HYDROCARBONS PRODUCTION AND ROCK MECHANICS WELLBORE STABILITY AND INTEGRITY COMPACTION-SUBSIDENCE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING SOLID PRODUCTION V. MAURY AVRIL 2007 MAURY CONSULTATNS Professeur AssociéHYDROCARBONS PRODUCTION/EXPLORATION AND ROCK MECHANICS RELATED PROBLEMS Purpose and technical content of the training course V. Maury, February 2007 Purpose and objectives of the trait ing course Since the beginning of eighties. training courses have been requested by petroleum engineers and geologists dealing with various topics related to petroleum applications ~ borehole stability, > wellbore stability and integrity during HC production and associated operations (work-over ete.) ~Feservoir deformation under depletion : compaction, subsidence, fracturation, microseismicity, ~ production processes implying rock mechanies factors, and follow up of reservoir deformation by microseismic monitoring, ~ solid production risk assessment and management, ~ rock mechanics aspects of hydraulic fracturing. New questions are now’ raised due to new applications and environment of prospects contemplated - HP/NT reservoirs ~ Long to very long extended reach wells, = Deep off-shore wells, ~ Mature and depleted fields, ~ Onset of loss regime during drilling phases, ~ Transition to regime of thermally induced fracturing (TIF) during injection, ~ Cuttings and various waste reinjection, ~ Microseismicity of several origins (not only depletion), _ Stress paths induced in reservoirs by depletion, governing all the subsequent operations (in- fill drilling, hydro-fracturing, completion, etc.) ~ Mechanisms involved by heavy oil production (CHOPS, SAGD, VAPEX, CSI, IGI, etc) ‘These questions are raised by different petroleum engineering specialties : drilling engineers and Superintendents, production engineers, but also mud specialists, log analysts, petrophysicists, staff of ‘completion/ wellbore treatment, geologists and geophysicists. ‘These questions have in fact the same background : they are questions of pure rock mechanics, in fact sometimes rather difficult. Rock mechanics appears to be an essential and unavoidable tool to deal with them. Very profitable answers and solutions have in fact been brought by this specialty during the last 30 years. Furthermore, these training courses are asked by drilling and petroleum engineers who received a ‘mechanical education, but also by people mainly educated in chemistry, geology, geophysics, without basic notions of mechanics. Training courses have therefore to be tailored according to the attendance, according to thei basic education, and their petroleum specialty. Porpose and Technical content of the tning couse Feb 2007HC Production/:xploration and Rock Mechatics Tra ‘The standard training course usually lasts 5 days, to give an overlook and deal with the main Peiroleum applications. Sometimes, due to time constraints itis reduced to 3 days, that obliges us to leave certain aspects and problems. This training course focuses on main petroleum applications. ‘the practical illustration of rock frechanics implication is made on the application to the problem of borehole stability and wellbore behaviour. This question is a mandatory step not only for dillers ton also for geologists. and Seophysicists (field geologists), log analysts, mud and completion specialists, production and work- over staff. It consists of: ~ brief outlook of petroleum engineering topics where Rock mechanics plays a major role ~ & secall of ‘basic notions of continuous media mechanics, with application to rocks. Demonstrations are obviously excluded feom such a short course, and Presentations are limited to fundamental results used in the application, with insistence about sewe Points commonly overlooked, ~ _abrief « state of the art» and present knowledge about the in situ states of stress and pore Pressure regimes, ~ the application of these notions to the borehole behaviour and stab ty : this problem is fundamental as regards the quality of exploration wells, costly drilling incidents and sometimes loss of boreholes, but also for logging, well tests, completion processes, hydraulic fracturing and Solids production. This topic is addressed by means ofa very simple numecieal case, Progressively made more complex to illustrate various drilling conditions and seen. Pragmatic approach allows participants with a limited mathematic education to fully evaluate the problem, and practical solutions deduced from the theoretical analysis, All the conclusions are illustrated by case histories, and field situations well documented [At the end of the 5 days training course, a session is allowed to permit the attendants to give Personal experience of cases or field situations where they think that rock mechenice questions were involved or overlooked, and how they might be addressed with results presented during the course], ‘As previously mentioned, all the results ae illustrated by case histories where conclusions were fleld tested, and/or have given rise to new methods, procedates, even patents for drilling, Some of these case were published and are now considered as classical Copies of these papers are included in the documentation supplied, Documentation cs, and very few dealing with petroleum but their reading needs a rather high level in As regards the recall of continuous solid mechanies, there are excellent books of basic mechanics (clasticity, plasticity, strength of materials) that were useless to reproduce here. [To help attendants to follow the presentations and take down some notes, the plans, main results, conclusions and figures are here reproduced to save time, For some case histories, now becoming very clasial field eases, copies of publications are given, ‘mainly papers published at the S.P.E. and IS RM’. According to the attendance and special interest of participants (ling eservoie engineering, Production, loging, geologists, geophysics), copies of addtional publications cas be distributed. Purpose and ‘Techical conten of the raining cause Feb 2007HC Production/Exploration and Rock Mechanics Training Course ENSPM Feb, 2007 (V. Maury) ‘The exercises are very simple to catty out, but need a good understanding of basic notions. They ‘can be done even without pocket calculator and are aimed at fully illustrated by good orders of magnitude the role of vatious parameters (cock parameters, in situ state of sttess, drilling conditions). They allow attendance to casily understand the mathematical formulation, but more important the Practical conclusions. These exercises must be considered as integrant part of the course, Some of the exercises included in the documentation can be treated only during longer courses, ie. 5 or 10 days. More advanced cases involve moze complex formula, now addressed by computer and ‘numerical models. Some examples will be shown during the course, V. Maury, February 2007 “International Society for Rock Mechanics, founded in 1966, made up of mote than sixty national gtoups Purpose and Techical conten of the traning come Feb 2007HYDROCARBONS EXPLORATION/PRODUCTION ROCK MECHANICS RELATED PROBLEMS Technical documentation (5 days courses) ‘V. Maury, September 2006 ‘The documentation given here is aimed at helping participants to take down some notes (overheads with plans, summaries of presentation with main figures and results), and supply some basic publications related to case histories illustrating practical applications. ~ Section I : recall of content and objectives of Rock mechanics application to hydrocarbons Production, brief recall of mechanics of continuous media, with exercise N°1, with comments about geomechanical behaviour of rocks' (these topics are commonly addressed in specialized books, copies of overheads used during presentation are only given here to help following the presentation) ~ Section Il deals with the in situ states of stress, and pore pressure regimes (copies of overheads summarizing the presentation) - Section III, related to presentations dealing with the geomechanical behaviour of porous media