EVIDENCEOFWILLIAMJAMESTALKSTOTEACHERSIN

CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

EvidenceofWilliamJamesTalkstoTeachersinContemporarySchoolsandClassrooms
Alicia Marchini
University of Calgary

EVIDENCEOFWILLIAMJAMESTALKSTOTEACHERSIN
CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

EvidenceofWilliamJamesTalkstoTeachersinContemporarySchoolsandClassrooms
WilliamJames(1899) TalkstoTeachers addressedanarrayofchallengesthat
teachersarepresentedwith,aswellasvariousteachingmethodsandaspectsoflearning.
James(1899)emphasizedthatpsychologyisascience,whereasteachingisanart,thus
indicatingthatteachersmustnotattempttobecomeexpertsineducationalandlearning
psychology, as it will not directly develop their practice as teachers. Rather,
psychologicalknowledgecanbeappliedininventiveandcreativewaystoimproveand
revitalizetraditionalteachingmethods.James(1899)discussedthetopicsofstudents
attention and memory in great detail in Talks to Teachers, as these are fundamental
components of academic success that teachers must strive to harness in innovative
teachingstrategiestoenhancelearning.WilliamJames(1899),inhisTalkstoTeachers,
addressesprominentaspectsofcontemporaryclassrooms,includingcapturingtheinterest
of students, shaping behaviour, employing memory aids and reflection tasks to
consolidateinformation,andusingmultiplechannelstoconveyinformationandevaluate
understanding.Hedoesnot,however,addressteachingandlearningwithtechnologyin
theclassroom,whichisaquicklyadvancingapproachtoeducation.
WilliamJames (1899)suggestedthatknowledgeofthescienceofpsychology
doesnotleadindividualstobecompetentteachers;rathergoodteachersarethosewho
completelycapturetheinterestoftheirstudentandteachatopicinsuchawaythats/he
willneverforgetandwillinspirethemtoexplorefurther.Tobeaneffectiveteacher,one
mustpredictwhatthepupilwants,thinks,knows,anddoesnotknow,whichisadifficult

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CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

task to accomplish. James (1899) notes that this cannot be determined through
psychologicalknowledgeandtheories,asperceptionandinsightwillassisttheteacherin
predictingsuchaspectsofthestudent.Thisisevidentincontemporaryclassrooms,as
teachersoftenbeginunittopicsbyhavingthestudentscompleteaKWLchart,which
asksthepupilstostatewhattheyknowaboutthetopic,whattheywouldliketoknow
aboutit,andwhattheylearned(aportionofthechartthatiscompletedaftertheunitis
finished).Also,contemporaryteachersnolongeremphasizetraditionalteachingmethods,
likelecturingandrepeatedpractice(e.g.,textbookwork,homeworkdrills);rather,theuse
ofmanipulativesandactivitiesthatengagetheclassthatfacilitateinquirebasedlearning
(i.e.,learningthroughexploration,insteadofdirectteaching)areprimarycontemporary
classroomteachingmethods.
Inasimilarway,James(1899)discussestheroleofimitationandemulationinthe
dailylivesofindividualsandthewayinwhichthesearemanifestedinschools.Students
strivetoimitateandemulateteachers,whichprovidetheteacherwiththeopportunityto
succeedinacademicandbehaviouralinstructionthroughmodeling.Thisisanotherway
forteacherstomotivatedesiredbehaviourandlearning,accordingtoJames(1899).As
expected,incontemporaryclassroom,instructorswhoareinterestedinthetopicsthat
theyteach,providedemonstrations,andactasanexamplearemorelikelytocapturethe
attentionandevoketheinterestofthechild,aswellastoencouragedesiredbehaviour
andlearningintheirstudents.Asstudentsbegintotakeaninterestorperformbehaviours
ortasks,otherstudentswillemulatetheseinitiators.Aformofcompetitionoccursinthat
studentsstrivetoachieveatthesamelevelastheirpeers,oratahigherlevel.

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CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

