designated by
lasers from other aircraft.[80]
Production of the C- and D- models ended in 2000. The
458
last F/A-18C was assembled in Finland and delivered to

the Finnish Air Force in August 2000.[49] The last F/A18D was delivered to the U.S. Marine Corps in August
2000.[70]
37.4.3
carry a radar reconnaissance pod. The system was

canceled after it was unfunded in 1988. This ability
was later realized on the F/A-18D(RC).[78]
E/F Super Hornet
Main article: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet

The single-seat F/A-18E and two-seat F/A-18F Super
X-53, NASA's modied F/A-18
TF-18A Two-seat training version of the F/A-18A

ghter, later redesignated F/A-18B.[4]
A VFA-11 F/A-18F Super Hornet performing evasive maneuvers
during an air power demonstration above USS Harry S. Truman
(CVN-75)
F-18 HARV Single-seat High Alpha Research Vehicle

for NASA.[81] High angles of attack using thrust
vectoring, modications to the ight controls, and
forebody strakes
Hornets carry over the name and design concept of the
original F/A-18, but have been extensively redesigned.
The Super Hornet has a new, 25% larger airframe, larger X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing A NASA F/A-18 has
been modied to demonstrate the Active Aeroelastic
rectangular air intakes, more powerful GE F414 engines
Wing technology, and was designated X-53 in Debased on F/A-18s F404, and upgraded avionics suite.
cember
2006.
Like the Marine Corps F/A-18D, the Navys F/A-18F
carries a Naval Flight Ocer as a second crew member
in a Weapons Systems Ocer (WSO) role. The Super
37.4.6 Export variants
Hornet is also operated by Australia.
37.4.4
G Growler
These designations are not part of 1962 United States TriService aircraft designation system.
The EA-18G Growler is an electronic warfare version of F-18L This was a lighter land-based version of the F/Athe two-seat F/A-18F, which entered production in 2007.
18 Hornet. It was designed to be a single-seat airThe Growler is replacing the Navys EA-6B Prowler and
superiority ghter and ground-attack aircraft. It was
carries a Naval Flight Ocer as a second crewman in an
originally intended to be assembled by Northrop as
Electronic Countermeasures Ocer (ECMO) role.
the export version of the F/A-18 Hornet. The F18L was lighter via removing carrier landing capability. Despite the advantages, customers preferred
37.4.5 Other US variants
the standard Hornet, and the F-18L never entered
mass production.[22]
F-18(R) This was a proposed reconnaissance version of
the F/A-18A. It included a sensor package that re(A)F/A-18A/B
placed the 20 mm cannon. The rst of two prototypes ew in August 1984. Small numbers were
(A)F/A-18A: Single-seat ghter/attack version for
produced.[78]
the Royal Australian Air Force.
RF-18D Proposed two-seat reconnaissance version for
the US Marine Corps in the mid-1980s. It was to
(A)F/A-18B: Two-seat training version for the

Royal Australian Air Force.
37.5. OPERATORS
F/A-18A was the original company designation, designations of AF-18A & ATF-18A
have also been applied. Assembled in Australia (excluding the rst two (A)F/A-18Bs) by
Aero-Space Technologies of Australia (ASTA)
from 1985 through to 1990, from kits produced by McDonnell Douglas with increasing
local content in the later aircraft. Originally
the most notable dierences between an Australian (A)F/A-18A/B and a US F/A-18A/B
were the lack of a catapult attachment, replacing the carrier tailhook with a lighter land arresting hook, and the automatic carrier landing system with an Instrument Landing System. Australian Hornets have been involved
in several major upgrade programs. This program called HUG (Hornet Upgrade) has had a
few evolutions over the years. The rst was to
give Australian Hornets F/A-18C model avionics. The second and current upgrade program
(HUG 2.2) updates the eets avionics even further.
459
KAF-18 Hornet
KAF-18C: Single-seat ghter/attack version for the
Kuwait Air Force[58]
KAF-18D: Two-seat training version for the Kuwait
Air Force[58]
F-18C/D Hornet
The Finnish Air Force uses F/A-18C/D Hornets,
with a Finland-specic mid-life update. The rst
seven Hornets (D models) were produced by McDonnell Douglas.[50] The 57 single-seat F-18C
model units were assembled by Patria in Finland.[82]
F-18C/D Hornet
Switzerland uses F-18C/D,[83] later Swiss specic
mid-life update. The Swiss F-18s had no ground
attack capability originally, until hardware was
retrotted.
CF-18 Hornet
CF-18A: Single-seat ghter/attack version for the
Royal Canadian Air Force. The ocial Canadian
designation is CF-188A Hornet.
37.5 Operators
CF-18B: Two-seat training and combat version for

the Royal Canadian Air Force. The ocial Canadian designation is CF-188B Hornet.
Operators of the F/A-18 are shown in blue
F/A-18C of the Swiss Air Force taxis for takeo
EF-18 Hornet
EF-18A: Single-seat ghter/attack version for the
Spanish Air Force. The Spanish Air Force desig- U.S. Navy F/A-18C from VFA-131 launches from French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle o the Virginia Capes.
nation is C.15.
EF-18B: Two-seat training version for the Spanish For operators of F/A-18E and F Super Hornets and its
Air Force. The Spanish Air Force designation is export variants, see Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.
CE.15.
460

Royal Malaysian Air Force - 8 F/A-18Ds in operation as of November 2008[84]
18 Squadron[87]
Spain
Spanish Air Force
A Royal Malaysian Airforce Boeing F/A-18 Hornet during Cope

Taufan 2012.
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force - 55 F/A-18A and 16

F/A-18Bs in operation as of 2008[84]
Ala de Caza 15 (15th Fighter Wing) Zaragoza

AB, with 30 A+ and six B+ shared between
Squadrons 151, 152 and 153
Ala de Caza 12, Torrejn AB (Squadron 121
and 122) with 30 A+ and six B+.
Ala 46, Gando AB (Canary islands), with
Squadron 462 operating 22 ex-US Navy F/A18s.[88]
Switzerland
No. 3 Squadron RAAF

No. 75 Squadron RAAF
No. 77 Squadron RAAF
Swiss Air Force - 26 F/A-18Cs and 7 F/A-18Ds in

use as of November 2008[84]
No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit RAAF
Fliegerstael 11[89][90]
Aircraft Research and Development Unit
Fliegerstael 17[89]
Fliegerstael 18[89]
Canada
see McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet

Finland
Finnish Air Force - 55 F-18Cs and 7 F-18Ds in use

as of 2013[85]
Karelian Air Command
Lapland Air Command
Satakunta Air Command
Kuwait
Kuwait Air Force - 28 F/A-18Cs and 7 F/A-18Ds

in service as of November 2008[84]
9th Fighter and Attack Squadron[86]
25th Fighter and Attack Squadron[86]
Malaysia
F/A-18A Hornets in various color schemes
37.5. OPERATORS
461
VFA-103 1952present (converted to F/A18E/F Super Hornet)
VFA-105 19902006 (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VFA-106 1984present
VFA-113 1983present
Super Hornet)
VFA-125 19802010 (Disestablished, aircraft transferred to VFA-122, Legacy Hornets
phased out by 2013)
VFA-127 19891996 (Disestablished)
VFA-131 1983present
VFA-136 1985present
Super Hornet)
VFA-146 1989present
Super Hornet)
F/A-18B Hornets in various color schemes
United States
United States Navy[91][92] - 409 F/A-18A/B/C/D
Hornets in operation as of 2008[84]
VFC-12 1990present (Naval Air Reserve)
VFA-15 1992present
VFA-22 19902004 (initially converted to
F/A-18E Super Hornet, 20042007; subsequently converted to F/A-18F Super Hornet,
2007present)
VFA-25 1983present (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
Super Hornet)
VFA-151 1986present (converted to F/A18E Super Hornet)

VFA-192 1986present (converted to F/A18E Super Hornet)
VFA-195 19852011 (converted to the F/A18E Super Hornet)
VFA-201 19992007 (Naval Air Reserve;
Disestablished)
Disestablished)
VFA-204 1990present (Naval Air Reserve)
Disestablished)
Disestablished)
VX-4
VFA-34 1996present
VX-5
VFA-37 1990present
VX-9

Super Hornet)
VX-23

VFA-83 1988present
Super Hornet)
VFA-87 1986present
VFA-94 1990present
VFA-97 1991present (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VX-31
Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center
United States Marine Corps Aviation[93] - 238
F/A-18A/B/C/D Hornets in service as of 2008[84]
VMFA-112 1992present (Marine Air Reserve)
VMFA-115 1985present
462

160780 - Virginia Air and Space Center, Hampton,
Virginia.[95]
F/A-18
161353 - Patuxent River Naval Air Museum,
Lexington Park, Maryland.[96]
161725 - Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB,
Utah.[97]
161749 - Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum,
MCAS Miramar, California.[98]
NASA video of an F/A-18A aerial refueling operation, documenting behavior of the drogue basket, 2002.
VMFA-134 19892007 (Marine Air Reserve;
placed in cadre status)
placed in cadre status)
VMFA-212 19882008
VMFA-235 19891996 (Disestablished)
161942 - USS Lexington Museum on The Bay,

Corpus Christi, Texas. Aircraft painted as Blue Angels #1. On loan from the National Museum of
Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida.[99]
162430 - Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs,
California.[100]
162454 - NAS Oceana Air Park, Virginia.[101]
162826 - Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth,
Texas. Aircraft painted as Blue Angels #3.[102]
162901 - San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum, San
Diego, California.[103]
163119 - Defense Supply Center Richmond,

Richmond, Virginia.[104]
163157 - MCAS Beaufort, South Carolina.[105]

Disestablished)
VMFA(AW)121 19892012 (Converted to
F-35B)
VMFA(AW)224 1993present
VMFA(AW)332
lished)
19932007
See also: Blue Angels Accidents and 2007 Blue Angels

(Disestab- South Carolina crash
VMFAT-101 1987present
MAWTS-1 1990present
NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center - 4 F/A-18s
in use[94]

YF-18A
160775 - On display at the The U.S. Naval Museum

of Armament and Technology, NAWS China Lake,
California.(F-18A-1-MC)
37.7 Notable Accidents
163486 - MCAS Beaufort, South Carolina. F/A18D painted as VMFA(AW)533 CO bird, aircraft
01 at the ocers club
On 8 December 2008, an F/A-18D crashed in a

populated area of San Diego, while on approach to
Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, killing four people on the ground.[106] The pilot ejected safely; there
was no Weapon Systems Ocer (WSO) on board
the aircraft.[107]
On 30 March 2011, an F/A-18C suered a catastrophic engine explosion and subsequent re just
before launch from the aircraft carrier USS John
C. Stennis o the coast of San Diego. The Hornet
37.8. SPECIFICATIONS (F/A-18C/D)
463
was at full power in tension on the catapult when

the engine exploded; the aircraft was a total loss.
Eleven ight deck crew were injured, but the pilot
was unhurt.[108][109][110]
On 6 April 2012, a USN F/A-18D from VFA106[111] crashed into apartment buildings in Virginia
Beach, Virginia. Both crew members ejected.[112]
Seven people were injured, including the two pilots,
who were taken to the hospital; all survived. A lastsecond fuel dump may have prevented a large explosion and re after the crash.[113]
On 12 September 2014, two F/A-18 Hornets M61 Vulcan on display at Miramar Airshow.
crashed while ying o the aircraft carrier USS Carl
Vinson in the western Pacic. The Hornets were as Crew: F/A-18C: 1, F/A-18D: 2 (pilot and weapons
signed to Carrier Air Wing 17, which is based at
system ocer)
Naval Air Station Lemoore, Calif.[114]
Length: 56 ft (17.1 m)
37.8 Specications (F/A-18C/D)
Wingspan: 40 ft (12.3 m)
Wing area: 400 ft (38 m)
Airfoil: NACA 65A005 mod root, 65A003.5 mod
tip
Powerplant: 2 General Electric F404-GE-402
turbofans
Orthographically projected diagram of the F/A-18 Hornet.
Dry thrust: 11,000 lbf (48.9 kN) each

Thrust with afterburner: 17,750 lbf (79.2
kN) each
Fuel capacity: 10,860 pounds (4,930 kg) internally
Performance
Maximum speed:
High altitude: Mach 1.8 (1,034 knots, 1,190
mph, 1,915 km/h) at 40,000 ft (12,190 m)
Low altitude: Mach 1.2 (795 knots, 915
mph, 1,473 km/h)[118]
VX-4 F/A-18 with ten AIM-120 AMRAAMs and two AIM-9

Sidewinders.
Range: 1,089 nmi (1,250 miles, 2,000 km) with

only two AIM-9s
Data from U.S. Navy fact le,[115] Frawley Directory,[116]

Great Book[117]
Combat radius: 400 nmi (460 mi (740 km)) on

air-air mission
Ferry range: 1,800 nmi (2,070 mi (3,330 km))
464

Thrust/weight: 0.96 (1.13 with loaded weight &
50% internal fuel)
SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys dispenser

pod and cha pod or
Electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod or
AN/AAS-38 Nite Hawk Targeting pods (US
Navy only), to be replaced by AN/ASQ-228
ATFLIR or
LITENING targeting pod (USMC, Royal
Australian Air Force, Spanish Air Force, and
Finnish Air Force only) or
Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan nose

mounted 6-barreled Gatling cannon, 578 rounds
up to 3 330 US gallons (1,200 l; 270 imp gal)

Sargent Fletcher drop tanks for ferry ight or
extended range/loitering time.
Hardpoints: 9 total: 2 wingtips missile launch

Avionics
rail, 4 under-wing, and 3 under-fuselage with a
capacity of 13,700 pounds (6,200 kg) external fuel
and ordnance
Hughes APG-73 radar
Rockets: **2.75 inches (70 mm) Hydra 70 rockets
ROVER (Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Re 5 in (127.0 mm) Zuni rockets
ceiver) antenna for use by US Navy's F/A-18C strike
ghter squadrons
Missiles: **Air-to-air missiles:
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder or 4 AIM-132

ASRAAM or 4 IRIS-T or 4 AIM-120 37.9 Notable appearances
AMRAAM and
2 AIM-7 Sparrow or 2 AIM-120 AM- Main article: F/A-18 Hornet in ction
RAAM
in media
Hornets make frequent appearances in action movies and

military novels. The Hornet was featured in the lm
AGM-65 Maverick
AGM-84H/K Stando Land Attack Mis- Independence Day and Behind Enemy Lines as well as in
1998s Godzilla. The Hornet has a major role in Janes US
sile Expanded Range (SLAM-ER)
Navy Fighters (1994), Janes Fighters Anthology (1997)
AGM-88 HARM Anti-radiation missile
and Janes F/A-18 Simulator computer simulators.
(ARM)
AGM-154 Joint Stando Weapon
(JSOW)
37.10 See also
AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Stando
Missile (JASSM)
Taurus missile Cruise missile
Anti-ship missile:
AGM-84 Harpoon
Bombs:
Related development
Northrop YF-17
B61 nuclear bomb[119]
McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet
JDAM precision-guided munition (PGMs)
Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
Paveway series of laser-guided bombs

Mk 80 series of unguided iron bombs
CBU-78 Gator
CBU-87 Combined Eects Munition
CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon
Mk 20 Rockeye II
Others:
Boeing EA-18G Growler

High Alpha Research Vehicle
X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing
Dassault Rafale
37.11. REFERENCES
465
Euroghter Typhoon
[19] Jenkins 2000, pp. 24, 147.
Saab Gripen
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
[20] Richardella, Ronald G. The Role Of Hornet-D In The

Marine Air Ground Task Force Air Combat Element.
globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 7 April 2011.
Chengdu J-10
[21] Jenkins 2000, p. 29.
Mikoyan MiG-29M
[22] Jenkins 2000.

[23] Jenkins 2000, pp. 4244.
Related lists
[24] Jenkins 2000, p. 71.

[25] Miller, David. The Illustrated Directory of Modern
Weapons. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7603-1346-6.
[26] Jenkins 2000, pp. 7475.
37.11 References
[27] Jenkins 2000, p. 72.
37.11.1
Notes
[28] Ocials Identify Gulf War Pilots Remains. US Navy, 2

August 2009. Retrieved: 1 November 2009.
[1] Jenkins 2000, pp. 18687.

[2] F/A-18 Hornet strike ghter. U.S. Navy. Retrieved: 12
December 2008.
[3] Kelly, Orr. Hornet: the Inside Story of the F/A-18. Novato, California: Presido Press, 1990. ISBN 978-089141-344-8.
[4] Jenkins 2000, pp. 1921.
[5] F/A-18 Hornet and F/A-18 Super Hornet. U.S. Navy.
[6] Donald, David ed. Boeing F/A-18 Hornet. Warplanes
of the Fleet. London: AIRtime, 2004. ISBN 978-1880588-81-9.
[7] Jenkins 2000, pp. 2226.
[8] F/A-18 Hornet. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved: 4 July 2008.
[29] Intelligence Community Assessment of the Lieutenant

Commander Speicher Case. 27 March 2001. FOIA
Electronic Reading Room. CIA. 10 September 2006.
page 1, page 2, page 3
[30] Atkinson, Rick (1994). Crusade: The Untold Story of the
Persian Gulf War. Houghton Miin Harcourt, p. 47.
ISBN 0-395-71083-9
[31] Weiner, Tim. With Iraqs O.K., a U.S. Team Seeks War
Pilots Body. The New York Times, 14 December 1995:
A1.
[32] Nathan Dennis White, Lieutenant, United States Navy.
Arlington National Cemetery. Retrieved: 19 September
2010.
[33] 2 Navy Fighter Jets Crash In Persian Gulf. CBS. 7 January 2008. Retrieved: 1 November 2009.
[10] Northrop F/A-18L design brochure 1978.
[34] Crick, Darren. ADF Aircraft Serial Numbers RAAF

A21 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18A/B Hornet. adfserials.com. Retrieved: 31 December 2006.
[11] Jenkins 2000, p. 35.
[35] Jenkins 2000, p. 86.
[9] Jenkins 2000, pp. 2629.
[12] F/A-18 Hornet Milestones. Boeing.

March 2007.
Retrieved: 17
[13] Donald 2004, p. 45.

[14] Munoz, Carlo. Navy, Marines Eye JSF Dough to Keep
F-18s Flying. AOL Defense, 29 September 2011.
[36] Wilson 1993, pp. 8081.

[37] Tewes, Alex. Australias F/A-18 Hornet Aircraft: Implications of Use in Iraq. Parliament of Australia Parliamentary Library, 18 March 2003. Retrieved: 1 November
2009.
[15] Jenkins 2000, pp. 131, 139.
[38] Jenkins 2000, pp. 86, 89.
[16] F-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle (HARV) fact sheet.

NASA/Dryden Flight Research Center. Retrieved: 1
November 2009.
[39] Holmes 2006, p. 38.
[17] Jenkins 2000, pp. 24, 144.
[41] Nelson, Brendan. Joint Strike Fighter. Defence Ministers & Parliamentary secretary Media Release, 1 February
[18] Spick 2000, p. 278.
[40] Jenkins 2000, p. 91.
466
[42] Nelson, Brendan. "$6 billion to maintain Australias regional air superiority. Defence Ministers & Parliamentary
secretary Media Release, 3 June 2007. Retrieved: 4 April
2008.
[64] Malaysia soldiers attack armed Filipino clan in Borneo.

BBC News. 5 March 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
[43] Australia upgrades older F/A-18 Hornets. UPI, 2 July

2010.
[66] Senior, p. 25.
[65] Senior.
[67] Senior, p. 27.
[44] Air Task Group Deploys. Air Force. 12 March 2015. p.

8. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
[68] Jenkins 2000, p. 93.
[45] Canadian Air Force Attacks Boat, First Combat. apnewsarchive.com.
[69] Espaa enva a Italia cuatro aviones F-18 para participar en la operacin contra Gada (in Spanish). France
Presse (News Agency) via El Mundo, 18 March 2011.
[46] Auditing the Upgrades to the CF-18 Fighter Aircraft

(Part 1). casr.ca, December 2004. Retrieved: 8 June
2010.
[70] Senior, p. 37.
[47] Ng, Allen. The CF18 Incremental Modernization Program In Detail 'Not Your Fathers Hornet the CF18
Incremental Modernization Program'. casr.ca, December 2003. Retrieved: 8 June 2010.
[48] Government Of Canada Strengthens Sovereignty While
Generating Signicant Economic Benets. Canada Department of National Defence, 16 July 2010, Retrieved:
26 July 2010.
[49] Senior, p. 33.
[50] Jenkins 2000, pp. 100101.
[51] Patria unveils twin-seat F-18 built out of single-seat F18 Hornet. Patria, 21 September 2009. Retrieved: 24
September 2009.
[52] PICTURES: Second accident spells end for Finlands
'Frankenhornet'". Flightglobal, 22 January 2010.
[53] Fighter jet crashes in forest. yle., 21 January 2010. Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[54] Hornet-onnettomuuden taustalla vikaantunut ohjausjrjestelmn servosylinteri (Finnish). mil., 21 January
2010.
[55] Raivio, Jyri.
Hornetien uudistuksesta jttikulut
(Finnish). hs., 2 October 2008. Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[56] Vuoristo, Pekka. Helsingin Sanomat (Finnish). hs., 2
October 2008. Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[57] Finnish Defence Forces to replace aging Hornet ghter
eet. Yle Uutiset.
[58] Jenkins 2000, pp. 9394.
[59] Senior, p. 31.
[60] Jenkins 2000, p. 96.
[61] Kuwait Air Force: Order of Battle. milaviapress.com.
[62] Boeing Delivers Malaysian Hornets on Schedule. Boeing, 9 September 1997. Retrieved: 4 July 2008.
[63] Vatikiotis, Michael. Mix and match: Russia and US split
order for combat aircraft. faqs.org, 1993. Retrieved: 5
April 2010.
[71] Die Fliegerstael 11 trauert um ihren Piloten nzz.ch,

2013.
[72] Swiss Hornets reach 50,000 ight hours milestone,
milaviapress.com, 2008.
[73] Tillman Barrett. MiG Master: Story of the F-8 Crusader
(second edition). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute
Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-87021-585-8.
[74] Donald 2001, p. 122.
[75] Anderson, Barbara. Philippine Pilots Complete F/A-18
Hornet Flight Evaluation. McDonnell Douglas, 11 December 1996.
[76] Greek ghter marathon nears end. Flight International,
31 July 1982.
[77] Jenkins 2000, pp. 6466.
[78] Jenkins 2000, pp. 6670.
[79] Donald, David. Boeing F/A-18 Hornet. Warplanes of
the Fleet. AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. ISBN 978-1880588-81-9.
[80] Jenkins 2000, pp. 6162, 156.
[81] Jenkins 2000, pp. 4952.
[82] Karivalo, Perttu. Tomcat vs. Hornet: An Air Forces
Monthly Special, p. 68. Key Publishing Ltd, 2003.
[83] Nicholls, Mark. Tomcat vs. Hornet: An Air Forces
Monthly Special, p. 78. Key Publishing Ltd, 2003.
[84] Directory: World Air Forces. Flight International, 11
17 November 2008.
[85] Finish Air Force Homepage 6 May 2013
[86] Kuwait Air Force Overview. Aircraft Order of Battle.
Scramble Magazine. Retrieved: 31 December 2008.
[87] Malaysian Air Force Overview. Aircraft Order of Battle. Scramble Magazine. Retrieved: 28 September 2010.
[88] Yaez and Rodriguez 2008, p. 23.
[89] Schweizer Luftwae. Aircraft Order of Battle. Scramble Magazine. Retrieved: 31 December 2008.
37.11. REFERENCES
467
[90] Fighter jet crashes in Switzerland, 2 crew missing RT [112] Martinez, Michael and Barbara Starr. Navy jet has
News. Rt.com. 23 October 2013. Retrieved 16 Novem'catastrophic mechanical malfunction,' hits apartments in
ber 2013.
Virginia. CNN, 6 April 2012. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[91] Strike Fighter Wing Pacic ,COMSTRKFIGHTWING- [113] Forer, Ben. F/A-18 Crashes Into Apartment Building in
PAC. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 19 September 2010.
Virginia Beach. ABC news, 6 April 2012. Retrieved: 9
April 2012.
[92] Strike Fighter Wing, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (COMSTRKFIGHTWINGLANT). globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 19 [114] Stanglin, Doug. Two Navy Hornets crash in Pacic., 12
September 2010.
September 2014.
[93] FY 2010 Marine Aviation Plan. marines.mil. Retrieved:
[115] F/A-18 Hornet strike ghter fact le. US Navy, 26 May
19 September 2010.
2009.
[94] NASA F-18 Mission Support Aircraft. nasa.gov. Re[116] Frawley, Gerald. Boeing F/A-18 Hornet. The Internatrieved: 5 April 2010.
tional Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003. Fyshwick ACT: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 2002. ISBN
[95] F/A-18 Hornet/160780. Virginia Air and Space Center.
978-1-875671-55-7.
[96] F/A-18 Hornet/161353. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: [117] Spick, Mike, ed. F/A-18 Hornet. Great Book of Modern
21 March 2013.
Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2000.
ISBN 978-0-7603-0893-6.
[97] F/A-18 Hornet/161725. Hill Aerospace Museum. Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
[118] McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet - Air Power Provided
[98] F/A-18 Hornet/161749. Warbird Registry. Retrieved:
21 March 2013.
[99] F/A-18/161942. USS Lexington Museum. Retrieved: 21
March 2013.
[100] F/A-18 Hornet/162430. Palm Springs Air Museum. Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
21 March 2013.
[102] F/A-18 Hornet/162826. Fort Worth Aviation Museum.
[103] F/A-18 Hornet/162901. San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum. Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
21 March 2013.
21 March 2013.
[106] Liewer, Steve, Sharon A. Heilbrunn and Angelica Martinez. Rubble, despair all that remain: Man returns to
site where jet crash killed his family. Sign on San Diego,
10 December 2008. Retrieved: 11 December 2008.
[107] Four dead in San Diego jet crash. BBC, 10 December
2008. Retrieved: 10 December 2008.
[108] Kucher, Karen and Susan Shroder. Two sailors remain
in hospital after Stennis jet re. Sign on San Diego, 30
March 2011. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[109] Occurrence # 121433. Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[110] 2011 Aviation Class A mishap listings. U.S. Naval Safety
Center. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[111] Breaking: Jet crashes in Virginia Beach. WTR, 6 April
by. Dutchops.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-16.

[119] Designations of U.S. Nuclear Weapons. designationsystems.net. Retrieved: 8 April 2011.
Donald, David. Carrier Aviation Air Power Directory. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2001. ISBN
978-1-880588-43-7.
Drendel, Lou. F/A-18 Hornet in action (Aircraft
Number 136). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal
Publications, 1993. ISBN 978-0-89747-300-2.
Elward, Brad.
Boeing F/A-18 Hornet (WarbirdTech, Vol. 31). Specialty Press, 2001. ISBN
978-1-58007-041-6.
Gunston, Bill. F/A-18 Hornet (Modern Combat
Aircraft 22). St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1985. ISBN 978-0-7110-1485-5.
Holmes, Tony. RAAF Hornets at War. Australian Aviation. Canberra: Phantom Media, January/February 2006/No. 224. ISSN 0813-0876.
Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 9780-07-134696-2.
Miller, Jay. McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
(Aerofax Minigraph 25). Arlington, Texas: Aerofax Inc., 1988. ISBN 978-0-942548-39-6.
Peacock, Lindsay. F/A-18 Hornet (Osprey Combat
Aircraft Series). London: Osprey Publishing, 1986.
ISBN 978-0-85045-707-0.
468
Senior, Tim. F/A-18 Hornet, The AirForces

Monthly book. AirForces Monthly, 2003. ISBN
978-0-946219-69-8.
Spick, Mike. McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
(Classic Warplanes). London: Salamander Books,
1991. ISBN 978-0-8317-1412-3.
Spick, Mike, ed. F/A-18 Hornet. The Great Book
of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI,
2000. ISBN 978-0-7603-0893-6.
Vann, Frank. McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
(How They Work: Jet Fighter). New York: Exeter
Books, 1988. ISBN 978-0-7917-0226-0.
Wilson, Stewart.
Phantom, Hornet and Skyhawk in Australian Service. Weston Creek, ACT,
Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1993. ISBN
9781875671038.
Yaez, Roberto and Alex Rodriguez. Spanish Hornets: Providing a Potent Sting. Air International,
Volume 75, Number 2, August 2008, pp. 2225.

F/A-18 Hornet U.S. Navy fact le and F/A-18 Hornet Navy history page
F/A-18 Hornet on GlobalSecurity.org
F/A-18A Hornet page and Flying the F/A-18F Super Hornet page on ausairpower.net
List of all USN/USMC Hornets by Lot/Bureau
Number (BuNo) and their known disposition
RAAF F/A-18A Hornet fact le
Swiss Air Force F/A-18C Walkaround
Chapter 38
MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

The MH-6 Little Bird (nicknamed the Killer Egg), and
its attack variant AH-6, are light helicopters used for
special operations in the United States Army. Originally
based on a modied OH-6A, it was later based on the MD
500E, with a single ve-bladed main rotor. The newest
version, the MH-6M, is based on the MD 530F and has
a single, six-bladed main rotor and four-bladed tail rotor.

After the April 1980 failure of Operation Eagle Claw,
it was determined that the US Army lacked aircraft and
crews who were trained and prepared to perform special
operations missions. (Marine pilots and Navy helicopters
were used.) To remedy this shortcoming, the Army began
developing a special aviation task force to prepare for the
next attempt to rescue the hostages: Operation Credible
Sport.
38.1 Development
The A/MH-6 was started in 1960, when the U.S. Army issued Technical Specication 153 for a Light Observation
Helicopter (LOH) that could perform personnel transport, escort and attack missions, casualty evacuation, and
observation. Twelve companies took part in the competition and Hughes Tool Companys Aircraft Division submitted the Model 369. Two designs, those submitted by
Fairchild-Hiller and Bell, were selected as nalists by the
army-navy design competition board, but the army later
included the helicopter from Hughes as well.
The rst Model 369 prototype ew on 27 February 1963.
Originally designated the YHO-6A under the armys designation system, the aircraft was redesignated the YOH6A under the Department of Defense's new joint system in 1962. Five prototypes were built, tted with
a 252 shp (188 kW) Allison T63-A-5A,[1] and delivered to the U.S. Army at Fort Rucker, Alabama to compete against the other 10 prototype aircraft submitted by
Bell and Fairchild-Hiller. In the end, Hughes won the
competition[2] and the Army awarded a contract for production in May 1965. The initial order was for 714 aircraft, but that was later increased to 1,300 with an option
to buy another 114. Seventy helicopters were built in the
rst month.
This agile, unarmed helicopter is outtted with outboard
benches designed to ferry up to three commandos on
each side. There is also a gunship variant, the AH-6.
Painted black for nighttime operations, this small aircraft
can conduct rapid insertions and extractions of special operations forces into areas its larger brother, the MH-60
Black Hawk, cannot.
38.2.1 Task Force 160

The United States Army 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne), also known as Night Stalkers,
is a special operations force that provides helicopter aviation support for general purpose forces and special operations forces. Its missions have included attack, assault,
and reconnaissance, and are usually conducted at night,
at high speeds, low altitudes, and on short notice.
The architects of the task force identied the need for
a small helicopter that could land in the most restrictive
locations and could be easily transported on Air Force
airlifters. They chose the OH-6A scout helicopter, and it
became known as the Little Bird compared to the other
aircraft in the task force, the UH-60A and the CH-47C.
As a separate part of the project, armed OH-6As were
being developed at Fort Rucker, Alabama.
The pilots selected to y the OH-6A helicopters came
from the 229th Attack Helicopter Battalion and were sent
to the Mississippi Army National Guards Army Aviation
Support Facility (AASF) at Gulfport, Mississippi, for two
weeks of qualication training in the aircraft. When the
training was completed, C-141 aircraft transported the
aircraft and crews to Fort Huachuca, Arizona, for two
weeks of mission training. The mission training consisted
of loading onto C-130 transport aircraft which would then
transport them to forward staging areas over routes as
long as 1,000 nautical miles (1,900 km). The armed OH6 aircraft from Fort Rucker joined the training program
in the fall of 1980.
469
470
38.2.2
CHAPTER 38. MD HELICOPTERS MH-6 LITTLE BIRD
Operation Credible Sport
ships. The U.S. military deployed the MH-6 and AH6 aircraft from the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Operation Credible Sport was a joint project of the U.S. Regiment (SOAR) to provide surveillance and patrols in
military in the second half of 1980 to prepare for a second cooperation with other U.S. special operations units in
rescue attempt of the hostages held in Iran. It was can- Operation Prime Chance.
celed after the hostages were released on 20 January 1981 Two MH-6 and four AH-6 aircraft were initially deployed
and, for a short while, it looked as if the task force would and designated as Detachment 160 Aviation Group (DET
be disbanded and the personnel returned to their former 160 AVGP). The MH-6 aircraft carried Forward Lookunits. However, the Army decided that it would be more ing Infra-Red (FLIR) and a videotape system which
prudent to keep the unit. The task force, which had been gave them excellent ability to detect and identify tardesignated Task Force 158, was soon formed into the gets, then direct the armed AH-6s. The AH-6 heli160th Aviation Battalion. The OH-6A helicopters used copters were armed with 7.62 miniguns and 2.75-inch
for transporting personnel became the MH-6 aircraft of rockets. Initially, the aircraft patrolled in teams (call
the Light Assault Company and the armed OH-6As be- sign "SEABAT") that waited for U.S. Navy SH-2s to dicame the AH-6 aircraft of the Light Attack Company.
rect them to the targets. Later, to preserve the aircraft
38.2.3
Operation Urgent Fury (Grenada)
See also: Invasion of Grenada

The OH-6s of 160th SOAR were some of the rst to see
action in Grenada during Operation Urgent Fury. A/MH6 Little Birds were used during the 1983 invasion of
Grenada to evacuate casualties onto naval ship decks. The
existence of the unit became widely known in the aftermath of the October 1983 invasion of Grenada, as OH-6s
helicopters were seen supporting Special Operations during this operation.DoD and the US Army denied A/MH6s were used in the operation despite amateur video showing the helicopters in action.
and crews from fatigue and wear, the SEABAT teams remained on the ships deck until a contact was identied.
At 10 pm on 21 September 1987, the captain of the USS
Jarrett launched a SEABAT team (a MH-6 and two AH6s) to check out reports of Iranian minelaying. The team
found the Iran Ajr, an amphibious landing ship equipped
with minelaying racks. The MH-6 conrmed that the Iran
Ajr was laying mines, the AH-6s opened re, causing
the crew to abandon ship. The vessel was subsequently
boarded and captured.
On the evening of 8 October 1987, an Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps Boghammar and two Boston Whaler
boats were detected by an SH-2. The SEABAT team was
launched and as the MH-6 drew near to investigate, the
Boghammar opened re, the rst of a series of engagements by both AH-6s and the MH-6 (recently armed with
The OH-6s were own in USAF C-130 transport planes,
a minigun). The Boghammar launched two Stinger mistwo at a time, to nearby Barbados. From there they ew
siles at the helicopters, but eventually all three boats were
to Grenada.
sunk.
For the remainder of the operation, it was decided that
barges set up as mobile sea bases (MSB) would facilitate
the operation of the special operations forces. The HerBy 1983, 160th SOAR and its helicopters were heavily cules and the Wimbrown VII were leased to provide these
committed to supporting the contras, a United States- bases and the SEABAT teams began operating from the
subsidized military force. Specially adapted unmarked barges.
Hughes 500D helicopters from CIA Seaspray unit based In early 1988, it was decided that modied U.S. Army
in Fort Eustis also took part in this task .[3]
OH-58D helicopters, tted with weapons, would replace
38.2.4
Nicaragua
MH-6s were based in Palmerola Air Base, Honduras, and

ew missions into Nicaragua. The unit members wore
civilian clothes, ew by night, and were instructed to destroy their aircraft if they were forced down.
38.2.5
the SEABAT teams. On 24 February 1988, a team of

two AHIP helicopters replaced the SEABAT team on
the Wimbrown VII but it would be several months (June
1988) before the SEABAT team aboard the barge Hercules would be relieved by another AHIP detachment.[3]
Operation Prime Chance
Main article: Operation Prime Chance

On 24 July 1987, a Kuwaiti oil tanker, reagged as the
Bridgeton and escorted by U.S. Navy warships, struck a
mine in the Persian Gulf. It became apparent that more
than escort ships would be required to guard merchant
38.2.6 Operation Just Cause (Panama)

On 17 December 1989, 9 MH-6s, 11 AH-6G/Js, 19
UH/MH-60As were own by Air Force C-5 Galaxy airlifters to Howard AFB's Hangar 3. After dark, on 19
December, the aircraft were rolled out to prepare for
Operation Just Cause.

Before the main invasion force arrived in Panama City,
Panama, two MH-6s supported by two AH-6s landed at
Torrijos-Tocumen Airport to insert a beacon and combat controllers. Four other AH-6s conducted pre-assault
attacks on the Panamanian Defense Force (PDF) Headquarters, La Comandancia, adjoining the heavily populated El Chorrillo neighborhood in downtown Panama
City. One of the AH-6s was damaged by ground re and
crashlanded in the Comandancia compound. The two pilots, pinned down by small-arms re for two hours, eventually made their way back to friendly forces, taking a
PDF soldier prisoner along the way.
471
the search for General Manuel Noriega. Four MH-60s,
two MH-6s, two AH-6s, and two MH-47s were moved
to Ft. Sherman in the north for operations in and around
Colon.
The 160th conducted numerous air assault missions over
the next two weeks, and on 3 January 1990, the majority
of the force went back to Fort Campbell, Kentucky.
38.2.7 Operation Gothic Serpent
Main article: Battle of Mogadishu (1993)

Other AH-6s escorted MH-6s on a rooftop rescue opera- MH-6 Little Birds were part of the initial assault near the
tion conducted at Crcel Modelo, a prison adjacent to La
Comandancia. In Operation Acid Gambit, the aircraft
approached the prison. Under re from a nearby apartment house, the Little Birds landed on the roof, dropped
o the rescue team, and lifted o. Upon their return,
heavy smoke made it tough to nd the roof and the helicopters took heavy re from a cellblock about 50 to 60
feet (18 m) from the landing site. Maj. Richard Bowman,
a copilot, took a round in the elbow. His pilot took over
the controls and landed the aircraft. The aircraft picked
up the rescue personnel and headed back toward Howard
AFB, but one MH-6 lost power as it left the roof, and
crashed in the street below with minor injuries to the pas- Two AH-6J Little Birds take o for a mission during Operation
sengers, who were helped from the crash site by U.S. in- Iraqi Freedom in 2003.
fantry soldiers.
Elsewhere, four AH-6s provided re support for the air- Olympic Hotel in the Bakara Market of Mogadishu, Soborne assault at Rio Hato Aireld, supported by an MH- malia. The MH-6s conducted rooftop insertions of Delta
60 which operated as a Forward Arming and Refuel Point Force soldiers.
(FARP). Two nine-man teams from the 160th partici- After the shootdown of the MH-60L, call sign Super
pated in the airborne assaults of Torrijos-Tocumen Air- Six-One, by a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG), an MHeld and Rio Hato Aireld, and were dropped from Air 6 Little Bird, call sign Star Four-One, piloted by CW4
Force C-141s to set up FARPs, 12-foot (3.7 m) plat- Keith Jones and CW3 Karl Maier, landed in the street
forms with HE-rocket and minigun ammunition, parts next to the downed MH-60 and attempted to evacuate
and replacements for the miniguns, and fuel and refu- the casualties. Jones went to assist survivors, successfully
eling pumps, hoses, etc. But the FARP dropped at Rio pulling two soldiers into the Little Bird, while Maier laid
Hato landed out of reach in a marsh, forcing the team to down suppressive re from the cockpit with his individual
wet wing refuel from the MH-60.
weapon. Under intense ground re, the MH-6 departed
[4]
The Rio Hato mission originally included nine other MH- with its crew and survivors.
60s and four MH-6s. Several hours prior to H-hour, these During the night, AH-6J gunships provided re support
aircraft and crews were instead sent to support a raid near to Rangers and Delta Force operators who were in defenColn, Panama, a key PDF stronghold where PDF lead- sive positions around the crash site of Super 6-1 and
ers were believed to be. At H-hour, the helicopters con- under constant re from Warlord Mohammad Farrah Aiducted an air assault on a beach house along the coast of did's militia members.
Colon. It was during this mission that the rst 160th soldiers to die in combat perished when their AH-6 was shot
down.
38.2.8 Operation Iraqi Freedom
Another force of eight MH-60s and four MH-6s were
on strip alert to conduct follow-on raids should the need During the invasion of Iraq in 2003 and up until the end
of the war in late 2011, Little Bird pilots took part in nuarise.
merous missions. Two AH-6 and two MH-6 helicopters
After these initial missions, elements of the 160th prowere part of a special operations raid at Al Qadisiyah in
vided support to special operations forces securing outwestern Iraq. AH-6 and MH-6 gave support for the 75th
lying areas, recovering weapons caches, and hunt for
Ranger Regiment during its seizure of the Haditha Dam
Elvis the phrase the men of the 160th used to refer to
complex in April 2003.
472
CHAPTER 38. MD HELICOPTERS MH-6 LITTLE BIRD
AH-6 helicopters were also tasked with supporting the

rescue mission of Private First Class Jessica Lynch in
April 2003.
38.4 Operators
MH-6 helicopters were part of TF-145, as well as the rescue of three Italian contractors and Polish businessman
taken hostage by Iraqi insurgents in 2004.
38.2.9
Operation Celestial Balance
United States
38.5 Specications (MH-6)
Main article: Baraawe raid
Data from U.S. Army Aircraft,[11] MD 530F data[12][13]
In September 2009, two AH-6 helicopters were used in an General characteristics

operation in Somalia by U.S. Navy SEALs to kill wanted
Crew: 2
terrorist Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan.[5]
Capacity: up to 6 passengers for MH-6s
38.3 Variants
Length: 32.6 ft (9.80 m)
For OH-6 and TH-6 variants, see OH-6 Cayuse.
Rotor diameter: 27.4 ft (8.30 m)
AH-6C Special Operations attack version. Modied

OH-6A to carry weapons and operate as a light attack aircraft for the 160th SOAR(A).
EH-6E Special
Operations
command-post version.
electronic
warfare,
MH-6E Improved attack helicopter used by US Army

special forces units, and stealthy light attack and
transport helicopter for US Army special forces
units.
Height: 9.8 ft (3.0 m)

Empty weight: 1,591 lb (722 kg)
Useful load: 1,509 lb (684 kg)
Powerplant: 1 One T63-A-5A or T63-A-700
turboshaft, 425 shp (317 kW) takeo power (derated); 375 shp (280 kW) continuous power
Fuselage Length: 24.6 ft (7.50 m)
AH-6F Special Operations attack version.
Fuselage Width: 4.6 ft (1.4 m)
AH-6G Special Operations attack version.

tail rotor
MH-6H Special Operations version.
Useful fuel capacity: 62 US gal (242 L) or 403 lb

AH/MH-6J Improved special operations transport and
(183 kg)
attack versions. Updated light attack helicopter
based on the MD 530MG and equipped with an improved engine, FLIR, and a GPS/inertial navigation Performance
system.
AH/MH-6M Also occasionally referred to as the Mission Enhanced Little Bird (MELB), it is a highly
modied version of the MD 530 series commercial
helicopter.[6] All MH-6 helicopters to be moderized
to MH-6M standard by 2015.[7]

Range: 232 nmi (430 km, 267 mi) at 5,000 ft

A/MH-6X An AH/MH-6M MELB helicopter modied
for use as a UAV. It builds upon experience gained
through development of the Unmanned Little Bird
(ULB) Demonstrator, which is a civil MD 530F
modied for autonomous UAV ight. Boeing has Armament
announced that this version is marketed solely to
other nations, not the U.S., for use as a low-cost
attack helicopter.[8] However, Boeing is planning
Guns:
to enter it in the U.S. Armys Armed Aerial Scout
program.[9]
1 30 mm (1.18 in) M230 Chain Gun; or
38.7. REFERENCES
473
PZL SW-4
Related lists
38.7 References
Notes
[1] FAA Document in PDF format
[2] The Hughes Companies US Centennial of Flight Commission
A fully laden Boeing AH-6I on static display at Singapore Air
Show 2010
2 12.7 mm (.50 cal) GAU-19; or

2 7.62 mm (0.30 in) M134 Minigun
Rockets: **2 LAU-68D/A 7-tubes rocket pods
ring 2.75 in (70 mm) Hydra 70 rocket projectiles
Missiles: **Anti-tank guided missile: 2 AGM114 Hellre
Anti-air missile: 2 FIM-92 Stinger for selfdefense
The armed variant is equipped with a
lightweight universal mounting platform which
can accommodate two M134 miniguns, two
M260 7-shot Hydra 70 rocket pods. Alternately, the AH-6 can be armed with Hellre
anti-tank missiles, air-to-air Stingers, Mk-19
40 mm automatic grenade launchers, or .50
caliber machine guns.
[3] 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne)

Homepage
[4] Brief description of Operation Gothic Serpent participants
[5] "FOXWIRE:Navy Seals Kill Wanted Terrorist in Somali
Raid. Fox News. 14 September 2009.
[6] A/MH-6M Little Bird Helicopters. U.S. Army Special
Operations Command.
[7] Superfast Helicopters - Defensemedianetwork.com, October 25, 2011
[8] Boeing Manned/Unmanned Light Helicopter Makes
First Flight. News Release. St. Louis: Boeing IDS. 9
October 2006. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[9] Boeing demonstrates AH-6i for US Army Flightglobal.com, October 23, 2012
[11] Harding, Stephen.
McDonnell-Douglas H-6
Cayuse/Little Bird. U.S. Army Aircraft Since 1947.
Schier Publishing Ltd., 1997.
[12] MD 530F Overview, MD Helicopters.
38.6 See also

U.S. Helicopter Armament Subsystems
Related development
Hughes OH-6 Cayuse
MD Helicopters MD 500
[13] MD 530F Performance Specications. MD Helicopters.
Sources
Harding Stephen. U.S. Army Aircraft Since 1947.
Schier Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0190-X.
38.8 External links
MD Helicopters Defender
MH-6 and AH-6 pages on GlobalSecurity.org
Boeing AH-6
AH/MH-6J Little Bird page on specialoperations.com

OH-58 Kiowa
Bell ARH-70
Warbird Registry OH-6 Cayuse Tracking the

histories of OH-6 that survived military service.
Boeing Announces New Rotorcraft Program: AH6, Boeing, 7 October 2008.
Chapter 39
Military helicopter
A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A
military helicopters mission is a function of its design
or conversion. The most common use of military helicopters is transport of troops, but transport helicopters
can be modied or converted to perform other missions
such as combat search and rescue (CSAR), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), airborne command post, or even
armed with weapons for attacking ground targets. Specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specic missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are attack helicopters, observation helicopters
and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.
39.1.1 Equipment
ent roles, for example the EH-101 in Royal Navy service

can be rapidly congured for ASW or transport missions
in hours. To at the same time retain exibility and limit
costs, it is possible to t an airframe for but not with a
system, for example in the US Armys AH-64D variants
are all tted to be able to take the Longbow radar system, but not enough sets have been brought to equip the
whole force. The systems can be tted to only those airframes that need it, or when nances allow the purchase
of enough units.
Armour, re suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection, as
a cost-cutting measure some nations and services have
been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example it has been
reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement
of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Mil Mi-17.[1] These helicopters without armour and electronic counter measures will function well
enough for training exercises and photo opportunities but
Most military helicopters are armoured to some extent

however all equipment is limited to the installed power
and lift capability and the limits installed equipment
places on useful payload. The most extensive armour is
placed around the pilots, engines, transmission and fuel
tanks. Fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor
may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special
forces helicopters. In transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but
to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured.
Survivability is enhanced by redundancy and the placement of components to protect each other. For example
the Blackhawk family of helicopters uses two engines and
can continue to y on only one (under certain conditions),
39.1 Types and roles
the engines are separated by the transmission and placed
so that if attacked from any one ank, the engine on that
Military helicopters play an integral part in the sea, ank acts to protect the transmission and the engine on
land and air operations of modern militaries. Gener- the other side from damage.
ally manufacturers will develop airframes in dierent Aviation electronics, or avionics, such as communication
weight/size classes which can be adapted to dierent roles radios and navigation aids are common on most milithrough the installation of mission specic equipment. tary helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as electronic
To minimise development costs the basic airframes can countermeasures and identication friend or foe systems,
be stretched and shortened, be updated with new engines are military specic systems that can also be installed on
and electronics and have the entire mechanical and ight military helicopters. Other payload or mission systems
systems mated to new fuselages to create new aircraft. are installed either permanently or temporarily, based
For example, the UH-1 has given rise to a number of on specic mission requirements; optical and IR camderivatives through stretching and re-engining, including eras for scout helicopters, dunking sonar and search radar
the AH-1.
for anti-submarine helicopters, extra radio transceivers
Modern helicopters have introduced modular systems and computers for helicopters used as airborne command
which allow the same airframe to be congured for dier- posts.
474
39.1. TYPES AND ROLES

would be suicidal to deploy in the assault role in actual
combat situations. The intention of China appears to be
to retrot these helicopters with locally produced electronics and armour when possible, freeing available funds
to allow rapid creation of enough regiments to equip each
of its Group Armies. Allowing a widespread build up of
experience in helicopter operations.
39.1.2
Attack helicopters
Main article: Attack helicopter
475
zone (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport
and land a large number of troops and equipment in a
relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and
overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of
air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the
helicopters to continually resupply the force during the
operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow-on location if
the mission dictates.
Transport helicopters
Mil Mi-17 transport of the Kazakhstan

government.[note 1]
Attack helicopters are helicopters used in the anti-tank
and close air support roles. The rst of the modern attack
A Wiesel deploys from a CH-53
helicopters was the Vietnam era AH-1 Cobra, which pioneered the now classic format of pilot and weapons o CH-21C with 105mm howitzer as a slung load
cer seated in tandem in a narrow fuselage, chin mounted
UH-1D helicopters airlift members of a U.S. inguns, and rockets and missiles mounted on stub wings.
fantry regiment, 1966
To enable them to nd and identify their targets, some
modern attack helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors[2] such as a millimeter wave radar system.
Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this
page, but the references will not show without a {{re Attack helicopters
ist|group=note}} template (see the help page).
A Russian Mi-24P Hind-F large helicopter gunship
and low-capacity troop transport.
39.1.4 Observation helicopters
Westland WAH-64 Apache Longbow attack heliThe rst reconnaissance and observation aircraft were
copter operated by the British Army.
balloons, followed by light airplanes, such as the
Cobra attack helicopters being refueled at a FARP Taylorcraft L-2 and Fieseler Fi 156. As the rst milduring Operation Iraqi Freedom
itary helicopters became available, their ability to both
maneuver and to remain in one location made them ideal
for reconnaissance. Initially observation helicopters were
39.1.3 Transport helicopters
limited to visual observation by the aircrew, and most helicopters featured rounded, well-glazed cockpits for maxMain article: Transport helicopter
imum visibility. Over time, the human eye became supplemented by optical sensor systems. Today, these inTransport helicopters are used for transporting person- clude low light level television and forward looking innel (troops) and cargo in support of military operations. frared cameras. Often, these are mounted in a stabilised
In larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose- mount along with multi-function lasers capable of acting
built for military operations, but commercially available as laser rangender and targeting designators for weapons
aircraft are also used. The benet of using helicopters for systems.[3]
these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved By nature of the mission, the observation helicopters prito and from locations without requiring a runway for take- mary weapons are its sensor suite and communications
os and landings. Cargo is carried either internally, or ex- equipment. Early observation helicopters were eective
ternally by slung load where the load is suspended from an at calling for artillery re and airstrikes. With modern
attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are sensor suites, they are also able to provide terminal guidprimarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on ance to ATGWs, laser-guided bombs and other missiles
the ground. However, when the terrain restricts even he- and munitions red by other armed aircraft.[4][5] Obserlicopters from landing, personnel may also be picked up vation helicopters may also be armed with combinations
and dropped o using specialized devices, such as res- of gun and rocket pods and sometimes anti-tank guided
cue hoists or special rope lines, while the aircraft hovers missiles or air-to-air missiles, but in smaller quantities
overhead.
than larger attack helicopters.[6] Primarily, these weapons
Air assault is a military strategy that relies heavily on the
use of transport helicopters. An air assault involves a
customized assault force that is assembled on the pickup zone and staged for sequential transport to a landing
were intended for the counter-reconnaissance ghtto

eliminate an enemys reconnaissance assetsbut they can
also be used to provide limited direct re support or close
air support.
476
CHAPTER 39. MILITARY HELICOPTER
Observation helicopters
A Gazelle helicopter of the French ALAT.
durance and payload providing advantages over smaller

helicopters.
Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers,

had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers long
An OH-58 Kiowa showing its mast mounted sight
range anti-shipping missiles.
and a rocket pod.
Maritime helicopters are navalised for operation from
The Kawasaki OH-1.
ships, this includes enhanced protection against salt water corrosion, protection against ingestion of water and
provision for forced ditching at sea.
39.1.5
Maritime helicopters
See also: Maritime patrol aircraft

Among the rst practical uses of helicopters when the
R-4 and R-5 became available to US and UK forces
was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at
rst supplementing and later replacing catapult-launched
observation aircraft. Another niche within the capability
of the early helicopters was as plane guard - tasked with
the recovery of pilots who had ditched near an aircraft
carrier.
As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and endurance, anti-submarine warfare (ASW) was
added to the helicopters repertoire. Initially, helicopters
operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with airlaunched torpedoes and depth charges based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In
the 1960s, the development of the turboshaft engine and
transistor technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller
helicopters, such as the Westland Wasp, to operate from
smaller vessels than their reciprocating engine predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters,
such as the SH-3 Sea King, to be equipped with integral dunking sonar, radar and magnetic anomaly detection equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more
quickly respond to submarine threats to the eet without
waiting for directions from eet vessels.
Maritime helicopters
A Royal Navy Merlin HM1 anti-submarine warfare
helicopter in 2007
A SH-60B Seahawk 2 helicopter
A Kamov Ka-27 shipborne helicopter, showing
its contra-rotating rotor system, and bulbous radar
radome
A Harbin Z-9
39.1.6 Multi-mission and rescue

As helicopters came into military service, they were
quickly pressed into service for search and rescue[note 1]
and medical evacuation. During World War II, Flettner
Fl 282s were used in Germany for reconnaissance, and
Sikorsky R-4s were used by the United States to rescue
downed aircrews and injured personnel in remote areas of
the China Burma India Theater, from April 1944 until the
wars end. The use of helicopters for rescue during combat increased during the Korean War and the Algerian
War. In the Vietnam War the USAF acquired Sikorsky
S-61R (Jolly Green Giant) and CH-53 Sea Stallion (Super
Jolly Green Giant) helicopters for the CSAR mission.[7]
Multimission and Rescue helicopters
Today, maritime helicopters such as the SH-60 Seahawk

Bell 47 with patient transfer panniers.
and the Westland Lynx are designed to be operated from
Fast-roping at a Combat Search and Rescue action,
frigates, destroyers and similar size vessels. The desire
featuring a HH-60G Pave Hawk.
to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate- and
destroyer-sized vessels has had an impact on the maxi Patient transfer unit for the German Army Aviation
mum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of
Corps CH-53Gs.
the ships. Increasing miniaturisation of electronics, better
engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern,
destroyer-based, multi-role helicopter to operate nearly
39.1.7 Training helicopters
autonomously in the ASW, anti-shipping, transport, SAR
and reconnaissance roles.
Some services use a version of their operational heliMedium- and large-sized helicopters are operated from copters, usually in the light class, for pilot training. For
carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and example, the British have used the Arospatiale Gazelle
Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti- both in operations and as a trainer. Some services also
submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operat- have an Ab initio phase in training that uses very basic
ing from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti- helicopters. The Mexican Navy has acquired a number
submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines of the commercially available Robinson R22[8] and R44
loitering outside military ports and harbours; their en- helicopters for this purpose.
39.2. TACTICS AND OPERATIONS
39.2 Tactics and operations
477
ight environment. Anti-tank missiles, such as the Nord
SS.11 and the Arospatiale SS.12/AS.12 were developed
and mounted on French military helicopters. In turn, the
United States adapted its BGM-71 TOW for ring from
helicopters and eventually developed the AGM-114 Hellre. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union adapted the 3M11
Falanga missile for ring from the Mil Mi-24.
In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout
helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter,
ying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and
to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include
laser designators to guide missiles red from the attack
helicopters. After nding a target, the scout helicopter
can locate it and then direct the attack helicopters missile where to re. The attack helicopters have only to
rise from cover briey to re their missiles before returning to a concealed location.[7] Late-development of attack
helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52,
and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for
scout helicopters.
To enhance the combat endurance of these missile-armed

helicopters, transport helicopters were used to carry technicians, reloads and fuel to forward locations. EstablishFirst generation Alouette anti-tank helicopter of the German
ing these forward arming and refuel points (FARP) at preArmy armed with SS.10 missiles
arranged locations and times allowed armed or attack helicopters to re-arm and refuel, often with their engines
running and the rotors still turning, and to quickly return
to the front lines.[7]
39.2.2 Low intensity warfare
An OH-58 and an AH-1 of the Hawaii ARNG, such a combination would have formed hunter-killer team during the Cold
War.[7]
While not essential to combat operations, helicopters give

a substantial advantage to their operators by being a force
multiplier. To maximise their impact, helicopters are
utilised in a combined arms approach.[9]
39.2.1
High intensity warfare

An Iraqi unit prepares to board a US Blackhawk for a COIN
High-intensity warfare is characterized by large arrays of operation

conventional armed forces, including mass formations of
tanks, with signicant air defenses. Helicopter armament Main article: Counter-insurgency
and tactics were changed to account for a less-permissive
478
CHAPTER 39. MILITARY HELICOPTER
In counter-insurgency (COIN) warfare, the government

force establishes its presence in permanent or temporary
military bases from which to mount patrols and convoys.
The government forces seek to deter the insurgent forces
from operating, and to capture or kill those that do. The
operation of forces from xed bases linked by a xed
network of roads becomes a weakness. Emplaced insurgents and local sympathisers may observe such facilities covertly and gather intelligence on the schedules and
routes of patrols and convoys. With this intelligence the
insurgents can time their operations to avoid the COIN
forces or plan ambushes to engage them, depending on
their own tactical situation.
and Sikorsky Aircraft.
Due to the cost and complexity of training and support

requirements, insurgent forces rarely have access to helicopters.
39.5 Notes
In Japan the three main manufacturers of helicopters

are the aviation arms of the Japanese conglomerates
Mitsubishi, Kawasaki and Fuji Heavy Industries. These
companies initially followed a business model based
on forming strategic partnerships with foreign, usually
American, companies with the licensed production of
those companies products, whilst building up their own
ability to design and manufacture helicopters through a
process of workshare and technology transfer.
In the Soviet-planned economic system, the Mil and

Kamov OKBs were responsible only for the design of helicopters. A 2006 re-organisation of the helicopter indusHelicopters return a measure of surprise and tactical ex- try in Russia created Oboronprom, a holding company to
ibility to the COIN commander. Patrols need not start bring together Mil and manufacturing plants.
and end in the same place (the main entrance of the local
compound), nor do supply convoys need follow the same
roads and highways. During the Troubles, the Provisional
Irish Republican Army (IRA) became adept at avoiding 39.4 See also
conventional, xed roadblocks and patrols. To prevent
Air assault
predictable patterns, the patrols were deployed by helicopter, known as Eagle Patrols, and were then able to
Armed helicopter
disrupt the IRAs ability to move personnel and arms.[7]
Army aviation
In the aftermath of the American invasion of Iraq helicopters have been used as aerial supply trucks and troop
Helicopter bombing
transports to prevent exposure to ambushes set by the
Iraqi insurgency.[10]
39.3 Manufacturers
[1] Search and rescue is sometimes referred to as SAR. Search

and rescue during combat is referred to by NATO countries as CSAR and is a specialized personnel recovery mission.
39.6 References
[1] Kanwa Defense Review No26, Is Chinas 20-year buildup Army Aviation Corps eective, February 2007.
[2] Give us an enemy to ght, says chief of Britains Apache
helicopter eet
[3] Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development
[4] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA
[5] Comanches Child: The ARH-70 Armed Reconnaissance
Helicopter
[6] Filling Comanches Shoes
Helibras HM-1 Pantera under construction in Brazil.
Main article: Helicopter manufacturers

The major Western European helicopter manufacturers
are now AgustaWestland and Eurocopter Group. In
America, the three large remaining companies are Boeing
(Boeing Vertol and McDonnell Douglas), Bell Helicopter
[7] Cacutt, Len (1989). Combat. Aerospace Publishing Ltd.

p. 185. ISBN 1-55521-240-9.
[8] Air Forces Monthly, February 2001, Mexico Navy acquires Robinson R22s
[9] Rotary Aircraft-Army Plans
[10] Iraq re downed US helicopters. BBC Online. 4 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
39.6.1
479
Further reading
Boyne, Walter J. (2011).

