Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thesis supervisor:
Prof. Matti Lehtonen
Thesis instructor:
D.Sc. (Tech.) Petri Hyvnen
Abstract
AALTO UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT OF THE
MASTERS THESIS
Language: English
Code: S-18
Acknowledgements
This thesis was done in the department of Electrical Engineering in Aalto University
School of Electrical Engineering in Espoo, Finland in collaboration with Doble
Lemke in Dresden, Germany. To begin with, I truly appreciate to my supervisor, Prof.
Matti Lehtonen, with his guide and supports during this thesis work. In addition, I
also would like to express my gratitude to D.Sc. (Tech.) Petri Hyvnen, instructor, for
his guide, advice and encourage. Thanks to Dr. Stefan Kornhuber, engineering
manager in Doble Lemke, I can finalize my thesis work in a more fruitful, valuable,
and reliable way with his precise comments and critical advice. Moreover it is very
important to express my appreciation to the Service team in Doble Lemke and other
kind staffs especially for the one who took me to the city centre when I lost my last
bus at the first day in the Kesselsdorf.
I certainly appreciate my friends so-called Otaniemi Family in Finland who has the
same family name, ByungJin, KyungHyun, and EunAh. I am deeply thankful to all
brothers, sisters and KOSAFI members who support me all the time and I strongly
believe they will be a great designer, engineer, and CEO in the very near future.
Lovely Seyoung, without your supports and encourages, this thesis even cannot come
into existence! Lovely Thanks to you!
Lastly thanks to universal absolute unlimited encouragement from my family during
my life in Finland!
Espoo, Finland
09.09.2011
Sung In Cho
ii
List of Abbreviations
PD
Partial Discharge
IEC
CBM
HF
High Frequency
VHF
UHF
AE
Acoustic Emission
UPS
HVE
GIS
TEAM
SNR
UV
Ultra Violet
OHTL
LED
DGA
SF6
Sulfur Hexafluoride
SVM
CCD
HFCT
CNT
PRPD
3-PARD
AM/FM
k-NN
K Nearest Neighbour
NN
Neural Network
BNN
PNN
PSA
DP
Degree of Polymerization
FDS
PDC
FRA
C&PF
C&DF
IRA
SRA
FRA
OLTC
SCADA
RFCT
DC
Direct Current
AC
Alternating Current
DAC
VLF
EHV
HV
High Voltage
MV
Medium Voltage
LV
Low Voltage
iv
XLPE
Cross-linked Polyethylene
PVC
EPR
TDR
FTRC
ITRC
HVDC
PDIV
GPS
TCP/IP
RTU
PILC
MIND
EPR
CLX
FMC
TEV
RM
Rotating Machine
UMP
MCSA
CT
Current Transformer
SSC
WAN
VT
Voltage Transformer
SA
Surge Arrestors
TEM
TE
TM
UI
User Interface
PC
Personal Computer
RF
Radio Frequency
TF map
Time/Frequency map
vi
List of symbol
Ca
Cb
Cc
Ck
Measuring Capacitor
U1
U2
U3
Cm
Measuring capacitor
Rm
Measuring resistor
Gs
Grounding switch
f1
f2
fm
Noise filter
Z mi
CD
Coupling Device
MI
Measuring Instrument
C0
Calibration factor
vii
R0
q0
Pi
dyi
dxi
The variance
1
The differential coefficient before and after the peak of the distribution
xi
yi
Qs
Qs
inc
Temperature in Celsius
DPfinal
Final DP
viii
DPinitial
Initial DP
Eulers number
C1
C2
c0
ix
Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................ii
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................... iii
List of symbol...............................................................................................................vii
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................. 1
1
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Motivation................................................................................................. 1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................. 8
2
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.2
2.3
2.4
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................... 28
3
3.1.1
3.1.2
Acoustic signal........................................................................................ 30
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.2
Sensors .................................................................................................... 31
3.2.1
3.2.2
Non-electric sensors................................................................................ 34
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.4
3.4.1
Noises in PD ........................................................................................... 39
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4.6
Statistical method.................................................................................... 42
3.4.7
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.6
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................... 49
4
Transformer ............................................................................................ 49
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.2
Cable ....................................................................................................... 60
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.3
Rotating Machine.................................................................................... 72
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6
4.5
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................... 91
5
References ................................................................................................................... 93
Appendix 1: CASE STUDY 1 ....................................................................................... 116
Appendix 2: CASE STUDY 2 ....................................................................................... 120
Appendix 3: CASE STUDY 3 ....................................................................................... 125
Appendix 4: Comparison of on-line PD monitoring products for Transformer ...... 129
Appendix 5: Comparison of on-line PD monitoring products Cable ....................... 130
Appendix 6: Comparison of on-line PD monitoring products for RM ..................... 131
Appendix 7: Comparison of on-line PD monitoring products for GIS ..................... 132
Appendix 8: Commercial Sensors .......................................................................... 133
xii
CHAPTER
1 Introduction
1.1
Motivation
monitoring power systems which are the most intricate system humans have ever
made in history.
Compared to many protection methods in power system, Partial Discharge (PD) is
considered as one of the most promising solutions for monitoring and detecting
possible faults in the system before they occur. Thanks to the development of other
engineering areas such as radio communication, computer science and signal
processing, protection systems are becoming cheaper and more robust, also high
sensitivity. PD is able to find possible symptoms of faults in the system in the most
fundamental and simplest way.
With IEC 60270 and other standards regarding PD monitoring, PD measurement
techniques and calibration had been established with detailed explanations for
monitoring purposes. Since direct detection of PD is not possible, conventionally
technicians have been using so-called apparent change detection. Whilst traditional
methods are detected after failure or discrete periodic interval monitoring, modem
techniques are largely dependent on the relative changes of important parameters in
time or frequency domain. As a result, Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) has been
considered a powerful tool for real-time monitoring on power system components. In
order to conduct on-line PD monitoring, the noise to signal ratio is the key variable to
determine whether there is PD activity or not. That is the reason unconventional
methods for detecting electromagnet PD phenomena using High Frequency (HF),
Very high Frequency (VHF), or Ultra High Frequency (UHF) detection and Acoustic
Emission (AE) detection have been developed for on-site and on-line PD monitoring
being supported by IEC 62478 in near future.
Nevertheless, whilst the theory behind of PD monitoring system is the same for
different components, the application on power system apparatus such as transformer,
switch gear, cable, or rotating machines differ from each other. Therefore, in order to
understand PD monitoring from the theoretical to practical, well-organized survey
reference will be required. Thus, intensive literature survey of PD monitoring of
power system components will be presented as a big picture in the field of on-line
monitoring.
Regarding the monitoring insulation system of power system components, there are
four main influencing factors affecting the lifetime of the insulation system, known as
the TEAM approach; Thermal, Electrical, Ambient, and Mechanical. Indeed, all
different types of power system components are influenced by these factors
intensively. Therefore for CBM based insulation monitoring, all factors, shown in
Figure 1.1, should be taken into account.
For example, a rotating machine would be monitored by vibration monitoring,
temperature monitoring, electrical monitoring (e.g. partial discharge, dissipation
factor, motor current spectrum analysis etc) and chemical monitoring. This kind of
approach, of course, is possible for other power system components as well such as
transformer, cable, and GIS. Since PD monitoring on power system components has
already proven its efficiency compared to other monitoring techniques, continuous PD
monitoring will ensure a safer power system with CBM based operation for the
following reasons
1. On-line PD monitoring can be used on almost all HVE such as transformer, cable,
rotating machine, and GIS with a very similar procedure for each. PD pattern is
the only one and universal characteristic parameter in order to evaluate all HVE [4]
4
placement internal or external of HVE. During sensing, back ground noise signal from
different system components can be mixed with PD signals from the examined
component. Therefore, noise deduction obtained from the sensors signal generates
important PD features in order for a more precise diagnosis. These features have its
distinct characteristics so that it is possible to classify them by comparing with prior
data from the laboratory or on-site. This process is known as pattern recognition or
pattern classification. By doing so, the PD monitoring system finally estimates the
possible fault type. Finally, all of this process can be used for life prediction
modelling of the HVE. Based on all of the information from PD sensing to life
prediction, a more precise PD monitoring system is possible. Moreover on-line PD
monitoring based on the above diagram makes it possible for real-time monitoring
data analysis, resulting in a robust CBM operation.
CHAPTER
2 PD measurement System
Along with the growth of condition based monitoring system on power systems,
effects have been made to apply PD detection systems in-real time while power
system components are in operation. In this sense, it was pointed out that biggest
problem of the conventional method with IEC 60270 is the high ratio of noise level
per PD signal. Therefore recently different PD detection schemes such as ultra high
frequency method, acoustic, optical and chemical detection have been developed to
overcome the high level of noise without intricate signal processing. Moreover a new
standard of PD detection using electromagnetic and acoustical methods have arisen
named IEC 62478 in the near future. For this reason, this chapter will describe general
system configuration from conventional PD detection system for apparent charge
measurement and unconventional PD monitoring systems.
impossible owing to inaccessibility to the PD spot inside of the test object. The simple
equivalent capacitor arrangement of system layout so-called a-b-c model and
measuring system is shown in Figure2.1.
Figure. 2.1 Simple capacitive a-b-c model and measuring mechanism [9]
10
Cm =Measuring capacitor
Rm =Measuring resistor
Gs =Grounding switch
The apparent charge measurement can be achieved by connecting measuring
impedance on the test object according to IEC 60270. The equivalent circuit of
apparent charge measuring is shown in Figure 2.2. The simple mathematical frame
work is below in order to calculate qc (the charge created by PD at internal
capacitance ( Cc )). Firstly the transient voltage U 3 across measuring device can be
obtained
11
U3
U1
Ca
(Ca Cm )
(2.1)
Simplification of the equation with the consideration that Cm is much higher than Ca
U3 Cm U1 Ca
qa
(2.2)
qa U1 Ca U 2 Cb
(2.3)
qa
U 2 Ca Cb
Ca
qc
Cb
Ca
(2.4)
In other words, above equation describes that the discharge occurred at Cc will causes
a voltage drop as U1 which will be transmitted through Cb to the capacitance Ca by the
ratio as Cb / Ca .Therefore the measureable charge ( qa ) is a certain portion of actual
charge ( qc ) at the PD site due to the fact that Cb / Ca 1. We should note that the
measureable charge is proportional to the virtual test object capacitance. Thus, the
apparent charge measured by the test coupling device cannot be a direct measure of
true PD magnitude, rather it can provide one piece of the important information with
regard to the condition assessment of the test object.
12
f2
f1 <400 kHz
13
Figure. 2.4 Basic coupling mode in series with the coupling capacitor [11]
Figure. 2.5 Basic coupling mode in series with the test object capacitor [11]
Z= noise filter
U= High voltage supply
Ck = Coupling Capacitance
Ca = Test object capacitance
Z mi = Input impedance of the coupling device
CD= Coupling Device
MI= Measuring Instrument
In Figure 2.5, a similar coupling mode is shown. However this method is slightly
different to that of Figure 2.4 in the sense that it can increase the sensitivity of PD
detection connected in series with the grounding of the test object which entails the
risk for the damage of measuring impedance due to possible high current flow.
14
Additionally, this coupling requires interrupting the grounding connection of the test
object that can be done in a special case from a practical point of view. Therefore
mostly the measuring impedance connected in series with coupling capacitor has been
widely used. IEC 60270 also suggests slightly different connection configuration in
order to resist background noise and other purposes shown in Figure 2.6 and 2.7.
Polarity discrimination coupling circuit was proposed in order to identify polarity of
PD. The logic system performs a comparison of the pulses from two coupling devices
(CD, CD1), and gate those signals for polarity correction of the pulses. The balanced
coupling mode, in Figure 2.7, can eliminate external electromagnetic noises by
adjusting impedance of Z mi , and (Zmi )1 with an amplifier. Even though the balanced
circuit can reduce certain amounts of noise, practically the coupling mode in Figure
2.4 is the most popular in which the measuring impedance and coupling capacitance
are connected in series.
15
Ck = Coupling Capacitance
Cm = Measuring capacitor
C0
0.1 (Ca Ck )
(2.5)
C0 U 0 ) with certain
time intervals connected near the coupling device shown in Figure 2.10. This can also
ensure the connection of the whole measurement system. The following equation can
simply explain how to calculate the calibration factor.
qa
q0
k
R0
(2.6)
power system components. The third version of IEC 60270 presents detailed
information from a coupling device to the calibration method as seen above. Even
though this method is vulnerable to noise and other interferences, the biggest
advantage over unconventional PD measurement system is the availability of the
estimated magnitude of PD.
