Finite Element Modelling of Metal Forming Processes P.M. Dixit Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur PM. Dixit obtained BTech degree in Aeronautical Engineering from ITT Kharagpur in 1974 and PhD in Mechanies in 1979 fom University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA. ARer a short teaching career (1980-1954) at the Department of Aeronautical Engineering at IIT. Kharagpur, he joined the Department of Mechanical Engineering at IT Kanpur in 1984, Presently, he a Professor in the same Department. For the past 25 years, he has been in the area of Computational Plasticity with applications to Metal Forming Processes using Finite Element Method as a computational tool. He has published about 60 journal papers, 25 conference papers and 2 books: both on Modeling of Metal Forming Processes. He has guided 9 Ph.D and 75 M.Tech students, Besides plasticity, Dr, Dixit has interests in Indian philosophy, world history, Marathi Literature and Indian classical and folk music. Abstract ‘This article describes the finite element modelling In the Eulerian formulation, the complete work= of metal forming processes. Usually, two piece isnot analyzed. Instead, a fixed region in space formulations are used to convert the physics of ‘metal forming processes into a set of governing ‘mathematical equations, For unsteady processes like forging, deep drawing, sheet bending ete, an updated Lagrangian formulation is used while for the steady processes like rolling, drawing, extrusion ete, an Eulerian formulation is employed. Th steady processes can also be analyzed using the updated Lagrangian formulation, However, this formulation takes a lot of computational time, To reduce the computational time to a significant extent, the Eulerian formulation is preferred, where the deformation is concentrated (called the control volume) is selected as the domain. The ‘material particles enter the contral volume at some time, get deformed and leave it at some later time. Thus, the velocity vector is used as the primary variable, Further, the strain rate tensor (also called as the rate of deformation tensor) is used ax the measure of the rate of deformation of a material particle. The relation between the strain rate tensor and velocity vector is always linear. The material behavior is expressed as a relation between the strain rate and the stress/stress rate. This relation is, always non-linear. Since, accompanied by rotation, the stress rate appearing the deformation is PTETMsn eae in the constitutive equation must be independent of therate of rotation, that is it must vanish if therate of deformation is zero. Such a stress rate is called ‘objective. In this formulation, the inertia term of the equation of motion also contains the spatial derivatives of the velocity besides its tim derivative. Therefore, the equation of motion also is non-linear. Since, the governing equations. are nonlinear, they need to be solved by an iterative scheme to obtain the velocity, strain rate and stress fields in the control volume, For elasto-plastic materials, the iterative scheme often does not converge because of the presence of stress rate terms in the constitutive equation. Since the stress rate term corresponds to the clastic part of deformation, itis often neglected (which is justified in metals) to simplify the governing equations. Asa result, the Eulerian formulation has been mostly applied under the assumption of rigid-plastic material. For rigid-plastic materials, because of the volume constancy constraint on the velocity field, the coefficient matrix of the resulting finite clement equations becomes ill-conditioned. The technique ‘of penalty parameter is often used to improve the conditioning of the coefficient matrix. However, this technique gives only an approximate hydrostatic stress field. Special solvers, meant for ill-conditioned coefficient matrices, need to be employed to obtain a reasonably accurate hydrostatic stress field. An additional drawback of | the rigid-plastic Eulerian formulation is that it does not predict the elastic stresses in the inlet and exit regions correctly. (The elastic stresses in the exit region are called the residual stresses.) To predict ‘them correctly, the material needs to be treated as elasto-plastic, A major limitation of the Eulerian formulation (elasto-plastic or rigid-plastic) is that the plastic houndaties can he determined only approximately However, in spite of this limitation, the Eulerian formulation is as accurate as the updated Lagrangian formulation in predicting the forming Toad and the stress field in the plastic region, but at ‘theorder of magnitude less computational time. In the updated Lagrangian formulation, the whole ‘work-piece is analyzed but not in one step. Here, the total deformation of the work-pieceis considered as 2 sum of several incremental deformations and ‘these incremental deformations are analyzed sequentially. Thus, in this formulation, the incremental displacement vector is considered as the primary variable. In each increment, the incremental change in the geometry is described by an incremental strain-displacement relation. Further, the material behavior is expressed by an incremental elasto-plastic constitutive relation: a relation between the incremental stress and incremental strain. As in the case of Eulerian formulation, the incremental stress appearing in the incremental constitutive relation must be independent of the incremental rotation, accompanying the incremental deformation. That is, it