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ClassNotesonConstitutionalLawUnitI(1stSem/3yearLL.B)
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Advocates&
IntroductiontoIndianConstitution
TheframingoftheConstitutionwascompletedonNovember26,1949whentheConstituentAssembly
formallyadoptedthenewConstitution.TheConstitutioncameintoforcewitheffectfromJanuary26,1950.
Judges
advocatesactclass
TheConstitutioncontainsthefundamentallawoftheland.Itisthesourceofallpowersof,andlimitationson,
notesadvocatesact
thethreeorgansofState,viz.theexecutive,legislatureandjudiciary.Noactionofthestatewouldbevalid
essaysadvocatesact
unlessitispermissibleundertheConstitution.Therefore,itisimperativetohaveaclearunderstandingofthe
lawstudynotes
natureandworkingoftheConstitution.
advocatesactllb
syllabusAlternate
DisputeResolution
class
bankinglaw
ObjectivesofTheConstitution
massbasedfreedomstruggle,thenationalmovement,partitionofthecountryandspreadofcommunal
classnotescriminal
integrityandunityofthecountryandestablishmentofademocraticsociety.TheirmainwastogiveIndiaa
lawessayscriminal
Constitutionwhichwillfulfillthecherishedideasandidealsofthepeopleofthiscountry.
environmentallaw
classnotes
environmentallaw
essaysenvironmental
lawlawstudynotes
environmentallawllb
syllabus
Featured
TheConstitutionbeginswithaPreamblewhichdeclaresIndiatobeaSovereign,Socialist,Secular,
Democratic,Republic.ThePreamblealsomentionsthegoalsofsecuringjustice,libertyandequalityforallits
citizensandpromotionofnationalunityandintegrityonthebasisoffraternityamongthepeopleassuring
dignityoftheindividual.
SalientFeaturesoftheIndianConstitution
ThemainfeaturesofIndianConstitutionarethefollowing:
1. AwrittenConstitution:TheIndianConstitutionismainlyawrittenconstitution.Awrittenconstitutionis
framedatagiventimeandcomesintoforceorisadoptedonafixeddateasadocument.Asyouhave
insurancelaw
alreadyreadthatourconstitutionwasframedoveraperiodof2years,11monthsand18days,itwas
insurancelawanswers
adoptedon26thNovember,1949andenforcedonJanuary26,1950.Certainconventionshave
insurancelawclass
graduallyevolvedoveraperiodoftimewhichhaveprovedusefulintheworkingoftheconstitution.
notesinsurancelaw
pptsinsurancelaws
tudynotesinsurance
llbanswers
jurisprudenceclass
notesjurisprudence
UnionofStates.ThereisadistributionofpowersbetweentheUnion/CentralGovernmentandtheState
threelistsofpowerssuchasUnionList,StateListandtheConcurrentList.
3. ParliamentaryDemocracy:Indiahasaparliamentaryformofdemocracy.Thishasbeenadoptedfrom
lawstudynotes
theexecutive.TheCabinetisselectedfromamongthemembersoflegislature.Thecabinetisresponsible
jurisprudencellb
tothelatter.InfacttheCabinetholdsofficesolongasitenjoystheconfidenceofthelegislature.Inthis
study
ExpertCyberLawyer
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Governments.SinceIndiaisafederation,suchdistributionoffunctionsbecomesnecessary.Thereare
essaysjurisprudence
kslu
CaseLaws.
2. FederalPolicy:TheConstitutionofIndiadoesnotusethetermfederalstate.ItsaysthatIndiaisa
theBritishsystem.Inaparliamentarydemocracythereisacloserelationshipbetweenthelegislatureand
syllabus
IndianCaseLaw
TheConstitutionofIndependentIndiawasframedinthebackgroundofabout200yearsofcolonialrule,
notescriminallaw
criminallawllbsyllabus
Support,Guidance,Books.
Code
violence.Therefore,theframersoftheConstitutionwereconcernedabouttheaspirationsofthepeople,
lawlawstudynotes
InitiativesSupportUs
formofdemocracy,theHeadoftheStateisnominal.InIndia,thePresidentistheHeadoftheState.
ConstitutionallythePresidentenjoysnumerouspowersbutinpracticetheCouncilofMinistersheadedby
PleasecontributeyourLaw
Notes,LawQuestion
papers,LawCaseBriefs,
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otherusefulmaterialfor
fellowstudents.Write&
Helpthecommunity.
thePrimeMinister,whichreallyexercisesthesepowers.ThePresidentactsontheadviceofthePrime
MinisterandtheCouncilofMinisters.
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Subscribe
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9/7/2015 ConstitutionofIndiaClassNotesIndia,IndianConstitutionalLawRevisionNotes,ConstitutionofIndiaLLBNotesIndia,LL.BLawCasesNotes|GRRLaw
noteslabourlaw
4. FundamentalRightsandDuties:FundamentalRightsareoneoftheimportantfeaturesoftheIndian
classnoteslabourlaw
followinglesson.FundamentalRightsarejusticiableandareprotectedbythejudiciary.Incaseof
essayslabourlawlaw
violationofanyoftheserightsonecanmovetothecourtoflawfortheirprotection.FundamentalDuties
studynoteslabourlaw
wereaddedtoourConstitutionbythe42ndAmendment.ItlaysdownalistoftenFundamentalDutiesfor
llbsyllabuslaw
allcitizensofIndia.Whiletherightsaregivenasguaranteestothepeople,thedutiesareobligations
answerslaw
whicheverycitizenisexpectedtoperform.
pptsllb
Constitution.TheConstitutionprovidesforsixFundamentalRightsaboutwhichyouwillreadinthe
5. DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy:TheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicywhichhavebeenadopted
answers
fromtheIrishConstitution,isanotheruniquefeatureoftheConstitutionofIndia.TheDirectivePrinciples
NewsPG.
