Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Notes
Ah bad man we name A.L.L.
CONCEPTUALIZING
DEVELOPMENT
Expected Learning
Outcomes
1. Analysis of the Concepts of Development
2. Grasp of the interrelationships among the
different approaches to development (human,
economic, sustainable)
3. Grasp of the different indicators of development
4. Grasp of the different factors that promote and
hinder development
5. Evaluation of how development has been
influenced by political, social, cultural,
environmental and technological factors
Concepts of Development
Approaches to development
There are three main approaches to
development:
1. Economic Development
2. Human Development
3. Sustainable Development
Economic Development
The specific goal of development in the
decolonization era was economic
development through economic growth
This referred to an increase in the value of
goods and services produced by a country
within a specific time period
It was expected that the problems of
poverty and backwardness would be solved
once Caribbean countries experienced
improvements in economic growth
Economic Development
(Contd)
Economic Development
Indicators
Levels of Industrialization
Employment Levels
Economic structures (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Industries)
The Levels of local and foreign debt
Levels of foreign aid receipts
National Resource Accounting
How natural resources are depleted to drive productivity
Human Development
The Human Development Paradigm (HDP) in the
90s brought together ideas from economic development
and sustainable development to find a more holistic way
of describing development but putting humans at the
centre.
The HDP has three basic views
1. That people are the end means of development: so if our
quality of life increases we observe development
2. That development is largely about broadening peoples
choices so theyll have more opportunities to improve
themselves in ways thatll make them happy and bring
income
3. That poverty and income inequality are the major problems in
human societies which prevent good quality of life
Human Development
Therefore human development as envisaged
by the HDP includes improving the quality of
life of people through the four areas of:
empowerment, equity, productivity and
sustainability
The notion comes not from ethnocentric views
as empowerment i.e. broadening human
choices differ considerably among countries.
In one country it may be through education,
another may be through opening crown lands
Sustainable Development
A concept of advancing a peoples quality
of life, through both economic growth and
development and human without
compromising future generations and their
capacity to meet their own needs.
In this type of development if human
development needs are compromised
imporvents will be unsustainable
So yeah all types of development are
connected here
Sustainable Development
If equity is compromised so will the environment be. In
severely unequal places like Haiti where daily survival is
more of priority than the well being of future
generations the environment will be exploited i.e.
cutting of forests which lead to soil erosion
Hence measures must be implemented to reduce
inequality and poverty.
Big companies often exploit the environments to make a
profit like destroying forests, overfishing and polluting.
Therefore measures to increase the empowerment of
citizens to raise issues against the interests of big
business is critical to ensue sustainability.
Sustainable Development
Equity:
Refers to the commitment on the part of the people
and government of a country to enable all social
groups to access the opportunities that the country
offers and be fair to all groups as they grasp these
opportunities
Sustainable Development
Empowerment (Based on equity)
Refers to the degree to which individuals
have a feeling of self-efficacy, meaning
that they have a knowledge that they
are capable of doing things to improve
their lives. If people have equal
opportunities to be productive citizens
theyll probably be happy and will have
a high esteem making them make broad
decisions in their best interest
Life Expectancy
Levels of Education
Ratio of Doctors to the Population
Labour Productivity
Distribution of Income
Improved institutions and attitudes
Urbanization
Birth and Death Rates
A nationally coordinated system of policy
measures
Sustainabi
lity
A nationally
coordinated
system of
policy
measures
National
Sustainable
Development Plan
Empowerm
ent
Productivity
Improved
institutions and
attitudes
Increase in Literacy
Levels
Gender Equity at the
workplace
Energy efficiency
Internet Usage
Equity
Environmental Factors
These relate directly to nature but
indirectly to economics because we
need raw materials as well as land to
dump our waste.
If the environment is sustainably
taken care of the carrying capacity of
the land can increase leading to
boosts in the productive sectors
(primary, secondary and tertiary
industries) as well as through tourism
GLOBALIZATION
Contextualising Development:
Globalization and Regionalism
Expected Learning Outcomes
Define Globalisation
Compare Globalisation and Internationalisation
Present a critique of the work of organizations that
attempt to facilitate globalisation.
Assess the ways in which Globalisation affects
development in the region
Describe the evolution of the integration movement
in the Caribbean
Explain the ways in which the integration
movement has affected development in the region
Defining Globalization
Globalization : the process whereby
flows of trade, finance and
information between countries are
broadened and deepened so that
they function as one global market,
as if they had no borders.