Changed Modern Warfare.
ISBN 1-58980-700-6.
How the Helicopter

Pelican Publishing.
FM 1-100 Army Aviation Operations from 21

February 1997 by Headquarters Department of the
Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-108 Doctrine For Army Special Operations
Aviation Forces from 3 November 1993 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1111 Aviation Brigades from 27 October 1997
by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-112 Attack Helicopter Operations from 2
April 1997 by Headquarters Department of the
Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-113 Utility and Cargo Helicopter Operations
from 25 June 1997 by Headquarters Department of
the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-114 Air Cavalry Squadron and Troop Operations from 1 February 2000 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-120 Army Air Trac Service Contingency
and Combat Zone Operations from 22 May 1995
FM 1-140 Helicopter Gunnery from 29 March 1996
FM 3-04.500 Army Aviation Maintenance from 26
September 2000 by Headquarters Department of
the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 90-4 Air Assault Operations from 16 March
1987 by Headquarters Department of the Army at
GlobalSecurity.org
39.7 External links

Army Aviation Association of America
Homepage of the Royal Navys Fleet Air Arm
Homepage of the UKs Army Air Corps
Helicopter page from RAF homepage
French Ministry of Defence ALAT page
CombatAircraft.com - Helicopters
Chapter 40
Military transport aircraft

For freight and cargo aircraft, see Cargo aircraft.
permanent platforms, and in the command role by providMilitary transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft ing airborne command post or as an air ambulance.
40.1.1 Active xed-wing transport aircraft
C-17 Globemaster III military cargo aircraft.
are typically xed wing and rotary wing cargo aircraft

which are used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of mil- RAF TriStar refuelling US Navy F/A-18s.
itary operations around the surface of the planet, usually
outside of the commercial ight routes in uncontrolled
airspace. Originally derived from bombers, military
transport aircraft were used for delivering airborne forces
during the Second World War and towing military gliders.
Some military transport aircraft are tasked to performs
multi-role duties such as aerial refueling and, tactical, operational and strategic airlifts onto unprepared runways,
or those constructed by engineers.
40.1 Fixed-wing transport aircraft

Fixed-wing transport aircraft are dened in terms of their
range capability as strategic airlift or tactical airlift to re- The C-5 Galaxy.
ect the needs of the land forces which they most often
support. These roughly correspond to the commercial
ight length distinctions:
40.1.2 Active xed-wing tanker aircraft
A more specialised role of a cargo aircraft is that of transporting fuel in support of other aircraft with more limited
ight endurance such as ghters or helicopters. Smaller
cargo aircraft, known as utility, are often used to transport military communications equipment as temporary or
480
Airbus A400M
Airbus A310 MRTT
Airbus A330 MRTT
40.2. TRANSPORT HELICOPTERS
The Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle Mystic being loaded into

an An-124, California.
481
The Airbus A400M.
C-12 Huron
C-20 Gulfstream III
C-21 Learjet
C-32
UC-35
C-40 Clipper
VC-25A Air Force One
Antonov An-225 with Buran at Le Bourget 1989.
40.2 Transport helicopters

Military transport helicopters are used in places where the
use of conventional aircraft is impossible. For example
the military transport helicopter is the primary transport
asset of US Marines deploying from LHDs and LHA. The
landing possibilities of helicopters are almost unlimited,
and where landing is impossible, for example densely
packed jungle, the ability of the helicopter to hover allows troops to deploy by abseiling and roping.
Transport helicopters are operated in assault, medium

and heavy classes. Air assault helicopters are usually
the smallest of the transport types, and designed to move
an infantry squad or section and their equipment. HeliIl-76 and Tu-95 over Moscow on Victory Day Parade.
copters in the assault role are generally armed for selfprotection both in transit and for suppression of the
landing zone. This armament may be in the form of door
KC-130 Hercules
gunners, or the modication of the helicopter with stub
KC-10 Extender
wings and pylons to carry missiles and rocket pods. For
example the Sikorsky S-70, tted with the ESSM (Ex KC-135 Stratotanker
ternal Stores Support System), and the Hip E variant of
the Mil Mi-8 can carry as much disposable armament as
Ilyushin Il-78
some dedicated attack helicopters. The assault helicopter
can be thought of as the modern successor to the military
Finally, there is the generic term utility helicopter,
glider.
40.1.3 Commercial aircraft used in miliwhich generally refers to medium-lift designs.
tary role
C-9 Skytrain II
Not all militaries are able to operate a full range of transport helicopters, so the medium transport type is probably
482
the most useful compromise and probably the most common specialist transport type. Medium transport helicopters are generally capable of moving up to a platoon of
infantry and are capable of being able to transport towed
artillery or light vehicles either internally or as underslung roles. Unlike the assault helicopter they are usually
not expected to land directly in a contested landing zone,
but are used to reinforce and resupply landing zones taken
by the initial assault wave. Examples include the unarmed
versions of the Mil Mi-8, Super Puma, and CH-46 Sea
Knight.
Heavy lift helicopters are the largest and most capable
of the transport types, currently limited in service to
the CH-53 Sea Stallion and related CH-53E Super Stallion, CH-47 Chinook, Mil Mi-26, and Arospatiale Super Frelon. Capable of lifting up to 80 troops and moving small Armoured ghting vehicles (usually as slung
loads but also internally), these helicopters operate in the
tactical transport role in much the same way as small
xed wing turboprop air-lifters. The lower speed, range
and increased fuel consumption of helicopters are more
than compensated by their ability to operate virtually anywhere.
Kazakh Mi-17 helicopter; some members of the Mil
Mi-8 family can carry both weapons and troops
CH-53 with possible internal load
CH-54B carrying an M551 Sheridan tank
40.3 See also

Cargo aircraft
Loadmaster
Airlift
CHAPTER 40. MILITARY TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT
Chapter 41
Multirole combat aircraft

the same basic design to undertake a variety of roles,
the Tornado IDS (Interdictor/Strike) variant and later the
Panavia Tornado ADV (Air Defence Variant).
A multirole combat aircraft is a jet powered combat

aircraft intended to perform dierent roles in combat.[1]
A multirole ghter is a multirole combat aircraft which
is, at the same time, also a ghter aircraft; in other words,
an aircraft whose various roles include, among others, the
role of air-to-air combat.
Although the term multirole aircraft may be relatively

novel, certain airframes in history have proven versatile
to multiple roles. In particular the Ju 88 was renowned in
Germany for being a jack-of-all-trades, capable of performing as a bomber, dive bomber, ghter, night ghter,
and so on, much as the British de Havilland Mosquito did
as a fast bomber/strike aircraft, reconnaissance, and night
ghter. The USAF F-4 Phantom II built by McDonnellDouglas also ts the denition of a Multi-Role aircraft
in its various congurations of the basic airframe design.
The various F-4 Phantom II congurations were used in
air-to air, ghter bomber, reconnaissance, and suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) mission roles to name
a few. The newest ghter jet to actually meet the denition of 'Multi-role' is the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. It can perform ground and naval strike, and ghter
roles. The Growler variant of the Super Hornet is also
Electronic warfare capable, jamming enemies radar.
41.1 History
41.2 Multirole
A Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, a type of Multirole ghter,

on a mission in 2013.
The term had originally been reserved for aircraft designed with the aim of using a common airframe for multiple tasks where the same basic airframe is adapted to
a number of diering roles. Multirole has also been applied to one aircraft with both major roles, for example:
a primary air-to-air combat role
a secondary role like air-to-surface attack.
The Panavia Tornado program was historically the rst bearer

of such designation.
The rst use of the term was by the multinational European project named Multi-Role Combat Aircraft,
which was formed in 1968 to produce an aircraft capable of tactical strike, aerial reconnaissance, air defense,
and maritime roles. The design was aimed to replace a
multitude of dierent types in the cooperating air forces.
The project produced the Panavia Tornado, which used
More roles can be added, such as aerial reconnaissance, forward air control, and electronic-warfare aircraft. Attack missions include the subtypes air interdiction, suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD), and close
air support (CAS).
The main motivation for developing multirole aircraft is
cost reduction in using a common airframe.
483
484
CHAPTER 41. MULTIROLE COMBAT AIRCRAFT
41.3 Swing-role
Some aircraft are called swing-role, to emphasize the ability of a quick role change, either at short notice, or even
within the same mission. According to the Military Dictionary : the ability to employ a multi-role aircraft for
multiple purposes during the same mission.[2]
According to BAE Systems, an aircraft that can accomplish both air-to-air and air-to-surface roles on the same
mission and swing between these roles instantly oers
true exibility. This reduces cost, increases eectiveness
and enhances interoperability with allied air forces.[3]
Capability also oers considerable cost-of-ownership
benets to and operational commanders.[4]
41.4 Gallery
41.4.1
Active
41.5 See also

Tactical bomber
Interceptor aircraft
Interdictor
Fighter-bomber
Attack aircraft
Strike ghter
Lead-in ghter trainer
41.6 References
[1] Military-Dictionary.org; both Wiktionary and Cambridge
Dictionary only list multirole, and not multi-role.
[2] Denition Of: swing-role
[3] BAE SYSTEMS delivers Swing Role Radar capability to
Euroghter Typhoon
[4] Euroghter Typhoon, Mission conguration, Swing Role
Chapter 42
Next-Generation Bomber
This article is about the next-generation USAF bomber. that the next generation bomber might be hypersonic and
For next generation Russian bomber, see PAK DA.
unmanned.[9] However, these were put to rest when US
Air Force Major General Mark T. Matthews, head of
ACC Plans and Programs stated that available technolThe Next-Generation Bomber (NGB; formerly called
at a May 2007
the 2018 Bomber) was originally a program to develop ogy indicates a manned subsonic bomber
Air Force Association sponsored event.[10] He later stated
a new medium bomber for the United States Air Force.
The NGB was originally projected to enter service around that a manned subsonic bomber provides the best value
to meet the required range and payload performance by
2018 as a stealthy, subsonic, medium-range, medium
[11]
The 2018 bomber was expected to serve as a
payload bomber to supplement and possiblyto a limited 2018.
stop-gap until the more advanced "2037 Bomber" entered
degreereplace the U.S. Air Forces aging bomber eet
[12]
(B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer). The NGB pro- service.
gram was superseded by the Long-Range Strike-B (LRS- The 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), directed
B) heavy bomber program.
the Air Force to develop a new long-range precision strike
On 24 June 2010, Lieutenant General Philip M. capability by 2018. Since then, the Air Force and Strateis
Breedlove said that the term next-generation bomber gic Command have decided that the best initial option
[13][14]
to
pursue
a
manned
bomber
to
be
designated
B-3.
was dead and that the Air Force was working on a longrange strike family that would draw on the capabilities
of systems like the F-35 and F-22 to help a more aordable and versatile bomber complete its missions.[2] On 13
September 2010, U.S. Air Force Secretary Michael Donley said that long range strike would continue cautiously
with proven technologies and that the plan to be submitted with the 2012 budget could call for either a missile or
an aircraft.[3][4] The bomber will be nuclear-capable, but
not certied for nuclear use until later. On 24 February
2012, Air Force Secretary Michael Donley announced
that a competition was under way with a target delivery
in the mid-2020s.[5]
42.1 Development
42.1.1
2018 Bomber
The sinking of ex-USS Schenectady as a test during Operation Resultant Fury in 2004 demonstrated that heavy
bombers could successfully engage naval targets on their
own. This led to the requirement for a new bomber that
could survive against modern defenses.[6][7] In 200406,
the USAF Air Combat Command studied alternatives
for a new bomber type aircraft to augment the current
bomber eet which now consists of largely 1970s era
airframes, with a goal of having a fully operational aircraft on the ramp by 2018.[8] Some speculation suggested
USAF ocials expect the new bomber to have top-end

low-observability characteristics with the ability to loiter for hours over the battleeld area and respond to
threats as they appear. Major General David E Clary,
ACC vice-commander, summed it up by saying the new
bomber will be expected to penetrate and persist. Deployment of cruise missiles is another issue for the new
bomber. The B-52 is the only aircraft currently in the
Air Force inventory allowed under treaty to be armed
with nuclear cruise missiles. Major consideration was
paid to operation readiness and exibility. In 2006, the
program expected that a prototype could be ying as
early as 2009.[15] In September 2007, Air Force generals stated that even though the development schedule for
the bomber is short, it could be elded by 2018.[16]
On 25 January 2008, Boeing and Lockheed Martin announced an agreement to embark on a joint eort to develop a new US Air Force strategic bomber, with plans
for it to be in service by 2018.[17] This collaborative effort for a long-range strike program will include work
in advanced sensors and future electronic warfare solutions, including advancements in network-enabled battle
management, command and control, and virtual warfare
simulation and experimentation.[18] Under their joint arrangement, Boeing, the No. 2 Pentagon supplier, would
be the primary contractor with about a 60% share, and
Lockheed Martin, the worlds largest defense contractor,
would have around a 40% share, according to sources
485
486
CHAPTER 42. NEXT-GENERATION BOMBER
familiar with the companies plans.[19] Northrop Grumman, another major defense contractor, received $2 billion in funding in 2008 for restricted programs also
called black programs for a demonstrator that could y
in 2010.[20] On 1 March 2010, Boeing said that the joint
project with Lockheed Martin had been suspended.[21]
Andrew Krepinevich has questioned the reliance on a

short range aircraft like the F-35 to 'manage' China in
a future conict and has called on reducing the F-35
buy in favor of a longer range platform like the NextGeneration Bomber, but then-United States Secretary of
the Air Force Michael Wynne rejected this plan of action
[35][36][37][38][39]
The Air Force was expected to announce late in 2009 back in 2007.
its precise requirements for a new bomber that would
be operating by 2018.[22] In May 2009, testimony before Congress, US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates 42.1.3 Further developments
mentioned that the Pentagon is considering a pilotless
aircraft for the next-generation bomber role.[23] Then in During the debate on the New START treaty in DecemApril 2009, Defense Secretary Gates announced a delay ber 2010, several senators stated the project as a reason
[40][41][42]
in the new generation bomber project that would push to oppose or delay its ratication.
[24]
it past the 2018 date.
This was caused not only by On 6 January 2011, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates
budget considerations, but also by nuclear arms treaty made a speech on the U.S. defense budget for FY 2012,
considerations.[25]
which announced major investment in developing a long-
42.1.2
Long-range strike
Main article: Long Range Strike Bomber

On 19 May 2009, Air Force Chief of Sta General Norton Schwartz said that the USAFs focus in the 2010
budget was on Long-range strike, not next-generation
bomber and will push for this in the QDR.[26] In June
2009, the two teams working on NGB proposals were told
to close up shop.[27]
On 16 September 2009, Defense Secretary Gates endorsed the concept of a new bomber but insisted that
it must be aordable.[28] He said, I am committed to
seeing that the United States has an airborne long-range
strike capability one of several areas being examined
in the ongoing Quadrennial Defense Review. What we
must not do is repeat what happened with our last manned
bomber. By the time the research, development, and requirements processes ran their course, the aircraft, despite its great capability, turned out to be so expensive
$2 billion each in the case of the B-2 that less than onesixth of the planned eet of 132 was ever built.[29] On 5
October 2009, Ashton Carter said that the DoD was still
deciding if the Air Force really needed a new bomber and
that if the program was approved the aircraft would need
to handle reconnaissance as well as strike.[30] And in July
2010, he said he intended to make aordability a requirement for the next-generation intelligence and strike
platform.[31]
range, nuclear-capable bomber, also to be optionally remotely piloted. He also said the aircraft will be designed and developed using proven technologies, an approach that should make it possible to deliver this capability on schedule and in quantity. It is important that we
begin this project now to ensure that a new bomber can
be ready before the current aging eet goes out of service.
The follow on bomber represents a key component of a
joint portfolio of conventional deep-strike capabilities
an area that should be a high priority for future defense
investment given the anti-access challenges our military
faces.[43] In July 2011, Joint Chief Vice Chairman James
Cartwright called for a large UAV instead of a manned
aircraft, including for the nuclear mission.[44] Retired Air
Force colonel and Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments analyst Mark Gunzinger has called for an optionally manned bomber, stating that purely unmanned
bombers would be at a disadvantage without direct human pilot awareness and vulnerable to communication
disruption.[45]
In March 2011, the Air Force intended to purchase
from 80 to 100 of the aircraft.[46][47] The Global Strike
Command has indicated that one requirement upon the
bomber is to carry a weapon of similar eect to the existing Massive Ordnance Penetrator.[48][49] In addition
to the strategic bombing, tactical bombing, and prompt
global strike roles typical for a long-range bomber, the
aircraft is to be part of a family of systems to be
responsible for ground surveillance and electronic attack.[50] The Obama Administration in its 2012 budget
request asked for $197 million and a total of $3.7 billion over ve years to develop the bomber, which is to
include modular payload options for intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR), electronic attack (EA), and
communications.[51][52] The bomber is to be nuclear capable, but shall not be certied for the role until older
bombers are set to retire.[53][54][55]
On 11 December 2009, Gates said that the QDR had

shown the need for both manned and unmanned long
range strike and that the 2011 budget would most
likely include funding for the future bomber.[32] The
Air Force plans for the new bomber to be multi-role
with intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR)
capabilities.[33] As a bomber the LRS-B will be under Air In 2011, the House Armed Services Committee added
Force Global Strike Command, while ISR assets are man- language that would require two engine programs for the
aged by the 25th Air Force of Air Combat Command.[34] bomber; Ashton Carter objected that the addition would
42.1. DEVELOPMENT
487
interfere with plans to reuse an existing engine.[56] Reportedly, the two most likely engines are the Pratt &
Whitney PW9000 engine, which uses a combination of
Pratt & Whitney F135 and commercial turbofan technology, and a derivative of the General Electric/Rolls-Royce
F136.[57][58] In May 2011, Air Force Undersecretary Erin
Conaton announced that a program oce was being set
up for the bomber.[59]
man has the most recent experience with the stealthy B2. At the time of the announcement, the only ocial
details about the LRS-B were that it will likely be optionally manned and use stealth technology.[67] Although
Northrop Grumman has not ocially announced that it
will compete for the LRS-B contract, on 30 January 2014
they revealed they intend to spend money on developing new technology that the bomber would need which
could include stealth designs, mission management sysThe USAF asked for $292 million for the program in its
[68]
[60]
2013 budget request.
The program has also been re- tems, and autonomous controls.
ferred to as Long-Range Strike-B (LRS-B).[61] In 2012, In January 2014, former Air Force Chief of Sta Norton
former Pentagon weapons tester Thomas P. Christie spec- Schwartz said that the Pentagon should abandon plans to
ulated that the bomber program had been initiated so that outt the F-35 with nuclear weapons and give the role
the Air Force would have a sacricial program to of- to the LRS-B. A 2010 Nuclear Posture Review stated
fer during anticipated defense budget shortfalls.[62] The that replacement of the F-16 with the F-35 would retain
USAF seems committed to the program, given a lack dual conventional and nuclear delivery capabilities for
of other non-nuclear options to deal with deeply buried Air Force ghters. The Congressional Budget Oce has
and/or hardened targets,[63][64] and committed two per- determined that upgrading the F-35 for nuclear deploycent of their investment budget to the project, compared ment capabilities would cost $350 million over the next
decade. Schwartz said that without nancial support from
to three percent to sustain existing bombers.[65]
As of August 2013, the Air Force believes that the LRS- NATO, where some nuclear-capable Lightnings would be
B can reach Initial Operating Capability (IOC) in 2025. deployed, those funds should be transferred to the LRSReportedly, the main risk to the program is funding, par- B eort. This occurred at the same time that Congress
ticularly in light of the F-35 Lightning II's acquisition dif- cut funding for the B61 nuclear bomb, stripping $10 milculties and the lack of an urgent threat. Prior bomber lion from F-35 integration and $34.8 million for service
programs have been hindered due to lack of funding, as life extension. Schwartz believes that life extension for
be deonly 21 B-2 Spirits were produced out of 132 planned the B61 must continue but that the weapon should
[69]
ployed
from
the
LRS-B
instead
of
the
F-35.
and fewer B-1 Lancers were built than were envisioned;
both programs were scaled down due to spiraling per
aircraft costs. Research funding has been allocated, as
stealthy technologies to counter anti-access/area-denial
threats were spared from budget cuts. The Air Force
has said the LRS-B is a top priority as it is believed that
China will overcome the B-2s low-observable features by
the 2020s. Where possible, the use of existing technologies and proven subsystems will be undertaken in order
to keep the program within budget, instead of developing new and riskier ones. Components such as engines
and radars may be o-the-shelf or adaptions of existing
models; derivative technologies of the F-35 may also be
adopted. The LRS-B is intended to perform any long
range mission, rather than have any one specialized mission, which drove up the cost of the B-2. The Air Force
expects the plane to cost $1 billion each with development costs factored in, and aims for a per-aircraft cost of
$550 million, which is considered reasonable for a limited production run military aircraft.[66]
On 25 October 2013, Boeing and Lockheed Martin announced they would be teaming up for the Long Range
Strike Bomber program. Boeing will be the prime contractor. The two companies previous joined together for
the program in 2008, but the partnership ended in 2010
when requirements shifted. Boeing believes that because
the program had evolved since then, they can readdress
their partnership to specically address Air Force requirements. The team has Boeings bomber experience
and Lockheeds stealth experience. Northrop Grum-
On 20 February 2014, the US Air Force reasserted the

need of the bomber at the annual Air Force Association
Air Warfare Symposium in Orlando, Fla. It was stated
the bomber will be elded in the mid-2020s, and the service will procure between 80 and 100 of the bombers.
Lt. Gen. Burton Field claried the 80 to 100 range is
due to uncertainty over the price rather than a gure representing the minimum number of bombers needed to
mitigate risk.[70][71] Some Air Force leaders expect the
unit cost limit of $550 million per aircraft will be exceeded with additional equipment added to the airframe.
The cost goal is to set design constraints to prevent extra
requirements for capability growth desires and untested
technologies that would increase the price more from being incorporated in the development process. Though the
nal cost may be greater than planned, having a xed
price objective is expected to keep average procurement
costs for production aircraft aordable.[72] Rather than
the price ceiling being too low to meet requirements, the
Air Force sees it as them and the potential contractor
being disciplined about the bombers missions and roles.
Research and development expenses are likely to be signicant, but not expected to be double the cost of production aircraft.[73]
The Air Force intended to release a full request for proposals (RFP), a nal RFP, and begin the competition for
the Long-Range Strike Bomber in fall 2014. Two teams
are working on pre-proposals in preparation for the competition, believed to be Northrop Grumman and a team
488
between Boeing and Lockheed Martin.[74] In June 2014,

the Air Force revealed that the LRS-B RFP would be
released soon, with proposals to be submitted by fall
2014 and evaluations completed in early 2015, with a
contract award after that. Some public information about
the program includes that it will be operational in the mid2020s, based on existing technologies, have a large payload, may possibly be optionally-manned, and the bomber
is being designed to work with a family of systems that
includes ISR, electronic attack, and communication systems. Early aircraft will be designed around xed requirements with mature technologies that will be adaptable
through open architecture for future sensor and weapons
capabilities.[75] Although the LRS-B RFP was to be released by the end of June, the Air Force hesitated to make
its release in a public announcement. Not releasing information in the current acquisition stage is seen as keeping
the process fair and less likely to give sensitive information to potential adversaries. Public announcements of
future acquisition milestones will also be released as appropriate. A single contractor will be downselected in
late spring 2015.[76]
42.1.4
Competitive phase
ning is still being discussed. With a target price of $550

million per aircraft, a source with knowledge of the program predicted the LRS-B may be smaller than the B2, perhaps half the size, powered by two engines in the
F135 power class. This has led to concerns that the price
gure may hurt the bombers capabilities by producing
the lowest cost plane without enough judgment given to
performance. One of the main eects of the program
will be its impact on the industrial base, as three of the
countrys ve largest defense rms are competing. After
the LRS-B, the Air Force will not have another large attack aircraft program until the 2030s for a new ghter,
with a follow-on bomber after that. With that stretch of
time in between, the loser may be put out of the military attack airframe industry entirely; Northrop Grumman would likely not retain the infrastructure required
for the next program 15 years later, and Boeings main
aircraft eld is now based on its commercial products. Industrial impact may cause any contract to be contested by
Congress from representatives that receive campaign donations from a company whose award would create jobs
for constituents. In addition to competing with other Air
Force priorities, budgets may put the LRS-B at odds with
other services priorities like the Ohio Replacement Submarine.[80]
The USAF released its request for proposals to industry

for the LRS-B on 9 July 2014. By entering the competi- 42.2 Design
tive phase of acquisition, the service is limited with what
it is able to release, and few details are expected to be The design goals in January 2011 were:[81]
made public until the contract is awarded in the second
quarter of 2015; what is known is that the platform must
Total program cost estimated at $40 to $50
be adaptable with a large payload and based upon mabillion.[81]
ture technology. The LRS-B is to replace the B-52 eet,
possibly replace a portion of the B-1 eet, and be comple Fleet size of 175 aircraft: 120 for ten combat
mented by the B-2 eet. Northrop Grumman could base
squadrons, plus 55 for training and reserves.[81]
their eorts in Florida if they won the contract, which
Subsonic maximum speed.
would provide tax credits, while California passed a bill
oering tax credits to the manufacturer if they build it
Range: 5,000+ nautical miles (9,260+ km).[81]
in their state, which would mainly benet the LockheedBoeing team.[77][78] On 14 August 2014, the California
Optionally manned (for non-nuclear missions).[81]
legislature passed a measure to apply tax benets equally
Total mission durations of 50 to 100 hours (when
to prime and subcontractors. The previous measure only
unmanned).[81]
applied to a subcontractor, meaning Lockheed as part the
Lockheed-Boeing team, allowing them to use their facil Ability to survive daylight raids in heavily defended
ity in Palmdale, California and leave Northrop Grumman
enemy territory.[82]
at a near half-billion-dollar disadvantage in the bidding.
Ability to carry thermonuclear weapons.[81]
The new measure levels the tax benet eld by also applying them to prime contractors, as Northrop Grumman has
Designed to use commercial o-the-shelf propulno subcontractor and also has operations in Palmdale.[79]
sion, C4ISTAR, and radar technologies.[83]
As of January 2015, the only unclassied information
Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and
on the proposed LRS-B is that production is targeted at
aerial reconnaissance along with command and con80-100 planes, it will replace the B-52 and B-1 bomber
trol gear to enable the crew to direct other aircraft
eets, it will be stealthy, mature technologies will be used
and forces.[84]
rather than launching new developments, although it will
have an open architecture for future features, and IOC
is planned for the mid-2020s with certication to carry An August 2008 paper by Northrop Grumman highnuclear weapons approved two years later; optional man- lighted the following trends and requirements:[85]
42.4. REFERENCES
Airelds available for American use have declined
since the Cold War.
Hostile cruise and ballistic missiles could shut down
the few available airelds.
Fewer ghter aircraft will be available to escort the
bomber force.
Advanced ghter aircraft and surface to air missiles
are being made available to potentially hostile states.
The current USAF bomber force is small and largely
outdated.
42.3 See also

2037 Bomber
Lockheed Martin FB-22
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
PAK DA
489
[11] Warwick, Graham. Speed bump: USAF sets modest

goals for new bomber. Flight International, 12 June
2007.
[12] RL34406, Air Force Next-Generation Bomber: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research
Service. 22 December 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
[13] Why the US Wants a New Bomber, The Diplomat, 6
May 2012.
[14] Ehrhard, Tom. An Air Force Strategy for the Long
Haul. Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments,
17 September 2009.
[15] Hebert, Adam J (October 2006). The 2018 Bomber and
Its Friends. Air Force magazine. Retrieved 30 March
2010.
[16] Senior Air Force Generals To Skeptics: We Can Field
A New Bomber In 2018. Defense Daily, 26 September
2007.
[17] Boeing, Lockheed to work on new bomber, UPI, Jan 25,
2008.
[18] Boeing and Lockheed Martin Team for Next Generation
Bomber Program (press release), Boeing, 2008.
[19] Boeing, Lockheed team up on bomber project, The Star.
[20] Ultra Stealth, Aviation Week, 26 May 2008.
Related lists
42.4 References
[1] Butler, Amy. Can USAF Buy A $550 Million Bomber?"
Aviation Week. 5 April 2012.
[21] Boeing, Lockheed Put Bomber Partnership on Ice. Defense news. 1 March 2010. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[22] Boeing, Lockheed to team up against Northrop for
bomber contract, Seattle Times (NW source).
[23] Gates says next-generation bomber might y without pilot, Congress Daily (Government Executive), 14 May
2009.
[24] Gates sees more changes to US weapons in 2011, Reuters.
[2] Leader says future bomber won't go solo. Air Force

Times. Jul 2010.
[25] USAF Bomber Grounded by More than Budget, Aviation Week.
[3] Air Force secretary: 'Make hard choices now'". Govexec. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[26] Schwartz: Service needs long-range capability, Air Force

Times, May 2009
[4] State of the Air Force (speech). US: U.S. Air Force.
2010. Archived from the original on Jul 19, 2012.
[27] RL34406, Air Force Next-Generation Bomber: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research
Service, 18 September 2009
[5] Reed, John. AFA: New bomber program 'underway'.

DoD Buzz. 24 February 2012.
[6] Aecting the Strategic Battlespace with Eects-Based
Public Aairs, Air chronicles (Air force), Spring 2006.
[7] Bombs Away: How the Air Force Sold Its Risky New
$55 Billion Plane, Wired, Mar 2012.
[8] Grant 2007, pp. 1720.
[9] Grant 2007, pp. 67.
[10] Warwick, Graham. USAF says next bomber will be subsonic and manned. Flight International, 3 May 2007.
[28] Gates endorses new U.S. bomber project. Reuters

[29] Speech, Defense link
[30] Carter: DoD, White House Crafting New Presidential
Helo Specs. Defense News
[31] Carter Pushes Eciency With Contractors At Farnborough. Aviation Week. 2010-07-23. Archived from the
original on 2010-07-23.
[32] Entous, Adam (11 December 2009). Gates sees funding
for new bomber in scal 2011. Reuters.com. Retrieved
6 September 2011.
490
[33] Fulghum, David A. New Bomber To Focus Heavily On

ISR. Aviation Week, 17 December 2009.
[51] Majumdar, Dave. Budget shrinks; acquisition programs

outlined AirForce Times, 15 February 2011.
[34] Air Combat Command to host new ISR Numbered Air

Force. www.acc.af.mil (Air Combat Command Public
Aairs). 14 July 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2014.
[52] Shane, Leo. Budget breakdown: Air Force. Stars and

Stripes, 14 February 2011.
[35] Clark, Colin. Strategy, What Strategy?" dodbuzz.com,

29 June 2010. Retrieved: 3 July 2010.
[36] Kosiak, Steve and Barry Watts. US Fighter Modernization Plans: Near-term Choices. Retrieved: 3 July 2010.
[37] Wolf, Jim. Air Force chief links F-35 ghter jet to
China. Reuters, 19 September 2007. Retrieved: 3 July
2010.
[38] Us Fighter Modernization Plans: Near-Term Choices
(PDF). Csbaonline.org. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[39] Wolf, Jim (20 September 2007). Air Force chief links
F-35 ghter jet to China. Reuters.com. Retrieved 6
September 2011.
[40] Kyl, Jon (8 July 2010), The New Start Treaty: Time for a
Careful Look, The Wall Street Journal
[41] Trinko, Katrina (20 December 2010), McConnell on new
START: 'A Flawed, Mishandled Treaty', National Review
[42] New Start votes expected Monday as GOP leaders decry
process, The Cable, Foreign Policy, 2010-12-20, Thune
is interested in this issue because South Dakota, his home
state, stands to benet greatly from production of Boeings
Next Generation Bomber, which is meant to replace the
aging eet of strategic bombers being limited under New
START
[43] Gates, Robert M, Statement on Department Budget and Efciencies, The Pentagon date= Thursday, 6 January 2011:
Oce of the Secretary of Defense, US Department of
Defense
[44] Tirpak, John A. Confessions of a 'Bomber Hater'. Air
Force Magazine, 15 July 2011.
[53] Conventional First.

Airforce-magazine.com.
September 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
13
[54] Majumdar, Dave. New Bomber Won't Be NuclearCapable at First: USAF Chief. Defense News, 2 November 2011.
[55] http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_
detailpage&v=YYdc2sVuOpA#t=5051s
[56] Bedard, Paul. Pentagon, Obama Bomb House Bid To
Revive Jet Engine. US News, 24 May 2011.
[57] Reed, John (2010-09-15). P&W Pitches Engine For
Long-Range Strike. Defense News. Retrieved 2013-0225.
[58] Next Gen Bomber Linked To Self-Funded F136.
Aviation Week. 2011-05-04.(subscription required)
[59] Majumdar, Dave (2011-05-11). DoD OKs USAF
Bomber Program Oce. Defense News. Retrieved
2013-02-25.
[60] Munoz, Carlo. DoD Fast Tracks New Bomber; 'Planning Number' is $550 Million Per Plane. Aol Defense.
15 February 2012.
[61] Butler, Amy. Amid Cuts USAF Cautiously Funds F-35,
Bomber. Aviation Week. 13 February 2012.
[62] Axe, David. Why Can't the Air Force Build an Aordable Plane?" The Atlantic. 26 March 2012.
[63] U.S. Air Force Is 'Committed' To Long-Range Strike
Bomber.
[64] Air Force Wants A Bomber That Balances Cost With Capability.
[65] Sec. Donley: Why The Air Force Can't Delay Modern[45] http://www.csbaonline.org/
ization.
wp-content/uploads/2010/09/2010.09.
14-Sustaining-Americas-Strategic-Advantage-in-Long-Range-Strike.
[66] Budget Pressures Seen as Biggest Risk to Long
pdf
Range Bomber Program. Nationaldefensemagazine.org,
September 2013.
[46] Reed, John. Air Force Hopes to Buy 80 to 100 Next Gen
Bombers. DoD Buzz, 30 March 2011.
[67] Boeing, Lockheed Team on Long Range Strike Bomber Defensenews.com, 25 October 2013
[47] Erwin, Sandra. Air Force Chief: We Will Not 'Overdesign' the New Stealth Bomber. National Defense Indus- [68] Northrop to position for future bomber work as LRS-B
trial Association. 9 February 2012.
progresses - Flightglobal.com, 4 February 2014
[48] Trimble, Stephen. Penetrate faster, harder with new
AFRL weapon. Flight Global, 20 February 2011.
[49] A Slimmer MOP. AirForce Magazine, Daily Report,
25 June 2010.
[50] Majumdar, Dave (30 January 2010), Air Force can use
savings for bomber, ghters, Air Force Times, retrieved
31 January 2010
[69] Mehta, Aaron (17 January 2014). Schwartz: Move away

from nuclear F-35. www.militarytimes.com. Gannett
Government Media. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
[70] USAF Defends Need for New Long-Range Bomber Defense News, 20 February 2014
[71] Next Generation Bomber Survives Budget Tightening.
Defense tech. 22 April 2013.
491
[72] General: 'Of course' new Air Force bomber will be more
than $550M per plane - Militarytimes.com, 5 March 2014
The 2018 Bomber and Its Friends, Air Force Magazine, October 2006.
[73] Air Force Keeps Bomber Price Tag at $550 Million DoDBuzz.com, 12 March 2014
Great Expectations, Air Force Magazine, August

2007.
[74] MEHTA, AARON (26 February 2014). James: USAF

Expects Long-Range Bomber RFP in Fall. www.
defensenews.com. Gannett Government Media. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
B-3 Long Range Strike Platform, Global Security.
[75] RFP for bomber coming soon, Air Forces top buyer says
- Militarytimes.com, 13 June 2014
2018 Bomber, Boeing.
"Issue Brief, 2018 Bomber, Air Force Magazine,

March 2008.
[76] Bomber RFP News to Stay Hidden - AirForcemag.com,

27 June 2014
Air Force Next-Generation Bomber: Background and

Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service, 22 December 2009, RL34406.
[77] Air Force sends next-gen bomber requirements to industry, few details made public - AirForcetimes.com, 10 July
2014
US Air Force Bomber Modernization Plans: An Independent Assessment (PDF), CSIS.
[78] USAF launches competition for new bomber - Flightglobal.com, 11 July 2014
The Case For Long-Range Strike: 21st Century Scenarios (PDF), Center for Strategic and Budgetary
Assessments.
[79] Northrop Bomber Team Relieved Over California Legislation - Aviationweek.com, 15 August 2014
[80] Shrouded in Mystery, New Bomber Makes Waves - Defensenews.com, 19 January 2015
[81] Majumdar, Dave. U.S. Air Force May Buy 175
Bombers. Defense News, 23 January 2011.
[82] Grant, Greg. Air Force chief describes future bomber.
Government Executive, 31 October 2007.
[83] U.S. Air Force: No 2009 Money for Next-Gen Bomber.
Defensenews.com. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[84] Majumdar, Dave. New bomber could conduct longrange missions. AirForce Times, 12 February 2011.
[85] The 2018 Bomber: The Case for Accelerating the Next
Generation Long-Range Strike System
42.5 Bibliography
Grant, Dr. Rebecca (February 2007), Return of the
Bomber, The Future of Long-Range Strike (PDF),
Air Force Association.
Rose, William Bill (2010), Secret Projects: Flying
Wings and Tailless Aircraft, Hinckley, England, UK:
Midland.
42.6 External links

Long-Range Strike in a Hurry, Air Force Magazine, November 2004.
USAF Weighs Four Skunk Works Designs for Interim Strike, Aviation Week, 28 November 2004.
Gunzinger, Mark (September 2010), Sustaining

Americas Strategic Advantage in Long-Range Strike
(PDF), Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments.
Stealth Reborn, Popular Science, January 2009.
The US Air Force Is Pushing Ahead With One
of Its Most Secretive Programs, National Defense
Magazine (Business insider), August 2014.
Chapter 43
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit

B-2 and Stealth bomber redirect here. For other The B-2 is capable of all-altitude attack missions up to
uses, see B2 (disambiguation) and Stealth aircraft.
50,000 feet (15,000 m), with a range of more than 6,000
nautical miles (11,000 km) on internal fuel and over
10,000 nautical miles (19,000 km) with one midair refuThe Northrop (later Northrop Grumman) B-2 Spirit,
also known as the Stealth Bomber, is an American eling. Though originally designed primarily as a nuclear
bomber, it was rst used in combat dropping conventional
heavy strategic bomber, featuring low observable stealth
1999 and saw further sertechnology designed for penetrating dense anti-aircraft ordnance in the Kosovo War in
vice in Iraq and Afghanistan.[7]
defenses; it is a ying wing design with a crew of
two.[1][4] The bomber can deploy both conventional and
thermonuclear weapons, such as eighty 500 lb (230 kg)class (Mk 82) JDAM Global Positioning System-guided 43.1 Development
bombs, or sixteen 2,400 lb (1,100 kg) B83 nuclear
bombs. The B-2 is the only known aircraft that can carry
43.1.1 Origins
large air-to-surface stando weapons in a stealth conguration.
In the mid-1970s, the search for a new U.S. strategic
Development originally started under the Advanced bomber aircraft to replace the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
Technology Bomber (ATB) project during the Carter ad- was underway, to no avail. First the B-70 and then the
ministration, and its performance was one of his reasons B-1A were canceled after only prototypes of each airfor the cancellation of the supersonic B-1A bomber. ATB craft were built. The B-70 was intended to y above and
continued during the Reagan administration, but worries beyond defensive interceptor aircraft, only to nd these
about delays in its introduction led to the reinstatement of same attributes made it especially vulnerable to surfacethe B-1 program as well. Program costs rose throughout to-air missiles (SAMs). The B-1B attempted to avoid
development. Designed and manufactured by Northrop SAMs by ying close to the ground to use terrain to mask
Grumman, the cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 its radar signature, only to face a new generation of inmillion (in 1997 dollars).[3] Total procurement costs av- terceptors with look-down/shoot-down capabilities (Migeraged $929 million per aircraft, which includes spare 31 with Zaslon PESA and Su-27 with Myech, guided
parts, equipment, retrotting, and software support.[3] by A-50 airborne early warning) that could attack them
The total program cost including development, engi- from above.[8] Before this other projects had attempted
neering and testing, averaged $2.1 billion per aircraft in to create a stealth aircraft, but were not successful. In
1997.[3]
the 1960s, specialized drones known as Lightning Bugs,
Because of its considerable capital and operating costs, or Fireies, had been created with extra stealth features.
the project was controversial in the U.S. Congress and The SR-71 used high altitude and speed[9]along with rudiamong the Joint Chiefs of Sta. The winding-down of the mentary stealth to operate its missions.
Cold War in the latter portion of the 1980s dramatically
reduced the need for the aircraft, which was designed
with the intention of penetrating Soviet airspace and attacking high-value targets. During the late 1980s and
1990s, Congress slashed plans to purchase 132 bombers
to 21. In 2008, a B-2 was destroyed in a crash shortly after takeo, though the crew ejected safely.[5] A total of 20
B-2s remain in service with the United States Air Force,
which plans to operate the B-2 until 2058.[6]
By the mid-1970s, it was becoming clear that there was a

dierent way to avoid missiles and interceptors; known
today as "stealth"; the concept was to build an aircraft
with an airframe that deected or absorbed radar signals
so that little was reected back to the radar unit. An aircraft having stealth characteristics would be able to y
nearly undetected and could be attacked only by weapons
and systems not relying on radar. Although such possibilities existed, such as human observation, their relatively
short detection range allowed most aircraft to y undetected by defenses, especially at night.[10]
492
43.1. DEVELOPMENT
In 1974, DARPA requested information from U.S. aviation rms about the largest radar cross-section of an aircraft that would remain eectively invisible to radars.[11]
Initially, Northrop and McDonnell Douglas were selected
for further development. Lockheed had experience in
this eld due to developing the Lockheed A-12 and SR71, which included a number of stealthy features, notably
its canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall surface nish in
radar-absorbing paint. A key improvement was the introduction of computer models used to predict the radar
reections from at surfaces where collected data drove
the design of a faceted aircraft. Development of the
rst such designs started in 1975 with the hopeless diamond, a model Lockheed built to test the concept.[12]
Plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when
DARPA started the Experimental Survivability Testbed
(XST) project. Northrop and Lockheed were awarded
contracts in the rst round of testing. Lockheed received
the sole award for the second test round in April 1976
leading to the Have Blue program.[13]
43.1.2
ATB program
493
Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study
contract for further work.[16] Both teams used ying wing
designs.[17] The Northrop proposal was code named Senior Ice and the Lockheed proposal code named "Senior
Peg".[18] Northrop had prior experience developing the
YB-35 and YB-49 ying wing aircraft.[19] The Northrop
design was larger while the Lockheed design included a
small tail.[17] In 1979, designer Hal Markarian produced
a sketch of the aircraft, that bore considerable similarities
to the nal design.[20] The Air Force originally planned to
procure 165 of the ATB bomber.[1]
The Northrop teams ATB design was selected over the
Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.[16][21]
The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and
the name Spirit. The bombers design was changed
in the mid-1980s when the mission prole was changed
from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The
redesign delayed the B-2s rst ight by two years and
added about US$1 billion to the programs cost.[15] An
estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research
and development on the B-2 by 1989.[22] MIT engineers
and scientists helped assess the mission eectiveness of
the aircraft under a ve-year classied contract during the
1980s.[23]
By 1976, these programs progressed to where a longrange strategic stealth bomber appeared viable. President 43.1.3
Carter was aware of these developments during 1977,
and it appears to have been one of the major reasons
the B-1 was canceled.[14] Further studies were ordered in
early 1978, by which point the Have Blue platform had
own and proven the concepts. During the 1980 presidential election in 1979, Ronald Reagan repeatedly stated
that Carter was weak on defense, and used the B-1 as a
prime example. In return, on 22 August 1980, the Carter
administration publicly disclosed that the United States
Department of Defense (DoD) was working to develop
stealth aircraft, including a bomber.[15]
Secrecy and espionage
The B-2s rst public ight in 1989
The B-2s rst public display in 1988
The Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) began in

1979.[16] Full development of the black project followed,
and was funded under the code name "Aurora".[17] After the evaluations of the companies proposals, the ATB
competition was narrowed to the Northrop/Boeing and
During its design and development, the Northrop B2 program was a Gray Project before its reveal to the
public.[24] Unlike the Lockheed F-117 program, which
was a Black project, the type of military project of which
very few people knew even existed while it was being
designed and developed, more people within the United
States federal government knew about the B-2 and more
information about the project was available. Both during
development and in service, there has been considerable
importance placed to the security of the B-2 and its technologies. Sta working on the B-2 in most, if not all,
capacities have to achieve a level of special-access clear-
494
CHAPTER 43. NORTHROP GRUMMAN B-2 SPIRIT
ance, and undergo extensive background checks carried operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million.[34]
out by a special branch of the Air Force.[25]
In 1995, Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build
For the manufacturing, a former Ford automobile assem- 20 additional aircraft with a yaway cost of $566 million
bly plant in Pico Rivera, California, was acquired and each.[35]
heavily rebuilt; the plants employees were sworn to comThe program was the subject of public controversy for
plete secrecy regarding their work. To avoid the possi- its cost to American taxpayers. In 1996, the General
bility of suspicion, components were typically purchased
Accounting Oce (GAO) disclosed that the USAFs Bthrough front companies, military ocials would visit out 2 bombers will be, by far, the most costly bombers
of uniform, and sta members were routinely subjected to operate on a per aircraft basis, costing over three
to polygraph examinations. The secrecy extended so far times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually)
that access to nearly all information on the program by and over four times as much as the B-52H (US$6.8 milboth Government Accountability Oce (GAO) and vir- lion annually). In September 1997, each hour of Btually all members of Congress itself was severely lim- 2 ight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn.
ited until mid-1980s.[26] Northrop (now Northrop Grum- Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the Bman) was the B-2s prime contractor; major subcontrac- 1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of
tors included Boeing, Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon), ight. A key reason for this cost is the provision of
GE, and Vought Aircraft.[7]
air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bombers
In 1984, a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh was
arrested for attempting to sell classied information to the
Soviet Union; the information was taken from Northrops
Pico Rivera, California factory.[27] Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released on parole in
2001.
The B-2 was rst publicly displayed on 22 November
1988 at United States Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. This viewing was heavily restricted, and guests were not allowed to see the rear
of the B-2. However, Aviation Week editors found that
there were no airspace restrictions above the presentation
area and took photographs of the aircrafts then-secret
planform and suppressed engine exhausts from the air,
to the USAFs disappointment. The B-2s (s/n 82-1066 /
AV-1) rst public ight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale to Edwards AFB.[28]
172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircrafts stealthy properties, particularly its lowobservable stealthy skins.[36][37] Maintenance costs are
about $3.4 million a month for each aircraft.[38]
The total military construction cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million
in 1997 dollars, based only on a eet cost of US$15.48
billion.[3] The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed
in GAO reports, which include spare parts and software
support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.[3]
The total program cost projected through 2004 was