A recent paper [16] pointed out some fundamental limitations of the conventional
method with three points; integration error in case of non-linear, possible
superposition error, calibration limits, and unknown attenuation of PD signal from PD
spots to sensors. Those challenges tackle the advantages of the conventional method
in terms of accuracy of the measurement system. Nevertheless, IEC 60270 has been
widely used as an application for new power system components testing and
commissioning, on-site measurement, and laboratory tests for periodic examination.
For on-line application, calibration procedure and high signal to noise ratio makes it
difficult to apply the IEC 60270 method. However transformer application such as
multi-terminal measurements and GIS application for sensitivity verification have
sometimes been combined with the unconventional method which will be covered in
the upcoming section.
18
Transformer
GIS
Rotating
Machine
HF (3 - 30MHz)
Table 2.1 Suitable frequency band according to system components (O=Good, =OK, -=NO)
Appropriate sensors and its placement on test object detect electromagnetic signal.
Detection of electromagnetic transient signal from PD occurrence is usually
performed by capacitive or inductive sensors. More detailed information regarding
system configuration, sensor type, and placement according to each system
components is covered in chapter 4. The main advantage of this method is its
accuracy and accessibility of the information about intensity, source, and possible
fault type. However electrical interference during measurement is the main
disadvantage.
Optical detection [25, 26]: Optical emission from PD can be detected by optical
sensors. Unlike electrical signals from PD, optical signals largely depend on different
factors such as insulation material, temperature, PD intensity and pressure. The
spectrum of hydrogen or nitrogen depending on the surrounding material is the most
dominant concerning the spectrum of PD. There are roughly two kind of optical PD
detection techniques as a result of different kind of ionization, excitation and
recombination processes during the discharge; direct detection of optical PD signal
and detect of change of an optical beam. Detection of optical signal includes surface
detection and the detection inside of the test object such as GIS and transformer. For
cable application, corona emits the spectrum range around 280nm to 410nm at high
voltage transmission line which can be detected by a UV-visible camera during the
daytime. The rationale behind this is the ultra violet radiation ranging from 240nm to
280nm tends to be absorbed by the ozone layer. The optical sensors transferring signal
to the outside at photomultiplier, also can be placed inside the test object which is
efficient for a light-tight GIS impulse voltage test. This impulse voltage test is not
suitable for an electrical PD detection system. Another method called opto-acoustic
measurement catches sonic or ultrasonic range acoustic emission caused by PD which
results in deformation of the optical fibre. One recent paper [27] describes optical PD
detection on Over Head Transmission Line (OHTL) using fibre optic sensors with
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), resulting in meaningful PD detection capability. The
main advantages of this method are the immunity from electromagnetic interferences
and high sensitivity compared to conventional electrical techniques.
20
Electrical
Acoustical
Optical
Chemical
Advantage
Applicative for
all kinds of
HVE
Intensity,
source, type,
location of PD
is assessable
The most
suitable for
continuous online PD
monitoring
High sensitivity
Immunity
against
electrical noise
Very efficient
for localization
of PD
Relatively low
cost
Immunity
against
electrical noise
High sensitivity
Location of PD
is assessable(in
some case)
Test is possible
for impulse
voltage
condition
Immunity
against
electrical noise
Easy to
measure
Provide critical
information for
Go/No Go
decision
Disadvantage
High
electromagnetic
interference
Relative
expensive cost
Low signal
intensity
Not good for
continuous PD
measurement
No information
about
magnitude of
PD
Capacitive
Inductive
Piezo-electric
transducers
Condenser
microphones
Optical fibre
UV detector
photomultiplier
tube
All HVE
Transformer
GIS
Cable, GIS
Transformer
Possible
Sensors
Main
applicative
area
No information
about location,
source,
intensity, and
type of PD
DGA Sensors
SF6 Sensors
Transformer
GIS
Cable
21
Acoustic
Electromagnetic
Optical
Chemical
Cable
Transformer
GIS
Rotating
Machine
O
O
O
O
O
O
Table 2.3 Possible on-line PD detection techniques on power system components [37]
Since the most interference for on-site or on-line PD monitoring is in the lower
frequency band, higher frequency monitoring within HF/VHF/UHF band has a good
signal to noise ratio. Supported by IEC 62478 in the near future, nonconventional PD
measurement will be used widely within a better frame work. The main disadvantage
of the unconventional method is that the measuring method depending upon test
object differs from each other. Because of that, the monitoring system covering all
HVE will be expensive compared to the conventional method. Moreover most
unconventional methods are not possible for calibration providing magnitude of PD
which might introduce mistakes in terms of decision making.
object, test engineer and so on. In particular the nonconventional methods have not
been supported by standard, resulting many different test set ups regarding higher
frequency and other energy detection from PD occurrence. Standardization will
bolster the analysis of the correlation of the measured quantities from both methods.
On the other hand efforts have been made to combine the two techniques in order to
overcome each drawback. In particular a combined solution is effectively applicative
on transformer and GIS. This kind of integrated approach can detect PD occurrence
with accuracy and scalable quantity in a low noise environment. In this section,
correlation of the two measuring systems and its combining approach will be covered.
PD
measurement
systems
according
to
IEC
60270
and
Conventional
Unconventional
IEC 60270
Sensor type
Measuring impedance
(the sensor for conventional method
can be capacitive, inductive-HFCT
or Rogowski coil)
Electric sensors
Acoustic sensors
Optical Sensors
Chemical Sensors
Frequency band
HF (3MHz-30MHz)*
VHF(30MHz-300MHz)**
UHF(300MHz-3GHz)***
AE (20 kHz to 250 kHz, and 100 Hz
to 3 kHz)
Must be calibrated
Sensitivity check
Performance check
Usually pC,
Main Standard
Calibration
Measuring unit
23
Measuring quantity
Measuring system
Noise Level
Application type
Apparent charge
Relatively high
Relatively low
24
Without any other voltage sources except for operating power from the grid
PD measurement while the test object is out of connection from power grid
Seemingly both on-line and off-line PD measurement can be quite similar each other.
However it is fundamentally different from its configuration to measurement results.
The main disadvantage of off-line PD measurement is that problematic PD occurrence
25
sometimes cannot be detected using the off-line method because it is carried out in
different circumstance to that of real cases such as load condition, vibration,
temperature, humidity and so on. That means the test object which passes for off-line
PD test can have potential failure in the power grid. This method, moreover, is
expensive due to outage during PD measurement.
However off-line PD measurement usually has high sensitivity and accuracy because
of relatively low back ground noise and is very suitable for new equipment quality
control. For on-line PD measurement, on the contrary, the measurement is very
realistic because it performed under the real circumstances. The cost is relatively less
expensive and it is possible to have trendable data for the test object, meaning that the
life cycle management can be possible with on-line PD monitoring. The main
research ongoing in the on-line PD monitoring field concerns signal processing due to
high noise combined with a true PD signal. However recent papers and commercially
available on-line PD measurement systems ensures effective on-line PD measurement
with appropriate signal processing techniques.
available
PD
measurement
systems
either
conventional
or
UHF/AE technique can determine the concrete status of the test object. However
different measuring configurations of UHF/AE make it difficult to have strict linearity
and correlation. In this sense, draft IEC 62478 can assist to clarify the promising
UHF/AE detection configuration and make it more robust in the near future.
27
CHAPTER
28
29
30
Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras can detect optical signals with relatively higher
sensitivity in air tight test objects such as GIS.
3.2 Sensors
In this section, the sensors used regarding PD detection are covered. Currently there
are many sensors which have been used depending upon the measuring method and
test object. Since the sensor plays an essential role in PD measuring configuration,
appropriate selection and its location can affect the measurement result significantly.
The basic requirements of PD sensors are below [52]
Be able to sense and record measuring quantities from PD source for a set of
defined frequency bands
The sensors traditionally detect PD below 500kHz due to technical limits and lack of
standardization. However for over ten years, higher frequency detection using a
variety of sensors which can be internal or external according to the application has
become attractive and applicative for all kinds of power system equipment [53].
Detailed applications on power system components of each sensor will be presented
in chapter 4. Here a general specification of widely used sensors will be included.
31
version of HFCT is commercially available as shown in Figure 3.1. The HFCT detect
PD up to several hundred MHz.
Figure. 3.1 Commercially available core closed and split type of HFCTs
Rogowski coil [56, 57]: The Rogowski coil is a proper sensor for PD working on the
inductive principle with frequency bandwidth between 1 to 4 MHz. The Rogowski
coil has a structure of a circular plastic mold with a winding mounted for a uniformly
distributed density of turn with frequency dependant characteristic. By mounting
around conductor, Rogowski coil generates induced voltage signal as an output [58].
The followings advantages of Rogowski coil are:
Ease of use due to possible thin and flexible clipped around a measured
conductor-Non-intrusive
Epoxy-mica encapsulated couplers [59-61]: This type of coupler is the most popular
sensor especially for transformer and rotating machines. The epoxy-mica
encapsulated coupler contains the capacity against the conductor and a stray capacity.
Commercially 80pF up to 2nF epoxy-mica coupler has been widely used. The
desirable frequency band can be achieved by the PD and noise ratio and winding
frequency characteristic for rotating machine case. The main short coming is that the
32
33
Currently Doble lemke (DN 50/80), and Omicron (UVS 610) uses this kind of sensors
on their UHF PD measurement for power transformer. Externally mounted UHF
sensors first developed as a GIS application and it has been widely used as
transformer UHF detection as well [63]. Detailed information about various UHF
antennas such as horn, loop, and, dipole type for GIS applications is described in [54].
Directional coupler [21, 60, 64-65]: The directional coupler is a combination of a
capacitive with an inductive sensor. It is possible to use two directional in a cable
joint. By doing so, it is possible to distinguish PD impulses coming from outside (left
or right side) or inside the joint. In other cases, depending upon the direction of pulse,
energy can be coupled to a different output port in case of special sensors with two
outputs. The main application of this type of sensor is using a cable joint. For cable
joint application, a directional coupler can achieve high sensitivity. Typical operating
frequencies are usually from several MHz up to GHz.
35
The most relevant information shown in PRPD is the measured PD signal with pulse
magnitude, the phase angle at which PD occur, and the number density [74]. Because
PRPD simply shows the most relevant quantities of PD, PRPD analysis of each
measurement has played an important role to identify possible fault types on specific
measured test objects [75]. The most commonly used distributions are below [41]:
Peak discharge in each window plotted with respect to the phase position
Average discharge current in each window plotted with respect to the phase
position
Therefore the distributions and relationship of peak and average PD magnitude, phase
angle and the number of repeated rate enhance simple PD pattern recognition.
36
Figure. 3.4 On-line Time resolved PD pattern with terminal voltage of generator (PD-Smart)
37
38
3.4.1 Noises in PD
Detecting of a true PD signal from measured results is a matter of in-depth knowledge
and incremented experience on measured signal and noise characteristic in different
situations and test objects. Since PD activities in power equipment occur within less
than a few hundred nanoseconds as fast rising time which is low level pulse
depending on faults type of the test objects, the de-noising process can be achieved by
understanding the noise characteristic and eliminating them from the true PD signal.
Typical noise during PD measurement can be categorized [85, 86].
Sinusoidal noise: This type of noise is the narrow band noise signal such as
communication carrier signal from AM/FM modulation which can be removed by
applying, for instance, a digital filter.
Pulse type (repetitive or random) noise: This type of noise possibly comes from
power electronics, other switching operations or, Radio Frequency (RF) emissions
from power equipment. Even though repetitive noise can be rejected by a gating
circuit and other method which can detect periodic noise against PD signal, random
pulse type noise is hardly eliminated.
White noise: white noise can be referred to some random signal with flat spectrum
density. This type of noise can be detected and removed by several signal processing
techniques which will be covered in this section.
39
40
Those two couplers detect signals at different spots with time difference for the same
PD signal which can be from the test object side not from a grid. Thus, by comparison
of pulse arrival time on two couplers, one can distinguish noise from the grid side.
The basic scheme is shown in Figure 3.9 [1, 88].
PD measurement, reducing noises and extracting a very small amount of data from
actual measurement [96]. The basic steps of wavelet transform applied for noise
reduction are described below.
Decomposition: set a mother wavelet and a maximum decomposition level,
computing the wavelet decomposition coefficients at each level from 1 to N.
Thresholding: Compute threshold coefficient for each and apply threshold to the
coefficients at each level
Reconstruction: Reconstruct the signal with the modified coefficients from 1 to N
SK
( xi u )3 Pi
(3.1)
( xi u ) 2 Pi ) is the variance.
