2.

1 Mixtures, solutions and solvents

Mixtures: contains more than one substance just mixed together, but not chemically combined:

Air
Sea water
Shampoo

A solution is when particles of a substance mix and spread with the particles of a liquid
substance. A solution is saturated when it can dissolve no more solute at that temperature.
Solute + solvent = Solution
Soluble

sparingly soluble

insoluble

A soluble solid usually gets more soluble as the temperature rises.

Water is the worlds most common solvent. A volatile liquid is one that evaporates easily, which
means that it has a low boiling point. The forces between the particles are weak.
Some volatile solvents:
Solvent
White spirit
Propanone (acetone)
Ethanol

It dissolves
Gloss paint
Grease, nail polish
Glues, printing inks, the scented substances
that are used in perfumes and aftershaves.

2.2 Pure substances and impurities

A pure substance has no particles of other substance mixed with it.
An unwanted substance mixed with the substance you want is an impurity
Importance of purity:

Medical drugs (vaccines and medicines)

Flavouring for food
Baby foods and milk powder

To check if a substance is pure or not, check its melting and boiling points:
1. A pure substance has a definite, sharp melting and boiling point which is different for
each substance.
2. When a substance contains an impurity:
Its melting point falls and its boiling point rises
It melts and boils over a range of temperatures, not sharply

3. The more impurity there is:

The bigger the change in melting and boiling points
The wider the temperature range over which melting and boiling points occur.

2.3, 2.4 Separation methods

To obtain a pure substance you should separate the impurities from it, through the following
steps:
Method of separation
Filtration
Crystallisation
Evaporation
Simple distillation
Fractional distillation
Paper chromatography

Used to separate
A solid from a liquid
A solute from a solution
A solute from its solution
A solvent from a solution
Two liquids from each other
Different substances from a solution

Filtration
Items required:

Conical flask
Filter funnel
Filter paper
A beaker (which contains the substance to be filtered)

Processes:
1. Pass the liquid and the solid through the filter paper.
2. The substance collected in the filter paper is called the residue.
3. The liquid in the conical flask is called the filtrate.

Crystallisation
Items required:

Beaker
Tripod (as the solution has to be heated)
Glass rod and microscopic slide
Funnel
Filter paper
Conical flask

Processes:
1. Heat the solution to evaporate some of the solvent, so that the solution becomes more
concentrated.
2. Eventually, due to constant heating, the solution becomes concentrated.
3. Then cool the solution; this will cause crystals to form.
4. This can be checked by placing some on a microscopic slide.
5. Leave the solution to cool.
6. Remove the crystals by filtering.

Evaporation
Items required:

Evaporating dish
Tripod and heat

Processes:
1. Keep heating the solution until it is completely dry.

Separating two solids

Items required:

To separate two solids, a solvent that only dissolves one of them should be chosen.
Tripod, heat (water bath is used to evaporate ethanol as it is flammable)
Funnel
Filter paper

Processes:
1. To separate salt from sugar, a solvent that dissolves only one of them should be chosen;
ethanol only dissolves sugar.
2. Add ethanol to the mixture of salt and sugar, and stir; this causes the sugar to dissolve.
3. Then filter the mixture. The salt gets trapped in the filter paper, but sugar passes
through.
4. Rinse the salt and dry it in an oven.
5. Then evaporate the ethanol from the sugar solution, to get dry sugar.

Simple distillation
Items required:

Round bottom flask

Condenser
Beaker

Processes:
1. Heat the solution in a flask.
2. As it boils, the solvent rises into the
condenser, leaving the solute behind.
3. As the condenser is cold, the vapour
condenses to liquid.
4. The water dips into the beaker, and it is
called distilled water; it is almost pure.

Fractional distillation
Items required:

Round-bottom flask
Condenser
Tripod, heat
Thermometer
Fractionating column
Beaker

Processes:
1. Fractional distillation is used to separate two liquids, in
this case water and ethanol. It make use of their
different boiling points.
2. Heat the mixture in the flask. At about 78 degree C,
ethanol begins to boil, evaporating some water with it as well. So a mixture of water and
ethanol rise up the column.
3. The vapours condense on the glass beads, thus making them hot.
4. When the beads reach about 78 degree C, ethanol no longer condenses on them but
water vapour does. So water drips back into the flask, while ethanol moves into the
condenser, where it condenses. So pure ethanol drips into the beaker, whereas water
remains in the round bottom flask.
5. When the thermometer reading rises above 78 degree C, it is a sign that all ethanol has
gone, so you can stop heating.
Use of fractional distillation in Industries:

 In the petroleum industry, to refine crude oil into petrol and other groups of compounds.
In producing ethanol; to separate ethanol from the fermented mixture.
Also to separate the gases in air. (they are cooled to become a liquid and then warmed
up, causing them to boil off one by one)

Paper chromatography
Items required:
Chromatogram
Processes:
To separate a mixture of substances:
1. To separate ink, place a drop of ink in the centre of the
filter paper. After letting it dry, add two or three more spots on the same spot, in the
same way.
2. Now drip water onto the ink spot, one drop at a time.
3. The ink slowly spreads out and separates into rings of different colours.
4. Depending on the number of rings, we can find out that the different number of dyes in
the ink.
To identify substances:
1. To check if X contains substances A, B, C and D, choose
a solvent that they are all soluble in; propanone.
2. Place a spot of each solution along a line, on
chromatography paper.
3. Stand the paper in a little propanone. The
solvent rises up the paper. When it is near the
top, remove the paper.
4. Then check the corresponding heights of each
solution and see if X has it also.

2.5 More about paper chromatography

Uses of paper chromatography:
1. Identify a substance
2. Separate mixtures of substances
3. Purify a substance, by separating it from its impurities

The more soluble a substance is in the solvent, the further it will travel up the chromatography
paper.
Sometimes the amino acids are invisible, so a locating agent is sprayed on top of it. Ninhydrin is
a good choice.
Rf value = Distance moved by amino acid / distance moved by solvent (it is always 0.
something)
The Rf value of a compound is always the same for a given solvent, under the same conditions.