must vanish if the increment consists of pure rotation. Such an incremental stress measure is called objective. ‘The incremental strain- displacement and. incremental stress-strain equations along with the incremental equation of motion are solved to obtain the incremental displacement, incremental strain and incremental stress fields. The displacement, strain and stress fields and the configuration are updated at the end of each increment. This procedure is continued till the desired deformation level is reached, If the incremental deformation is sufficiently small, the incremental strain displacement relations become linear. However, for alarge increment size, a non-linear measure of incremental deformation like the incremental Green-Lagrange strain tensor or incremental logarithmic strain tensor is required. Further, for small increment size, the ellect of the incremental deformation on the elasto-plastic constitutive tensor can be neglected making it a constant tensor resulting into a linear incremental stress-strain relation, Otherwise, the incremental constitutive relation may involve an integral of the elasto-plastic constitutive tensor to take care of its variation over the increment. Additionally, for the case of small incremental deformation, linear form of the incremental equation of motion is used which means satisfying dynamic equilibrium over the configuration at the beginning of the increment, On the other hand, for large increment size, the dynamic equilibrium is satisfied over the configuration at the end of the increment, by retaining deformation-dependent non-linear terms. Thus, for the case of large incremental deformation, the incremental governing equations become nonlinear requiring an iterative scheme, like the Newton-Raphson scheme, to solve the equations. In any elasto-plastic problem, the dissipation of ‘mechanical energy into heat leads to some temperature change. Here, it is assumed that the ‘temperature change is small. ‘Then, the problem can Deconsidered as isothermal Directions 2014 [WA1.INTRODUCTION Clough [19607] was the first researcher to use the words ‘finite element method (FEM) to describe the procedure of extending the matrix method of structural analysis to plane stress problems by dividing the plate into a number of finite-sized triangular parts. However, this idea of discretizing a continuum into a number of finite-sized parts for obtaining the solution of a problem is older (Courant, 1949). Ina general sense, FEM can be described as a numerical method for solving a boundary value problem by converting the governing differential equations and boundary conditions into a set of algebraic equations. It involves the following steps. + First, an integral form corresponding to the governing differential equations and boundary conditions is obtained using either the variational calculus or the weighted residual technique. + Then, the domain of the problem is discretized into a number of finite-sized parts, called the finite elements. Then, suitable approximations for the primary variables of the problem are chosen containing interpolation functions (called the shape functions) and unknown values of the primary variables at some pre- selected points of the domain, called the nodes. The unknown values of the primary variables at the nodes are called the degrees of freedom (or dof in short), + Next, the approximations for the primary variables are substituted into the integral form to obtain a set of algebraic equations for the unknown nodal values of the primary variables + Finally, the resulting algebraic equations are solved to obtain the solution of the problem. Any standard book on FEM like the book by Zienkiewicz and Taylor [19897] can be consulted for the details of the method Murota et al [1970] appears to be the first researcher to apply FEM to a metal forming problem. Since then, there have been several, papers on the application of FEM to metal forming problems. Most of the early applications of FEM used the updated Lagrangian formulation for a forging problem, These applications used only linear incremental governing equations and, that too, without considering either the hardening or the objective incremental stress measure. However, in later applications, the nonlinear incremental governing equations were employed incorporating the hardening as well as the objective incremental stress measure. An iterative Newton-Raphson scheme proposed by Bathe et al [19757 in 1975 was, used to solve these equations. The first attempt to employ the rigid-plastic Eulerian FE formulation for the analysis of metal forming processes seems to have been made by Zienkiewicz and Godbole [19747] Since then, the processes of rolling, extrusion and drawing have been successfully analyzed to determine the stress field in the plastic zone, to estimate the forming loads and to predict the defects. Starting with the elasto- plastic Eulerian FE formulation of Dawson and ‘Thompson [19781], a number of such formulations have been proposed for the analysis of rolling and extrusion, but only with a limited success in predicting either the clastic stresses in the inlet/exit regions or the plastic boundaries, An important part of finite element modeling of metal forming processes is the modeling of interfacial friction. A majority of the researchers have used the friction factor model because of its simplicity. Other models, employed in the FE formulations (either the velocity dependent shear stress model of Lee and Kobayashi [1971] or the interface