If the measured PRPD pattern is symmetrical skewness will be close to zero. For the
asymmetrical distribution to the left, skewess will be higher than zero, otherwise it
will be less than zero.
Kurtosis: shows sharpness of the distribution compared to a normal one.
KU
( xi u )4 Pi
4
(3.2)
If the measured PRPD pattern is shaper than the normal distribution, kurtosis will be
higher than zero, in a flatter case, it will be less than zero.
42
Number of peaks: represents the distribution with single peak or more. The peak of
the distribution can be defined as:
dyi
dxi
Where
dyi
dxi
0,
dyi
dxi
(3.3)
is the differential coefficient before and after the peak of the distribution.
xi yi
cc
[
xi2 (
xi
xi ) 2 / n]
yi / n
[
yi2 (
yi ) 2 / n]
(3.4)
where xi is the average discharge magnitude of positive half cycle and yi is the that
of negative cycle. When cc is close to zero, it means the shape of positive and
negative cycles are the same, otherwise it will be asymmetrical.
Asymmetry: shows the comparison of the mean level of the positive and negative
half of the voltage cycle.
Qs / N
Qs / N
(3.5)
Where Qs and Qs are the sum value of discharges of the mean pulse height
distribution in the negative and positive voltage cycle, and N and N indicate the
number of discharges of the mean pulse height distribution in each cycle.
If the asymmetry is very close to zero, it means the mean level of each distribution is
the same size. When the mean level of distribution on positive cycle is more than that
of negative cycle, the asymmetry is close to -1, otherwise it will be close to 1.
Phase factor: defines the difference in the inception voltage in the negative and
positive half of the voltage cycle which can be expressed as:
inc
(3.6)
inc
Where
inc
The optimal number of neighbours depends on the data. Thus if there is new data
coming to the feature space, it is classified by major voting of k-number closest
neighbours of the new data spot. This also can be a drawback because certain types of
classes with the more frequent examples tend to dominate and are highly possible to
be selected. In order to overcome this problem, the class should be weighted by
experts or based on experience. The mathematical explanation is in [103]. The
advantage of this classification is easy to update new data to reference and, it is
simple to implement because it do not require training. However if redundant features
concerning the classification are included, possible errors can occur [104]. Therefore
careful selection of the feature is of importance.
.
Figure. 3.90 Structure of Neural Network [108]
The input layer has several input neurons fed by different values of features extracted
from PD patterns such as statistical features of PRPD or time resolved PD pulse
pattern. The hidden layer is to extract classification information from the data and the
output later is defined according to user expectation showing final classification of a
PD pattern. Among different NN types, back propagation neural network (BNN) and
probabilistic neural network (PNN) seem to have good characteristics for PD
45
Figure. 3.101 Basic idea of SVM describing optimal kernel function to separate class and
mapping of input to high dimensional feature space
46
Discharge amplitude
47
Figure. 3.123 Example of PSA in GIS; surface and corona discharge [113]
The advantage of PSA is its clear differences between certain PD patterns due to the
physical characteristics of PD activities according to the source of PD. However if the
voltage differences of continuous PD activities cannot be defined from measurement,
PSA is hard to apply
48
CHAPTER
49
Description
Core
Tank
Dielectric material
Fluid oils, gases, or dry solids which have poor conductibility and
good characteristics for electrostatic fields
Container for dry air or dry inert gas to maintain the fluid level.
an insulating structure to insulate unexpected electric path from the
grids or other electric transmission devices from the tank of the
transformer
Bushing
insulator between the coils and between the coils and core
connection point along a transformer winding allowing voltage
regulation by selecting desired the number of turn ratio
50
coupling. The main reason behind this discharge is a bad earth connection in a
transformer
Oil testing
Oil is one of the widely used insulation materials for transformer. An Oil test is
carried out by analyzing gases produced by local thermal stress or partial discharge
taking place in the insulation liquid during abnormal operation. Therefore, gas
analysis as part of the oil method is widely used for detecting electrical thermal
insulation problems in transformer.
MVA rating transformers and a portable detector is not so precise compared to that of
one in a laboratory. However there have been many studies on this method including
combining artificial neural network and expert knowledge [126].
overloading, detection of high levels Carboxide, or sudden changes in oil color and
moisture content rates in the oil [114]. Life estimation of transformer according to the
DP is shown in [129]. The Constant K is defined as
Ae
E
R (T 237)
(4.1)
T = temperature in Celsius,
R = the gas constant = 8.314 J/mole/K
E = the activation energy = 113kJ/mole
A=the coefficient is obtained depending on operating conditions
With constant K, life of transformer can be calculated as
1
DPfinal
1
DPinitial
k life
(4.2)
DPfinal = Final DP
DPinitial = Initial DP
DPfinal , DPinitial can be substituted as 200 and 1000 respectively [130]. Therefore, the
life of transformer can be obtained by combining (4.1) and (4.2)
53
0.004
13600
( T 237 )
(4.3)
Thermal monitoring
Thermal monitoring is a widely used method and has possible on-line applications.
High temperature means abnormal condition in any parts of a transformer losing
electrical dielectric strength if the thermal continues without any maintenance or
appropriate remedy actions. Usually thermal spots indicate possible faults and
insulation failures caused by overloading or local overheating which can accelerate
insulation aging rapidly. Because the transformer is complex equipment which has
non-linear characteristics with different components such as winding, load tap
changer, and core, thermal monitoring are not so precise to pinpoint the exact failure
spots which may be inaccessible to an external probe [116]. Infrared scanning check
of the external temperature on the transformer is now available [114]. One of the
disadvantages is that this method costs a lot in order to sense temperature directly
using fibre optic [116, 2]
Electrical Monitoring
Electrical monitoring techniques of transformer have been widely used such as
Frequency Domain Spectrum (FDS)&Polarization/Depolarization Current Analysis
(PDC), loss factor, resistance of winding or insulation, FRA, Transfer function, Partial
Discharge, Response analysis, Leakage Reactance, Capacitance and Power Factor
(C&PF) and so on. The techniques inspect the dielectric characteristic of the
insulation material which is usually oil and cellulose in the case of transformer. C&PF
which is known also as C&DF (Capacitance & Dissipation Factor) have been used for
measuring capacitance distribution in the transformer which can be a barometer of
dielectric constant in the transformer [131]. FDS/PDC determines insulation humidity,
tangent delta, and the polarization index. Response analysis use different excitation
function such as Impulse Response Analysis (IRA), Step Response Analysis (SRA),
and Frequency Response Analysis (FRA). This method monitors transformer
behaviour depending on the input signal which it is possible to use for on-site
measurement. PD monitoring of transformer is also popular monitoring method.
54
Mechanical Monitoring
Mechanically, On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is the part where many faults occur.
Moreover, winding and core vibration can be detected by vibration sensors on the
transformer wall. This vibration signature can be analyzed by Fourier or Wavelet
transform. For visual inspection, checking of the pump isolation valve and oil flowing
indicator should be performed in order to confirm oil circulation. Plus, the conservator
breather also should be checked for the correct oil level. Fan and radiators should be
kept clean in order to cool the transformer down.
55
noise, appropriate signal processing techniques will be required for continuous on-site
PD monitoring.
56
57
In Figure 4.4, possible sensor place using Cartesian coordinates is shown. The biggest
problem of the AE detection method for localizing the PD source in the transformer is
its signal sensitivity. This method should measure acoustic signal at the same time
with at least 3 or 4 different sensors in different positions. In [121], detailed
mathematical explanations and possible signal processing techniques are covered.
Dynamic Ratings
Dynamic Ratings provides a combined solution for transformer monitoring such as
on-line DGA, and temperature monitoring. Regarding on-line PD monitoring, they
use external sensors such as Radio Frequency Current Transformer, bushing sensors
and a Rogowski coil. An AE sensor is compatible if it is necessary.
IPEC Limited
IPEC Limited provides on-line PD monitoring equipment applicable to transformers.
Sensors are HFCT, Capacitive coupler, and Airborne Acoustic Transducer. Total
monitoring solutions can be combined with temperature and humidity detection.
58
PowerPD, Inc.
PowerPD, Inc uses electrical sensors (clamp-on type HFCT) and acoustical sensors on
the transformer wall for on-line PD transformer monitoring. The sensitivity of the
sensors is 5pC and 20pC respectively. This system is fully compatible with SCADA
and remote accessibility.
59
4.1.6
Since transformer is the most intricate power system component, there are many
different ways or monitoring techniques for preventing possible faults. As some
companies have already provided on-line PD monitoring system on power
transformer for a couple of years, one can infer the fact that on-line PD monitoring of
transformer will be widely used in the very near future. Especially transformer
application PD monitoring techniques can be combined with other chemical,
mechanical or thermal monitoring with the other methods mentioned in this section.
On-line PD monitoring on the transformer focuses preliminary on PD magnitude
(peak value) and source location. Regardless of the apparent charge or UHF
measurement, changing or increasing of PD magnitude inside the transformer means
the fact that the transformer needs a more specific inspection or to be repaired.
However, for the purpose of on-line monitoring, the UHF method is more reliable due
to the strong resistance to back ground noise. For the localizing of the PD source,
acoustic emission detection technique has the key solution of locating PD source
inside the transformer as highlighted in many papers.
From a practical point of view, the on-line monitoring method uses capacitive sensors,
UHF sensors (oil drain valve type or dielectric window), or HFCT as the correct
sensor type. Capacitive sensor application is compatible with multi terminal sensing
which makes it possible to compare PD signals generated from each of the three
phases. It can also be used for further signal processing and, reducing phased-locked
noise. Nevertheless IEC 60270 has played an important role in guiding PD monitoring
on Transformer. The upcoming standard for UHF/AE, IEC 62478 will be the most
important standard especially for on-line PD monitoring of power transformer.
4.2 Cable
This chapter presents On-line PD monitoring for cable applications. There are
different reasons for aging of cable including thermal, electrical, mechanical, and
environmental. Based on these reasons, there are many different techniques used to
monitor, and diagnose the faults [140]. Regarding electrical aging monitoring, PD has
60
been widely used in the laboratory, on-site as the form of on-line or off-line
monitoring. Especially after installation of the cable system in the power system,
detecting faulty connection by different PD monitoring methods such as Damped AC
(DAC), Very Low Frequency (VLF) for example have been gaining its reputation.
Therefore, in this section, all kinds of PD monitoring techniques in cable will be
covered with detailed information regarding on-line PD monitoring in the cable
system as well as its available products in the market
61
Components
Description
Conductor
Insulation layer
Protection sheath
Cable accessories are one of the main reasons for possible faults in the network
system. According to [132], cable joint and terminations are the biggest reason for
cable network failure. Because of this most tests are focused on these parts. In [144],
more detailed defect types and causes are demonstrated.
62
65
On-line monitoring
Advantage
Disadvantage
Off-line monitoring
Low sensitivity
Complicated data analysis is required
Insulated earthing ground is required
b. On-line PD monitoring
An on-line cable PD monitoring technique has proven its efficiency recently. As
mentioned above, on-line PD monitoring on the cable network has many advantages
over the off-line method. However monitoring long cable lines while they are in
operation has too much noise and attenuation compared to other application cases.
Usually HFCT around cables or the earth connection, inductive couplers, capacitive
coupling sensors, and acoustic emissions have been used [159]. Due to the fact that
high frequency from a PD signal is significantly attenuated in the cable, the sensors
measure the HF/VHF range rather than UHF.
66
(FTRC) and, Inductively Turned Resonant Circuit (ITRC) with the following resonant
equation (4.4) in cable.
1
(2
LC )
(4.4)
Advantages of this method are its simplicity, lightweight and cost effectiveness with
low power required
Impulse voltage method: Impulse voltage with a very fast rate of rise and decay rate
similar to power frequency can be applied for on-site tests. This method has its
strength owing to lightweight equipment. Disadvantages of this method are hard to
determine the inception voltage of PD, high attenuation along the long cable length,
distance dependent test results, and difficulty to find correlation between routine
factory and on-site test regarding partial discharge values.
Figure. 4.6 Capacitive coupling method near cable joint and terminal [166]
Regarding sensor type, capacitive coupler, inductive sensor (e.g. HFCT, Rogowski
coil), and directional coupler sensor near cable joint, terminal or cable earth have been
widely applied. In Figure 4.6, a possible capacitive coupling method is shown. Since
capacitive sensors have good sensitivity for nearby PD occurrence usually near
terminal and joint, capacitive sensors are located near cable accessories.
68
In Figure 4.7 HFCT in a slightly different location at the cable terminal is shown.