made usually during the 3° or 4" day for 5 days courses (or beginning of 2* week for 10 days courses) consists of a recall of basic theoretical notions. This section addresses also the subtle question of total and effective stress and a summary of successive approaches of mechanics of porous media (Terzaghi, Biot, Coussy). Exercise N° 3 and 4 are also relative to these notions, with their application to primary recovery evaluation - Section IV is devoted to the borehole behaviour, its deformation and rupture, and therefore all the problems of wellbore stability. This part is of utmost concem for drillers, mud and well architecture specialists, but also for geologists, geophysicists, reservoir engineers, loggers and well tests and Producers. They also interest people involved in hydraulic fracturing and solid production. This section IV is split in: - section IVa relative to borehole in dry or compact rocks (without fluids) . The exercise N° 2a illustrates by a practical case all the fundamentals and theoretical results by numerical values. It also shows all the practical conclusions that can be drawn from very simple considerations. This exercise is an integrant part of the course . - section IVb relative to borehole in porous media is approached during longer courses (5 or 10 days). The exercise 2b illustrates by a similar numerical case the effects of flow seepage pattern, the anisotropy of the in situ state of stress, but, more important, the role of the mudcake on the stability and the effect of temperature changes. - section IVc deals with frequent problems of borehole stability in fractured/faulted media, during drilling phases but also during production or work-overs of completed wells - section IV¢ illustrates results by field cases (HP/HT) and shows by borehole imagery tools various rupture modes = Section V give some data about compaction, subsidence and induced seismicity by HC production, ~ in case of longer program (5 days or more), Section VI addresses more specific problems of production: in section VIa, principles of borehole behaviour under pressure are approached, due to their role in L.O.T., F.LT., and hydraulic fracturing, in section VIb, rock mechanics aspects of solid production risks and management (silts, sand, chalk). " Attendants of all origins and nationalties asked us to maintain and insist on this part of the course. Basie notions of mechanics are studied during first years of engineering education and are rather forgotten. These recalls are important to avoid confusion and mistakes, most annoying for a good understanding, and for the efficiency of the training course ‘Technical documentation 5 days Training course.docTHC Exploration and production Rock Mechanics elated problems 2 ‘Technical documentation 5 days Training Course Sept. 2006 (V. Maury) ~ section VII deals with effects at the surface of production at great scale : craterisation, sink- holes, blow-out, shallow-gas. Data about confidential cases could not be reproduced, and will be explained in their principle. According to the attendance, some topics can be expanded or briefly summarized, Since the training course is made for practitioners, theoretical approaches are reduced to the essential for understanding. To be easily accessible and more illustrative, many case histories are shown, and many others will be quoted and briefly described during the course.[HC Exploration and production Rock Mechanics related problems 3 ‘Technical documentation 5 days Training Course Sept. 2006 (V. Maury) Section I Lecture Introduction, Application to petroleum Application \V. Maury : "Rock Mechanics Over the last ten year's in Oil & Gas Production". Topic 4, New Drilling Tectmology, 14" World Petroleum Congress, Stavanger 1994. Ph. Charlez et A. Simondon : « A Collection of Innovative Answers to solve the Main Problematics encountered when Drilling Deep Water Prospects (Publication OTC 15234, Houston, Texas 2003) Ph, Charlez : "Drilling, Producing and ‘Treating Complex Wells. A Collection of New Technologies to Optimise the Overal Well Process". SPE European Formation Damage Conference La Haye, Pays- Bas NI ay 2003 (SPE 82283). Lecture Brief recalls of solid mechanics and Rock mechanics Plan, summary, figures and main results (copies of overheads) General tables of tests in Rock mechanics. (for further reading see Timoshenko. Theory of elasticity ch. I and I1) For French reading attendants, there are two very good general books of Rock mechanics : : «Manuel de Mécanique des Roches » ‘Tome 1 Fondements, (Juin 2000) ouvrage du __ Comité frangais de mécanique des roches Editions Presses de Ecole des mines de Paris et Tome 2 : les applications, Janvier 2004 ‘Tome 2 Les applications, Janvier 2004 For people with a mechanical education : Fiaer E., Holt R., Risnes, R., and Raanen A. "Petroleum related Rock mechanics" For people already with an advanced education in solid mechanics Ph. Charlez "Rock mechanics" "Theoretical Fundamentals" (Vol 1) "Petroleum Application" (Vol 2) Ed. Technip Paris Section IL Lecture : in situ state of stress and pore pressure regimes Plan, summary, content and results (copies of overheads) ‘The part dealing with the pore pressure regimes is strongly inspired from the excellent book J.-P. Mouchet et A. Mitchell « Pressions anormales en cours de forage » Origine, prévision, détection, évaluation » Manuels techniques ELF Aquitaine I édition 1987 (new edition at press). For more information, see the General reports and publications of the ISRM International Symposia about In situ state of stress and also : Amadei B. and Stephensson O. "Rock stress and its measurements” Chapman and Hall (1997) ‘And the Publications of the World Stress Map Organization (W.S.M.) Section 111FHC Exploration and production Rock Mechanics related problems 4 ‘Technical documentation 5 days Training Course Sept. 2006 (V. Maury) Mechanical behaviour of Porous medi Plan, summary, content and figures (copies of overheads) ©. Coussy : « Mécanique des miliewx poreux » Ed, Technip 1991 (translated to English), “Mechanics of porous media". Ph. Charlez Editor, Lecture Notes of the Mechanics of porous media Summer School 1995 Balkema Publisher Ph, Charlez (op. cit.) et LF.P. Papers by M. Bouteca, J.-P, Sarda et A. Onai See also : the Biot's Conferences Biot on the Porous media about Poromechanics (Université de Lidge, Belgique) and recently ; ‘Y. Gueguen, M. Bouteca « Mechanics of Fluid-saturated Rocks" Ed., International geophysics Series Volume 89 Elsevier 2004 Exercice N'3 et 4 Section IV. Section IVa. (compact or dry rocks) Plan, summary, content and figures (copies of overheads) See the simplified presentation : Maury V. and Sauzay J.-M. "Borehole instability : Case histories. Rock Mechanics Approach and results" IADC/SPE16051, New-Orleans 1986 {in French : Guenot A. "Contrainte et rupture autour des forages pétroliers" CR 6é'ne Congrés SIMR. (Montreal 1987) Guenot A. "Borehole break-outs and Stress field” Int. Journ. Of Rock Mech. Min. Sc. And geomech. Abst. Vo1.26, N°3/4, pp 185-195, 1989 ‘The general problem of stability of underground opening (borehole, tunnels , galleries) is addressed in : Maury V. “An overview of tunnels and boreholes failure mechanisms", in Comprehensive Rock Engineering Vol. IV Ch. 14 J. Hudson Ed, Pergamon Pub. 1992 and also 1 " référence for lecture N°7 and 8, and Maury V. "Observations, recherches et résultats récents sur les mécanismes de ruptures autour de galeries isolées" (english version available ‘on request). Rapport of the Commission (RFMUO) de I'LS.R.M., VI" Cong. ISRM Montreal 1987, where essential figures are explained and commented. Maury V. "Stress and Borehole Stability Theoretical tools and results" Revue Européenne de Génie Civil REGC (10/2006) p.763-801 Lib. Lavoisier Publ. Paris, About thermal problems : Maury V. et Guenot A. "Stabilité des forages profonds" Article dans La thermomécanique des roches, BRGM, Manuels et méthodes N° 16, pp 292-304 BRGM Editions, Avenue de Concyr, 45060 Orleans Cedex 2 France. Guenot A, & Santarelli F. "Influence of mud temperature on deep borehole behaviour" Symposium Rock at Greath Depth 1989, Pau, France Maury Y. and Guenot A. "Practical advantages of mud cooling systems for drilling" SPE Drilling and Completion March 1995 pp 42-48 (presented as paper n°25732 at the IADCISPE Conf. ‘Amsterdam 1993), ‘Maury V. et Guérin J.