clement model of Zienkiewicz et. al. [1978] have used some adjustable parameters. Very few formulations have attempted the use of @ more realistic Coulomb friction model as it involves another set of iterations. For the warm/hot processes, the strain rate and temperature effects (ie., viscoplasticity and temperature softening effects) need to be included in the constitutive relation, Further, for the multi-pass processes, the anisotropy created by the first pass needs to be incorporated in the constitutive relation. These are some of the important recent developments in the FE applications to metal Directions 2014 Vol.14 No.Finite Element Modelling of Metal Forming Processes forming processes apart from the development of FE packages like DEFORM, LS-DYNA ete. The state of art description of FE formulations of metal forming processes can be found in the books by Kobayashi et al [19891], Rowe et al [1991] and Dixit and Dixit [2008)] Sections 2 and 3 describe respectively the Eulerian and updated Lagrangian formulations. 2.EULERIAN FORMULATION For isothermal problems, the governing equations for the velocity field ¥, , the strain rate field g,and the stress field “oj in the control volume are: Governing Equations (Elasto-Plastic Material): (i) Strain rate ~ velocity relations (6 scalar equations): The relation between the measure of the rate of deformation (strain rate tensor é, )and the primary variable (velocity vector v, ) is given where, the comma denotes the derivative with respect to acomponent of thepositionvectorx. For expressing the constitutive equation in a convenient form, this tensor is decomposed into the hydrostatic and deviatoric parts: & (2) Here, the first part of the equation is called the hydrostatic part and the second part is termed as the deviatoric part. The quantity (4,)_ is called the Kronecker's delta whose value is 1 if both the indices are equal and zero otherwise. 155,48 3 (ii) Elasto ~ plastic stress ~ strain rate relations: In obtaining the elasto - plastic constitutive relation, we make the following assumptions: + The overall rotation is not too large so that the additive decomposition of the strain strain rate tensor into the elastic (é% ) and plastic parts (4) remains valid: ay-abat i) In developing the elasto-plastic constitutive relation, the following invariant of the plastic part of the strain rate tensor, called the equivalent plastic strain rate, is needed: ns -(a8 () Ste The material is linearly clastic and isotropic, as far as the elastic part of the deformation is concerned. Thus, the rate form of the elastic constitutive relation is given by the rate form of the generalized Hook's law. Further, it is convenient to decompose the stress tensor (;) into the hydrostatic and deviatoric parts: eh (5) Here, the first part () is termed as the hydrostatic part (or pressure) whereas the second part ( / ) is called the deviatoric part. For thepurbose of writing the elasto- plastic constitutive equation, the following fnvariant of the deviatori part, called the equivalent stress, is needed: o4=(30i0) 6) 2 Once we assume that the overall rotations not too large, then the Jaumann stress rate tentor can be used as the objective streas rate tensor. ‘The relation between the Taumann stress rate (@)) and the Cauchy stress rate (4,) isgivenby. % j (Oxy + F405) @) where, the spin or vorticity tensor ( j )is defined by (ev, _&, The material yields according to the von Mises yield criterion with @y as the yield stress, Further, the rate form of the plastic constitutive equation is given by the rate form of the associated ections 2014flow rule based on the von Mises plastic potential. + The material remains isotropic beyond yielding also, Thus, the hardening is isotropic. Further, itis assumed that the isotropic hardening can be modelled by apower law: Here, His called the hardening function, K and n are called hardening parameters and €2, is the equivalent plastic strain, The integral to obtain 2? has to follow the deformation path of the material particle. Under these assumptions, the elasto-plastic constitutive relation can’ be expressed as InPlastie Zone(6 scalar equations) Sie 3 3K” bu (19) where, K and # are respectively the bulk and shear moduli of the material oj, and of are respectively the hydrostatic and deviatoric parts of the Jaumann stress rate tensor. InElastic Zone(6 scalar equations) Equations of motion (3 scalar equations): In Eulerian formulation, the acceleration is expressed as the material time derivative of the velocity. Further, the stress tensor is expressed as a sum of the hydrostatic and deviatoric parts. Thus, the equation of motion takes the form: av, Bi sy, v,)=pb,-p, +07 ) PGE A MND = PB, Ps +, (12) Here, p is the density and b,is the body force (per unit mass). In metal forming processes, the body force is negligible compared to the forming loads. Further, for steady processes, the first term( pov, /2t) can be neglected. This term becomes significant only in the case of high velocity or explosive forming. ‘Wenneed the equation of conservation of mass (also called as the continuity equation) if the density is treated as unknown, However, for isothermal processes, the change in density is very small and p can be treated as a constant. ‘Thus, we have 15 scalar equations for 15 unknowns: (i) $ velocity components ¥,, (ii) 6 strain rate components é, and (ii) 6 stress components @,, . To solve these equations for the given material, the material properties have to be supplied: (i) density p, (ii) elastic properties K