PrinciplesaimatestablishingawelfarestateinIndiawheretherewillbenoconcentrationofwealthinthe
DiplomaCyberLaw
publicinternationallaw
studynotes
wereincludedinourConstitutioninordertoprovidesocialandeconomicjusticetoourpeople.Directive
handsofafew.
procedure.TheConstitutionofIndiaprovidesforthreecategoriesofamendments.Inthefirstcategory,
Youcansubscribeby
amendmentcanbedonebythetwohousesofParliamentsimplemajorityofthememberspresentand
emailtoreceiveupdates:
whatisadvocatesact
votingofbeforesendingitforthePresidentsassent.Inthesecondcategoryamendmentsrequirea
whatiscriminallaw
specialmajority.SuchanamendmentcanbepassedbyeachHouseofParliamentbyamajorityofthe
whatisenvironmental
totalmembersofthatHouseaswellasbythe2/3rdmajorityofthememberspresentandvotingineach
lawwhatis
jurisprudencewhatis
labourlaw
Slide1
6. PartlyrigidandPartlyflexible:Aconstitutionmaybecalledrigidorflexibleonthebasisofitsamending
Enteryouremailaddress:
Join
houseofParliamentandsendtothePresidentforhisassentwhichcannotbedenied.Inthethird
categorybesidesthespecialmajoritymentionedinthesecondcategory,thesamehastobeapproved
SubscribethroughaRSS
alsobyatleast50%oftheStatelegislatures.
feedreader
7. LanguagePolicy:Indiaisacountrywheredifferentlanguagesarespokeninvariouspartsofthecountry.
GRRLawJournalFeed
HindiandEnglishhavebeenmadeofficiallanguagesofthecentralgovernment.Astatecanadoptthe
languagespokenbyitspeopleinthatstatealsoasitsofficiallanguage.
8. SpecialProvisionsforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes:TheConstitutionprovidesforgiving
certainspecialconcessionsandprivilegestothemembersofthesecastes.Seatshavebeenreservedfor
theminParliament,Statelegislatureandlocalbodies,allgovernmentservicesandinallprofessional
colleges.
9. AConstitutionDerivedfromManySources:Theframersofourconstitutionborrowedmanythingsfrom
theconstitutionsofvariousothercountriesandincludedtheminourconstitution.Thatiswhysome
writerscallIndianConstitutionabagofborrowings.
10. IndependentJudiciary:Indianjudiciaryisindependentanimpartial.TheIndianjudiciaryisfreefromthe
influenceoftheexecutiveandthelegislature.Thejudgesareappointedonthebasisoftheir
qualificationsandcannotberemovedeasily.
11. SingleCitizenship:InIndiathereisonlysinglecitizenship.ItmeansthateveryIndianisacitizenofIndia,
irrespectiveoftheplaceofhis/herresidenceorplaceofbirth.He/sheisnotacitizenoftheConstituent
StatelikeJharkhand,UttaranchalorChattisgarhtowhichhe/shemaybelongtobutremainsacitizenof
India.AllthecitizensofIndiacansecureemploymentanywhereinthecountryandenjoyalltherights
equallyinallthepartsofIndia.
12. UniversalAdultFranchise:Indiandemocracyfunctionsonthebasisofonepersononevote.Every
citizenofIndiawhois18yearsofageoraboveisentitledtovoteintheelectionsirrespectiveofcaste,
sex,race,religionorstatus.TheIndianConstitutionestablishespoliticalequalityinIndiathroughthe
methodofuniversaladultfranchise.
13. EmergencyProvisions:TheConstitutionmakersalsoforesawthattherecouldbesituationswhenthe
governmentcouldnotberunasinordinarytimes.Tocopewithsuchsituations,theConstitution
elaboratesonemergencyprovisions.Therearethreetypesofemergencya)emergencycausedbywar,
externalaggressionorarmedrebellionb)emergencyarisingoutofthefailureofconstitutionalmachinery
instatesandc)financialemergency.
TheoryofBasicStructure
1. SupremacyofConstitution
2. RepublicanandDemocraticformofGovernment
3. SecularCharacterofConstitution
4. SeparationofPowersbetweentheLegislature,theExecutiveandtheJudiciary
5. FederalCharacterofConstitution
NatureoftheIndianConstitutionFederal,Unitary,Quasifederal
InaDemocraticgovernment,Constitutionplaysaprimaryroleinefficientgovernance.Constitutionisasetof
fundamentalprinciplesorestablishedprecedentsaccordingtowhichaStatecanbegoverned.Constitutions
maybeclassifiedintotwocategories.Suchas:FederalorUnitary.
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WhatisFederalandUnitaryConstitution?
InaUnitaryConstitution,allthepowersofaGovernmentareconcentratedinacentralauthority.TheStates
orthedifferentconstituentsoftheCountryaresubordinatetosuchcentralauthority.However,inFederal
Constitution,powersaredistributedamongthecenterandtheStates.Statesarenotsubordinatesofthe
centralgovernment.ConstitutionofUSA,Australiaareconsideredtobefederalinnature.
IsIndianConstitutionafederalorunitaryinnature?
IndianConstitutionisanhybridofbothfederalandunitarynatureofaConstitutionandhencerightlytermed
asQuasifederalConstitution.Itmeansafederalsetupwheredespitehavingtwoclearsetsofgovernment
centralandthestates,morepowersaregiventotheCentralGovernment.
Prof.WheareputforthhisviewthattosayaConstitutionisfederalinnature,itshoulddisplaysfederal
characterpredominantly.
Followingarethedefiningfeaturesoffederalism:
DistributionofPowersbetweencenterandstates
SupremacyoftheConstitution
WrittenConstitution
RigidityoftheConstitution
IndependentJudiciary
FactorsthataffectthefederalcharacteroftheConstitutionofIndiaare:
AppointmentoftheGovernorofaState
PoweroftheparliamenttomakelawsonsubjectsintheStatelist.