According to the availability, the coupling spot can be adjustable. In order to localize
the PD source in the cable system, dual sensor techniques (installing two sensors at
each end of cable or cable joint) are required. Because of strong attenuation along the
cable, PD localization requires more engineering techniques such as the pulse
injection method, GPS application, or TDR. The pulse injection method injects
periodic pulses from one side and the sensor located in other side detects the pulse
which synchronizes two sensors at each end of the cable system. Therefore the
propagation time and transfer impedance can be calculated. Another technique uses
TDR due to the symmetrical characteristic of the cable system the pulse can propagate
toward both ends of the cable with different magnitude and time. Therefore the direct
pulse and reflected pulse can be detected by sensors which can be synchronized with
GPS signals
Emerson
Their approach for online cable PD monitoring combines Tangent Delta testing, offline method with VLF PD monitoring, and the ultrasonic method. RF embedded noise
reduction can eliminate noise from PD with RFCT as a sensor. Regarding localization
of the PD source, they can make it possible to have about 1 % accuracy in up to 3
miles of cable length, which is an application for XLPE, EPR, PILC and CLX
Armored cable types
HVPD
HVPD uses HFCT attached around the earth connections and TEV attached
magnetically to the outside of metal-clad switchgear sensor which is applicable for
Polymeric (XLPE, PVC), Paper (PILC, MIND), Rubber (EPR), both 3-Core and
Single-Core Cables, and 'Mixed' cables with transition joints. Two cable ends attached
sensors are monitored for PD localization using a pulse injection method which is
successfully performed for up to 5 km on MV cable
IPEC
IPECs method monitors two ends of the cable terminal which provide PD source
location with TEV sensors. Basically they use HFCT, capacitive coupling, and
airborne acoustic sensors. This is applicative for MV, HV, and EHV cable networks.
KEMA
KEMA uses inductive sensors at two ends of cable termination, avoiding significant
signal attenuation at RTU (Ring Main Unit) or substation and monitoring only for the
cable itself. This method also localizes the source of PD by injecting periodic pulse
and measuring propagation time. By doing so, two different sensors located at each
end of cable can communicate and get time synchronization with each other. All the
information from each sensor is transferred to a control centre. Maximum cable length
of this application method is 8 km (for XLPE), 4km (for PILC, MIND), and 2km (for
70
Power PD
Power PD uses HFCT as a sensor on shield ground cables which can be shown as a
PRPD or 3D graph.
Techimp
Techimp uses HFCT sensors, and FMC (Flexible Magnetic Coupler) sensors directly
at the two terminations of the cable. In long cables, the installations can be performed
at the middle of cable. For localization of a PD source, they analyze Amplitude/
Frequency characteristics of PD, TDM method, and Arrival Time Analysis with GPS
(Global Positioning System). Moreover this can be connected to a Ethernet network,
and controlled from a remote location.
71
thus the higher frequency pulses related to PD activity is only detected near the PD
source.
The most appropriate sensor selection for cable case is capacitive coupling and HFCT
according to the application. Since cable accessories, joint and terminal, are the
biggest cause of possible faults, on-line PD monitoring near joint or terminal of cable
has been widely used. However, using two HFCT at each end of cable with PD
localizing techniques by TDR or pulse injection method has been proven its efficiency
on on-line PD monitoring for long length cable.
72
Subassembly
Component
Materials
Enclosure
Heat exchanger
electrical
connections
Bushings
Bearings
Frame
Core
Core clamp
Structural steel
Electrical steel laminations
Structural steel or non-magnetic, low-conductivity alloy
Stator winding
Conductors
insulation
End Winding
support
Rotor winding
Conductors
Insulation
End winding
support
Shaft
Core
Core clamp slip
rings
Brushgear
Enclosure
Stator body
Rotor body
Table 4.4 Materials used on general electrical machine in power system [172]
As we can see in the above Table, materials used in different part of rotating machine
consist of a wide range of different components and its common structure is laminated
or impregnated. Because of that PD attenuation and distortion occurs all over the
rotating machine [172, 173].
Faults rates and Continuous PD monitoring on RM
PD monitoring with appropriate sensors in North American utilities has been adapted
on more than 50% of large generators [174]. In [172], there is detailed information for
possible faults in rotating machines. The biggest cause of faults in rotating machines
is mechanical stress. Electrical failure on RM which is one-third of the total failure
73
rate comes from persistent overloading (4.2%), and normal deterioration (26.4%). The
main failed components on RM are stator ground insulation (23%), turn insulation
(4%), and others (8%) [175,176]. More detailed information regarding RM failure is
in [177]. Therefore PD monitoring stator windings has normally been performed in
many industries and utilities. Continuous PD monitoring provide several advantages
for rotating machines; (i) provides warning for personnel, and (ii) solves the problem
of difficulty for RM testing under the same condition by supplying continuous
trendable data [174]. Moreover, other stress such as thermal or mechanical vibration
on RM can create a void or cracks which are detectable in the form of PD, expressed
as a symptom of stator winding failure [178].
74
delaminated at the copper conductor due to the thermal overstressing [181]. This
depends on the thermal condition of RM [182]
Endwinding Discharge: This usually occurs in the overhang region when a
contamination of the conductor takes place owing to mechanical corrosion or for
particular RM, where bar coils belonging to different phases locate in the same slot
[183]. Therefore the reason of this discharge results from phase to phase voltage with
not enough room between coils of different phases or partly conductive contamination
[76]. According to [182], this type of PD usually has a high magnitude in negative
cycle and it is temperature dependant.
Mechanical monitoring
Due to the high mechanical stress of RM compared to other power system
components, mechanical monitoring on RM is of high importance. These include
vibration monitoring, shock pulse method and examinations of Unbalanced Magnetic
Pull (UMP) in the air gap. Regarding vibration monitoring, precise selection of sensor
placement is of importance. The shock pulse method provides rotor bearing wear
level and UMP calculation in air gaps deliver the information regarding the static
eccentricity of the rotor with respect to the stator.
Thermal monitoring
According to [184], there are three different approaches for temperature monitoring
on RM as shown below.
Use thermal imaging, to find a hot spot in the RM, which has been used on a
lot of other HVE.
Chemical monitoring
High thermal stresses in RM generate chemical reactions in the insulation material,
usually starting from 120 Celsius by emitting hydrocarbons and ethylene. However,
this method tends to be expensive to perform and is limited by its accuracy.
76
DC due to the cancellation of AC components from different phases if the flux and
torque is in a normal condition [186].
Motor Current Spectrum Analysis (MCSA) monitors stator current and its
spectrum. This can be easily implemented with Current Transformer (CT) around
supply cables. Because its accurate analysis and easy installation, this method has
been widely used.
Partial Discharge can be applied in two different ways, on-line and off-line. In the
case of off-line, just like off-line PD monitoring after laying the cable case, high AC
test voltage is fed into the cable and PD occurrences are recorded. Off- line PD
monitoring on RM which are not in operation are analysed without any operating
stress such as thermal or mechanical vibration, and other possible stresses while the
machine is in the grid. This information can mislead or failure to notice possible faults
in RM during operational condition. However, on-line PD monitoring on RM can
provide realistic data under the same circumstances of real conditions and situations
of load variation. In particular, on-line PD monitoring on RM largely depends on
operation temperature and load condition. One limitation of PD monitoring on RM is
that this cannot provide any information regarding the pulse-less discharge
phenomenon [181].The reason for this discharge results from phase to phase voltage
with limited room between coils of different phases or partly conductive
contamination [76]. According to [182], this type of PD usually has a high magnitude
in negative cycles and is temperature dependant.
77
measurement sometimes accompanies its temperature and load record, for example, a
full load at a moderate temperature.
For noise reduction, two sensors installed at different spots in one phase terminal can
be used. The basis of this method is the arrival time difference between two sensors.
By doing so, sensors can recognize the PD signal source from an external or internal
spot.
78
SSC is about 50 cm long and 1.7mm thick as shown in Figure 4.9. SSC has two
coaxial cable outputs at one end which can be connected to a signal collector located
on the outside of the generator. Typically six to nine SSC can be installed on one
generator. The advantages of this type of connection are noise immunity from stator
winding ends or other external sources, and a PD pulse detection ability from 1 to 5
nanosecond in stator winding.
HVPD
HVPD utilizes HFCT (capacitive coupling sensor in case of above 1000 amps on the
supply cable) as a sensor attached around the supply cable, which should be capable
of high amps conducting through the supply cable. The software program will
automatically identify the PD types categorizing the end-winding and slot type.
PowerPD
They capture PD signals from generators and motors by coupling in each phase using
a Capacitor Coupler. This application has an early warning system and scans between
200 KHz-300 MHz.
Techimp
Techimp uses capacitive coupling (1000 pF high voltage dry-type (mica/epoxy)
capacitors) at each phase around machine terminal, but if it is not appropriate to
install capacitive coupler, HFCT can be a substitute around ground connections. For
noise reduction and classification of the PD signal, they use a TF map and fuzzy logic
based classifier. After connecting to the monitoring device, the data can be transferred
and interconnected with SCADA systems, which are also compatible with Ethernet
networks with a static IP address.
GIS Enclosure
Description
Electrically integrated, grounded casing
Single phase and Three phase types according to the application.
Aluminum and steel is commonly used
81
Usually Use
as gas insulation material or Mixture with
High pressure (4 bar) and low pressure (1.2bar)
High pressure has better dielectric characteristics
Gas
[195]
Conductor system
Aluminum tubes according to the rated voltage and current, its thickness and
diameter can be specified
Silver plated contact surface
Solid Spacer
Table 4.5 GIS's insulation and enclosure components and material [141]
The inside components of the GIS usually vary between types, such as the circuit
breaker, disconnection switch, current transformer, voltage transformer, bus bar and
so forth [141]. Therefore, different components can cause different failures inside the
GIS. In [196], different analysis of GIS failures was conducted based on thirty years
failure history from five German utilities and 7 companies. Depending on the location
of GIS, the most common failures occurred in the switching compartment (40.4%),
Voltage Transformer (VT), Surge Arrestors (SA) and bushing compartment (17.3%)
and other compartment (42.2%). Failure in terms of the type of defects were particles
and foreign bodies (20%), shields & bad electrostatic contacts (18%), load current
flowing through poor contact (11%), poor dielectric withstand during capacitive
switching operation (10%), spacer defects (10%) and so on. When it comes to the
voltage state of failure, failure occurred at nominal voltage state (61%) and
overvoltage state during switching operation (39%). Lastly the reasons in terms of
failure origin were on-site installation or transportation (35%), poor design (32%),
manufacturing defects (24%) and unknown (9%).
Electromagnetic Wave (TEM). This wave cannot pass through the opened contact
switching compartment. At higher power frequencies, however, electric and magnetic
fields of the transmitting waves are not entirely transverse to the direction of wave
propagation, known as Transverse Electric (TE), Transverse Magnetic (TM). The
waves have short wave lengths compared to TEM, and either electric or magnetic
fields can have the components transmitting at the same direction toward wave
propagation direction, which can pass though the opened contact in GIS. The cut-off
frequency between TEM and TE, TM can be defined by the following equation
c
Where
(a b)
(4.5)
= cut-off wave length, a, b= outer and inner radius of the conductor and
cut-off frequency can be approximately 250MHz. This TEM and TE, TM can affect
the detectable frequency range for on-line PD monitoring on GIS. Appendix A in
[200], detail mathematical frame work of TEM, TE, and TM is covered.
Free moving particle: This is a particle freely moving inside the GIS. Poor
manufacture processes and contact between different electrodes inside GIS can cause
free moving particles. Even though free moving particles have been found to be
harmless compared, for example, to floating electrodes, continuous PD occurrence
from free moving particle can result in SF_6 decomposition, and eventually
breakdown in the GIS [203]. This was pointed out as the main cause of failure in a
GIS [204]
Particles fixed on the spacer or insulation surface: This case indicates that certain
free moving particles can be fixed on the resin spacer or other insulation surface
inside the GIS. Fixed particles can generate corona type PD or breakdown in the gassolid interface by accelerating electric field distribution strength at that location [205].
operation of GIS. The UHF/AE PD detection method has been regarded as the most
promising PD monitoring technique for GIS. Detailed techniques in terms of on-line
monitoring are covered in this chapter.
High frequency current detection [209]: Current pulses caused by discharge in GIS
can be detected using by capacitor or charged conductor and intermediary insulator
equipped with a receiver electrode immersed in resin. This method has been used and
is a possible application for permanent monitoring.