and and (iii) the yeild stress oy and the hardening parameters K and 7. ‘The governing equations (10) and (12) are non-linear differential equations and therefore need to be solved by an iterative scheme, Governing Equations (rigid-plastic material): The stress-strain rate relations (Equations 10-11) contain the stress rate terms. Because of this term, sometimes, the iterative scheme fails to converge. In that case, one can still obtain a reasonably accurate solution (in the plastic deformation zone) by simplifying these equations by neglecting the elastic part of the deformation. This amounts to assuming the material to be rigid-plastic. ‘The strain rate-velocity relation (equation 1) and the equation of motion (equation 12) remain valid for the rigid-plastic material also. ‘The constitutive relation for the elastic zone (equation 11) is not needed as the rigid-plastic material yields without any elastic deformation. The constitutive relation for the plastic zone (equation 10), however, needs to be modified by removing the terms corresponding to the clastic deformation, ‘Then, the first equation of the set (10), which essentially represents. elastic behaviour, becomes invalid for the rigid-plastic materials. As a result, the hydrostatic part of stress becomes constitutively indeterminate for such materials, In these materials, the hydrostatic part arises as a reaction to the constraint of volume constancy or incompressibility. Therefore, for rigid-plastic materials, there is an additional governing equation: incompressibility constraint. ‘The four governing equations of the Eulerian formulation are:MC ee Me (9 Strain rate ~ velocity relations (6 scalar equations): zt M) (9) (ii) Rigid — plastic stress-strain rate relations (scalar equations) ‘The rate of change of volumeis given by éy In rigid-plastic materials, this part is zero. ‘Thus, in rigid-plastic materials, as per equation (2), the entire strain rate tensor is equal to its deviatoric part. As a result, while reducing the constitutive equation (10) to the case of the rigid-plastic material, é is replaced by é, .Further, since the elastic part of the deformation is negligible, the invariant, &P of the plastic part is replaced by the qiintity ,, , an invariant of the total strain rate tensor Yefined by an equation similar to equation (4). So, equation (10) for the case of rigid-plastic material becomes a4) ‘Note that, now, the constitutive equation does not contain the stress rate terms. (iti) Equations of motion (8 scalar equations): pt v,.v))=pb,-7) +04, (5) (i) Incompressibility constraint (1 scalar equation) fy <0 (36) In isothermal and isochoric (i, no volume change) process, the density p can still depend on the hydrostatic part of stress. However, as, before, we asstime the change in density to be small and treat p asa.constant. Thus, now, we have 16 scalar equations for 16 unknowns: (i) 8 velocity components v,, (ii) 6 strain rate components é,, (iii) 6 deviatoric stress components "and (iv) 1 hydrostatic stress component p . Since the elastic deformation has been neglected, we do not need the clastic material properties to solve these equations, The governing equations (14) and (15) are nonlinear equations (although, now, the constitutive equation 14 is an algebraic equation) and therefore need to be solved by an iterative scheme, But, they are easier to solve than the governing equations of the elastic-plastic materials. Some of the governing equations are differential equations in spatial variables , and time ¢ Therefore, boundary and initial conditions are required for solving these equations. Boundary Conditions: ‘Typical boundary conditions for the Eulerian formulation are as follows: (i) Ona part of the boundary (S,) a velocity vector V is specified. Thus, yey, ons, an where v; represents the specified value. This is called as the kinematic or velocity boundary condition, (ii) On the remaining part of. the boundary. (S), a stress vector f,, =o is specified. Thus, (i) =oyny = Cis 00S, (38) where, (#1), represents the specified value ‘This is called as the stressor traction boundary condition. Note that the parts s, and 5, have to be disjoint. Further, their union has to be equal to the total boundary $. Thus, S0S,=6, Ss US, (9) However, the individual parts s, and S, can consist of several disjoint segments. In practice, the actual boundary conditions differ from those specified by Equations (17-18), Sometimes at a point, only 1 velocity component and 2 stress components or 2 velocity components and 1 stress component may be known. These boundary conditions are called as mized boundary conditions. Further, on a boundary inclined to the coordinate axes or ona boundary with friction, individual components of vor t, may not be known. Instead, a combination of their components is known. PIs) 21Initial Conditions: ‘The governing equations (10-12) involve the Jirst (partial) time derivative of the velocity vector and the hydrostatic and deviatoric parts of the stress tensor. Therefore, the initial values of v,, 04, and c%, need to be specified at every point of the domain. These initial conditions are: A =o%, of-o% Ws CuRelir Om, ogy at f=f, . where v?, of; and of? are the specified values at the initial time /,. For a steady process, the partial time derivative (ie, the unsteady part of thematerial time derivative) of the velocity vector as well as of the stress tensor is zero. ‘Therefore, the initial conditions are not needed For rigid-plastic material, the constitutive equation (14) does not ‘contain