-C. Patent N° 98 16103 en date du 21/12/98 about the mud diverter processLHC Exploration and production Rock Mechanics related problems 5 ‘Technical documentation 5 days Training Course Sept. 2006 (V. Maury) Section IV b Borehole stability in porous rocks Plan, summary, content and figures (copies of overheads) For more advanced readings, see for coupling problems in thermoporomechanical problems :, Charlez Ph. "Rock mechanics Theoretical Fundamentals Vol. 1 et Petroleum applications Vol. 2 Bd, ‘Technip Paris "Mechanics of Porous media" Ph. Charlez Ed. Balkema Pub. CR de 'Ecole dEté du CFMR (1994) Charlez Ph. "Impact of constitutive laws on wellbore Stability” SPE Drilling and Completion Joumal 1997 and fwrther publications. See deo various papers by O. Coussy et E. Detournay (references quoted Ch, 3), Boutea, Onaist LEP) Section IVe Borehole Stability in fractured/faulted Rocks Maury V. and Sauzay J.-M. "Rupture de puits provoquée par glissement sur fale: cas vécu, mécanismes, remedes, conséquences" Symposium International. ISRM/SPE Pau 1989 Maury V. and Zurdo ( "Drilling-induced lateral shifts along pre-existing fractures : a common cause of drilling problems » SPE Drilling and Completion March 1996 pp 17-23, presented as paper N°27492 at the IADGSPE Conf. Dallas, 1993 Dusseault M. B. Bruno M.S., & Barrera J.A. « Casing shear : Causes, Cases, Cures » SPE N° 48864 Section IVa Examples Applications Maury V. and Idelovici J.-L. "Safe drilling in HP/HT conditions : the role of the thermal regime in the gain and losses phenomenon” IADC/SPE 29428 Conf. Amsterdam Feb, 1995 Maury V., Etchecopar A. and Pezard Ph. "New borehole imagery techniques : an aid for failure ‘modes and in situ stress analysis and for minimizing drilling incidents" ‘Transactions 40°" Annual logging Symposium SPWLA 99 Oslo 1999 Maury V. English versions of tables from Notes Mécanique des Roches Chap. 12 "Attitude pratique cen face dun probléme de forage" V. Maury (Version Sept. 1999) Here are reproduced copies of overheads presented et the Technical Advisory Committee of the Ocean Drilling Program O.D.P. (8-9 07 2002) about problems of stability Telated to scientific boreholes deep and very deep off-shore (Presentation VM Amsterdam July 2002) and remedies to contemplate et les solutions. Section V Compaction Subsidence General schemes of past IFP presentation[HC Exploration and production Rock Mechanics related problems 6 ‘Technical documentation § days Training Course Sept. 2006 (V. Maury) V. Maury Article on Lacq seismicity (Bulletin technique Elf Aquitaine) and Publications with J-R. Grasso Case of water-sensitive materials : Piau J.-M. "Compaction and subsidence of petroleum reservoirs" in Mechanics of Porous Media, ‘Chharlez Ed. 1995 Balkema Pub. pp 215-244 Piau J.-M and Maury V. "Mechanical effects of water injection on chalk reservoirs” 1SRM/SPE 1N°28133, Delft 1994. Maury V., Piau J.-M. and Hallé G.. "Subsidence induced by water injection in water sensitive reservoir rocks : the example of Ekofisk", SPE 36890 presented at Europec 98 Milano See also the Land Subsidence Conferences : “Evaluation and prediction of Subsidence” Intern. Conf, Florida jan, 1978 ASCE Ed. "Land subsidence”, Intern. Symp. 1991 Houston, IAHS Publication “Land subsidence", [AHS Pub 234, Fisols 1995 “Land Subsidence” Fisols 1995 Balkema (Natural causes, Measuring techniques, the Groningen gasfields) and "Subsidence occurrence, Prediction and Control" par B.N. Whittaker and D..1. Reddish, Elsevier 1989 Section VI Boreholes and Wellbore behaviour under pressure, solid production Plan, content and summary of results of lectures (overheads) See also overheads of the P.M.RI. (Canada) Section VII Effects at large scale Walters J.V. "Internal blowouts, Cratering, Casing setting depths and the Location of Subsurface Valves SPE 10 909). Particular data about field cases, (Some on the papers listed above are not reproduced here and will be available during the presentation on request for copy),HC Production and Rock Mechanics Application to wellbore stability Technical documentation (5 days courses) TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION SECTION I PRESENTATION, INTRODUCTION APPLICATION TO HYDROCARBONS PRODUCTION BRIEF RECALL OF CONTINUOUS MEDIA MECHANICS Technical Documentation HC production and Rock mechanics Application to Wellbore Stability 5 days training course V. Maury April 2005a4ROCK MECHANICS OVER THE LAST TEN YEARS IN OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION: SAFETY AND ECONOMY Dr. V. Maury, Elf Aquitaine, Pau, France Abstract. Rock mechanics developments in oil and gas production during the 1980's have led to an improved understanding of rock behaviour at depth. As a result, probleme of borehole stability, well collapse during production, and unexpected behaviour of highly compresiible reservoiss have been addressed, predicted, avoided fr at least investigated. In the domain of drilling engineering, the paper shows how drilling incidents resulting in several days or weeks of rig time loss were avoided by the identification of actual borehole wal failure mechanisms during 1km Drain orientation factor; RI = reitiviy ots coelicent; ¢ = stress; @= temperature; T= time; Sw = waler saturation; O = porosty; K = permeability; FF = formation(a3 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 205 questions in Reservoir Engineering, Drilling, and Completion before giving some examples in Sec- tion 3 2.1. Reserv engineering 2.1.1. Matrix scale Evaluation of petrophysical properties (porosity) under in situ stress may allow a more legitimate appraisal of accumulation, as well as evaluation of primary recovery in case of permeability variation, This question is a key point in the case of some HP HIT fields where very large pressure depletions are contemplated (more than 100 MPa). They are also important for evaluation of enhanced recovery by compaction-drive mechanisms, such as heavy oil eservoirs (Venezuela) or very deformable reservoir rocks (North Sea). The last decade has seen renewed interest and development of the poroelastic theories initially given by Biot. The general theory of thermoporoclasto- plasticity as formulated by Coussy* allows the con- sideration of all the possible relationships (coupling) between mechanical, vids, and thermal interactions, during phases where the rock exhibits elastic then plastic bebaviour. This is important not only for the reservoirs themselves but also for the near wellbore region where large pressure Yariations and gradients are acting as stress redistribution and temperature Variations. Failure mechanisms occur, due to this very special stress redistribution type th: unknown in civil engineering or mining”. ‘The determination of the geomechanical properties also raises an important problem: if the determi- nation of elastic properties is now usual, what about the failure criteria? Is the rock going to dilate when rupture oceurs as usually observed for the shear failure mode, or is it going to lose volume (sometimes called contractant behaviours) such as observed ‘when the rupture is of a pore collapse type. It is now admitted that this type of behaviour can be found in Place not only for very deformable and porous material such as chalks but also for weak sands, sandstones, silts, and sillstones. Here the models derived from Soil mechanics (Cam-clay type models) are now more frequently used and adapted. The tran- sition between the two types of models (dilatant and contractant) remains a difficult and sometimes deci sive question for the future of production, because it ‘may correspond to a reduction of permeability in the rock matrix During the last two yeats, the effect of the degree of water saturation on the geomechanical properties (and hence petrophysical properties) appears of importance in rock of average to high porosities, cially in cases of low degree of solid cementation® (sometimes called ‘consolidation’ in the oil industry, not to be taken as the true consolidation of Soil Mechanics). 