SF6 quality assessment [209]: Impurities of GIS cause a significant impact on
insulation failure. Therefore, appropriate monitoring for SF6 quality has been used
periodically in order to decide dielectric strength. Gas analysis performed by sampling
for gas-chromatography or infer-red spectrograph is a proven method. Air contents
measurement with a portable oxygen detector can give an immediate indication of air
contents in the GIS. Lastly continuous or periodic moisture measurement is efficient
as well. Because this method is relatively expensive and redundant, periodic detection
for the first month of operation is sufficient in order to ensure SF6 filling condition in
the GIS.
85
86
PD localization [135]
PD source localization inside the GIS simply uses time-of-flight measurement with
two different sensors. Electric PD signal inside the GIS can propagate two UHF PD
sensors at different time intervals according to the sensor placement.
In Figure 4.11, the simple scheme of PD localization is shown. If there are two
different UHF sensors and the PD occurs between them, the time domain PD location
can be calculated as below in a situation when the time of flight at two different UHF
sensors is known.
x1
x ( x2 x1 )
2
x c0 t
2
(4.6)
Doble TransiNor AIA provide acoustic solution for GIS during normal service
operation using piezoelectric type monitoring the acoustic signal from the PD source
such as bouncing particles, protrusions and loose shields. The sensitivity of PD
measurement will be higher than conventional method (IEC 60270).
HVPD
HVPD uses the unconventional way with Transient Earth Voltage (TEV) and external
capacitive coupler sensors attached to the outer casing of the switchgear in the correct
position. In addition, a HFCT clipped around the cable earth strap at the bottom of the
switchgear is also used. The noise can be reduced by using frequency analysis for
switch noise and wave shape analysis for RF and sinusoidal noise. Two or more TEV
sensors with the time-of-flight method enable PD localization. For detecting PD from
corona or the surface of the cable termination, sealing end, and air-insulated
switchgear, Airborne AE probes can be used, which also can be combined with
TEV/HFCT in order to localize PD source.
PSD Tech
PSD Tech uses external or internal open barrier or metal-closed barrier type UHF
sensors with noise sensors. The signal is first collected to a data acquisition unit
which is connected to the main unit for signal analysis using neural network.
PowerPD
PowerPD uses 4 acoustic detection sensors for GIS ductwork, HV GIS circuit
breakers and cubicle type GIS (CGIS). Remote monitoring is possible via a PC or the
internet.
Techimp
Techimp uses VHF/UHF sensors such as a window coupler on the dielectric
inspection window, tem antenna near GIS bushing, spacer coupler at dielectric spacer,
and bushing coupler around a metal ring below the GIS bushing. Most of the sensors
have a sensitivity of 5pC. They use TF analysis and fuzzy logic based pattern
recognition as well as noise rejection.
89
For on-line PD monitoring, the VHF/UHF method has usually been widely used with
internal or external sensors located on the GIS surface. Localization of PD source can
be realized by using time of flight with two or more sensors in different places. From
a practical point of view, many companies use similar internal or external sensors in
different spots. On-line PD monitoring on GIS by companies using the UHF method
is very common world-wide.
90
CHAPTER
fault types
On-line PD monitoring is still a developing area which needs more research and
experience. That is why PD measurements are still being developed by experts despite
the fact that PD measurements have been performed for several decades. The author is
sure that on-line PD monitoring is the most promising techniques for condition
assessments of high voltage equipment.
Life prediction modelling and life cycle management: Since on-line PD monitoring
can provide trendable data for testing, based on continuous PD monitoring, the power
system operator can simulate possible life prediction and cycle management of power
system equipment. In order to complete this task, the following studies are required:
Integrating as part of a smart grid [213]: Smart grids are considered as the hottest
issue in modern power systems. By using all possible infrastructure and recent
techniques, optimum, reliable, economical, and efficient operation of power system is
the goal of smart grid. Therefore possible integration of on-line high voltage
equipment monitoring with smart grid infrastructure has high potential to make a leap
forward in the provision of robust and reliable power systems operation.
92
References
THESIS & BOOK
[1] Stone, G.C, Partial Discharge Diagnostics and Electrical Equipment Insulation
Condition Assessment, dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 12, Issue: 5. Page(s): 891 904, 2005
[2] Han, Y.; Song, Y. H, Condition monitoring techniques for electrical equipment: a
literature survey, Power Engineering Review, IEEE Volume: 22, Issue: 9, Page(s):
59, 2002
[3] Montanari, G.C., Cavallini, A, Insulation condition assessment of power
equipments in electrical assets based on on-line monitoring of partial discharges,
Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008. International Conference on,
Page(s): 7 12. 2008
[4] Jitka Fuhr, Procedure for identification and localization of dangerous PD sources
in power transformers, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 12, Issue: 5, Page(s): 1005 1014, 2005
[5] Blokhintsev, I.; Patterson, C.L.; Cassidy, B.J.; Loesch, A.H, Advantage of OnLine Partial Discharge continuous monitoring of medium voltage substation,
Electrical Insulation Conference, 2009. EIC 2009. IEEE, Page(s): 153 158, 2009
[6] Ortega, D.F.; Castelli-Dezza, F, On line partial discharges test on rotating
machines supplied by IFDs, Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2010 XIX International
Conference on, Page(s): 1 4, 2010
[7] C. Sumereder, M. Muhr, Estimation of Residual Lifetime Theory and Practical
Problems, 8th Hflers Days Portoroz, 6. 8, November 2005
[8] Senn F., Muhr M, Ladsttter W., Grubelnik W., Complexity of Determining
factors for the thermal evaluation of high voltage insulation systems on the example
of rotating machines, DISEE 2008 Demnovsk Dolina, Slovakia, 2008
[9] WG D1.33 Guide for Electrical Partial Discharge Measurements in compliance to
IEC 60270, Technical Brochure, Electra No.241, Page(s): 61-67, DEC 2008
93
[10] IEC 60270 High-voltage test techniques- Partial discharge measurements Edition
3, 2000
[11] E. Kuffel, W. S. Zaengl, J. Kuffel, High voltage engineering: fundamentals,
Book, Newnes, 2000
[12] Xin Liu, Partial Discharge Detection and Analysis in Low Pressure
Environments, Doctoral Thesis, The ohio state university, USA, 2006
[13] Pemen, A.J.M.; van der Laan, P.C.T.; Wout de Leeuw, Propagation of partial
discharge signals in stator windings of turbine generators, Energy Conversion, IEEE
Transactions on Volume: 21 , Issue: 1, Page(s): 155 161, 2006
[14] Pedersen, A.; Crichton, G.C.; McAllister, I.W., The theory and measurement of
partial discharge transients, Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 26 ,
Issue: 3, Page(s): 487 497, 1991
[15] Fenger, M., Test procedure and acceptance criteria for PD commissioning
testing of transmission class cables, Electrical Insulation (ISEI), Conference Record
of the 2010 IEEE International Symposium on, Page(s): 1 5, 2010
[16] Cavallini, A.; Montanari, G.C.; Tozzi, M., PD apparent charge estimation and
calibration: A critical review, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE
Transactions on Volume: 17 , Issue: 1, Page(s): 198 205, 2010
[17] Hampton, B.F.; Meats, R.J., Diagnostic measurements at UHF in gas insulated
substations, Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEE Proceedings, Page(s):
137 145, 1988
[18] M. Muhr; R. Schwarz, Partial discharge measurement as a Diagnostic Tool for
HV-Equipments, Properties and applications of Dielectric Materials, 2006. 8th
International Conference on, Page(s): 195 198, 2006
[19] Muhr, M.; Schwarz, R.; Pack, S.; Koerbler, B., Unconventional partial
discharge measurement [electrical insulation evaluation], Electrical Insulation and
Dielectric Phenomena, 2004. CEIDP '04. 2004 Annual Report Conference on,
Page(s): 430 433, 2004
[20] Kemp, I.J., Developments in partial discharge plant-monitoring technology,
Partial Discharge, 1993., International Conference on, Page(s): 52 55, 1993
94
[21] CIGRE Working group D1.33 Guidelines for Unconventional Partial Discharge
Measurements, Cigre Technical Brochure, DEC, 2010
[22] Lundgaard, L.E, Partial discharge. XIV. Acoustic partial discharge detectionpractical application,
Electrical Insulation Magazine, IEEE, Volume: 8, Issue: 5, Page(s): 34 43, 1992
[23] Lundgaard, L.E., Partial discharge. XIII. Acoustic partial discharge detectionfundamental considerations, Electrical Insulation Magazine, IEEE, Volume: 8, Issue:
4, Page(s): 25 31, 1992
[24] Kozako, M.; Yamada, K.; Morita, A.; Ohtsuka, S.; Hikita, M.; Kashine, K.;
Nakamura, I.; Koide, H., Fundamental study on partial discharge induced acoustic
wave propagation in simulated transformer composite insulation system, Properties
and Applications of Dielectric Materials, 2009. ICPADM 2009. IEEE 9th
International Conference on the, Page(s): 477 480, 2009
[25] Schwarz, R.; Muhr, M. Modern technologies in optical partial discharge
detection, Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, 2007. CEIDP 2007.
Annual Report - Conference on, Page(s): 163 166, 2007
[26] R. Schwarz, M. Muhr, S. Pack, Evaluation of partial discharge impulses with
optical and conventional detection systems, Proceedings of the XIVth International
Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China,
August 25-29, 2005
[27] Oliveira, S.C.; Fontana, E., Optical Detection of Partial Discharges on Insulator
Strings of High-Voltage Transmission Lines, Instrumentation and Measurement,
IEEE Transactions on Volume: 58, Issue: 7, Page(s): 2328 2334, 2009
[28] Tominaga, S.; Kuwahara, H.; Hirooka, K.; Yoshioka, T., SF6 Gas Analysis
Technique and its Application for Evaluation of Internal Conditions in SF6 Gas
Equipment, Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE Transactions on Volume: PAS100, Issue: 9, Page(s): 4196 4206, 1981
[29] Muhamad, N.A.; Phung, B.T.; Blackburn, T.R., Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)
of partial discharge fault in bio-degradable transformer insulation oil, Power
Engineering Conference, 2007. AUPEC 2007. Australasian Universities, Page(s): 1
6, 2007
95
[30] Kaufhold, M.; Bamji, S.S.; Bulinski, A.T., Optical detection of partial
discharges in gas-insulated systems, Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena,
1996. IEEE 1996 Annual Report of the Conference on Volume: 2, Page(s): 618 - 623
vol.2, 1996
[31] Coenen, S.; Tenbohlen, S.; Markalous, S.M.; Strehl, T., Sensitivity of UHF PD
measurements in power transformers, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE
Transactions on, Volume: 15 , Issue: 6 , Page(s): 1553 1558, 2008
[32] P.D. Agoris; S. Meijer; E. Gulski; J.J. Smit; T.J.W. Hermans; L. Lamballais,
Sensitivity check for on-line VHF/UHF PD detection on Transmission cables,
Properties and applications of Dielectric Materials, 2006. 8th International
Conference on, Page(s): 204 207, 2006
[33] Meijer, S.; Judd, M.D.; Tenbohlen, S., Sensitivity check for radio frequency
partial discharge detection for power transformers, Condition Monitoring and
Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008. International Conference on, Page(s): 1031 1035,
2008
[34] Agoris, P.; Meijer, S.; Smit, J.J., Sensitivity Check of an Internal VHF/UHF
Sensor for Transformer Partial Discharge Measurements, Power Tech, 2007 IEEE
Lausanne, Page(s): 2065 2069, 2007
[35] Hoshino, T.; Maruyama, S.; Nojima, K.; Hanai, M., A unique sensitivity
verification combined with real-time partial-discharge identification method, Power
Delivery, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 20, Issue: 3, Page(s): 1890 1896, 2005
[36] Knapp, M.; Feger, R.; Feser, K.; Breuer, A., Application of the CIGREsensitivity verification for UHF PD detection in three-phase GIS, High Voltage
Engineering, 1999. Eleventh International Symposium on (Conf. Publ. No. 467)
Volume: 5, Page(s): 82 - 85 vol.5, 1999
[37] CIGRE Working Group D1.02 Sensors and Sensing Used For Non-conventional
PD Detection, CIGRE 2006
[38] Petchphung, P.; Leelajindakrairerk, M.; Pattanadech, N.; Yutthagowith, P.;
Aunchaleevarapan, K., The comparison study of PD measurement with conventional
method and unconventional method, Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2008.
CMD 2008. International Conference on, Page(s): 32 36, 2008
96
[39] Reid, A.; Judd, M.; Stewart, B.; Fouracre, R., Comparing IEC60270 and RF
partial discharge patterns, Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008.