Powertoformnewstatesandtochangeexistingboundaries
EmergencyProvisions
ThedebatewhetherIndiahasaFederalConstitutionandFederalGovernmenthasbeengrapplingthe
ApexcourtinIndiabecauseofthetheoreticallabelgiventotheConstitutionofIndia,namely,federal,quasi
federal,unitary.ThefirstsignificantcasewherethisissuewasdiscussedatlengthbytheapexCourtwas
StateofWestBengalV.UnionofIndia.Themainissueinvolvedinthiscasewastheexerciseofsovereign
powersbytheIndianstates.ThelegislativecompetenceoftheParliamenttoenactalawforcompulsory
acquisitionbytheUnionoflandandotherpropertiesvestedinorownedbythestateandthesovereign
authorityofstatesasdistinctentitieswasalsoexamined.TheapexcourtheldthattheIndianConstitutiondid
notpropoundaprincipleofabsolutefederalism.Thoughtheauthoritywasdecentralizedthiswasmainlydue
tothearduoustaskofgoverningthelargeterritory.Thecourtoutlinedthecharacteristics,whichhighlightthe
factthattheIndianConstitutionisnotatraditionalfederalConstitution.
Thus,itcanbesaidthatIndianConstitutionisprimarilyfederalinnatureeventhoughithasuniquefeatures
thatenableittoassumeunitaryfeaturesuponthetimeofneed.
PrinciplesofFederalism
TheIndianConstitutionisbasicallyfederalinformandismarkedbythetraditionalcharacteristicsofafederal
system,namely,supremacyoftheConstitution,divisionofpowerbetweentheUnionandStateGovernments,
existenceofanindependentjudiciaryandarigidprocedurefortheamendmentoftheConstitution.
ThereisanindependentjudiciarytodetermineissuesbetweentheUnionandtheStates,tobeexercisedin
fieldsassignedtothemrespectively.However,therearemarkeddifferencesbetweentheAmerican
federationandtheIndianfederation.Theyare:
1. Americahasadualcitizenship,whileinIndia,thereissinglecitizenship
2. StatesinAmericahavearighttomaketheirownConstitutions,whereasnosuchpowerisgiventoStates
inIndia
3. IndianConstitutionexhibitsacentralizingtendencyinseveralofitsprovisions
4. Incertaincircumstances,theUnionisempoweredtosupersedetheauthorityoftheStateortoexercise
powersotherwisevestedintheStates
CASELAWS
1. KesavanandaBharativ.StateofKerala,AIR1973SC14611
2. S.R.Bommaiv.UnionofIndia,AIR1994SC19188
3. StateofWestBengalv.UnionofIndia,AIR1963SC124124
4. RamJawayaKapurv.StateofPunjab,AIR1955SC54939
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5. KuldipNayarv.UnionofIndia,AIR2006SC3127
6. StateofHaryanav.StateofPunjab,AIR2002SC685
Preamble
WE,THEPEOPLEOFINDIA,havingsolemnlyresolvedto
constituteIndiaintoa[SOVEREIGNSOCIALISTSECULAR
DEMOCRATICREPUBLIC]andtosecuretoallitscitizens:
JUSTICE,social,economicandpolitical
LIBERTYofthought,expression,belief,faithandworship
EQUALITYofstatusandofopportunity
andtopromoteamongthemall
FRATERNITYassuringthedignityoftheindividualandthe[unityandintegrityoftheNation]
INOURCONSTITUENTASSEMBLYthistwentysixthdayof
November,1949,doHEREBYADOPT,ENACTANDGIVETO
OURSELVESTHISCONSTITUTION.
PartITheUnionandItsTerritory
Article1:NameandterritoryoftheUnion
Article2:Admissionorestablishmentofnewstates
Article3:FormationofnewStatesandalterationofareas,boundariesornamesofexistingStates
Article4:Lawsmadeunderarticles2and3toprovidefortheamendmentoftheFirstandtheFourth
Schedulesandsupplemental,incidentalandconsequentialmatters
CASELAWS
1. InreBerubariUnionandExchangeofEnclaves,AIR1960SC84547
2. RamKishoreSenv.UnionofIndia,AIR1966SC644
3. UnionofIndiav.SukumarSengupa,AIR1990SC1692
4. N.MasthanSahibv.ChiefCommissionerPondicherry,AIR1962SC797
5. R.C.Poudyalv.UnionofIndia,AIR1993SC1804
6. BabulalParatev.StateofBombay,AIR1960SC51
PartIICitizenship
Article5:CitizenshipatthecommencementoftheConstitution
Article6:RightsofcitizenshipofcertainpersonswhohavemigratedtoIndiafromPakistan
CitizenshipbyBirth
Article7:RightsofcitizenshipofcertainmigrantstoPakistan
RightsofOverseasCitizens
Article8:RightsofcitizenshipofcertainpersonsofIndianoriginresidingoutsideIndia
Article9:PersonsvoluntarilyacquiringcitizenshipofaforeignStatenottobecitizens
Article10:Continuanceoftherightsofcitizenship
Article11:Parliamenttoregulatetherightofcitizenshipbylaw
CommonwealthCitizenship
EverypersonwhoisacitizenofaCommonwealthcountryspecifiedintheFirstScheduleshall,byvirtueof
thatcitizenship,havethestatusofaCommonwealthcitizeninIndia.
WhetheraCorporationacitizenshipornot
Thefreedomunderarticle19arelimitedtocitizensandifliterallyconstructedthesefreedomswouldnotbe
availabletocorporations,becausecorporationscannotbetalkedofashavingorpossessingcitizenship.But
ithasbeenheldthatshareholderscanchallengethevalidityofalawonthegroundsofviolationoftheir
fundamentalrightsandthecompanymaybejoinedinsuchproceedingwithproperpleading.Thedecisions
relevanttothepointarefollowing:
Acompanyisnotacitizenandcannotinvokearticle19(1)(g).
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CaseLaws:
1. TataEngineeringandLocomotiveCo.Ltd.v.StateofBihar,AIR1965SC40(48)
2. BennetColemanandCo.Ltd.v.UnionofIndia,AIR1973SC106:(1972)2SCC788:1973(1)SCJ177
3. D.C&G.M.v.UnionofIndiaAIR1983SC937
DomicileMeaning
Thecountrythatapersontreatsastheirpermanenthome,orlivesinandhasasubstantialconnection
with.Thestateinwhichapersonhashis/herpermanentresidenceorintendstomakehis/herresidence,as
comparedtowherethepersonislivingtemporarily.