21.2. Block scale Rock properties determined’ by logging tools become of importance. An excessive deformation or rupture of the borehole walls will alter the rock properties evaluated by logging tools, as well as the preexisting fractures. These fractures in the vicinity of the wellbore are in a completely different stress con- ditions than at the scale of the reservoir. These frac- tures (as well as the fractures induced by drilling operations) will alter the results of production tests (LP, injectivity tests) which themselves alter the stress redistribution around the hole. Most of the time, these effects are ignored but they can be the causes of some of the discrepancies between predict- ed and observed results during the production stage. 2.1.3. Rock mass scale ‘The case of Ekofisk in the North Sea has drawn attention to the problems of compaction, associated subsidence and their consequences. Cases of large subsidence due to aquifers production (Mexico, Houston-Galveston, Venice, Bangkok, etc) are per- fectly well known, as well as cases of oil production (Wilmington, Long Beach, Maracaibo Lake). Predic- tion of subsidence in case of highly compressible rocks submitted to large depletion is in the domain of classical Rock Mechanics, at least for the range of values expected. Nevertheless, too often the side effects of these movements are not given enough consideration: in some cases, surface installation have had to be modi- fied Gacking of platforms and shell protection offshore), adjacent surface installation have been affected (failure of the Baldwin Hill dam, dikes of the Long Beach harbour), casing and production tubing have collapsed. Special mention has to be made of the drainage of the overburden, Sometimes, in aquifer depletion, interlayered clay sequences can compact (consolidate in the sense of Soil Mechanics) and are responsible for subsidence. Above hydrocarbon reservoirs, over- burdens may include undercompacted clays at abnormal pressures. At the beginning of depletion of the reservoir, deformation can be small and without effects on the overburden. When depletion increases,208 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY the reservoir compaction increases, inducing dis~ placements in the overburden, localized along frac- tures, faults or bedding joints. These movements increase the rock mass permeability, allow drai of the overpressures of the overburden, compaction of the abnormally press ‘This mechanism has been overlooked too often”. Where the rocks are more brittle (brittle is taken here in the sense of mechanics, ie, sudden and explo- sive failure), microseismicity can be induced. Around the Lacq Gas field (France), a spectral analysis of seismic events allowed the evolution of these events to be followed during depletion, given data on the ‘mode of deformation, sizes of seismic sources, ampli- tude of movemnents*®. ‘Monitoring systems of induced movements by new methods! are now operational, allowing a per- manent follow up of vertical and horizontal displace- ments, at a lower costs than older methods. These ew methods are important in the cases of large sub- sidence, as well as for the cases of small subsidences in sensitive environments (The Netherlands) where they are installed, 2.2. Drilling There are two totally different problems: (i) the rock has to be destroyed at the front: how to do it in the best conditions? This is often referred to as ‘drllability’. Simultaneously with rock destruction at the front, the wall of the wellbore has to be main- tained as intact as possible (wall integrity). This problem is referred to as ‘wellbore stability’ ‘The drillabiity is really a problem at the scale of the rock matrix. Instead the wellbore stability is a problem encountered at all scales (intact rock material, block, rock mass) and must be addressed accordingly. 2.2.Aa. Matrix scale, drillability Since the middle 70's, synthetic diamond technol- ogies have produced PDC which allows the bit to destroy rocks by using shear failure more than crush- jing and punching as previously under roller cone teeth or natural diamonds stones. ‘The PDC bits quickly appeared better adapted to rill soft (or plastic behaviour under deep conditions) rocks and improved drilling performance. At the same time, progress in bearing design and tooth metallurgy improved bit life and the performance of conventional roller bits in hard (brittle behaviour) and abrasive rocks, which were beyond the PDC capabilities? (13 However during the 80's, new tool designs!® allow the use of the PDC bit to successfully drill harder (more brittle and abrasive) rocks when occurring alternately with soft sedimentary layers. The crucial condition is then {0 avoid vibrations leading to dynamic overloading of PDC cutters. Studies of dynamic phenomena occurring at the tool face" show that the wearing process of the cutter is mainly inked to high transient loading forces on the cutter resulting from interaction of the rock cutting process and drillstring behaviour. The main present effort is aimed at eliminating these unfavorable vibrations, cither by special design’», or by detection and analysis of the dynamic ‘behaviour of the drillstring**, 2.2.1b. Matrix scale, wellbore stability Most of the time the problem of wellbore stability is addressed only om the scale of the rock matrix. We will see below how and why this problem has to be considered on the other scales. Extensive literature has been published on this topic because of its considerable economical impact on drilling costs. It is impossible even to summarize all the research underway and we must limit this dis- cussion to the following: first of all, only two modes of failure around boreholes were considered in the past: (j) shear failure in case of excessive in situ stresses and insufficient internal pressure, i.e, the mud weight, and (i) tensile failure under’ high in- ternal pressure, Theoretical studies and field observations'?"* have brought a new vision of the problem: (@) Firstly, if the shear failure mode is considered (admitted), there is not one but 3 (and in fact 6 possible shear failure modes according to the stress redistribution around the borehole, depending on the lateral state of stress (horizontal for vertical well, see Fig. 1, with details further explained in Section 3.1). (&) Secondly, from observations performed in mines, another failure mode, called ‘extension’ mode— may also occur around the borehole. The tran- sition from shear modes to the condition of onset of these extension modes is not known yet. (©) Thirdly, itis now certain—and laboratory mea- surements are available to show—that the Ter- zaghi’s effective stress concept for volumetric deformation cannot be used for rocks of very low porosities. For this volumetric deformation, a Biot’s coefficient different from 1 must be taken. ‘The question is now raised about the actual Agws NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 207 VERTICAL, FRACTURES: yn |e) | <0 ° HORIZONTAL FRACTURE Fig. 1. Stability diagram Shear Failure Modes. failure criterion to be considered for these rocks, such as we found in some overburden. (@) Finally, consideration has now been given to fail- tures of thermal origin: cooling due to mud cireu- lation induces tangential stress release giving a temporary stability (Gee Fig. 2 temperature pro- files for usual diameter and mud fiow rates). It must be recalled that for a rock of medium stiffness, heating of 1°C induces a compressive stress of 0.4 MPa but in stiffer rocks this value ‘can reach 1 MPa. Extra compressive stress of 25 to 50 MPa (or tensile stress in case of cooling) ‘can then be induced during drilling by thermal effects which cannot be ignored. This explains the failures sometimes observed at the bottom hole after 10 or 15 hours without mud circulation. ‘Moreover, heating the upper part of the open holes by mud circulation induces excessive stresses, able to cause failures of the upper open hole section'®", Knowledge of this mechanism allows mud properties to be adapted. This has resulted in drilling days saved by avoidance of drilling incidents for several wells at an average depth (4000 to 5000 m). Extensive research has been undertaken to solve the problem of borehole stability in shales?