the time derivative of the stress tensor. Therefore, only one initial condition on the velocity vector is needed, Example of Eulerian Formulation: A wire drawing problem Figure 1 shows a possible control volume for wire drawing problem. Since the geometry and loading are axisymmetric, only a typical rz plane of the wire need to be considered. ‘The boundaries AB and EF need to be placed sufficiently away from the die interface CD so as to take advantage of the uniform velocity fields existing there. ‘The plastic boundaries shown in the figure are not known a priori, but need to be determined as a part of the solution zy n, B_Free surface _C Elastic zone velocity First plastic boundary S Die interface Plastic zone, sis OP symmenry’ For convenience, the cylindrical polar coordinates (r,8,z) are used. In these coordinates, for an axisymmetric problem, the non-zero components of the velocity vector, the strain rate tensor and the stress tensor are: (el, [4] 5 : i > vl & 0 on) 6, 0 o, 0 oy 0 o, 0 o, Further, all these non-zero components are independent of the coordinate 9. For this problem, only 2 boundary conditions on each boundary are needed because of the axisymmetry. Inlet and Exit Boundaries AB and E! Since, the boundaries AB and EF are chosen sufficiently away from the die interface CD, the velocity vector on these boundaries has only z-component and it is uniform. If U, the specified drawing velocity, the boundary conditions at the exit houndary EF become v, =U; (22) If U, is the velocity (along z-axis) at the inlet boundary AB, then using the conservation of ‘mass equation, it can be expressed in terms of U,and the reduction ratio r, ‘4 (2) Here, A, and A, are the areas of cross-section of the wire at the inlet and exit boundaries respectively. For the case of constant density, the conservation of mass equation becomes Vree srkiee D Elastic zone [erawing A elocity F ex Second plastic boundary Figure 1: Domain for the Eulerian formulation of wire drawing, [tis a control volume consisting of a typical rz plane Directions 2014 Vol.14 No.fe Element Modelling of Metal Forming Processes U,A, =U, A. (24) Elimination of A, / A, from equations (23-24) leads to the following expression for U, U,=U,A=n) (25) Then, the boundary conditions at the inlet boundary AB become: 0, Usl=n)- (26) ‘Stress Free Boundaries BC and DE: ‘The boundary BC is a stress-free surface. The boundary DE also becomes a_ stress-free surfaceif itassumed that the die does not have aland portion. On the stress-free surfaces, the stress vector is zero at every point. Therefore, the boundary conditions at the boundaries BC and DE can be written as: 1,=0, 0, (27) where, t, and t, are the components of the stress vector t, in cylindrical polar coordinates. Sometimes an alternate set of boundary conditions is prescribed on these boundaries. Since the velocity vector at the boundaries BC and DE is always along z-axis, the boundary condition (27) can be modified to specify v, to be zero instead of f, being zero. The modified boundary condition is expected to givemoreaccurate velocity field Plane of Symmetry AP: On the plane of symmetry, the normal component of the velocity vector and the shear component of the stress vector are zero at every point. Thus, the boundary conditions at the boundary AF can be expressed as: 0. (28) Note that this is a mized type of boundary condition. v,=0, 4 Die Interface CD: Let m be direction normal to the die interface and sbe the direction along the interface. Since there is no material flow along the normal direction, component of the velocity vector along the direction m must be zero. Using the die semi-angle @ , the normal component of the velocity vector can be expressed as cosa +v, sina. If we model the interfacial friction by the Coulomb's law, then the frictional (or shear) stress exerted by the die in s-direction is given (20) Here, f is the coefficient of friction and t,and f, are the components of the stress vector along the directions s and » respectively. Since the material flow at the interface is in the positive s-direction, the frictional stress will be in the opposite direction, ie, in the negative s-direction, Further, the normal stress exerted by the die is always compressive, Le, in the negative redirection, Therefore, both #,and f, are negative, Then, Equation (30) becomes: figs (31) Using the die semi-angle @, f, and ¢, can be expressed in termsof t, and t, ina+t,cosa, ty ,cosar+t, sina (82) Eliminating 4, and 1, from equations (31-32), the Coulomb's law can be expressed as: ~(sina + cosa)t, + (cosa—fsina)t, =0, (33) Now, the boundary conditions at the boundary CD become: y, cosa +, sina =0, ~(sina + f cosa, +(cosa- f sina), (s4) ‘These boundary conditions involve combinations of ¥y and ¥. and ¢, and #,. The shear stress at the die interface is subject to a constraint that it cannot exceed its maximum, value, The maximum value for the Mises material isgivenby Dixit and Dixit, 20087) 6, (nae B (35) Finite Element Formulation: ‘The detailed finite element formulation of wire drawing problem, based on the above governing equations, has been explained in the M.Tech thesis of Dixit [19981]. The finite element formulation for rod extrusion problem is similar. It is described in the Ph.D thesis of Reddy [1997]. Sheet rolling is a plane strain problem. Its governing equations can be extracted from the 3-D governing equations described above. The finite element formulation of sheet rolling problem is PISnee es) 23explained in Chapter 5 and Dixit [2008] of the