International Conference on, Page(s): 89 92, 2008
[40] Reid, A.J.; Judd, M.D.; Fouracre, R.A.; Stewart, B.G.; Hepburn, D.M.,
Simultaneous measurement of partial discharges using IEC60270 and radiofrequency techniques, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 18 , Issue: 2, Page(s): 444 455, 2011
[41] Stewart, B.G.; Judd, M.D.; Reid, A.J.; Fouracre, R.A., Suggestions to augment
the IEC60270 partial discharge standard in relation to radiated electromagnetic
energy, Electrical Insulation Conference and Electrical Manufacturing Expo, 2007,
Page(s): 175 178, 2007
ger, M.; Winter, P., Advanced
possibilities of synchronous conventional and UHF PD measurements for effective
noise suppression, Electrical Insulation (ISEI), Conference Record of the 2010 IEEE
International Symposium on, Page(s): 1 4, 2010
[43] Tenbohlen, S.; Pfeffer, A.; Coenen, S, On-site experiences with multi-terminal
IEC PD measurements, UHF PD measurements and acoustic PD localization,
Electrical Insulation (ISEI), Conference Record of the 2010 IEEE International
Symposium on , Page(s): 1 5, 2010
[44] Xiaodong Wang; Baoqing Li; H.T. Roman; O.L. Russo; K. Chin; K.R. Farmer,
Acousto-optical PD detection for transformers, Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions
on Volume: 21, Issue: 3, Page(s): 1068 1073, 2006
[45] Morshuis, P.H.F, Partial discharge mechanism leading to breakdown, analyzed
by fast electrical and optical measurements, Master thesis, Delft University of
Technology, 1993
[46] Jouseau, E.; Vivien, G.; Odic, E.; Maroni, C.-S, Exhibition of an ageing
criterion based on partial detection for Medium Voltage equipment, Diagnostics for
Electric Machines, Power Electronics and Drives, 2005. SDEMPED 2005. 5th IEEE
International Symposium on, Page(s): 1 5, 2005
[47] Alison K. Lazarevich, Partial Discharge Detection and Localization in High
Voltage Transformers Using an Optical Acoustic Sensor Master thesis, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, May 2003
97
[48] S.M. Markalous and K. Feser, All- Acoustic PD Measurements Of Oil/Paperinsulated Transformers For PD-Location, Proc. of the Second International
Conference on Advances in Processing, Testing and Application of Dielectric
Materials (APTADM),September 2004.
[49] Imad-U-Khan; Zhongdong Wang; Cotton, I.; Northcote, S, Dissolved gas
analysis of alternative fluids for power transformers, Electrical Insulation Magazine,
IEEE Volume: 23, Issue: 5, Page(s): 5 14, 2007
[50] Boczar, T.; Zmarzly, D., Optical spectra of surface discharges in oil,
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 13 , Issue: 3,
Page(s): 632 639, 2006
[51] Schwarz, R.; Muhr, M.; Pack, S., Partial discharge detection in oil with optical
methods, Dielectric Liquids, 2005. ICDL 2005. 2005 IEEE International Conference
on, Page(s): 245 248, 2005
[52] Baker, P.C.; Judd, M.D.; Mcarthur, S.D.J, A frequency-based RF partial
discharge detector for low-power wireless sensing, Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 17 , Issue: 1, Page(s): 133 140, 2010
[53] V.R Garcia-Colon, J. A. Estrada Garca, E. Betancourt Ramirez Development of
ultra wide band partial discharge sensors for power transformer winding insulation,
Contribution D1-211, Cigr. Session 2008
[54] Kaneko, S.; Okabe, S.; Yoshimura, M.; Muto, H.; Nishida, C.; Kamei, M.,
Detecting characteristics of various type antennas on partial discharge
electromagnetic wave radiating through insulating spacer in gas insulated
switchgear, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 16 ,
Issue: 5, Page(s): 1462 1472, 2009
[55] Mallikarjunappa, K.; Ratra, M.C., Detection of partial discharges in power
capacitors using high frequency current transformers, Electrical Insulation and
Dielectric Phenomena, 1990. Annual Report., Conference on, Page(s): 379 384,
1990
[56] Ray, W.F.; Hewson, C.R., High performance Rogowski current transducers,
Industry Applications Conference, 2000. Conference Record of the 2000 IEEE
Volume: 5, Page(s): 3083 - 3090 vol.5, 2000
98
99
[66] Lima, S.E.U.; Frazao, O.; Farias, R.G.; Araujo, F.M.; Ferreira, L.A.; Santos, J.L.;
Miranda, V., Mandrel-Based Fiber-Optic Sensors for Acoustic Detection of Partial
Dischargesa Proof of Concept, Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 25
, Issue: 4, Page(s): 2526 2534, 2010
[67] Zargari, A.; Blackburn, T.R., Application of optical fibre sensor for partial
discharge detection in high-voltage power equipment, Electrical Insulation and
Dielectric Phenomena, 1996. IEEE 1996 Annual Report of the Conference on
Volume: 2, Page(s): 541 - 544 vol.2, 1996
[68] Varl, A., On-line diagnostics of oil-filled transformers, Dielectric Liquids,
2002. ICDL 2002. Proceedings of 2002 IEEE 14th International Conference on,
Page(s): 253 257, 2002
[69] Xuezeng Zhao; Yangliu Li, An On-Line Monitoring System for Gases
Dissolved in Transformer Oil Using Wireless Data Acquisition, Power and Energy
Engineering Conference, 2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific, Page(s): 1 4, 2009
[70] Xiao-xing Zhang; Wang-ting Liu; Ju Tang; Peng Xiao, Study on PD detection
in SF6 using multi-wall carbon nanotube films sensor, Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 17 , Issue: 3, Page(s): 833 838, 2010
[71] Ding, W.; Hayashi, R.; Suehiro, J.; Imasaka, K.; Hara, M., Observation of
dynamic behavior of PD-generated SF6 decompositions using carbon nanotube gas
sensor, Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, 2005. CEIDP '05. 2005
Annual Report Conference on, Page(s): 561 564, 2005
[72] IEEE Std C57.127-2000, IEEE Trial-Use Guide for the Detection of Acoustic
Emissions From Partial Discharges in Oil-Immersed Power Transformers,, 2000
[73] Sahoo, N.C.; Salama, M.M.A.; Bartnikas, R., Trends in partial discharge pattern
classification: a survey, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 12, Issue: 2, Page(s): 248 264, 2005
[74] Barkat, B.; Al-Marzouqi, H., A correlation based approach to interference
suppression from phase resolved partial discharge patterns, Solid Dielectrics (ICSD),
2010 10th IEEE International Conference on, Page(s): 1 4, 2010
[75] Hudon, C.; Belec, M., Partial discharge signal interpretation for generator
diagnostics, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 12 ,
Issue: 2, Page(s): 297 319, 2005
100
102
[95] Ma, X.; Zhou, C.; Kemp, I.J., Interpretation of wavelet analysis and its
application in partial discharge detection, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE
Transactions on Volume: 9, Issue: 3, Page(s): 446 457, 2002
[96] Gaouda, A.M.; El-Hag, A.; Abdel-Galil, T.K.; Salama, M.M.A.; Bartnikas, R.,
On-line detection and measurement of partial discharge signals in a noisy
environment, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume:
15, Issue: 4, Page(s): 1162 1173, 2008
[97] Andrej Krivda, Recognition of discharges Discrimination and classification,
Doctoral Thesis, Delft University of Technology, 1995
[98] James, R.E.; Phung, B.T., Development of computer-based measurements and
their application to PD pattern analysis, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE
Transactions on Volume: 2, Issue: 5, Page(s): 838 856, 1995
[99] Mazroua, A.A.; Bartnikas, R.; Salama, M.M.A., Discrimination between PD
pulse shapes using different neural network paradigms, Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 1 , Issue: 6, Page(s): 1119 1131, 1994
[100] Ab Aziz, N.F.; Hao, L.; Lewin, P.L., Analysis of Partial Discharge
Measurement Data Using a Support Vector Machine, Research and Development,
2007. SCOReD 2007. 5th Student Conference on, Page(s): 1 6, 2007
[101] Ethem ALPAYDIN, Introduction to Machine Learning, The MIT Press,
October 2004, ISBN 0-262-01211-1, 2004
[102] Kranz, H.-G., Diagnosis of partial discharge signals using neural networks and
minimum distance classification, Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 28 , Issue: 6, Page(s): 1016 1024, 1993
[103] Cover, T.; Hart, P., Nearest neighbor pattern classification, Information
Theory, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 13, Issue: 1, Page(s): 21 27, 1967
[104] Poyhonen, S.; Conti, M.; Cavallini, A.; Montanari, G.C.; Filippetti, F.,
Insulation defect localization through partial discharge measurements and numerical
classification, Industrial Electronics, 2004 IEEE International Symposium on
Volume: 1, Page(s): 417 - 422 vol. 1, 2004
[105] Balasundaram Karthikeyan, Srinivasan Gopal, Srinivasan Venkatesh,
Subramanian Saravanan, Pnn and Its Adeptive Version an ingenious Approach To
103
105
107
[146] Boggs, S.; Densley, J., Fundamentals of partial discharge in the context of field
cable testing,
Electrical Insulation Magazine IEEE Volume: 16, Issue: 5, Page(s): 13 18, 2000
[147] Smit, J.J.; Gulski, E., Advanced condition assessment of high voltage power
cables, Electrical Insulating Materials, 2005. (ISEIM 2005). Proceedings of 2005
International Symposium on, Volume: 3, Page(s): 869 - 872 Vol. 3, 2005
[148] Kheng Jern KHOR, Partial Discharge Propagation and Sensing in Overhead
Power Distribution Lines, Master Thesis, School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering College of Science, Engineering & Health RMIT University, March 2010
[149] Oliveira, S.C.; Fontana, E.; Cavalcanti, F.J.M., Real time monitoring of the
leakage current of 230 kV insulator strings under washing Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exposition, 2008. T&D. IEEE/PES, Page(s): 1 4, 2008
[150] Bradley, R., Cable temperature monitoring, Distribution and Transmission
Systems (Digest No. 1997/050), IEE Colloquium on Operational Monitoring of,
Page(s): 3/1 - 3/2, 1997
[151] Nitz, S.; Iwainsky, A., Design and utilization of fiber networks for temperature
monitoring along cable lines, Industrial Electronics Society, 1998. IECON '98.
Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference of the IEEE, Volume: 3, Page(s): 1824 1828 vol.3, 1998
[152] Kortschinski, J.; Leslie, J.R., A Power-Cable Temperature Monitoring
System, Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE Transactions on Volume: PAS-89 ,
Issue: 7, Page(s): 1429 1433, 1997
[153] Densley, J., An overview of aging mechanisms and diagnostics for extruded
power cables Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, 2000. IEEE Volume: 3,
Page(s): 1587 - 1592 vol.3, 2000
[154] Puletti, F.; Olivieri, M.; Cavallini, A.; Montanari, G.C., Localization of partial
discharge sources along HV and MV cable routes, Power Engineering Conference,
2005. IPEC 2005. The 7th International, Page(s): 1 199, 2005
[155] Mashikian, M.S.; Bansal, R.; Northrop, R.B., Location and characterization of
partial discharge sites in shielded power cables Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions
on Volume: 5 , Issue: 2, Page(s): 833 839, 1990
108
[156] Chengke Zhou; Hepburn, D.M.; Michel, M.; Xiaodi Song; Guobin Zhang,
Partial discharge monitoring in medium voltage cables, Condition Monitoring and
Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008. International Conference on, Page(s): 1021 1024,
2008
[157] Michel, Matthieu, Comparison of off-line and on-line partial discharge MV
cable mapping techniques, Electricity Distribution, 2005. CIRED 18th International
Conference and Exhibition on, Page(s): 1 6, 2005
[158] Cavallini, A.; Montanari, G.C.; Puletti, F., Partial Discharge Analysis and
Asset Management: Experiences on Monitoring of Power Apparatus, Transmission
& Distribution Conference and Exposition: Latin America, 2006. TDC '06.