*. This problem accumulates all the difficulties in Rock mechanics: the shales (although this name covers a large variety of rocks) are anisotropic as regards deformability and strength. This introduces much ‘more complex models to describe their geo- mechanical behaviour. Moreover these rocks are often of very low porosities and permeabilities and time dependent phenomena have to be considered (pressure diffusion, ionic convection/diffusion). The actual behaviour of these rocks at failure is not well known, Chemical interaction with drilling fuids still complicates the reaction of the rock when drilling. At present, the separation of the various causes of failure are not sufficiently differentiated. Like in chalks, capillary effects between native pore water and mud (specially oil base muds) could play an important role. 2.2.2 and 3. Block and Rock mass scale It can be said that the problem of wellbore stabil ity at the scale of blocks or rock mass (ie, including adequately the effects of the various discontinuities present) was totally ignored ill the end of the 80's. Special mechanism of failure affecting wells during drilling and production will be described in Section 3.208 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 1413 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180T(°C) 100m 1000 2000 148 4000 DEPTH (m) STATIC ‘TEMPERATURE 173° 1 5000 m =~ 17°12 Dring phase ( @=33001/ min). —@— 12°14 Dring phase ( @»24001/ min). =o 8° 8/2. Drilling phase ( Q=1000 1 min). Typical temperature profile for the cizculating mud for different drilling ‘phase. ion (treatment, stimulation) ‘Rock Mechanics is involved in two different prob- Jems as regards the completion: () how the well has to be equipped for production? This is sometimes referred as to ‘well-eservoir interface’; (ii) how to ‘enhance the productivity of the reservoir by hydrau- lic fracturation? The problem of the well equipment is more related to the rock properties at the scale of the rock matrix. Hydraulic fracturing is more a problem at the scale of the rock mass as soon as the stress concentration around the hole is overcome. 2.3.1, Matrix scale Well equipment and Solid production risk ‘Well completion covers several topics and ques tions: ~ firstly, in the case of open hole completion, in a rock of given geomechanical properties, is pro- duction possible without rock failure and solid production? Up to which depletion, drawdown near the wellbore, and flow rate is this production possible? Here the question of the open hole stability can be evaluated by the same tools as for open holes during drilling, with models accounting for the stresses induced by the drag forces. = secondly, if an open hole completion is not appro- priate for other reasons, what kind of equipment has to be installed: screens, slotted liners, perfor- ated casings? The question then comes back to Rock Mechanics in similar terms, Up to which depletion, drawdown near the wellbore, and flow rates are the perforation tunnels stable, without producing solids? The theoretical question here becomes extremely ‘complex as regards to the stability of this perfor- ation, and it is worthwhile to recall. This problem(a3 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 209 accumulates all the difficulties: () first stress redistri- bution around the well either in elasticity or plasti- city (or failure), (ji) second stress redistribution in the near wellbore region due to casing installation and perforation, made by explosives and very difficult to evaluate, (ii) third stress redistribution due to flow during production, function of the near wellbore drawdown, (jv) stress redistribution in the whole reservoir due to the depletion which can be now very important (remember that depletion greater than 60 MPa are now contemplated in some HP/HT reservoirs), Besides, the problem has to be addressed particu- larly for’ weak rocks, (sometimes called poorly ‘consolidated’—we prefer the term poorly ‘cemented’ to avoid confusion with true consoli- ation of Soil Mechanics). For these rocks, the tran- sition between plastic and failure behaviour becomes extremely important, as well as the deformation law in plasticity (contractant or dilatant). It can therefore be understood that the answer is not easy and we very briefly summarize here some present ideas. Ina state of art approach given by Veeken", the onset of sand production is considered as the failure of the weakest materials in the reservoir. Theoreti- cally several failure mechanisms can occur: = tensile failure, studied theoretically and. experimentally, occurring when an excessive pore pressure gradient is imposed to the perfor- ation. The corresponding criterion is given by a relationship between the depletion and a fraction of the rock strength = shear failure studied experimentally*, and by numerical approaches***, The validity of these complex numerical tools have still to be estab- lished reservoir failure: massive sand production may ‘occur when the depletion induces a stress redistri bution reaching the failure criterion of the reservoir rock?. Such a case was reported in the Gulf of Mexico**. This mechanism would be par- tioularly important for rocks prone to contractant elastoplastic deformation, such as certain chalks of the North Sea 2.3.2. All scales: Hydraulic fracturing ‘The main progress achieved in hydraulic fracturing. jin the last decade deals mainly with () fracture design, Gi) extension of fracturation techniques to new types of reservoirs and fluids, (il) use of fractura- tion for application other than reservoir stimulation, For fracture design, a benefit was taken from stress ‘measurements by micro- and mini-frac tests* and ‘Nolte’s analysis? generalisation, 34 numerical?! and analytical’? modelisation, dimensions and direction fractures evaluation by means of FMS logging tools, microscismic emission and interpretation®®. Progress is presently underway on the criteria of propagation (pseudo or “scaled” toughness, non linearity at the fracture tip due to plasticity, damage), Initially aimed at stimulating reservoirs of per- meability in the range or lower than some tens of millidarcy, hydravlic fracturing is now applied to much more permeable reservoirs, in the range of several hundreds of millidarcy. This is closely linked to the ‘tip screen-out” technique, where a screen out of the fracture is made on purpose and the fracture ‘width is increased™, The so called ‘Frac Packing’ technique, which consists of simultaneous fracturation and gravel packing presents two advantages: creation of a per- meable drain and consolidation of the formation. This technique is currently progressing, Hydraulic fracturing is now performed on horizon- tal wells, but some problems are still pending for deviated wells. ‘New questions are now raised about some non- intentionally hydraulic fracturing. It is now recog- nized that fresh water injection may induce fracturing so called ‘thermally induced fractures’. ‘That may happen during water injection for pressure ‘maintenance purpose. These thermally induced frac- tures enhance the injectivity index of the well, allow- ing either to decrease the number of injectors, or to limit the pressure of the installation at the surface. It may also avoid or alleviate filtration at the surface. In the last few years, drilling cuttings reinjection hhas been proposed and performed in several cases. In case, fracturation of very low permeability rocks has to be considered. The design of fracture has to be modified to account for this special and unique type of injection mode (batch in successive stages). 