book by Dixit Location Of Plastic Boundaries: ‘The first plastic boundary corresponds to the initial yielding at the material particles whereas the second plastic boundary represents the process of unloading at these particles (Fig. 1). Eulerian formulation is not an incremental procedure. Therefore, there is, no scope for carrying out the clastic analysis, first, then applying the initial yield criterion, then carrying out the plastic analysis and finally checking for the unloading, In elasto-plastic analysis, the plastic boundaries are determined iteratively starting from an initial choice. Normally, the initial choice corresponds to the straight lines parallel to r-axis passing through points C and D. In each iteration, elastic constitutive equations are applied in the inlet and exit regions and elasto-plastic constitutive relations are applied in the plastic zone. At the end of iteration, stress field of the solution is, used to correct the plastic boundaries using the initial yielding and unloading criterion.In rigid-plastic analysis, the whole control volume is treated as the plastic zone and only the rigid-plastic constitutive relations are used. Therefore, it is not possible to use this iterative approach to determine the plastic boundaries. Instead, they are determined after the finite element analysis. After the analysis, it is observed that the strain rates are very small in the inlet and exit regions compared to their values in the middle region. Therefore, the inlet and exit regions can be interpreted as rigid. A sufficiently small value of the equivalent plastic strain rate £2 is used as a ‘cut-off to demarcate the plastic zone from the rest of the control volume. The cut-off can be a small percent of the maximum value of the equivalent plastic strain rate over the control volume. Thus, accuracy of the plastic boundaries depends on this cut-off value, Modelling of Other Aspects: ‘The modelling process described above can be enlarged to include modelling of interfacial friction by hydrodynamic lubrication "Saxena et al, 19967, or modelling of uncertainties in material properties using fuzzy parameters [Dixit and Dixit, 1996], or the modelling of fracture using Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) model [Reddy et al, 19967, or the modelling of anisotropy using an appropriate anisotropic yield criterion [Dixit and Dixit, 199721, or the modelling of hot processes by incorporating the governing equation for heat transfer [Reddy, 1997) Applications: At the Mechanical Engineering Department of IIT Kanpur, the above-described finite elements models of wire drawing/rod extrusion/sheet rolling have been employed for various applications. They have been applied to optimize the die shape in cold/hot rod extrusion [Reddy et al, 1996, Reddy et al, to predict fracture in drawing/ extrusion processes [Reddy et al, 1996 and Reddy et al 20001], to determine the residual stresses in rolling [Dixit and Dixit, 1997) and to include anisotropic effects for modelling of multipass rolling operations [Dixit and Dixit, 2000] ‘The contours of equivalent plastic strain obtained by using the in-house FE code developed on the basis of the formulation described above are shown in Figure 2 IN iN Figure 2: Equivalent strain contours ae rolling, obtained using the in-house Finite Element code based on the Rigid-Plastic Eulerian Formulation of Section 2 (Reduction ratio = 0.24, Roll Radius to Initial Sheet Thickness Ratio = 65, Coulomb Friction Coefficient = 0.08, Contour Diff 3. UPDATED LAGRANGIAN FORMULATION rence = 0.02) To simplify the analysis, we assume that the increment size is small. Then, the incremental linear strain tensor can be used as the measure of incremental deformation. Further, no simplification of any kind is achieved by rections 2014 Vol.14 No.1Finite Element Modelling of Metal Forming Processes neglecting the elastic deformation. Therefore, the material is treated as elasto-plastic. Let du,,de, and doy be the components of the incremental displacement vector, the incremental linear strain tensor and the incremental stress tensor respectively. Then, for an isothermal process, the increments du, de, and doy, are governed by the following three governing equations: Governing Equations: (9 Incremental strain ~ displacement relations (6scalar equations): The relation between the incremental linear strain tensor and the incremental displacement vectors given by de, Fda, +49, (36) (i) Incremental elastic plastic. stress ~ strain relations In obtaining the incremental elasto-plastic constitutive relation, we make similar assumptions as we made while obtaining the rate form of the elasto-plastic constitutive relation: + When the increment size is small, both the incremental deformation and rotation are small, Therefore, the incremental linear strain tensor can be decomposed additively into the elastic (des) and plastic parts (des }: de, jes + de? (37) In developing the incremental elasto- plastic constitutive relation, the following invariant of the plastic part of the incremental linear strain tensor, called the incremental equivalent plastic strain, is needed det, =(2aepaes) | 38) (fe . + As before, we assume that the material is linearly elastic and isotropic, as far as the clastic part of the deformation is concerned. Thus, the incremental form of the elastic constitutive relation is given by the incremental form of the generalized Hook’slaw. + For small increment size, the Jaumann stress increment can be used asthe incremental objective stress