Theconceptofownershipisusedin TalkstoTeachers todescribethewayin

whichaninstructorcanincorporatetheparticularinterestsofstudentsthataremanifested
intangibleforms(e.g.,stampcollection,bookseries)intolessonstoensurestudentshave
anintrinsicinterestinthetopic(James,1899).Thisisevidentinthewaythatschool
psychologistsoftennoteintheirrecommendationstoteachersandparentstheimportance
ofusingtopicsofinterestwhenperforminginterventions,suchasofferingaparticular
book series that is at an appropriate academic level, for a student with a reading
disability.Thisensuresthatthestudentfeelsadesiretoengageinthelearningtaskor
interventionbecauseofhis/herpreviouslyestablishedconnectiontothetopic.Moreover,
accordingtoJames(1899),linkinglessontopicstotheinterestsofstudentswillcreatea
patternofassociationthatwillmakelearningthetopicenjoyableandeasiertorecall.For
instance,ifstudentsareinterestedinhockey,ateachercanlinksignificanteventdatesin
thehistoryofhockey(e.g.,thelasttimeaparticularteamwontheStanleyCupFinals)to
significanteventdatesinthehistoryofCanadaorscientificinventions.Thiswillcapture
theattentionofstudentsandformassociationsbetweenlearningtopicsandtheirpersonal
interest.
WilliamJames(1899)acknowledgesthefactthatteachersmaynotalwaysbeable
to achieve theseattentioncapturingmethods ofteaching,as he recognizes that some
classroomworkisunattractivetothestudentandmayrequireefforttofocusattentionon
it. However, he beseeches teachers to elicit interest by drawing on intrinsically
stimulating notions, facts, or concrete examples. In contemporary constructivist
classrooms, students are at the center of the learning, as they are active participants in the

EVIDENCEOFWILLIAMJAMESTALKSTOTEACHERSIN
CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

learning process, rather than simply receiving information from the teacher (Finlayson,
2014). With this method of teaching, students are able to inquire, ask questions, work in
groups, use manipulatives and arrive at the knowledge throughout their own exploration
of the content. The teacher facilitates the learning, while students use critical thinking to
work through the problem at hand. The focus of each lesson is on the process and on the
understanding of knowledge, rather than getting the correct answer (Finlayson, 2014).
James(1899)statesthattheprofessionalgoalofateacheristoshapethestudents
behaviourinallcircumstances.Teachersandschoolpsychologistsoftencreatesocial
storiesforstudentswithspecialneedstoguidetheiractionsinastepbystepmannerto
encourage and enforce appropriate behaviour. Teachers in contemporary classroom
exhibit this professional task through classroom conduct rules, teaching conflict
resolution (e.g., discussing problems and potential solutions), positive (e.g., reward
charts,wordsofaffirmation)andnegativereinforcementtactics(e.g.,detention,revoked
privileges). As such, teachers and the school create policies and measures to train
students tobehaveappropriatelyinvarious situations.Forexample,studentslearnto
obeyauthority,followrules,respectoneanother,appreciatediversity,problemsolveand
communicateeffectively,aswellastouserespectfullanguageandremainsilentandstill
incertainsituations.Theseacquiredcustomsofbehaviourcanbegeneralizedbythe
studenttonewcircumstances,accordingtoWilliamJames(1899),whichisareasonable
conjecture,asindividualsaresocializedimmenselythroughschooling.
Aseachindividualisacreatureofhabit,WilliamJames(1899)suggests that
teachers should be cognizant of this fact and utilize practical opportunities to teach

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CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

students, ratherthan preach excessively. James (1899)expresses anotabledifference

betweenahabitthatisinstilledduringtheupbringingofHinduandAmericanchildren,as
Hinduchildrenaretaughttospenttimeinsilence,restingtheirmuscles,beingmindfulof
their breathing, and mediating, each day, which is an activity foreign to American
children.Currently,yogais acommonmethodofrelaxationandgentleexercisethat
numerousschoolsincorporateasanextracurricularactivityforstudentstoparticipatein
duringlunchrecessorafterschool.Althoughthispracticeisnotpresentinallschools,it
is a contemporary feature of some modern schools that recognize the importance of
relaxationandmeditationinarelentlesslyhecticworld.Theseschoolsaredevelopingin
theirstudentsthehabitoftakingthetimetofocusonthemomentandononeself,a
practice that James (1899) regarded as fundamental, yet absent in contemporary
classrooms,inTalkstoTeachers.
Talks to Teachers urges teachers to inform students of their progress and
appropriatenessoftheirbehaviourinorderforstudentstoevaluatetheiractivitiesbased
on the reaction s/he receives in response to their schoolwork and behaviour (James,
1899).Classicalconditioningseeminglyplaysarole,accordingtoWilliamJames(1899),
as he suggests that a student will recall the consequences of his/her actions and
subsequentlymodifyhis/heractionsthereafter(e.g.,ifachildgrabsatoyheisoffered,
hishandisslapped,andthetoyistakenaway;however,ifthechildbegsforthetoy,he
will receive the toy to play with). When a child has adequate memory, s/he will
rememberthereactions/hereceivedfortheinitialresponseandwilladjusttheresponse
tobecomeappropriateifanegativereactionwasgiven.