3. SOME PRACTICAL RESULTS WITH IMPACTS ON SAFETY AND ECONOMY Alter this very brief outlook on the main problems where rock mechanics is involved, it is worth men- tioning as examples some particular problems related to some topics previously seen, where in spite of theoretical difficulties, analysis, interpretation of the mechanisms involved could lead to very practical recommendations for drilling or production pro- cedures, with impact on economy and sometimes210 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY (a3 safety, Examples are related to drilling and pro- duction problems. Comparable example could be found in reservoir engineering. 3.1, Adaptation of the mud weight to the in situ state of stress Two wells drilled in the early 80's in Southern Europe at a depth of about 2000 m gave rise to repeated incidents of stuck pipes and cavings, in a very complex alternance of shales and sandstones. ‘No solution could be found by mud weight increases, up to 1.95 and even 2. Several unsuccessful side- tracks resulted in 4 months of lost time. . ‘A detailed analysis of incidents associated to a theoretical study was performed accounting for the regional state of stress. The result can be summarized on Fig. 1 which gives (in ordinates) the range of mud Weight to select to be stable in a given state of hori- zontal stress Q (in x abscissa) for a vertical well. (For sake of simplicity, the diagram is made adimensional, scaling both horizontal stress Q and mud weight 7. to the vertical stress P supposed equal to the weight of the overburden). On this diagram, it is clear that before reaching the mud weight (or internal pressure) corresponding to hydraulic fracturing, a tricky shear failure mode can be obtained at a mud weight of about 145 (depending obviously of the geo mechanical properties of the rock) (see for further detail Ref. 7, 17, 18 for theoretical background of this, iagram), Recommendation was given, not to increase mud weight above this value, and to avoid any cause of internal overpressures such as swab and sur new well was drilled without problems avoi ‘months of drilling rig time lost in the previous wells. 3.2. Thermal effects As previously mentioned, below a certain depth (around 1500 m), cooling due to mud circulation can give a temporary stability due to the decrease of tangential (compressive) stress. When the mud circu- lation stops, return to thermal equilibrium causes a reheating of the bottom hole. This reheating increases (tangential and axial) stresses which can exceed the failure criterion and be the cause of the Postponed failure well known from wireline loggers (because it seems to occur after the 3d logging or the 15th hour, which has nothing to do with the logging but is due to the return-time to equilibrium). At the same time, the upper part of the open-hole is heated by the mud circulation. This heating induces extracompressive tangential stresses which can cause failure (i the failure criterion is exceeded). ‘These failures occurring after time were considered in the past as caused by cteep. They were also observed jn rocks not prone to creep and are caused by Iheating (note that these thermal stresses have been overlooked and underestimated in the past). Recognition of the role of thermal stresses has per- mitted the mud weight to be adjusted to counteract this effect, and results in a very slight and progressive increase of mud weight with depth. ‘Awareness of the role of thermal effects in borehole stability Iead to a study utilizing a mud cooling system to improve stability**. In spite of unavoidable and systematic (critics) objections when proposing something new, a pilot test was made {o consider three points: () a method was practically feasible, without problem of overwhelming material, or special problems of clogging, (i) the cost was not prohibitive, (i) the cooling effect could be transmit- ted downhole following theoretical predictions. Not only the answers to these questions were positive, but the test permitted a lot of side effects and advantages extremely beneficial to drilling conditions in terms of safety and economy to be confirmed: Economics: the wear of all the equipment is reduced and its lifetime is increased ~ some measurements and their costs can be reduced (single-shot measurement) = theological properties of mud can be maintained with less additives — lower temperature allows the use of logging tools in less hostile conditions ~ improve borehole stability. It must be recalled that cooling acts in terms of borehole stability as increase of mud weight. Attention has to be paid it for other reasons (HP/HT), the mud weight is already high or very high. But the most important are the safety advantages: = cooling permits operating with oil based mud below their flash-point at the surface. This reduces the fire risk significantly ~ cooler mud allows the use of MWD much deeper. This is specially important when driling near a HP/HT reservoir. MWD can thus provide a per- manent update of the well trajectory, essential in case a reli well must be drilled = furthermore MWD vill provide data on the for- mation and potential hydrocarbons encountered while drilling. Thus trips to run wireline logs, always time consuming, and very favourable for(433 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY at triggering well problems such as kicks or hole instabilities are reduced, A better understanding of the wellbore geo- mechanical behaviour can thus Jead to practical means of improving not only its stability but also have important consequences on safety and eco- nomics. 3.3, Mechanisms of instability due to fractures, joints, and faults movements In case of large subsidences such as in North Sea, it is obvious that tubulars (casing and tubings) can be deformed and collapsed. There are nevertheless other cases where casing and tubing collapsed without any oticeablemovementsat thesurface,andaremuchmore sifficult to understand, Three deep gas wells were lost in France, either during completion, work overs, or production, resulting in a loss of 50000 MUSS, and a leakage of ga5 with H2S at the surface. No seismic event, corro- sion, or wear could be invoked as a cause for these failures. ‘A complete analysis? brought two important results ~ these collapses were due to a sequence of circum- stances: drilling of the reservoir with total con trolled losses, damage and microannoli in the cementation, channelling of overpressured fluids, pore pressure increase in the upper level faults or joints triggering lateral shifts by shear stress felease. Three new replacement wells were designed to avoid this mechanism and are present- ly working and in good condition. The design of all the wells in the field has now been modified accordingly — more importantly, it appeared that the same mechanism could affect open holes during drilling phases (Fig. 3): when the mud has not sufficient sealing capacities and the mud cake is not fully ficient, filtration of the mud in fractures, faults, bedding joints more permeable than the rock matrix increase the pore pressure in these discon- tinuities and acts lke a flat jack. Then the normal cffective stress is released and the shear stress causes a lateral shift of the borehole axis. Once 2 AHEAD OF THE TOOL “CONSEQUENCES : TIGHT HOLE DIFFICULTIES TO RUNANHOLE ABNORMAL TORQUE, NEED FOR REAMING b+ BEHIND THE TOOL OR STABILIZERS - CONSEQUENCES : ‘STUCK IN HOLES: DIFFICULTIES TO PULL OUT OF HOLE DRILLSTRING FAILURES (2) NEED FOR BACK REAMING. Fig. 3 Lateral shift of borehole induced by shear release along preexisting fractures or faults,212 NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY a3 recognized, this displacement could be observed with logging tools such as the new imagery tools (BHT, FMS, USI (see Ref. 36). Identification of this mechanism is outstanding: it appears very common, and explains some abnormal behaviour of wells unexplained up to now: without any cavings or signs of matrix failure in the borehole, most of drillers have experienced problems to run in hole (RH), to pull out of hole (P.0.0.H), abnor- mal torques, problems not solved by mud weight increase, deviation trajectory abnormal ovalization not due to wear but to reaming, unexpected drill- string failures. Accounting for this mechanism leads to a new strategy for stabilizing the holes submitted to this lateral shift (a0 mud weight increase, etc, ... see detail in Ref. 37). An exploration well drilled in 1992 with special care to avoid this deformation mecha- nism had good hole conditions down to a depth of 6909 m, with a very low mud weight at the great satisfaction of geologists. From contacts we have with people in charge of Jogging in other companies, it seems that this mode of instability is very common everywhere, It ig sur- prising that this mechanism extremely well known in Rock and Soil Mechanics was never considered in the field of borehole stability. Its identification allows one to take measures saving days and weeks of drill- ing incidents, sometimes degenerating to stuck pipe, back-off and side-tracks. 