US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars. This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare
parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion
per aircraft.[3] The B-2 may cost up to $135,000 per ight
hour to operate in 2010, which is about twice that of the
In October 2005, Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer B-52 and B-1.[39][40]
who worked on the B-2s propulsion system, was arrested for selling B-2 related classied information to foreign countries.[29] On 9 August 2010, Gowadia was con- 43.1.5 Opposition
victed in the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii on 14 of 17 charges against him.[30] On
In its consideration of the scal year 1990 defense budget,
24 January 2011, Gowadia was sentenced to 32 years in
the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800
prison.[31]
million from the B-2 research and development budget,
while at the same time staving o a motion to end the
project. Opposition in committee and in Congress was
43.1.4 Program costs and procurement
mostly broad and bipartisan, with Congressmen Ron DelA procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid- lums (D-CA), John Kasich (R-OH), and John G. Row1980s, but was later reduced to 75.[32] By the early land (R-CT) authorizing the motion to end the project,
and John
1990s, the Soviet Union dissolved, eectively eliminat- others in the Senate, such as Jim Exon (D-NE)
[41]
(R-AZ),
also
opposing
the
project.
McCain
ing the Spirits primary Cold War mission. Under budgetary pressures and Congressional opposition, in his
1992 State of the Union Address, President George H.W.
Bush announced B-2 production would be limited to 20
aircraft.[33] In 1996, however, the Clinton administration,
though originally committed to ending production of the
bombers at 20 aircraft, authorized the conversion of a
21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 fully
The escalating cost of the B-2 program and evidence

of aws in the aircrafts ability to elude detection by
radar,[41] were among factors that drove opposition to
continue the program. At the peak production period
specied in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7
billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair Les Aspin (D-WI) said won't
43.1. DEVELOPMENT
495
y nancially.[42] In 1990, the Department of Defense to the weapon control systems to enable strikes upon nonaccused Northrop of using faulty components in the static targets, such as moving ground vehicles.[51]
ight control system; the threat posed by bird ingestion potentially damaging engine fan blades also required
redesigning.[43]
In time, a number of prominent members of Congress
began to oppose the programs expansion, including later
Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast
votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a
U.S. Senator, representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H.W. Bush called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet
Union.[44] In October 1995, former Chief of Sta of the
United States Air Force, General Mike Ryan, and former
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta, General John Shalikashvili, strongly recommended against Congressional
action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft,[45] and
that the military had greater priorities in spending a limited budget.[46]
Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional aircraft would save money because B-2s would
be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and
use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than
expensive stando weapons. However, in 1995, the
Congressional Budget Oce (CBO), and its Director of
National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s
would reduce the cost of expended munitions by less than
US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the rst two weeks
of a conict, in which the Air Force predicted bombers
would make their greatest contribution; a small fraction of
the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that
the CBO projected an additional 20 B-2s would cost.[47]
B-2 from below
On 29 December 2008, Air Force ocials awarded a

US$468 million contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 eets radars.[52] Changing the radars
frequency was required as the U.S. Department of
Commerce has sold that radio spectrum to another
operator.[53] In July 2009, it was reported that the B-2
had successfully passed a major USAF audit.[54] In 2010,
it was made public that the Air Force Research Laboratory had developed a new material to be used on the part
of the wing trailing edge subject to engine exhaust, replacing existing material that quickly degraded.[55]
In 2013 the USAF contracted for the Defensive Management System Modernization program to replace the antenna system and other electronics to increase the B-2s
frequency awareness.[56] The Common Very Low Frequency Receiver upgrade will allow the B-2s to use the
same very low frequency transmissions as the Ohio-class
submarines so as to continue in the nuclear mission until
In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Ser- the Mobile User Objective System is elded.[57]
vices Committee and National Security Committee, ConIn July 2010, political analyst Rebecca Grant speculated
gressman Ron Dellums (D-CA), a long-time opponent of
that when the B-2 becomes unable to reliably penetrate
the bomber, cited ve independent studies and oered
enemy defenses, the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning
an amendment to that years defense authorization bill to
II may take on its strike/interdiction mission, carrying
cap production of the bombers to the existing 21 aircraft;
B61 nuclear bombs as a tactical bomber.[58] However, in
[48]
the amendment was narrowly defeated.
Nonetheless,
March 2012, the Pentagon announced that a $2 billion,
Congress did not approve funding for the purchase of any
10-year-long modernization of the B-2 eet was to begin.
additional B-2 bombers.
The main area of improvement would be replacement of
outdated avionics and equipment.[59]
43.1.6
Further developments
It was reported in 2011 that the Pentagon was evaluating

an unmanned stealth bomber, characterized as a miniB-2, as a potential replacement in the near future.[60] In
2012, Air Force Chief of Sta General Norton Schwartz
stated the B-2s 1980s-era stealth would make it less survivable in future contested airspaces, so the USAF is to
proceed with the Next-Generation Bomber despite overall budget cuts.[61] The Next-Generation Bomber was estimated, in 2012, to have a projected overall cost of $55
billion.[62]
A number of upgrade packages have been applied to the

B-2. In July 2008, the B-2s onboard computing architecture was extensively redesigned; it now incorporates a
new integrated processing unit (IPU) that communicates
with systems throughout the aircraft via a newly installed
bre optic network; a new version of the operational ight
program software was also developed, with legacy code
converted from the JOVIAL programming language used
beforehand to standard C.[49][50] Updates were also made In 2014 the USAF outlined a series of upgrades includ-
496
ing nuclear war ghting, a new integrated processing unit, monitors the aircraft; extensive sleep cycle and fatigue
the ability to carry cruise missiles, and threat warning research was conducted to improve crew performance on
improvements.[63]
long sorties.[73][74][66]
43.2 Design
Side view of a B-2 Spirit
43.2.1
Overview
The B-2 Spirit was developed to take over the USAFs

vital penetration missions, able to travel deep into enemy
territory to deploy their ordnance, which could include
nuclear weapons.[64] The B-2 is a ying wing aircraft,
meaning it has no fuselage or tail.[64] The blending of
low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic eciency and large payload gives the B-2 signicant advantages over previous bombers. Low observability provides
a greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing both range and eld of view for onboard sensors. The
U.S. Air Force reports its range as approximately 6,000
nautical miles (6,900 mi; 11,000 km).[7][65] At cruising
altitude the B-2 refuels every six hours, taking on up to
50 short tons (45 t) of fuel at a time.[66]
Due to the aircrafts complex ight characteristics and design requirements to maintain very-low visibility to multiple means of detection, both the development and construction of the B-2 required pioneering use of computeraided design and manufacturing technologies.[64][67] The
B-2 bears a resemblance to earlier Northrop aircraft: the
YB-35 and YB-49 were both ying wing bombers that
had been canceled in development in the early 1950s,[68]
allegedly for political reasons.[69] The resemblance goes
as far as B-2 and YB-49 having the same wingspan.[70][71]
As of September 2013 about 80 pilots y the B-2.[66]
Each aircraft has a crew of two, a pilot in the left seat
and mission commander in the right,[7] and has provisions for a third crew member if needed.[72] For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew
of ve.[7] The B-2 is highly automated and, unlike most
two-seat aircraft, one crew member can sleep in a camp
bed, use a toilet, or prepare a hot meal while the other
43.2.2 Armaments and equipment
A 2,000 lb BDU-56 bomb is being loaded onto a bomb bays

rotary launcher, 2004
The B-2, in the envisaged Cold War scenario, was to

perform deep-penetrating nuclear strike missions, making use of its stealthy capabilities to avoid detection and
interception throughout missions.[75] There are two internal bomb bays in which munitions are stored either on a
rotary launcher or two bomb-racks; the carriage of the
weapons loadouts internally results in less radar visibility than external mounting of munitions.[76][77] The B-2 is
capable of carrying 40,000 pounds of ordnance.[7][78] Nuclear ordnance includes the B61 and B83 nuclear bombs;
the AGM-129 ACM cruise missile was also intended for
use on the B-2 platform.[77][79]
It was decided, in light of the dissolution of the Soviet
Union, to equip the B-2 for conventional precision attacks
as well as for the strategic role of nuclear-strike.[75][80]
The B-2 features a sophisticated GPS-Aided Targeting System (GATS) that uses the aircrafts APQ-181
synthetic aperture radar to map out targets prior to deployment of GPS-aided bombs (GAMs), later superseded
by the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). In the B-2s
original conguration, up to 16 GAMs or JDAMs could
be deployed;[81] an upgrade program in 2004 raised the
maximum carriable capacity to 80 JDAMs.[82]
The B-2 has various conventional weapons in its arsenal, able to equip Mark 82 and Mark 84 bombs, CBU87 Combined Eects Munitions, GATOR mines, and
the CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon.[83] In July 2009,
Northrop Grumman reported the B-2 was compatible
with the equipment necessary to deploy the 30,000 lb
(14,000 kg) Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP), which
is intended to attack reinforced bunkers; up to two MOPs
could be equipped in the B-2s bomb bays,[84] the B2 is the only platform compatible with the MOP as of
2012.[59] As of 2011, the AGM-158 JASSM cruise missile is an upcoming stando munition to be deployed on
43.2. DESIGN
497
the B-2 and other platforms.[85] This is to be followed by To keep the B-2 relevant against increasingly sophisthe Long Range Stando Weapon which may give the B- ticated air defenses with greater computer processing
2 a stando nuclear capability for the rst time.[86]
power that may be able to detect the aircraft through its
stealth measures, the Air Force is working to upgrade
the Defensive Management System (DMS), which uses
sensors, passive receivers, and computers to alert crew
43.2.3 Avionics and systems
about the location of enemy air defense systems. Though
In order to make the B-2 more eective than previous it will not counter air threats, it will be more capable of
bombers, many advanced and modern avionics systems identifying and locating them before the aircraft enters
were integrated into its design, these have been modied strike range. The upgraded DMS will help detect radar
and improved following a switch to conventional warfare emissions from air defenses to allow changes to the automissions. One system is the low probability of intercept routers mission planning information while in-ight so it
AN/APQ-181 multi-mode radar, a fully digital naviga- can receive new data quickly to plan a route that minition system that is integrated with terrain-following radar mizes exposure to dangers. The DMS upgrade is slated
[6]
and Global Positioning System (GPS) guidance, NAS-26 to enter service by 2021.
astro-inertial navigation system (rst such system tested
on the Northrop SM-62 Snark cruise missile)[87] and
a Defensive Management System (DMS) to inform the 43.2.4 Flight controls
ight crew of possible threats.[82] The onboard DMS is
capable of automatically assessing the detection capabilities of identied threats and indicated targets.[88]
A maintenance crew servicing a B-2 at Andersen AFB, Guam,

2004
For safety and fault-detection purposes, an on-board test

system is interlinked with the majority of avionics on the
B-2 to continuously monitor the performance and status of thousands of components and consumables; it also
provides post-mission servicing instructions for ground
crews.[89] In 2008, many of the 136[90] standalone distributed computers on board the B-2, including the primary ight management computer, were being replaced
by a single integrated system.[91] The avionics are controlled by 13 EMP-resistant MIL-STD-1750A computers, which are interconnected through 26 MIL-STD1553B-busses; other system elements are connected via
optical ber.[92]
Vice President Dick Cheney inside a B-2 cockpit with pilot Capt.
Luke Jayne during a visit to Whiteman AFB, 2006
In order to address the inherent ight instability of a

ying wing aircraft, the B-2 uses a complex quadruplex computer-controlled y-by-wire ight control system, that can automatically manipulate ight surfaces and
settings without direct pilot inputs in order to maintain
aircraft stability.[94] The ight computer receives information on external conditions such as the aircrafts current air speed and angle of attack via pitot-static sensing
plates, as opposed to traditional pitot tubes which would
negatively aect the aircrafts stealth capabilities.[95] The
ight actuation system incorporates both hydraulic and
In addition to periodic software upgrades and the intro- electrical servoactuated components, and it was designed
duction of new radar-absorbent materials across the eet, with a high[96]level of redundancy and fault-diagnostic
the B-2 has had several major upgrades to its avionics and capabilities.
combat systems. For battleeld communications, both Northrop had investigated several means of applying diLink-16 and a high frequency satellite link have been rectional control that would least infringe on the aircrafts
installed, compatibility with various new munitions has radar prole, eventually settling on a combination of split
been undertaken, and the AN/APQ-181 radars opera- brake-rudders and dierential thrust.[88] Engine thrust
tional frequency was shifted in order to avoid interference became a key element of the B-2s aerodynamic design
with other operators equipment.[82] The arrays of the up- process early on; thrust not only aects drag and lift
graded radar features were entirely replaced to make the but pitching and rolling motions as well.[97] Four pairs
AN/APQ-181 into an active electronically scanned array of control surfaces are located along the wings trailing
(AESA) radar.[93]
edge; while most surfaces are used throughout the air-
498
crafts ight envelope, the inner elevons are normally only Radar
in use at slow speeds, such as landing.[98] To avoid potential contact damage during takeo and to provide a Main article: Radar cross-section
nose-down pitching attitude, all of the elevons remain
drooped during takeo until a high enough airspeed has
Reportedly, the B-2 has a radar cross-section of about
been attained.[98]
0.1 m2 .[101] (for comparison, a surface-to-air missile has
roughly the same RCS, while a human has an RCS of
about 1 m2 , see Radar cross-section) The bomber does
not always y stealthily; when nearing air defenses pilots
stealth up the B-2, the details of which are secret. The
43.2.5 Stealth
aircraft is not seen by radar, except briey when the bomb
bay opens. The B-2s clean, low-drag ying wing conguration not only provides exceptional range but is also benecial to reducing its radar prole.[64][102] The ying wing
design most closely resembles a so-called innite at plate
(as vertical control surfaces dramatically increase RCS),
the perfect stealth shape, as it would lack angles to reect back radar waves (initially, the shape of the Northrop
ATB concept was atter; it gradually increased in volume
according to specic military requirements).[103]
The B-2s engines are buried within its wing to conceal the engines fans and minimize their exhaust signature
Main article: Stealth aircraft
Illustration of the B-2s basic radar reection angles
RCS reduction as a result of shape had already been observed on the Royal Air Force's Avro Vulcan strategic
bomber,[104] and the USAFs F-117 Nighthawk. The F117 used at surfaces (faceting technique) for controlling
radar returns as during its development (see Lockheed
Have Blue) in the early 1970s, technology only allowed
for the simulation of radar reections on simple, at surfaces; computing advances in the 1980s made it possible to simulate radar returns on more complex curved
surfaces.[105] The B-2 is composed of many curved and
rounded surfaces across its exposed airframe to deect
radar beams. This technique, known as continuous curvature, was made possible by advances in computational
uid dynamics, and rst tested on the Northrop Tacit
[106][107]
To reduce optical visibility during daylight ights, the B- Blue.
2 is painted in an anti-reective paint.[77] The undersides The leading edges of the wing converge at the nose of
are dark because it ies at high altitudes (50,000 feet), the aircraft, which prevents radar reections in the diand at that altitude a dark grey painting blends well into rection of ight; the W-shaped rear of the aircraft is for
the sky. It is speculated to have an upward-facing light similar reasons. The engine air intakes are placed on top
sensor which alerts the pilot to increase or reduce alti- of the fuselage to minimize reection to ground-based
tude to match the changing illuminance of the sky.[99] The radar. To avoid detection by look-down radars, engines
original design had tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemi- are buried within the B-2s wing (S-duct) to conceal the
cal, but this was replaced in production aircraft by a con- engines fans. The B-2 also carries all ordnance internally;
trail sensor that alerts the crew when they should change the aircrafts RCS becomes substantially larger while the
altitude.[100] The B-2 is vulnerable to visual interception bay doors are opens, making it temporarily easier to deat ranges of 20 nm/37 km or less.[66]
tect.
The B-2s low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics
enable the undetected penetration of sophisticated antiaircraft defenses and to attack even heavily defended targets. This stealth comes from a combination of reduced
acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures (Multispectral camouage) to evade the various detection systems that could be used to detect and be used to direct
attacks against an aircraft. The B-2s stealth enables the
reduction of supporting aircraft that are required to provide air cover, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses and
electronic countermeasures, making the bomber a "force
multiplier". as of September 2013, there have been no
instances of a missile being launched at a B-2.[66]
499
Infrared
tolerances to avoid leaks as they could increase its radar

signature.[73] Innovations such as alternate high frequency
Main article: Infrared signature
material (AHFM) and automated material application
Some analysts claim Infra-red search and track systems methods were also incorporated into the aircraft to enhance its radar-absorbent properties and lower maintenance requirements.[77][111] In early 2004, Northrop
Grumman began applying a newly developed AHFM to
operational B-2s.[112] In order to protect the operational
integrity of its sophisticated radar absorbent material and
coatings, each B-2 is kept inside a climate-controlled
hangar (Extra Large Deployable Aircraft Hangar System) large enough to accommodate its 172-foot (52 m)
wingspan.[113]
The gap below the air intake has the purpose of sucking in cool
air
(IRSTs) can be deployed against stealth aircraft, because

any aircraft surface heats up due to air friction and with
a two channel IRST is a CO2 (4.3 m absorption maxima) detection possible, through dierence comparing
between the low and high channel.[108][109]
Burying engines deep inside the fuselage also minimizes
thermal visibility of the exhaust.[77][110] At the engine intake, cold air from the boundary layer below the main inlet enters the fuselage (Boundary layer suction, rst tested
on the Northrop X-21) and is mixed with hot exhaust
air just before the nozzles (similar to the Ryan AQM91 Firey). According to the StefanBoltzmann law, this
results in less energy (thermal radiation in infrared spectrum) being released and thus a reduced heat signature.
The resulting cooler air is conducted over a surface composed of heat resistant carbon-ber-reinforced polymer
and titanium alloy elements, which disperse the air laterally, in order to accelerate its cooling.[92] The B-2 lacks
afterburners as the hot exhaust would increase the infrared footprint; breaking the sound barrier would produce an obvious sonic boom as well as aerodynamic heating of the aircraft skin which also increased the infrared
footprint.
Materials
Main article: Radar-absorbent material
According to the HuygensFresnel principle, even a very
at plate would still reect radar waves, though much less
than when a signal is bouncing at a right angle. Additional reduction in its radar signature was achieved by the
use of various radar-absorbent materials (RAM) to absorb and neutralize radar beams. The majority of the B-2
is made out of a carbon-graphite composite material that
is stronger than steel and lighter than aluminum. Perhaps
most crucially, a benecial characteristic of this composite material is the absorption of signicant amounts of
radar energy.[68]
The B-2 is assembled with unusually tight engineering
A B-2 during aerial refueling which extends its range past 6,000
nautical miles (6,900 mi; 11,000 km) for intercontinental sorties
The rst operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base,
Missouri, where the eet is based, on 17 December
1993.[114] The B-2 reached initial operational capability
(IOC) on 1 January 1997.[115] Depot maintenance for the
B-2 is accomplished by U.S. Air Force contractor support
and managed at Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at
Tinker Air Force Base.[7] Originally designed to deliver
nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a
exible role with conventional and nuclear capability.[77]
The B-2s combat debut was in 1999, during the Kosovo
War. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected
Serbian bombing targets in the rst eight weeks of U.S.
involvement in the War.[7] During this war, B-2s ew
non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri
and back.[7] The B-2 was the rst aircraft to deploy GPS
satellite-guided JDAM smart bombs in combat use in
Kosovo.[116] The use of JDAMs and precision-guided
munitions eectively replaced the controversial tactic of
carpet-bombing, which had been harshly criticised due to
it causing indiscriminate civilian casualties in prior conicts, such as the 1991 Gulf War.[117] On 7 May 1999,
a B-2 dropped ve JDAMs on a target building that was
actually the Chinese Embassy, killing several sta.[118]
500
The B-2 saw service in Afghanistan, striking ground targets in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. With
aerial refueling support, the B-2 ew one of its longest
missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back.[7] B-2s would be stationed
in the Middle East as a part of a US military buildup in
the region from 2003.[119]
The B-2s combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of full operational capability in December 2003.[7]
The Pentagons Operational Test and Evaluation 2003
Annual Report noted that the B-2s serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the
maintainability of the B-2s low observable coatings. The
evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite
had shortcomings with pop-up threats.[7][120]

nual South KoreanUnited States military exercises, was
the rst time that B-2s overew the Korean peninsula.
Tensions between North and South Korea were high during and after the exercise, North Korea protested against
the participation of the B-2s and made threats of retaliatory nuclear strikes against South Korea and the United
States.[130][131]
43.4 Operators
During the Iraq War (Operation Iraqi Freedom), B-2s

operated from Diego Garcia and an undisclosed forward operating location. Other sorties in Iraq have
launched from Whiteman AFB.[7] As of September 2013
the longest combat mission has been 44.3 hours.[66] Forward operating locations have been previously designated as Andersen Air Force Base in Guam and RAF
Fairford in the United Kingdom, where new climate controlled hangars have been constructed. B-2s have conducted 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB and 22 sorties
from a forward operating location, releasing more than
1,500,000 pounds (680,000 kg) of munitions,[7] including 583 JDAM smart bombs in 2003.[82]
In response to organizational issues and high-prole mistakes made within the Air Force,[121][122] all of the B-2s,
along with the nuclear-capable B-52s and the Air Forces
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), were transferred to the newly formed Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 February 2010.[123][124]
In a 1994 live re exercise near Point Mugu, California, a B-2
In March 2011, B-2s were the rst U.S. aircraft into ac- drops 47 individual 500 lb (230 kg)-class Mark 82 bombs, which
tion in Operation Odyssey Dawn, the UN mandated en- is more than half of a B-2s total ordnance payload.
forcement of the Libyan no-y zone. Three B-2s dropped
40 bombs on a Libyan aireld in support of the UN no-y United States Air Force (20 aircraft in active inventory)
zone.[125] The B-2s ew directly from the U.S. mainland
across the Atlantic Ocean to Libya; a B-2 was refueled
Global Strike Command
by allied tanker aircraft four times during each round trip
mission.[126][127]
509th Bomb Wing Whiteman Air Force Base,
In August 2011, The New Yorker reported that prior to
Missouri (currently has 19 B-2s)
the May 2011 U.S. special forces raid into Abbottabad,
Pakistan that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden,
13th Bomb Squadron 2005
U.S. ocials had considered an airstrike by one or more
325th Bomb Squadron 19982005
B-2s as an alternative; an airstrike was rejected because
393d Bomb Squadron 1993
of damage to civilian buildings in the area from using a
394th Combat Training Squadron
bunker busting bomb.[128] There were also concerns an
1996
airstrike would make it dicult to positively identify Bin
Ladens remains and so concluding he was in fact dead
would be problematic.[129]
On 28 March 2013, two B-2s ew a round trip of 13,000
miles (20,800 km) from Whiteman Air Force base in
Missouri to South Korea, dropping dummy ordnance on
the Jik Do target range. The mission, part of the an-
Air Combat Command

53d Wing Eglin Air Force Base, Florida
72d Test and Evaluation Squadron
(Whiteman) 1998
501
57th Wing Nellis AFB, Nevada
hull loss valued at US$1.4 billion.[133][134] After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 eet o operational
status until clearing the eet for ight status 53 days later
325th Weapons Squadron 2005
on 15 April 2008.[135] The cause of the crash was later de(Whiteman)
termined to be moisture in the aircrafts Port Transducer
715th Weapons Squadron 200305
Units during air data calibration, which distorted the inAir National Guard
formation being sent to the bombers air data system. As
a result, the ight control computers calculated an inaccu 131st Bomb Wing (Associate) Whiteman Air rate airspeed, and a negative angle of attack, causing the
aircraft to pitch upward 30 degrees during takeo.[136]
Force Base 2009
In February 2010, another serious incident involving a B2 occurred at Andersen AFB. The aircraft involved was
AV-11 Spirit of Washington. The aircraft was severely
damaged by re while on the ground and underwent 18
months of repairs in order to enable it to y back to the
412th Test Wing Edwards Air Force Base, Cali- mainland for more comprehensive repairs.[137][138] Spirit
fornia (has one B-2)
of Washington was repaired and returned to service in
December 2013.[139][140] At the time of the accident the
USAF had no training to deal with tailpipe res on the
B-2s.[141]
97
110th Bomb Squadron
Air Force Systems Command
6510th Test Wing Edwards AFB 198992

43.5 Accidents
Main article: Andersen Air Force Base B-2 accident
On 23 February 2008, B-2 Spirit of Kansas crashed
Mockup of a B-2 Spirit on display at the National Museum of the

No operational B-2s have been retired by the Air Force to

be put on display. B-2s have made periodic appearances
on ground display at various air shows.
Wreckage of the 2008 B-2 crash
on the runway shortly after takeo from Andersen Air

Force Base in Guam.[132] Spirit of Kansas had been operated by the 393rd Bomb Squadron, 509th Bomb Wing,
Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, and had logged
5,176 ight hours. It was the rst crash of a B-2. The
two person crew ejected safely from the aircraft and survived the crash. The aircraft was completely destroyed, a
B-2 test article (s/n AT-1000), the second of two built

without engines or instruments for static testing, was
placed on display in 2004 at the National Museum of the
United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.[142] The test
article passed all structural testing requirements before
the airframe failed.[143] The Museums restoration team
spent over a year reassembling the fractured airframe.
The display airframe is marked to resemble The Spirit of
Ohio (S/N 82-1070), the B-2 used to test the designs ability to withstand extreme heat and cold.[142] The exhibit
features Spirit of Ohio 's nose wheel door, with its Fire
and Ice artwork, which was painted and signed by the
technicians who performed the temperature testing.[142]
502
The restored test aircraft is on display in the museums
Cold War Gallery.[144]
From 1989 to 2004, the South Dakota Air and Space
Museum located on the grounds of Ellsworth Air Force
Base displayed the 10-short-ton (9-metric-ton) HondaStealth, a 60% scale mock-up of a stealthy bomber
which had been built by North American Honda in
1988 for an advertising campaign.[145] Honda donated
the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the
model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a dierent
example. The museum received a B-1 Lancer for display
(Ellsworth being a B-1 base) in 2005 and destroyed the
mock-up.[146][147]

non-afterburning turbofans, 17,300 lbf (77 kN) each
Fuel Capacity: 167,000 pounds (75,750 kg)
Performance
43.7 Specications (B-2A Block 30)
Maximum speed: Mach 0.95 (550 knots, 630

mph, 1,010 km/h) at 40,000 ft altitude / Mach 0.95
at sea level[148]
Cruise speed: Mach 0.85[65] (487 knots, 560 mph,
900 km/h) at 40,000 ft altitude
Range: 6,000 nmi (11,100 km (6,900 mi))
Thrust/weight: 0.205
Armament
Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 Spirit
2 internal bays for ordnance and payload with an ofcial limit of 40,000 lb (18,000 kg); maximum estimated limit is 50,000 lb (23,000 kg).[65]
80 500 lb class bombs (Mk-82, GBU-38)
mounted on Bomb Rack Assembly (BRA)
36 750 lb CBU class bombs on BRA
16 2,000 lb class bombs (Mk-84, GBU31) mounted on Rotary Launcher Assembly
(RLA)
16 B61 or B83 nuclear bombs on RLA
(strategic mission)
A B-2 in formation ight with eight U.S. Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornets
43.8 Individual aircraft
Data from USAF Fact Sheet,[7] Pace,[148] Spick[65]
Sources: B-2 Spirit (Pace),[151] Fas.org[152]
Crew: 2: pilot and commander (co-pilot)
Length: 69 ft (21.0 m)
Wingspan: 172 ft (52.4 m)

Main article: Aircraft in ction B-2 Spirit
43.11. REFERENCES
503
[2] Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. 2009 USAF Almanac, Fact and Figures. Air Force Magazine, May 2009.
[3] B-2 Bomber: Cost and Operational Issues Letter Report,
14 August 1997, GAO/NSIAD-97-181. United States
General Accounting Oce (GAO). Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
Spirit of Indiana sits on the ramp at Andersen AFB in Guam on
23 June 2006
[4] Thornborough, A.M.; Stealth, Aircraft Illustrated special,

Ian Allan (1991).
[5] Rolfsen, Bruce. Moisture confused sensors in B-2
crash. Air Force Times, 9 June 2008. Retrieved: 13
September 2009.
[6] Air Force Upgrades B-2 Stealth Bomber as Modern Air
Defenses Advance - Military.com, 24 April 2015
[7] B-2 Spirit Fact Sheet. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved: 8 January 2015.
[8] Donald 2004, p. 120
Spirit of New York
[9] Goeble, Greg. The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit

Stealth Bomber. Airvectors.net, 01 Jan. 2014.
[10] Rao, G.A. and S.P. Mahulikar. Integrated review of
stealth technology and its role in airpower. Aeronautical
Journal, v. 106 (1066), 2002, pp. 629641.
[11] Crickmore and Crickmore 2003, p. 9.
[12] Stealth Aircraft. U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission,
2003. Retrieved: 5 November 2012.
[13] Grin and Kinnu 2007, pp. 1415.
[14] Withington 2006, p. 7
[15] Goodall 1992,
B-2 in ight over the Mississippi River (St. Louis, Missouri) with
the Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium in the background
43.10 See also

Related lists
[16] Pace 1999, pp. 2027.

[17] Rich and Janos 1994,
[18] http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_bombers/newb2_1.
html Northrop B-2A Spirit
[19] Donald 2003, p. 13
[20] Sweetman 1991, pp. 21, 30.

[21] Spick 2000, p. 339
List of ying wing aircraft
[22] Van Voorst, Bruce. The Stealth Takes Wing. Time, 31

July 1989. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
List of aerospace megaprojects
[23] Grin and Kinnu 2007, pp. iiv.

[24] YouTube. youtube.com.
43.11 References
[25] Vartaebedian, Ralph. Defense worker loses job over his

ties to India. Los Angeles Times, 16 February 1993.
43.11.1
[26] Atkinson, Rick.

Unraveling Stealths `Black
World';Questions of Cost and Mission Arise Amid
Debate Over Secrecy Series: Project Senior C.J.; The
Story Behind The B-2 Bomber Series Number: 2/3.
Washington Post, 9 October 1989.
Notes
[1] Northrop B-2A Spirit fact sheet. National Museum of

the United States Air Force. Retrieved: 13 September
2009.
504
[27] AP. Stealth bomber classied documents missing. The

New York Times, 24 June 1987. Retrieved: 13 September
2009.
[28] Pace 1999, pp. 2936.
[49] McKinney, Brooks. Air Force Completes Preliminary

Design Review of New B-2 Bomber Computer Architecture. Northrop Grumman, 7 July 2008. Retrieved: 8 June
2011.
[29] Press Release. FBI Honolulu. Retrieved:: 1 December

2010.
[50] Semantic Designs Aligns with Northrop Grumman to

Modernize B-2 Spirit Bomber Software Systems. Semantic Designs. Retrieved: 8 June 2011.
[30] Bowes, Peter. US engineer sold military secrets to

China. BBC, 9 August 2010. Retrieved: 1 December
2010.
[51] McKinney, Brooks. Northrop Grumman Adding Mobile

Targets to B-2 Bomber Capabilities. Northrop Grumman,
7 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
[31] Foster, Peter. Engineer jailed for selling US stealth

bomber technology to China. The Telegram, 24 January
2011.
[52] B-2 radar modernization program contract awarded. US

Air Force, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September
2009.
[32] Pace 1999, pp. 7576.
[53] Warwick, Graham. USAF Awards B-2 Radar Upgrade

Production. Aviation Week, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
[33] President George H. Bushs State of the Union Address.

c-span.org, 28 January 1992. Retrieved: 13 September
2009.
[34] Graham, Bradley. US to add one B-2 plane to 20 plane
eet. Washington Post, 22 March 1996, p. A20.
[35] Eden 2004, pp. 350353.
[36] Capaccio, Tony. The B-2s Stealthy Skins Need Tender,
Lengthy Care. Defense Week, 27 May 1997, p. 1.
[37] US General Accounting Oce September 1996, pp. 53,
56.
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B-2 Spirit fact sheet and gallery on U.S. Air Force
site
B-2 Spirit page on Northrop Grumman site
B-2 Spirit Stealth
technology.com
bomber
on
airforce-
B-2 Stealth Bomber article on How It Works Daily

B-2 Spirit page at GlobalSecurity.org
Chapter 44
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS

The Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS) is a United
States Air Force Airborne ground surveillance, battle
management and command and control aircraft. It tracks
ground vehicles and some aircraft, collects imagery, and
relays tactical pictures to ground and air theater commanders. The aircraft is operated by both active duty
Air Force and Air National Guard units and also carries
specially trained U.S. Army personnel as additional ight
crew.
44.1 Development
Joint STARS evolved from separate United States Army
and Air Force programs to develop, detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the forward area of
troops. In 1982, the programs were merged and the U.S.
Air Force became the lead agent. The concept and sensor
technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the
Tacit Blue experimental aircraft. The prime contract was
awarded to Grumman Aerospace Corporation in September 1985 for two E-8A development systems.
44.1.2 Future
The Air Force began an analysis of alternatives (AOA)
in March 2010 for its next generation ground moving
target indication (GMTI) radar aircraft eet. The study
was completed in March 2012 and recommended buying a new business jet-based ISR aircraft, such as an Air
Force version of the Navy P-8 Poseidon, and the RQ4B Global Hawk Block 40. However, at a Senate Armed
Services Committee meeting on 20 March 2012, the Air
Force said it can not aord a new ISR platform. The E-8
is considered viable in the near and medium terms. As
of October 2012, a test plane has had a Hewlett-Packard
central computer installed, with work to begin on the rest
in 2013. Before the AOA started, Northrop Grumman
received funds for two batches of new engines. One set
of engines has own on a JSTARS test plane, and the
other set is in storage. The Air Force does not plan to
replace the engines of the 16-plane eet due to the scal
environment. The company wants to replace the aircrafts
data link, but the Air Force will not, due to cost and because they can still receive data through satellite links.
Northrop also wants to upgrade its communications with
Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below because
of the Armys shift towards the system. The Air Force
says JSTARS is in a phase of the capability improvements
and is expected to remain in operation through 2030.[4][5]
In late 2005, Northrop Grumman was awarded a contract for upgrading engines and other systems.[1] Pratt &
Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS),
will produce and deliver JT8D-219 engines for the E-8s.
Their greater eciency will allow the Joint STARS to
spend more time on station, take o from a wider range of
runways, climb faster, y higher all with a much reduced
cost per ying hour.
On 23 January 2014, the USAF revealed a plan for the

acquisition of a new business jet-class replacement for
the E-8C JSTARS. The program is called JSTARS Recap and plans for the aircraft to reach initial operating
capability (IOC) by 2022. The airframe must be more
ecient, and separate contracts will be awarded for developing the aircraft, airborne sensor, battle management
command and control (BMC2) system, and communications subsystem. JSTARS Recap is currently unfunded
and the Air Force FY 2014 budget did not include requests. The program may be launched in FY 2015.[6]
In December 2008, an E-8C test aircraft took its

rst ight with the new engines.[1] In 2009, the company began engine replacement and additional upgrade
eorts.[1][2] However, the re-engining funding was temporarily halted in 2009 as the Air Force began to consider
other options for performing the JSTARS mission.[1][3]
On 8 April 2014, the Air Force held an industry day

for companies interested in competing for JSTARS Recap; attendees included Boeing, Bombardier Aerospace,
and Gulfstream Aerospace. Air Force procurement documents call for a replacement for the Boeing 707-based E8C as a business jet class airframe that is signicantly
44.1.1
Upgrades
508
44.2. DESIGN
smaller and more ecient.[7] Current pre-decisional requirements are for an aircraft with a 10-13 person crew
with a 3.966.1 m (13.020.0 ft) radar array. Though
smaller than the crew and radar size of the E-8C, it could
be challenging to meet those demands in a typical business jet and could require a relatively large platform. The
stang and sensor requirements are comparable to the
cancelled Northrop Grumman E-10 MC2A, which was
originally planned as the E-8s replacement. The Air
Force plans to award a contract at the end of FY 2016, a
relatively quick pace partly to avoid budget redistributions
to other programs. Replacing the E-8C avoids nearly $11
billion in operations and sustainment costs needed to keep
the eet relevant and airworthy.[8] The aircraft is to y at
38,000 ft for eight hours. Program managers are interested in integrating an FAA-certied ight deck, aerial
refueling capability, and potentially full motion video and
the joint range extension applications protocol to transmit data to joint agencies at further distances. Another
potential feature could be beyond-line-of-sight communications with unmanned aerial vehicles like the RQ-4
Global Hawk.[9]
509
44.2 Design
The E-8C is an aircraft modied from the Boeing
707300 series commercial airliner. The E-8 carries
specialized radar, communications, operations and control subsystems. The most prominent external feature is
the 40 ft (12 m) canoe-shaped radome under the forward
fuselage that houses the 24 ft (7.3 m) side-looking APY-7
passive electronically scanned array antenna.
The E-8C can respond quickly and eectively to support
worldwide military contingency operations. It is a jamresistant system capable of operating while experiencing
heavy electronic countermeasures. The E-8C can y a
mission prole for 9 hours without refueling. Its range
and on-station time can be substantially increased through
in-ight refueling.
44.2.1 Radar and systems
Gulfstream conrmed in late May 2014 that they would

oer their Gulfstream G650 for the Air Forces JSTARS
replacement. Their bidding strategy is to team with a defense contractor to serve as the integrator.[10] Bombardier
is considering oering the Global 6000, in use with the
Royal Air Force as the Raytheon Sentinel and the USAF
as the E-11A airborne communications relay. Aircraft
selection may be based on whether the service wants a Pave Mover Radar, the prototype for the JSTARS radar
large airframe to carry heavy payloads, or a smaller aircraft that would be more nimble and operate from shorter
runways. Companies that attended the industry week in
April that are contenders for providing electrical systems
include Harris Corporation, Rockwell Collins, Lockheed
Martin, L-3 Communications, Raytheon, DRS Technologies, and BAE Systems.[9] Boeing plans to oer a solution based on their Boeing 737-700 commercial jetliner
airframe; the 737-800 conguration is already in military
service with the U.S. Navy as the P-8 Poseidon for maritime surveillance, and would be favored if the Air Force
chooses a larger platform. The decision on airframe size
may be based on whether the Air Force thinks it can have
processing capabilities o-board or if it wants to keep evCrew members uploading software onto an E-8 during preparaerything on the physical platform.[11]
Northrop Grumman has also announced their intention
to compete for the future of Joint STARS, although they
have not conrmed what airframe they will use. The company has a Gulfstream G550 test aircraft that has been integrated with Joint STARS capabilities and has own for
more than 500 hours. The test aircrafts existence was announced in 2014. [12] Lockheed Martin has teamed with
Raytheon and L-3 Communications to oer a JSTARS
replacement, but will not decide which platform to use
until the Air Force decides if it wants a converted airliner
or business jet-sized class aircraft.[13]
tions for a ight
The AN/APY-7 radar can operate in wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), xed target indicator (FTI) target classication, and synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) modes.
To pick up moving targets, the radar looks at the Doppler
frequency shift of the returned signal. It can look from a
long range, which the military refers to as a high stando capability. The antenna can be tilted to either side
of the aircraft for a 120-degree eld of view covering
nearly 50,000 km (19,305 mile) and can simultaneously
track 600 targets at more than 250 km (152 miles). The
510
CHAPTER 44. NORTHROP GRUMMAN E-8 JOINT STARS
GMTI modes cannot pick up objects that are too small,

insuciently dense, or stationary. Data processing allows the APY-7 to dierentiate between armored vehicles (tracked tanks) and trucks, allowing targeting personnel to better select the appropriate ordnance for various
targets.
The systems SAR modes can produce images of stationary objects. Objects with many angles (for example, the
interior of a pick-up bed) will give a much better radar
signature, or specular return. In addition to being able to
detect, locate and track large numbers of ground vehicles,
the radar has a limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennas and low, slow-moving xed-wing aircraft.
44.2.2 Battle management

In missions from peacekeeping operations to major theater war, the E-8C can provide targeting data and intelligence for attack aviation, naval surface re, eld artillery
and friendly maneuver forces. The information helps air
and land commanders to control the battlespace.[15]
The E-8s ground-moving radar can tell approximate
number of vehicles, location, speed, and direction of
travel. It cannot identify exactly what type of vehicle a
target is, tell what equipment it has, or discern whether
it is friendly, hostile, or a bystander, so commanders often crosscheck the JSTARS data against other sources. In
the Army, JSTARS data is analyzed in and disseminated
from a Ground Station Module (GSM).
Pilots from Robins Air Force Base cleaning the windshields of

their E-8 before a mission in Iraq
Joint STARS GMTI overlaid on aerial image
The radar and computer subsystems on the E-8C can

gather and display broad and detailed battleeld information. Data is collected as events occur. This includes
position and tracking information on enemy and friendly
ground forces. The information is relayed in near-real
time to the US Army's common ground stations via the
secure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link
(SCDL) and to other ground C4I nodes beyond line-ofsight via ultra high frequency satellite communications.
The two E-8A development aircraft were deployed in

1991 to participate in Operation Desert Storm under
the direction of Albert J. Verderosa, even though they
were still in development. The joint program accurately
tracked mobile Iraqi forces, including tanks and Scud
missiles. Crews ew developmental aircraft on 49 combat sorties, accumulating more than 500 combat hours
and a 100% mission eectiveness rate.
These Joint STARS developmental aircraft also participated in Operation Joint Endeavor, a NATO peacekeeping mission, in December 1995. While ying in friendly
air space, the test-bed E-8A and pre-production E-8C aircraft monitored ground movements to conrm compliance with the Dayton Peace Accords agreements. Crews
ew 95 consecutive operational sorties and more than
1,000 ight hours with a 98% mission eectiveness rate.
Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink (COMM/DLX) and operations and
control (O&C)subsystems. Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians The 93d Air Control Wing, which activated 29 January
perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intel- 1996, accepted its rst aircraft, 11 June 1996, and deligence, communications and maintenance functions.
ployed in support of Operation Joint Endeavor in OcNorthrop Grumman has tested the installation of a MS- tober. The provisional 93d Air Expeditionary Group
177 camera on an E-8C to provide real time visual target monitored treaty compliance while NATO rotated troops
through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The rst production Econrmation.[14]
44.4. VARIANTS
511
8C and a pre-production E-8C ew 36 operational sorties

and more than 470 ight hours with a 100% eectiveness rate. The wing declared initial operational capability
18 December 1997 after receiving the second production aircraft. Operation Allied Force saw Joint STARS
in action again from February to June 1999 accumulating more than 1,000 ight hours and a 94.5% missioneectiveness rate in support of the U.S. lead Kosovo War.
tary movements near the DMZ.[21]
On 1 October 2002, the 93d Air Control Wing (93 ACW)

was blended with the 116th Bomb Wing in a ceremony
at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. The 116 BW was an
Air National Guard wing equipped with the B-1B Lancer
bomber at Robins AFB. As a result of a USAF reorganization of the B-1B force, all B-1Bs were assigned to
active duty wings, resulting in the 116 BW lacking a current mission. Extensive eorts by the Georgias governor
and congressional delegation led to the resulting blending, with the newly created wing designated as the 116th
Air Control Wing (116 ACW). The 93 ACW was inactivated the same day. The 116 ACW constituted the rst
fully blended wing of active duty and Air National Guard
airmen.
The Joint STARS aircraft executed three Operational

Utility Assessment ights and demonstrated its ability
to guide anti-ship weapons against surface combatants
at a variety of stando distances in the NEW architecture. The Joint STARS aircraft served as the network
command-and-control node, as well as a node for transmitting in-ight target message updates to an AGM-154
C-1 Joint Stando Weapon carried by U.S. Navy F/A-18
Hornets using its advanced long range tracking and targeting capability.
The 116 ACW has been heavily involved in both

Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, earning high marks for operational eectiveness
and recently completing 10,000 combat hours. The wing
took delivery of the 17th and nal E-8C on 23 March
2005. The E-8C Joint STARS routinely supports various
taskings of the Combined Force Command Korea during the North Korean winter exercise cycle and for the
United Nations enforcing resolutions on Iraq. The twelfth
production aircraft, outtted with an upgraded operations
and control subsystem, was delivered to the USAF on 5
November 2001.
On 13 March 2009, a Joint STARS aircraft was damaged
beyond economical repair when a test plug was left on a
fuel tank vent, subsequently causing the fuel tank to rupture during in-ight refueling. There were no casualties
but the aircraft sustained $25 million in damage.[16][17]
On 17 January 2011, Northrop Grummans E-8C Joint

Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS)
test bed aircraft recently completed the second of two deployments to Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California, in
support of the U.S. Navy Joint Surface Warfare Joint Capability Technology Demonstration to test its NetworkEnabled Weapon architecture.
From 2001 to January 2011 the Joint STARS eet has

own over 63,000 hours in 5,200 combat missions in
support of Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom
and New Dawn.[22]
On 1 October 2011, the blended wing construct of the
116th Air Control Wing (116 ACW), combining Air National Guard and Regular Air Force personnel in a single
unit was discontinued. On this date, the 461st Air Control
Wing (461 ACW) was established at Robins AFB as the
Air Forces sole active duty E-8 JSTARS wing while the
116 ACW reverted to a traditional Air National Guard
wing within the Georgia Air National Guard. Both units
share the same E-8 aircraft and will often y with mixed
crews, but now function as separate units.
44.4 Variants
On 3 September 2009, Loren B. Thompson of the

Lexington Institute raised the question of why most of
the JSTARS eet was sitting idle instead of being used
to track insurgents in Afghanistan. Thompson states that
the JSTARS' radar has an inherent capacity to nd what
the Army calls 'dismounted' targetsinsurgents walking
around or placing roadside bombs.[18] Thompsons neutrality has been questioned by some since Lexington Institute is heavily funded by defense contractors, including
Northrop.[19]
Recent trials of JSTARS in Afghanistan are destined to
develop tactics, techniques and procedures in tracking E-8C performing ight testing with JT8D-219 engines at
Edwards AFB
dismounted, moving groups of Taliban.[20]
On 28 November 2010, amidst escalating danger of war
E-8A Original platform conguration.[23]
breaking out between North and South Korea, the South
Korean government requested the U.S. to implement JS- TE-8A Single aircraft with mission equipment removed,
TARS in order to monitor and track North Korean miliused for ight crew training.[23]
512
CHAPTER 44. NORTHROP GRUMMAN E-8 JOINT STARS
YE-8B Single aircraft, was to be a U.S. Navy E-6 but

transferred to the U.S. Air Force as a development
aircraft before it was decided to convert secondhand Boeing 707s (1 from a Boeing CC-137) for the
JSTARS role.
Max takeo weight: 336,000 lb (152,407 kg)

Powerplant: 4 Pratt & Whitney TF33-102C lowbypass turbofan engines, 19,200 lbf (85 kN) thrust
each
E-8C Production Joint Stars platform conguration[23] Performance

converted from second-hand Boeing 707s (1 from
a CC-137).
Cruise speed: 390 kn (449 mph; 722 km/h) to 510
kn (945 km/h)
44.5 Operators
United States

Air Combat Command
93d Air Control Wing - Robins AFB, Georgia
(1996-2002)
461st Air Control Wing (Associate) - Robins AFB
(2011-present)
12th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
16th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
330th Combat Training Squadron
Air National Guard
116th Air Control Wing - Robins AFB (Joint
ACC/ANG unit 2002-11)
128th Airborne Command and
Control Squadron
Optimum orbit speed: 449 mph (723 km/h) to

587 mph (945 km/h)
Endurance: 9 hours
Avionics
AN/APY-7 synthetic aperture radar
44.7 See also

Airborne early warning and control
Related development
C-137 Stratoliner
CC-137 Husky parts from most the ex-Canadian
Forces 707 obtained for spares for the E-8 STARS
program and two ex-CF converted as E-8 and E-8C
Boeing E-3 Sentry
Boeing E-6 Mercury
Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye
44.6 Specications (E-8C)
Embraer R-99B
Data from USAF Factsheet[24]
Raytheon Sentinel
Crew: 4 ight crew
Capacity: 18 specialists (crew size varies according
to mission)
Related lists
Length: 152 ft 11 in (46.61 m)
44.8 References
Citations
Height: 42 ft 6 in (12.95 m)
[1] Re-engining the E-8 JSTARS. Defense Industry Daily,

Mar. 23, 2010. Retrieved:
[2] USA Spending $532M to Upgrade its E-8 J-STARS Eyes

in the Sky. Defense Industry Daily, Nov. 23, 2005. Retrieved:
[3] Boeing 767-400ER E-10A. Spyight, June, 2008.
[4] USAF can't aord JSTARS replacement - Flightglobal.com, 20 March 2012.
[5] With No Replacement in Sight, Joint STARS Feel Strain
- Defensenews.com, 9 October 2012.
[6] USAF reveals plan to replace JSTARS with business jets
by 2022 - Flightglobal.com, 27 January 2014
513
Bibliography
Eden, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London, UK: Amber Books, 2004.
ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
This article incorporates public domain material from
websites or documents of the United States Air Force.
44.9 External links
[7] Boeing, Bombardier and Gulfstream attend JSTARS industry day - Flightglobal.com, 21 April 2014
Northrop Grumman Joint STARS System Information
[8] USAF reveals notional specications for JSTARS replacement - Flightglobal.com, 16 May 2014
Northrop Grumman Joint STARS Radar Information
[9] Industry Ready to Compete for JSTARS Recapitalization

Program - Nationdefensemagazine.org, July 2014
Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
[10] Gulfstream to pitch G650 for JSTARS replacement Flightglobal.com, 22 May 2014
[11] Boeing Eyes 737-700 Solution for New JSTARS - Defensenews.com, 12 September 2014
[12] Butler, Amy (15 September 2014). U.S. Air Force
Scrimps On Jstars Recap Program. Aviation Week. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
[13] Lockheed teams with Raytheon for JSTARS replacement
- Flightglobal.com, 19 February 2015
[14] Matthews, William Joint STARS Aircraft Tests U-2 Camera in Tandem With Radar Def News, 1 November 2010
[15] Coskuner, Nevin, Multimission Aircraft Design Study - Operational Scenarios. Air Force Institute of Technology
[16] http://defensetech.org/2012/01/27/
a-basic-mistake-that-trashed-a-jstars/ A Basic Mistake
that Trashed a JSTARS
[17] http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/E-8C_AOR_13Mar09.pdf Accident Report
[18] Failure To Use Radar Planes Against Taliban Is Foolish
[19] Analysts switch stirs tanker talk al.com
[20] DefenceNews, Issue November 23, 2009.
[21] Gilligan, Andrew (28 November 2010). North and South
Korea move close to war footing. The Daily Telegraph.
[22] Photo Release - Northrop Grummans Joint STARS is
Key Enabler in Success of U.S. Navy/Air Force Joint Surface Warfare Network-Enabled Weapon Joint Capability
Technology Demons... tradershuddle.com
[23] DoD 4120.15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace
Vehicles
[24] Factsheets : E-8C Joint Stars. U.S. Air Force. August
Northrop Grumman ISR overview