IEEE/PES, Page(s): 1 6, 2006
[159] Tian, Y.; Lewin, P.L.; Wilkinson, J.S.; Sutton, S.J.; Swingler, S.G.,
Continuous on-line monitoring of partial discharges in high voltage cables,
Electrical Insulation, 2004. Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE International
Symposium on, Page(s): 454 457, 2004
[160] Gulski, E.; Cichecki, P.; Wester, F.; Smit, J.; Bodega, R.; Hermans, T.; Seitz,
P.; Quak, B.; Vries, F., On-site testing and PD diagnosis of high voltage power
cables Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 15 ,
Issue: 6, Page(s): 1691 1700, 2008
[161] Working Group D1.33 Task Force 05, Experiences In Partial Discharge
Detection, Technical brochure, ELECTRA, No. 208, pp: 34-43, Jun 2003
[162] IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems in
a Field Environment, IEEE Std 400.3-2006, Page(s): c1 36, 2007
[163] Phung, B.T.; Liu, Z.; Blackburn, T.R.; McMullan, P.; Burgess, G, Practical
experience in on-line partial discharge monitoring of power cables, Power
Engineering Conference, 2008. AUPEC '08. Australasian Universities, Page(s): 1 5,
2008
[164] B.T. Phung, Z. Liu, T.R. Blackburn, H. Zhang, P., McMullan, G. Burgess, and
A. Zargari, On-line monitoring of MV and HV distribution cables using VHF partial
discharge detection, paper D1-202, CIGR, Paris, 2008.
[165] L Renforth, R Mackinlay, M Seltzer-Grant, R Shuttleworth, On-line Partial
Discharge (PD) Spot Testing and Monitoring of High Voltage Cable Sealing Ends,
Session 2008: CIGRE 2008; PARIS. Cigre; 2008.
109
[166] Tian, Y.; Lewin, P.L.; Wilkinson, J.S.; Schroeder, G.; Sutton, S.J.; Swingler,
S.G., An improved optically based PD detection system for continuous on-line
monitoring of HV cables, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 12 , Issue: 6, Page(s): 1222 1234, 2005
[167] Wu, R.-N.; Chang, C.-K., The Use of Partial Discharges as an Online
Monitoring System for Underground Cable Joints Power Delivery, IEEE
Transactions on Volume: PP , Issue: 99, Page(s): 1, 2011
[168] Van der Wielen, P.C.J.M.; Steennis, E.F., On-line PD monitoring system for
MV cable connections with weak spot location, Power and Energy Society General
Meeting - Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, 2008
IEEE, Page(s): 1 8, 2008
[169] Van der Wielen, P.C.J.M.; Veen, J.; Wouters, P.A.A.F.; Steennis, E.F.,
Sensors for on-line PD detection in MV power cables and their locations in
substations Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials, 2003. Proceedings of
the 7th International Conference on Volume: 1, Page(s): 215 - 219 vol.1, 2003
[170] Stone, G.C., Partial discharge measurements to assess rotating machine
insulation condition: a survey Electrical Insulation, 1996, Conference Record of the
1996 IEEE International Symposium on, Page(s): 19 - 23 vol.1, 1996
[171] Fenger, M.; Stone, G.C.; Lloyd, B.A., Experience with continuous partial
discharge monitoring of stator windings, Electrical Insulation Conference and
Electrical Manufacturing & Coil Winding Conference, 2001. Proceedings, Page(s):
417 421, 2001
[172] P. Tavner, Peter. T, Li Ran, Jim Penman and Howard Sedding, Condition
Monitoring of Rotating Electrical Machines, book, The Institution of Engineering
and Technology, London, UK 2008
[173] Smeeton, P.; Bousbaine, A., Fault diagnostic testing using Partial Discharge
measurements on High Voltage rotating machines, Universities Power Engineering
Conference (UPEC), 2009 Proceedings of the 44th International, Page(s): 1 5, 2009
[174] Stone, G.C.; Lloyd, B.; Sasic, M., Experience with continuous on-line partial
discharge monitoring of generators and motors, Condition Monitoring and
Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008. International Conference on, Page(s): 212 216, 2008
[175] Paolitti, G.; Golubev, A., Partial discharge theory and technologies related to
traditional testing methods of large rotating apparatus, Industry Applications
110
111
[185] Sedding, H.; Brown, A., Review of effective diagnostic and condition
monitoring methods for rotating machines, Power and Energy Society General
Meeting - Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, 2008
IEEE, Page(s): 1 3, 2008
[186] Trzynadlowski, A.M.; Ghassemzadeh, M.; Legowski, S.F., Diagnostics of
mechanical abnormalities in induction motors using instantaneous electric power,
Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 14, Issue: 4, Page(s): 1417
1423, 1999
[187] Bong-Keun Oh; Hyun-Il Kim; Dong-Sik Kang; Kee-Joe Lim, Comparison of
on-line and off-line PD measuring system for hydro generator stator winding,
Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008. International Conference on,
Page(s): 204 207, 2008
[188] Green, V.; Sasic, M.; Wright, B., Summary of industry practices, guides and
standards related to on-line partial discharge monitoring of stator insulation
condition Petroleum and Chemical Industry Conference, 2005. Industry Applications
Society 52nd Annual, Page(s): 359 365, 2005
[189] IEEE Trial-Use Guide to the Measurement of Partial Discharges in Rotating
Machinery, IEEE Std 1434-2000, 2000
[190] Sedding, H.G.; Campbell, S.R.; Stone, G.C.; Klempner, G.S., A new sensor for
detecting partial discharges in operating turbine generators, Energy Conversion,
IEEE Transactions on, Volume: 6 , Issue: 4, Page(s): 700 706, 1991
[191] Stone, G.C.; Lloyd, B.A.; Campbell, S.R., On-line monitoring for condition
assessment of motor and generator stator windings, Pulp and Paper Industry
Technical Conference, 1994., Conference Record of 1994 Annual, Page(s): 94 103,
1994
[192] Okubo, H., Recent activity and future trend on ageing characteristics of
electrical insulation in GIS from manufacturer's view point, Properties and
Applications of Dielectric Materials, 1994., Proceedings of the 4th International
Conference on Volume: 2, Page(s): 837 - 840 vol.2, 1994
[193] Reid, A.J.; Judd, M.D.; Fouracre, R.A.; Stewart, B.G.; Hepburn, D.M.,
Simultaneous measurement of partial discharges using IEC60270 and radiofrequency techniques, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on
Volume: 18 , Issue: 2, Page(s): 444 455, 2011
112
[194] Hampton, B., UHF diagnostics for gas insulated substations, High Voltage
Engineering, 1999. Eleventh International Symposium on (Conf. Publ. No. 467)
Volume: 5, Page(s): 6 - 16 vol.5, 1999
[195] Singha, S.; Thomas, M.J., Toepler's spark law in a GIS with compressed SF6N2 mixture, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 10,
Issue: 3, Page(s): 498 505, 2003
[196] Joint Working Group 33/23.12 Insulation co-ordination of GIS: Return of
experience, on site tests and diagnostic techniques, Electra No. 176, Page(s):67 97,
Feb 1998
[197] Meijer, S.,Partial Discharge Diagnosis of High-Voltage Gas-Insulated
Systems, Doctoral Thesis, Delft University of Technology, 2001
[198] Judd, M.D.; Farish, O.; Hampton, B.F., Broadband couplers for UHF detection
of partial discharge in gas-insulated substations, Science, Measurement and
Technology, IEE Proceedings - , Volume: 142 , Issue: 3, Page(s): 237 243, 1995
[199] Hampton, B.F.; Meats, R.J., Diagnostic measurements at UHF in gas insulated
substations, Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEE Proceedings C, Volume:
135 , Issue: 2, Page(s): 137 145, 1988
[200] Baumgartner, R.; Fruth, B.; Lanz, W.; Pettersson, K., Partial discharge. IX. PD
in gas-insulated substations-fundamental considerations Electrical Insulation
Magazine, IEEE Volume: 7, Issue: 6, Page(s): 5 13, 1991
[201] Kurrer, R.; Klunzinger, K.; Feser, K.; de Kock, N.; Sologuren, D., Sensitivity
of the UHF-method for defects in GIS with regard to on-line partial discharge
detection, Electrical Insulation, 1996., Conference Record of the 1996 IEEE
International Symposium on Volume: 1, Page(s): 95 - 98 vol.1, 1996
[202] Meijer, S.; Smit, J.J.; Gulski, E.; Girodet, A., Partial discharge early warning
system in gas-insulated switchgear Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific. IEEE/PES Volume: 2, Page(s): 931 - 936 vol.2, 2002
[203] Baumgartner, R.; Fruth, B.; Lanz, W.; Pettersson, K., Partial discharge. X. PD
in gas-insulated substations-measurement and practical considerations Electrical
Insulation Magazine, IEEE Volume: 8 , Issue: 1, Page(s): 16 27,1992
113
[204] Hampton, B.F., Diagnostics for gas insulated substations, Advances in Power
System Control, Operation and Management, 1993. APSCOM-93., 2nd International
Conference on, Page(s): 17 - 23 vol.1, 1993
[205] Meijer, S.; Smit, J.J.; Kanters, A.J.L.M., Experience with PD measurements in
GIS maintenance concept, Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008.
International Conference on, Page(s): 551 554, 2008
[206] Golubev, A.; Blokhintsev, I.; Paoletti, G.; Modrowski, J., On-line partial
discharge applications to MV electrical switchgear Electrical Insulation Conference
and Electrical Manufacturing & Coil Winding Conference, 2001. Proceedings,
Page(s): 225 232, 2001
[207] Fung, K.Y.; Sit, K.L.; Chan, L.K.; So, K.L., Condition monitoring on HV
equipment in CLP Power, Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2008. CMD 2008.
International Conference on, Page(s): 679 683, 2008
[208] Kim, J.B.; Kim, M.S.; Kim, T.W.; Song, W.P.; Kim, D.S.; Park, W.Z.,
Development of smart diagnosis system for 800 kV gas -insulated switchgear,
Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, 2003 IEEE PES Volume:
2, Page(s): 486 - 490 vol.2, 2003
[209] J. Vigreux (on behalf of WG 23.03), Application of Condition Monitoring
Technoques in Gas Insulated Substations, CIGRE ELECTRA, Feb, 1991
[210] Working group 15.03, Partial discharge detection system for GIS: sensitivity
verification for the UHF method and the acoustic method, Electra No. 183, Page(s):
75-87, APRIL 1999
[211] Hoshino, T.; Koyama, H.; Maruyama, S.; Hanai, M., Comparison of sensitivity
between UHF method and IEC 60270 for onsite calibration in various GIS, Power
Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, Volume: 21, Issue: 4, Page(s): 1948 1953, 2006
[212] Lundgaard, L.E.; Runde, M.; Skyberg, B., Acoustic diagnosis of gas insulated
substations: a theoretical and experimental basis, Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions
on Volume: 5, Issue: 4, Page(s): 1751 1759, 1990
[213] Menno M.P. de Haas, Online Diagnostics in Smart Grids- An approach to the
Future Power Grid-, Master Thesis, Delft University of Technology, June 2011.
114
WEBSITE
[214] www.doble-lemke.eu
[215] www.omicron.at
[216] www.techimp.com
[217] www.ipec.co.uk
[218] www.pd-systems.com
[219] www.kema.com
[220]www.irispower.com
[221] www.qualitrolcorp.com
[222] www.psdtech.com
[223] www.nexigmaint.com
[224] www.dynamicratings.com
[225] www.emersonnetworkpower.com
[226] www.hvpd.co.uk
115
System Configuration
An on-line PD monitoring system roughly consists of three capacitive sensors, data
acquisition unit, and personal computer shown below in Figure 1 and 2
System description
Three capacitive couplers are permanently installed at each generator terminal phase
(U, V, W) which are connected to a sensor signal collector installed outside the
generator. The data acquisition unit can be connected to a sensor directly via a sensor
signal collector. The data acquisition unit also has a voltage reference input for PRPD
analysis and possible gate noise reduction input if it is needed. Optical fibre (yellow
cable) directly connects the data acquisition unit and signal convertor in order to send
a signal using an Ethernet connection so that it can be connected to a personal
computer in which analysis and recording of the signal takes place using a User
Interface (UI).
Calibration
The calibration procedure was
performed
117
in Figure 2, highlighting the pulse injector. The arrows indicate connection spots
between the pulse injector and sensor. The recommended calibration acceptable error
is within 5% of the reference calibration pulse value.
Measurement
The measurement was carried out while the generator was in operation in different
frequency ranges; 100 500 kHz (IEC recommended), 560 3000 kHz and 950010500 kHz based on previous measurement record. In this thesis, 100-500 kHz
measuring graphs are covered. In PRPD pattern graph, a reddish color indicates
higher repetition rates compared to a blue or dark color which means low a repetition
rate.
118
The graph shows a clear higher peak value of PD on the first phase compared to other
phases. One noticeable thing here is the noise signal. Especially at the third phase,
there are phase-lock noises, periodic red dot pattern from the voltage reference. If the
noise is severe, then the gating technique can eliminate those noises. The pattern in
this measurement should be compared to a PD pattern reference library for more
accurate decision making.