For example a Singapore University
in Jamaica would have the same
privileges in Jamaica as in Singapore.
Defining Globalization
Globalization has been derived by the ICT
(Information and Communication Technologies)
sector in recent times
For example the internet exists without borders
to some extent (except VEVO).
This is the logical meaning of globalization
where when applied to trade, finance or
communication where a commodity is available
to all everywhere, as if the nation state didnt
exist. For example The universality of Cell
Phone usage
Defining Globalization
A truly globalized world only exists when there
is a level playing field for all where everyone
can benefit from trade in technology.
For example Cell phones in the Sahara to the
Caribbean are used touching all income
groups and backgrounds
Information access has been able to allow
ordinary citizens to access the prices globally
of produce and services to challenge old
monopolies
Defining Globalization
Monopolies are therefore no longer as
profitable as they were so there is a question as
to how Capitalist Organizations can function in
a globalized world
Globalization is therefore a process which
erodes distinctions between various
places removing advantages that certain
groups enjoy
Globalization produces in knowledge an area
where all parts of the world are able
disseminate their own cultural knowledge
Defining Internationalization
Internationalization is a more
accurate term to describe world now
concerning the institution of the
World Bank or IMF in finance or
trade.
Internationalization of flows in trade,
capital and finance refers to
increasing interactions among the
countries of world as their markets
become more integrated and as their
Defining Internationalization
Internationalization is more accurate
because it recognizes the nation-state. It
conceives interactions between nations
and conceives the nations not as equal.
There is no deepening or broadening of
linkages in capital, trade and finance as is
the case for globalization
Since there is a distinction which needs to
be addressed between internationalization
and globalization
Multi/Transnational
Organisations
Multi/Transnational
Organisations
Purpose of MNC/TNC
These are set up to take advantage
of the lower cost of foreign labour
and material.
To avoid to pay tariffs and taxes on
imported goods.
Obtain control over the supply of
resources.
Eg of TNC in the Caribbean are:
Scotia Bank, Digicel, LIME, KFC,
Burger King, Nestle, Pepsico
Multilateral Agencies
These are agencies or institutions where many
members are able to participate on even footing,
dedicated to achieving certain goals and have devised
procedures for all to follow in pursuit of these goals
and has devised procedures for all to follow in pursuit
of these goals ex. The World Bank, IMF, WTO
All these had a genesis after WWII and were formed
after a special UN meeting at Bretton Woods in New
Hampshire in 1945 and are known as Bretton Woods
Institutions. The goal was to ensure economic
development of all countries to prevent recurrences of
catastrophes like the World Wars and the Great
Depression.
The IMF
As a Bretton Woods Institution the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) works closely with the World
Bank having the same membership and HQ but
instead having a customary European president. They
balance each other via the Washington Consensus
The IMF focuses on fostering global monetary
cooperation and ensuring financial stability worldwide
extending loans and technical assistance to expand
trade and help countries balance payments and be
stable fiscally. Reducing debt is likely to boost
economic growth. Globally the IMF is responsible for
overseeing the entire international financial system
The IMF
IMF industries are based solely on austerity and are the
same for all developing countries including:
1. Keeping interest rates high to balance currency
2. Devalue the currency to boost exports
3. Reducing Government spending in non-productive sectors
(health and education)
4. Privatization of state owned enterprises
The WTO
The WTO
The US, TNCs, Japan and the EU are said to exert
undue pressure on developing countries in the
decision making process
Recently WTO meetings all over the world have been
met with protests, demonstrations and criticisms.
Talks have even broken down as consensus becomes
even more difficult and developing countries refuse
to accept some decisions.
Here we see when developed countries are faced
with the prospect of globalization they back down in
favour of internationalization of fair trade where
they only benefit.
Benefits of EPA
Free flow of goods
Exemption from high taxes and quota
limits would be higher
Opens up market beyond WTO
especially in service sectors such as
entertainment industries.
Labour
The Context of
Development
Caribbean Exports have decreased for a variety of
reasons including:
The removal of trade preferences
The underselling of local products by cheaper foreign
goods and services
The closure of both large and small firms who cannot
compete with the technological efficiencies of foreign
manufacturers
Regional Integration
The Caribbean is divided among European
languages and traditions and any form of
regional integration was relatively unthinkable
until 1994 and the formation of the
Association of Caribbean States (ACS).