Joint STARS Re-engine Program Info
Chapter 45
Rockwell B-1 Lancer

The Rockwell (now part of Boeing) B-1 Lancer[N 1] is a 45.1 Development
four-engine supersonic variable-sweep wing, jet-powered
heavy strategic bomber used by the United States Air
Force (USAF). It was rst envisioned in the 1960s as 45.1.1 Background
a supersonic bomber with Mach 2 speed, and sucient
range and payload to replace the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. It was developed into the B-1B, primarily a low- Main article: North American XB-70 Valkyrie
level penetrator with long range and Mach 1.25 speed capability at high altitude.
In 1955 the U.S. Air Force issued requirements for a new
Designed by Rockwell International, development was bomber combining the payload and range of the Boeing
delayed multiple times over its history due to changes B-52 Stratofortress with the Mach 2 maximum speed
[2]
in the perceived need for manned bombers. The ini- of the Convair B-58 Hustler. In December 1957, the
tial B-1A version was developed in the early 1970s, but U.S. Air Force selected North American Aviation's pro[3]
its production was canceled, and only four prototypes posal to replace the B-52 with the B-70 Valkyrie. The
were built. The need for a new platform once again sur- Valkyrie was a six-engine bomber that could reach Mach
[4]
faced in the early 1980s, and the aircraft resurfaced as 3 speeds at high altitude (70,000 ft or 21,000 m) to
the B-1B version with the focus on low-level penetration avoid interceptor aircraft, the only eective anti-bomber
[5]
bombing. However, by this point, development of stealth weapon in the 1950s. Soviet aircraft were already un[6]
technology was promising an aircraft of dramatically im- able to intercept the high-ying Lockheed U-2; the
proved capability. Production went ahead as the B ver- Valkyrie would y at similar altitudes but much higher
[5]
sion would be operational before the Advanced Tech- speeds. In combat, the B-70 was expected to simply y
nology Bomber (which became the B-2 Spirit), during right by the defenders.
a period when the B-52 would be increasingly vulnera- By the late 1950s, however, anti-aircraft surface-to-air
ble. The B-1B entered service in 1986 with the USAF missiles (SAMs) could threaten high-altitude aircraft,[7]
Strategic Air Command (SAC) as a nuclear bomber.
as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers's
[8]
In the early 1990s, following the Gulf War and concurrent U-2. The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) bewith the disestablishment of SAC and its reassignment to gan moving its bombers to low-level penetration before
the newly formed Air Combat Command (ACC), the B- the U-2 downing. This tactic greatly reduces radar de1B was converted to conventional bombing use. It rst tection distances by use of terrain masking; using feaserved in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 tures of the terrain like hills and valleys, the line-of-sight
and again during the NATO action in Kosovo the fol- from the radar to the bomber can be broken, rendering
lowing year. The B-1B has supported U.S. and NATO the radar (and human observers) incapable of seeing the
[9]
military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. The Lancer target. Even at somewhat higher altitudes, radar sysis the supersonic component of the USAFs long-range tems of the era were subject to "clutter" from stray rebomber force, along with the subsonic B-52 and B-2. The turns from the ground and other objects, requiring a minbomber is commonly called the Bone (originally from imum angle above the ground to be eective. Bombers
B-One). With the retirement of the General Dynam- ying at low altitudes could remain under these angles
ics/Grumman EF-111A Raven in 1998 and the Grumman simply by ying around the radar sites. This combinaF-14 Tomcat in 2006, the B-1B is the U.S. militarys tion of eects made SAMs of the era ineective against
[9][10]
The same eects also meant that
only active variable-sweep wing aircraft. The B-1B is ex- low-ying aircraft.
low
ying
aircraft
were
dicult
to detect by higher ying
pected to continue to serve into the 2030s, with the Long
interceptor
aircraft,
since
their
radar systems could not
Range Strike Bomber to start supplementing the B-1B in
readily
pick
out
opposing
aircraft
against the clutter from
2030.
ground reections (lack of look-down/shoot-down capability).
514
45.1. DEVELOPMENT
The switch from high-altitude to low-altitude ight proles severely aected the B-70, whose design was highly
tuned to provide the desired high-altitude performance.
Planners outlined a series of low-level proles for the B70, but higher aerodynamic drag at low level limited the
B-70 to subsonic speed while dramatically decreasing its
range.[7] The result would be an aircraft with somewhat
higher subsonic speed, but less range than the B-52 it was
meant to replace. Unsuited for the new low-altitude role,
and because of a growing shift to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) force, the B-70 bomber program
was canceled in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy,[5][11]
and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic
research program.[12]
Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52s
exibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the
nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52s
huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for
longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition
of improved radar jamming and deception suites to deal
with radars.[13] During the Vietnam War the concept that
all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head,
and the big belly modications increased the B-52s total bomb load to 60,000 pounds (27,000 kg),[14] turning
it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used
against ground troops along with strategic targets from
high altitudes.[10] The much smaller bomb bay of the B70 would have made it much less useful in this role.
45.1.2
Design studies and delays
Although eective, the B-52 was not ideal for the lowlevel role. This led to a number of aircraft designs known
as penetrators, which were tuned specically for longrange low-altitude ight. The rst of these designs to
see operation was the supersonic F-111 ghter-bomber,
which used variable-sweep wings for tactical missions.[15]
Similar aircraft also emerged for other users as well, notably the BAC TSR-2, and later, Panavia Tornado and
Sukhoi Su-24. A number of studies on a strategic-range
counterpart followed.
The rst post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known
as the Subsonic Low Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was
completed in 1961. This produced a design that looked
more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept
wing, T-tail and large high-bypass engines.[16] This was
followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft
(ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing planform,
then in vogue in the aviation industry. ERSA envisioned
a relatively small aircraft with a 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg)
payload and a range of 8,750 nautical miles (16,200 kilometres), with 2,500 nmi (4,600 km) being own at low altitudes. In August 1963 the similar Low-Altitude Manned
Penetrator (LAMP) design was completed, which called
for an aircraft with a 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) bomb
load and somewhat shorter range of 7,150 nmi (13,240
km).[17][18]
515
These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced
Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to
industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North
American.[19][20] In mid-1964, the USAF had revised
its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced
Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which diered from
AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed
high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing
Mach 2 class Convair B-58 Hustler.[21] Given the lengthy
series of design studies, Rockwell engineers joked that
the new name actually stood for Americas Most Studied Aircraft.[22][23]
The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B70 program had led some to question the need for a
new strategic bomber of any sort. The U.S. Air Force
was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the
nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense.
They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce
option because the bombers could be quickly launched
into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked.
However, the introduction of the SLBM mooted the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs (Minuteman III had the accuracy and
speed needed to attack point targets. During this time,
ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their
lower unit cost,[24] but development costs were much
higher.[7] Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara preferred ICBMs over bombers for the Air Force portion of
the deterrent force[25] and felt a new expensive bomber
was not needed.[26][27] McNamara limited the AMSA
program to studies and component development beginning in 1964.[27]
Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were
awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in
1968.[27][28] McNamara remained opposed to the program in favor of upgrading the existing B-52 eet and
adding nearly 300 FB-111s for shorter range roles then
being lled by the B-58.[10][27] He again vetoed funding
for AMSA aircraft development in 1968.[28]
45.1.3 B-1A program

President Richard Nixon reestablished the AMSA program after taking oce, keeping with his administrations exible response strategy that required a broad
range of options short of general nuclear war.[30] Nixons
Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s,
since they lacked the desired range, and recommended
that the AMSA design studies be accelerated.[30] In April
1969, the program ocially became the B-1A.[10][30]
This was the rst entry in the new bomber designation
series, rst created in 1962. The Air Force issued a request for proposals in November 1969.[31]
516
CHAPTER 45. ROCKWELL B-1 LANCER
B-1A nose section with ejection capsule denoted. Three of the

four B-1As were tted with escape capsules.
AN/APQ-140 radar for the B-1A[29]
B-1A Prototype 4 showing its underside in 1981
Proposals were submitted by Boeing, General Dynamics

and North American Rockwell in January 1970.[31][32] In
June 1970, North American Rockwells design was selected and was awarded a development contract.[31] The
original program called for two test airframes, ve yable aircraft, and 40 engines. This was cut in 1971 to
one ground and three ight test aircraft.[33] The company
changed its name to Rockwell International and named
its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations
in 1973.[34] A fourth prototype, built to production standards, was ordered in the scal year 1976 budget. Plans
called for 240 B-1As to be built, with initial operational
capability set for 1979.[35]
to 1960s U.S. designs. Among these was the use of a

crew capsule that ejected as a unit during emergencies,
which was introduced to improve survivability in the case
of an ejection at high speed. Additionally, the design featured large variable-sweep wings in order to provide both
high lift during takeo and landing, and low drag during
a high-speed dash phase.[36] With the wings set to their
widest position the aircraft had considerably better lift
and power than the B-52, allowing it to operate from a
much wider variety of bases. Penetration of the Soviet
Union's defenses would take place at supersonic speed,
crossing them as quickly as possible before entering into
the less defended heartland where speeds could be reduced again.[36] The large size and fuel capacity of the
design would allow the dash portion of the ight to be
relatively long.
In order to achieve the required Mach 2 performance at
high altitudes, the exhaust nozzles and air intake ramps
were variable.[37] Initially, it had been expected that a
Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude,
which required that titanium be used in critical areas in
the fuselage and wing structure. The low altitude performance requirement was later lowered to Mach 0.85,
reducing the amount of titanium and therefore cost.[33]
A pair of small vanes mounted near the nose are part of
an active vibration damping system that smooths out the
otherwise bumpy low-altitude ride.[38] The rst three B1As featured an escape capsule that ejected the cockpit
with all four crew members inside. The fourth B-1A was
equipped with a conventional ejection seat for each crew
member.[39]
The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October

1971.[40] The rst B-1A prototype (Air Force serial no.
74-0158) ew on 23 December 1974. Three more B1A prototypes followed.[41] As the program continued
the per-unit cost continued to rise in part because of high
ination during that period. In 1970, the estimated unit
cost was $40 million, and by 1975, this gure had climbed
Rockwells design featured a number of features common to $70 million.[42]
45.1. DEVELOPMENT
45.1.4
New problems and cancellation
In 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected to Japan

with his MiG-25 Foxbat.[43] During debrieng he described a new super-Foxbat (almost certainly referring
to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar in
order to attack cruise missiles. This would also make
any low-level penetration aircraft visible and easy to
attack.[44] Given that the B-1s armament suite was similar to the B-52, and it now appeared no more likely to survive Soviet airspace than the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned.[45] In particular, Senator William
Proxmire continually derided it in public, arguing it was
an outlandishly expensive dinosaur. During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the
Democratic Partys platforms, saying The B-1 bomber
is an example of a proposed system which should not be
funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers dollars.[46]
When Carter took oce in 1977 he ordered a review of
the entire program. By this point the projected cost of
the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft,
although this was lifetime cost over 20 years. He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that
had started in 1975, and he decided that this was a better avenue of approach than the B-1. Pentagon ocials
also stated that the AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile
(ALCM) launched from the existing B-52 eet would give
the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace.
With a range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km), the ALCM
could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet
defenses and penetrate at low altitude just like a bomber
(and much lower radar cross-section due to size), but in
much greater numbers at a lower cost.[47] A small number
of B-52s could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating
the defense. A program to improve the B-52 and develop
and deploy the ALCM would cost perhaps 20% of the
price to deploy the planned 244 B-1As.[46]
517
plicated eorts for the limitation of the strategic arms
race.[46] Western military leaders were generally happy
with the decision. NATO commander Alexander Haig
described the ALCM as an attractive alternative to the
B-1. French General Georges Buis stated The B-1 is a
formidable weapon, but not terribly useful. For the price
of one bomber, you can have 200 cruise missiles.[46]
Flight tests of the four B-1A prototypes for the B-1A program continued through April 1981. The program included 70 ights totaling 378 hours. A top speed of Mach
2.22 was reached by the second B-1A. Engine testing also
continued during this time with the YF101 engines totaling almost 7,600 hours.[51]
45.1.5 Shifting priorities
A Rockwell B-1A in 1984
It was during this period that the Soviets started to assert

themselves in several new theaters of action, in particular through Cuba during the Angolan Civil War starting
in 1975 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
U.S. strategy to this point had been focused on containing
Communism and preparation for war in Europe. The new
Soviet actions revealed that the military lacked capability
outside these narrow connes.[52]
The U.S. Army responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Forces concept but suered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability.[53] In order to slow
an enemy invasion of other countries, air power was critical; however the key Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the range of the U.S. Navy's carrier-based attack aircraft, leaving this role to the air force. Although the B52 had the range to support on-demand global missions,
its long runway requirements limited the forward basing
possibilities.[54]
On 30 June 1977, Carter announced that the B-1A would

be canceled in favor of ICBMs, SLBMs, and a eet of
modernized B-52s armed with ALCMs.[35] Carter called
it one of the most dicult decisions that I've made since
I've been in oce. No mention of the stealth work was
made public with the program being top secret, but today
During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reait is known that in early 1978 he authorized the Advanced
gan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was
Technology Bomber (ATB) project, which eventually led
weak on defense, citing the cancellation of the B-1 proto the B-2 Spirit.[48]
gram as an example, a theme he continued using into
Domestically, the reaction to the cancellation was split the 1980s.[55] During this time Carters defense secretary,
along partisan lines. The Department of Defense was sur- Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apprised by the announcement; internal expectations were parently implying that this was the reason for the B-1
that the number of B-1s ordered would be reduced to cancellation.[56]
around 150.[49] Congressman Robert Dornan (R-CA)
claimed, They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in
Moscow.[50] In contrast, it appears the Soviets were 45.1.6 B-1B program
more concerned by large numbers of ALCMs representing a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s. On taking oce, Reagan was faced with the same deciSoviet news agency TASS commented that the imple- sion as Carter before: whether to continue with the B-1
mentation of these militaristic plans has seriously comfor the short term, or to wait for the development of the
518
ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. Studies suggested
that the existing B-52 eet with ALCM would remain a
credible threat until 1985, as it was predicted that 75% of
the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets.[57] After this, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG31 interceptor and the rst Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B52 increasingly vulnerable.[58] During 1981, funds were
allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s
time-frame, this led to the Long-Range Combat Aircraft
(LRCA) project. The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111
and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed
on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic
operations.[57]

able to reinforce critical areas and lighten non-critical
areas of the airframe, so the increase in empty weight
was minimal.[62] In order to deal with the introduction
of the MiG-31 (Zaslon) and other aircraft with lookdown capability (which reduced the B-1s low-ying advantage), the B-1Bs electronic warfare suite was signicantly upgraded.[36]
B-1B banking during a demonstration in 2004
First B-1B debuted outside a hangar in Palmdale, California,

1984
In 1981, it was believed the B-1 could be in operation before the ATB, covering the transitionary period between
the B-52s increasing vulnerability and the ATBs introduction. Reagan decided the best solution was to procure
both the B-1 and ATB, and on 2 October 1981 Reagan
announced that 100 B-1s were to be ordered to ll the
LRCA role.[36][59]
In January 1982 the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the
development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers.[60]
Numerous changes were made to the design to make it
better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in
the new B-1B.[47] These changes included a reduction in
maximum speed,[56] which allowed the variable-aspect
intake ramps to be replaced by simpler xed geometry
intake ramps in the newer design. This reduced the B versions radar signature; the reduction in radar cross-section
was seen as a good trade o for the speed decrease.[36]
High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area
for the revised design,[56] and low-level speeds were increased from about Mach 0.85 to 0.92. The B-1B has a
maximum speed of Mach 1.25 at higher altitudes.[36][61]
The B-1Bs maximum takeo weight was increased to
477,000 pounds (216,000 kg) from the B-1As 395,000
pounds (179,000 kg).[36][62] The weight increase was to
allow for takeo with a full internal fuel load and for external weapons to be carried. Rockwell engineers were
Opposition to the plan was widespread within Congress.

Critics pointed out that many of the original problems remained in both areas of performance and expense.[63] In
particular it seemed the B-52 tted with electronics similar to the B-1B would be equally able to avoid interception, as the speed advantage of the B-1 was now minimal.
It also appeared that the interim time frame served by
the B-1B would be less than a decade, being rendered obsolete shortly after the introduction of a much more capable ATB design.[64] The primary argument in favor of
the B-1 was its large conventional weapon payload, and
that its takeo performance allowed it to operate with a
credible bombload from a much wider variety of airelds.
The air force spread production subcontracts across many
congressional districts, making the aircraft more popular
on Capitol Hill.[57]
B-1A #1 was disassembled and used for radar testing at
the Rome Air Development Center at the former Griss
Air Force Base, New York.[65] B-1As #2 and #4 were
modied to include B-1B systems. The rst B-1B was
completed and began ight testing in March 1983. The
rst production B-1B was rolled out on 4 September 1984
and rst ew on 18 October 1984.[66] The 100th and nal
B-1B was delivered on 2 May 1988;[41] before the last B1B was delivered, the air force had determined that the
aircraft was vulnerable to Soviet air defenses.[67]
45.2 Design
45.2.1 Overview
The B-1 has a blended wing body conguration, with
variable-sweep wing, four turbofan engines, triangular
n control surfaces and cruciform tail. The wings can
45.2. DESIGN
519
sweep from 15 degrees to 67.5 degrees (full forward to

full sweep). Forward-swept wing settings are used for
takeo, landings and high-altitude maximum cruise. Aftswept wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic ight.[68] The B-1s variable-sweep wings and
thrust-to-weight ratio provide it with better takeo performance, allowing it to use more runways than previous
bombers.[69] The length of the aircraft presented a exing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude. To alleviate this, Rockwell included small triangular n control surfaces or vanes near the nose on the B-1. The B1s Structural Mode Control System rotates the vanes automatically to counteract turbulence and smooth out the
ride.[70]
B-1B cockpit at night
Rear view of B-1B in ight, 2004
Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B cannot reach Mach 2+ speeds;

its maximum speed is Mach 1.25 (about 950 mph or
1,530 km/h at altitude),[71] but its low-level speed increased to Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 1,130 km/h).[61] The
speed of the current version of the aircraft is limited by
the need to avoid damage to its structure and air intakes.
To help lower its radar cross section (RCS), the B-1B
uses serpentine air intake ducts (see S-duct) and xed AN/APQ-164 Passive electronically scanned array
intake ramps, which limit its speed compared to the B1A. Vanes in the intake ducts serve to deect and shield
radar emissions from the highly reective engine com- 45.2.2 Avionics
pressor blades.[72]
The B-1As engine was modied slightly to produce the The B-1s main computer is the IBM AP-101, which
GE F101-102 for the B-1B, with an emphasis on durabil- is also used[78]on the Space Shuttle orbiter and the BThe computer is programmed with the
ity, and increased eciency.[73] The core of this engine 52 bomber.
JOVIAL
programming
language.[79] The Lancers oenhas since been re-used in several other engine designs,
including the GE F110 which has seen use in the F-14 sive avionics include the Westinghouse (now Northrop
Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and most recent versions of Grumman) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking oensive
the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.[74] It is also passive electronically scanned array radar set with electhe basis for the non-afterburning GE F118 used in the B- tronic beam steering (and a xed antenna pointed down2 Spirit and the U-2S.[74] The F101 engine was the basis ward for reduced radar observability), synthetic aperfor the core of the extremely popular CFM56 civil engine, ture radar, ground moving target indication (GMTI), and
, radar
which can be found on some versions of practically every terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation
[80]
and
an
inertial
navigation
suite.
The
B-1B
altimeter,
[75]
The nose gear cover
small-to-medium-sized airliner.
Block
D
upgrade
added
a
Global
Positioning
System
door has controls for the auxiliary power units (APUs),
[81]
which allow for quick starts of the APUs upon order to (GPS) receiver beginning in 1995.
scramble.[76][77]
The B-1s defensive electronics include the Eaton
520
AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming
equipment,[82] which has three sets of antennas; one at
the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing
in the tail radome.[83][84] Also in the tail radome is
the AN/ALQ-153 Missile Approach Warning (PulseDoppler radar).[85] The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of
eight AN/ALE-49 are dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ184 avionics management system.[86] Each AN/ALE-49
dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B ares. The
MJU-23A/B are is one of the worlds largest infrared
countermeasure ares at a weight of over 3.3 pounds (1.5
kg).[87] The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE50 Towed Decoy System.[88]

JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Stando Munition), substantially improving the bombers capability. Upgrades
were completed in September 2006.[94] Block F was the
Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) to improve
the aircrafts electronic countermeasures and jamming
capabilities, but it was canceled in December 2002 due
to cost overruns and schedule slips.[95]
In 2005, a program began to upgrade crew stations and
integrate data linking.[96] A B-1 equipped with the Fully
Integrated Data Link (FIDL) rst ew on 29 July 2009;
the FIDL enables electronic data sharing, eliminating the
need to enter information between systems by hand.[97] In
January 2013, Boeing delivered the rst Integrated Battle Station (IBS) equipped B-1. This replaced several
displays with new multi-function color display units, an
upgraded Central Integrated Test System, and a newer
Aircraft Performance Monitoring Computer.[98][99][100]
In June 2012, the B-1Bs are receiving Sustainment-Block
16 upgrades to add Link 16 networking and digital ight
instrumentation.[101]
Also aiding the B-1s survivability is its relatively low

radar cross-section (RCS). Although not technically a
stealth aircraft in a comprehensive sense, thanks to the
aircrafts structure, serpentine intake paths and use of
radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th of the
similar sized B-52s RCS; this is about 26 ft or 2.4
m, roughly equivalent to the RCS of a small ghter air- In 2007 the Sniper XR targeting pod was integrated on
craft.[86][89][90]
the B-1 eet. The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircrafts chin near the forward bomb bay.[102]
Following accelerated testing, the Sniper pod was elded
45.2.3 Upgrades
in summer 2008.[103][104] Future precision munitions include the Small Diameter Bomb.[105] In 2011, the Air
Force was considering upgrading the B-1s with multiple
ejector racks so that they can carry three times as many
smaller JDAMs than they currently can.[106]
Nose of B-1 with the Sniper XR pod hanging below
The B-1 has been upgraded since production, beginning with the Conventional Mission Upgrade Program
(CMUP), which added a new MIL-STD-1760 smartweapons interface to enable the use of precision-guided
conventional weapons. CMUP began with Block A,
which was the standard B-1B with the capability to deliver non-precision gravity bombs. Block B brought an
improved Synthetic Aperture Radar, and upgrades to the
Defensive Countermeasures System and was elded in
1995. Block C provided an enhanced capability for delivery of up to 30 cluster bomb units (CBUs) per sortie
with modications made to 50 bomb racks.[91]
Block D added a Near Precision Capability via improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities.[91] The rst
part of the electronic countermeasures upgrade added
Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), ALE-50 Towed
Decoy System, and anti-jam radios.[82][92][93] Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind
Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM154 Joint Stando Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158
In February 2014, work began on a multi-year upgrade of

62 B-1Bs, scheduled to be completed by 2019. The vertical situation display upgrade (VDSU) shall replace existing ight instruments with multifunction color displays, a
second display shall aid threat evasion and targeting, and
act as a back-up display. Additional memory capacity
is to be installed for the diagnostics database. Procurement and installation of the IBS upgrades is expected to
cost $918 million, research and engineering costs are estimated at $391 million. Other additions are to replace the
two spinning mass gyroscopic inertial navigation system
with ring laser gyroscopic systems and a GPS antenna,
replacement of the APQ-164 radar, and a new attitude
indicator.[107]

45.3.1 Strategic Air Command
The second B-1B, The Star of Abilene, was the rst B1B delivered to the USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC)
in June 1985. Initial operational capability was reached
on 1 October 1986 and the B-1B was placed on nuclear
alert status.[108][109] The B-1 received the ocial name
Lancer on 15 March 1990. However, the bomber has
been commonly called the Bone"; a nickname that ap-
521
pears to stem from an early newspaper article on the air- The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons;[36] its nucraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as B- clear capability was disabled by 1995 with the removal
ONE with the hyphen inadvertently omitted.[110]
of nuclear arming and fuzing hardware.[117]
45.3.2 Conventional role
A dismantled decommissioned B-1 being transported by atbed

truck
In late 1990 engine res in two Lancers caused the

grounding of the eet. The cause was traced back to
problems in the rst-stage fan, the aircraft were placed
on limited alert"; in other words, they were grounded unless a nuclear war broke out. Following inspections and
repairs they were returned to duty beginning on 6 February 1991.[111][112] Due to the engine problems, the B-1B
was eectively sidelined in the Gulf War.[67]
Originally designed strictly for nuclear war, the B-1s development as an eective conventional bomber was delayed until the 1990s. The collapse of the Soviet Union
had brought the B-1s nuclear role into question, leading
to President George H. W. Bush ordering a $3 billion conventional ret.[113] By 1991, the B-1 had a edgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the 500
pounds (230 kg) Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude. Despite being cleared
for this role, the problems with the engines precluded
their use in Operation Desert Storm.[114] B-1s were primarily reserved for strategic nuclear strike missions at
this time, providing the role of airborne nuclear deterrent
against the Soviet Union.[114] The B-52 was more suited
to the role of conventional warfare and it was used by
coalition forces instead.[114]
After the inactivation of Strategic Air Command (SAC)
and the establishment of the Air Combat Command
(ACC) in 1992, the B-1 developed a greater conventional weapons capability. Part of this development was
the start-up of the U.S. Air Force Weapons School B1 Division.[115] In 1994, two additional B-1 bomb wings
were also created in the Air National Guard, with former ghter wings in the Kansas Air National Guard
and the Georgia Air National Guard converting to the
aircraft.[116] By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP
weapons as well as various CBUs. By the end of the
1990s, with the advent of the Block D upgrade, the B1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions.
A B-1B Lancer with wings swept full forward
The B-1 was rst used in combat in support of operations

against Iraq, during Operation Desert Fox in December
1998, employing unguided GP weapons. B-1s have been
subsequently used in Operation Allied Force (Kosovo)
and, most notably, in Operation Enduring Freedom in
Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[36] The B-1s
role in Operation Allied Force has been criticized as the
aircraft was not used until after enemy defenses had been
suppressed by aircraft like the older B-52 it was intended
to replace.[67] The B-1 has deployed an array of conventional weapons in war zones, most notably the GBU31, 2,000 pounds (910 kg) Joint Direct Attack Munition
(JDAM).[36] In the rst six months of Operation Enduring
Freedom, eight B-1s dropped almost 40 percent of aerial
ordnance, including some 3,900 JDAMs.[107] JDAM munitions were heavily used by the B-1 over Iraq, notably on
7 April 2003 in an unsuccessful attempt to kill Saddam
Hussein and his two sons.[118] At the height of the Iraq
War, a B-1 was permanently airborne to provide rapid
precision bombardment upon important targets as intelligence identied them.[119] During Operation Enduring
Freedom, the B-1 was able to raise its mission capable
rate to 79%.[88]
The B-1 has higher survivability and speed when compared to the older B-52, which it was intended to replace.
It also holds 61 FAI world records for speed, payload,
distance, and time-to-climb in dierent aircraft weight
classes.[120][121] In November 1983, three B-1Bs set a
long distance record for the aircraft, which demonstrated
its ability to conduct extended mission lengths to strike
anywhere in the world and return to base without any
stops.[122] The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record ights for 1994.[88]
Of the 100 B-1Bs built, 93 remained in 2000 after losses
in accidents. In June 2001, the Pentagon sought to place
522
one-third of its then eet into storage; this proposal resulted in several U.S. Air National Guard ocers and
members of Congress lobbying against the proposal, including the drafting of an amendment to prevent such
cuts.[67] The 2001 proposal was intended to allow money
to be diverted to further upgrades to the remaining B1Bs, such as computer modernization.[67] In 2003, accompanied by the removal of B-1Bs from the two bomb
wings in the Air National Guard, the USAF decided to
retire 33 aircraft to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of remaining B-1Bs.[123] In 2004, a new
appropriation bill called for some of the retired aircraft
to return to service,[124] and the USAF returned seven
mothballed bombers to service to increase the eet to 67
aircraft.[125]
Crew members transferring a GBU-31 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) to a lift truck for loading onto a B-1B on 29 March
2007, in Southwest Asia

nized into two Bomb Wings: the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess
AFB, Texas, and the 28th Bomb Wing at Ellsworth AFB,
South Dakota.[99][131]
With upgrades to keep the B-1 viable, the air force may
keep the bomber in service until approximately 2038.[132]
Despite upgrades, the B-1 has repair and cost issues resulting from its age. For every ight hour it needs 48.4
hours of repair. The fuel, repairs and other needs for
a 12-hour mission costs $720,000 as of 2010.[133] The
$63,000 cost per ight hour is, however, less than the
$72,000 for the B-52 and the $135,000 of the B-2.[134]
In June 2010, senior US Air Force ocials met to consider retiring the entire eet to meet budget cuts.[135] The
Pentagon plans to supplement the aircraft with the Long
Range Strike Bomber beginning in 2030.[136][137] In the
meantime, its capabilities are particularly well-suited to
the vast distances and unique challenges of the Pacic region, and we'll continue to invest in, and rely on, the B-1
in support of the focus on the Pacic as part of President
Obamas Pivot to East Asia.[138]
In August 2012, the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron
returned from a six-month tour in Afghanistan. Their
nine B-1Bs ew 770 sorties, the most of any B-1B
squadron on a single deployment. The squadron spent
9,500 hours airborne, while having one of its bombers
in the air at all times. They accounted for a quarter of
the combat aircraft sorties over the country while there
and averaged 23 requests for air support per day.[139]
On 4 September 2013, a B-1B participated in a maritime
evaluation exercise, deploying munitions such as laserguided 500 lb GBU-54 bombs, 500 lb and 2,000 lb Joint
Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), and Long Range AntiShip Missiles (LRASM). The aim was to detect and engage several small craft using existing weapons and tactics
developed from conventional warfare against ground targets; the B-1 is seen as a useful asset for maritime duties
such as patrolling shipping lanes.[140]
On 14 July 2007, the Associated Press reported on the

growing USAF presence in Iraq as a result of surge
in forces. Also mentioned is the reintroduction of B1Bs to be a close-at-hand platform to support Coalition ground forces.[126] B-1s have been used in Iraq and
Afghanistan. Since 2008 B-1s have been used there in
Beginning in 2014, the B-1 was used by the U.S. against
an armed overwatch role. They loiter over the region
ISIL in the Syrian Civil War.[141] From August 2014 to
maintaining surveillance, ready to deliver guided bombs
January 2015, the B-1 accounted for eight percent of
in support of ground troops if contacted.[127][128]
USAF sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve.[142]
The B-1B underwent a series of ight tests using a 50/50
mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel; on 19 March 2008,
a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the 45.4 Variants
rst US Air Force aircraft to y at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a ight over Texas and New
Mexico. This was conducted as part of an ongoing Air B-1A
Force testing and certication program to reduce reliance
on traditional oil sources.[129] On 4 August 2008, a B-1B The B-1A was the original B-1 design with variew the rst Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped able engine intakes and Mach 2.2 top speed. Four
combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted en- prototypes were built; no production units were
emy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb manufactured.[125][143]
in Afghanistan.[103]
In March 2011, B-1Bs from Ellsworth Air Force Base at- B-1B
tacked undisclosed targets in Libya as part of Operation
Odyssey Dawn.[130] The USAF had 66 B-1Bs in service The B-1B is a revised B-1 design with reduced radar sigin September 2012, split between four squadrons orga- nature and a top speed of Mach 1.25. It was otherwise
45.5. OPERATORS
The rear section showing the B-1As pointed radome
523
A B-1B on public display at Ellsworth AFB, 2003
optimized for low-level penetration. A total of 100 B1Bs were produced.[143]

B-1R
The B-1R is a proposed upgrade of existing B-1B
aircraft.[144] The B-1R (R for regional) would be tted
with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and new Pratt
& Whitney F119 engines. This variant would have a top
speed of Mach 2.2, but with 20% shorter range.[145]
Existing external hardpoints would be modied to allow USAF B-1B arrives at Royal International Air Tattoo 2008
multiple conventional weapons to be carried, increasing
overall loadout. For air-to-air defense, an Active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar would be added United States Air Force
and some existing hardpoints modied to carry air-to-air
Strategic Air Command 1985-92
missiles. If needed the B-1R could escape from unfavorable air-to-air encounters with its Mach 2+ speed. Few
Air Combat Command 1992-present
aircraft are currently capable of sustained speeds over
Mach 2.[144]
7th Bomb Wing - Dyess AFB, Texas
45.5 Operators
9th Bomb Squadron 1993-present

13th Bomb Squadron 2000-05
28th Bomb Wing - Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota
34th Bomb Squadron 1994-97,
2002-present
77th Bomb Squadron 1985-95,
1997-2002
A 28th Bomb Wing B-1B on the ramp in the early morning at

Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota
United States
53d Test and Evaluation Group - Nellis AFB,

Nevada
337th Test and Evaluation
Squadron (Dyess AFB, Texas)
2004-present
524
57th Wing - Nellis AFB, Nevada

77th Weapons Squadron (Dyess)
2003-present
96th Bomb Wing - Dyess AFB, Texas
338th Combat Crew Training
Squadron 1986-93
4018th Combat Crew Training
Squadron 1985-86
319th Bomb Wing - Grand Forks AFB, North
Dakota 1987-94
46th Bomb Squadron
366th Wing - Mountain Home AFB, Idaho 19972002
34th Bomb Squadron
384th Bomb Wing - McConnell AFB, Kansas 198794
28th Bomb Squadron
Air National Guard
116th Bomb Wing - Robins AFB. Georgia 19962002
128th Bomb Squadron
184th Bomb Wing - McConnell AFB, Kansas 19942002
127th Bomb Squadron
Air Force Flight Test Center - Edwards AFB,
California
412th Operations Group 1989-92
412th Test Wing 1992present
6510th Test Wing 1974-89

B-1A
74-0160 - Wings Over the Rockies Museum at
the former Lowry Air Force Base in Denver, Colorado.[146]
74-0174 - Strategic Air and Space Museum in
Ashland, Nebraska. This aircraft has conventional
ejection seats and other features used on the B-1B
variant.[147]
B-1B
83-0065 Star of Abilene - Dyess Linear Air Park
at Dyess Air Force Base in Texas. This was the
rst aircraft delivered to the U.S. Air Force. Dyess
AFB is home to one of two active Air Force B-1B
wings.[148]
83-0066 Ole Puss - Heritage Park at Mountain
Home AFB in Idaho with wheels in the wells.[149]
83-0067 Texas Raider - South Dakota Air and
Space Museum at Ellsworth Air Force Base in South
Dakota. Ellsworth AFB is home to one of two active
Air Force B-1B wings.[150]
83-0068 Spuds - Reections of Freedom Air Park
at McConnell Air Force Base in Wichita, Kansas,
a former Air Force and Air National Guard B-1B
base.[151]
83-0069 Silent Penetrator - Museum of Aviation at
Robins Air Force Base in Warner Robins, Georgia, a
former Air National Guard B-1B base. This aircraft
was the sixth B-1 produced, and was delivered to
the 96th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas on 13
March 1986. This aircraft arrived at Robins AFB in
September 2002. Robins AFB was previously home
to one of two Air National Guard B-1B wings.[152]
83-0070 7 Wishes - Hill Aerospace Museum at Hill
Air Force Base in Ogden, Utah.[153] The Ogden Air
Logistics Center at Hill AFB performs depot level
maintenance on the entire B-1 eet.
83-0071 Spit Fire - near the main gate at Tinker Air
Force Base, Oklahoma. This aircraft was one of two
that suered an in-ight engine failure in 1990 that
led to grounding of the eet.[154]
84-0051 Boss Hawg - National Museum of the
United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB
near Dayton, Ohio. It is displayed in the Museums
Cold War Gallery, and replaces the B-1A (74-0174)
formerly on display.[155]
45.7. ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS
45.7 Accidents and incidents

Ten B-1s have been lost due to accidents. Between 1984
and 2001, 17 crew members and people on board have
been killed in B-1 accidents.[156]
45.7.1
Crashes
On 29 August 1984, B-1A (AF Ser. No. 740159) stalled and crashed while performing minimum control speed tests at low altitude. The crew
used the escape capsule to leave the bomber, but the
parachutes deployed improperly, causing the capsule to hit nose down. The impact killed the B-1s
pilot, Rockwell test pilot Doug Beneeld, and seriously injured two other crew members.[157][158]
In September 1987, B-1B (s/n 84-0052) from the
96th Bomb Wing, 338th Combat Crew Training
Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near La Junta, Colorado while ying on a low-level training route. This
was the only B-1B crash to occur with six crew
members aboard. The two crew members in jump
seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection
seats perished. The root cause of the accident was
thought to be a bird strike on a wings leading edge
during the low-level ight. The impact was severe
enough to sever fuel and hydraulic lines on one side
of the aircraft, the other sides engines functioned
long enough to allow for ejection. The B-1B eet
was later modied to protect these supply lines.[159]
In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0063) from the
96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess
AFB crashed near Tye, Texas after a re broke out
above the left engines. All four crew members successfully ejected from the aircraft.[159]
525
On 18 February 1998, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the
7th Bomb Wing, Dyess AFB, Texas crashed near
Marion, Kentucky when a re detected by a cockpit
instrument panel shut down the aircrafts power.[162]
All four crew members were able to eject and were
rescued safely.[163]
In December 2001, B-1B (s/n 86-0114) from the
28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth
AFB, South Dakota, was lost over the Indian Ocean.
All four crew members successfully ejected and
were rescued.[164] The bomber was ying en route to
a long-range combat mission over Afghanistan when
the crew declared an in-ight emergency. The pilot, Captain William Steele, attributed the crash to
multiple malfunctions causing the bomber to go
out of control.[156] Because of the waters depth,
the structural data collector (SDC) or "Black Box"
was not recovered and the cause was not positively
determined. The aircraft had recently returned
from a routine Phase Inspection, and was on its
rst combat mission after returning to the island of
Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory.
This was the rst B-1B to be lost during combat
operations.[156][165]
On 4 April 2008, B-1B (s/n 86-0116) lost hydraulic
power while taxiing, then crashed into a concrete
barrier and caught re at Al Udeid AB, Qatar. The
crew safely evacuated the aircraft. The B-1B was
carrying two 2,000 lb bombs at the time, which did
not detonate. The aircraft was destroyed.[166]
On 19 August 2013, B-1B (AF Ser. No. 85-0091)
out of Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota crashed in a
remote area near Broadus, Montana. All four crew
members survived by ejecting before the aircraft
crashed.[167] A report found that the crash was due
to a mechanical failure leading to a fuel leak and
explosions.[168][169]

AFB crashed short of the runway at Ellsworth AFB 45.7.2
during adverse weather. All four crew members
ejected successfully.[159]
AFB, Texas, ying on a low-level training ight
crashed into a mountain near Van Horn, Texas. All
four members of the crew were killed, and the cause
was attributed to pilot error.[159]
In September 1997, B-1B (s/n 85-0078) from the
AFB, South Dakota, ying in the Powder River Military Operating Area crashed 25 miles (40 km) north
of Alzada, Montana. All four members of the crew
were killed.[159][160] The review board found that the
bomber struck the ground while performing a defensive maneuver.[161]
Other accidents and notable incidents
On 4 October 1989, B-1B (s/n 85-0070) from the

AFB, Texas, was forced to make an emergency landing at Edwards Air Force Base after suering an inight failure of the No. 2 hydraulic system, which
required use of the No 3 system deploy the landing gear. After the nose gear failed to deploy, the
crew attempted to lower the nose gear via the alternate emergency gear-extension method. After several hours of attempting dierent means to lower the
nose gear, the decision was made to perform a nosegear-up landing on Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards.
The lower portion of the forward bulkhead used to
mount the radar antenna was the only part of the aircraft to suer damage, and after repairs, the jet was
526

gear, leading to an estimated repair cost of more
than $32 million.[172]
A B-1B with a brake re after a hard landing at Rhein-Main AB,

Germany, June 1994.
returned to Dyess in January 1990 by the same crew

which performed the emergency landing.[170]
In October 1990, while ying a training route
in eastern Colorado, B-1B (s/n 86-0128) from
the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron,
McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the
engines reached full power without afterburners.
Fire on the aircrafts left was spotted. The #1 engine was shut down and its re extinguisher was activated. The accident investigation determined that
the engine had suered catastrophic failure, engine
blades had cut through the engine mounts and the
engine became detached from the aircraft.[159]
On 8 May 2006, B-1B (s/n 86-0132) from the

7th Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB,
Texas, landed gear-up during recovery from an
11-hour ferry ight to the island of Diego Garcia.
A resulting re was quickly extinguished and the
crew escaped through the top hatch with only a minor back injury to the co-pilot. The air force investigation concluded that the crew forgot to lower
the landing gear" based on the following reasons: 1)
co-pilot task oversaturation, 2) co-pilots wanting to
complete a long mission, 3) neither pilot completed
the landing checklist, 4) co-pilots belief that the pilot had lowered the landing gear when he had not, 5)
pilot had turned over control to the co-pilot on the
nal approach and the pilot had reported to base that
the landing gear was down when it was not - indicator lights showing the landing gear was still up were
working and apparently ignored. As a result the B1B impacted and slid on the runway, which caused
approximately $8 million of damage to the aircraft
and runway.[173]
45.8 Specications (B-1B)
In December 1990, B-1B (s/n 83-0071) from the

AFB, Texas, experienced a jolt that caused the #3
engine to shut down with its re extinguisher activating. This event, coupled with the October 1990
engine incident, led to a 50+ day grounding of the
B-1Bs not on nuclear alert status. The problem was
eventually traced back to problems in the rst-stage
fan, and all B-1Bs were equipped with modied
engines.[159]
In June 1994, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the 7th
Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, made an emergency divert to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany due
to a wing sweep malfunction. The crew made a high
speed landing at Rhein-Main and stopped 100 feet
short of the end of the runway. Afterward the overheated brakes led to a re of the right main landing
gear, but was quickly extinguished.[171]
On 15 September 2005, B-1B (s/n 85-0066) was extensively damaged by re while landing at Andersen
Air Force Base, Guam. The investigation into the
incident concluded that leaking hydraulic uid and
sparks from a wheel being gouged caused a re to
start in the aircrafts right main landing gear as it
touched down. The resulting re damaged the B1s right wing, engine nacelle, airframe and landing
B-1A orthographic projection
Data from USAF Fact Sheet,[88] Jenkins,[174] Pace,[61]

Lee[82] except where noted
Crew: four (aircraft commander, copilot, oensive
systems ocer and defensive systems ocer)
45.8. SPECIFICATIONS (B-1B)
527
Fuel capacity, optional: 10,000 U.S. gal (38,000
L) fuel tank in 13 internal weapons bays each
Performance
Maximum speed:
At altitude: Mach 1.25 (721 kn or 830 mph
or 1,335 km/h) at 50,000 ft or 15,000 m altitude
At low level: Mach 0.92 (700 mph or 1,100
km/h) at 200500 ft or 61152 m altitude
Range: 6,478 nmi (7,455 mi; 11,997 km)
B-1B cockpit
Combat radius: 2,993 nmi (3,444 mi; 5,543 km)

Thrust/weight: 0.38
Armament
B-1B forward bomb bay tted with a rotary launcher
Hardpoints: six external hardpoints for 50,000

pounds (23,000 kg) of ordnance (use for weapons
restricted by arms treaties[103] ) and three internal
bomb bays for 75,000 pounds (34,000 kg) of ordnance.
Bombs:
Payload: 125,000 lb (56,700 kg) ; internal and external ordnance combined

Length: 146 ft (44.5 m)
84 Mk-82 Air inatable retarder (AIR) general purpose (GP) bombs[175]
Wingspan:
81 Mk-82 low drag general purpose (LDGP)

bombs[176]
84 Mk-62 Quickstrike sea mines[177]
Extended: 137 ft (42 m)
24 Mk-84 general purpose bombs
Swept: 79 ft (24 m)
24 Mk-65 naval mines[178]
30 CBU-87/89/CBU-97 Cluster Bomb Units

(CBU)[N 2]
Wing area: 1,950 ft (181.2 m)
30 CBU-103/104/105 Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD) CBUs
Airfoil: NACA69-190-2
augmented turbofans
24 GBU-31 JDAM GPS guided bombs (Mk84 GP or BLU-109 warhead)[N 3]

15 GBU-38 JDAM GPS guided bombs (Mk82 GP warhead)[N 4]
48x GBU-38 JDAM (using rotary launcher
mounted multiple ejector racks)[179]
Dry thrust: 14,600 lbf (64.9 kN) each
48x GBU-54 LaserJDAM (using rotary

launcher mounted multiple ejector racks)[179]
Thrust with afterburner:

(136.92 kN) each
24 AGM-154 Joint Stando Weapon

(JSOW)
30,780 lbf
528

96 or 144 GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb
GPS guided bombs[N 5] (not elded on B-1 yet)
24 AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Stando
Missile (JASSM)
24 B61 or B83 nuclear bombs (no longer
carried)[178]
[4] As per B-1B Weapons Loading Checklist T.O. 1B-1B33-2-1CL-12 Section 3.4 (Only six each in forward and
intermediate bays and three each in the aft bay)
[5] 96 if using four-packs, 144 if using six-packs. This capability has not yet been elded on the B-1
45.11.2 Citations
Avionics
[1] Skaarup 2002, p. 17.
1 AN/APQ-164 forward-looking oensive Passive

electronically scanned array radar
[2] Jenkins 1999, p. 10.
1 AN/ALQ-161 radar warning receiver and defensive jamming equipment
[4] Jenkins 1999, pp. 1517.
1 AN/ASQ-184 defensive management system

1
Sniper
Advanced
(optional)[180][181]
Targeting
Pod
[3] Jenkins 1999, pp. 1213.
[5] Schwartz 1998, p. 118.

[6] Rich, Ben and Leo Janos. Skunk Works. Boston: Little,
Brown & Company, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74300-3.
[7] Jenkins 1999, p. 21.
[8] May 1960 The U-2 Incident. Soviet and American

Statements. Keesings Record of World Events, Volume 6,
1960.
Main article: B-1 Lancer in ction
[9] Spick 1986, pp. 68.

[10] Schwartz 1998, p. 119.
45.10 See also

ASALM, Advanced Strategic Air-Launched Missile
Tupolev Tu-22M
Tupolev Tu-160
General Dynamics FB-111
[11] NASA-CR-115702, B-70 Aircraft Study Final Report,

Vol. I, p. I-38. NASA, 1972.
[12] Jenkins 1999, pp. 1416.
[13] Knaack 1988, pp. 279280.
[14] Knaack 1988, p. 256.
[15] Gunston 1978, pp. 1213.
[16] Gordon Taylor, Subsonic Low Altitude Bomber,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base ASD-TDR-62-426,
June 1962
[17] Pace 1998, pp. 1114.
Related lists
[18] Knaack 1988, pp. 575576.
[19] Casil 2003, p. 8.
[20] Knaack 1988, p. 576.

[21] Knaack 1988, p. 575.
45.11 References
[22] Wykes, J. H. The Evolution of a Strategic Bomber.

AIAA, 1214 May 1981. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
45.11.1
[23] Jenkins 1999, p. 23.
Notes
[1] The name Lancer is only applied to the B-1B version,

after the program was revived.
[2] As per B-1B Weapons Loading Checklist T.O. 1B-1B-332-1CL-13
[3] both Mk-84 general purpose and BLU-109 penetrating
bombs
[24] Pace 1998, p. 10.

[25] Knaack 1988, pp. 576577.
[26] B-1A page. fas.org. Retrieved: 20 March 2008.
[27] Knaack 1988, pp. 576578.
[28] Jenkins 1999, pp. 2326.
45.11. REFERENCES
529
[29] AN/APQ - Airborne Multipurpose/Special Radars.

designation-systems.net. 2007-07-01. Retrieved 2015-0127.
[55] Reagan, President Ronald. Reagans Radio Address to

the Nation on Foreign Policy. presidentreagan.info. 20
October 1984.
[30] Knaack 1988, p. 579.
[56] Schwartz 1998, p. 120.
[31] Pace 1998, pp. 2223.
[57] Mitchell, Douglas D. IB81107, Bomber Options for Replacing B-52s. Library of Congress Congressional Research Service, via Digital Library, UNT, 3 May 1982.
[32] Kocivar, Ben. Our New B-1 Bomber High, Low, Fast,
and Slow. Popular Science, Volume 197, Issue 5, November 1970, p. 86.
[33] Knaack 1988, p. 584.
[34] Rockwell International history 19701986. Boeing. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[35] Sorrels 1983, p. 27.
[36] Lee 2008, p. 13.
[37] Whitford 1987, p. 136.
[38] Schefter, Jim. The Other Story About The Controversial
B-1. Popular Science, Volume 210. Issue 5, May 1977,
p. 112.
[39] Spick 1986, pp. 3032.
[40] Knaack 1988, p. 586.
[58] Jumper, John P. Global Strike Task Force: A Transforming Concept, Forged by Experience. Aerospace Power
Journal 15, no. 1, Spring 2001, pp. 3031. Originally
published by Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base,
2001.
[59] Coates, James. Reagan approves B-1, alters basing for
MX. Chicago Tribune, 3 October 1981. Retrieved: 28
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[60] Jenkins 1999, p. 62.
[61] Pace 1998, p. 64.
[62] Spick 1986, p. 28.
[63] Casil 2003, p. 7.
[41] B-1B Background Information. Boeing. Retrieved: 8

October 2009.
[64] Germani, Clara, ed. Former defense chief raps B-1

bomber plan. Christian Science Monitor, 21 September
[42] Jenkins 1999, p. 44.
[65] Jenkins 1999, pp. 7074.
[43] Willis, David K. Japans scrutiny of Soviet jet jars detente. Christian Science Monitor, 16 September 1976.
[66] Jenkins 1999, pp. 6364.
[44] Donald 2004, p. 120.

[45] Knaack 1988, p. 590.
[46] Carters Big Decision: Down Goes the B-1, Here Comes
the Cruise. Time, 11 July 1977. Retrieved: 8 October
2009.
[47] Withington 2006, p. 7.
[48] Pace 1999, pp. 2027.
[49] Sorrels 1983, p. 23.
[67] Dao 2001, p. 1.

[68] Withington 2006, p. 16.
[69] Knaack 1988, p. 587.
[70] Wykes, J. H. AIAA-1972-772, B-1 Structural Mode
Control System. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics (AIAA), 9 August 1972. Retrieved: 3 August 2011.
[71] Jenkins 1999, p. 60.
[72] Spick 1986, pp. 4445.
[73] Spick 1987, p. 498.
[50] Belcher, Jerry. Dropping B-1 Would Bring World War

III, Dornan Says. Los Angeles Times, 11 June 1977.
[74] F110 Family. GE Aviation. Retrieved: 25 January 2010
[51] Jenkins 1999, p. 46.
[75] CFM delivers 20,000th engine. CFM International. Retrieved: 25 January 2010.
[52] Liggett, Lieutenant Colonel William R. Long-Range

Combat Aircraft and Rapid Deployment Forces.
Maxwell Air Force Base, Air University Review, July
August 1982. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[53] Moore, John Leo. U.S. defense policy: weapons, strategy, and commitments. Congressional Quarterly, 1980,
pp. 65, 79.
[54] Herbet, Adam J. The Search for Asian Bases. AIR
FORCE Magazine, January 2002, pp. 5153.
[76] Spick 1986, p. 44.

[77] Pace 1998, p. 44.
[78] Ch4-3. nasa.gov. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[79] Jovial to smooth U.S. Air Force shift to Ada. (processing
language) |HighBeam Business: Arrive Prepared
[80] AN/APQ-164 B-1B Radar. Northrop Grumman. Retrieved: 25 January 2010.
530
[81] Withington 2006, pp. 3334.

[82] Lee 2008, p. 15.
[83] Spick 1986, pp. 5253.
[84] Jenkins 1999, p. 106.
[85] AN/ALQ-153 Missile Warning System. FAS. FAS. Retrieved 2015-02-02.
[86] Skaarup 2002, p. 18.
[104] La Rue, Nori. B-1 Sniper pod aims to hit summer target. US Air Force, 4 June 2008. Retrieved: 8 October
2009.
[105] Wicke, Russell. ACC declares small diameter bomb initially operational. US Air Force, 5 October 2006.
[106] Rivezzo, Charles. B-1B Lancer upgrade will triple payload. USAF, 11 April 2011. Retrieved: 31 August 2011.
[107] Air Force Begins Massive B-1B Overhaul - Defensetech.org, 21 February 2014
[87] Humphries, J. A. and D. E. Miller. AIAA-1997[108] Pace 1998, pp. 62, 69.
2963:
B-1B/MJU-23 are strike test program.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, [109] Jenkins 1999, p. 83.
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference
and Exhibit, 33rd, Seattle, Washington, 69 July 1997. [110] Jenkins 1999, p. 67.
[111] Jenkins 1999, p. 116.
[88] B-1B USAF fact sheet. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved: 8
[112]
October 2009.
[113]
[89] Radar Cross Section Measurements (8-12 GHz)
[114]
[90] Cunningham, Jim. The New Old Threat: Fighter Upgrades and What They Mean for the USAF, p. 7. Illinois [115]
State University, 3 December 1997.
[91] Skaarup 2002, p. 19.
[116]
[92] Boeing Completes Block E Avionics Upgrade of B-1
Bomber Fleet. Boeing, 4 December 1998. Retrieved: 8 [117]
October 2009.
[118]
[93] Adams, Charlotte. Building Blocks to Upgrade to B-1B.
Avionics Magazine, 1 August 2002. Retrieved: 24 June [119]
2010.
[120]
B-1 aircrew logbook entry.

Dao 2001, p. 4.
Withington 2006, p. 10.
Scott, Ed. JDAM Course Ushers B-1 Students Into New
Era. Program Manager, 1 November 1999. Retrieved:
14 August 2010.
Jenkins 1999, p. 141.
Withington 2006, pp. 7576.
Jenkins 1999, p. Appendix E.
[94] Boeing 2006 Block E Upgrades. Boeing, 27 September [121] History B-1 Lancer Bomber. Boeing. Retrieved: 31
July 2010.
[95] Block F Upgrades. US Air Force, 21 January 2003. Re- [122]
trieved: 24 June 2010.
[123]
[96] Young, Susan H. Gallery of USAF Weapons. Air Force
Magazine, May 2009. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[124]
[97] Maull, Lisa and Forrest Gossett. Boeing B-1 Upgraded
With Fully Integrated Data Link Completes 1st Flight.
Boeing, 13 August 2009. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[125]
[98] US Air Force Receives 1st B-1 Equipped with Boeing
Integrated Battle Station. Boeing
Dorr 1997, p. 224.