EVIDENCEOFWILLIAMJAMESTALKSTOTEACHERSIN
CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

Reflectionisacommonelementofthelearningprocessthatisincludedafter
lessonsinallsubjectareasinthecontemporaryclassroom.AccordingtoWilliamJames
(1899),thosewhothinkovertheirexperienceswillhavethebestmemorybecausethey
will make connections and associations with other experiences or prior knowledge.
Students often find assignments of reflection to be redundant, though they do not
recognizethatcontinuousreviewandapplicationinvariouswayswillhelptoconsolidate
information.Forexample,whenlearningmultiplicationtables,studentsincontemporary
classroomsareoftenrequiredtoreviewthemconstantlythroughhomeworkassignments,
flashcards,andinclasspractice.James(1899)alsomentionedtheuseofmnemonicsto
aidmemory.Mnemonicdevicesareaninterventionstrategycommonlysuggestedby
schoolpsychologistsforstudentswhohavedeficitsinfactretrievalanddifficultyusing
strategies and procedures (e.g., problem solving, reading comprehension); however,
mnemonicdevicesare,infact,helpfulforstudentsatalllevels.Assuch,teachersand
schoolpsychologistsoftenimplementthisteachingstrategyforstudentstoeasedifficulty
andaidmemoryoffactsorprocessesinmanysubjectareas.
William James (1899) addresses the importance of the accuracy of students
understanding and the duty of the teacher to use multiple channels to convey information
to facilitate successful learning. Teachers and school psychologists consider a students
individual learning style (i.e., visual, kinesthetic, auditory) when creating lesson plans or
intervention plans. For example, when teaching a science lesson, a teacher typically
verbally relays information while having the information displayed on the blackboard
and/or on handouts, and an experiment or demonstration related to the topic is often
conducted by students. This is referred to as differentiated instruction. Moreover, for

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CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

students who have particular learning needs, Individualized Education Plans are created
by teachers to develop modifications and accommodations that will assist the student in
succeeding academically in the classroom. In addition to employing multiple avenues of
learning, James (1899) emphasizes the importance of providing students with varied
verbal explanations when teaching to ensure that the information is properly conveyed
and understood. It can be argued that teachers in contemporary classrooms achieve this
aspect of successful teaching through differentiated instruction (i.e., verbal, visual,
kinesthetic), as well as through providing several lessons on a topic and evaluating
students understanding through various types of tasks, such as written tests, individual or
small group assignments, and presentations (i.e., differentiated assessment).
William James (1899)addressed numerous aspects of contemporary classrooms in
Talks to Teachers; however, he did not incorporate technology in the classroom, which is
a component of teaching and learning in contemporary classrooms that is of quickly
growing significance. Technologies, such as iPads, Smartboards, and various websites
and Internet activities, are now used to assist in the teaching of concepts in all subject
areas to engage and motivate students in their learning. The Internet encompasses a wide
range of resources that are available to teachers that they can use to engage students and
increase their interest in learning. However, using technology as a source of teaching and
learning does not guarantee student learning and comprehension. Often times, such
activities may need to be supplemented by teacher explanation, one-on-one support,
and/or additional practice and activities, though teachers in contemporary classrooms
often use technology to introduced topics to students (e.g., a video clip) and support
learning throughout the exploration (e.g., use computers and Internet to research topics).

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Teachers also often create websites for their classes as a means of posting homework
information for students who were absent, facilitate discussions, and post information or
links to various resources. School psychologists sometimes employ iPad apps and
computer programs that are available as interventions, such as Camp Cope-A-Lot, which
is a computer-assisted treatment for children with anxiety. Ultimately, use of technology
is becoming increasingly important for both teachers and students alike, and has
revolutionized teaching and learning.
Talks to Teachers emphasized the need to capture the attention and interest of
students by predicting what the student wants to learn, using manipulatives, and
incorporating intrinsic interests of the students into lessons (James, 1899). James (1899)
draws attention to the importance of shaping students behaviour through modeling,
developing habit, and recalling memories of consequences to diminish bad behaviour and
encourage good behaviour. He also stresses the benefits of memory aids (e.g.,
mnemonics) and reflection to consolidate information, as well as the use of differentiated
instruction and assessment of understanding, which closely align to the integral
components of contemporary education, as we know it today. However, as society has
entered the Information Era, technology and the Internet have become important teaching
and learning tools for teachers and school psychologists to engage students. William
James (1899) Talks to Teachers effectively provided essential information to teachers
regarding the ways in which psychology can be applied to teaching in the classroom, and
continues to be relevant today.

EVIDENCEOFWILLIAMJAMESTALKSTOTEACHERSIN
CONTEMPORARYSCHOOLSANDCLASSROOMS

References
Finlayson, M. (2014). Addressing math anxiety in the classroom. Improving Schools,
17(1), 99-115.
James, W. (1899). Talks to Teachers on Psychology: And to Students on Some of Lifes
Ideals. Retrieved from http://people.ucalgary.ca/~mueller/P305/TalksTeacher
s/james-ttt.html

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