KindsofDomicile
1. Domicileoforigin
2. Domicileofchoice
3. Domicilebyoperatingoflaw
ElementsconstitutingDomicile
Domiciledependsonintent,locationofahomewhereapersonregularlysleeps,andsomeconduct.
OneDomicile
UndertheIndianConstitution,thereisonlyonedomicileviz.thedomicileofthecountryandthereisno
separatedomicileforaState.
CaseLaw:
PradeepJain(Dr.)v.UnionofIndia,AIR1984SC1420:(1984)3SCC654:1984EdCase237,para89
CitizenshipbyMigration
MigrationmustbewithintentiontoresidepermanentlyinIndia.Suchintentionmaybeformedevenlater.
PartIIIFundamentalRights
KindsofRights
NaturalorHumanRights
MoralRights
LegalRightsCivilandPoliticalRights
FundamentalRightsinIndia
NaturalRights
NaturalRightsarethoserightsthatareavailabletoeachandeverybeing,includinghumanbeings.Rights
thatarespecifictoHumanbeingsarealsocalledasHumanRights.Naturalrightsdealswithrighttolife,right
tomovement,etc.
Article21dealswithrighttoprotectionoflifeandpersonalliberty.
Atthesametime,whenapersonlivesaloneinanisland,hedoesnothaverightbutfreedom.Onlywhena
manlivesasagrouporinacommunity,rightsevolve.Because,whenamanlivesinagroup,thereisalways
conflictandabsolutefreedomcannotbeassured.Hence,theconceptofrightiscorrelatedwithduties.
Everyrighthasanobligationtoduty.Recognitionoffreedomofothersformsthebasisofrights.Ourrightsis
basedonothersdutiesandothersrightsbasedonourduties.Statedoesnotcreaterights,butonly
recognizes,maintainsandcoordinatestherightsofitspeople.
OriginofFundamentalRights
TherightsthatarebasictotheadvancementofthehumanracearecalledFundamentalRights.Allother
rightsarederivedfromtheserightsasdirectimplicationsorapplicationoftheirprinciples.Itisanaccepted
beliefamongthephilosophersthattheserightsarenothingbutnaturalhumanrights,whichdistinguish
betweenhumansandanimalsandwhichhavebeensoinstrumentalinbringinghumansfromthestoneage
tothepresentage.Amongall,therighttolifeandlibertyisconsideredtobethemostbasic.
ThehistoryoflegallyenforceablefundamentalrightsprobablystartsfromMagnaCarta,whichwasalistof
rightsextractedfromKindJohnbythepeopleofEnglandin1214AD.ThiswasfollowedbytheBillofRights
in1689inwhichEnglishmenweregivencertaincivilandpoliticalrightsthatcouldnotbetakenaway.Later
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ontheFrenchcompiledtheDeclarationoftherightsofManandoftheCitizenaftertheFrenchRevolutionin
1789.
ThemostimportantadvancementinhistoryoffundamentalrightsoccurredwhentheUSAincorporated
certainfundamentalrightsintheformonBillofRightsintheirconstitutionbythewayoffirst10
amendments.Theserightsweredeemedtobebeyondthevagariesofpolitics.Theprotectionbythe
constitutionmeantthattheserightscouldnotbeputtovoteandwerenotdependentonthewhimsof
politiciansorofthemajority.
Afterthis,nearlyalldemocraciesoftheworldhavegivenaconstitutionalsanctitytocertaininalienablerights
availabletotheircitizens.(Source:Hanumant.com)
TheneedforFundamentalRights
1.RuleofLaw
Theserightsareaprotectiontothecitizensagainstthegovtandarenecessaryforhavingtheruleoflawand
notofaagovtoraperson.Sinceexplicitlygivenbytheconstitutiontothepeople,theserightsdarenotbe
transgressedbytheauthority.Thegovt.isfullyanswerabletothecourtsandisfullyrequiredtoupholdthese
rights.
2.Firstfruitsofthefreedomstruggle
Afterlivinginsubjugationforsuchalongtime,peoplehadforgottenwhatismeantbyfreedom.Theserights
givepeoplehopeandbeliefthatthereisnostoppingtotheirgrowth.Theyarefreefromthewhimsofthe
rulers.Inthatsense,theyarefirstfruitsofthelengthyfreedomstruggleandbringasenseofsatisfactionand
fulfillment.
3.QuantificationofFreedom
EveryIndiancitizeninfreetopracticeareligionofhischoice,butthatisnotsointhegulfcountries.Ourright
tospeechandexpressionallowsustofreelycriticizethegovt.butthisisnotsoinChina.(Source:
Hanumant.com)
FundamentalRightsinIndia
AsregardIndiaSimonCommissionandJointParliamentaryCommitteehadrejecttheideaofenacting
declarationofFundamentalrightonthegroundthattheabstractdeclarationisuseless.Althoughthedemand
ofthepeoplewasnotmetbytheBritishParliamentunderthegovernmentofIndiaAct1935yetthe
enthusiasmofthepeopletohavesuchrightintheconstitutionwasnotimpaired.Therecommendationofthe
NehruCommitteewasincludedintheconstitutionin16May1946bythecabinetmission.
PARTIIItalksaboutthefundamentalrightssuchas:
RighttoEquality(Article1418)
RighttoFreedom(Article1922)
RightagainstExploitation(Article2324)
RighttofreedomofReligion(Article2528)
CulturalandEducationalRight(Article2930)
RighttoConstitutionRight(Article32)
Art.19(1)a19(1)gandArt.19(2)placesreasonablerestrictiononrights.Ourrightsarenotabsoluterights.
DefinitionofState
Article12oftheConstitutiondefinestheStateasfollows:
Inthispart,unlessthecontextotherwiserequires,theStateincludestheGovernmentandParliamentof
IndiaandtheGovernmentandtheLegislatureofeachoftheStatesandalllocalorotherauthoritieswithin
theterritoryofIndiaorunderthecontroloftheGovernmentofIndia.