B-1 bombers nal ight. Arizona Star, 21 August 2002.
Klamper, Amy. Lawmakers look after home military installations. govexec.com, 25 June 2004. Retrieved: 31
July 2010.
Mehuron, Tamar A. USAF Almanac: Facts and Figures
(data as of 30 September 2004). Air Force Magazine, May
[99] Boeing Awarded B-1B Upgrade Contract. September [126] Hanley, Charles J. Air Force Quietly Building Iraq Pres2011. AirForces Monthly. Issue 282. p. 14.
ence. commondreams.org, 14 July 2007. Retrieved: 30
June 2011.
[100] Dyess receives rst operational IBS-upgraded B-1.
USAF, 24 January 2014.
[127] Wicke, Tech. Sgt. Russell, B-1 performs as never envisioned after 20 years. US Air Force, 17 April 2008. Re[101] Rivezzo, Charles V. New upgrades revitalize B-1B
trieved: 8 October 2009.
Lancers. USAF, 2 June 2012.
[128] Door 2010, pp. 4045.
[102] Hernandez, Jason. 419th FLTS demonstrates Sniper pod
capability. US Air Force, 23 February 2007.
[129] Bates, Matthew. B-1B achieves rst supersonic ight using synthetic fuel. Air Force News, 20 March 2008.
[103] Pate, Capt. Kristen. Sniper ATP-equipped B-1B has
combat rst. US Air Force, 11 August 2008. Retrieved: [130] Ellsworth Airmen join Operation Odyssey Dawn. Rapid
8 October 2009.
City Journal, 29 March 2011.
45.11. REFERENCES
531
[131] The Air Force in Facts and Figures 2013 USAF Al- [150] B-1B Lancer/83-0067. sdairandspacemuseum.com.
manac. Air Force Magazine, Journal of the Air Force AsRetrieved: 10 October 2010.
sociation, Vol. 96, Issue 5, May 2013.
[151] B-1B Lancer/83-0068. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
[132] Hebert, Adam J. The 2018 Bomber and Its Friends. Air
May 2013.
Force magazine, October 2006. Retrieved: 14 August
[152] B-1B Lancer/83-0069. Museum of Aviation. Retrieved:
2010.
31 July 2010.
[133] Shachtman, Noah. The Air Force Needs a Serious Upgrade, Brookings Institution, 15 July 2010. Retrieved: 31 [153] B-1B Lancer/83-0070. Hill Aerospace Museum. Retrieved: 31 July 2010.
August 2011.
[134] Axe, David. Why Can't the Air Force Build an Aord- [154] B-1B Lancer/83-0071. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
May 2013.
able Plane?" The Atlantic, 26 March 2012. Retrieved: 30
June 2012.
[155] B-1B Lancer/84-0051. National Museum of the United
States Air Force. Retrieved: 31 July 2010.
[135] Budget cutting axe may fall on the U.S. bomber force.
Reporter News. Retrieved: 25 July 2010.
[156] Bomber Crew Rescued from Sea. USA Today, 12 De[136] Gosan, Angelo. Neugebauer ghting to preserve B1 procember 2001. Retrieved: 18 July 2006.
gram. Gosanangelo.com, 5 May 2011. Retrieved: 31 Au[157] Jenkins 1999, p. 63.
gust 2011.
[137] Mehta, Aaron (24 April 2015). Bomber, Sixth-Gen Take [158] Pace 1998, p. 37.
Cuts in Chairmans Markup. Defense News (Gannett).
Retrieved 26 April 2015. It will eventually replace the [159] Jenkins 1999, pp. 114116.
eet of B-52 and B-1 bomber eets. Although technical [160] Air Force suspends Mondays combat training ights.
specications are largely unknown, it is expected the deCNN, 20 September 1997. Retrieved: 16 July 2011.
sign will be stealthy, with optionally manned capability.
[161] B-1 bomber crash blamed on crew. CNN, 9 September
[138] Brook,Tom Vanden. B-1 bomber mission shifts from
Afghanistan to China, Pacic. USA Today, 11 May 2012.
[162] 4 survive B-1B bomber crash in Kentucky. CNN, 18
[139] The 24/7 Bone Over Afghanistan. Strategypage.com, 15
February 1998. Retrieved: 30 June 2011.
August 2012.
[163] Crew parachutes from B-1B bomber just before crash.
[140] U.S. Air Force tests B-1B Lancer bomber for maritime
CNN, February 1998. Retrieved: 16 July 2011.
environment & anti-ship missions - Navyrecognition.com,
19 September 2013
[164] Morris, Ted. Call Sign ICECUBE 44." zianet.com, 24
August 2010. Retrieved: 30 June 2011.
[141] Sputnik (23 September 2014). United States, Arab Allies Hit IS Targets in Syria: Reports. ria.ru. Retrieved 1 [165] Aircraft Accident Investigation: B-1 (S/N 86-0114). Air
April 2015.
Force Legal Operations Agency, 12 December 2001.
[142] A-10 Performing 11 Percent of Anti-ISIS Sorties - De- [166] Rolfsen, Bruce. Brake failure caused B-1B crash in
Qatar. Air Force Times, 6 October 2008; includes photographs and video. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[143] Donald 1997, p. 723.
[144] Lewis, Paul and Erik Simonsen. Oering Unique Solu- [167] B-1 bomber crashes in Montana - Stripes.com, 19 August
2013
tions for Global Strike Force. All Systems Go, (Boeing)
Vol. 2, Issue 2, 2004. (copy on Archive.org) Retrieved: 8
[168] Report: Mechanical malfunction led to Aug. bomber
October 2009.
crash. www.usatoday.com. AP. 1 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
[145] Hebert, Adam J. Long-Range Strike in a Hurry. Air
Force Magazine, November 2004. Retrieved: 8 October
[169] https://timeswampland.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/
2009.
19-aug-13-b-1-aib-final-report-part-1.pdf
[146] B-1A Lancer/74-160. Wings Over The Rockies Air &
[170] Target Lock: B-1B : Squadron Service 1985 to 1992.
Space Museum. Retrieved: 31 July 2010.
targetlock.org.uk. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[147] B-1A Lancer/76-174. Strategic Air Command Museum.
[171] Dorr, Robert F. 7th Bombardment Group/Wing, 1918Retrieved: 28 January 2013.
1995, pp. 2245. Paducah, Kentucky. : Turner Publishing Company, 1996. ISBN 1563112787.
[148] B-1B Lancer/83-0065. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
May 2013.
[172] Stemple, Master Sgt. John. Andersen, Tinker rebuild B[149] B-1B Lancer/83-0066. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
1. andersen.af.mil, 12 March 2007. Retrieved: 25 July
May 2013.
2010.
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[173] Report: pilot error caused B-1B crash. Air Combat Command Public Aairs, USAF, 18 September 2006. Retrieved: 1 December 2006.
(2004), The Pocket Guide to Military Aircraft: And the Worlds Airforces, London: Octopus,
ISBN 0-681-03185-9.
[174] Jenkins 1999.
Dorr, Robert F (1997).

7th Bombardment
Group/Wing, 19181995. Turner, ME: Turner.
ISBN 1-56311-278-7.
[175] As per B-1B Weapons Loading Checklist T.O. 1B-1B-332-1CL-8

[176] As per B-1B Weapons Loading Checklist T.O. 1B-1B-332-1CL-7 (changed from 84 to 81 due to t issues on 28X
CBM with new tailkits)
[177] Bad to the B-ONE. Air Force Magazine, March 2007, p.
[178] Jenkins 1999, p. 142.
[179] Rivezzo, Charles V. 337 TES demonstrates ability to
triple B-1 payload. 7th Bomb Wing Public Aairs, USAF,
7 April 2011. Retrieved: 29 February 2012.
[180] Tirpak, John A. The Big Squeeze. Air Force Magazine,
Journal of the Air Force Association, Volume 90, Issue
10, October 2007. ISSN: 0730-6784.
[181] Kessler, Capt. Carrie L. B-1 crews conduct TWF test; receive pod spin-up. Air Force Print News Today, 29 February 2008. Retrieved: 30 June 2010.
[182] The Weapons File " Air Armament Center
[183] B-1B Lancer upgrade will triple payload US Air Force
News, April 11, 2011
[184] Uncovering the Rockwell B-1B Lancer Willy Peeters,
Daco Publications, ISBN 978-9080674776, 2006
[185] Technical Order 00-105E-9 Revision 11, February 1st,
2006.
[186] Encyclopedia of Modern U.S. Military Weapons,
Berkley Hardcover; 1st edition, August 1, 1995,ISBN
978-0425147818
[187] The B-1B Bomber and Options for hancements Congressional Budget Oce, August, 1988
[188] Sniper ATP-equipped B-1B has combat rst US Air
Force News, August 11, 2008
[189] NA 95-1210 B-1B FACT BOOK North American Aircraft Rockwell International, July 20th, 1995
45.11.3
Bibliography
Casil, Amy Sterling. The B-1 Lancer. New York:

Rosen, 2003. ISBN 0-8239-3871-9.
(June 2010), Lancer Force, Combat Aircraft Monthly (London: Ian Allan).
Gunston, William 'Bill' (1978), F-111, New York:
Charles Scribners Sons, ISBN 0-684-15753-5.
Jenkins, Dennis R (1999). B-1 Lancer: The Most
Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-134694-5.
Knaack, Marcelle Size (1988). Post-World War II
Bombers, 19451973 (PDF). Washington, DC: Ofce of Air Force History. ISBN 0-16-002260-6.
Lee, Tae-Woo (2008). Military Technologies of the
World 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0275-99535-6.
Pace, Steve (1998). Boeing North American B-1
Lancer. North Branch, MN: Specialty Press. ISBN
1-58007-012-4.
(1999). B-2 Spirit: The Most Capable War
Machine on the Planet. New York: McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-134433-0.
Schwartz, Stephen I (1998). Atomic Audit: The
Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons
since 1940. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution
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Skaarup, Harold A (2002). South Dakota Warbird Survivors 2003: A Handbook on Where to Find
Them. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse. ISBN 0-59526379-8.
Sorrels, Charles A. U.S. Cruise Missile Programs:
Development, Deployment, and Implications for
Arms Control. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
ISBN 0-08-030527-X.
Spick, Michael 'Mike' (1986), B-1B, Modern Fighting Aircraft, New York: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13055237-2.
Spick, Mike, ed. (1987). The Great Book of Modern
Warplanes. New York: Salamander Books. ISBN
0-517-63367-1.
Dao, James. Much-Maligned B-1 Bomber Proves

Hard to Kill. The New York Times, 1 August 2001.
Whitford, Ray (1987). Design for Air Combat.

London: Janes Information Group. ISBN 0-71060426-2.
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Cold War Rockwell B-1A. The Aviation Factle.
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Withington, Thomas (2006). B-1B Lancer Units
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B-1B Fact Sheet and B-1 System Program Oce on
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B-1 history page on NASA/Langley Research Center site
B-1 page on GlobalSecurity.org, Detailed History,
Development and Data
B-1B Lancer USAF 20-year history article
Boeing Wins $45 Million U.S. Air Force B-1B Upgrade Contract
B-1B Lancer Long-Range Strategic Bomber USA
Images
533
Chapter 46
Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion

The Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion is the largest and
heaviest helicopter in the United States military. As the
Sikorsky S-80 it was developed from the CH-53 Sea
Stallion, mainly by adding a third engine, adding a seventh blade to the main rotor and canting the tail rotor
20 degrees. It was built by Sikorsky Aircraft for the
United States Marine Corps. The less common MH-53E
Sea Dragon lls the United States Navy's need for long
range minesweeping or Airborne Mine Countermeasures
(AMCM) missions, and perform heavy-lift duties for the
Navy. Under development is the CH-53K King Stallion,
which will be equipped with new engines, new composite
material rotor blades, and a wider aircraft cabin.
46.1 Development
46.1.1
sive avionics upgrades for all weather operation.
46.1.2 H-53E
In October 1967, the US Marine Corps issued a requirement for a helicopter with a lifting capacity 1.8 times that
of the CH-53D that would t on amphibious assault vessels. The US Navy and US Army were also seeking similar helicopters at the time. Before issue of the requirement Sikorsky had been working on an enhancement to
the CH-53D, under the company designation S-80, featuring a third turboshaft engine and a more powerful rotor system. Sikorsky proposed the S-80 design to the
Marines in 1968. The Marines liked the idea since it
promised to deliver a good solution quickly, and funded
development of a testbed helicopter for evaluation.[3]
Background
The CH-53 was the product of the U.S. Marines Heavy

Helicopter Experimental (HH(X)) competition begun in
1962. Sikorsky's S-65 was selected over Boeing Vertol's
modied CH-47 Chinook version. The prototype YCH53A rst ew on 14 October 1964.[1] The helicopter was
designated CH-53A Sea Stallion and delivery of production helicopters began in 1966.[2] The rst CH-53As
were powered by two General Electric T64-GE-6 turboshaft engines with 2,850 shp (2,125 kW) and had a The YCH-53E on its rst ight, 1 March 1974
maximum gross weight of 46,000 lb (20,865 kg) including 20,000 lb (9,072 kg) in payload.
In 1970, against pressure by the US Defense Secretary
Variants of the original CH-53A Sea Stallion include the to take the Boeing Vertol XCH-62 being developed for
RH-53A/D, HH-53B/C, CH-53D, CH-53G, and MH- the Army, the Navy and Marines were able to show the
53H/J/M. The RH-53A and RH-53D were used by the Armys helicopter was too large to operate on landing
US Navy for mine sweeping. The CH-53D included a ships and were allowed to pursue their helicopter.[3] Promore powerful version of the General Electric T64 en- totype testing investigated the addition of a third engine
gine, used in all H-53 variants, and external fuel tanks. and a larger rotor system with a seventh blade in the early
The CH-53G was a version of the CH-53D produced in 1970s. In 1974, the initial YCH-53E rst ew.[4]
West Germany for the German Army.[1]
Changes on the CH-53E also include a stronger transThe US Air Force's HH-53B/C Super Jolly Green Giant were for special operations and combat rescue and
were rst deployed during the Vietnam War. The Air
Forces MH-53H/J/M Pave Low helicopters were the last
of the twin engined H-53s and were equipped with exten-
mission and a fuselage stretched 6 feet 2 inches (1.88

m). The main rotor blades were changed to a titaniumberglass composite.[3] The tail conguration was also
changed. The low-mounted symmetrical horizontal tail
was replaced by a larger vertical tail and the tail rotor
534
46.2. DESIGN
535
tilted from the vertical to provide some lift in hover while

counteracting the main rotor torque. Also added was a
new automatic ight control system.[4] The digital ight
control system prevented the pilot from overstressing the
aircraft.[3]
YCH-53E testing showed that it could lift 17.8 tons (to
a 50-foot (15 m) wheel height), and without an external
load, could reach 170 knots (310 km/h) at a 56,000 pound
gross weight. This led to two preproduction aircraft and
a static test article being ordered. At this time the tail was
redesigned to include a high-mounted, horizontal surface
opposite the rotor with an inboard section perpendicular
to the tail rotor then at the strut connection cants 20 de- A MH-53E Sea Dragon from HM-15 during a mine sweeping
grees to horizontal.[4]
exercise, 2007
of lifting heavy equipment including the eight-wheeled
LAV-25 Light Armored Vehicle, the M198 155 mm
Howitzer with ammunition and crew. The Super Stallion can recover aircraft up to its size, which includes all
Marine Corps aircraft except for the KC-130.
46.1.3 CH-53K
Main article: Sikorsky CH-53K King Stallion
The US Marine Corps had been planning to upgrade most
of their CH-53Es to keep them in service, but this plan
A production CH-53E during ight demonstration showing the stalled. Sikorsky then proposed a new version, originally
three engines and the nal tail assembly
the CH-53X, and in April 2006, the USMC signed
a contract for 156 aircraft as the CH-53K.[5][6] The
The initial production contract was awarded in 1978, and Marines are planning to start retiring CH-53Es in 2009
service introduction followed in February 1981.[3] The and need new helicopters very quickly.[7]
rst production CH-53E ew in December 1980.[4] The
In August 2007, the USMC increased its order of CHUS Navy acquired the CH-53E in small numbers for ship53Ks to 227.[8] First ight was planned for November
board resupply. The Marines and Navy acquired a total
2011 with initial operating capability by 2015.[9]
of 177.[3]
The Navy requested a version of the CH-53E for the
airborne mine countermeasures role, designated MH53E Sea Dragon. It has enlarged sponsons to provide
substantially greater fuel storage and endurance. It also
retained the in-ight refueling probe, and could be tted with up to seven 300 US gallon (1,136 liter) ferry
tanks internally. The MH-53E digital ight-control system includes features specically designed to help tow
minesweeping gear.[3] The prototype MH-53E made its
rst ight on 23 December 1981. MH-53E was used by
the Navy beginning in 1986. The MH-53E is capable
of in-ight refueling and can be refueled at hover.[4] The
Navy obtained a total of 46 Sea Dragons and is converting
the remaining RH-53Ds back to the transport role.[3]
46.2 Design
Additionally, a number of MH-53E helicopters have been

exported to Japan as the S-80-M-1 for the Japan Maritime
Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).
The base model CH-53E serves both the US Navy and View of the CH-53Es cockpit during an in-ight refueling operMarines in the heavy lift transport role. It is capable ation with an Air Force HC-130 Hercules
536
CHAPTER 46. SIKORSKY CH-53E SUPER STALLION
Although dimensionally similar, the three engine CH53E Super Stallion or Sikorsky S-80 is a much more powerful aircraft than the original Sikorsky S-65 twin engined
CH-53A Sea Stallion. The CH-53E also added a larger
main rotor system with a seventh blade.
The CH-53E can transport up to 55 troops or 30,000 lb
(13,610 kg) of cargo and can carry external slung loads
up to 36,000 lb (16,330 kg).[3] The Super Stallion has a
cruise speed of 173 mph (278 km/h) and a range of 621
miles (1,000 km).[10] The helicopter is tted with a forward extendable in-ight refueling probe and it can also
hoist hose refuel from a surface ship while in hover mode.
It can carry three machine guns: one at the starboard side A pair of Super Stallion helicopters receive fuel from a KC-130
crew door; one at the port window, just behind the copi- Hercules while transporting Humvees over the Gulf of Aden
lot; and one at the tail ramp. The CH-53E also has chaare dispensers.[3]
A CH-53 sling loads a HMMWV during a MAGTF demonstration
USMC CH-53E recovering a disabled US Army CH-47 Chinook
The MH-53E features enlarged side mounted fuel spon- in eastern Afghanistan, 2010.
sons and is rigged for towing its mine sweeping sled
from high above the dangerous naval mines. The Sea
Dragon is equipped with mine countermeasures systems, 46.3 Operational
including twin machine guns. Its digital ight-control system includes features specically designed to help towing 46.3.1 1980s
mine sweeping gear.[3]
Upgrades to the CH-53E have included the Helicopter
Night Vision System (HNVS), improved .50 BMG (12.7
mm) GAU-21/A and M3P machine guns, and AAQ-29A
forward looking infrared (FLIR) imager.[3]
history
The Super Stallion variant rst entered service with the

creation of Heavy Marine Helicopter Squadron 464 at
Marine Corps Air Station New River, North Carolina.
Two more squadrons were created at Marine Corps Air
Station Tustin, California over the next several years,
HMH-465 and HMH-466. In addition, one west coast
training squadron, HMT-301, was given Super Stallions
as was one more east coast squadron, HMH-772, out of
a reserve base at NASJRB Willow Grove, Pennsylvania.
Since then, other Marine Heavy lift squadrons have retired their CH-53As and Ds, replacing them with Es.
The CH-53E and the MH-53E are the largest helicopters

in the Western world, while the CH-53K now being developed will be even larger. They are fourth in the world
to the Russian Mil Mi-26 and Mil V-12, which can lift
more than 22 tons (20 tonnes) and 44 tons (40 tonnes), respectively and the Mi-26s predecessor Mil Mi-6, which
has less payload (12 tonnes) but is bigger and has a higher
The Marine Corps CH-53E saw its rst shipboard deployMTOW at 42 tonnes.
46.5. OPERATORS
537
ment in 1983 when four CH-53E helicopters from HMH- CH-53E Super Stallion United States military designa464 deployed aboard USS Iwo Jima as part of the 24th
tion for the S-80E heavy lift transport variant of the
Marine Amphibious Unit (24th MAU). During this defor the United States Navy and Marine Corps, 170ployment Marines were sent ashore in Beirut, Lebanon
built.
as peace keepers and established perimeters at and near
the Beirut International Airport. On 23 October 1983 a MH-53E Sea Dragon United States military designation for the S-80M mine-countermeasures variant
truck bomb detonated by terrorists destroyed the Marine
for the United States Navy, 50-built.
barracks in Beirut, killing nearly 240 service members
as they slept. CH-53E helicopters from the 24th MAU
VH-53F Proposed presidential transport variant, notprovided critical combat support during this operation.
built.
46.3.2
1990s
S-80E Export variant of the heavy lift transport variant,

not-built.
In 1991, two CH-53Es along with several CH-46 Sea S-80M Export variant of the mine-countermeasures
Knight helicopters were sent to evacuate U.S. and forvariant, 11-built for Japan.
eign nationals from the U.S. embassy in Mogadishu,
SomaliaOperation Eastern Exitas violence enveloped the city during the Somalian Civil War.[11]
46.5 Operators
During Operation Desert Storm, MH-53E shipboard

based Sea Dragons were used for mine clearing operations in the Persian Gulf o Kuwait.
On 8 June 1995, Captain Scott O'Grady, an F-16 Fighting
Falcon pilot shot down over Bosnia, was rescued by two
CH-53Es.[12]
46.3.3
2000s
On 26 October 2001 3 CH-53Es aboard USS Peleliu and

3 CH-53Es aboard USS Bataan ew 550 miles (890 km)
to secure the rst land base in Afghanistan, Camp Rhino,
with 1100 troops at its peak.[13] This amphibious raid is
the longest amphibious raid in history. The long range A Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force MH-53E Sea Dragon
capability of the CH-53Es enabled Marines to establish lands aboard USS Tortuga.
a southern base in Afghanistan, putting the war on the
ground.
Super Stallions again played a major role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. They were critical to moving supplies and
ammunition to the most forward Marine units and also assisted in moving casualties back to the rear for follow on
care. Marine CH-53Es and CH-46Es carried US Army
Rangers and Special Operations troops in a mission to
rescue captured Army Private Jessica Lynch on 1 April
2003.[14]
Currently about 152 CH-53E helicopters are in service
with the Marines and another 28 MH-53Es are in service with the U.S Navy. The CH-53 requires 44 maintenance hours per ight hour. A ight hour costs about
High speed, low level pass during demonstration at the National
$20,000.[15]
Test Pilot School, Mojave, California
46.4 Variants
YCH-53E United States military designation for two
Sikorsky S-65E (later S-80E) prototypes.
Japan
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force[16]
538
United States

HMH-361[17]
HMH-366[18]
On 25 August 1985 a CH-53E from New River, NC,

was ying a routine supply and passenger run from
Tustin to Twentynine Palms during a training operation when it caught re and crashed in Laguna Hills.
One of the three crew members was killed and the
aircraft was a total loss.[32][34]
On 9 May 1986, a CH-53E crashed during training exercises near Twentynine Palms, killing four
Marines and injuring another. The accident was the
Super Stallions fth crash in two-year period.[35]
HMH-461[19]
HMH-462[20]
HMH-464[21]
On 8 January 1987, a Marine Corps CH-53E

crashed while practicing night landings for troop deployment at the Salton Sea Test Range. All ve crew
members were killed.[36]
HMH-465[22]
HMH-466[23]
HMH-769[24]
HMH-772[25]
United States Navy
[16]
HM-12
HM-14[26]
HM-15[27]
46.6 Accidents
Between 1969-1990, more than 200 servicemen had been
killed in accidents involving the CH-53A, CH-53D and
CH-53E.[28] The MH-53E Sea Dragon is the U.S. Navys
helicopter most prone to accidents, with 27 deaths from
1984 to 2008. During that timeframe its rate of Class A
mishaps, meaning serious damage or loss of life, was 5.96
per 100,000 ight hours, more than twice the Navy helicopter average of 2.26.[29] A 2005 lawsuit alleges that
since 1993 there were at least 16 in-ight res or thermal incidents involving the No. 2 engine on Super Stallion helicopters. The suit claims that proper changes
were not made, nor were crews instructed on emergency
techniques.[30][31]
On 1 June 1984, a CH-53E based at Tustin was lifting a truck from the deck of a ship during an exercise
when a sling attached to the truck broke. This sent a
shock wave into the aircraft and caused major damage. Four crew members died in the accident.[32]
On 19 November 1984, a CH-53E on a routine
training mission at Camp Lejeune, NC, was lifting
a seven-ton howitzer before it crashed. Six people
were killed, and 11 injured.[32] It experienced a loss
of tail rotor function, lost control and impacted the
ground. The cabin area was quickly consumed by
the ensuing re.[33]
On 13 July 1985 a CH-53E from a Tustin squadron
was on a ight in Okinawa when it struck a logging
cable and exploded. Four people were killed.[32]
On 9 May 1996, a CH-53E crashed at Sikorskys

Stratford plant, killing four employees on board.
That led to the Navy grounding all CH-53Es and
MH-53Es.[30]
On 10 August 2000, a MH-53E Sea Dragon crashed
in the Gulf of Mexico near Corpus Christi and resulted in the deaths of its of four crew members. The
helicopters were later returned to service with improved swash plate duplex bearings and new warning
systems for the bearings.[37]
On 20 January 2002, a CH-53E crash in
Afghanistan killed two crew members and injured ve others. Defense Department ocials
said the early-morning crash was the result of
mechanical problems with the helicopter.[38]
On 2 April 2002, a Navy MH-53E (BuNo 163051)
of HM-14 crashed on the runway at Bahrain International Airport. All 18 people on board survived
with only a few cases of minor injuries.[39]
On 27 June 2002, a Navy MH-53E Sea Dragon
of Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 4 (HC-4)
Black Stallions crashed in a hard landing at NAS
Sigonella, Sicily. No one was injured, but the aircraft was written o.[39][40]
On 16 July 2003, a Navy MH-53E Sea Dragon
of Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 4 (HC-4)
Black Stallions crashed near the town of Palagonia, about 10 miles west-southwest of Naval Air Station Sigonella, killing the four member crew. The
ight was on a routine training mission. One of the
fatalities was the HC-4 executive ocer.[40][41]
On 26 January 2005 a CH-53E carrying 30 Marines
and one Navy Corpsman crashed in Rutbah, Iraq,
killing all 31 on board.[42][43] A sandstorm was determined as the cause of the accident. The crash was
part of the deadliest day of the Iraq War in terms of
US fatalities.[44]
46.7. SPECIFICATIONS (CH-53E)
539
On 16 February 2005, an MH-53E from Helicopter

Combat Support Squadron 4 (HC-4), based at Naval
Air Station Sigonella, Sicily, crashed on the base,
injuring the four crew members.[45]
On 17 February 2006, two CH-53Es carrying a
combined U.S. Marine Corps and Air Force crew
collided during a training mission over the Gulf of
Aden, resulting in ten deaths and two injuries.[46][47]
On 16 January 2008, a Navy MH-53E on a routine
training mission crashed approximately four miles
south of Corpus Christi, Texas. Three crew members died in the crash and one crew member was The CH-53E rotor and exhaust assembly in detail
taken to local hospital for treatment and survived.[48]
On 29 June 2012, a Navy MH-53E from HM-14
made an emergency landing ve miles northeast of
Pohang, South Korea due to an in-ight re. Though
the pilots and aircrew were uninjured, the aircraft
was heavily damaged by the re.[49]
On 19 July 2012 a Navy MH-53E crashed 58 miles
south of Muscat, Oman during a heavy lift operation, resulting in two deaths.[50]
On 8 January 2014, a US Navy MH-53E Sea Dragon
crashed in the Atlantic 18 nautical miles east of
Cape Henry, Virginia with ve crew members on
board; four were recovered, including two dead. A MH-53E towing the MK105 minesweeping sled.
One crew member is still missing as of January 9,
2014. [51][52][53]
Capacity: 37 troops (55 with centerline seats in On 1 September 2014, a US Marine CH-53E of the
stalled)
22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit crashed in the Gulf
Payload: internal: 30,000 lb or 13,600 kg (external:
of Aden while attempting to land on the USS Mesa
32,000 lb or 14,500 kg)
Verde following training operations in Djibouti. All
[54]
17 Marines and 8 sailors onboard were rescued.
Length: 99 ft 1/2 in (30.2 m)
46.7 Specications (CH-53E)
Rotor diameter: 79 ft (24 m)

Powerplant: 3 General Electric T64-GE416/416A turboshaft, 4,380 shp[57] (3,270 kW)
each
anti-torque tail rotor
Data from U.S. Navy history,[55]

Directory,[2] World Aircraft[56]
International Performance
Crew: 5: 2 pilots, 1 crew chief/right gunner, 1 left
gunner, 1 tail gunner (combat crew)

Range: 540 nmi (621 mi, 1,000 km)
540
Ferry range: 990 nmi (1,139 mi, 1,833 km)

Armament
Guns:
2 .50 BMG (12.7 x 99 mm) windowmounted GAU-15/A machine guns
1 .50 BMG (12.7 x 99 mm) ramp mounted
weapons system, GAU-21 (M3M mounted
machine gun)
Other: Cha and are dispensers
[3] S-80 Origins / US Marine & Navy Service / Japanese Service. Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[4] CH-53A/D/E Sea Stallion AND MH-53E Sea Dragon.
US Navy, 15 November 2000.
[5] Sikorsky Awarded $3.0B Development Contract For
Marine Corps CH-53K Heavy-Lift Helicopter. Sikorsky
Aircraft, 5 April 2006.
[6] Sikorsky Aircraft Marks Start of CH-53K Development
and Demonstration Phase. Sikorsky Aircraft, 17 April
2006.
[7] S-80 Upgrades / CH-53K. Vectorsite.net, 1 December
2009.
[8] Marines Up Order for New Heavy Lifter, Rotor &
Wing, 1 August 2007.
[9] US Marines in desperate need of new CH-53K. Flight
Daily News, 21 June 2007.
[10] CH-53D/E page. USMC. Accessed 3 November 2007.

Main article: Aircraft in ction: Sikorsky H-53 series
[11] Siegel, Adam (October 1991). Eastern Exit: The

Noncombatant Evacuation Operation (NEO) From Mogadishu, Somalia in January 1991 (PDF). Center for
Naval Analyses. Alexandria, Virginia: Center for Naval
Analyses. Archived (PDF) from the original on February
26, 2015. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
46.9 See also
[12] CH-53E Super Stallion article. Globalsecurity.org
Related development
[13] Statement of Admiral Vern Clark, before the Senate

Armed Services Committee, 25 February 2003. Navy.mil
Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion

HH-53 Super Jolly Green Giant"/MH-53 Pave Low
Sikorsky CH-53K
Boeing CH-47 Chinook
Mil Mi-26
Mil Mi-6
Related lists
List of helicopters
46.10 References
[1] Sikorsky Giant Helicopters: S-64, S-65, & S-80, Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[2] Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of Military
ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[14] Stout, Jay A. Hammer from Above, Marine Air Combat

Over Iraq. Ballantine Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0-89141871-9.
[15] Whittle, Richard. USMC CH-53E Costs Rise With Op
Tempo Rotor & Wing, Aviation Today, January 2007. Accessed: 15 March 2012. Quote: For every hour the Corps
ies a 53E, it spends 44 maintenance hours xing it. Every hour a Super Stallion ies it costs about $20,000.
[17] Squadron HMH-361. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 5
April 2013.
[18] HMH-366 Crew chief from Cherry Point reaches milestone. marines.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
April 2013.
April 2013.
April 2013.
[22] Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 465. marines.mil.
[23] HMH-466 Wolfpack"". tripod.com. Retrieved 5 April
2013.

April 2013.
April 2013.
[26] Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 14. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[27] Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 15. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[28] Helicopter Crash Kills 1 Marine, Injures 5. Retrieved 8
Jun 2012.
[29] MH-53 twice as crash-prone as other copters. Navy
Times (Associated Press). 21 January 2008.
[30] Suit blames Sikorsky, GE in air crash. kosko.com, 16
July 2005.
[31] Sikorsky, We Have A Problem. ctnewsjunkie.com, 2
August 2005.
[32] A History of CH-53E Incidents. 15 February 1987. Retrieved 8 Jun 2012.
[33] Brothers Killed in Action in USMC Helicopters.
[34] Laguna Hills Helicopter Crash Kills 1, Injures 4 : Marine
Super Stallion Ignites One-Acre Grass Fire When It Goes
Down in Field. Retrieved 8 Jun 2012.
[35] Ocials Identify Marines Killed, Hurt in Twentynine
Palms Helicopter Crash. Retrieved 8 Jun 2012.
[36] Marine Copter Crashes; All 5 on Board Die. Retrieved
8 Jun 2012.
[37] Sherman, Christopher. Copter in crash has spotty
record. Associated Press via theeagle.com, 19 January
2008
[38] Copter Crash Deals Another Blow to San Diego
Marines. Retrieved 8 Jun 2012.
[39] http://www.joebaugher.com/navy_serials/thirdseries22.
html
[40] http://www.stripes.com/news/
victims-of-sigonella-crash-found-1.7683
541
[47] Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa members

honor fallen brethren. Defense Video & Imagery Distribution System. 13 November 2009. Retrieved 15 June
2011.
[48] MH-53E Sea Dragon Crashes South of Corpus Christi.
US Navy, 17 January 2008.
[49] Navy MH-53 Helicopter Makes Emergency Landing.
US Navy, 29 June 2012.
[50] MH-53 Helicopter Suers Aviation Mishap, Crashes.
US Navy, 19 July 2012.
[51] 1 still missing in Navy copter crash that killed 2. MSN
News. Associated Press. 9 January 2014. Retrieved 9
January 2014.
[52] Lewis, Paul (8 January 2014). US navy helicopter goes
down o Virginia coast. The Guardian. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
[53] http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2014/01/08/
22229858-one-crewman-dead-after-navy-helicopter-goes-down-off-va-onelite
[54] U.S. military personnel rescued at sea after helicopter
crash near Djibouti. CNN. CNN. 1 September 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
[55] CH-53A/D/E Sea Stallion and MH-53E Sea Dragon, US
Navy.
[56] Donald, David ed. Sikorsky S-65, The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997.
ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
[57] "About the GE T64" BGA-aeroweb, May 17, 2012. Accessed: April 10, 2014.

CH-53/MH-53E history, CH-53E, and MH-53E
pages on Navy.mil
CH-53D/E page on USMC.mil
CH-53E/S-80E page and MH-53E page on Siko-
rsky.com
[41] http://www.stripes.com/news/
sigonella-pays-tribute-to-four-victims-of-sea-dragon-crash-1.
HELIS.com Sikorsky S-80/H-53E Super Stallion
9958
Database
[42] Worst US air losses in Iraq. The Telegraph, 22 August

2007.
[43] Iraq air crash kills 31 US troops. BBC, 26 January 2005.
[44] Deadliest day for U.S. in Iraq war. CNN, 27 January
2005.
[45] http://www.navy.mil/search/print.asp?story_id=17138&
VIRIN=12604&imagetype=1&page=1.
[46] 10 U.S. troops accounted for after crash o Djibouti.
The Arizona Republic. 19 February 2006. Retrieved 15
June 2011.
The History of Heavy Lift: Can the 1947 Vision of

an All Heavy Helicopter Force Achieve Fruition in
2002?
CH-53E and MH-53E pages on GlobalSecurity.org
Vertical Envelopment and the Future Transport Rotorcraft, RAND
Chapter 47
Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk

HH-60 redirects here. For the US Coast Guard integrated inertial navigation/global positioning/Doppler
HH-60J Jayhawk, see HH-60 Jayhawk.
navigation systems, satellite communications, secure
voice, and Have Quick communications. The term PAVE
stands for Precision Avionics Vectoring Equipment.
The Sikorsky MH-60G/HH-60G Pave Hawk is a twin
turboshaft engine helicopter in service with the United
States Air Force. It is a derivative of the UH-60 Black
Hawk and incorporates the US Air Force PAVE electronic systems program. The HH-60/MH-60 is a member
of the Sikorsky S-70 family.
The MH-60G Pave Hawks primary mission is insertion
and recovery of special operations personnel, while the
HH-60G Pave Hawks core mission is recovery of personnel under stressful conditions, including search and
rescue. Both versions conduct day or night operations
into hostile environments. Because of its versatility, the
HH-60G may also perform peace-time operations such as
civil search and rescue, emergency aeromedical evacuation (MEDEVAC), disaster relief, international aid and
counter-drug activities.
An HH-60 at the 2007 Paris Air Show
All HH-60Gs have an automatic ight control system,

night vision goggles lighting and forward looking infrared
system that greatly enhances night low-level operations.
Additionally, some Pave Hawks have color weather radar
and an engine/rotor blade anti-ice system that gives the
HH-60G an all-weather capability. Pave Hawk mission
equipment includes a retractable in-ight refueling probe,
internal auxiliary fuel tanks, two crew-served (or pilotcontrolled) 7.62 mm miniguns or .50-caliber machine
guns and an 8,000 pound (3,600 kg) capacity cargo hook.
To improve air transportability and shipboard operations,
In 1981, the U.S. Air Force chose the UH-60A Black all HH-60Gs have folding rotor blades.
Hawk to replace its HH-3E Jolly Green Giant helicopters. Pave Hawk combat enhancements include a radar
After acquiring some UH-60s, the Air Force began up- warning receiver, infrared jammer and a are/cha
grading each with an air refueling probe and additional countermeasure dispensing system. HH-60G rescue
fuel tanks in the cabin. The machine guns were changed equipment includes a hoist capable of lifting a 600 pound
from 0.308 in (7.62 mm) M60s to 0.50 in (12.7 mm) (270 kg) load from a hover height of 200 feet (60 m), and
XM218s. These helicopters were referred to as Cred- a personnel locating system. A number of Pave Hawks
ible Hawks and entered service in 1987.[1]
are equipped with an over-the-horizon tactical data reAfterward, the Credible Hawks and new UH-60As were ceiver that is capable[4]of receiving near real-time mission
upgraded and designated MH-60G Pave Hawk. These update information.
upgrades were to be done in a two step process. But funding only allowed 16 Credible Hawks to receive the second
step equipment. These helicopters were allocated to spe- 47.2 Operational history
cial operations use. The remaining 82 Credible Hawks
received the rst step upgrade equipment and were used As of 2015, the U.S. Air Force HH-60G Pave Hawk is
for combat search and rescue. In 1991, these search and operated by the Air Combat Command (ACC), U.S. Air
rescue Pave Hawks were redesignated HH-60G.[1][2]
Forces in Europe (USAFE), Pacic Air Forces (PACAF),
The Pave Hawk is a highly modied version of the Air Education and Training Command (AETC), the Air
Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk.[3] It features an upgraded Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National
communications and navigation suite that includes an Guard (ANG). A number of HH-60Gs are also operated
542
543
part in a massive humanitarian relief eort in early 2005
in Sri Lanka to help victims of the tsunami.[5] In the fall
of 2005, Pave Hawks from various Air Force commands
participated in rescue operations of Hurricane Katrina
survivors, rescuing thousands of stranded people.[4]
Pave Hawks have regularly operated during Operation
Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, and continue to
be operated in Operation Enduring Freedom, supporting
Army and Marine Corps ground combat operations and
standby search and rescue support for U.S. and Coalition xed-wing combat aircraft supporting those ground
operations.[4]
USAF HC-130P of the 920th Rescue Wing refuels an HH-60

Pave Hawk.
47.2.1 Replacement
Sri Lankan relief workers unload vegetables from a USAF HH60G during an Operation Unied Assistance mission.
The rst attempt to replace the HH-60G Pave Hawk was

in 1999 when the Air Force identied a need for a helicopter with improved range, speed, and cabin space. An
options analysis was completed in 2002 and funding for
141 aircraft under the personnel recovery vehicle program began in 2004. In 2005, it was renamed CSAR-X,
meaning combat search and rescue. Sikorsky entered the
HH-92 Superhawk, Lockheed Martin entered the VH71 Kestrel, and Boeing entered the HH-47 Chinook. The
HH-47 won the competition in November 2006, but the
award was cancelled after successful protests from both
other competitors. A Request for Proposals (RFP) was
reissued in 2007, but protested again before proposals
were received, leading to the second cancellation of the
CSAR-X program.[6]
by the Air Force Material Command (AFMC) for ight

In March 2010, the U.S. Air Force announced a recapitaltest purposes.[4]
ization plan to return its 99-aircraft inventory to 112 airDuring Operation Desert Storm, Pave Hawks provided frames by incremental replacement of aging HH-60Gs. A
combat search and rescue coverage for coalition Air secondary plan to replace of 13 attrition HH-60s, seven
Forces in western Iraq, Saudi Arabia, coastal Kuwait of which have been lost in combat since 2001, has also beand the Persian Gulf. They also provided emergency gun implementation. The Air Force deferred secondary
evacuation coverage for U.S. Navy sea, air and land combat search and rescue requirements that called for a
(SEAL) teams penetrating the Kuwaiti coast before the larger helicopter. A UH-60M-based version was being
invasion.[4]
oered as a replacement.[7][8][9]
All MH-60Gs were subsequently divested by Air Force On 22 October 2012, the Air Force issued an RFP for
Special Operations Command (AFSOC) in 1991. At that a Combat Rescue Helicopter (CRH), seeking up to 112
time, most MH-60Gs were redesignated as HH-60Gs and aircraft to replace the HH-60G. The primary mission
transferred to Air Combat Command (ACC) and ACC- will be personnel recovery from hostile territory, and
gained Air Force Reserve Command and Air National also execute humanitarian missions, civil search and resGuard units.[1][2]
cue, disaster relief, casualty and medical evacuation.[10]
During Operation Allied Force, the Pave Hawk provided The helicopter must have a combat radius of 225 nmi
continuous combat search and rescue coverage for NATO (416 km), a payload of 1,500 lb (680 kg), and space
air forces, and successfully recovered two U.S. Air Force for up to four stretchers. It is planned for four development aircraft to be delivered in 2016, with ve
pilots who were isolated behind enemy lines.[4]
more in an operational conguration in 2018. LowIn March 2000, three Pave Hawks deployed to Hoed- rate initial production will add a further 18 helicopters,
spruit Air Force Base in South Africa, to support interna- with the remaining 85 units to be procured during fulltional ood relief operations in Mozambique. The HH- rate production. The AgustaWestland AW101 was one
60Gs ew 240 missions in 17 days and delivered more competition entrant.[11] By December 2012, competithan 160 tons of humanitarian relief supplies.[4]
tors AgustaWestland, EADS, Boeing, and Bell HeliAir Force Pave Hawks from the Pacic theater also took copter had dropped out, claiming that the RFP fa-
544
CHAPTER 47. SIKORSKY HH-60 PAVE HAWK
vored the Black Hawk and did not reward their aircrafts
capabilities.[12][13] The Air Force argued that the competition was not written to favor Sikorsky, and that the terms
were clear as to the capabilities they wanted and could
aord. The $6.8 billion contract was delayed to the rst
quarter of FY 2014 to complete an independent cost estimate and the impact of government furloughs. Sikorsky
was the only bidder remaining, with Lockheed Martin as
a subcontractor. Sikorsky and the Air Force conducted
an extensive evaluation of their submission, the CRH-60,
a variant of the MH-60 Black Hawk special operations
helicopter.[14]
MH-60G Pave Hawk: Special Operations, search

and rescue model for the US Air Force. Equipped
with long-range fuel tanks, air-to-air refueling capability, FLIR, improved radar. Powered by T-700GE-700/701 engines.[21]
The initial Air Force FY 2015 budget proposal unveiled

in September 2013 cancelled the CRH program due to
sequestration budget cuts, instead retaining the HH-60
eet.[15] The proposed CRH-60 diers from the MH-60
Black Hawk by having a greater payload capacity, wider
rotor blades, better hovering ability, and 20 percent more
cabin space. Lockheed will supply mission equipment
and the electronic survivability suite.[6] A spending bill
unveiled in January 2014 allocated $333,558,000 to the
CRH as a congressional special interest item. The bill
read that there must be a replacement program, but it has
to be aordable to avoid being cancelled.[16] Congress
stated it would attempt to add CRH funding if the Air
Force could not.[17] Over $300 million was allocated to
the program in FY 2014, with $430 million to be moved
from other areas through FY 2019 to nance it. Competitive pricing and congressional support will provide early
funding, but the program may have to be reevaluated if
additional defense cuts take eect in FY 2016.[18] On 26
June 2014, the Air Force awarded Sikorsky and Lockheed a $1.3 billion contract for the rst four aircraft, with
112 total to be procured for up to $7.9 billion.[19] Five
more are to be delivered by 2020, with the entire order
to be completed by 2029.[20]
Maplehawk: Proposed search and rescue version

for the Canadian Forces to replace aging CH-113
Labradors.[23] The CF opted for the CH-149 Cormorant instead.
HH-60H Rescue Hawk: Special Operations,

search and rescue model for the US Navy. Equipped
with long-range fuel tanks, FLIR, and 2 BRU auxiliary fuel/armament racks allowing the addition of
external fuel tanks and the Hellre guided weapons
system.[22]
HH-60M: a search and rescue version of UH-60M

with a glass cockpit and more powerful engines.
HH-60P Pave Hawk: Combat Search and Rescue
variant of UH-60P, in service with Republic of Korea Air Force. Conrmed equipment of External
Tank System and FLIR for night operations.[24]
HH-60W: combat rescue helicopter variant of the
UH-60M for the U.S. Air Force, with a requirement
for 112 helicopters.[25]
47.4 Operators
47.3 Variants
HH-60A: Prototype for the HH-60D rescue helicopter. A modied UH-60A primarily designed for
combat search and rescue. It is equipped with a rescue hoist with a 200 ft (60.96 m) cable that has a 600
lb (270 kg) lift capability, and a retractable in-ight 56th Rescue Squadron landing at the US Embassy in Beirut,
refueling probe.[21]
Lebanon in 2008.
HH-60D Night Hawk: Prototype of combat rescue
variant for the US Air Force.
HH-60E: Proposed search and rescue variant for the
US Air Force.
HH-60G Pave Hawk: Search and rescue helicopter
for the US Air Force. UH-60A Credible Hawk were
updated to the HH-60G conguration as part of the
rst phase in a two-phase program.
United States
United States Air Force[26]
33d Rescue Squadron[27]
41st Rescue Squadron[28]
55th Rescue Squadron[29]
47.5. SPECIFICATIONS (HH-60G)

129th Rescue Squadron
545
[33]

Powerplant: 2 two General Electric T700GE-700/701C free-turbine turboshafts, 1,630 shp

(1,220 kW) each

413th Flight Test Squadron[37]
512th Rescue Squadron
Performance
[38]
47.5 Specications (HH-60G)

Range: 373 mi (internal fuel), or 508 mi (with external tanks) (600 km, or 818 km)
Armament
2 7.62 mm (0.308 in) miniguns or

2 0.50 in (12.7 mm) GAU-18/As
A New York Air National Guard HH-60G during a visit to South
Africa in September 2004
47.5.1 Onboard systems

INS/GPS/Doppler navigation
SATCOM satellite communications
Secure/anti-jam communications
LARS (Lightweight Airborne Recovery System)
range/steering radio to compatible survivor radios
Automatic ight control
USAF HH-60G at Fox Field, Lancaster, California
NVG night vision goggle lighting
Data from USAF 2008 Almanac[3] USAF fact sheet,[4]
FLIR forward looking infra-red radar
Color weather radar
Crew: 4 (2 pilots, 2 special mission aviators/aerial

gunners)
Engine/rotor blade anti-ice system
Capacity: max. crew 6, 812 troops, plus litters

and/or other cargo
Retractable In-ight refueling probe
Length: 64 ft 10 in (17.1 m)
Integral rescue hoist

RWR combat enhancement
IR infra-red jamming unit
are/cha countermeasure dispensing system
546
47.6 See also

US helicopter armament subsystems
CHAPTER 47. SIKORSKY HH-60 PAVE HAWK
[8] USAF HH-60 Personnel Recovery Recapitalization Program (HH-60 Recap) sources sought notice. fbo.gov, Released 23 March, Revised: 8 April 2010.
Related development
[9] Reed, John. UH-60M Oered For USAFs New CSAR

Program. Defense News, 15 July 2010.
Sikorsky S-70
[10] Air Force Releases RFP for Next Search And Rescue Helicopter Af.mil, 22 October 2012.
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk

Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk
Sikorsky H-92 Superhawk
Boeing MH-47E/G
Sikorsky MH-53 Pave Low
Related lists
List of Sikorsky S-70 Models
List of helicopters
[11] US Air Force moves forward with CSAR procurement

Flightglobal.com, 31 October 2012
[12] Most contractors opt out of Air Force chopper bids
Reuters, 11 December 2012.
[13] Sikorsky last bidder standing in USAFs combat rescue
helicopter battle Flightglobal.com, 12 December 2012.
[14] U.S. Air Force delays rescue helicopter contract award Reuters.com, 2 August 2013
[15] USAF Weighs Scrapping KC-10, A-10 Fleets Defensenews.com, 15 September 2013.
[16] Spending bill funds Air Force combat rescue helicopter
Militarytimes.com, 15 January 2014.
[17] Aide: Congress Will Fight To Fund Combat Rescue Helo
- Defensenews.com, 18 February 2014
[18] USAF to issue contract to Sikorsky for rescue helicopter
- Flightglobal.com, 4 March 2014
[19] Sikorsky, Lockheed awarded Combat Rescue Helo contract - Militarytimes.com, 26 June 2014
47.7 References
[20] Sikorsky awarded up to $7.9 billion rescue helicopter deal

- Flightglobal.com, 27 June 2014
Notes
[21] DoD 4120-15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace

Vehicles. US DoD, 12 May 2004.
[1] Eden, Paul. Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk/Seahawk, Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books,
2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[2] Bishop, Chris. Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Osprey,
2008. ISBN 978-1-84176-852-6.
[3] Young, Susan H.H., Sta Editor (May 2008). ""HH-60G
Pave Hawk, 2008 USAF Almanac Gallery of USAF
Weapons (PDF). Air Force Magazine (Air Force Association) 91 (5): 155156. ISSN 0730-6784.
[4] HH-60G Pave Hawk. United States Air Force. 4 February 2004. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
[5] Gempis, Master Sgt. Val. Kadena Airmen help Sri
Lanka tsunami victims. Air Force Print News, 18 January 2005.
[6] Sikorsky eyes federal budget amid uncertainty over combat rescue helicopter - Flightglobal.com, 19 December
2013
[7] Trimble, Stephen. USAF abandons large helicopter for
rescue mission, proposes buying 112 UH-60Ms. Flight
International. 24 February 2010.
[22] HH-60H Seahawk GlobalSecurity.org

[23] Warwick, Graham (27 September 2008). Level Playing
Field?". Flight International (Reed Business Information).
[24] http://www.koreadefence.net/wys2/file_attach/2009/10/
08/1255007427-9.jpg
[25] USAF toasts Whiskey designation for CRH eet
[27] 33d Rescue Squadron. af.mil. Retrieved 21 October
2014.
[28] 41st Rescue Squadron. af.mil. Retrieved 21 October
2014.
[29] 55th Rescue Squadron. af.mil. Retrieved 21 October
2014.
2014.
2014.