4, CONCLUSIONS This brief review of the main domain of pro- duction where Rock Mechanics is involved would deserve a more extensive survey to be complete. Without the possibility of being exhaustive in so short a time, the main conclusions can be sum- marize ~ significant improvements have been performed as regards the theoretical tools to describe rock behaviour. Several types of behaviour laws are now available: porothermoelastoplasticity, models derived from soil mechanics, multiplicity of rupture modes now approached by bifurcation theory, ruptures induced by flow. attempts are presently underway to improve our knowledge of the ruptures of material of very low porosity such as those found in the overburden = among them, progress is underway in shale beha jour. It must be recognized that these materials set, together all the difficulties: anisotropy of deform- ability and strength, difficulty to evaluate the in situ state of stress, effect of low porosity and rele- vant problems to know the actual pore pressure and the effect of capillary and desaturation, physico-chemical effects which are not fully under. stood itis absolutely necessary to identify and separate the various mechanisms which can play a role. Ibis true for drilling but it is true also for reservoir engineering. When the mechanisms are not under- stood (for instance of degree of water saturation for some porous materia), the consequences can ’be huge in terms of safety and economy identification of the mechanisms involved can be also determinant in terms of safety and economy we have seen as examples how simple consider- ation of thermal effects, or ignored deformation mechanisms such as lateral shift on preexisting fractures, faults or joints could result very quickly in well design modification, drilling practice saving days and days lost to driling incidents, with many side effects, some of them with a direct result on safety ~ Rock Mechanics applied to production problems can still and will progress, resulting in much better conditions for drilling, production, and much better prediction for reservoir behaviour which could in some cases have been done with correct consideration of existing knowledge, resulting in avoidance of money lost by inadequate investment. ~ these improvements will need an effort to acquire in situ data which are always extremely costly. More questions can stil be solved but more data are needed, REFERENCES 1. See IS.RMJS-P.E. Symposium Rock at Great depth, Pau, France, 1989. Proceedings 3 vol. Balkema Publi- her, 2, Eurock S.PE/1S.RM. International Symposium to be Iheld at Delft, The Nederlands, 1993. 3. See in particular the 32nd U.S. Symposium on Rock ‘mechanics, “Rock Mechanics as 2 multidisciplinary Science’, Univ. of Oklahoma, 1991, Balkema Pub. 4, 33td US. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, 1992 Univ. ‘of Madison, Wisconsin, 5. Int. Symposium of the LSS.M.FE. ‘Geotechnical Engineering of Hard Soils-Soft Rocks’, Hellenic Soc for Soil Mech. and Foundation and French Committee or Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, ‘Athens, 1993, Proc. 3 vol. Balkema Pub. 6. Coussy, O. ‘Mécanique des Milieux Poreur’, Ed. Technip, Paris 1991,(413 1 10. u. 2 13. 14 4s, 16. 0. 38, 19. 24 2 . Bratli, R. K. and Risnes, R. ‘Stability and fail Maury, V. "An overview of rock failure mechanisms around underground excavations and boreholes’, Ch. 14, Vol. IV, Comprehensive Rock Engineering, 1993, J. Hudson Ed, Pergamon Pub, Piau, JM. and Maury, V, ‘Effect of water saturation ‘on rocks of high porosities, Intern. Symp. SPE/IADC, Eurock 94, Delft, The Nederlands, Balkema Pub. (at press), ‘The same mechanism has been observed above mines and quarries and can be responsible for spontaneous collapses extremely dangerous for miners (see Mary Y. Rev, Ind. Min. Oct. 1979 for a paper relevant to some of these cases of failure and the detail of the mechanism). Maury, V, Grasso, J-R. and Willinger, G. “Induced seismicity by Oil and Gas production’, Eng. Geology, 1992, Vol. 32, pp. 123-135, Fourmaintraux, D. et al. Improvements of field sub- sidence monitoring’, Int, Symp. SPE/IADC Eurock 1994 Delf (at pres), Warren, T. M. and Smith, M. B. ‘Bottomhole stress factors affecting driling rate at depth’, JPT Avg. 1985. Delwiche, Ry Hay, W. and "De Vos, D. *QUATROCUT Cutting Structure’, ASME 1990. Brett, LE. ‘The genesis of bit induced torsional Dll. string vibration’ SPE/IADC 21493 Mar. 1991. Brett, J. F, Warren T. M, and Behr, S. M. ‘A new theory of PDC bit failure’, SPE 15971 Oct. 1989, Henneuse, H. ‘Surface detection of vibration and Drill- ing optimisation: Field experience’ IADC/SPE 23888, Feb, 1952. Maury, V. and Sauzay, JM, “Borehole instability Case history, Rock mechanics approach, and Results", Paper 16051, SPE/IADC, New Orleans, March 1987. Guenot, A. “Contraintes et ruptures autour des forages pétrolicrs, Proc. 6th Int. Cong LSM, Montreal, Guenot, A. and Santarelli F. “Influence of mud tem- perature on deep borehole behaviour’, Proc, Int. Symp. ISRM/SPE rock at Great Depth, Pav, 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 809-818, Balkema Pub. Bol, G.'M. ef al. ‘Borehole stability in shales’, SPE 24975, Eurospee Conf. Cannes 1992 Boisson, M. “Expected stress redistribution due to a 93 MPa depletion (pore pressure decrease) in a High pressure High temperatute hydrocarbon reservoir and its implication’, Intern Symp. 1SRM. (IV South American Cong. on rock Mechanics), Santiago da ‘Chili, 1994 ft press). ‘Yeeken, C. et al. ‘Sand Production Prediction Review: ‘numerical approach Paper SPE 22792 (1991). re of, sand arches". Paper SPEJ No. 4 236-248 (1981) NEW DRILLING TECHNOLOGY 213 24, Tronvoll, J. ‘Experimental investigation of perforation cavity stability’ 33rd US. Rock Mech. Symp, Santa Fe (1992). 25. Morita, N. etal. "Realistic sand production prediction ‘numerical approach’, SPE, 16989 (1989). 26. Kessler, N, Wang, ¥. and Santarelli, F. ‘A simplified pseudo 3D model to evaluate sand production tsk and. their field application’ SPE 26541 (1993) 21. Dusseault, M. and Santarelli, F. "A conceptual model for massive solids production in poorly consolidated sandstones’ Int. Symp. ISRM/SPE Rock at Great Depth Pau (1989) Balkema Pub. 28. Weingarten, J. S. and Perkins, . K. ‘Prediction of sand production in gas wells: methods and Gulf of Mexico case studies’ SPE 24797 (1992). 29, Sarda, J-P. etal. Determination of the in situ stresses for the design of hydraulic fractures: a three years study’, Proc. Eur. Oil & Gas Conf. Altavilla Milica, Italy, Oct. 1992, pp. 330-339, Graham & Trotman Ea. 30. Nolte, K- G. ‘Fracture Design Considerations Based on Pressure’, SPE 10911, Cotton Valley Symp, Tyler (Texas), 31. Abou-Sayed, A. $, Sinha, K. P. and Clinton, R. J. ‘Evaluation of the influence of in situ reservoir condi- tions on the geometry of hydraulic fractures using a 3D simulator. Part I: Technical approach’, Paper SPE. 12871, SPE/DOF/GRI Unconventional Gas Recovery Symp, Piusburg 1984 32, Boutéca, M. "Hydraulic fracturing Model based on a ‘Three Dimensional closed form: Tests and Analysis of Fracture Geometry and Containment’, Trans. SPE Vol. 285 11. pp. 445-454 (SPE prod. ENG. 1988). 