ThedefinitionofthetermtheStatespecifiestheauthoritiesandinstrumentalitiesfunctioningwithinor
withouttheterritoryofIndia,whichshallbedeemedtobetheStateforthepurposeofpartIIIofthe
Constitution.Thedefinitionisinclusiveandnotexhaustive.Therefore,authoritiesandinstrumentalitiesnot
specifiedinitmayalsofallwithinitiftheyotherwisesatisfythecharacteristicsoftheStateasdefinedinthis
article.
LocalAuthorities
Alocalauthorityhavingalegalgrievancemaybeabletotakeoutawrit.Thus,awritwasissuedonthe
petitionofalocalauthorityagainstapublicutilityconcern,forthelattersfailuretofulfilitsstatutoryobligation
tosupplypowertothelocalauthority,aconsumer
CaseLaw:
CorporationofCityofNagpurv.N.E.L&PowerCo.,AIR1958Bom498
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OtherAuthorities
Mr.JusticeBhagwatihasgivenfollowingtestfordeterminingwhetheranentityisaninstrumentalityor
agencyoftheState
SharecapitalofthecorporationisheldbyGovernment
WherethefinancialassistanceoftheStateissomuchastomeetalmostentireexpenditureofthe
corporation
Stateprotectedmonopolystatusofacorporation
ExistenceofdeepandpervasiveStatecontrol
Ifthefunctionsofthecorporationsofpublicimportanceandcloselyrelatedtogovernmentalfunctions
Article13:Lawsinconsistentwithorinderogationofthefundamentalrights
CaseLaws:
1. A.K.GopalanVs.StateofMadras.1951
ByunanimousdecisiondeclaredthatSection14oftheActinvalidandthusmanifesteditscompetenceto
declarevoidanyparliamentaryenactmentrepugnanttotheprovisionsoftheConstitution.
2. MinervaMillscase,1980
SupremeCourthadtrunkdownsection4ofthe42ndAmendmentActwhichgavepreponderancetothe
DirectivePrinciplesoverArticles24,19and31ofthePartIIIoftheConstitution,onthegroundthatPartIII
andPartIVoftheConstitutionareequallyimportantandabsoluteprimacyofoneovertheotherisnot
permissibleasthatwoulddisturbtheharmonyoftheConstitution.TheSupremeCourtwasconvincedthat
anythingthatdestroysthebalancebetweenthetwopartwill,bythatveryfact,destroyanessential
elementofthebasicstructureofourconstitution
DoctrineofSeverability
Article13oftheIndianConstitutionprovidesforDoctrineofSeverabilitywhichstatesthatAlllawsinforcein
IndiabeforethecommencementofConstitutionshallbevoidinsofartheyareinconsistentwiththe
provisionsoftheConstitution.
Alawbecomesinvalidonlytotheextenttowhichitisinconsistentwiththefundamentalrights.Soonlythat
partofthelawwillbedeclaredinvalidwhichisinconsistent,andtherestofthelawwillstand.However,on
thispointaclarificationhasbeenmadebythecourtsthatinvalidpartofthelawshallbeseveredand
declaredinvalidifreallyitisseverable,i.eifafterseparatingtheinvalidpartthevalidpartiscapableofgiving
effecttothelegislatures
intent,thenonlyitwillsurvive,otherwisethecourtshalldeclaretheentirelawasinvalid.
CaseLaws:
1. A.K.Gopalanv.State0fMadras
heldthatthepreventivedetentionminussection14wasvalidastheomissionoftheSection14fromthe
ActwillnotchangethenatureandobjectoftheActandthereforetherestoftheActwillremainvalidand
effective.
2. D.S.Nakarav.UnionofIndia
theActremainedvalidwhiletheinvalidportionofitwasdeclaredinvalidbecauseitwasseverablefrom
therestoftheAct.
3. R.M.D.C.v.UnionofIndia,AIR1957S.c.628
1.Theintentionofthelegislatureisthedeterminingfactorindeterminingwhetherthevalidpartsofa
statueareseverablefromtheinvalidparts.
2.Ifthevalidandinvalidprovisionsaresoinextricablymixedupsothattheycannotbeseparatedfrom
theother,thentheinvalidityofaportionmustresultintheinvalidityoftheActinitsentirety.
3.Evenwhentheprovisionswhichareinvalid,aredistinctandseparatefromthosewhichareinvalidif
theyformpartofasingleschemewhichisintendedtobeoperativeasawhole,thenalsotheinvalidityof
apartwillresultinthefailureofthewhole.
4.IfaftertheinvalidportionisexpungedfromtheStatutewhatremainscannotbeenforcedwithout
makingalterationsandmodificationstherein,thenthewholeofitmustbestuckdownasvoidas
otherwiseitwillamounttojudiciallegislation.
DoctrineofEclipse
Itstatesthatanexistinglawwhichisinconsistentwithafundamentalrightbecomeinoperativefromthedate
ofthecommencementoftheconstitution,itcannotbeacceptedasdeadaltogether.TheDoctrineofEclipseis
basedontheprinciplethatalawwhichviolatesfundamentalrights,isnotnullityorvoidabinitiobut
becomes,onlyunenforceablei.e.remainsinamoribundcondition.Itisovershadowedbythefundamental
rightsandremainsdormant,butitisnotdead..
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CaseLaws:
1. Bhikhajiv.StateofM.P.,AIR1955S.c.781
Inthiscasetheprovisionsof.C.P.andBerarMotorVehicles(Amendment)Act1948authorizedtheState
GovernmenttotakeuptheentiremotortransportbusinessintheProvincetotheexclusionofmotor
transportoperators.Thisprovisionthoughvalidwhenenacted,butbecamevoidonthecommencement
oftheConstitutionin1950astheyviolatedArticle19(1)(g)oftheConstitution.However,in1951Clause
(6)ofArticle19wasamendedbytheConstitution(1stAmendmentAct)soastoauthorize.the
Governmenttomonopoliseanybusiness.TheSupremeCourtheldthattheeffectoftheamendmentwas
toremovetheshadowandtomaketheimpugnedActfreefromblemishorinfirmity.Itbecame
enforceableagainstcitizensaswellasnoncitizensaftertheconstitutionalimpedimentwasremoved.