2014.
2014.
2014.
2014.
2014.
[37] 413th Flight Test Squadron. af.mil. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
2014.
Bibliography
Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk: The Story of a World
Class Helicopter. American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56347-918-2.
Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. MBI, 2003.
ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
47.8 External links

USAF HH-60G Pave Hawk fact sheet
HH-60 page and MH-60 page on globalsecurity.org
Sikorsky S-70 page on helis.com
547
Chapter 48
Sikorsky MH-60 Jayhawk

This article is about the United States Coast Guard
version of the Sikorsky S-70 helicopter series. For an
overview of the S-70 series, and for its civilian models
and operators, see Sikorsky S-70.
The Sikorsky MH-60T Jayhawk is a multi-mission,
twin-engine, medium-range helicopter operated by the
United States Coast Guard for search and rescue, law enforcement, military readiness and marine environmental
protection missions. Originally designated HH-60J
before being upgraded and redesignated beginning in
2007,[2] the MH-60T is designed to y a crew of four
up to 300 mi (483 km) oshore, hoist up to 6 additional
people on board while remaining on-scene for up to 45
minutes and return to base while maintaining an adequate
fuel reserve. Normal cruising speed of the MH-60T is
135 to 140 kn (155 to 161 mph) and the aircraft is capable of reaching 180 kn (207 mph) for short durations.
The MH-60T can y at 140 kn (161 mph) for six to seven
hours.[3]
Chosen to replace the HH-3F Pelican, the MH-60T is a
member of the Sikorsky S-70 family of helicopters and
is based on the United States Navy's SH-60 Seahawk
helicopter.[1] Development began in September 1986,
rst ight was achieved on 8 August 1989, and the rst
HH-60J entered USCG service in June 1990. Production
ended in 1996 after 42 helicopters were produced; three
retired SH-60F Seahawks were also remanufactured to
MH-60T specications beginning in 2010.[4] A total of
42 MH-60Ts are in service with the Coast Guard.[5]
Sikorsky HH-60J Jayhawk (USCG registration number 6008) on

the tarmac at Coast Guard Air Station Astoria, Oregon
craft registration number 6001 achieved rst ight on

8 August 1989. The rst aircraft was delivered to the
USCG for developmental testing in March, 1990 at NAS
Patuxent River, Maryland. In March 1991, ATC Mobile, Alabama became the rst USCG unit to y the HH60J, allowing instructor pilots to prepare for pilot training. Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina was the rst USCG operational unit to y the HH60J.[1] Sikorsky produced 42 HH-60Js with sequential
registration numbers from 6001 through 6042.[7] Sikorsky ceased production in 1996 after fullling the 42
unit contract. Subsequently, the Coast Guard has converted three ex-Navy SH-60F Seahawks into MH-60T
Jayhawks (registration numbers 6043-6045) as attrition
replacements.[4]
48.1 Development
Chosen to replace the HH-3F Pelican, the HH-60J was
based on the United States Navys SH-60 Seahawk and a
member of the Sikorsky S-70 helicopter family. Compared to its predecessor, the HH-3F, the HH-60J is
lighter, faster, and equipped with more sophisticated
electronics and more powerful engines.[1] The HH-60J
was developed in conjunction with the U.S. Navys HH60H Rescue Hawk.[6]
48.1.1 MH-60T upgrade program
The USCG began converting its 42 HH-60Js to MH60Ts in January 2007. This avionics and capabilities upgrade is part of the USCGs Integrated Deepwater System
Program and will provide a glass cockpit, an enhanced
electro-optic/infrared sensor system as well as a radar
sensor system and airborne use of force capability.[8][9]
The airborne use of force package includes both weapons
Sikorsky began development in September 1986 and airfor ring warning and disabling shots and armor to pro548
48.4. VARIANTS
tect the aircrew from small arms re.[2][10] The MH-60T
upgrades were completed in February 2014.[11]
48.2 Design
With a fuel capacity of 6,460 lb (2,930 kg), the HH-60J
is designed to y a crew of four up to 300 mi (483 km)
oshore, hoist up to 6 additional people on board while
remaining on-scene for up to 45 minutes and return to
base while maintaining an adequate fuel reserve. Normal
cruising speed of the HH-60J is 135 kn (155 mph) to 140
kn (161 mph) and the aircraft is capable of reaching 180
kn (207 mph) for short durations. The HH60J can y at
140 kn (161 mph) for six to seven hours.[3]
The HH-60J uses the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System as its primary long range navigational aid, using a
Collins RCVR-3A radio to simultaneously receive information from four of the NAVSTAR systems 18 worldwide satellites.
549
missions, along with other missions such as maritime patrol and drug interdiction.[12] Coast Guard cutters with
their HH-60Js and other helicopters performed security
and interdiction in the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of
Operation Desert Storm and also in 2003 for Operation
Enduring Freedom.[12]
In January 2011, Juneau Mountain Rescue volunteers,
working with the Alaska State Troopers and the Coast
Guard, rescued an injured hiker on Ripikski Mountain,
near Haines. A Coast Guard MH-60 Jayhawk helicopter,
dispatched from Sitka, transported the hiker to Bartlett
Regional Hospital in Juneau, Alaska.[13]
On 29 October 2012, Jayhawk number 6031 (70-1790)
was used during the oshore rescue of the crew of HMS
Bounty during Hurricane Sandy.
48.4 Variants
The HH-60J is normally based on land but can be based

on 270 foot medium endurance Coast Guard Cutters
(WMEC) or 378 foot high endurance Coast Guard Cutters (WHEC).
The HH-60J has a radar for search/weather that gives
its nose a distinctive look. A forward looking infrared
(FLIR) sensor turret can be mounted below its nose. It
can carry three 120 US gal (454 L) fuel tanks with two on
the port side rack and one on the starboard side rack. The
starboard side also carries a 600 lbf (2.67 kN) capacity
rescue hoist mounted above the door. The hoist has 200
ft (61.0 m) of cable.[6]
MH-60 Jayhawk (USCG Registration Number 6014) on tarmac

in Kotzebue, Alaska. Also visible is an Army National Guard
UH-60 Black Hawk and an Air Force HH-60 Pave Hawk, both
of which are derived from the same S-70 airframe
HH-60J Medium range recovery helicopter. 42 units

delivered to the USCG between 1990 and 1996.
MH-60T Medium range recovery helicopter. 39 surviving HH-60J airframes received upgraded avionics and operational capabilities, including armaments, between 2007 and 2014.[9] Three SH-60Fs
were converted to MH-60T specications as attrition replacements.[4]
48.5 Operators
Victims from the 2010 Haiti earthquake are unloaded from a
HH-60J Jayhawk (USCG Registration Number 6039) at U.S.
Naval Hospital Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
In 1990, HH-60J Jayhawks began replacing HH-3F Pelican and CH-3E Sea King helicopters in service with the
US Coast Guard. HH-60Js perform search and rescue
United States
United States Coast Guard[14]

CGAS Astoria
550
CHAPTER 48. SIKORSKY MH-60 JAYHAWK
CGAS Cape Cod

CGAS Clearwater
CGAS Elizabeth City
CGAS Kodiak, Alaska
CGAS San Diego
CGAS Sitka
Coast Guard Aviation Training Center
48.6 Accidents
As of July 2010, three Jayhawks have been involved in HH-60J Jayhawk (USCG Registration Number 6022) retrieving
a rescue swimmer.
crashes, including two fatal crashes.[15][16][17]
48.7 Specications (HH-60J)
USCG Registration Number 6036 from MS Majesty of the Seas
Crew: Four (pilot, co-pilot, two ight crew)

Length: 64 ft 10 in (19.76 m)
gas turbines, 1,890 shp (1,410 kW) each
Performance
HH-60J Jayhawk (USCG Registration Number 6034) and a 47foot (14 m) motor life boat
Most data is for HH-60J. Data for MH-60T is

noted below.
Data from USCG HH-60J information,[3] Sikorsky S70B Seahawk information,[18][19] Globalsecurity.org HH60J specications[20]
Range: 700 nautical miles (802 mi, 1,300 km)

Service ceiling: 5,000 ft hovering (1,520 m)
Armament
1 x 0.308 in (7.62 mm) M240H medium machine
gun in starboard door (MH-60T)[10]
1 x 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Barrett M82 semi-automatic
rie (MH-60T)[10]
48.9. REFERENCES
48.8 See also

Related development
Sikorsky S-70
Sikorsky S-92
HH-65 Dolphin
MH-68 Stingray
Related lists
List of helicopters
48.9 References
[1] HH-60J Jayhawk"". Naval Supply Systems Command
website. Naval Supply Systems Command. Archived
from the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
Jayhawks have replaced the Sikorsky HH-3F Pelican helicopters ...
[2] Acquisition Directorate - MH-60T Medium Range Recovery Helicopter. United States Coast Guard. November 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 201007-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. All 42 H-60 aircraft are
scheduled to be modernized by 2015
[3] Thirteenth Coast Guard District Public Aairs Oce
(2003-04-21). Jayhawk - HH-60J Helicopter (PDF).
United States Coast Guard website. United States Coast
Guard. Retrieved 2010-07-07. ...carry out the Coast
Guards search and rescue, law enforcement, military
readiness and marine environmental protection missions...
[4] SH-60F to MH-60T Conversion Process, United States
Coast Guard, 4 April 2014
[5] MH-60T: Jayhawk. U.S. Coast Guard
[6] Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World Class
Helicopter, pp. 212-213. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56347-918-2.
[7] Sikorsky HH-60J Jayhawk. Helis.com. Archived from
the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. 42
delivered from 1990. 1 written o.
551
[8] Acquisition Directorate - Medium Range Recovery Helicopter. United States Coast Guard website. United States
Coast Guard. Archived from the original on 2010-07-07.
Retrieved 2010-07-07. The MH-60T project will upgrade
42 in-service HH-60J helicopters ...
[9] Aviation Update newsletter.
uary/February 2007.
US Coast Guard, Jan-
[10] Acquisition Update: T It Up: First Production MH60T Medium Range Recovery Helicopter Delivered to
Coast Guard. United States Coast Guard website. United
States Coast Guard. 2009-06-09. Archived from the original on 2010-07-08. Retrieved 2010-07-08. The AUF
package equips the MH-60T with a 7.62mm machine gun
for ring warning shots and a .50 caliber long range rie
for precise targeting...
[11] Acquisition Update: Final Jayhawk Completes Conversion to MH-60T Model. U.S. Coast Guard, 19 February
2014.
[12] Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk, pp. 74-74. MBI,
2003. ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
[13] Coast Guard Medevacs Injured Hiker From Ripikski
Mountain. Coast Guard News. January 6, 2011. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
[14] Oce of Aviation Forces (CG-711) Jayhawk"".
uscg.mil. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
[15] Freeze, Ken. Fatal Coast Guard Aircraft Accidents.
check-six.com. Check Six. Archived from the original
on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. Date of incident:
8 December 2004....Aircraft type and Coast Guard tail
number: Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk, 6020
[16] Liesik, Geo (2010-03-05). U.S. Coast Guard team to
probe Uinta Mountains crash. Deseret News. Salt Lake
City, UT: Deseret News Publishing Co. Archived from
the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. The
Jayhawk that crashed was one of two returning to North
Carolina from Washington state.... It was last heard from
just before 10 a.m. Wednesday.
[17] Green, Sara Jean (2010-07-07). 3 dead in Coast Guard
copter crash o La Push. Seattle Times. Seattle, WA:
The Seattle Times Company. Archived from the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. The MH-60
Jayhawk helicopter crashed around 9:30 a.m. o James
Island near the mouth of the Quillayute River at the northwest tip of Washington state.
[18] S-70B Seahawk Technical Information, 2001.
[19] S-70B Seahawk Helicopter Technical Information S70064 1438 3C. Sikorsky Aircraft. January 2008.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
[20] Pike, John. HH-60J Jayhawk Specications. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
552

MH-60T on US Coast Guard site
HH-60J JAYHAWK Helicopter Product Information. Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation
HH-60 Jayhawk and MH-60T on globalsecurity.org
U.S. Coast Guard Fielding Armed HH-65Cs,
60Js. Rotor & Wing
Coast Guard Plans Jayhawk Modernization.
VTOL.org
CHAPTER 48. SIKORSKY MH-60 JAYHAWK
Chapter 49

SH-60 redirects here. For other uses, see SH60
(disambiguation).
This article is about the naval versions and operators of
the S-70 family. For an overview of the S-70 family, and
for its civilian models and operators, see Sikorsky S-70.
Sikorsky and Boeing-Vertol submitted proposals for

Navy versions of their Army UTTAS helicopters in April
1977 for review. The Navy also looked at helicopters being produced by Bell, Kaman, Westland and MBB, but
these were too small for the mission. In early 1978 the
Navy selected Sikorskys S-70B design,[3] which was desThe Sikorsky SH-60/MH-60 Seahawk (or Sea Hawk) ignated SH-60B Seahawk.
is a twin turboshaft engine, multi-mission United States
Navy helicopter based on the United States Army UH-60
49.1.2 SH-60B Seahawk
Black Hawk and a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family.
The most signicant airframe modication is a hinged tail
The SH-60B maintained 83% commonality with the
to reduce its footprint aboard ships.
UH-60A.[5] The main changes were corrosion protecThe U.S. Navy uses the H-60 airframe under the model tion, more powerful T700 engines, single-stage oleo main
designations SH-60B, SH-60F, HH-60H, MH-60R, and landing gear, replacing left side door with fuselage strucMH-60S. Able to deploy aboard any air-capable frigate, ture, adding two weapon pylons, and shifting the tail landdestroyer, cruiser, fast combat support ship, amphibious ing gear 13 feet (3.96 m) forward to reduce the footprint
assault ship, or aircraft carrier, the Seahawk can han- for shipboard landing. Other changes included larger fuel
dle anti-submarine warfare (ASW), anti-surface warfare cells, an electric blade folding system, folding horizontal
(ASUW), naval special warfare (NSW) insertion, search stabilators for storage, and adding a 25-tube pneumatic
and rescue (SAR), combat search and rescue (CSAR), sonobuoy launcher on left side.[6] An emergency otation
vertical replenishment (VERTREP), and medical evacu- system was originally installed in the stub wing fairings
ation (MEDEVAC). All Navy H-60s carry a rescue hoist of the main landing gear; however, it was found to be imfor SAR/CSAR missions.
practical and possibly impede emergency egress, and thus
was subsequently removed.
Five YSH-60B Seahawk LAMPS III prototypes were ordered. The rst ight of a YSH-60B occurred on 12
December 1979. The rst production version SH-60B
achieved its rst ight on 11 February 1983. The SH-60B
49.1.1 Origins
entered operational service in 1984 with rst operational
[4]
During the 1970s, the U.S. Navy began looking for a deployment in 1985.
new helicopter to replace the Kaman SH-2 Seasprite.[3] The SH-60B LAMPS Mk III is deployed primarily
The SH-2 Seasprite was used by the Navy as its platform aboard frigates, destroyers, and cruisers. The primary
for the Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System (LAMPS) missions of the SH-60B are surface warfare and antiMark I avionics suite for maritime warfare and a sec- submarine warfare.
ondary search and rescue capability. Advances in sensor The SH-60B carries a complex system of sensors includand avionic technology lead to the LAMPS Mk II suite, ing a towed Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD) and airbut the SH-2 was not large enough to carry the Navys launched sonobuoys. Other sensors include the APSrequired equipment. In the mid-1970s, the Army evalu- 124 search radar, ALQ-142 ESM system and optional
ated the Sikorsky YUH-60 and Boeing-Vertol YUH-61 nose-mounted forward looking infrared (FLIR) turret. It
for its Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System (UT- carries the Mk 46, Mk 50, or Mk 54 torpedo, AGMTAS) competition.[4]
114 Hellre missile, and a single cabin-door-mounted
The Navy based its requirements on the Armys UT- M60D/M240 7.62 mm (0.30 in) machine gun or GAUTAS specication to decrease costs from commonality.[3] 16 .50 in (12.7 mm) machine gun.
553
554
CHAPTER 49. SIKORSKY SH-60 SEAHAWK
A Seahawk hovers during a simulated casualty evacuation as

MARSOC operators carry a stretcher.
A standard crew for a SH-60B is one pilot, one ATO/CoPilot (Airborne Tactical Ocer), and an enlisted aviation warfare systems operator (sensor operator). Operating squadrons are designated Helicopter Anti-Submarine
Squadron, Light (HSL).
The SH-60J is a version of the SH-60B for the Japan
Maritime Self-Defense Force. The SH-60K is a modied version of the SH-60J. The SH-60J and SH-60K are
built under license by Mitsubishi in Japan.[7][8]
49.1.3
SH-60F
An HH-60H Seahawk deploying a SAR swimmer
DoD and Sikorsky name is Seahawk, though it has been

called Rescue Hawk.[12]
Based on the SH-60F, the HH-60H is the primary combat
search and rescue (CSAR), naval special warfare (NSW)
and anti-surface warfare (ASUW) helicopter. It carries
various defensive and oensive sensors, it is one of the
most survivable helicopters in the world. Sensors include
a FLIR turret with laser designator and the Aircraft Survival Equipment (ASE) package including the ALQ-144
Infrared Jammer, AVR-2 Laser Detectors, APR-39(V)2
Radar Detectors, AAR-47 Missile Launch Detectors and
ALE-47 cha/are dispensers. Engine exhaust deectors
provide infrared thermal reduction reducing the threat of
heat-seeking missiles. The HH-60H can carry up to four
AGM-114 Hellre missiles on an extended wing using
the M299 launcher and a variety of mountable guns including M60D, M240, GAU-16 and GAU-17/A machine
guns.
After the SH-60B entered service, the Navy began development of the SH-60F to replace the SH-3 Sea King.[9]
Development of this variant began with the award of a
contract to Sikorsky in March 1985. An early-model SH60B (Bu. No. 161170) was modied to serve as a SH60F prototype.[10] The company was contracted to pro- The HH-60Hs standard crew is pilot, copilot, an enlisted
duce seven SH-60Fs in January 1986 and the rst exam- crew chief, and two door gunners. The HH-60H is operated by Helicopter Antisubmarine (HS) squadrons with a
ple ew on 19 March 1987.[11]
standard dispersal of four F-models and three H-models.
The SH-60F primarily serves as the carrier battle groups
In Iraq, HH-60Hs were used by the Navy, assisting the
primary antisubmarine warfare (ASW) aircraft. The heliArmy, for MEDEVAC purposes and special operations
copter hunts submarines with its AQS-13F dipping sonar,
missions. As the Navy transitions its Helicopter Antisuband carries a 6-tube sonobuoy launcher. The SH-60F
marine (HS) squadrons to the MH-60S, remaining HHis unocially named Oceanhawk.[11] The SH-60F can
60Hs are being transferred to its East and West coast specarry Mk 46, Mk 50, or Mk 54 torpedoes for its oencial operations squadrons (HSC-84 and HSC-85, respecsive weapons, and it has a choice of fuselage-mounted
tively).
machine guns, including the M60D, M240D, and GAU16 (.50 caliber) for self-defense. The standard aircrew
consists of one pilot, one co-pilot, one tactical sensor op- 49.1.5 MH-60R
erator (TSO), and one acoustic sensor operator (ASO).
49.1.4
HH-60H
The MH-60R was originally known as LAMPS Mark

III Block II Upgrade when development began in 1993.
Two SH-60Bs were converted by Sikorsky, the rst of
which made its maiden ight on 22 December 1999. Designated YSH-60R, they were delivered to NAS Patuxent River in 2001 for ight testing. The production variant was redesignated MH-60R to match its multi-mission
capability.[13]
The HH-60H was developed in conjunction with the US

Coast Guards HH-60J, beginning in September 1986
with a contract for the rst ve helicopters. The variants
rst ight occurred on 17 August 1988. Deliveries of the
HH-60H began in 1989. The variant earned initial operating capability in April 1990.[11] The HH-60Hs ocial The MH-60R is designed to combine the features of
49.1. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
555
in 27 January 2000 and it began ight testing later that
year. The CH-60S was redesignated MH-60S in February 2001 to reect its planned multi-mission use.[18] The
MH-60S is based on the UH-60L and has many naval SH60 features.[19] Unlike all other Navy H-60s, the MH-60S
is not based on the original S-70B/SH-60B platform with
its forward-mounted twin tail-gear and single starboard
sliding cabin door. Instead, the S-model is a hybrid, featuring the main fuselage of the S-70A/UH-60, with large
sliding doors on both sides of the cabin and a single aftmounted tail wheel; and the engines, drivetrain and rotors
of the S-70B/SH-60.[20][21]
An MH-60R Seahawk conducts sonar operations.
It is deployed aboard aircraft carriers, amphibious assault

ships, Maritime Sealift Command ships, and fast combat support ships. Its missions include vertical replenishment, medical evacuation, combat search and rescue,
anti-surface warfare, maritime interdiction, close air support, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, and
special warfare support. The MH-60S is to deploy with
the AQS-20A Mine Detection System and an Airborne
Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS) for identifying
submerged objects in coastal waters. It is the rst US
Navy helicopter to eld a glass cockpit, relaying ight information via four digital monitors. The primary means
of defense is with the M60D, M240 or GAU-17/A machine guns. A batwing Armed Helo Kit based on the
Armys UH-60L was developed to accommodate Hellre missiles, Hydra 70 2.75 inch rockets, or larger guns.
The MH-60S can be equipped with a nose mounted forward looking infrared (FLIR) turret to be used in conjunction with Hellre missiles; it also carries the ALQ144 Infrared Jammer.
the SH-60B and SH-60F.[14] Its sensors include the

ASE package, MTS-FLIR, the AN/APS-147 multi-mode
radar/IFF interrogator,[15] an advanced airborne eet data
link, and a more advanced airborne active sonar. It
does not carry the MAD suite. Pilot instrumentation
is based on the MH-60Ss glass cockpit, using several
digital monitors instead of the complex array of dials
and gauges in Bravo and Foxtrot aircraft. Oensive capabilities are improved by the addition of new Mk-54
air-launched torpedoes and Hellre missiles. All Helicopter Anti-Submarine Light (HSL) squadrons that receive the Romeo are redesignated Helicopter Maritime
Strike (HSM) squadrons.[16] During a mid-life technology insertion project, the MH-60R eet shall be tted with the AN/APS-153 Multi-Mode Radar with Automatic Radar Periscope Detection and Discrimination
(ARPDD) capability.[17]
The MH-60S is unocially known as the Knighthawk,
referring to the preceding Sea Knight, though Seahawk
is its ocial DoD name.[22][23] A standard crew for the
49.1.6 MH-60S
MH-60S is one pilot, one copilot and two others depending on mission. With the retirement of the Sea Knight,
the squadron designation of Helicopter Combat Support
Squadron (HC) was also retired from the Navy. Operating MH-60S squadrons were re-designated Helicopter
Sea Combat Squadron (HSC).[16] The MH-60S was to
be used for mine clearing from Littoral-combat ships, but
testing found it lacks the power to safely tow the detection
equipment.[24]
An MH-60S lifting humanitarian supplies from the deck of USNS

Comfort in Haiti 2010
The Navy decided to replace its venerable CH-46 Sea

Knight helicopters in 1997. After sea demonstrations
by a converted UH-60, the Navy awarded production
contract for the CH-60S in 1998. The variant rst ew
On 6 August 2014, the U.S. Navy forward deployed the

Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS) to the
U.S. 5th Fleet. The ALMDS is a sensor system designed
to detect, classify, and localize oating and near-surface
moored mines in littoral zones, straits, and choke points.
The system is operated from an MH-60S, which gives it
a countermine role traditionally handled by the MH-53E
Sea Dragon, allowing smaller ships the MH-53E can't operate from to be used in the role. The ALMDS beams a
laser into the water to pick up reections from things it
bounces o of, then uses that data to produce a video
image for technicians on the ground to determine if the
object is a mine.[25]
556
fully underwent nal testing for incorporation into the

eet. In August 2008, the rst 11 combat-ready Romeos
arrived at HSM-71, a squadron assigned to the carrier
49.2.1 U.S. Navy
John C. Stennis. The primary missions of the MH-60R
are anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare. According
The Navy received the rst production SH-60B in Februto Lockheed Martin, secondary missions include search
[26][27]
ary 1983 and assigned it to squadron HSL-41.
The
and rescue, vertical replenishment, naval surface re sup[28]
helicopter entered service in 1984, and began its rst
port, logistics support, personnel transport, medical evac[26]
deployment in 1985.
uation and communications and data relay.[30]
HSL squadrons in the US have been incrementally transitioning to the MH-60R and have nearly completed the
transition. The rst MH-60Rs in Japan arrived in October 2012. The recipient was HSM-51, the Navys forward
deployed LAMPS squadron, homebased in Atsugi, Japan.
The Warlords transitioned from the SH-60B throughout
2013, and shifted each detachment to the new aircraft as
they returned from deployments. HSM-51 will have all
MH-60R aircraft at the end of 2013. The Warlords are
joined by the Sabrehawks of HSM-77, who will also y
the MH-60R in Japan.
A MH-60S ying ahead of an Arleigh Burke-class guidedmissile destroyer
The SH-60F entered operational service on 22 June 1989

with Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron 10 (HS-10) at
NAS North Island.[18] SH-60F squadrons planned to shift
from the SH-60F to the MH-60S from 2005 to 2011 and
were be redesignated Helicopter Sea Combat (HSC).[29]
As one of the two squadrons in the US Navy dedicated
to Naval Special Warfare support and combat search
and rescue, the HCS-5 Firehawks squadron deployed to
Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom in March 2003. The
squadron completed 900 combat air missions and over
1,700 combat ight hours. The majority of their ights
in the Iraqi theater supported special operations ground
forces missions.
On 23 July 2013, Sikorsky delivered the 400th MH-60,

an MH-60R Seahawk, to the U.S. Navy. The Navy operates 166 MH-60R versions and 234 MH-60S versions.
The MH-60S is in production until 2015 and will total
a eet of 275 aircraft, and the MH-60R is in production
until 2017 and will total a eet of 291 aircraft. The two
models have own 660,000 ight hours. Seahawk helicopters are to remain in Navy service into the 2030s.[31]
The SH-60B Seahawk completed its last active-duty deployment for the U.S. Navy in late-April 2015 after a
seven-month deployment aboard the USS Gary (FFG51). After 32 years and over 3.6 million hours of service,
the SH-60B was formally retired from US Navy service
during a ceremony on 11 May 2015 at Naval Air Station
North Island.[32][33]
49.2.2 Other and potential users
An MH-60R Seahawk ring a live Hellre missile

The rst two Australian MH-60Rs arriving at Naval Air Station
A west coast Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS), He- Jacksonville shortly before being formally delivered to the Royal
licopter Maritime Strike Squadron (HSM) 41, received Australian Navy in December 2013
the MH-60R aircraft in December 2005 and began training the rst set of pilots. In 2007, the R-model success- Spain ordered 12 S-70B Seahawks for its Navy.[34] Spain
49.3. VARIANTS
557
requested six refurbished SH-60Fs through a Foreign

Military Sale in September 2010.[35][36]
Australia requested approval to buy 24 MH-60Rs through
a Foreign Military Sale in July 2010.[37] The MH-60R
and the NHIndustries NH90 were evaluated by the Royal
Australian Navy. On 16 June 2011, it was announced
that Australia would purchase 24 of the MH-60R variant, to come into service between 2014 to 2020.[38] The
helicopter selected is to replace older Seahawks currently
in service.[39][40]
The Royal Danish Navy (RDN) put the MH-60R on a
short list for a requirement of around 12 new naval helicopters, together with the NH90/NFH, H-92, AW159
and AW101. The Request For Proposal was issued on U.S. Navy Helicopter Master Plan, 2004
30 September 2010.[41] In November 2010, Denmark
requested approval for a possible purchase of 12 MH60Rs through a Foreign Military Sale.[42][43] In November 2012, Denmark selected 9 MH-60Rs to replace its 7
aging Lynx helicopters.[44]
In July 2009, the Republic of Korea requested eight MH60S helicopters, 16 GE T700-401C engines, and related
sensor systems to be sold in a Foreign Military Sale.[45]
However, South Korea instead chose the AW159 in January 2013.[46] In July 2010 Tunisia requested 12 refurbished SH-60Fs through a Foreign Military Sale.[47] But HH-60H Rescue Hawk from HSC-84 at Balad Air Base in Iraq,
the change in government there in January 2011 may in- 2008
terfere with an order.[48]
In February 2011, India selected the S-70B over the
NHIndustries NH90 for an acquisition of 16 multirole helicopters for the Indian Navy to replace its aging Westland
Sea King eet; the order include an option for 8 additional aircraft.[49] India selected the Seahawk and conrmed procurement in November 2014.[50]
In 2011, Qatar requested a potential Foreign Military
Sale of up to 6 MH-60R helicopters, engines and other
associated equipment.[51] In late June 2012, Qatar requested another 22 Seahawks, 12 tted with the armed
helicopter modication kit and T700-401C engines with
an option to purchase an additional six Seahawks and
more engines.[52][53]
In 2011 Singapore bought six S-70Bs and then in 2013 View of front of MH-60R, 2010
ordered an additional two.[54]
copter, equipped with an APS-124 search radar and
In 2015, Saudi Arabia requested the sale of ten MH-60R
an ALQ-142 ESM system under the nose, also thelicopters and associated equipment and support for the
ted with a 25-tube sonobuoy launcher on the left
Royal Saudi Navy.[55][56]
side and modied landing gear; 181 built for the US
Navy.
49.3 Variants
NSH-60B Seahawk: Permanently congured for

ight testing.[57]
49.3.1
CH-60E: Proposed troop transport version for the

U.S. Marine Corps. Not built.[58]
U.S. versions
YSH-60B Seahawk: Developmental version, led to

SH-60B; ve built.[57]
SH-60B Seahawk: Anti-submarine warfare heli-
SH-60F Oceanhawk:
Carrier-borne antisubmarine warfare helicopter, equipped with
dipping sonar; 76 built for the U.S. Navy.[59]
558
NSH-60F Seahawk: Modied SH-60F to support

the VH-60N Cockpit Upgrade Program.[57]
HH-60H Rescue Hawk: Search-and-rescue helicopter for the U.S. Navy; 42 built.
XSH-60J: Two U.S.-built pattern aircraft for Japan.
SH-60J: Anti-submarine warfare helicopter for the
Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force.
YSH-60R Seahawk:
S-70C-6 Super Blue Hawk: Search-andrescue helicopter for Taiwan, equipped with
undernose radar, plus provision for four external fuel tanks on two sub wings.
S-70C-14: VIP transport version for Brunei;
two built.
S-70A (N) Naval Hawk: Maritime variant that
blends the S-70A Black Hawk and S-70B Seahawk designs.
S-70L: Sikorskys original designation for the SH60B Seahawk.
MH-60R Seahawk:
YCH-60S Knighthawk:
49.4 Operators
MH-60S Knighthawk:
HH-60/MH-60 Jayhawk: U.S. Coast Guard version, developed from HH-60H.
49.3.2
Export versions
S-70B Seahawk: Sikorskys designation for Seahawk. Designation is often used for exports.
S-70B-1 Seahawk: Anti-submarine version
for the Spanish Navy. The Seahawk is congured with the LAMPS (Light Airbone Multipurpose System)
S-70B-2 Seahawk: Anti-submarine version
for the Royal Australian Navy, similar to the
SH-60B Seahawk in U.S. Navy operation.
S-70B-3 Seahawk: Anti-submarine version Hellenic Navy S-70B-6 Aegean Hawk with Penguin missile
for the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force.
Also known as the SH-60J. The JMSDF ordered 101 units, with deliveries starting in
1991.
S-70-4 Seahawk: Sikorskys designation for
the SH-60F Oceanhawk.
S-70-5: Sikorskys designation for the HH60H Rescue Hawk and HH-60J Jayhawk.
S-70B-6 Aegean Hawk: the Greek military
variant which is a blend of the SH-60B and F
A JMSDF SH-60J lands onboard USS Russell (DDG 59)
models, based on Taiwans S-70C(M)1/2.
S-70B-7 Seahawk: Export version for the
Royal Thai Navy.
S-70B-28 Seahawk:
Turkey.
Australia
Export version for
S-70C: Designation for civil variants of the H-60.

S-70C(M)1/2 Thunderhawk: Export version for the Republic of China (Taiwan) Navy,
equipped with an undernose radar and a dipping sonar.
S-70C-2: 24 radar-equipped UH-60 Black
Hawks for China, the delivery of the helicopters was halted by an embargo.
Royal Australian Navy[60]

Brazil
Brazilian Navy[60]
Denmark
49.5. SPECIFICATIONS (SH-60B)
559
Turkish Naval Forces[60]
United States
United States Navy[60]
49.5 Specications (SH-60B)

Data from Brasseys World Aircraft & Systems
Directory,[62] Navy fact le,[22] and Sikorsky S70B[63][64]
MH-60S Knighthawk with tail and rotors folded on Mount
Whitney
Danish Navy (9 on order)[60]

Greece
Hellenic Navy[60]
India
Indian Navy[61]
MH-60S empty cabin and sling load mechanism
Japan
See SH-60J/K
Singapore
Republic of Singapore Navy[60]
Spain
Spanish Navy[60]
SH-60 showing an M240D machine gun, Hellre missiles and

external fuel tank
Taiwan (Republic of China)

Republic of China Navy[60]
Thailand
Royal Thai Navy[60]
Turkey
Crew: 34
Capacity: 5 passengers in cabin, slung load of
6,000 lb (2,700 kg) or internal load of 4,100 lb
(1,900 kg) for B, F and H models; and 11 passengers
or slung load of 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) for S-model
Length: 64 ft 8 in (19.75 m)
560
Mitsubishi H-60
Piasecki X-49
Sikorsky S-92/CH-148 Cyclone
Loaded weight: 17,758 lb (8,055 kg) ; for ASW

mission
Boeing-Vertol YUH-61
Eurocopter AS565 Panther

turboshaft, 1,890 shp (1,410 kW) take-o power
each
Performance
Never exceed speed: 180 kn (333 km/h; 207 mph)
Maximum speed: 146 kn (270 km/h; 168 mph)
Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite

Kamov Ka-27
Harbin Z-9
NHI NH90
Westland Lynx
Range: 450 nmi (518 mi or 834 km) at cruise speed Related lists
Armament
Up to three Mark 46 torpedos or Mk-54s,

List of helicopters
49.7 References
AGM-114 Hellre missile, 4 Hellre missiles for

Notes
SH-60B and HH-60H and MH-60R, 8 Hellre missiles for MH-60S Block III.
AGM-119 Penguin missile (being phased out),
M60 machine gun or, M240 machine gun or GAU16/A machine gun or GAU-17/A Minigun
Rapid Airborne Mine Clearance System (RAMICS)
using Mk 44 Mod 0 30 mm Cannon
Main article: U.S. Helicopter Armament Subsystems
49.6 See also
[1] MH-60R Selected Acquisition Report (SAR) (PDF), US Department of Defense, 31 December 2011, p. 11, retrieved
2013-04-27
[2] MH-60S Selected Acquisition Report (SAR) (PDF), US Department of Defense, 31 December 2011, p. 14, retrieved
2013-04-27
[3] Leoni 2007, pp. 2034.
[4] Sikorsky S-70B Seahawk, Vectorsite.net, 1 July 2006.
[5] Eden, Paul. Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk/Seahawk, Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft, p. 431. Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[6] Leoni 2007, pp. 2069.
List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons

Related development
Sikorsky S-70
[7] Mitsubishi (Sikorsky) SH-60J (Japan). Janes, 17 April

2007.
[8] Mitsubishi SH-60K Upgrade. Janes, 11 June 2008.
[9] Leoni 2007, p. 211.
[10] Bureau (Serial) Numbers of Naval Aircraft (PDF).
[11] Donald 2004, p. 158.
[12] SH-60 Multipurpose Helicopter at Aerospaceweb.org
49.7. REFERENCES
561
[13] Donald 2004, pp. 161-162.
[39] Australia requests US helicopters. Rotothub, 29 April

2010.
[14] Donald 2004, p. 161.

[15] MH-60R Equipment Guide. Military.com. Retrieved 4
December 2012.
[16] Airscoop, US Navy, 2003, retrieved 2011-06-30
[17] Telephonics to supply AN/APS-153 radars for US MH60R aircraft. Naval Technology. 26 April 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
[40] MH-60R or NH90 NFH - Australia plans to buy 24 naval

combat helicopters. Defpro.com, 29 April 2010.
[41] Danish Request For Proposal. forsvaret.dk
[42] Denmark MH-60R Multi-Mission Helicopters. US
Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 30 November
2010.
[43] Hoyle, Craig. Denmark requests Seahawk helicopter
buy. Flightglobal.com, 13 December 2010. Retrieved:
14 December 2010.
[18] Donald 2004, pp. 159-160.

[19] Donald 2004, pp. 160-161.
[20] MH-60S Knighthawk Multi-Mission Naval Helicopter,
USA, Naval Technology, retrieved 2008-10-05
[44] Hoyle, Craig. Denmark conrms MH-60R selection to

replace Lynx helicopters. Flightglobal.com, 21 November 2012. Retrieved: 21 November 2012.
[21] Air Cache: MH-60 KnightHawk

[22] SH-60 Seahawk fact le, US Navy, retrieved 2008-10-05
[45] Korea MH-60S Multi-Mission Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 22 July 2009.
[23] Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk helicopter, Fact File. Sikorsky.

checked 2008-10-05
[46] South Korea picks AW159 for maritime helicopter deal.

Flight International, 15 January 2013.
[24] LaGrone, Sam. MH-60S underpowered for MCM towing operations, report nds. Janes Information Group,
21 January 2013.
[47] Tunisia Refurbishment of Twelve SH-60F MultiMission Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation
[25] U.S. Navy deploys its new Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS) for the rst time - Navyrecognition.com, 6 August 2014
[26] Donald 2004, pp. 156157.
[48] SH-60F Seahawk Helis for Tunisia

[49] India to go for open bidding for Navy deal, rejects US
oer. Economic Times, 18 February 2011.
indian-mod-opts-for-seahawk-in-navy-s-mrh-tender
[27] Tomajczyk 2003, p. 55.

[28] Leoni 2007, p. 205.
[29] Helicopter Sea Combat Wing, Pacic. GlobalSecurity.org
[51] http://www.dsca.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2011/Qatar_
11-26.pdf
[30] MH-60R Helicopter Departs Lockheed Martin To Complete First Operational Navy Squadron. Lockheed Martin, July 30, 2008.
[52] Qatar MH-60R and MH-60S Multi-Mission Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 28
June 2012.
[31] Sikorsky Delivers 400th MH-60 SEAHAWK Helicopter

to U.S. Navy - Marketwatch.com, 23 July 2013
[53] Sambridge, Andy (30 June 2012). Qatar keen on $2.5bn

US helicopters deal. ArabianBusiness.com. Retrieved 1
July 2012.
[32] Alford, Abbie (11 May 2015). Navy retires the SH-60B
Seahawk. San Diego: CBS 8.
[33] USS Gary Returns From Final Deployment; Also Last for
SH-60B Seahawks - News.USNI.org, 20 April 2015
[34] Leoni 2007, pp. 303-304.
[35] Spain Refurbishment of SH-60F Multi-Mission Utility
Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency,
30 September 2010.
[36] Spain seeks more Seahawk helicopters.
2010-10-07.
Retrieved
[37] Australia MH-60R Multi-Mission Helicopters. US

Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 9 July 2010.
[38]
Australian Broadcasting Corporation Online, 16 June

2011
[54] Waldron, Gregg (February 20, 2013). Singapore orders two additional S-70B helicopters. Flightglobal. Retrieved February 2, 2015.
[55] http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/
release/3/163865/us-approves-\protect\char"0024\
relax1.9bn-sale-of-mh_60r-helicopters-to-saudi-arabia.
html
[56] http://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/
kingdom-saudi-arabia-mh-60r-multi-mission-helicopters
[57] DoD 4120-15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace
Vehicles. US DoD, 12 May 2004.
[58] Donald, David, ed. Sikorsky S-70. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Noble Books, 1997.
ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
562
[59] S-60B (SH-60B Seahawk, SH-60F CV, HH-60H Rescue

Hawk, HH-60J Jayhawk, VH-60N) - Sikorsky Archives.
Sikorsky Aircraft.
[60] World Air Forces 2014 World Air Forces 2014 (PDF).
Flightglobal Insight. 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
[61] http://www.sikorsky.com/pages/AboutSikorsky/
PressreleaseDetails.aspx?pressreleaseid=278
[62] Taylor, M J H (editor) (1999), Brasseys World Aircraft
& Systems Directory 1999/2000 Edition, Brasseys, ISBN
1-85753-245-7
[63] S-70B Seahawk Technical Information, 2001.
[64] S-70B Seahawk Mission Brochure. Sikorsky.com.
Bibliography
A1-H60CA-NFM-000 NATOPS Flight Manual
Navy Model H-60F/H Aircraft
Donald, David ed. Sikorsky HH/MH/SH-60 Seahawk. Warplanes of the Fleet. AIRtime, 2004.
ISBN 1-880588-81-1.
Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World
Class Helicopter. American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56347-918-2.
Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. MBI, 2003.
ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
49.8 External links

S-70B Seahawk page on Sikorsky.com
SH-60 fact le and SH-60 history page on US Navy
site
SH-60, HH-60H, MH-60S pages on Globalsecurity.org
Chapter 50

This article is about the US Army military versions and
operators of the S-70 family. For USAF variants, see
Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk. For an overview of the
S-70 family and for its civilian models and operators, see
Sikorsky S-70.
proposals (RFP) in January 1972.[4] The RFP also included air transport requirements. Transport aboard the
C-130 limited the UTTAS cabin height and length.[5]
The UTTAS requirements for improved reliability,
survivability and lower life-cycle costs resulted in features
such as dual-engines with improved hot and high altitude performance, and a modular design (reduced maintenance footprint); run-dry gearboxes; ballistically tolerant, redundant subsystems (hydraulic, electrical and ight
controls); crashworthy crew (armored) and troop seats;
dual-stage oleo main landing gear; ballistically tolerant,
crashworthy main structure; quieter, more robust main
and tail rotor systems; and a ballistically tolerant, crashworthy fuel system.[6]
The Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk is a four-bladed,

twin-engine, medium-lift utility helicopter manufactured
by Sikorsky Aircraft. Sikorsky submitted the S-70 design for the United States Army's Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System (UTTAS) competition in 1972. The
Army designated the prototype as the YUH-60A and selected the Black Hawk as the winner of the program in
1976, after a y-o competition with the Boeing Vertol
YUH-61.
Four prototypes were constructed, with the rst YUHThe UH-60A entered service with the U.S. Army in 60A ying on 17 October 1974. Prior to delivery of
1979, to replace the Bell UH-1 Iroquois as the Armys the prototypes to the US Army, a preliminary evaluation
tactical transport helicopter. This was followed by the was conducted in November 1975 to ensure the aircraft
elding of electronic warfare and special operations vari- could be operated safely during all testing.[7] Three of the
ants of the Black Hawk. Improved UH-60L and UH- prototypes were delivered to the Army in March 1976,
60M utility variants have also been developed. Modi- for evaluation against the rival Boeing-Vertol design, the
ed versions have also been developed for the U.S. Navy, YUH-61A, and one was kept by Sikorsky for internal reAir Force, and Coast Guard. In addition to U.S. Army search. The Army selected the UH-60 for production in
use, the UH-60 family has been exported to several na- December 1976. Deliveries of the UH-60A to the Army
tions. Black Hawks have served in combat during con- began in October 1978 and the helicopter entered service
icts in Grenada, Panama, Iraq, Somalia, the Balkans, in June 1979.[8]
Afghanistan, and other areas in the Middle East.
50.1 Development
50.1.1
Initial requirement
In the late 1960s, the United States Army began forming

requirements for a helicopter to replace the UH-1 Iroquois, and designated the program as the Utility Tactical
Transport Aircraft System (UTTAS). The Army also initiated the development of a new, common turbine engine
for its helicopters that would become the General Electric T700. Based on experience in Vietnam, the Army UH-60A Black Hawks over Port Salinas during the invasion of
required signicant performance, survivability and re- Grenada, 1983. The conict saw the rst use of the UH-60 in
combat.
liability improvements from both UTTAS and the new
[3]
powerplant. The Army released its UTTAS request for
563
564
50.1.2
CHAPTER 50. SIKORSKY UH-60 BLACK HAWK
Upgrades and variations
After entering service, the helicopter was modied for

new missions and roles, including mine laying and medical evacuation. An EH-60 variant was developed to conduct electronic warfare and special operations aviation
developed the MH-60 variant to support its missions.[9]
Due to weight increases from the addition of mission
equipment and other changes, the Army ordered the improved UH-60L in 1987. The new model incorporated all
of the modications made to the UH-60A eet as standard design features. The UH-60L also featured more
power and lifting capability with upgraded T700-GE701C engines and a stronger gearbox, both developed
for the SH-60B Seahawk.[10] Its external lift capacity
increased by 1,000 lb (450 kg) up to 9,000 lb (4,100
kg). The UH-60L also incorporated the automatic ight
control system (AFCS) from the SH-60 for better ight
control due to handling issues with the more powerful
engines.[11] Production of the L-model began in 1989.[10]
only remaining part of the aircraft which crashed during

the operation,[18][19] revealed extra blades on the tail rotor and other noise reduction measures, making the craft
much quieter than conventional UH-60s. The aircraft appeared to include features like special high-tech materials, harsh angles, and at surfaces found only in stealth
jets.[Nb 1][20] Low observable versions of the Black Hawk
have been studied as far back as the mid-1970s.[21]
In September 2012, Sikorsky was awarded a Combat
Tempered Platform Demonstration (CTPD) contract to
further improve the Black Hawks durability and survivability. The company is to develop new technologies such
as a zero-vibration system, adaptive ight control laws,
advanced re management, a more durable main rotor,
full-spectrum crashworthiness, and damage tolerant airframe; then they are to transition them to the helicopter.
Improvements to the Black Hawk are to continue until the
Future Vertical Lift program is ready to replace it.[22][23]
50.2 Design
UH-60s equipped with machine guns near An Najaf, Iraq in May

2005.
Development of the next improved variant, the UH-60M,

was approved in 2001, to extend the service life of the
UH-60 design into the 2020s. The UH-60M incorporates upgraded T700-GE-701D engines, improved rotor
blades, and state of the art electronic instrumentation,
ight controls and aircraft navigation control. After the
U.S. DoD approved low-rate initial production of the new
variant,[12] manufacturing began in 2006,[13] with the rst
of 22 new UH-60Ms delivered in July 2006.[14] After
an initial operational evaluation, the Army approved fullrate production and a ve-year contract for 1,227 helicopters in December 2007.[15] By March 2009, 100 UH60M helicopters had been delivered to the Army.[16] In
November 2014, US military ordered 102 aircraft of various H-60 types, worth $1.3 billion.[17]
Following an operation in May 2011, it emerged that the
160th SOAR used a secret version of the UH-60 modied with low-observable technology which enabled it to
evade Pakistani radar. Analysis of the tail section, the
UH-60A Black Hawk parked on ight line
The UH-60 features four-blade main and tail rotors, and

is powered by two General Electric T700 turboshaft
engines.[24] The main rotor is fully articulated and has
elastomeric bearings in the rotor head. The tail rotor
is canted and features a rigid crossbeam.[25] The helicopter has a long, low prole shape to meet the Armys requirement for transporting aboard a C-130 Hercules, with
some disassembly.[24] It can carry 11 troops with equipment, lift 2,600 pounds (1,200 kg) of cargo internally or
9,000 pounds (4,100 kg) of cargo (for UH-60L/M) externally by sling.[15]
The Black Hawk helicopter series can perform a wide array of missions, including the tactical transport of troops,
electronic warfare, and aeromedical evacuation. A VIP
version known as the VH-60N is used to transport important government ocials (e.g., Congress, Executive departments) with the helicopters call sign of "Marine One"
when transporting the President of the United States.[26]
In air assault operations, it can move a squad of 11 combat troops or reposition a 105 mm M119 howitzer with
565
30 rounds ammunition, and a four-man crew in a single

lift.[15] The Black Hawk is equipped with advanced avionics and electronics for increased survivability and capability, such as the Global Positioning System.
U.S. Army MH-60L during the Battle of Mogadishu in 1993
Combat Search and Rescue of other downed aircrews, an

F-16C pilot and the crew of a MEDEVAC UH-1H that
The UH-60 can be equipped with stub wings at the top of were shot down earlier that day.[33]
fuselage to carry fuel tanks or various armaments. The In 1993, Black Hawks featured prominently in the assault
initial stub wing system is called External Stores Sup- on Mogadishu in Somalia. Black Hawks also saw acport System (ESSS).[27] It has two pylons on each wing to tion in the Balkans and Haiti in the 1990s.[11] U.S. Army
carry two 230 US gal (870 L) and two 450 US gal (1,700 UH-60s and other helicopters conducted many air assault
L) tanks in total.[11] The four fuel tanks and associated and other support missions during the 2003 invasion of
lines and valves form the external extended range fuel Iraq. The UH-60 has continued to serve in operations in
system (ERFS).[28] U.S. Army UH-60s have had their Afghanistan and Iraq.[11]
ESSS modied into the crashworthy external fuel system
(CEFS) conguration, replacing the older tanks with up Customs and Border Protection Oce of Air and Mato four total 200 US gal (760 L) crashworthy tanks along rine (OAM) uses the UH-60 in its operations specically
with self-sealing fuel lines.[29] The ESSS can also carry along the southwest border. The Black Hawk has been
10,000 lb (4,500 kg) of armament such as rockets, mis- used by OAM to interdict illegal entry into the U.S. Adsiles and gun pods.[11][30] The ESSS entered service in ditionally, OAM regularly uses the UH-60 in search and
1986. However, it was found that the four fuel tanks ob- rescue operations.
struct the eld of re for the door guns. To alleviate this, Highly modied H-60s were employed during the U.S.
the external tank system (ETS) with unswept stub wings Special Operations mission that resulted in the death of
was developed to carry two fuel tanks.[11]
Osama bin Laden on 1 May 2011.[20][34] One such MHThe unit cost of the H-60 models varies due to dierences 60 helicopter crash-landed during the operation, and was
in specications, equipment and quantities. For example, destroyed by the team before it departed in the other MHthe unit cost of the Armys UH-60L Black Hawk is $5.9 60 and a backup MH-47 Chinook with bin Ladens remillion while the unit cost of the Air Force HH-60G Pave mains. Two MH-47s were used for the mission to refuel
the two MH-60s and as backups.[35] News media reported
Hawk is $10.2 million.[31]
that the Pakistani government granted the Chinese military access to the wreckage of the crashed 'stealth' UH-60
variant in Abbotabad;[36][37][38] Pakistan and China de50.3 Operational history
nied the reports,[36][37] and the U.S. Government has not
conrmed Chinese access.[37]
A view of a UH-60L cockpit
50.3.1
United States
The UH-60 entered service with the U.S. Armys 101st

Combat Aviation Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division
in June 1979.[32] The U.S. military rst used the UH-60 in
combat during the invasion of Grenada in 1983, and again
in the invasion of Panama in 1989. During the Gulf War
in 1991, the UH-60 participated in the largest air assault
mission in U.S. Army history with over 300 helicopters
involved. Two UH-60s (89-26214 and 78-23015) were
shot down, both on 27 February 1991, while performing
50.3.2 Peoples Republic of China

In December 1983, examples of the Aerospatiale AS332 Super Puma, Bell 214ST SuperTransport and Sikorsky S-70A-5 (N3124B) were airlifted to Lhasa for testing. These demonstrations included take-os and landings at altitudes to 17,000 feet (5,200 m) and en route
operations to 24,000 feet (7,300 m). At the end of
this testing, the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force
566
purchased 24 S-70C-2s, equipped with more powerful GE T700-701A engines for improved high-altitude
performance.[39] While designated as civil variants of the
S-70 for export purposes, they are operated by the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force.
50.3.3
rescue, and for medical evacuation. Colombia also operates a militarized gunship version of the UH-60, with stub
wings, locally known as Arpa (English: Harpy).[43][44]
The Colombian Army became the rst worldwide operator of the S-70i with Terrain Awareness and Warning
Capability (HTAWS) after taking delivery of the rst two
units on 13 August 2013.[45]
50.3.5 Mexico
Taiwan S-70C
The Mexican Air Force ordered its rst two UH-60Ls in

1991, to transport special forces units, and another four
in 1994.[46] In July and August 2009, the Federal Police
used UH-60s in attacks on drug trackers.[47][48] In August 2011, the Mexican Navy received three upgraded
and navalized UH-60M.[49] On 21 April 2014, the U.S.
State Department approved the sale of 18 UH-60Ms to
Mexico pending approval from Congress.[50] In September 2014, Sikorsky received a $203.6 million rm-xedprice contract modication for the 18 UH-60 designated
for the Mexican Air Force.[51]
Taiwan operated S-70C-1/1A after the Republic of China

Air Force received ten S-70C-1A and four S-70C-1
Bluehawk helicopters in June 1986, for Search And 50.3.6
Rescue.[40] Four further S-70C-6s were received in April
1998. The ROC Navy received the rst of ten S70C(M)1s in July 1990. 11 S-70C(M)2s were received beginning April 2000.[41] In January 2010, the US
announced a Foreign Military Sale of 60 UH-60Ms to
Taiwan for the ROC Army.[42]
50.3.4
Israel
Colombia
Israel Air Force UH-60 Yanshuf
The Israeli Air Force (IAF) received 10 surplus UH-60A

Black Hawks from the United States in August 1994.[52]
Named Yanshuf (English: Owl) by the IAF,[53] the UH60A began replacing Bell 212 utility helicopters of the
Israeli Defense Forces.[52] The IAF rst used the UH-60s
in combat during Operation Grapes of Wrath in April
1996, against the Hezbollah in southern Lebanon.
A Colombian Air Force UH-60L Arpa
50.3.7 Brazil
Colombia rst received UH-60s from the United States
in 1987. The Colombian National Police, Colombian
Air Force, and Colombian Army use UH-60s to transport troops and supplies to places which are dicult to
access by land for counter-insurgency (COIN) operations
against drug and guerrilla organizations, for search and
Brazil received four UH-60L helicopters in 1997, for the

Brazilian Army peacekeeping forces. It received six UH60Ls congured for special forces, and search and rescue
use in 2008. It ordered ten more UH-60Ls in 2009; deliveries began in March 2011.[54]
50.4. VARIANTS
567
On 25 February 2013, the Indonesian Army announced
its interest in buying UH-60 Black Hawks as part of its
eort to modernize its weaponry. The army wants them
for combating terrorism, transnational crime, and insurgency to secure the archipelago.[70]
Brazilian Air Force UH-60L
On 27 May 2014, Croatian Defence Minister Ante Kotromanovi announced the beginning of negotiations with
the US Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel for the purchase of 15 used Black Hawks, the deal is expected to
completed by 2017.[71]
Tunisia requested 12 armed UH-60M helicopters in July

In 2006, the Brazilian Air Force acquired six UH-60L he- 2014 through Foreign Military Sale.[72] In August 2014,
licopters from the U.S. specically for the Combat SAR the U.S. Ambassador stated that the U.S. will soon make
mission in the Amazon region. In 2009, the Air Force available the UH-60Ms to Tunisia.[73]
requested another 15 UH-60Ls.[54]
On 23 January 2015, the Malaysian Defence Minister
Hishammuddin Hussein conrmed that Royal Malaysian
Air Force (RMAF) is getting S-70A Blackhawks from
50.3.8 Turkey
the Brunei government. The helicopters which believed
be four are expected to be transferred to Malaysia by
Turkey has operated the UH-60 during NATO deploySeptember and will be armed with M134D miniguns.
ments to Afghanistan and the Balkans. The UH-60 has
The four Blackhawks were delivered to Royal Brunei Air
also been used in counter-terror/internal security operaForce (RBAF) in 1999 and currently operated by the 4th
tions.
Squadron.[74]
The Black Hawk competed against the AgustaWestland
Slovakia is seeking to order 9 UH-60Ms via Foreign MilAW149 in the Turkish General Use Helicopter Tender, to
itary Sale.[75] Slovakias government approved the order
order up to 115 helicopters and produce many of them inin April 2015.[76]
digenously, with Turkish Aerospace Industries responsible for nal integration and assembly.[55][56] On 21 April
2011, Turkey announced the selection of Sikorskys T50.4 Variants
70.[57][58][59]
The UH-60 comes in many variants, and many dierent modications. The U.S. Army variants can be tted with the stub wings to carry additional fuel tanks or
Sweden requested 15 UH-60M helicopters by Foreign weapons.[11] Variants may have dierent capabilities and
Military Sale in September 2010.[60] The UH-60Ms equipment to fulll dierent roles.
were ordered in May 2011, and deliveries began in January 2012.[61] In March 2013, Swedish ISAF forces began using Black Hawks in Afghanistan for MEDEVAC 50.4.1 Utility variants
purposes.[62] The UH-60Ms are to be fully operational
by 2017.[63]
50.3.9
50.3.10
Sweden
Other and potential users
The United Arab Emirates requested 14 UH-60M helicopters and associated equipment in September 2008,
through Foreign Military Sale.[64] It had received 20 UH60Ls by November 2010.[65] Bahrain ordered nine UH60Ms in 2007.[66][67]
In December 2011, the Royal Brunei Air Force ordered twelve S-70i helicopters, which are similar to the
UH-60M; four aircraft had been received by December Six UH-60L Black Hawks from B Company Lancers, 5th Bat2013.[68] On 12 June 2012, the U.S. Defense Security Co- talion, 101st Aviation Regiment, on an air assault mission in Iraq
operation Agency notied Congress that Qatar requested
the purchase of twelve UH-60Ms, engines, and associated
YUH-60A: Initial test and evaluation version for
equipment.[69]
568
50.4.2 Special purpose