The English speaking Caribbean with their
similarities have long founded different
associations including: The West Indies
Federation, CARIFTA and CARICOM. At the Sub
regional level the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean states were formed.
Regionalism and
Globalization
Under systems of increasing globalization smaller nation
states have found it more advantageous to integrate
some parts of their operations so that they can better
deal with the threat posed by the free market ideology.
In the Caribbean we tried political integration using the
federation model, which was not successful then began
anew via CARIFTA. This was aimed at using the freemarket ideas to reap benefits through functional
cooperation of trade.
This limited amount of cooperation led Caribbean
countries to seek deeper associations, especially in the
free market, as a strategy for development endorsed by
world bodies. This effort was CARICOM
CARIFTA
Specifically, CARIFTA was intended to
encourage balanced development of the
Region by:
increasing trade - buying and selling more
goods among the Member States
diversifying trade - expanding the variety of
goods and services available for trade
liberalising trade - removing tariffs and quotas
on goods produced and traded within the area
ensuring fair competition - setting up rules for
all members to follow to protect the smaller
enterprises
CARIFTA
In addition to providing for free trade, the
Agreement sought to:
ensure that the benefits of free trade were equitably
distributed
promote industrial development in the LDCs
promote the development of the coconut industry
(through an Oils and Fats Agreement) which was
significant in many of the LDCs
rationalise agricultural production but in the interim,
facilitate the marketing of selected agricultural products of
particular interest to the LDCs (through the Agricultural
Marketing Protocol);
provide a longer period to phase out customs duty on
certain products which were more important for the
revenue of the LDCs
CARIFTA
In 1972, Commonwealth Caribbean leaders at the
Seventh Heads of Government Conference decided
to transform the Caribbean Free Trade Association
(CARIFTA) into a Common Market and establish the
Caribbean Community, of which the Common
Market would be an integral part.
The signing of the Treaty establishing the
Caribbean Community, Chaguaramas, 4th July
1973, was a defining moment in the history of the
Commonwealth Caribbean. Although a free-trade
area had been established, CARIFTA did not
provide for the free movement of labour and
capital, or the coordination of agricultural,
industrial and foreign policies.
CARIFTA
The objectives of the Community, identified in Article 6 of the
Revised Treaty, are:
To improve standards of living and work;
The full employment of labour and other factors of production;
Accelerated, coordinated and sustained economic development
and convergence;
Expansion of trade and economic relations with third States;
enhanced levels of international competitiveness;
Organization for increased production and productivity;
Achievement of a greater measure of economic leverage and
effectiveness of Member States in dealing with third States, groups
of States and entities of any description and the enhanced coordination of Member States foreign and foreign economic policies
and enhanced functional co-operation.
In 1973, CARIFTA became the Caribbean Community
(CARICOM).
CARICOM
CARICOM came into being with the
signing of the Treaty of Chaguaramas
signed on July 4, 1973 by Jamaica.
Trinidad, Barbados and Guyana. It
began operation on 1st August.
Presently membership includes
CARIFTA members as well as Haiti
and Suriname.
CARICOM
Main objectives
improvement in economic development through trade
liberalization (removal of trade barriers)
functional cooperation in areas such as health, education,
culture, broadcasting, transrx meteorological services,
technical assistance, disaster management
Common policies in dealing with non member states and
transnational companies. Benefits:
services offered by various institutions
economic strength as resources are pooled,
better negotiations with trading partners,
larger market for individual states,
stronger persuasive voice in global matters,
stronger Caribbean identity and better appreciation of
cultures,
benefits of talents of individual member states,
establishment of CCJ as well as CSME
CARICOM
Failures:
competition among member states in
air transport,
WISCO plagued by problems
ideals of common currency and
passport still not achieved
OECS
The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)
came into being on June 18th 1981, when seven
Eastern Caribbean countries signed a treaty agreeing
to cooperate with each other and promote unity and
solidarity among the Members. The Treaty became
known as the Treaty of Basseterre, so named in
honour of the capital city of St. Kitts and Nevis where
it was signed.