Thislawwaseclipsedforthetimebeingbythefundamentalrights.Assoonastheeclipseisremoved,the
lawbeginstooperatefromthedateofsuchremoval.(Courtesy:Adv.SmitaviaLegalServices.co.in)
RighttoEquality(Article1418)
Applicationofthesamelawsuniformlytoallofthemwill,therefore,beinconsistentwiththeprincipleof
equality.
Article14Equalitybeforelaw
TheStateshallnotdenytoanypersonequalitybeforethelawortheequalprotectionofthelawswithinthe
territoryofIndia.Prohibitionofdiscriminationongroundsofreligion,race,caste,sexorplaceofbirth.
ItisthecorearticleunderRighttoEquality.Itdealswithtwokindsofrights.ItstatesthattheStateshallnot
denytoanyperson
1. Righttoequalitybeforethelaw.
2. RighttoEqualProtectionbeforethelaw.
1.RighttoEqualitybeforethelaw
Itisanegativeconceptbecauseitmeansthatnomanisabovethelaworinotherwordsallindividualsare
subjecttotheLawoftheland.Ruleoflawmeanstheabsolutesupremacyofordinarylawoflandasopposed
totheinfluenceofarbitrarypoweroftheruler.
ThethreeprincipleswhichgoverntheRuleoflaware:
(I)Nomanshallbepunishedeitherinbodyorgoods(material)exceptfortheviolationoflawinforce.
Further,theviolationoflawshallbeestablishedinanordinarycourtoflandinanordinarylegalmanner.
(II)Allindividualsirrespectiveoftheirsocialoreconomicunderstandingaresubjecttoordinarylawof
land.Further,alltheindividualsaresubjecttothejurisdictionofthecourt.I.e.allindividualscanbesued
beforethecourt.Apersoncanappearbeforethecourtinformofattorneyorhimself.
(III)TheconstitutionistheresultofordinaryLawofland.
HoweverthethirdrulehadbeenmodifiedinitsapplicationundertheIndianconstitutionwherethethirdlaw
readsastheConstitutionisSupremelawofLandandalllawspassedbythelegislatureshallconformtoitto
belegallyvalid.
SignificanceofRuleoflaw
(i)ItistheadoptionofruleoflawthathaschangedtheconstitutionfromRexLex(kingislaw)toLexRex
(Lawisking)
(ii)Theruleoflawisessentialtomaintainanindividualsliberty.Therefore,Ruleoflawisanessentialfeature
ofdemocracy.
ProtectionofRuleofLaw
Theconstitutionunderarticle32and226confersthepoweronSupremeCourtandtheHighCourts
respectivelytosafeguardtheRuleoflawbyexercisingthewritjurisdictions.Furthertheconstitution
emphasizesthattheRuleofLawisanimmutablePrincipleofGovernanceoftheCountry.
InKeshavanandaBharatiVsStateofKerala,1973caseSupremeCourtheldthattheRuleofLawisapart
ofbasicstructureoftheconstitutionandcannotbedestroyed.
ExceptionstotheRuleofLaw
(1)Article361ThePresidentortheGovernorofStateisnotanswerabletoacourtoflawwithregardto
exerciseofitsexecutivefunctions.
(2)NocriminalproceedingswhatsoevercanbeinstitutedagainstthePresidentandGovernorofState
duringhis/hertermofoffice.Heshouldbefirstremoveimpeachedtocontinuetheproceedingsagainst
him.
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(3)NocivilproceedingsinwhichreliefisclaimedcanbeinstitutedagainstthePresidentortheGovernor
ofStateinacourt,exceptoftheexpiryundera2monthnoticeservedonthePresidentandGovernor.
(4)AccordingtotheInternationalLawsThevisitingsubjecttothejurisdictionoflocalcourt.
2.EqualprotectionbeforeLaw
(1)ItoriginatedasaconceptinUSA.
(2)Itisapositiveconcept.
(3)Itmeansequalityoftreatmentinequalcircumstances.Amongequalsthelawshallbeequaland
equallyadministered.Thelikeshouldbetreatedalike.Allthepersonsplacedinequalcircumstances
shallbetreatedsimilarly.Therefore,itensuresequalityamongequals.Itdoesnotmeaninequalityamong
equals.
(4)ItallowsStatetoclassifyindividualsonareasonablebasisintosimilargroups.Oncesucha
classificationismade,thelawshallapplyequallyamongallthepeoplewithinagroup.Thennoperson
withinagroupshallbetreateddifferently.However,theStateisfreetodiscriminatepeoplebetweenthe
groups.
(5)TheconceptofequalprotectionbeforelawisalsocalledPositiveDiscriminationonthePartofthe
Stateandthepolicyofreservationislegallyjustifiedunderit.
(6)ThisconceptisbasedontheAristotelianPrinciplethatEqualitycanexistonlyamongtheequalsand
equalitycannotexistamongunequals.
ThustheLegislativemay:
(i)Exemptcertainclassesofpropertyfromtaxationsuchascharities,librariesetc.
(ii)Imposedifferentspecifictakesupondifferenttradesandprofessions.
(iii)Taxincomeandpropertyofindividualsindifferentmanneretc.
CASELAWS
AirIndiaEtc.EtcvsNergeshMeerza&Ors.Etc.Etcon28August,1981
A.H.underA.I.wasretiredfromserviceinthefollowingcontingencies:
(a)Onattainingtheageof35years
(b)Onmarriageifittookplacewithinfouryearsoftheserviceand
(c)Onfirstpregnancy.
Thecourtheldthatthelastportionofregulation46(i)(c)struckdown.Theprovisionoronfirstpregnancy
whicheveroccursearlierisunconstitutional,voidandviolativeofArticle14oftheConstitutionandwill,
therefore,standdeleted.Itwill,however,beopentotheCorporationtomakesuitableamendments.