tensor. The relation between the Jaumann_ stress increment (do) and the Cauchy stress increment (da, is similar to equation (7): do’, = dor, (dong, +.0,d0,) (39) where, the incremental rotation tensor da, isdefined by 40, =1(dy,,~au,) (20) + As before, we assume that the material yields according to the von Mises yield criterion with o, as the yield stress. Further, the incremental form of the plastic constitutive equation is given by the incremental form of the associated flow rule based on the von Mises. plastic potential + As before, we assume that the material remains isotropic beyond yielding also. Further, the power law modelling of the isotropic hardening is given by equation (9). However, now, the equivalent plastic strain ( €2, has to be expressed in terms of the incremental equivalent plastie strain (def, ef, = [denat. (ny Under these assumptions, the elasto-plastic constitutive relation can be expressed as Plastic Zone (After Yielding) (6 sc equations): do} = Chdey, (42) where, Cn du + (48) 5,6, 9 Fu 2 (+30, Here, the quantities 1,d,, and @,, (equation, 66) have been defined before. The quantity v is the Poisson's ratio and H’ is the slope of the hardening curve given by equation (9). Directions 2014 |rElastic Zone (Before Yielding and After Unloading) (6 scalar equations): do = Chudey. (9) where, Ch 48.8, (4) Here, # has been defined before and 2 is a Lame’s constant. Note that the clastic constants #1, V and 2 are not independent. Given 2 and jr, v canbecaleulated as aw “ (ii) Incremental equations of motion (3 scalar equations): In updated Lagrangian formulation, the incremental form of the equation of motion is used. Further, the incremental acceleration da, expressed as two time derivatives of the incremental displacement vector. Thus, the ‘equation of motion takes the form: pai, = pdb, +dor,,. (47) Here, the quantity p has been defined before ‘The quantity dii, represents the two time derivates of the’ incremental displacement veetor and db, represents the incremental body force (per unit mass). As decided earlier, we treat p as a constant Therefore, we do not need the equation of conservation of mass. Thus, we have 15 scalar equations for 15 unknowns: (i) 3 incremental displacement components du, , (ii) 6 incremental linear strain components dé, and (iii) 6 incremental stress components ¢,. To solve these equations for the given material, the material properties have to be supplied: (i) density p, (ji) elastic properties 2 and and (iii) the yield stress 6, and the hardening parameters K and 1. Further, the incremental body force db, (per unit mass) also has to be specified. Since the governing equations (36) and (47) are partial differential equations in. spatial variables. and time ¢ the boundary and initial conditions are needed for solving these ‘equations. Boundary Conditions: ‘Typical boundary conditions for the updated Lagrangian formulation areas follows: (i) On a part of the boundary (5,), and nental displacement vector du is Thus, du; = du; on 5, (a8) where, du; represents the specified value. Thisis called as the kinematic or displacement boundary condition (ii) On the remaining partof the boundary(S, } an incremental stress vector dty is specified. Thus, (at,); =doin; =(dt,);, On S, (49) a where, (di;); represents the specified value. This is called as the stressor traction boundary condition. Here, the parts S, and 5, need to satisfy the Jations similar to the ones given by equation (19). Further, each of , and S; can consist of several disjoint segments. In_ practice, the actual boundary conditions differ from those specified by Equations (48~19), as sometimes there are mired boundary conditions, Further, ‘on a boundary inclined to coordinate axes oF ‘ona boundary with friction, a combination of thecomponents of duor dt, is known. Initial Conditions: Since the governing equation (47) contains two time derivatives of the incremental displacement vector , we need to specify the values of the incremental displacement vector du, and the incremental velocity vector do, at the beginning of the increment, (ie, at the current time f) at every point of the current configuration. Thus, the initial conditions are: du; = dul, dy; =a, (50) where, dif and dv{ are the specified values at time & For a quasi-static problem, the incremental acceleration term can be neglected from equation (47). Then, we do not need the initial conditions. Directions 2014 Vol.14 No.Finite Element Modelling of Metal Forming Processes Updating Scheme: After solving the incremental governing equations (36 and 42-7) along with the boundary and initial conditions, we obtain the incremental displacement vector du, , the incremental linear strain tensor dey and the incremental stress tensor de, . Using du,, we update the geometry to obtain the deformed configuration at time ¢+d¢ Further, by adding du, and do, to v, and o,, we update the displacement vector and the stress tensor time of t#dt. This completes the analysis of the current increment, After this, we proceed to the next increment, The deformed configuration at time t+dt is used as the reference configuration for this increment. ‘Then, the incremental governing equations (36 and 42-47) are solved over this configuration along with the boundary and initial conditions for this configuration: This process is continued till the desired deformation level is achieved. Example on Updated Lagrangian Formulation: Forging of a Cylindrical Block For convenience, the cylindrical polar coordinates (r,8,2) are “used, In_ these