EH-60A Black Hawk: UH-60A with modied
electrical system and stations for two electronic
systems mission operators. All examples of type
have been converted back to standard UH-60A
conguration.[78]
YEH-60B Black Hawk: UH-60A modied for special radar and avionics installations, prototype for
stand-o target acquisition system.[78]
U.S. Army UH-60A MEDEVAC evacuating simulated casualties
during a training exercise
U.S. Army. First ight on 17 October 1974; three

built.
UH-60A Black Hawk: Original U.S. Army version, carrying a crew of four and up to 11 equipped
troops.[77] Equipped with T700-GE-700 engines.[78]
Produced 19771989. U.S. Army is equipping
UH-60As with more powerful T700-GE-701D engines and also upgrading A-models to UH-60L
standard.[79]
UH-60C Black Hawk: Modied version for
Command and control (C2) missions.[11][78]
CH-60E: Proposed troop transport variant for the
U.S. Marine Corps.[80]
UH-60L Black Hawk: UH-60A with upgraded
T700-GE-701C engines, improved durability gearbox, and updated ight control system.[11] Produced
19892007.[81] UH-60Ls are also being equipped
with the GE T700-GE-701D engine.[79]
UH-60V Black Hawk: Upgraded version of the
UH-60L with the electronic displays (glass cockpit)
of the UH-60M. Upgrades performed by Northrop
Grumman featuring a centralized processor with
a partitioned, modular operational ight program
enabling capabilities to be added as software-only
modications.[82]
UH-60M Black Hawk: Improved design wide
chord rotor blades, T700-GE-701D engines (max
2,000 shp or 1,500 kW each), improved durability
gearbox, Integrated Vehicle Management Systems
(IVHMS) computer, and new glass cockpit. Production began in 2006.[83] Planned to replace older
U.S. Army UH-60s.[84]
UH-60M Upgrade Black Hawk: UH-60M with
y-by-wire system and Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS) cockpit suite. Flight testing began in August 2008.[85][86]
EH-60C Black Hawk: UH-60A modied with special electronics equipment and external antenna.[78]
(All examples of type have been taken back to standard UH-60A conguration.)
EUH-60L (no ocial name assigned): UH-60L
modied with additional mission electronic equipment for Army Airborne C2.[78]
EH-60L Black Hawk: EH-60A with major mission
equipment upgrade.[78]
UH-60Q Black Hawk: UH-60A modied for
medical evacuation.[78][87] The UH-60Q is named
DUSTOFF for dedicated unhesitating service to
our ghting forces.[88]
HH-60L (no ocial name assigned):
UH60L extensively modied with medical mission
equipment.[78] Components include an external rescue hoist, integrated patient conguration system,
environmental control system, on-board oxygen
system (OBOGS), and crashworthy ambulatory
seats.[87]
HH-60M Black Hawk: UH-60M with medical mission equipment (medevac version) for U.S.
Army.[78][89]
HH-60W (no ocial name assigned yet): Modied
version of the UH-60M for the U.S. Air Force as a
Combat Rescue Helicopter to replace HH-60G Pave
Hawks with greater fuel capacity and more internal
cabin space, dubbed the 60-Whiskey. Deliveries
to begin in 2019.[90]
MH-60A Black Hawk: 30 UH-60As modied with

additional avionics, night vision capable cockpit,
FLIR, M134 door guns, internal axillary fuel tanks
and other Special Operations mission equipment in
early 1980s for U.S. Army.[91][92] Equipped with
T700-GE-701 engines.[78] Variant was used by the
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment. The
MH-60As were replaced by MH-60Ls beginning
in the early 1990s and passed to the Air National
Guard.[80][93]
50.4. VARIANTS
569
MH-60 Black Hawk stealth helicopter: One of
two (known) specially modied MH-60s used in the
raid on Osama bin Laden's hideout in Pakistan on 1
May 2011 was damaged in a hard landing, and was
subsequently destroyed by U.S. forces.[104][105] Subsequent reports state that the Black Hawk destroyed
was a previously unconrmed, but rumored, modication of the design with reduced noise signature and
stealth technology.[19][20] The modications are said
to add several hundred pounds to the base helicopter
including edge alignment panels, special coatings
and anti-radar treatments for the windshields.[20]
MH-60S in East Timor
MH-60K Black Hawk: Special operations modication rst ordered in 1988 for use by the U.S.
Armys 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Night Stalkers).[80] Equipped with the inight refueling probe,[94] and T700-GE-701C engines. More advanced than MH-60L, the K-model
also includes an integrated avionics system (glass
cockpit), AN/APQ-174B terrain-following radar,
color weather map generator, improved weapons caVH-60Ns used to transport the President of the United States
pability, and various defensive systems.[94][95]
MH-60L Black Hawk: Special operations modication, used by the U.S. Armys 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Night Stalkers), based
on the UH-60L with T700-701C engines. It was
developed as an interim version in the late 1980s
pending elding of the MH-60K.[96] Equipped with
many of the systems used on MH-60K, including FLIR, terrain-following radar, color weather
map generator, auxiliary fuel system,[97] and laser
rangender/designator.[96][98] A total of 37 MH60Ls were built and some 10 had received an inight refueling probe by 2003.[96]
MH-60L DAP: The Direct Action Penetrator
(DAP) is a special operations modication of the
baseline MH-60L, operated by the U.S. Armys
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment.[99]
The DAP is congured as a gunship, with no troopcarrying capacity. The DAP is equipped with ESSS
or ETS stub wings, each capable of carrying congurations of the M230 Chain Gun 30 mm automatic
cannon, 19-shot Hydra 70 rocket pod, AGM-114
Hellre missiles, AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles,
GAU-19 gun pods, and M134 minigun pods.[100]
M134D miniguns are used as door guns.[92]
MH-60M Black Hawk: Special operations version of UH-60M for U.S. Army. Features the
Rockwell Collins Common Avionics Architecture
System (CAAS) glass cockpit and more powerful
YT706-GE-700 engines.[101][102] All special operations Black Hawks to be moderized to MH-60M
standard by 2015.[103]
UH-60A RASCAL: NASA-modied version for

the Rotorcraft-Aircrew Systems Concepts Airborne
Laboratory; a US$25M program for the study of
helicopter maneuverability in three programs, Superaugmented Controls for Agile Maneuvering Performance (SCAMP), Automated Nap-of-the-Earth
(ANOE) and Rotorcraft Agility and Pilotage Improvement Demonstration (RAPID).[106][107] The
UH-60A RASCAL performed a fully autonomous
ight on 5 November 2012. U.S. Army personnel were on board, but the ying was done by the
helicopter. During a two-hour ight, the Black
Hawk featured terrain sensing, trajectory generation, threat avoidance, and autonomous ight control. It was tted with a 3D-LZ laser detection and
ranging (LADAR) system. The autonomous ight
was performed between 200 and 400 feet. Upon
landing, the onboard technology was able to pinpoint a safe landing zone, hover, and safely bring
itself down.[108]
OPBH: On 11 March 2014, Sikorsky successfully
conducted the rst ight demonstration of their
Optionally Piloted Black Hawk (OPBH), a milestone part of the companys Manned/Unmanned Resupply Aerial Lifter (MURAL) program to provide autonomous cargo delivery for the U.S. Army.
The helicopter used the companys Matrix technology, software to improve features of autonomous,
optionally-piloted VTOL aircraft, to perform autonomous hover and ight operations under the control of an operator using a man-portable Ground
570

Control Station (GCS). The MURAL program is a
cooperative eort between Sikorsky, the US Army
Aviation Development Directorate (ADD), and the
US Army Utility Helicopters Project Oce (UH
PO). The purpose of creating an optionally-manned
Black Hawk is to make the aircraft autonomously
carry out resupply missions and expeditionary operations, while increasing sorties and maintaining
crew rest requirements and leaving pilots to focus
more on sensitive operations.[109][110]
VH-60D Night Hawk: VIP-congured HH-60D,

used for Presidential transport by USMC. T700- Norwegian soldiers in a UH-60
GE-401C engines.[78] Variant was later redesignated
VH-60N.[111]
VH-60N White Hawk: Modied UH-60A with
some features from the SH-60B/F Seahawks.[112]
It is used for Presidential and VIP transport by
USMC. It entered service in 1988 and nine were
delivered.[112]
50.4.3
Export versions
UH-60J Black Hawk: Variant for the Japanese

Air Self Defense Force and Maritime Self Defense
Force produced under license by Mitsubishi Heavy UH-60L in the Brazilian Army service
Industries. Also known as the S-70-12.[113]
UH-60JA Black Hawk: Variant for the Japanese
Ground Self Defense Force. It is license produced
by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.[113]
AH-60L Arpa: Export version for Colombia developed by Elbit, Sikorsky, and the Colombian Air
Force. It is Counter-insurgency (COIN) attack version with improved electronics, ring system, FLIR,
radar, light rockets and machine guns.[11][114]
AH-60L Battle Hawk: Export armed version
unsuccessfully tendered for Australian Army[11]
project AIR87, similar to AH-60L Arpa III. Sikorsky has also oered a Battlehawk armed version
for export in the form of armament kits and upgrades. Sikorskys Armed Black hawk demonstrator
has tested a 20 mm turreted cannon, and dierent
guided missiles.[115][116] The United Arab Emirates
ordered Battlehawk kits in 2011.[117]
UH-60P Black Hawk:
Version for South
Korea army, based on UH-60L with some
improvements.[80] Around 150 were produced
under license by Korean Air.[78][118][119]
50.4.4
S-70A
Sikorsky military model for the export market:
S-70A-1 Desert Hawk: Export version for the Royal

Saudi Land Forces.
S-70A-L1 Desert Hawk: Aeromedical evacuation
version for the Royal Saudi Land Forces.
S-70A-5 Black Hawk:
Philippine Air Force.
Export version for the
S-70A-6 Black Hawk: Export version for Thailand.

S-70A-9 Black Hawk: Export version for Australia,
assembled under licence by Hawker de Havilland.
First eight delivered to the Royal Australian Air
Force, subsequently transferred to the Australian
Army; remainder delivered straight to the Army after rotary-wing assets divested by the Air Force in
1989.[120]
S-70A-11 Black Hawk: Export version for the Royal
Jordanian Air Force.
S-70A-12 Black Hawk: Search and rescue model
for the Japanese Air Self Defense Force and
Maritime Self Defense Force. Also known as the
UH-60J.
S-70A-14 Black Hawk: Export version for Brunei.
S-70A-16 Black Hawk: Engine test bed for the
Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM 332.
50.5. MILITARY OPERATORS
571
S-70A-17 Black Hawk: Export version for Turkey.

S-70A-18 Black Hawk: UH-60P and HH-60P for
South Korea built under license.[121]
Sikorsky/Westland S-70-19 Black Hawk: This version is built under license in the United Kingdom by
Westland. Also known as the WS-70.
S-70A-20 Black Hawk: VIP transport version for
Thailand.
S-70A-21 Black Hawk: Export version for Egypt.
S-70A-22 Black Hawk: VH-60P for South Korea
An Australian Army S-70A-9 Black Hawk
built under license. Used for VIP transport by the
Republic of Korea Air Force. Its fuselage is tipped
with white to distinguish from normal HH-60P.[122]
S-70A-24 Black Hawk: Export version for Mexico.
S-70A-26 Black Hawk:
Morocco.
Export version for
S-70A-27 Black Hawk: Search and rescue version for the Hong Kong Government Flying Service;
three built.
S-70A-30 Black Hawk: Export version for Argentine Air Force, used as a VIP transport helicopter by
the Presidential eet; one built.[123]
Black Hawk of the Colombian Air Force launching ares, 2011.
S-70A-33 Black Hawk: Export version for Royal

Brunei Air Force.
S-70A-39 Black Hawk: VIP transport version for
Chile; one built.
S-70A-42 Black Hawk: Export version for Austria.
S-70A-43 Black Hawk: Export version for Royal
Thai Army.
S-70A-50 Black Hawk: Export version for Israel; 15
built.
S-70C-2 Black Hawk: Export version for Peoples
Republic of China; 24 built.[39]
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force UH-60J
S-70i Black Hawk: International military version
assembled by Sikorskys subsidiary, PZL Mielec in
Poland.[124]
See Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk, Sikorsky HH-60
Pave Hawk, and Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk for
other Sikorsky S-70 variants.
50.5 Military operators

See Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk, Sikorsky HH60 Pave Hawk, Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk, and
Sikorsky S-70 for operators of other H-60/S-70
family helicopters
Australia
Australian Army Aviation[125]
Austria
Austrian Air Force[125]
Bahrain
Royal Bahraini Air Force[125]
572

Colombian Army[125]
Egypt
Egyptian Air Force[125]
Unit 777
Israel
U.S. Army National Guard UH-60 Black Hawk with snow-ski kit
Israeli Air Force[125]

Japan
See Mitsubishi H-60
Jordan
Royal Jordanian Air Force[125]

Malaysia
Swedish Air Force UH-60M
Royal Malaysian Air Force[128][129]

Brazil
Mexico
Brazilian Air Force[125]
Mexican Air Force[125]
Brazilian Army
[125]
Brazilian Navy (see SH-60 Seahawk)
Mexican Navy[125]
Morocco
Brunei
Royal Brunei Air Force
[125]
Royal Moroccan Gendarmerie[130][131]

Philippines
Chile
Chilean Air Force
[126][127]
Peoples Republic of China

Peoples Liberation Air Force[125]
Colombia
Colombian Air Force[125]
Philippine Air Force[132][133]

252nd Presidential Helicopter Squadron[134]
Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force[125]
Royal Saudi Land Forces[125]
South Korea
50.6. SPECIFICATIONS (UH-60L)
573
Republic of Korea Air Force[125]

Republic of Korea Army[125]
Republic of Korea Navy[125]
Sweden
Swedish Air Force[125]
Orthographically projected diagram of the UH-60A Black Hawk
Republic of China Air Force
[40][125]
Republic of China Army (60 on order)[125]

Republic of China Navy (see SH-60 Seahawk)
Thailand
Royal Thai Army[125]
Drawing from Army manual
Turkey
Turkish Air Force (6 on order)[125]
Turkish Army[125]
United Arab Emirates Air Force[125]
United States
A UH-60 as crew prepare to board. View shows main rotor, and

engine intake with lter screen.

United States Marines (see VH-60 Presidential
Hawk)
50.6 Specications (UH-60L)

Data from Encyclopedia of Modern Warplanes,[135] International Directory,[136] Black Hawk[137]
Crew: 2 pilots (ight crew) with 2 crew Aeromedical conguration
chiefs/gunners
Capacity: 2,640 lb (1,200 kg) of cargo internally,
including 11 troops or 6 stretchers, or 9,000 lb
(4,100 kg) (UH-60L) of cargo externally
Length: 64 ft 10 in (19.76 m)
574
Fuselage width: 7 ft 9 in (2.36 m))

Height: 16 ft 10 in (5.13 m)
50.7 Accidents and incidents

In March 2015, a UH-60 crashed o the coast of the
Florida Panhandle, United States, during a training exercise at Eglin Air Force Base.[140]

turboshaft, 1,890 hp (1,410 kW) each
50.8 See also

Black Hawk Down
Related development
Performance
Never exceed speed: 193 knots (222 mph; 357
km/h)
Maximum speed: 159 kn (183 mph; 294 km/h)
Cruise speed: 150 kn (170 mph; 280 km/h)
Combat radius: 368 mi (320 nmi; 592 km)
Ferry range: 1,380 mi[135] (1,200 nmi; 2,220 km)
with ESSS stub wings and external tanks[137]
Rate of climb: 1,315 ft/min[138] (4.5 m/s)
Armament
Sikorsky S-70
Piasecki X-49
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
Boeing-Vertol YUH-61
Denel Oryx
Guns:
2 7.62 mm (0.30 in) M240 machine guns[139]
2 7.62 mm (0.30 in) M134 minigun[137] or
2 0.50 in (12.7 mm) GAU-19 gatling
guns[137]
Eurocopter AS532 Cougar

HAL Dhruv
Harbin Z-20
KAI Surion
Hardpoints: 4, 2 per ESSS stub wings and provisions to carry combinations of:
Mil Mi-8/Mil Mi-17
Rockets: 70 mm (2.75 in) Hydra 70

rockets[137]
NHIndustries NH90
Missiles:
AGM-114 Hellre laser Related lists
guided missiles, AIM-92 Stinger air-toair missiles[100][137]
List of helicopters
Other: 7.62 mm (0.30 in), 12.7 mm (0.50 in),
20 mm (0.787 in), or 30 mm (1.18 in) M230
List of utility helicopters
gun pods[137]
Bombs: Can be equipped with VOLCANO mineeld dispersal system.[137] See UH-60 Armament
Subsystems for more information.

50.9. REFERENCES
575
50.9 References
[18] US used never-seen-before stealth helicopters for Osama

raid. ndtv.com, 5 May 2011. Retrieved: 5 May 2011.
50.9.1
[19] Ross, Brian, Rhonda Schwartz, Lee Ferran and Avni Patel. Top Secret Stealth Helicopter Program Revealed in
Osama Bin Laden Raid: Experts. ABC World News, 4
May 2011.
Notes
[1] According to an Army Times article, During the 1990s

U.S. Special Operations Command worked with the
Lockheed Martin Skunk Works division, which also designed the F-117, to rene the radar-evading technology
and apply it to the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiments MH-60s, [a retired special operations aviator]
said. USSOCOM awarded a contract to Boeing to modify
several MH-60s to the low-observable design in the 99
to 2000 timeframe, he also said.
50.9.2
Citations
[1] Sikorsky nally gets its own Blackhawk. ctpost.com. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.
[2] United States Department of Defense Fiscal Year 2012
Budget Request: Program Acquisition Costs by Weapon
System, p. 1-13. Oce of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)/CFO. February 2011.
[20] Naylor, Sean D. Army mission helicopter was secret,

stealth Black Hawk. Army Times, 4 May 2011. Retrieved: 7 May 2011.
[21] Structural Concepts and Aerodynamic Analysis for Low
Radar Cross Section (LRCS) Fuselage Congurations.
dtic.mil. Retrieved: 23 August 2011.
[22] Sikorsky awarded contract to integrate and test enhanced
Black Hawk helicopter capabilities. Sikorsky press release, 18 September 2012.
[23] Future Vertical Lift: Have Plan, Need Money. Aviationtoday.com, 1 July 2012.
[24] Harding, Stephen. Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk. U.S.
Army Aircraft Since 1947. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier
Publishing Ltd., 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0190-X.
[3] Leoni 2007, pp. 810.
[25] Leoni 2007
[4] Leoni 2007, pp. 11, 39.
[26] VH-60. Global Security. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.
[5] Leoni 2007, pp. 39, 4243.
[27] Preliminary Airworthiness Eval of UH-60A Congured

with ESSS. US DoD. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.
[6] Leoni 2007, pp. 4248.

[7] Leoni 2007, p. 165.
[8] Eden, Paul. Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk/Seahawk, Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books,
2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[9] Tomajczyk 2003, pp. 1529.
[10] Leoni 2007, pp. 217218.
[11] Bishop 2008.
[12] Pentagon Acquisition Panel Authorizes UH-60M
BLACK HAWK Low Rate Initial Production. Sikorsky
Aircraft, 4 April 2005.
[28] TFM 3-04.500 Army Aviation Maintenance, Appendix

G, US Department of the Army, 26 September 2000.
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[29] H-60 Black Hawk Crashworthy External Fuel System
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[30] Preliminary Airworthiness Eval of UH-60A/ESSS with
Hellre Missile Launcher Installed. DTIC.mil. Retrieved:
24 October 2012.
[31] H-60. Global Security. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.
[32] Goebel, Greg. S-70 Origins: UTTAS. Air Vector. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
[13] Leoni 2007, pp. 233236.

[14] Sikorsky Aircraft Delivers First New Production UH60M BLACK HAWK Helicopter to U.S. Army. Sikorsky
Aircraft, 31 July 2006.
[33] Black Hawks. armyaircrews.com. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.

[34] Page, Lewis. Sikorsky, US Army claim whisperapcopter test success. The Register, 5 May 2011.
[15] UH-60 Black Hawk Sikorsky S-70A Multi-Mission

Helicopter. Army-Technology.com'. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.
[35] Political punch: Obama gives order, Bin Laden is killed;

White House time line. ABC News, May 2011.
[16] Sikorsky Aircraft Delivers 100th New Production UH60M BLACK HAWK Helicopter to U.S. ... Reuters, 25
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[36] Bin Laden raid: China 'viewed US helicopter wreckage'".

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[17] Parsons, Dan (19 November 2014), US awards Sikorsky

$1.3 billion in helicopter contracts, Flightglobal (Reed
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copter. CNN.com, 15 August 2011. Retrieved: 15 August 2011.
576
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[61] Sweden Ordering H-60M Helicopters for Afghan

CSAR/MEDEVAC. Defense Industry Daily. 16 July
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[39] Leoni 2007, pp. 286-292.

[40] ROCAF Sikorsky S-70C Bluehawk.
power.org. 11 November 2008.
Taiwanair-
[62] av: Lasse Jansson. Helikopter 16 p vg till Afghanistan

- Frsvarsmakten. Forsvarsmakten.se. Retrieved 16
November 2013.
[41] Sikorsky S-70C(M) Thunderhawk.

power.org. April 2008.
Taiwanair-
[63] (English translation) Sverige kper 15 Black Hawkhelikoptrar"]. expressen.se. 9 April 2011.
[42] Govindasamy, Siva (31 January 2010). USA okays Black

Hawks for Taiwan, Beijing mulls sanctions. Flight International.
[64] United Arab Emirates UH-60M Black Hawk Helicopters (PDF). US Defense Security Cooperation Agency.
9 September 2008.
[43] Leoni 2007, pp. 270273.
[65] Dubai Helishow: UAE increases Black Hawk eet. Rotorhub. 2 November 2010.
[44] Arpa. SpanishDict.com. Retrieved on 30 September

2009. Arpa [ar-pee-ah] noun 1. (Poetic.) Harpy, a bird
of prey represented by poets. (f)"
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(PDF). US Department of Defense. 31 December 2011.
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BLACK HAWK Helicopters with Terrain Awareness and
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2003-2010 (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 7.
[46] Aztec Rotors Helicopters of Mexican Air Force.

acig.org. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
[47] Mexico sends 1,000 more police to drug area. MSNBC.
16 July 2009.
[48] Mexican police arrest 34 drug cartel suspects. CNN. 3
August 2009.
[49] Blackhawks ready to y for the Mexican Navy.
app.com. 25 August 2011.
[50] Major Arms Sales. dsca.mil.
[68] Brunei receives rst S-70i helicopters. IHS Janes Defence Weekly. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 16 March
2014.
[69] Qatar UH-60M Black Hawk Helicopters (PDF). US
Defense Security Cooperation Agency. 13 June 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
[70] Indonesia to purchase UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.
Airrecognition.com. 26 February 2013.
[71] black Hawke. jutarnji.hr.
[72] Tunisia UH-60M Black Hawk Helicopters. DSCA,
24 July 2014.
[51] https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/
[73] http://www.tap.info.tn/en/index.php/politics2/
sikorskys-85-117b-multi-year-8-h-60-helicopter-contract-07465/
20282-us-will-soon-make-available-to-tunisian-air-force-12-blackhawk-hel
[52] Leoni 2007, pp. 278279.
[74] Abas, Marhalim (2015-01-23). RMAF getting Brunei
[53] Sikorsky UH-60 / S-70 Blackhawk (Yanshuf). Jewish
Blackhawks. Malaysian Defence. Retrieved 2015-01Virtual Library Retrieved: 18 November 2013.
25.
[54] Brazil Buys UH-60L Black Hawks. Defense Industry
Daily. 9 September 2012.
slovakia-considering-us-black-hawk-offer
[55] Turkey to decide in June between AW149, 'T-70' Black

Hawk. Flight International. 9 April 2009.
[76] http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/
idAFKBN0NL1WQ20150430?=undefined
[56] TAI to procure more helicopters for security. Todays

Zaman. 6 April 2009.
[77] Black Hawk. U.S. Army Fact Files. Retrieved: 2 June

2010.
[57] Milyarlk helikopter ihalesi Skorsky'nin. Istanbulhaber.

21 April 2011.
[78] DoD 4120-15L, Model Designation of Military

Aerospace Vehicles, DoD, 12 May 2004.
[58] Turkey Picks Sikorsky Helo in $3.5B Deal. Defense

News. 21 April 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
[79] Sikorsky S-70 (H-60) Upgrades. (online subscription

article) Janes Aircraft Upgrades, 16 April 2012.
[59] Sikorsky wins Turkish utility helicopter battle. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
[80] Donald, David, ed. Sikorsky S-70. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
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[81] Leoni 2007, pp. 217224.
50.9. REFERENCES
577
[82] Northrop To Upgrade U.S. Army UH-60L Cockpits - [107] Image of UH-60A RASCAL rst ight. at the Wayback
Aviationweek.com, 15 August 2014
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[83] Leoni 2007, pp. 233244.
[108] Autonomous Black Hawk Flight System Trialled.
[84] Sikorsky Aircraft Fully Equips First U.S. Army Unit
Armedforces-International.com, 6 December 2012.
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[109] Sikorsky achieves rst ight of manned/unmanned Black
Aircraft, 10 June 2008.
Hawk - Flightglobal.com, 23 April 2014
[85] Sikorskys UH-60M Upgrade Black Hawk Helicopter
[110] Optionally Piloted Black Hawk takes o - ShephardmeAchieves First Flight. Sikorsky, 29 August 2008.
dia.com, 23 April 2014
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[111] Bishop 2008, p. 45.
4 March 2010
[112] Leoni 2007, pp. 214215.
[87] Colucci, Frank. Modern Medevac Mobilized. Rotor &
[113] Mitsubishi Heavy Industries UH-60J page. Mhi.co.jp,
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31 March 2005. Retrieved: 24 September 2011.
[88] Leoni 2007, p. 224.
[114] Leoni 2007, pp. 270272.
[89] HH-60M Medevac Helicopter.' Sikorsky. Retrieved: 24
[115] Armed BLACK HAWK Demonstrator Completes Test
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Program Customer Demo Shows Sikorsky Helicopters
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AF.mil, 24 November 2014.
[116] Battlehawk. Sikorsky public relations video, 2012.
[91] Tomajczyk 2003, pp. 2123.
[92] Bishop 2008, pp. 20, 22.
[93] Tomajczyk 2003, p. 23.
[94] Tomajczyk 2003, pp. 2629.
[117] UAE Seeks Weaponized UH-60M Battlehawk Helicopters. DefenseIndustryDaily.com, 12 January 2012.
[118] Korean Air/Sikorsky announce Black Hawk production
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[119] Pike, John, ed. Korean Air Aerospace Division (KAA).
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50.9.3
Bibliography
Bishop, Chris. Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84176-8526.
Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World
Class Helicopter. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN
978-1-56347-918-2.
Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2003. ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.

Black Hawk U.S. Army fact le
Sikorsky Aircrafts BLACK HAWK page
YUH-60A cutaway image on ightglobal.com
UTTAS program, origin of the Black Hawk on helis.com
UH-60A, H-60, AH-60L and Sikorsky S-70 GlobalSecurity.org
UH-60 Blackhawk medium size utility helicopter(Air recognition)
S-70A-42 Black Hawk of the Austrian Army
Military.com with data on range extending devices

UH-60 Black Hawk on kamov.net
Chapter 51
Special operations
Special operations (S.O.) are military operations that minent threatsspecial operations leaders readily admit
are considered special (that is, unconventional), usually that they should not be the central pillar of U.S. milcarried out by dedicated special forces units.
itary strategy.[2] Instead, Special Operations commanders stated that grand strategy should include their indiSpecial operations are performed independently or in
conjunction with conventional military operations. The rect approach, which meant working with non-U.S. partners to accomplish security objectives. Special Operaprimary goal is to achieve a political or military objective where a conventional force requirement does not ex- tions forces forge relationships that can last for decades
with a diverse collection of groups: training, advising,
ist or might adversely aect the overall strategic outcome.
Special operations are usually conducted in a low-prole and operation alongside other countries militaries, police
[2]
manner that aims to achieve the advantages of speed, sur- forces, tribes, militias or other information groups.
prise, and violence of action against an unsuspecting target. Special ops are typically carried out with limited
numbers of highly trained personnel that are able to oper51.2 Special operations forces
ate in all environments, utilize self-reliance, easily adapt
to and overcome obstacles, and use unconventional combat skills and equipment to complete objectives. Special Main article: Special forces
operations are usually implemented through specic, tailored intelligence.[1]
Special operations forces (SOF) is a term primarily used
in the West. It is an all encompassing term that denes
a nations specialized units. The term special forces is
51.1 Use and eciency
age old and used by countries around the world to describe their specialized unit(s). Examples of special operations include: special reconnaissance/military intel51.1.1 United States
ligence, unconventional warfare, and counter-terrorism
The decade 20032012 saw U.S. national security strat- actions. Special operations are sometimes associated
egy rely on special operations to an unprecedented de- with unconventional warfare, counter-insurgency (opergree. Identifying, hunting, and killing terrorists became ations against insurgents), operations against guerrillas or
a central task in the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT). irregular forces, low-intensity operations, and foreign inLinda Robinson, Adjunct Senior Fellow for U.S. National ternal defense. Special operations may be carried out by
Security and Foreign Policy at the Council on Foreign Re- conventional forces but are often carried out by special
lations, argued that the organizational structure became operations forces (SOF), which are military units that are
atter and cooperation with the intelligence community highly trained and use special equipment, weapons, and
was stronger, allowing special operations to move at the tactics. They are sometimes referred to as elite forces,
speed of war.[2] Special Operations appropriations are commandos, and special operators.
costly: Its budget went from $2.3 billion in 2001 to $10.5
billion in 2012.[2] Some experts argued the investment
was worthwhile, pointing to the raid in May 2011 that
killed Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan. Others
claimed that the emphasis on Special Operations precipitated a misconception that it was a substitute for prolonged conict. Raids and drone strikes are tactics that
are rarely decisive and often incur signicant political and
diplomatic costs for the United States. Although raids
and drone strikes are necessary to disrupt dire and im-
In the United States military, SOF includes Army Special Forces (Green Berets), Army Rangers, Navy
SEALs, Air Force Pararescue, Marine Special Operations (MARSOC), select specially trained Military Intelligence/Counterintelligence units, Civil Aairs (active
duty), Military Information Support Operations (MISO)
(formerly Psychological Operations (PSYOP)) personnel, and Special Operations Aviation units under the
umbrella of the United States Army Special Operations
Command. While not formally designated as Special
579
580
U.S. Army Rangers, Vietnam.
Operations Forces, there are several units whose missions and training are identical to SOF but operate in
support of conventional combatant commanders, to include: US Army Long Range Reconnaissance Companies/Detachments (LRSC/LRSD), US Army Pathnder
Companies (PFDR), Military Police Special Reaction
Teams (equivalent to civilian police SWAT teams), Marine Force Recon, Explosive Ordnance Disposal units
(EOD), and various sniper teams.
Other special operations forces include the British Special
Boat Service and Special Air Service, and Norwegian
Marinejegerkommandoen and FSK.
51.3 See also

Foreign internal defense
List of special forces units
Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol
Pathnder (military)
Special Activities Division
51.4 References
[1] https://web.archive.org/web/20131020230203/http:
//www.shadowspear.com/special-operations-research.
html ShadowSpear: About Special Operations
[2] Robinson, Linda (NovemberDecember 2012). The Future of Special Operations: Beyond Kill and Capture.
Foreign Aairs 91 (6): 110122.
51.5 External links

List of US Special Operations Forces
CHAPTER 51. SPECIAL OPERATIONS
Chapter 52
Utility aircraft
A utility aircraft is a general-purpose light aircraft or
helicopter, usually used for transporting people or freight,
but also for other duties when more specialized aircraft
are not required or available.
The term can also refer to an aircraft certied under
American, Canadian, European or Australian regulations
as a Utility Category Aircraft, which indicates that it is
permitted to conduct limited aerobatics. The approved
maneuvers include chandelles, lazy eights, spins and steep
turns over 60 of bank.[1][2][3]
In the United States, military utility aircraft are given the
prex U in their designations.
52.1 See also

FAR Part 23 (refers to utility category in United
States aviation regulations)
Utility helicopter
52.2 References
[1] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 535. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.
ISBN 1-56027-287-2
[2] Federal Aviation Administration (July 2011). Title 14:
Aeronautics and Space PART 23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart A General. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
[3] Transport Canada (July 2011). Part V - Airworthiness Manual Chapter 523 - Normal, Utility, Aerobatic
And Commuter Category Aeroplanes. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
581
582
CHAPTER 52. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
52.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

52.3.1
Text
Air superiority ghter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_superiority_fighter?oldid=662732186 Contributors: Maury Markowitz,