ItisundisputedthatwhatArt.14prohibitsishostilediscriminationandnotreasonableclassification.Ifequals
andunequalsaredifferentlytreated,thereisnodiscriminationsoastoamounttoaninfractionofArt.14of
theConstitution.Afortioriifequalsorpersonssimilarlycircumstancedaredifferentlytreated,discrimination
resultssoastoattracttheprovisionsofArt.14.
CaseLaws:
BhagwatiJusticeoftheSupremeCourtinManekaGandhivUnionofIndia
RamanaDayaramShettyvInternationalAirportAuthority(IAA)
MithuvStateofPunjab
RamakrishnaDalmiavJusticeTeldolkar
AirIndiavNergeshMeerzaandothers
IndianCouncilofLegalAidandAdvice,etc.etc.vBarCouncilofIndiaandanother
Article15Prohibitionofdiscriminationongroundsofreligion,race,caste,sexor
placeofbirth
ProtectiveDiscrimination
CaseLaws:
Mrs.ValsammaPaulvCochinUniversityandothers
GithaHariharanvReserveBankofIndia
PranatoshRoy(Dr.)vUniversityofCalcutta
SexualHarassment
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VishakavStateofRajasthan
WomenReservation
RajeshKumarGuptavStateofU.P.
P.SagarvStateofA.P.
DattareyavStateofBombay
WomenReservationBill
Article16Equalityofopportunityinmattersofpublicemployment
CASES
M.R.BalajivStateofMysore
DevadasanvUnionofIndia
StateofKeralavN.M.Thomas
AkhilBharatiyaKarmachariSanghvUnionofIndia
IndiraSawhney&othersvUnionofIndiaandothers
PromotionsBefore&Afterthe77thAmendmentoftheConstitution
Article17AbolitionofUntouchability
Untouchabilityisabolishedanditspracticeinanyformisforbidden.Theenforcementofanydisability
arisingoutofUntouchabilityshallbeanoffencepunishableinaccordancewithlaw.
Casteismisagreatenemy.
CasteismisfoundedonManusmrithiintheancientIndia.
SeveralActssuchas:theScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes(PreventionofAtrocities)Act,1989,
ProtectionofCivilRightsAct,1955
Punishment
Article18Abolitionoftitles
Notitle,notbeingamilitaryoracademicdistinction,shallbeconferredbytheState.
NocitizenofIndiashallacceptanytitlefromanyforeignState.
NopersonwhoisnotacitizenofIndiashall,whileheholdsanyofficeofprofitortrustundertheState,accept
withouttheconsentofthePresidentanytitlefromanyforeignState.
NopersonholdinganyofficeofprofitortrustundertheStateshall,withouttheconsentofthePresident,
acceptanypresent,emolument,orofficeofanykindfromorunderanyforeignState
BharatRatna,PadmaVibhushan,PadmaBhushanandPadmaShriAwards:
TheOrderofLeopold
FundamentalRights
TheConstitutionofIndiacontainstherighttofreedom,giveninarticles19,20,21and22,withtheviewof
guaranteeingindividualrightsthatwereconsideredvitalbytheframersoftheconstitution.Therightto
freedominArticle19guaranteesthefollowingsixfreedoms:
Freedomofspeechandexpression,whichenableanindividualtoparticipateinpublicactivities.Thephrase,
freedomofpresshasnotbeenusedinArticle19,butfreedomofexpressionincludesfreedomofpress.
Reasonablerestrictionscanbeimposedintheinterestofpublicorder,securityofState,decencyormorality.
Freedomtoassemblepeacefullywithoutarms,onwhichtheStatecanimposereasonablerestrictionsinthe
interestofpublicorderandthesovereigntyandintegrityofIndia.
FreedomtoformassociationsorunionsonwhichtheStatecanimposereasonablerestrictionsonthis
freedomintheinterestofpublicorder,moralityandthesovereigntyandintegrityofIndia.
FreedomtomovefreelythroughouttheterritoryofIndiathoughreasonablerestrictionscanbeimposedon
thisrightintheinterestofthegeneralpublic,forexample,restrictionsmaybeimposedonmovementand
travelling,soastocontrolepidemics.
FreedomtoresideandsettleinanypartoftheterritoryofIndiawhichisalsosubjecttoreasonablerestrictions
bytheStateintheinterestofthegeneralpublicorfortheprotectionofthescheduledtribesbecausecertain
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safeguardsasareenvisagedhereseemtobejustifiedtoprotectindigenousandtribalpeoplesfrom
exploitationandcoercion.Article370restrictscitizensfromotherIndianstatesandKashmiriwomenwho
marrymenfromotherstatesfrompurchasinglandorpropertyinJammu&Kashmir.
Freedomtopracticeanyprofessionortocarryonanyoccupation,tradeorbusinessonwhichtheStatemay
imposereasonablerestrictionsintheinterestofthegeneralpublic.Thus,thereisnorighttocarryona
businesswhichisdangerousorimmoral.Also,professionalortechnicalqualificationsmaybeprescribedfor
practicinganyprofessionorcarryingonanytrade.
Theconstitutionguaranteestherighttolifeandpersonalliberty,whichinturncitesspecificprovisionsin
whichtheserightsareappliedandenforced:
Protectionwithrespecttoconvictionforoffencesisguaranteedintherighttolifeandpersonalliberty.