The basis of the organization was that following the
collapse of the West Indies Federation, and prior to
the signing of the Treaty of Basseterre, two caretaker
bodies were created: the "West Indies Associated
States Council of Ministers (WISA) in 1966 and the
Eastern Caribbean Common Market (ECCM) in 1968
OECS
The OECS is now a nine member grouping
comprising:
Antigua and Barbuda
Dominica
Grenada
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
British Virgin Islands
Anguilla
OECS
The mission is to be a major regional
institution contributing to the sustainable
development of the OECS Member States
by assisting them to maximize the
benefits from their collective space, by
facilitating their intelligent integration
with the global economy; by contributing
to policy and program formulation and
execution in respect of regional and
international issues, and by facilitation of
bilateral and multilateral co-operation.
OECS
Objectives:
To promote development by the formation of a
common market among member states
To deal more effectively with international
bodies by forming a common foreign policy
To assist each other in defending and
maintaining political independence
OECS member states have a common Eastern
Caribbean Currency, they all belong to the
Lesser Antilles, they are all small, independent
states, share common strategies for
development, a common Central Bank, a
common High Court and a Joint Stock exchange.
Generation of Income
Sport, income and the mass media
To a large extent profitability of sport is
dependent on its link with information
and communications technologies
(ICTs).
THEORIZING CARIBBEAN
DEVELOPMENT
Expected Learning
Outcomes
1. Explain what is meant by an ideology
2. Describe the Values underlying the
following ideologies: pan-Africanism,
negritude, Marxism, Feminism, Capitalism,
Indo-Caribbean and Indigenous
Perspectives
3. Identify the key thinkers in these
intellectual traditions
4. Analyse the Impact of each of these
ideologies
Ideology
This is a fairly coherent and comprehensive set
of ideas that explains and evaluates social
conditions, helps people understand their place
in society and provides a program for social and
political actions
Each ideology must be interpreted based on our
experiences within colonialism, exploitation,
ethnocentrism and nationalism
Main ones include: Pan-Africanism, negritude,
Capitalism, Marxism, Indo-Caribbean and
Indigenous perspectives
Pan-Africanism
This is a specific ideology which states
that the survivals of Africa in the diaspora
should be studied and active links made
to Africa as the motherland
It originated in the 18th century by black
people in the US trying to escape slavery
to go back to Africa as they believed they
were wrongfully kidnapped from their
homeland. These ideas eventually
developed into Pan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism
Under Henry Sylvester Williams in 1900 the first
Pan Africa Conference in London took place. The
main objectives were
His ideas and message came at a time when the US and Caribbean
were at hardship especially among the poor.
His public appearances always proclaimed pride in the African race and
emphasised that Black people should see God in their own image
This stance was heard by those marginalized in white-dominated
Capitalist society
In 1930 this message was also taken up by the Rastafari who translated
his words to mean the existence of a black god. The statements he
made like a king will come out of Africa and the prominence he gave to
Haile Selassies coronation convinced them that the Rastafari
movement should declare Selassie as King of Kings and Lord of Lords
His advocacy for repatriation was also taken up wholeheartedly by the
Rastafari movement
Garvey is a national hero of Jamaica and lives on through music, and in
the inspiration he gave to budding politicians, trade union leaders, the
civil rights movement and the decolonization movement of the
Caribbean and Africa based on nationalism
Negritude
This is a unique brand of Pan-Africanism which
originated in the 60s in French colonies calling for all
people of African Origin to celebrate their blackness and
didnt recognize geographical or regional distinctions
The main thinkers were Frantz Fanon and Aime Cesaire
Martiniquans, Leon Damas of French Guiana and
Leopold Senghor who later became the head of state of
Senegal
The movement began in Paris where members
published a journal providing a forum to express
sentiments regarding the French policy of total
assimilation of its colonies and the side lining of African
culture and the impossibility of independence there.
Negritude
Negritude mainly focused on black consciousness and
black bride because as these activists saw it living in a
context where French culture and civilization was
expressed threatened the core of black identity.
In Martinique and Guadeloupe small Marxist groups
sought to mobilize people to overthrow the French with
no success.
Aime Cesaire resigned from the French Communist Party
on the grounds that a race struggle was different from a
class struggle.
In Pan-Africanism there was an urge to move away from
Capitalism so there were experiments with communism
but that too was a European ideology.
Negritude
Franz Fanon was a more radical pan africanist.