Cyde, Gentgeen, Jpo, Beefman, Iceberg3k, Ericg, ZeroOne, Ommnomnomgulp, Interiot, Fritz Saalfeld, Mailer diablo, BRW, Gene Nygaard, Alai, Sylvain Mielot, Woohookitty, CyrilleDunant, TomTheHand, Bruns, DanielHawking, Arabani, Wiarthurhu, Russavia, Ahunt,
Mmx1, Grubb, The Rambling Man, Borgx, Arado, Jkelly, Sperril, Hayden120, SmackBot, Hmains, Armeria, Chris the speller, Mxiong, Letdorf, Dual Freq, Snowmanradio, Dave-ros, LUCPOL, MilborneOne, CP\M, Wikihornet63, AceKingQueenJack, Banedon, Orca1 9904,
Cydebot, Fnlayson, JustinH, Ksbrown, GSTQ21C, Aldis90, CalculatinAvatar, Kubanczyk, LoopyWal, Hcobb, Dreaded Walrus, Mildly
Mad, Albany NY, Bzuk, Abountu, Arz1969, BilCat, CommonsDelinker, Brainiack16, Mrg3105, Signalhead, VolkovBot, CWii, Ilya1166,
Laughingyet, Rei-bot, JayC, Nightkhaos, Usergreatpower, Zachjeli, Barkeep, UtkarshRay, Chillum, Altzinn, Indiancorrector, SidewinderX,
Wispanow, Staygyro, Wismon, SDY, DumZiBoT, Harman malhotra, RajatKansal, Birdswithfangs, Damian805, Salam32, Heavens Army,
Addbot, Grayfell, Zamwan, Pharaoh han, The Bushranger, Luckas-bot, TheJammingYam, AnomieBOT, Jimwest88, Xqbot, Hayatomermalik, Mouse trap00, Signalian, Mark Schierbecker, Mundhravinit, James R. Ward, Sabuell, Bambuway, Aogouguo, King Zebu, Cnwilliams,
Qazmlp1029, Zoravar, Agsftw, ITshnik, Alexkvaskov, Pralhad258, Ul1-82-2, Illegitimate Barrister, Arapad, Australisian, Anir1uph,
ProfessorJane, Quite vivid blur, Diako1971, Indian1985, ClueBot NG, Kl4wY, AktiNo, Jjoy3646, Strike Eagle, Harshvardhansonkar,
Kool777456, MRTWP, Magentic Manifestations, Tamlinwah, Yati 43, Raman2511, Anotherguy87, Editor abcdef, Nick94094, KasparBot and Anonymous: 144
Anti-submarine warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare?oldid=661491754 Contributors: Rmhermen,
Kchishol1970, Delirium, Glenn, Rossami, Conti, Cjrother, Donreed, Yosri, Rasqual, Folks at 137, Karn, Grant65, Geni, Ary29, Ngc1976,
Rich Farmbrough, Petersam, Kross, Pearle, Trainik, Linmhall, Anonymous3190, Nightstallion, Coolgamer, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty,
GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Gurch, Zotel, DVdm, YurikBot, Huw Powell, RussBot, Kvn8907, Megapixie, Saberwyn, Epipelagic, Closedmouth, Canley, JimmyTheOne, SmackBot, Twerges, David Kernow, - - -, Benjaminevans82, Hmains, Chris the speller, GoldDragon,
Persian Poet Gal, Anthonzi, Thumperward, MalafayaBot, Florian Adler, Trekphiler, JRPG, RJBurkhart, Vgy7ujm, E-Kartoel, Joseph
Solis in Australia, Ilikefood, Evogol, Mdhennessey, Abtract, Waldingr, Smiteri, JamesAM, Bobblehead, F l a n k e r, Jj137, Ingolfson,
D99gge, DuncanHill, Arch dude, Adresia, OhanaUnited, Magioladitis, Pratj, BilCat, LorenzoB, PMG, Qatter, WarBaCoN, C1010, SinWin, Tvbrichmond, Xyl 54, Regicollis, Hugo999, Martin451, Sakletare, Andy Dingley, Usergreatpower, Thunderbird2, Aalox, SieBot,
PeterFV, Work permit, Dbryant 94560, Happysailor, Benea, TypoBot, Loren.wilton, Binksternet, Hutcher, PipepBot, WikiSkeptic, Rpstrong, Shentosara, Bchaosf, Sa, XLinkBot, Stickee, Freestyle-69, Dave1185, Addbot, TutterMouse, Legobot, Sorruno, Kchwoo9, Xqbot,
Amendola90, FrescoBot, Bigroger27509, Ras67, DexDor, Jackehammond, BerelZ, Shivanshkhare, Shuipzv3, I, Englishman, ClueBot NG,
Malawimutt, Satellizer, Risk Engineer, Spriit, GuyHimGuy, Zed Orkin, Kendall-K1, Portland42, Aginwald, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Jodosma, Rld, Valetude, Bigdaddygirl, Pobeda Rossyia and Anonymous: 79
Attack helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_helicopter?oldid=662782857 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Rlandmann, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Mirv, SoLando, Rossrs, MathKnight, Trujaman, Gadum, Latitudinarian, Sam Hocevar, C14,
Karl Dickman, Darren Olivier, GeZe, Cap'n Refsmmat, PPGMD, Kross, Sietse Snel, Amerika, Harald Hansen, Hooperbloob, Denniss, Dr
Gangrene, Akerkhof, GSlicer, Alvinying, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Carl Logan, GagHalfrunt, Russavia, Vidkun, Coolhawks88, Ahpook, Sus scrofa,
Noclador, Arado, Los688, Anetode, Lomn, Donald Albury, De Administrando Imperio, Shyam, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Deon
Steyn, Delldot, By78, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Lyta79, Kellyprice, The PIPE,
Fireswordght, MilborneOne, JorisvS, Casg, Crocodilicus, Generalcp702, Lahiru k, CmdrObot, Stevo1000, Fnlayson, Rieman 82, Gogo
Dodo, GSTQ21C, Thirdstar, Thijs!bot, Kubanczyk, Hcberkowitz, Dfrg.msc, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Spud Gun, Born2ie, Dan D. Ric,
Chanakyathegreat, Magioladitis, Apocno10, Sarahj2107, BilCat, NJR ZA, STBot, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Ash sul,
ILoveFuturama, MchlWngr, VolkovBot, Sporti, Pjm4474, A4bot, CobraDragoon, Broadbot, LeaveSleaves, Usergreatpower, Kobalt64,
Docclabo, SieBot, Ivan tambuk, Flyer22, Onopearls, ClueBot, Neverquick, DragonBot, Ktr101, Nolispanmo, The Founders Intent, BOTarate, DumZiBoT, Harman malhotra, LordJesseD, DanielAgorander, Avik pram, Addbot, Jecario, Metagraph, AkhtaBot, BlackGT,
LaaknorBot, Blaylockjam10, Westrim, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Mjf3719, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Trivelt, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Jineshgopinathan, Leb90, FrescoBot, Part Time Security, Everlasting Winner, Bambuway, Citation bot 1, King Zebu, Bcs09,
Cnwilliams, Gagan11111, 777sms, Jojo7727644it, Dewritech, Thecheesykid, Werieth, ZroBot, Subtropical-man, Victory in Germany,
Arson beetle, Plotting it out, I, Englishman, ClueBot NG, Simonstone, AktiNo, JesseW900, A06em2, Touchtheskywithglory, Justintbassett, Northamerica1000, Chanthujohnson, Ranggamalvino, CitationCleanerBot, Edit00100, Harshvardhansonkar, Juakoblabla, BattyBot,
America789, ChrisGualtieri, Mail2arunjith, Cidarr, Lakun.patra, HHubi, DanieB52, Sierra-Hawk, Mikhail The Russian, Indiandefence,
Filedelinkerbot, GSh630, Sir Richard Richard VC and Anonymous: 129
Bell AH-1 SuperCobra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_AH-1_SuperCobra?oldid=656703180 Contributors: Leandrod, RadicalBender, Riddley, Rickster89, D6, Thatguy96, LtNOWIS, Sandstig, MiG, Mizzou1307, Rjwilmsi, Russavia, Ahunt, MoRsE, Noclador, Gaius Cornelius, Manxruler, Mike Selinker, Hayden120, Ocn169, Mbaur181, Nick-D, SmackBot, Looper5920, Ominae, By78,
Quidam65, Chris the speller, Tewk, Kukini, MilborneOne, Stamatisg, Willy turner, CmdrObot, Wafulz, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Mike1979
Russia, Hypnosadist, JamesAM, Piotr Mikoajski, Akradecki, Born2ie, BilCat, Aeroweanie, Rbaal, CommonsDelinker, DanMP5,
Num1dgen, Dreddmoto, EH101, GimmeBot, Petebutt, Bahamut0013, Kermanshahi, Lightmouse, Ogre lawless, Kumioko (renamed),
FIRST Rocks, ImageRemovalBot, Danish47, Hma1369, Homan 056k, The Founders Intent, JamieS93, Oguzhantr, Dave1185, Addbot,
Mortense, Magus732, Fireaxe888, Arac, Raptus Regaliter Cattus Petasatus, The Bushranger, TaBOT-zerem, 27yanks, AnomieBOT,
Jim1138, Materialscientist, Danno uk, Citation bot, DirlBot, 4twenty42o, Maheshdhaifule, Kyteto, Tt100, Gire 3pich2005, Yin61289, Elsbeth1974, Julien1978, Bryan TMF, 777sms, TGCP, Sp33dyphil, ZxxZxxZ, Militoy, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Anir1uph, Dpenn89,
Djkhalil1, L1A1 FAL, KazekageTR, Brycehughes, MaxH 92 18, Trialonetwo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mbedway, Theshywillraindeath, DSkauai,
FRibeiro66, Farzam1370, America789, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Slerk2102, JYBot, Mogism, Makecat-bot, FOX 52, WPGA2345,
Monkbot and Anonymous: 128
Bell AH-1Z Viper Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_AH-1Z_Viper?oldid=663816733 Contributors: Leandrod, DocWatson42,
Bobrayner, WadeSimMiser, Tabletop, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, Victor12, Noclador, TDogg310, Mike Selinker, Looper5920, Innocentmind,
By78, MilborneOne, Tonster, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Born2ie, BilCat, CommonsDelinker, DanMP5, Ng.j, Bahamut0013, ANigg, Metrocolor, Cobatfor, Lightmouse, Kumioko, Onopearls, UrsusArctosL71, Hmmst, Gene93k, Correctemundo, Mongol003, Jusdafax, Muro
Bot, Kour6, Dave1185, Addbot, Beamathan, Neoreich, Fireaxe888, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, The Bushranger, AnomieBOT, Scarface12,
Citation bot, Xqbot, L1A1 SLR, GrouchoBot, Riotrocket8676, Maheshdhaifule, Anotherclown, Mark Schierbecker, Kyteto, Raphczirr,
52.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
583
Yin61289, HRoestBot, 777sms, DASHBot, Babak902003, Sp33dyphil, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, GianniG46, ClueBot NG, Jetijonez, Soumepa, Mbedway, Alphacatmarnie, BattyBot, America789, Cyberbot II, YFdyh-bot, Slerk2102, SFK2, Redalert2fan, FOX 52,
Epicgenius, JoeMeas, Pvpoodle, SyntaxMedium, GrumpyBaldrick2013, WPGA2345, Cjpana, Efram23, Danish 98 and Anonymous: 56
Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Boeing_V-22_Osprey?oldid=663869930 Contributors: Magnus
Manske, The Epopt, Robert Merkel, Stephen Gilbert, Yooden, Rmhermen, Ray Van De Walker, Blueshade, Arpingstone, Egil, Rlandmann, Aarchiba, Cherkash, Lommer, JidGom, PaulinSaudi, David Newton, Dysprosia, Grendelkhan, Itai, RadicalBender, Stephan Schulz,
Blainster, Danceswithzerglings, PBP, Mat-C, Greyengine5, Scott Wilson, Mboverload, Bobblewik, H1523702, Gzuckier, Oneiros, Mzajac, Hammersfan, Bk0, Sam Hocevar, TreyHarris, Neutrality, Bbpen, Karl Dickman, Epimetreus, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, RevRagnarok,
N328KF, Eyrian, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Marsian~enwiki, Pie4all88, Warpyght, Paul August, Kelvinc, Brian0918, Ylee,
Palm dogg, Bobo192, Tronno, Get It, Elementalish, KBi, Nk, Bobbis, Pearle, Jjron, Duman~enwiki, Alyeska, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, Bart133, Hohum, Helixblue, AngryParsley, Afowler, Talkie tim, Dan100, Levan, Crosbiesmith, Sylvain Mielot, Midnightblaze,
Akira625, CharlesC, GraemeLeggett, Gerbrant, Seminumerical, Ratamacue, Pmj, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Rogerd, DeadlyAssassin,
ElKevbo, Rbeas, Jbamb, Nihiltres, Faerun, Intgr, Ahunt, Idaltu, Coolhawks88, Victor12, PeteJacobsen, Mmx1, Knife Knut, Bgwhite,
Yopohari~enwiki, Cornellrockey, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Noclador, TexasAndroid, RussBot, Arado, Conscious,
Hede2000, Epolk, Fuzzy901, Hudicourt, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Nick L., Kvn8907, Tx207, Howcheng, Cleared as led, Pyrotec,
Ndavies2, Moe Epsilon, TDogg310, Tony1, Lockesdonkey, Ormondroyd, Swr, Rkytop98, NeOak, Sperril, American2, Zzuuzz, Ageekgal, Lendu, Jetman123, Jereymcmanus, Nick-D, Attilios, SmackBot, Looper5920, SaxTeacher, KVDP, Beest, Cla68, Ig0r~enwiki,
Gjs238, Septegram, Peter Isotalo, Brianski, Quidam65, Wlmg, ERcheck, Iancaddy, JayMehaey, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Moshe
Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Tranceduo, Heikoh, Rlevse, Stephen Hui, Derekbridges, Lbbzman, Frap, Alexmcre, AzaBot, Godanov, Wybot, BiggKwell, ThurnerRupert, Scott 110, John, Twohlrab3, Copeland.James.H, Jaganath, MilborneOne, LAATi88, GVP
Webmaster, Beetstra, NcSchu, RKT, Publicus, GuitarMan65, Beefyt, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Sujay85, The Giant Pun, Octane,
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Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Hydraton31, Paulkeller, PepijnvdG, Meno25, RelentlessRecusant, Buscha, Jonnyjelliot, DumbBOT,
Chrislk02, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mattsrevenge, SkonesMickLoud, Mad Scientist, Deathbunny, Buyo, Peter Deer, MPorciusCato,
Hcobb, Nick Number, OuroborosCobra, Smith230, AbstractClass, Akradecki, Pro crast in a tor, Fayenatic london, Jtmilesmmr, 1Rabid Monkey, Res2216restar, HolyT, Born2ie, Haricotvert, Benjamin22b, Avaya1, Areaseven, Lan Di, Phillip Fung, Mwarren us, Bzuk,
Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Askari Mark, Fordsfords, SBPhan, Fallschirmjger, BilCat, JediLofty, Dbrick78, ColorOfSuering, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Thermocouplerelay, Jacobst, Rrostrom, Merlin83b, Marcd30319, Thaurisil, Yeti Hunter, Veriss1, Davandron, Oakshade,
Claytonius3, RenniePet, Ndunruh, EconomistBR, Lexoka, Nroese, Odin4566, VolkovBot, HJ32, Kakoui, Sweetness46, TXiKiBoT, GimmeBot, Trashbag, A4bot, Wsiahoman, Cefoskey, Mzmadmike, LeaveSleaves, Commuood, Raryel, Robert1947, RobbWiki, Bus, Arwiki, SCoal, Matthewinventor, Skyfox265, Bahamut0013, Eurocopter, MCTales, Julian Herzog, Wavehunter, SieBot, Dtom, Ipankonin,
Draykov, Bachcell, VVVBot, GrooveDog, MilFlyboy, RucasHost, Gaucho69, Lightmouse, Svick, ZH Evers, Hsan22, Hamiltondaniel,
Anyeverybody, LarRan, ReverendTed, Lewisjaggers, ClueBot, Thinksalot, Bluedragon1971, Nailedtooth, DavidSev, Mkmacuscg, Masterblooregard, Nimbus227, Ktr101, Alexbot, Niteshift36, Rhododendrites, Sun Creator, Ospreyluvr, Bossgrass, Nickispeaki, Tphaiah,
BOTarate, Halgin, DumZiBoT, Ur, Skunkboy74, HappyJake, SilvonenBot, Gary L. Wright, RP459, Public777, MystBot, Gggh, Osarius, Chexmix53, Addbot, DOI bot, Magus732, Pavlen666, Nohomers48, MartinezMD, Ironholds, Cuaxdon, Newtwowiki, Reedmalloy, Debresser, Tsange, Cobzz, Lightbot, Raptus Regaliter Cattus Petasatus, The Bushranger, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou,
IraqVet225, Evans1982, Mo7amedsalim, AnomieBOT, Whiterook6, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Jim1138, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Seb112,
Thirteenguy, Grim Reaper, Eric Blatant, Miles.world, Anotherclown, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Mlickliter, AustralianRupert, Erik9,
FrescoBot, Kyteto, BenzolBot, Yehoshua2, Cannolis, Adlerbot, Nicostamb~enwiki, Skyraider1, Jgbarton, USMC UH-1, Fui in terra aliena,
Waerfelu, GlowBee, Greekwabbit, SF1SHER07, NortyNort, Cv22seat, Vrenator, 777sms, Capitansigilo, Nursebootsy, RjwilmsiBot, Mandolinface, DASHBot, TGCP, Mztourist, EmausBot, John of Reading, Scubasteve1234, ITshnik, Dewritech, Bob80q, Sp33dyphil, Still
polaris, Illegitimate Barrister, Fdr2001, Ora Stendar, , N512ma, Inniverse, L1A1 FAL, Vega61, Keiranhalcyon31, Woonhocho,
ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Jetijonez, Macadamia14, Oberonx, Wikiwhalley, Tanargue, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bmoke, Jimbo2900, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Thefreddy12354, Pine, BeakerGordon, Phd8511, Frze, Codepage, Silvrous, Trevayne08, Robban000, BattyBot,
America789, Mdann52, Joejudy2, Cyberbot II, Tagremover, Mediran, Steven4549, OriginalAndCreativeUsernameHere, Irondome, Mogism, Isarra (HG), Redalert2fan, FOX 52, Inglok, Jodosma, Newsjunky12, Wuerzele, WPGA2345, Immu 01, Blablubbs and Anonymous:
453
Bell OH-58 Kiowa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_OH-58_Kiowa?oldid=663817058 Contributors: Peter Winnberg, The
Epopt, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Pit~enwiki, Arpingstone, Chadloder, Rlandmann, Ghewgill, Kierant, Nv8200pa, Topbanana, Robbot, PBP, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Bobblewik, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Noisy, Discospinster, Twinxor, Night Gyr, Kross,
Pearle, Thatguy96, Alansohn, Denniss, Boozedog, Wyatts, Dan100, Nuno Tavares, PoccilScript, Uris, SDC, GraemeLeggett, Tabercil,
Rjwilmsi, VKokielov, Awotter, BjKa, Russavia, Ahunt, Docoga, Mmx1, BlueJaeger, YurikBot, Noclador, RussBot, Armistej, Arado, Hydrargyrum, Dudtz, Saberwyn, YEPPOON, Mike Selinker, KaHOnas, Jor70, JLaTondre, SmackBot, Mkaycomputer, Cla68, Quidam65,
Emt147, Hibernian, Sadads, AzaBot, John, LWF, MilborneOne, Joelo, -js-, Blabadoo, Publicus, ChrisCork, Snogglethorpe, Cowami, Noha307, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Srajan01, Chrislk02, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, LeCaire, Piotr Mikoajski, Signaleer, USMA, Akradecki,
Zigzig20s, Herb b, Born2ie, CombatWombat42, Mcorazao, Mwarren us, Askari Mark, KConWiki, A75, Fallschirmjger, En51cm, BilCat,
ACfan, STBot, Welshtorg, 2Q, DorganBot, Squids and Chips, Maxtremus, Anynobody, TXiKiBoT, Clarince63, Greggggg, Billinghurst,
Hrimpurstala, Bachcell, VVVBot, Lightmouse, Hamiltondaniel, Ibericus Lusitanus, YSSYguy, Dpmuk, Noodle73, Masterblooregard,
Ktr101, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, GPS73, Hunter Kahn, Addbot, LemmeyBOT, Blaylockjam10, Lightbot, Zorrobot, BlackMarlin,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Seo luke, Pipeafcr, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, H falcon, Eugene-elgato, Army46Q, Infantry
351, Kyteto, Tetraedycal, KAPITALIST88, Lovetravel86, Armyfreak42, Full-date unlinking bot, Julien1978, Extra999, 777sms, Hentrino, DASHBot, TGCP, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Starcheerspeaksnewslostwars, John Cline, Gsonwiki, Illegitimate
Barrister, China Dialogue Net, N512ma, H3llBot, KazekageTR, ChuispastonBot, Chesipiero, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mason.hagler, BattyBot,
America789, Cyberbot II, Simonjbuck, Makecat-bot, , FOX 52, Busy engineer, ArmbrustBot, Davidgumberg, UcAndy,
Scorpio213, Monkbot, Hichary, Polish23, Starcevicevnauk and Anonymous: 110
Bell UH-1 Iroquois Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois?oldid=663619372 Contributors: Magnus Manske, The
Epopt, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Nikai, , David Newton, Wongaboo, Nv8200pa, Denelson83, Dimadick, Riddley, Robbot, Moriori,
Sbisolo, TimothyPilgrim, Radomil, Ashermil, Danceswithzerglings, Diberri, Cyrius, GreatWhiteNortherner, DocWatson42, Paul Richter,
Greyengine5, Neuro, Michael Devore, Alvestrand, Bobblewik, Peter Ellis, Beland, Sam Hocevar, Huaiwei, Karl Dickman, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, Zaf, Rich Farmbrough, Ruprecht~enwiki, Zscout370, MBisanz, Chairboy, DimaDorfman, Meggar, Nyenyec, Pearle, Paullaw,
Thatguy96, Fat pig73, Water Bottle, Denniss, Evil Monkey, Ianblair23, OwenX, Ratamacue, Chopperbobby, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Raguleader,
584
Sandmandreams, FlaBot, Jcmurphy, Ahunt, Chobot, Cornellrockey, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Noclador, Huw Powell, Hellbus, RadioFan, Hydrargyrum, Nick Thorne, Welsh, Dudtz, Nick, Derekg18, Lomn, Caerwine, MEA707, Mail2amitabha, Searchme, Mike Selinker,
E Wing, De Administrando Imperio, Exodio, Jor70, Shyam, Curpsbot-unicodify, Katieh5584, Ocn169, Diagraph01~enwiki, Nick-D,
SmackBot, Looper5920, Franny Wentzel, Ominae, Ariedartin, ProveIt, Ian Rose, Gilliam, Hmains, L.J. Brooks, Emt147, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colputt, Colonies Chris, Tewk, Trekphiler, Snowmanradio, AzaBot, Greenshed, Dreadstar, The PIPE,
Databot, Jidanni, The alliance, LWF, MilborneOne, Humbaband, Nobunaga24, Paolomattiolo, -js-, Makyen, Buckboard, AdultSwim,
Andrwsc, Kvng, Aeons, HDCase, Mellery, CmdrObot, Wafulz, Themadgee, Noha307, LCpl, Orca1 9904, Dyrer, Kd5npf, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Crowish, Khatru2, ST47, Myscrnnm, Chrislk02, Canpark, Mdhennessey, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Crockspot,
Kubanczyk, Maccess, Headbomb, Deathbunny, Marek69, SGGH, Secretsqurl, Dfrg.msc, Piotr Mikoajski, Signaleer, DPdH, E rik, Mentisto, Akradecki, K7aay, Alphachimpbot, Born2ie, Thaimoss, Jbaakko, Bzuk, Ryan4314, Parsecboy, VoABot II, Appraiser, Puddhe,
Nyttend, A75, BilCat, Ajayvius, Cooter285, Ekki01, AvBuyer, Nono64, Wikip rhyre, LordAnubisBOT, Dbuley, BostonRed, 2Q, Smitty,
Funandtrvl, Nigel Ish, VolkovBot, DOHC Holiday, Hembrook, Dim24, Philip Trueman, GimmeBot, TomKat222, Miranda, Petebutt,
Blackmetal101, Zaher1988, JhsBot, Ng.j, Wences1, Nuance 4, O.besner, Edvinm, Synthebot, ANigg, OlkhichaAppa, Petteri Aimonen,
Hughey, SieBot, Kernel Saunters, ToePeu.bot, VVVBot, Overlordjebus, Cobatfor, Xi311, Mandsford, JetLover, Buttons, Sf46, Lightmouse, Doocool, Anyeverybody, BlueOrb, ImageRemovalBot, YSSYguy, Abramsgavin, Cuprum17, ClueBot, Indigo iMac, AusTerrapin,
Euph 22, Suradnik13, Nimbus227, Ktr101, Alexbot, Three-quarter-ten, Flightsoancy, PixelBot, Ebglider91, The Founders Intent, GBUK-BI, Sun Creator, Ghostrider, NuclearWarfare, BOTarate, Skydog1531, Versus22, GPS73, Exepm~enwiki, Wikiuser100, Rotorwingmaster, Hueydoc, Tfdavisatsnetnet, Dave1185, Addbot, Shattered Wikiglass, Aranoran, Neoreich, Wolfpac032, SEREJumper, Reedmalloy, NjardarBot, Download, Nguoimay, LinkFA-Bot, Fireaxe888, Arac, F Notebook, Tide rolls, Lightbot, , RichLindvall, The
Bushranger, Aaroncrick, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Hosco6, Ptbotgourou, Legobot II, Evans1982, AnomieBOT, Davidedgeworth, Xufanc, Dynablaster, Gsmgm, Xqbot, Creo11, Luke85, Jhsellars, Maurotongco, Anotherclown, Queen Rhana, H falcon, Kyng, Reixach2009,
Ziberian, Brutaldeluxe, Mpritza, Bassetman4, RightCowLeftCoast, FrescoBot, Originalwana, Lademan, Kyteto, Jedimaster1214, HEMIman234, Elite501st~enwiki, Degen Earthfast, Poliocretes, LogicBloke, Skyraider1, Lovetravel86, RedBot, Timothyp219, Julien1978,
, Tardusalpha, MFIreland, MCQknight, Docsdierence, 777sms, Pitbull1234, Bricaniwi, DexDor, Motoboy012, Mztourist,
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Addbot, 100percentColombian, Narayansg, Signal Buster, Beaupower32, M.nelson, Alexandre.2.beaudry, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek
Jaczuk, Download, Robert.Harker, Snag99, AndersBot, Debresser, Nizil Shah, Herr Gruber, Lightbot, Ettrig, Tfeth, BlackMarlin, The
Bushranger, Legobot, Vishal Jolapara, Yobot, Amirobot, Evans1982, Jimderkaisser, AnomieBOT, Stars999, Noq, Archon 2488, Rubinbot,
1exec1, Meganfoxx, Femmefabuleuse, B.saketh, Tom87020, Kingpin13, Rohit spas12, Materialscientist, KenLee318, High Contrast, Ckruschke, Anupsadhu, Xqbot, Phthinosuchusisanancestor, Chilicheez, Winged Brick, Thaihawk, Eric Blatant, Anotherclown, Mark Schierbecker, SassoBot, Oklandr8rs2000, ASIMOV51, Heroicrelics, Miguelito0292, JotaCartas, Skcpublic, FrescoBot, Wikipe-tan, Kyteto, ResPublicae, Martinezste, HJ Mitchell, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Skyfox007, IrrtNie, Arctic Night, Degen Earthfast, Nicostamb~enwiki,
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Dkslao, Slater, ClueBot NG, Curiosity567, Michaelmas1957, JetBlast, Flagship707, Churrrp, Widr, KoakhtzvigadMobile, Oddbodz,
Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, HMSSolent, Kbar64, Mbedway, DBigXray, JoJaEpp, 113727b, Jonodavies12, Codepage, Pritishp333, Trevayne08, FALCON-786-, GarbledLecture933, BattyBot, ShashankSharma2511, America789, Junius52, DarafshBot, CFFan116, ChrisGualtieri, 2011kdp, Adnan bogi, Khazar2, Sumervirk, NSDQ2017, Sbaxter11, Robertburns24, Cerabot~enwiki, Tproy, General1962,
Melonkelon, Landmark9254, Emily mainzer, Ugog Nizdast, FaisalAbbasid, P.TalOhr, Machho, TheArmchairSoldier, Pratzlaud, Suneet
badla, Ingon, WPGA2345, Vegee, Davidsmith2014, Rahulcpr84, Jimgerbig, Hunaf, Loganbright, MooseMage, Davebauer315, Keoghoe,
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Shyamkid, KasparBot, Alistairgray42, Ghazlan-airplanes, Kazuley, Histroy4life and Anonymous: 592
Boeing C-32 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_C-32?oldid=663163313 Contributors: Rlandmann, Tech77jp, Greyengine5,
Iceberg3k, Bobblewik, Peter Ellis, Karl Dickman, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, SNIyer1, Pearle, Denniss, Idont Havaname, Gene Nygaard, Ahseaton, Dan100, Mark Sublette, Mark83, Cornellrockey, Clib, Los688, 2fort5r, SmackBot, Reedy, Mkaycomputer, Howardchu, Tbonnie,
Bluebot, William Allen Simpson, Aerobird, HoodedMan, Elendils Heir, Mnw2000, Arnoha, MilborneOne, Accurizer, AEMoreira042281,
PSUMark2006, Simon12, NativeForeigner, WeggeBot, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Alsd2, Nack34, Darklilac, Arsenikk, Albany NY, IP Singh,
BilCat, Afromme, CommonsDelinker, Bthebest, McSly, Ndunruh, Nigel Ish, GimmeBot, Raymondwinn, RobbWiki, Bahamut0013, Djmckee1, Cobatfor, Lightmouse, Nimbus227, Ktr101, Wumpscutboi, Addbot, Magus732, Arac, EastCoastAirShooter, The Bushranger, Jason
Recliner, Esq., AnomieBOT, Tokyotown8, C5drvfr, Obersttseu, LucienBOT, BOEINGvsAIRBUS, 777sms, ITshnik, Werieth, BurtAlert,
Sam Meyer, Pokbot, PeterZumthor, DoctorKubla, Cyntiamaspian and Anonymous: 47
Boeing CH-47 Chinook Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_CH-47_Chinook?oldid=662523004 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Peter
Winnberg, The Epopt, William Avery, Gabbe, Gbleem, Arpingstone, Ellywa, Rlandmann, Whkoh, David Newton, Snickerdo, DJ Clayworth, Echoray, Maximus Rex, Nv8200pa, RadicalBender, Riddley, Kamakura, Eliashedberg, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Greyengine5,
Pashute, Duckedtapedemon, Bobblewik, H1523702, Quadell, Plasma east, Ojw, Bbpen, Karl Dickman, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, N328KF,
587
Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, Clawed, Roo72, Calamarain, J-Star, Kross, Jack renton, RobNS, Bobo192, Thortful, Smalljim, Cohesion, Darwinek, Krellis, Pearle, Thatguy96, Jigen III, Arthena, Joshbaumgartner, Sandstig, RobertStar20, Linmhall, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss,
Hohum, Wyatts, Gene Nygaard, DeAceShooter, Mel Etitis, Asav, Bkkbrad, Pol098, Wakemp, Ae7ux, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Rogerd,
SMC, XLerate, Raguleader, FlaBot, Kallemax, JdforresterBot, Mark83, BjKa, Tedder, Ahunt, Coolhawks88, Chobot, Mmx1, Bgwhite,
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Hall, Asams10, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Mike Selinker, WayeMason, Jor70, David Biddulph, Alureiter, Premkudva, Justice
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BuildArk, Tawkerbot2, Rob1bureau, Marco bisello, Gihanuk, Orca1 9904, Stewartp, Oden, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Rob.desbois, Crowish, Tec15, Jon.carstens, Odie5533, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Torben.green, Deathbunny, Kob zilla, Piotr Mikoajski, Signaleer, Javed Ali,
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Ng.j, Raryel, Robert1947, RobbWiki, Bus, Drrbradford, Eurocopter, ANigg, Thunderbird2, MrChupon, Alanemartin, Hazel77, Hughey,
CASR-Editor, SieBot, Bdentremont, Politics rule, Kernel Saunters, BotMultichill, Bachcell, VVVBot, Noveltyghost, Lucasbfrbot, SP900,
Vantey, FRATBOYD, Lightmouse, AMCKen, NiggardlyNorm, Alexibrow, Angrykane, Guns A Go-Go, BHenry1969, ImageRemovalBot,
RobertWL~enwiki, YSSYguy, ClueBot, Trojancowboy, Binksternet, Gavron, Suradnik13, Niceguyedc, E3120656~enwiki, Richmondman, Zzztriple2000, DragonBot, Ktr101, Alexbot, Ebglider91, The Founders Intent, MickMacNee, Arjayay, Promethean, Jellysh dave,
Aitias, Threecharlie, GPS73, DumZiBoT, Nettings, XLinkBot, , Veryhuman, MerkavaIV, Tfdavisatsnetnet, Neutrino 1,
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Bryan TMF, 777sms, Jcomet, Jurryaany, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, Mralexofcanada, FFDmh2223, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ITshnik, Andromedabluesphere440, ZxxZxxZ, PunkFloydd, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Mh7kJ, Gavbadger, Wiooiw, Darkon11, HerbEA2,
Nelson Teixeira, L Kensington, Thewolfchild, Larrick101, Robcotnam, Slater, Chesipiero, ClueBot NG, 1Eddie2, Catlemur, Chester
Markel, Jetijonez, Franke ua, Skywestseth, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, Ba11zooka, Mbedway, BG19bot, Twyn3161, John Cancock, Takahara Osaka, 220 of Borg, 450 Sqn Dude, America789, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Cool9358, DelamontagneNL, Zoro19999,
RotlinkBot, FOX 52, Black houk, Wotchit, Govgovgov, ArmbrustBot, Dvinell, Marigold100, Achmad Fahri, How Shuan Shi, Stamptrader,
Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Bugatti35racer, TiRoMa, Deepayan Sen, BelleauWood, Apple1312 and Anonymous: 442
Boeing E-4 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_E-4?oldid=659694303 Contributors: Gsl, Rlandmann, Danbirchall, David Newton, Nohat, Ed g2s, RadicalBender, Sekicho, PBP, Ancheta Wis, Jpo, Greyengine5, Wwoods, Proslaes, Bobblewik, Peter Ellis, Geni,
ShakataGaNai, Oneiros, Hammersfan, Neutrality, Karl Dickman, Ericg, Noisy, Night Gyr, Walkiped, Pearle, Duman~enwiki, Ashley
Pomeroy, AzaToth, Dalillama, Sumergocognito, Dan100, Miken32, Rogerd, Gilesmorant, Williamborg, Chobot, Hairy Dude, RussBot,
Crazytales, Arado, RadioFan, Los688, CalebMichael, Sperril, Trisreed, MStraw, Mais oui!, Benandorsqueaks, SmackBot, KMcD, Mkaycomputer, Bjelleklang, Vaud, Tnkr111, Yamaguchi , Daysleeper47, El Cubano, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Bluebot, Sloane, Dual
Freq, Glloq, Elendils Heir, Mnw2000, Ken keisel, Nakon, Daveschroeder, Hammer1980, Visium, Ju98 5, LWF, MilborneOne, Accurizer, Jaywubba1887, JoeBot, Dave420, Vanisaac, R. E. Mixer, Karenjc, Cydebot, Fnlayson, RotaryAce, Smiteri, Thijs!bot, LG4761,
Freesoler01, Stybn, Tekuli, Albany NY, Hmitt, RebelRobot, BilCat, LorenzoB, DerHexer, Limtohhan, Nono64, J.delanoy, Tdadamemd,
Ndunruh, Jamesontai, Banjodog, Nigel Ish, Nightwatch677, Rollo44, GimmeBot, JSB73, LeaveSleaves, Raymondwinn, RobbWiki, Bus,
Happyme22, Eurocopter, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Fanra, HuweyII, Phe-bot, Da Joe, Lightmouse, WacoJacko, Fratrep, OKBot, ImageRemovalBot, MBK004, ClueBot, Dipgolf, EconomicsGuy, 4567u8ifghjkfgyu, Sv1xv, I'm Not A Hero, Alexbot, ComputerGeezer, Bchaosf,
Jbird0168, XLinkBot, Addbot, Nohomers48, Cloudkey, Ashanda, Lightbot, The Bushranger, Luckas-bot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II,
Jason Recliner, Esq., Brandnew1786, AnomieBOT, RobertEves92, RadioBroadcast, Banjooo, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Kerberus13, Montgomery
'38, LittleWink, Intrepid-NY, RedBot, Enemenemu, Dinamik-bot, 777sms, Pilot850, EmausBot, Dewritech, Sp33dyphil, Weatherandmp5,
Skip5756, DeMarchi1, Brycehughes, ClueBot NG, Schneider anc, Helpful Pixie Bot, Phd8511, Kendall-K1, BattyBot, X31337AB, YFdyhbot, Cjnewson88, 32RB17, DissidentAggressor and Anonymous: 122
Boeing E-6 Mercury Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_E-6_Mercury?oldid=661309970 Contributors: Gsl, Arpingstone,
Rlandmann, David Newton, Vt-aoe, Greyengine5, Vanished user 1234567890, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Discospinster, Guanabot,
Clawson, Pearle, GavinSharp, Denniss, Dalillama, Kenyon, Marudubshinki, Wikibofh, Jimp, RussBot, Arado, Los688, Nick, Danallen46,
Mais oui!, Nick-D, SmackBot, Looper5920, A.R., Fireswordght, MilborneOne, Saxbryn, MrDolomite, CumbiaDude, Cydebot, Fnlayson,
Thijs!bot, Akradecki, HolyT, Arsenikk, Desoda, Bzuk, Bombdoc, BilCat, LorenzoB, Nubi78, STBotD, RJASE1, Nigel Ish, GimmeBot,
Raymondwinn, RobbWiki, Andy Dingley, Djmckee1, SieBot, Fanra, Pac72, Makigai, Lightmouse, OKBot, ImageRemovalBot, Appalachianeer, Binksternet, Hutcher, Nimbus227, Wikiuser100, Addbot, Lightbot, The Bushranger, AnomieBOT, Tokyotown8, ArthurBot, Xqbot,
GrouchoBot, Le Deluge, Full-date unlinking bot, 777sms, Sp33dyphil, ZroBot, Tundra8, Qrhoo, Morganson691, Todd007, JakeWi and
Anonymous: 47
Boeing VC-25 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_VC-25?oldid=651847746 Contributors: Rmhermen, Rlandmann, Cherkash,
Kierant, Averell23, BenFrantzDale, Jason Quinn, Peter Ellis, Oneiros, Hammersfan, Karl Dickman, Blanchette, Sarrica, Ylee, JustPhil,
Johnkenyon, Miken32, Graham87, Tabercil, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Rillian, SNIyer12, V Brian Zurita, Clib, RFBailey, Scs, Booch, Alakazam,
Sacxpert, SmackBot, Reedy, AnOddName, GoldDragon, Htra0497, Rrburke, Mnw2000, Ken keisel, Morio, MilborneOne, Hqduong, Accurizer, A5678, Darry2385, MrDolomite, Lathrop1885, Cg-realms, N2e, Cydebot, Fnlayson, OVERM1ND, Kozuch, Per aspera ad Astra,
Thijs!bot, LG4761, BualoChip97, Akradecki, Tjsynkral, Cygri, Benny45boy, Autocracy, Aspensti, Ran4, Bzuk, Papa Lima Whiskey,
Steevo714, Magioladitis, BilCat, Helland, MarxistRevolutionary, Bthebest, Tiger4125, ChrisfromHouston, RenniePet, Ndunruh, Mu301nh,
Amikake3, Bovineboy2008, GimmeBot, Raryel, Raymondwinn, Mezzaluna, NicoBolso, Happyme22, Avicell, Formattc, Drutt, RaseaC,
Chergles, SieBot, Lucasbfrbot, Grundle2600, Lightmouse, Maelgwnbot, PolarYukon, Paaln, Suradnik13, Ktr101, AWoodland, DoppioM,
AlanM1, XLinkBot, Addbot, Lightbot, HerculeBot, The Bushranger, La Maupin, Yngvadottir, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT,
, Xqbot,
588
Pacomartin, Seligne, Yoganate79, Kyteto, SkyHigher, Foxhound66, RedBot, Tcnuk, DadOfBeanAndBug, 777sms, EmausBot, John of
Reading, Pastmastermax, ITshnik, Lucas Dziesinski, Sp33dyphil, Werieth, ZroBot, Shencypeter, ClueBot NG, JetBlast, Satellizer, BarrelProof, Helpful Pixie Bot, Boccelounge, , ProudIrishAspie, BattyBot, Metsfreak2121, Jkpetrik, Khazar2, JYBot, Kevhollytrip, FoxyOrange, MNNFN, 18davidsone, Marcellfulop, Jimgerbig and Anonymous: 99
Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_Vertol_CH-46_Sea_Knight?oldid=660488934 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Yooden, JohnOwens, Arpingstone, Minesweeper, Rlandmann, Alvaro, David Newton, Echoray, RadicalBender,
Riddley, DocWatson42, Paul Richter, Greyengine5, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Karl Dickman, Mtnerd, Ericg, N328KF, Rich Farmbrough,
Avriette, Guanabot, Kross, .:Ajvol:., Darwinek, Pearle, Thatguy96, Alansohn, Joshbaumgartner, Sandstig, Linmhall, Mike Beidler, Falcorian, Oleg Alexandrov, D.E. Watters, PoccilScript, Towpilot, GraemeLeggett, Melesse, Rjwilmsi, Corto, FlaBot, Wsk, MoRsE, Mmx1,
Cornellrockey, YurikBot, Noclador, Arado, Dunerat, Joel7687, Chesnok, Mike Selinker, Justice League 05, SmackBot, Looper5920,
Reedy, VigilancePrime, Mkaycomputer, Flybd5, Bluebot, Emt147, Namangwari, Rlevse, AzaBot, Wybot, Ohconfucius, LWF, MilborneOne, Nobunaga24, -js-, RyJones, Dl2000, Fgcscm, FairuseBot, Wafulz, Ericlaw02, Orca1 9904, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Aodhdubh, SpartanCanuck, Sadorsch, Flystraightin, Carloseduardo~enwiki, Piotr Mikoajski, Nick Number, Signaleer, Akradecki, Howard61313, Born2ie,
Lan Di, Jbaakko, Askari Mark, A75, Chris Ssk, BilCat, Aeroweanie, Walle83, -shakalee-, Inwind, Nigel Ish, Whatfg, Tecarr, GimmeBot,
Trashbag, Ng.j, Gutterboy001, RobbWiki, Bahamut0013, Fetor41, ANigg, Djmckee1, Koalorka, Schnellundleicht, Thunderbird2, Solicitr,
VVVBot, Lightmouse, Dsw3131, Kumioko (renamed), FIRST Rocks, ImageRemovalBot, YSSYguy, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Marcinjeske,
PipepBot, Snigbrook, Jedimca0, Suradnik13, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, MickMacNee, Arjayay, Polly, El bot de la dieta, Bomberh46,
Sgt K USMC, DumZiBoT, Takavar92, Wikiuser100, MystBot, Addbot, Binary TSO, Leszek Jaczuk, Fioryajf, Download, SpBot, Terrillja, Arac, Lightbot, The Bushranger, Legobot, AadaamS, Yobot, Cashmw, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Venice85, KenH309, Jayleemdk,
Vertol-107, FrescoBot, Fortdj33, Kyteto, DrilBot, Lovetravel86, NorthnBound, Kiwi46E, Julien1978, Lotje, 777sms, Weedwhacker128,
DexDor, Youngjim01, TGCP, Mztourist, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Dolovis, Chesipiero, Jrdan, Jetijonez, Franke ua, Helpful Pixie Bot, Risingstar12, BattyBot, America789, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Johnvr4,
Winsanity, FOX 52, Rickleyl, ArmbrustBot, Marigold100, Balon Greyjoy, Nickphelps and Anonymous: 119
Close air support Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_air_support?oldid=663545904 Contributors: Fred Bauder, Isomorphic,
Sjorford, Kizor, PBS, RedWolf, Popsiq, Altenmann, Modulatum, Yosri, Philwelch, IRelayer, Everyking, Michael Devore, Sam Hocevar,
Lee1026, Blue387, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Sc147, DimaDorfman, Maurreen, La goutte de pluie, Jigen III, Ashley Pomeroy, Hohum,
Lapinmies, Brettr, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Brendano, Chobot, Mmx1, Chwyatt, Hairy Dude, Phantomsteve,
RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, RyanGardner, BusterD, Maphisto86, Fiveninerzero, Petri Krohn, Nick-D, SmackBot, Looper5920, TestPilot,
Eskimbot, Hmains, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Hibernian, Florian Adler, Htra0497, OrphanBot, RandomP,
Jfelicien~enwiki, LWF, Cyclopaedic, Nobunaga24, Flipperinu, Siebrand, OnBeyondZebrax, Clarityend, JoeBot, HDCase, CmdrObot,
Fairsing, Cydebot, Skeet Shooter, Tawkerbot4, TheCheeseManCan, Kubanczyk, PerfectStorm, Carloseduardo~enwiki, Hcobb, BirdKr,
Ownlyanangel, Born2ie, Flatman~enwiki, Magioladitis, Two way time, B-1yeti, BilCat, Wayne Miller, DinoBot, Raoulduke47, CommonsDelinker, Patar knight, Kristjanr, Mrg3105, JPatrickBedell, Tatrgel, Hugo999, HJ32, GodlyAvatar, Soundofmusicals, Lexington50,
CobraDragoon, Falcon8765, Njuce, Eurocopter, SieBot, YonaBot, Smsarmad, Stanguy, Prestonmag, Plamkii, JFIITweb, TabooTikiGod,
YSSYguy, LP-mn, Binksternet, Hutcher, Stanleywinthrop, Jan1nad, DarthRad, Niceguyedc, Thisglad, PixelBot, The Founders Intent,
Tplusplus, SoxBot, BOTarate, WikHead, Addbot, DOI bot, Magus732, M.nelson, Helios87, Blaylockjam10, Vyom25, Rehman, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Reindra, Edwinnesqure, Amicon, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Georgejdorner, Ulric1313, Citation bot, James.f.cauleld,
LilHelpa, .45Colt, Confuciou, GrouchoBot, Anotherclown, Neil Clancy, Beautromp12, NetherSarum, Tra, Lloydelliot10, MastiBot,
Mjs1991, Lotje, TangoSixZero, Hellaras, DexDor, Jackehammond, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Gavbadger, Brandmeister, Noodleki, Efenna, EdoBot, FeatherPluma, Ebehn, ClueBot NG, Fight0rPil0t, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Athena60 98, Mogism,
XXzoonamiXX, EyeTruth, LazyReader, Heaney5551, Siscolas and Anonymous: 79
Delta IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_IV?oldid=663275186 Contributors: Rmhermen, JDG, Xlation, Patrick, Denelson83,
Mustang dvs, Interdigital, Cyrius, Iain.mcclatchie, Reubenbarton, Karn, Fleminra, Oneiros, Sam Hocevar, GreenReaper, D6, N328KF,
Jkl, Wuzzeb, Rupertslander, Azikala, Ylee, Duk, Emhoo~enwiki, Hektor, MatthewWilcox, Pope, Burzum, Rwendland, Gene Nygaard,
Klparrot, Dan100, Oleg Alexandrov, Firsfron, Xmp, Wdyoung, Bricktop, BD2412, Jivecat, Bubba73, FlaBot, Jordan Elder, Wongm,
StuOfInterest, Arado, Conscious, DigitalGuy, KevinCuddeback, Gaius Cornelius, WulfTheSaxon, Nick L., Icelight, Retired username,
Georgewilliamherbert, Dschuetz, Lorus77, Petri Krohn, GrinBot~enwiki, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, TestPilot, McGeddon, WSpaceport,
Sam8, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Beatgr, WDGraham, Fotoguzzi, Synapse001, Aces lead, Andy120290, AlabamaGuy2007, Pwjb, Wybot,
SalopianJames, Tdrss, Jkrup4, Minna Sora no Shita, Uwe W., Bytre, Joseph Solis in Australia, Confusador, CmdrObot, ThreeBlindMice,
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Lockheed AC-130 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_AC-130?oldid=663433394 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Peter

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Lockheed C-130 Hercules Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules?oldid=663260205 Contributors: The Epopt,
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Lockheed C-5 Galaxy Source:
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Lockheed EC-130H Compass Call Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_EC-130H_Compass_Call?oldid=637358005 Contributors: Greyengine5, Karl Dickman, Bobrayner, MoRsE, Cornellrockey, SmackBot, Zvar, MilborneOne, Octane, Cydebot, Fnlayson,
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TuHan-Bot, BrokenAnchorBot, Chesipiero, ClueBot NG, ScrabbleZ and Anonymous: 26
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_C-130J_Super_Hercules?oldid=
662563187 Contributors: Arpingstone, Ineuw, DocWatson42, Shane Lin, Rickster89, Oneiros, Karl Dickman, Pmsyyz, RobNS, Lord
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Warrior Covert, Ashu00007 and Anonymous: 227
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-22_Raptor?oldid=663316760 Contributors:
The Epopt, WojPob, Robert Merkel, Ed Poor, XJaM, Enchanter, Maury Markowitz, Ppetru, Hephaestos, Leandrod, Spi~enwiki, Jdlh,
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598
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Hunterz, RWhite9629, 10Cunningham, Green547, CharlieOQ, Ddradar and Anonymous: 1639
McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_AV-8B_Harrier_II?oldid=
663701754 Contributors: Magnus Manske, The Epopt, Youssefsan, Panairjdde~enwiki, Leandrod, Arpingstone, Marumari, Rlandmann,
EdH, David Newton, Dysprosia, DJ Clayworth, Maximus Rex, Ed g2s, RadicalBender, Robbot, Moriori, PBS, Lupo, PBP, Ike~enwiki,
Greyengine5, Michael Devore, Iceberg3k, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, H1523702, Quadell, Phe, Oneiros, Jimwilliams57, Klemen Kocjancic,
Karl Dickman, Ericg, Jayjg, N328KF, EugeneZelenko, Noisy, Discospinster, Brianhe, Guanabot, Pmsyyz, Antaeus Feldspar, Night
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Nuno Tavares, RoadKillian, TomTheHand, Je3000, MONGO, Bluemoose, Fxer, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Miq, Mancunius, Anty,
Brighterorange, Ian Dunster, FlaBot, Mael Iosa, Robmods, Mark83, Travis.Thurston, MoRsE, Joetheguy, Chobot, Mmx1, Bgwhite,
Shardsofmetal, Sus scrofa, Noclador, RussBot, Garnetpalmetto, RadioFan, Hydrargyrum, Gillean666, Merman, Brian Crawford,
TDogg310, Tony1, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850, Engineer Bob, Hurricanehink, ProdigySportsman, De Administrando Imperio, Sean
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Ahollypak, Troll92638 and Anonymous: 208
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle?oldid=663540586 Contributors:
Peter Winnberg, The Epopt, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Andre Engels, Rmhermen, Enchanter, Maury Markowitz, Leandrod,
Frecklefoot, JohnOwens, Gbleem, Arpingstone, Paul A, Baylink, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Kingturtle, Rlandmann, ,
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Nickj, TomStar81, Meggar, Clawson, Brim, King nothing, Pearle, Jumbuck, ArgentLA, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Alyeska, Andrew Gray,
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Nuno Tavares, Bacteria, Nvinen, TomTheHand, Je3000, Tabletop, Isnow, BlaiseFEgan, Macaddct1984, Fxer, GraemeLeggett, Marudubshinki, Ashmoo, Graham87, Ketiltrout, Sjakkalle, F0CUS, Wikibofh, Wiarthurhu, The wub, Nandesuka, SNIyer12, Kallemax, JdforresterBot, Mark83, Darkshikari, Simishag, Ricardo Monteiro, Thepcnerd, Chobot, Mmx1, Bgwhite, Digitalme, YurikBot, Borgx, Hairy Dude,
JJLatWiki, Midgley, RussBot, V Brian Zurita, Arado, Wildweasel89, Fuzzy901, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Wikimachine,
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599
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SIDIOUS 2, Wikisidd, TjBot, Alph Bot, FFDmh2223, EmausBot, John of Reading, AlanSiegrist, Sp33dyphil, Winner 42, Wikipelli,
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Anonymous: 792
McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle?oldid=
663701736 Contributors: Rmhermen, Michael Hardy, Arpingstone, Docu, Whkoh, Fredrik, PBP, Greyengine5, Meursault2004, Zigger, Fleminra, Iceberg3k, Bobblewik, Btphelps, H1523702, Clemwang, Karl Dickman, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, N328KF, Discospinster,
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McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F/A-18_Hornet?oldid=663121241 Contributors: The Epopt, Uriyan, Robert Merkel, Alex.tan, Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Hephaestos, Edward, Tannin, Markonen, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Lupinoid, Whkoh, Macar~enwiki, David Newton, Dysprosia, Marshman, Morven, Cabalamat, Carbuncle, RadicalBender, Robbot, RedWolf, Stewartadcock, PBP, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Paul Richter, Greyengine5, Ferkelparade, Jrquinlisk, Serak,
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and Anonymous: 682
MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MD_Helicopters_MH-6_Little_Bird?oldid=637617051 Contributors: Rlandmann, PaulinSaudi, Xanzzibar, MFNickster, SElefant, Giraedata, Thatguy96, Arthena, Denniss, Wtmitchell, Alai,
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Military helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_helicopter?oldid=662737593 Contributors: Lowellian, Jason Quinn,
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Military transport aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_transport_aircraft?oldid=662719624 Contributors: DocWatson42, ShakataGaNai, Karl Dickman, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Arado, MySchizoBuddy, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, Marc Lacoste,
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601
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32
Multirole combat aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multirole_combat_aircraft?oldid=662972028 Contributors: Xanzzibar,
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Next-Generation Bomber Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-Generation_Bomber?oldid=662584116 Contributors: Leandrod,
Mcarling, Rlandmann, Cherkash, PaulinSaudi, Oneiros, Thorwald, Anthony Appleyard, Hohum, Pauli133, Crosbiesmith, GregorB, Revas,
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Rezin, Jakehoward2015 and Anonymous: 65
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit?oldid=663516220 Contributors:
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Harik, LucidityOfPower, Cheemzanski, Eriklbiehler, Revitalysis, Starke Hathaway, Encyclopediaexperiencelover, KasparBot, Ghazlanairplanes and Anonymous: 767
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_E-8_Joint_STARS?oldid=
653935467 Contributors: The Epopt, Mav, Gsl, SimonP, JohnOwens, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Aarchiba, Nikola Smolenski, David Newton, Wik, ChrisO~enwiki, PBP, Dina, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Guanaco, Bobblewik, Calm, H1523702, Jimwilliams57,
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EmausBot, Sp33dyphil, BurtAlert, Illegitimate Barrister, Sjrees, Johndm75, Mgtrader1, Speedothebrief, America789, Morganson691,
YFdyh-bot, Onepebble, Gautamh, How Shuan Shi, Bmcdev10 and Anonymous: 81
Rockwell B-1 Lancer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer?oldid=662923277 Contributors: The Epopt, The
Anome, Andre Engels, Danny, Boleslav Bobcik, Maury Markowitz, Michel.SLM, Leandrod, Edward, Patrick, Arpingstone, Ahoerstemeier,
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Mackensen, Camerong, RadicalBender, Huangdi, Mrdice, Riddley, Robbot, Mustang dvs, Modulatum, Mirv, Postdlf, PBP, MaGioZal, Paul
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SCRECROW, Brutaldeluxe, Jon Legier, Smallman12q, FrescoBot, Christopher spence, Jkotto, Micheletb, Kyteto, MGA73bot, BasilioC, Scott Dunham, JIK1975, Foxhound66, Chumchum7, Skinny607, Lovetravel86, Thinking of England, SpaceFlight89, Opdante, Marclluell, Reconsider the static, Wayne Riddock, 777sms, Pilot850, Bongdentoiac, Packard69, Jies1, Genesiser, EmausBot, Dewritech,
603
Bob80q, JW614, Sp33dyphil, Werieth, Natedogg1027, Cogiati, F, Dolovis, Redhanker, Prowler45, HammerFilmFan, Ltr,ftw, Orange
Suede Sofa, Afranelli, Lucygoose199, ClueBot NG, Smilesntex, Welcho2112, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mightyname, Voevoda43, Nbarile18,
Sacewo, CaptianNemo, NobodyMinus, Regicide1649, America789, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, Bryan3398, Khazar2, JYBot, Dexbot,
Mogism, Makecat-bot, RandomLittleHelper, Z07x10, Lgfcd, MarchOrDie, Alpha-60, Tentinator, Marigold100, Ginsuloft, UcAndy, UnbiasedVictory, Glcm1, Patcady, Monkbot, Dacblog, Student342, MadmanPeirce and Anonymous: 416
Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_CH-53E_Super_Stallion?oldid=656720285 Contributors: The Cunctator, Rlandmann, Dysprosia, RadicalBender, PBP, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, MathKnight, Neuro, PlatinumX, Bobblewik, Gadum, Karl Dickman, Ericg, Esperant, N328KF, Rich Farmbrough, Avriette, Dejitarob, Travisyoung, Krellis, Pearle, Interiot,
Andrewpmk, Sandstig, Denniss, Evil Monkey, Dziban303, Romeoslion, D.E. Watters, Rjwilmsi, XLerate, Durin, Ahunt, Coolhawks88,
Chobot, Mmx1, YurikBot, Noclador, RussBot, Arado, DanMS, Hydrargyrum, Hudicourt, TDogg310, Bdell555, Mike Selinker, ProdigySportsman, SeaWolf, SmackBot, Looper5920, Mkaycomputer, Ntk53s, Pretendo, Betacommand, Jvandecar, Emt147, Derekbridges,
AzaBot, Wybot, Pen of bushido, Polihale, MilborneOne, Publicus, Isozvaillancourt, Dl2000, Lahiru k, .mdk., Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Fnlayson, John254, Piotr Mikoajski, Akradecki, Alphachimpbot, Born2ie, JAnDbot, Jimjskeet, Steves615, Rockdude108, MetsBot, BilCat, DerHexer, Aeroweanie, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Signalhead, JoeZhang 2005, VolkovBot, Je G., EH101, GimmeBot,
Cefoskey, Mariogeronimo, Tmaull, Capper13, Mendors, Bahamut0013, ANigg, Koalorka, AlleborgoBot, Integracer, Cobatfor, Xe7al,
Lightmouse, Kumioko (renamed), ZH Evers, Maralia, Dolphin51, MBK004, ClueBot, NiD.29, Boing! said Zebedee, TypoBoy, Mikaey,
MelonBot, Vigilius, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, Chexmix53, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, The Bushranger, WineCrab, Sorruno, Lisa0721,
Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Cardfan5, Jcomiv, Xqbot, Plo Koon 1, Vertol-107, SchnitzelMannGreek, FrescoBot, Scottieshea, OgreBot,
Elite501st~enwiki, DrilBot, Edderso, Skyraider1, Julien1978, Megan4404, AHeneen, 777sms, Misakubo, TGCP, Three6right, ZroBot,
Chesipiero, ClueBot NG, Jetijonez, JamesChambers666, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mark Arsten, BattyBot, America789, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyhbot, Mogism, Graphium, FOX 52, XFEM Skier, Happy8485, Xsinthis, Tamlinwah, SukhoiT50PAKFA, Llammakey, Piercedc, The1LieLui
and Anonymous: 142
Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_HH-60_Pave_Hawk?oldid=661904141 Contributors: The
Epopt, Koyaanis Qatsi, Mintguy, JohnOwens, Tannin, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Crissov, David Newton, Quoth-22, David.Monniaux,
Finlay McWalter, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Bobblewik, Jcw69, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Ericg, Huntster, Bobo192, Pearle,
Jonathunder, Hooperbloob, Jigen III, Schnell, Plumbago, Linmhall, UPH~enwiki, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, PatGallacher, Fxer, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Muppetauthor5, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, The Rambling Man, Mcneight, Welsh, Ospalh, Closedmouth, Mike Selinker, Chris
Cowart, Premkudva, SmackBot, Agentbla, Gjs238, Bluebot, Emt147, JollyGreen, Dual Freq, AzaBot, Wybot, Lisasmall, Ohconfucius,
MilborneOne, Andrwsc, Lahiru k, SJFriedl, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Trident13, NDCompuGeek, Headbomb, Hcobb, Tashtastic, Born2ie,
Tbeut, Slider388, A75, BilCat, Excesses, R'n'B, Nono64, New Hampshirite, Ndunruh, Pdcook, Dreddmoto, GimmeBot, Tmaull, LanceBarber, Falcon8765, Eurocopter, Phe-bot, Toddst1, Lightmouse, Martarius, Suradnik13, The Founders Intent, Addbot, DOI bot, Baron Von
Wiki, Reedmalloy, Lightbot, WikiDreamer Bot, The Bushranger, Evans1982, Matanya, AnomieBOT, 176thWingPublicAairs, Danno uk,
Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Kyteto, Nightsturm, RedBot, Julien1978, 777sms, Desagwan, DexDor, TeeTylerToe, Wayne Slam, Chesipiero,
ClueBot NG, Morgankevinj huggle, Helpful Pixie Bot, Blackberry Sorbet, America789, YFdyh-bot, , FOX 52, Faizan,
WPGA2345, Monkbot and Anonymous: 94
Sikorsky MH-60 Jayhawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_MH-60_Jayhawk?oldid=653062615 Contributors: Karl Dickman, N328KF, Thuresson, Jigen III, Lord Pistachio, Gene Nygaard, Kelly Martin, Fxer, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Jcmurphy, Coolhawks88,
Mcneight, Splamo, Jayhawkxer, Gaius Cornelius, SEWilcoBot, Saberwyn, Mike Selinker, SmackBot, Ariedartin, Cvdr, Chris the speller,
Jwillbur, Ligulembot, MilborneOne, Dl2000, Michaelh2001, Orca1 9904, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Skeet Shooter, Dawkeye, Signaleer, Mactin,
Akradecki, Born2ie, BilCat, Eliz81, New Hampshirite, VolkovBot, Safemariner, GimmeBot, Trashbag, SieBot, Bachcell, Lightmouse,
Spartan198, Hamiltondaniel, QueenofBattle, NiD.29, Suradnik13, The Founders Intent, Halgin, Addbot, Lightbot, The Bushranger,
AnomieBOT, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Ch Th Jo, Merwat, Julien1978, 777sms, EmausBot, Sp33dyphil, TeeTylerToe, BattyBot, FOX 52,
NorthBySouthBaranof, Llammakey, POLICEMAN9172 and Anonymous: 25
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-60_Seahawk?oldid=663555756 Contributors: The Epopt,
Leandrod, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tannin, Delirium, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Alvaro, Bogdangiusca, Rossami, Jiang, Conti, David
Newton, SEWilco, Wernher, Thue, RadicalBender, Blainster, Greyengine5, IRelayer, Mark.murphy, Bobblewik, Hammersfan, Neutrality,
Karl Dickman, Mtnerd, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, Night Gyr, Amerika, Rcsheets, Krellis, Pearle, SPUI, Thatguy96, Jigen III, Interiot, Complex01, Mike Beidler, Evil Monkey, UPH~enwiki, Bobrayner, Kbdank71, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Ian Dunster, Eubot, Vegardw, Chinfo,
Gurch, Coolhawks88, Victor12, DVdm, Chwyatt, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, Mcneight, Jimp, RussBot, Arado, Marloth2000, Ve3,
Saberwyn, CWenger, Alureiter, Nick-D, SmackBot, Looper5920, Ariedartin, Pretendo, Chris the speller, DocKrin, Dual Freq, Quartermaster, Jumping cheese, Godanov, ThurnerRupert, Analayo, MilborneOne, Timkeck, PRRfan, Mets501, Nevyan17, Bryanwxup, CmdrObot, Mattbr, Wafulz, Orca1 9904, Funnyfarmofdoom, J-boogie, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Thijs!bot, Deathbunny, Carloseduardo~enwiki,
Hcobb, Signaleer, Hulces, Spartaz, Born2ie, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Sabulyn~enwiki, A75, BilCat, LorenzoB, Saburny, E2a2j, Sm8900,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, MarcoLittel, Dividing, NevyanSD, Nigel Ish, VolkovBot, GimmeBot, GroveGuy, Firehat87, Yeokaiwei, Raryel,
ANigg, SieBot, VVVBot, Chris826, Cobatfor, Atani, Lightmouse, Weemanorpope, Hamiltondaniel, YSSYguy, MenoBot, Binksternet, Helenabella, Suradnik13, Marlow10, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, GPS73, DumZiBoT, ApocalypseNow115, Carlbush, Salam32, Mimarx,
Nukes4Tots, Dave1185, Addbot, Magus732, Download, Lightbot, Zorrobot, The Bushranger, Legobot, Yobot, WikiDan61, Wikipedian2,
Troymacgill, Calhounjim, Skalee, AnomieBOT, Crecy99, Xsoundx, MauritsBot, Nardisoero, Captain Cheeks, Sharky2noy, Mark Renier,
Kyteto, Citation bot 1, Elite501st~enwiki, RedBot, Cyganka, Danjw1, Julien1978, Degu93, Bryan TMF, 777sms, Mouath14, RjwilmsiBot, Mztourist, Babak902003, GoingBatty, Sp33dyphil, TeeTylerToe, ZroBot, Yiosie2356, Baronoz, Tholliday1486, Chesipiero, ClueBot
NG, Konstantinos19, ColMilGem, LofarMarc, Jetijonez, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sabre ball, Snow Blizzard, America789, Cyberbot II, Adnan
bogi, YFdyh-bot, FOX 52, Ionblast, JacobiJonesJr, Hsm-51, Achmad Fahri, UnbiasedVictory, Dslot424, Sierra-Hawk, Kioan, Nurse2Be,
Warren Edge and Anonymous: 213
Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk?oldid=663165198 Contributors: Peter Winnberg, The Epopt, Esteban Franz Tichy~enwiki, Leandrod, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Dante Alighieri, Tannin, Delirium, Arpingstone, Emperor, Rlandmann, Netsnipe, Jiang, Reinhard Kraasch, Batura, David Newton, DJ Clayworth, Quoth-22, RadicalBender, Riddley,
Robbot, Fredrik, Nydigovoth, Sekicho, Rhombus, Rasmus Faber, Profoss, Casito, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Gzornenplatz, Bobblewik,
Christopherlin, Joseph Dwayne, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Noisy, Pmsyyz, Autiger, Darren Olivier,
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Previously published: none Original artist: Jim1138
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A184402]
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Original artist: Tech. Sgt. Tony Tolley

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File:Delta_IV_Medium+_(4,2)_NROL-22_launch_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Delta_IV_
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photo/Sta Sgt. Quinton Russ
File:Delta_IV_Medium_4,2+_launch_with_GOES-N.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Delta_IV_
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File:Denel_Rooivalk_flying_2006.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Denel_Rooivalk_flying_2006.

jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Rooivalk Attack Helicopter Original artist: Danie van der Merwe
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File:E-4_advanced_airborne_command_post_EMP_sim.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/E-4_
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NN33300514 2005-06-30
Original artist: Camera Operator: SGT. ERNIE STONE
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JPG License: PD Contributors:
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Original artist:
Sta Sgt. Matthew Hannen
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060617.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/070701-f-6751b-001.JPG Original
artist: Mil
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Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Egyptian_Air_Force_Lockheed_C-130H_Hercules_(L-382)_Lebeda-1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/56/Egyptian_Air_Force_Lockheed_C-130H_Hercules_%28L-382%29_Lebeda-1.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors:
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Duch.seb
File:Eurocopter_EC-665_Tiger_UHT,_Germany_-_Army_AN1547187.jpg Source:
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Gallery page http://www.airliners.net/photo/Germany---Army/Eurocopter-EC-665-Tiger/1547187/L Original artist: Alan Lebeda
File:Eurocopter_LE_TIGRE_-_Flickr_-_besopha.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Eurocopter_
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http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/080929-F-6448T-193.jpg - description fetched from http://www.af.mil/photos/index.
asp?page=12 which is a dynamic URL which will change in the coming few days. Original artist:
U.S. Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Timothy Taylor
File:F-15,_71st_Fighter_Squadron,_in_flight.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/F-15%2C_71st_
Fighter_Squadron%2C_in_flight.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: [1], [2] Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo/Sta Sgt. Samuel
Rogers
File:F-15A_Eagle_two-view_silhouette_showing_external_stores.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/
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Air Force
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File:F-15C_AIM-9_AIM-120_m02006120700063.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/F-15C_AIM-9_
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File:F-15E_391st_USAF_081215-F-7823A-931.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/F-15E_391st_
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class='external text' href='http://www.defenselink.mil//WeekInPhotos/WeekInPhotosSlideShow.aspx?Date=12/18/2008'>Week in Photos</a>, 18 December 2008, U.S. Department of Defense. Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo by SSgt. Aaron Allmon
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http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/060614-F-5588D-092.jpg Original artist: Airman 1st Class Michael S. Dorus
File:F-15E_Strike_Eagle_banks_away_from_a_tanker.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/F-15E_
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photodb/photos/040719-F-9032T-012.jpg Original artist: (U.S. Air Force photo by Sta Sgt. Tony R. Tolley)
File:F-15E_Strike_Eagle_postflight_inspection.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/F-15E_Strike_
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File:F-15E_gbu-28_release.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/F-15E_gbu-28_release.jpg License:
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File:F-15E_undergoing_maintenance_showing_gatling_gun.jpg Source:
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artist: U.S. Navy photo by Kaylee LaRocque
File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:
User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Algeria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: SVG implementation of the 63-145 Algerian law "on Characteristics of the Algerian national emblem" ("Caractristiques du
Drapeau Algrien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp.
File:Flag_of_Angola.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on: http://www.manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera_colores.htm Original artist: (Vector graphics by Dbenbenn)
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by
User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg
File:Flag_of_Bolivia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp
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User:Madden
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Cameroon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Chad.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Quelle Fonto: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/td.html Original artist: SKopp & others (see upload log)
File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden
File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work
Gesetz zur nderung des Gesetzes ber das Staatswappen und die Staatsagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Vom 1.
Oktober 1959
Verordnung ber Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Flaggenverordnung Vom 3.
Januar 1973
Verordnung ber Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Flaggenverordnung Vom 12.
Juli 1979
Original artist:
diese Datei: Jwnabd
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Contributors: http://www.presidencia.gob.ec/pdf/Simbolos-Patrios.pdf Original artist: President of the Republic of Ecuador, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
623
File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg License: CC0 Contributors:

From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: user:
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Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
File based on the specication given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1978/19780380 Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Gabon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag_of_Hawaii.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/clipart/signs_and_symbols/flags/america/united_states/usa_hawaii.svg Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Honduras.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
Flags of the World Hungary Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Oce of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist:
Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides
the ocial specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Liberia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Version 1: SKopp
Original artist: Government of Liberia
File:Flag_of_Libya.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Flag_of_Libya.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: File:Flag of Libya (1951).svg Original artist: The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='http://validator.w3.org/check?uri=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FFlag_of_
Libya.svg,,&,,ss=1'>valid</a>.
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License:
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update
Public
File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
624
File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: adala.justice.gov.ma (Ar) Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
The burnt orange color in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, or
CMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pantone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band is
plain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF.
Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p.
File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn
File:Flag_of_Oman.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick
File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano
Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: the actual ag Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The
National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from
http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National ag Original artist: Flag design by
Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines
(Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: (see history) Original artist: (see history)
File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National ag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.vexilla-mundi.com Original artist: Vzb83
File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet
Credits:
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM
625
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Uruguay.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: design of the sun copied from URL [1], which was copied by Francisco Gregoric, 5 Jul 2004 from URL [2] Original artist:
User:Reisio (original author)
File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ocial websites Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
Open Clip Art website Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Zambia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http://www.parliament.gov.zm/downloads/ Original artist:
Author: Tobias Jakobs (in the public domain) and User:Zscout370 (Return re)
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Dominican_
Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist:
User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_the_President_of_the_United_States_of_America.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/
Flag_of_the_President_of_the_United_States_of_America.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Modied by Zscout370 from the
public domain le en::Image:Seal Of The President Of The Unites States Of America.svg. Originally from en.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Original artist: Zscout370 at English Wikipedia
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
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Arab_Emirates.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Air_Force.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_
States_Air_Force.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flagpictures.org/downloads/print/airforce1.svg Original artist:
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_the_United_
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File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Flag_of_the_
United_States_Marine_Corps.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Marine_corps_ag.gif Original artist: Marine_corps_ag.gif: Himasaram
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Navy.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Flag_of_the_United_
States_Navy.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flagpictures.org/downloads/print/usnavy1.svg Original artist: United
States Department of the Navy
File:Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_2012_MCAS_Miramar_AirShow_(Image_3_of_15).jpg Source:
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Contributors: 2012 MCAS Miramar AirShow [Image 3 of 15] Original artist: DVIDSHUB
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File:Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israeli_Apache_helicopter_overlooks_the_Greek_hills.jpg Source:
http://upload.
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Army
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File:Formation_of_F-35_Aircraft_MOD_45157750.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Formation_
of_F-35_Aircraft_MOD_45157750.jpg License: OGL Contributors:
Photo http://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/fotoweb/fwbin/download.dll/45153802.jpg Original artist: Harland Quarrington
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Original artist: Unknown Original uploader was Koalorka at en.wikipedia
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Contents

Air superiority ghter

Evolution of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air superiority ghters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References & notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Background and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soviet Union and its successor states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Peoples Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

France, Germany and Spain

Bell AH-1 SuperCobra

Design and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bell AH-1Z Viper

H-1 upgrade program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey

Flight testing and design changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bell OH-58 Kiowa

Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Advanced Scout Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mast mounted sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wire Strike Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Operation Prime Chance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Operation Just Cause and action in the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Afghanistan and Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bell UH-1 Iroquois

Twin engine variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.12 Operation Enduring Freedom (2001present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. Military variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other military variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boeing AH-64 Apache

Advanced Attack Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Avionics and targeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Armaments and congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Future and possible users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Boeing B-52 Stratofortress

10.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

11.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

11.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

11.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

12.1 Development and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

13.1 Design and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

14.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

14.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

15.1 Design and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

15.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

16.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

17.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

18 Close air support

18.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

20.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202