19.Protectionofcertainrightsregardingfreedomofspeechetc
(1)Allcitizensshallhavetheright
(a)tofreedomofspeechandexpression
(b)toassemblepeaceablyandwithoutarms
(c)toformassociationsorunions
(d)tomovefreelythroughouttheterritoryofIndia
(e)toresideandsettleinanypartoftheterritoryofIndiaand
(f)omitted
(g)topractiseanyprofession,ortocarryonanyoccupation,tradeorbusiness
(2)Nothinginsubclause(a)ofclause(1)shallaffecttheoperationofanyexistinglaw,orpreventtheState
frommakinganylaw,insofarassuchlawimposesreasonablerestrictionsontheexerciseoftheright
conferredbythesaidsubclauseintheinterestsofthesovereigntyandintegrityofIndia,thesecurityofthe
State,friendlyrelationswithforeignStates,publicorder,decencyormoralityorinrelationtocontemptof
court,defamationorincitementtoanoffence
(3)Nothinginsubclause(b)ofthesaidclauseshallaffecttheoperationofanyexistinglawinsofarasit
imposes,orpreventtheStatefrommakinganylawimposing,intheinterestsofthesovereigntyandintegrity
ofIndiaorpublicorder,reasonablerestrictionsontheexerciseoftherightconferredbythesaidsubclause
(4)Nothinginsubclause(c)ofthesaidclauseshallaffecttheoperationofanyexistinglawinsofarasit
imposes,orpreventtheStatefrommakinganylawimposing,intheinterestsofthesovereigntyandintegrity
ofIndiaorpublicorderormorality,reasonablerestrictionsontheexerciseoftherightconferredbythesaid
subclause
(5)Nothinginsubclauses(d)and(e)ofthesaidclauseshallaffecttheoperationofanyexistinglawinsofar
asitimposes,orpreventtheStatefrommakinganylawimposing,reasonablerestrictionsontheexerciseof
anyoftherightsconferredbythesaidsubclauseseitherintheinterestsofthegeneralpublicorforthe
protectionoftheinterestsofanyScheduledTribe
(6)Nothinginsubclause(g)ofthesaidclauseshallaffecttheoperationofanyexistinglawinsofarasit
imposes,orpreventtheStatefrommakinganylawimposing,intheinterestsofthegeneralpublic,
reasonablerestrictionsontheexerciseoftherightconferredbythesaidsubclause,and,inparticular,
nothinginthesaidsubclauseshallaffecttheoperationofanyexistinglawinsofarasitrelatesto,orprevent
theStatefrommakinganylawrelatingto,
(i)theprofessionalortechnicalqualificationsnecessaryforpractisinganyprofessionorcarryingonany
occupation,tradeorbusiness,or
(ii)thecarryingonbytheState,orbyacorporationownedorcontrolledbytheState,ofanytrade,
business,industryorservice,whethertotheexclusion,completeorpartial,ofcitizensorotherwise
ManekaGandhivsUnionOfIndia
20.Protectioninrespectofconvictionforoffences
(1)Nopersonshallbeconvictedofanyoffenceexceptforviolationofthelawinforceatthetimeofthe
commissionoftheactchargedasanoffence,norbesubjectedtoapenaltygreaterthanthatwhichmight
havebeeninflictedunderthelawinforceatthetimeofthecommissionoftheoffence
(2)Nopersonshallbeprosecutedandpunishedforthesameoffencemorethanonce
(3)Nopersonaccusedofanyoffenceshallbecompelledtobeawitnessagainsthimself
AccordingtoArticle20,noonecanbeawardedpunishmentwhichismorethanwhatthelawoftheland
prescribesatthattime.Thislegalaxiomisbasedontheprinciplethatnocriminallawcanbemade
retrospective,thatis,foranacttobecomeanoffence,theessentialconditionisthatitshouldhavebeenan
offencelegallyatthetimeofcommittingit.Moreover,nopersonaccusedofanyoffenceshallbecompelledto
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beawitnessagainsthimself.CompulsioninthisarticlereferstowhatinlawiscalledDuress(injury,
beatingorunlawfulimprisonmenttomakeapersondosomethingthathedoesnotwanttodo).Thisarticleis
knownasasafeguardagainstselfincrimination.Theotherprincipleenshrinedinthisarticleisknownasthe
principleofdoublejeopardy,thatis,nopersoncanbeconvictedtwiceforthesameoffence,whichhasbeen
derivedfromAngloSaxonlaw.ThisprinciplewasfirstestablishedintheMagnaCarta.
21.ProtectionoflifeandpersonallibertyNopersonshallbedeprivedofhislifeor
personallibertyexceptaccordingtoprocedureestablishedbylaw
Protectionoflifeandpersonallibertyisalsostatedunderrighttolifeandpersonalliberty.Article21declares
thatnocitizencanbedeniedhislifeandlibertyexceptbylaw.Thismeansthatapersonslifeandpersonal
libertycanonlybedisputedifthatpersonhascommittedacrime.However,therighttolifedoesnotinclude
therighttodie,andhence,suicideoranattemptthereof,isanoffence.(Attemptedsuicidebeinginterpreted
asacrimehasseenmanydebates.TheSupremeCourtofIndiagavealandmarkrulingin1994.Thecourt
repealedsection309oftheIndianpenalcode,underwhichpeopleattemptingsuicidecouldface
prosecutionandprisontermsofuptooneyear.In1996howeveranotherSupremeCourtrulingnullifiedthe
earlierone.)PersonallibertyincludesallthefreedomswhicharenotincludedinArticle19(thatis,thesix
freedoms).TherighttotravelabroadisalsocoveredunderpersonallibertyinArticle21.
In2002,throughthe86thAmendmentAct,Article21(A)wasincorporated.Itmadetherighttoprimary
educationpartoftherighttofreedom,statingthattheStatewouldprovidefreeandcompulsoryeducationto
childrenfromsixtofourteenyearsofage.SixyearsafteranamendmentwasmadeintheIndianConstitution,
theunioncabinetclearedtheRighttoEducationBillin2008.ItisnowsoontobetabledinParliamentfor
approvalbeforeitmakesafundamentalrightofeverychildtogetfreeandcompulsoryeducation.
Theconstitutionalsoimposesrestrictionsontheserights.Thegovernmentrestrictsthesefreedomsinthe
interestoftheindependence,sovereigntyandintegrityofIndia.Intheinterestofmoralityandpublicorder,the
governmentcanalsoimposerestrictions.However,therighttolifeandpersonallibertycannotbe
suspended.Thesixfreedomsarealsoautomaticallysuspendedorhaverestrictionsimposedonthemduring
astateofemergency.
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