He was a student of Cesaire and worked in
France and Algeria as a psychologist
experiencing first hand the barbarity of the
French police fighting Algerians against their
independence
Fanon saw no other way other than the violent
overthrow of colonial governments through his
documentations of the struggle in the books
The Wretched of the Earth and Black Skin
Economic Perspectives:
Industrialization by Invitation
Sir Arthur Lewis is a St. Lucian, distinguished
economist, Vice Chancellor of the University of the
West Indies (UWI) and Nobel Prize Winner for his
strategies to improve economic growth for his
theory later known as Industrialization by Invitation
He was influenced by Operation Bootstrap initiated
by Puerto Rico in the 30s & 40s where cheap
available labour would be used as an incentive to
attract multinational companies to establish
industries alongside tax free concessions.
The result was that Peurto Rico became
industrialized with mixed success.
Economic Perspectives:
Industrialization by Invitation
Lewis theory was only based on the context that the British
West Indies with our mainly agricultural base needed to
stimulate industrial growth
Lewis reasoned that what we had in great abundance was
unskilled labour due to our monocrop economies and among the
unemployed and we didnt have much capital so in the short
term we could invite MNCs with money to set up operations
here earn large profits by employing the cheap labour,
subsidies and tax holidays. In the monocrop industries labour
prices would therefore rise as workers would be absorbed into
manufacturing
The products would the be distributed by the MNCs themselves
in markets MNCs commanded so by using MNCs in this way
Caribbean countries wouldnt need to set up additional
infrastructure as we didnt have any, nether rely on tarrifs.
Economic Perspectives:
Industrialization by Invitation
Lewis envisaged through this a jumpstart in economic
diversification, higher wages in agriculture and higher
wages from the MNCs as well as the gaining of the
knowledge necessary to run our own manufacturing
industries once MNCs left amd rise to emrge out of
Colonialism optimistically.
The strategy however failed, as stated by critics due to the
fact that we invited the MNCs but did not control them.
MNCs were provided infrastructure such as warehouses,
light, water, etc. and tax breaks and subsidies but when
the initial period was up they left with no provision to train
citizens added to the fact that these were mainly Capital
intensive industries left the region with an overall loss.
British Capitalism
Capitalism in its simplest terms means free market enterprise. It
is a way of organizing the economy whereby the exchange of
goods and services is done according to the forces of the market
i.e. demand and supply. Modern view is that of free trade.
Under a free trade system government has little say in the
distribution of goods and services. The two major ideal of
capitalism is privately owned capital and investment and profit
making. British capitalism in the New World had one objective profit making (get wealthy). The plantation system of production
used African slave labour thereby making huge profits.. .in no
time they became wealthy as evidenced by the plantation
houses constructed across the region. The large profits accrued
allowed them to live opulent lives in the Caribbean as well as
Britain.
British Capitalism
According to Walter Rodney (Guyanese) Capitalism was introduced into
the Caribbean with the first transshipment of African slaves across the
Atlantic. This form of capitalism was one-sided, in short this system was
non-negotiable. It was non-negotiable because the Africans had no say
in the system and also the fact that the system was forced upon the
Africans (How Europe Underdeveloped Africa ,) Intellectuals Eric
Williams and CLR James( Trinidadians) in their writings epitomized the
thoughts of Caribbean people on British capitalism.
Williams argued that slavery was purely economic and embodied the
capitalist ideal of the British. Hence when slavery became unprofitable
the British which once embraced this system deemed it savage and
uneconomical and abandoned the system (Capitalism and Slavery).
While Williams was able to recognize the brutality of the system of
slavery he never lost sight of the fact that the system was economical
and slavery was just another means to the economic success of the
British..
British Capitalism
CLR James in the Black Jacobins points out that the system of slavery and
colonialism had to be brutal to ensure that the system of capitalism worked
and worked well. The brutality was not only mental but also psychological.
The Black West Indian was constantly reminded of his/her blackness and
this blackness was closely linked to backwardness and inferiority. Over time
blacks in the West Indies came to believe this myth. Once the myth was
engrained into their psyche the British was ensured of the success of
capitalism. British capitalism only involved the Caribbean to the extent that
the position of the Caribbean performed only to the needs of the British
government. This forced arrangement was that the Caribbean produced and
the British consumed. Whatever benefit was returned to the Caribbean was
only done to ensure that capitalism survived to further enrich Britain.
This concept of development is attributed to St. Lucian economist Sir Arthur
Lewis (Nobel Prize for Economics). This was based on a concept adopted in
Puerto Rico called Operation Bootstrap. This concept became the model on
which economies of the English speaking territories within the region were
fashioned. Following economic systems such as communal, encomienda,
slavery and the plantation system, many economists felt that for the
Caribbean to be economically viable there was a need for the economy to
be reorganized. After all, despite the many economic systems the region
was still experiencing problems of an economic nature.