33. Sarda, JP, Perreau, P. J. and Deflandre, J-P. “Acoustic mission Interpretation for estimating Hydraulic Fracture Extent’, Paper SPE 17723, SPE Gas Technology Symp , Dallas, Texas, 1988. 34. Martins, P. Jet al. ‘Small, Highly Conductive Frac- tures Near Reservoir Fluid Contacts: Application to Prudhoe Bay’, SPE 24856, Ann. Techn. Conf. Wash- ington D.C. (1392). 35. Maury, V. and Guenot, A. ‘Practical advantages of mud cooling systems"; SPE/IADC Paper No. 25732, Amsterdam, Feb. 1993. 36. Maury, V. and Sauzay, J-M. ‘Rupture de puits prove- ute par glssement sur filles: Cas vécu, mécanisin, remédes, conséquencss', Proc. Int. Symp. ISRM/SPE Rock at great depth, Pau 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 871-882, Balkema Pub, 37. Maury, V, and Zurdo, Ch. ‘Wellbore instability due to shear displacements along preexisting fractures: are we overlooking a common cause of drilling problems?” Paper SPE 27492, SPEVIADC Dallas Feb, 1994.6BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS BRIEF RECALL OF MAIN RESULTS SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION 2 MAIN PROBLEMS IN SOLID MECHANICS : A_ KNOWING FORCES APPLIED TO A SOLID, PREDICT DISPLACEMENTS AND DEFORMATION APPLIED TO TH (DIRECT PROBLEM) B_ OBSERVINGIMEASURING DISPLACEMENTS/DEFORMATION OF A SOLID, DEDUCE FORCES APPLIED TO THE SOLID (INVERSE PROBLEM) (@XAMPLES OF FORCES AND DEFORMATION’ RUPTURES IN O11 EXPLIPROD) NOTES 24BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS BRIEF RECALL OF MAIN RESULTS ‘MAIN STEPS DISPLACEMENT STRESS CONCEPT DEFINITION DESCRIPTION OF DISPL? INITION AND FORMULATION "EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION SS x BEHAVIOUR (CONSTITUTIVE) LAW [RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMPOSED STRESSES. [AND STRAIN. (ADIUSTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOUR OBSERVATION (ON THEORETICAL CRITERIA) NOTESBASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cxd) VARIOUS TYPE OF FORCES APPLIED TO A SOLID : VOLUMIC (BODY) FORCES, SURFACE FORCES [EXAMPLES OIL EXPLOR/PRODUCTION STRESS CONCEPT STRESS VECTOR, NORMAL and SHEAR COMPONENT AT A POINT. STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT, DECOMPOSITION ON A SMALL CUBIC ELEMENT (9 PARAMETERS) REDUCTION TO 6 COMPONENTS (MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM) ‘MAIN RESULT : EXISTENCE (EACH POINT) OF 3 TRIRECTANGULAR PLANES |WITERE SHIVAR COMPONENTS ARE NIL PRINCIPAL PLANES, NORMAL COMPONENTS ON THESE PLANES : PRINCIPAL STRESSES G1, Oy © NOTES[BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) STRESS CONCEPT : PRINCIPAL STRESSES : NORMAL COMPONENTS : © ox ax (MAJOR), Gig (INTERMEDIATE) 0 gy AINOR) ‘MEAN STRESS : (03 ou max * 0200 int * 3 00 min DETERMINATION OF STRESS IN A SOLID. ANALYTICAL METHODS EXPERIMENTAL, NUMERICAL. [DEMO AND EXPLANATION (PHOTOELASTIC MODELS) EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS : BAR, PUNCHING, HOLLOW CYLINDER, HOLE NOTES33 BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Ct) \ATURE OF NORMAL STRESS, TERMINOLOGY, SIGN CONVENTION STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT: EXAMPLE OFA BAR: LOADING IN 1 DIRECTION, 2 DIRECTIONS, THEN 3 STATE OF STRESS ON FACES ROTATING AROUND ol, 02,03, MOHR’s REPRESENTATION 'MOHR'S CIRCLE, MOHR'S PLANE, MAX SIIEAR ‘STATE OF STRESS ON A FACE (ANY FACE)[ASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Ct) STRAIN DEFINITION RATE OF DISPLACEMENT VARIATION 1 DIR, 2 DIR, THEN 3 DIRECTIONS HYP, : SMALL DISPLACEMENTS LONGITUDINAL STRAIN: € OR E15 [EXTENSION (DILATATION), CONTRACTION (SHORTENING) TRANSVERSE STRAIN: DISTORSION + OR &3 (E,) UNITS, de, SIGN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE ceopHysics (104, CLASSICAL STUFF ROCKS (104109) SALT CLAYS 103-10! GEOLOGY 1, 2... AND MORE (VERY LARGE DEFORMATIONS }) 34ASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) STRAIN DEFINITION (cx) VOLUMETRIC DEFORMATION APPROXIM.: AV), ~t46;4, INCREASE or DECREASE BULK VOLUME, ‘CONSEQUENCE ON PORE VOLUME VARIATION IN FOROUS ROCK : ‘POSSIBLE PORE PRESSURE VARIATION IN UNDRAINED CONDITIONS DISTORSION (DEVIATORIC STRAIN) : NO VOLUME VARIATION NO PORE PRESSURE VARIATION (NPOROUS ROCKS AND UNDRAINED COND 1Ons sa ayn 7 3s[BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRAINS AND STRESSES : ‘THE BEHAVIOUR LAW (OR CONSTITUTIVE LAW) EXPERIENCE OF BAR LOADING : "ONE DIRECTION LOADING (MONOAXIAL) ‘STRAIN MEASUREMENTS (STRAIN GAGE, BETWEEN PLATES, ETC) ‘TYPICAL STRESS STRAIN CURVES, ELASTIC LIMIT, PEAK, POST-FEAK ELASTIC PROPERTIES : &, v(DEFORMABILITY) STRENGTH PROPERTIES R RANGE OF VALUES FOR USUAL ROCKS. DL & TRIAXIAL LOADING ‘STRESS-STRAIN CURVE MODIFICATION TRIAXIAL STRENGTH, SHEAR, TRUE TENSILE STRENGTH, EXTENSION ‘VOLUMETRIC DEFORMATION : Kb INVERSE : BULK COMPRESSIBILITY Cb RANGE OF COMPRESSIDILITIES NOTES[BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) VARIOUS TYPES OF GEOMECHANICAL TESTS IN LABORATORY (HOMOGENEOUS STATE OF STRESS) UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE TEST UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST ‘TRIAXIAL TEST ‘CONTRACTION EXTENSION ISOTRPIC TEST BRAZILAN TEST ORDOMETRIC Test SHEAR THSTS : SIMPLE, DOUBLE (SOIL MECHANICS) (NON HOMOGENEOUS STATE OF STRESS) HARDNESS TESTS ‘VARIOUS PUNCHING TESTS ‘TENACITY,BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) MOHR’s REPRESENTATION OF THESE TESTS : ‘THE INTRINSIC CURVE: Cand ¢ ‘VARIOUS TYPES OF INTRINSIC CURVES : ‘COULOMB, TRESCA, VON MISES, PARABOLIC CURVE. ‘THEORETICAL EXPRESSIONS MODES OF RUFTURES "TRUE TRACTION, TRUE SHEAR, EXTENSION, PORE COLLAPSE (COMMENT : (IMPLICIFE HYP) : INDEPENDANCE OF 6 NOTES 3239 BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Ct) GEOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF USUAL ROCKS ISOTROPIC ROCKS @ PARAMETERS E and) ANISOTROPIC ROCKS (TRANSVERSE ISOTROPY) : § COEFFICIENTS. GENERAL ANISOTROPY (:17-21 11) USUAL VALUES OF EF, v, Re, @€ ‘TYPE OF BINDING BETWEEN GRAINS IN POROUS ROCKS [EXERCISE : DRAWING AN INTRINSIC CURVE, "FROM SERIES OF LAB TESTS, NOTES[BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Ct) G a0 o=lim. (O(stress vector): Elementary internal effort to equilibrate (surface + body forces) NOTESBASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Ct) 6, P, represents the state of stress on face BC after rotation a around M axis NOTES43 [BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) P, represents state of stress face BC after rotation a. ound M axis44 BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) Represents stato of sress i | | | ‘around faces rotating around axis y'y P NOTESBASICNOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) o=FIS 49x t Al R, . aka) rope etn ee Aly 2) am Ete = Ally latdetmate:——g, =Ee, oF €, NOTESBASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cd) POROUS AND SOFT ROCKS Permanent pase sans ae[BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cui) o, SIMPLE SHEAR: 0,5 Gy LLL LLL ne o=-0, (0 t [> oma tice c(t wit 079 ith G, shear modus G Moregenray: y= NOTES 47$2 BASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) LOL DE HOOKE GENERALIZATION Taner, ren: 7 hy 4 {sy | my: ok ar) ‘Teng, (Comment: tens shear stan i engineering sr stn (stonton) NOTES‘ies og Geis You vote Er = 057 Se ee eee — soe er sonst] sacs | as. Jovi lowe 24 sewn!i5.¢] avonfan.ae] aint oan. | prom [Samba voor] 163:19 | “en 948.10] as.10% |‘te0-10" | (mae ener Soin gence haw] hae] oe pow (EE ——— efi) Sie [30-0 [eo yc at Teapot] eles] vos? | iat [eran \mnen Seo|ia-t| Somes Sots | ache {ere rao} ape | — eae | www. | ose nie ffs] Saco. ee | a foaren me wafer ie ufone tens | Se fos Te a SE BS ae Maen hn YA 3 a NOTESBASIC NOTIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION (Cid) ZONES ‘I STYLES de RUPTURE: "TRACTION VERITABLE £ LA 7 ing u ‘CISAILLEMENT Vv SWEAR ECRASEMENT TRANSITION Coes DES PORES ial PORE COLLAPSE, (COWONNITT “— A COURBE RINSEQUE Ic ras tnn tes 2 NOTES