coordinates, for an axisymmetric problem, the non-zero components. of the incremental displacement vector, the incremental linear strain tensor and the incremental stress tensor are: te) ae, {du} = a o du.) de () do, 0 de, 0 doy 0 de, 0 de. Further, all these non-zero components become independent of the coordinate 4. For this problem, again only 2 boundary conditions on each boundary are needed because of axisymmetry. ‘Stress Free Boundary BC: ‘The boundary BC is a stress-free surface, On the stress-free surface, the incremental stress AL_Platen interface ps Axiso of symmetry ais St ebairy : Figure 5 Domain or the updated Lagrangian femal of orgingof yl Dock ina typeal re plane of hal the dled bck tne vector is zero at every point, Therefore, the boundary conditions’ at the boundary BC become: (69) where, di, and df, are the components of the incremental stress vector df, in cylindrical polar coordinates. Plane of Symmetry DC: On the plane of symmetry, the normal component of the incremental displacement vector and the shear component of the incremental stress vector are zero at every point. Therefore, the boundary conditions at the boundary DC can be written as: du, 8) where, du, is the z-component of the incremental displacement vector. Note that this is a mized typeof boundary condition. Anis of Symmetry AD: On the axis of symmetry, the normal component of the incremental displacement vector and the shear component of the incremental stress vector are zero at every point. ‘Therefore, the boundary conditions at the boundary DC become: du,=0, dt,=0, (54) where, du, is the r-component of the incremental displacement vector. Note that thisis a mized typeof boundary condition, Directions 2014/ ya |Platen Interface AB: At the interface, z-component of the incremental displacement vector must be equal to the incremental platen displacement. To write the other boundary condition, we make use of the observation that nearer to point A(centre of the platen), the block material sticks to the platen while nearer the free edge (point B), the block material slips relative to the platen in outward direction. To write the boundary condition for the slipping case, we assume that the frictional (or shear) stress exerted by the platen in r-direction is, governed by the Coulomb's lave: (slipping) ( where, fis the coefficient of friction and 4, +dt, and t, +dt,are the components of ‘the stress vector ty +df,_ along the directions rand = respectively. This boundary condition, is in terms of the total stress vector at time tdt and not in terms of the incremental stress vector df, . The material flow at the interface is in’ the positive r-direction. ‘Therefore, the frictional stress will be in the opposite direction, ie, in the negative direction, Further, the normal stress exerted by the platen is always compressive, ie,in the negative z-direction. Therefore, both t,4dt, and t,+dt, are negative. Then, equation (55) becomes ty +dt, = f(t, +dt,), (slipping) (56) For the cased sticking boundary conditions, r component of the incremental displacems vector must be zero. Now, the boundary conditions at the boundary AB become: 1, +dt,— f(t, +d1,)=0, (slipping), du, (sticking, du, = du’, (57) where, duis the preseribed incremental displacement of the platen. This boundary condition involves acombination of t, +dt,and t,+dt, Here also, the shear stress at’ the platen interface is subjected to the constraint that itcan not exceed its maximum value. Finite Element Formulation: ‘The detailed derivation of the finite element equations for 3-D updated Lagrangian formulation, based on the above governing equations, has been presented in Chapter 6 of the book by Dixit and Dixit [2008] Additional details of the finite element formulation of the axisymmetric forging are also provided in the same Chapter. ‘The detailed finite element formulation for 3-D cup drawing (both circular and square) is givenin the PhD thesis of Saxena [2005 Modelling of Other Aspects: ‘The modelling process described above can be enlarged to include modelling of fracture using Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) model [Gupta et al, 2003, Saxena and Dixit, 20117, or the modelling of anisotropy using an appropriate anisotropic yield criterion [Venu Madhav, 2006] or the modelling of instability in cup drawing (called wrinkling) using an appropriate bifurcation criterion [Saxena and Dixit, 20107) Applications: At the Mechanical Engineering Department of IIT Kanpur, the above-described finite elements models of axisymmetric and 3-D forging/3-D cup drawing (both cireular and square) have been employed for various applications. They have been applied to predict residual stresses in forging [Mungi et to predict earing as well as to optimize the initial blank shape to prevent earing [Venu Madhav, 2006, Saxena and Dixit, 20095, to predict fracture in forging and deep drawing [Gupta et al, 2003, Saxena and Dixit, 2011] or to predict the maximum, cup height in cup drawing before the initiation of flange wrinkling [Saxena and Dixit, 20107) A picture of square cup simulated using the inhouse FE code, developed on the basis of the formulation described above, is shown in Figure, PEEFinite Element Modelling of Metal Forming Processes Figure 4: Square cup simulated using in-house Finite Element code developed on the basis of the updated Lagrangian formulation of Section 9, REFERENCES xt, US.and Dixit, PM, Finite elemen [17Bathe, K.J, Ramm, E, and Wilson, EL, 57) Dist Dixit, PM. 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