Feminism
A Feminist is an advocate of woman's rights; anyone who recognizes female oppression and
fights for the correction of this oppression. To be feminist is to be calling for equality of the
sexes. Part of the feminist agenda is for women and their issues to be on the front burner; on
centre stage. It concerns the celebration of women's achievement as for too long the
contribution women have made to society has gone unnoticed, unrecorded and unrecognized.
The origin of Caribbean feminism is unique due to its long history. Black women of the .
Caribbean have been fighting oppression ever since their sale and capture on the west coast of
Africa. They were constantly in the quest for freedom.
Women used their bodies to attack the system of slavery- infanticide, and acts of infertility were
common. When this was not the option they turned on the master and his property burnt fields,
damaged equipment and animals, killed their masters. Under slavery women out of necessity
became brutal and militant. In order to survive she had to become a feminist. Following
emancipation, women's focus changed. They now had to struggle against the same black men,
with whom they were enslaved, for visibility and equality. They had to find new tools with which
to fight oppression. The new tools became academics and literature. If their voices are to be
heard they had to become qualified like the men or more qualified. The views, issues and
concerns became audible through literature. In the literature the women authors dramatized
the different problems and complexities facing women they also attempted to deconstruct and
reconstruct new ideas about women and femininity.
While doing so the achievements of women are being celebrated eg. Verene Shepherd uses her
knowledge of history to refocus attention away from men in history. She has given women a
voice and a face in history to women.
Feminism
One of the major inroads into Caribbean feminism has been made
by CAFRA (Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and
Action). Through this group women are able to explore and
celebrate their achievements. It provides a voice for women.
Through the Women and Development Unit (UWI) information
about the status of women is made available to government and
NGO, which can then be used to guide formulation of policy
concerning the welfare of women. These many women's
organization have been created to champion the cause; National
Organisation of Women (Barbados) Sistren (Jam), CARIWA. These
among others highlight role of women in many endeavours such
as labour movement, provide a forum for discussion of issues and
provide an inspiration for young women and urge governments to
implement legislations on women's issues such as rape, sexual
harassment
Amerindian Perspectives
Amerindian groups have been targets of European
opinions which saw them as a primitive, inferior,
barbaric, uncivilized to be eliminated, overworked,
enslaved. Caribbean Intellectual perspective seeks to
dispel the view that these people did not have a history.
(Walter Rodney (History of Guyanese working people);
CLR James (Black Jacobins) Hilary Beckles (Black
Rebellion in Barbados). There is the need to view the
indigenous people not only in terms of the labour they
provided (encomienda) but the cultural contribution
they have made. (Kalinago resisted Europeans and
halted the advance of European settlement, left us
architectural styles, foods, craft, farming systems)
Indo-Caribbean Perspectives
Emancipation of slaves led to the introduction of indentured workers from Asia (Indian and
China). Indians came in large numbers to Guyana, Trinidad and Cuba and to a much lesser
extent Jamaica between in 19m century. Influenced by contractual arrangements and
colonialism, they have also produced several writings, which expressed their culture and
responses within the Caribbean. In Caribbean they found harsh conditions (refer to
indentureship; low wages, withholding of pay, overcrowded dilapidated unsanitary
barracks, restricted movements, harsh penalties, poor nutrition, overwork disease. In
response Indians protested, went on strikes, riots; others repatriated others cultivated plots
practiced thrift and industry, complained to immigration gents, created organizations such
as East Indian National Association in Trinidad, staged cultural activities such as Divali,
Pbagwa, Hosay. The coming of the East Indians resulted in increase in East Indian
population; even exceeding African population in Guyana and Trinidad By 20 th century they
have made significant strides: moved from cane fields to education, commerce and health
sectors, reversal in trend of illiteracy, higher paying jobs.
Although they have been associated with labour, the East Indians have showed their
resilience to achieve economic independence and so have been able to influence the
economies of the countries in which they have lived. In addition they have moved into
areas of politics especially Trinidad and Guyana ( Jagan, Panday, Jagdeo etc. Intellectual
writers who have highlighted Indo- Caribbean thoughts include VSNaipaul ( Nobel prize
winner for Literature) and Samuel Selvon