119
AE detection on transformer
The acoustic emission detection was performed on the transformer at Siemens
Transformer Factory, Dresden, Germany
The transformer specification is shown below
Product name and manufacturer: Dewa D417371
Rated voltage: 145kV/12kV
System Configuration
An AE detection system roughly consists of acoustic sensors, data acquisition unit,
and personal computer shown in Figure 4.
System description
Measurement
The end user of the transformer reported abnormal conditions based on a high level of
PD. However, there was no indication of the location of the PD source inside the
transformer. Based on their experience and similar cases, the most likely parts of the
transformer for fault are the cable connection box and transformer terminal for the
cable shown in the white box in Figure 5. Especially the cable connection box inside
the red rectangle is the most likely. Therefore the measurement started by placing
sensors around the red box. Even though there was no significant signal detected by
the sensor in this area, the signal detected by lower sensors was stronger than the
upper sensors.
121
While moving the sensors downward to find more AE signals, the strongest signals
were emitted inside the blue box shown in the Figure 2. The signal from each sensor
is shown in Figure 4. The graph shows eight different sensors signals simultaneously
in two different frames (1 to 4 in the upper graph and 5 to 8 in the lower graph). The
strong signals come from the first and fifth sensor. As indicated on the x-axis, there
are clear time differences between sensors according to their placement on the
transformer cable connection box. Nevertheless the magnitude can vary according to
the propagation path and insulation material structure inside of the test object, the
pulse arrival time clearly depends on the sensor placement.
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Voltage [V]
0.4
g
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
g
b
c
d
e
f
g
b
c
d
e
f
g
Sensor 1
g
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
g
b
c
d
e
f
g
b
c
d
e
f
g
Sensor 5
Sensor 2
Sensor 3
Sensor 4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.8 10
Time [ms]
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Voltage [V]
0.4
Sensor 6
Sensor 7
Sensor 8
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.8 10
Time [ms]
Figure 6 Signals from 8 sensors located different spot around suspicious PD source
122
In Figure 7 and 8, time frame work was when the PD magnitude and pulse shape are
the most likely right time. The same process was done for all eight sensors for setting
the exact propagation time from possible PD sources to each sensor placement.
123
As shown in Figure 9, it was assumed the 3 axis runs along to the contour of the
cable and connection box and pick the coordinates of each sensor placed inside of the
scope (e.g. (x, y, z)). The software in the computer analyzes possible fault locations
inside the rectangular space. As we can see in Figure 10, possible PD source can be
calculated according to the AE detection techniques in the transformer, which is in
detail at 4.1.4. On-line transformer PD monitoring on transformer. The options for
this calculation are acoustic speed in oil dependent on temperature and the selectivity
of sensors.
Figure 10 localization PD source according to the pulse propagation time difference from 8
sensors
124
System Configuration
An on-site PD monitoring system on switchgear roughly consists of Measuring
impedance, voltage supplier and auto transformer, data acquisition unit, and personal
computer shown below in Figure 11
125
System description
1. Module reactor
2. Inductance (40mH)
3. Capacitance (0.3nF)
4. Switchgear terminal
5, 6. Low pass filter
7. Data acquisition unit
8. Autotransformer and controller
9. Personal Computer
10. Calibrator
11. Measuring Impedance
The on-site measurement was performed by applying AC test voltage to the
switchgear. The transformer and module reactor supply voltage from the tested object
to the switchgear terminal. If there is high noise, a low pass filter which is adjustable
in different frequency bands can be applied. A data acquisition unit collects data by
measuring the impedance which is connected to a the personal computer for recording
and analyzing. In order to avoid possible noise discharge at the other terminal of the
126
switchgear, there are an anti PD caps on other terminals which are grounded
appropriately to make sure PD such as corona does not occur at other terminals shown
in Figure12 in the white box.
Measurement
Before the measurement, there was a calibration according to the IEC 60270 which
injects a known pulse magnitude to the measuring impedance. The two different
measurements performed for switchgear were; High voltage withstanding test and a
PD test. According to the standard HV, testing was at a 40kV voltage level, which is
80% of the HV test voltage of 24kV, for 60 seconds according to the HV standard test.
This test was only for the purpose of withstanding.
127
The upper Figure shows a PRPD graph of the PD and the lower Figure shows the
applied voltage level. Since the rated voltage of the switch gear terminal is 24 kV, the
test voltage was about 26kV which is 1.1 X U (nominal) voltage. The measurement
result clearly shows that there are certain amounts of PD occurrence at a and b. Since
the PD magnitude in the first and second Figure above is within the dangerous
threshold (50pC), the switchgears needed further action to fix, for example, to localize
PD source. In the last Figure, periodic noises are shown at regular intervals.
128
Specific
features
System type
Electrical
Feature
Software
Feature
PDcheck
(Techimp Energy
Srl)
Conventional/
Unconventional
Capacitive,
HFCT,
TEV, Horn sensor
Icmmonitor
(Powerdiagnostix
System)
Conventional/
Unconventional
IEC 60270
DMS PDMT
(Qualitrol LLC)
PD-TM series
(PowerPD, Inc.)
PD-EYE
(IPEC Ltd)
Conventional/
Unconventional
HFCT,
AA transducer,
Capacitive
DTM
(Dynamic Ratings)
Conventional/
Unconventional
HFCT,
Bushing sensor,
AE (optinal)
IEC 61850
(for communication)
Unconventional
Unconventional
Capacitive,
UHF Sensor
UHF sensor
AE sensor,
HFCT
IEC 60270
IEC 60270
ANSI/TIA/EIA-422-B
(for communication)
Optical Fibre
Optical Fibre
Optical Fibre
Optical Fibre
Optical Fibre
Other issues
SCADA, AE
detection
compatible
Master/Slave
connection
SCADA compatible
SCADA compatible
can be combined with
bushing monitoring
PD acquisition
Frequency
Range
10kHz -2000khz
(Capacitive)
100MHz1000MHz (UHF)
100-3000MHz
(UHF)
80KHz~300KHz (AE)
100KHz~30MHz
(HFCT)
50kHz-20MHz
(HFCT)
20MHz-800MHz
(Capacitive)
40kHz1kHz(AE)
Roc. 50 ohm
Sensor
General
Feature
PD-guard
Electrical/ UHF
(Doble Lemke)
Conventional/
Unconventional
Compatible
Standard
Connection
to PC
Capacitive,
UHF sensor
50 ohm
Up to100,000 pC
Up to 700mV
<0.3 degree
50 ohm
2-20MHz
(Standard)
40-800kHz
(optional)
300-2000MHz
(UHF)
50 ohm
Up to 4000mVpp
<1 degree
12 bit bipolar
10 bits
12 bit
Input channel
3 channels for PD
& synchronization
channel
8 inputs for PD
5 channel
(AE-4ch,HFCT-1ch)
10 channel
(AE-8ch, HFCT-2ch)
8 channels
14 channels for PD
4 channels for AE
De-noising
Techniques
Gating
Windowing
Multi terminal
Measurement
TF map (Time/
Frequency
Map), Fuzzy logic
based noise
elimination
Neural Network
Genetic
Algorithm
Fuzzy logic
Other issues
Auto alarming
PRPD analysis
SMS/E-mail
alarm
Input impedance
PD detection
Range
Phase Accuracy
PD signal
resolution
16kHz -30MHz
Up to 2 GHz(with
Frequency shifter)
129
PD-guard
Electrical/ UHF
(Doble Lemke)
Unconventional
Smart Cable
Guard
(KEMA)
Unconventional
Unconventional
Sensor
Capacitive,
UHF sensor
HFCT
HFCT
Locating PD
source
Time of flight
analysis
Maximum PD
localizing length
~4km (PILC,
MIND)
~8km (XLPE)
~2km (EPR)
~4.8km
PD acquisition
Frequency Range
10kHz -2000khz
(Capacitive)
100MHz1000MHz (UHF)
Specific features
System type
General
Feature
Electrical
Feature
Input impedance
PD detection
Range
Voltage class
PD signal
resolution
Input channel
Two ends method
Software
Feature
Emerson
PD-EYE and
PrecisePD
(IPEC Ltd)
Unconventional
HFCT,
AA transducer,
Capacitive
Unconventional
Distinguish arrival
time of TEV signal
from two ends
~2km
PDcheck
(Techimp Energy Srl)
HVPD Mini
(HVPD)
Unconventional
HFCT,
Flexible Magnetic
Coupler
TDR with GPS,
Arrival time
Analysis, amplitude&
frequency analysis
Unconventional
HFCT, TEV
PD-MCC&G400A
(PowerPD)
4 HFCTs
10khz - 300Mhz
(HFCT)
100KHz~10, 12,
20MHz
(HFCT) according
to the type
50 ohm
Up to100,000 pC
Up to 700mV
-
50 ohm
-50 ohm
50kHz-20MHz
(HFCT)
20MHz-800MHz
(Capacitive)
40kHz1kHz(AE)
Roc. 50 ohm
Up to 4000mVpp
6kV - 36kV
4kV - 345kV.
3.3 kV to 45 kV
12 bit bipolar
10 bits
12 bit
4 channel
8 channels
PD pulse shape
analysis based on
previous record
Web based
application
Data integrated
iSM web,
E-mail/SMS alarm
PRPD analysis
De-noising
Techniques
Gating
Windowing
Multi terminal
Measurement
Built-in RF
noise reduction
Other issues
Auto alarming
PRPD analysis
3 channels for PD
& synchronization
channel
TF map (Time/
Frequency
Map), Fuzzy logic
based noise
elimination
Web MSG service
130
Features\
products
System type
Sensor
General
Feature
Electrical
Feature
Software
Feature
PD-guard
Electrical/ UHF
(Doble Lemke)
Specific
features
Unconventional
Capacitive
Longshot
(HVPD)
Iris Power
PDcheck
(Techimp Energy Srl)
Unconventional
Unconventional
Unconventional
Capacitive (80pF)
SSC (6 to 9 as a set,
6kV or higher)
Load, Temperature
Active/Reactive
power
Capacitive
HFCT
TEV
Capacitive coupler
HFCT
Coaxial Cable
Icmmonitor
(Powerdiagnostix
System)
Conventional/
Unconventional
MICAMAXXpda
(PDtech)
PD-MCC&G400A
(PowerPD)
Unconventional
Unconventional
Capacitive
HFCT
4 HFCTs
Load or
Temperature
possible
Optical Fibre
0 - 400Mhz
(HFCT)
4MHz-100MHz
(TEV)
2-20MHz
(Capacitive)
50 ohm
50 ohm
Roc. 50 ohm
Capacitive
Combined
measurement
Connection
to PC
Optical Fibre
PD acquisition
Frequency
Range
10kHz -2000khz
(Capacitive)
100MHz1000MHz (UHF)
Input impedance
50 ohm
PD detection
Range
Up to100,000 pC
Up to 700mV
Up to 4000mVpp
PD signal
resolution
12 bit bipolar
10 bits
12 bit
Input channel
4 channel
8 inputs for PD
3 channels
De-noising
Techniques
Gating
Windowing
Multi terminal
Measurement
Wavelet
denoising
Time of arrival
Other issues
Auto alarming
PRPD analysis
Alarm
PRPD
PRPD
SCADA compatible
PRPD
Warning
PRPD analysis
10-1000Mhz
(SSC)
40-350Mhz
(Capacitive)
50ohm (SSC)
3 channels for PD
& synchronization
channel
TF map (Time/
Frequency
Map), Fuzzy logic
based noise
elimination
SCADA compatible
PRPD
131
Features\
products
Specific
features
System type
Sensor
PD-guard
Electrical/ UHF
(Doble Lemke)
Unconventional
Unconventional
Unconventional
Unconventional
Unconventional
HFCT, TEV,
Airborne AE,
external capacitive
Icmmonitor
(Powerdiagnostix
System)
Unconventional
Flange type,
shielded ring
antenna, external
window type
Internal or
external window
sensor
Internal or external of
oper barrier, metalclosed barrier type
Acoustic
sensors(piezoelectric)
4 AE sonsors
Time-of-flight
Optical Fibre
Ethernet cable
Optical fibre
Data cable
300- 2000MHz
(window type)
500-1500MHz
(window type)
10-100kHz
(recommended
setting)
100-300kHz
50 ohm
Inductive
General
Feature
Localization
Method
Connection
to PC
Electrical
Feature
Software
Feature
Longshot
(HVPD)
Unconventional
4MHz to 100MHz
(TEV)
100KHz to 50MHz
(HFCT)
-
PDMG-R
(DMS)
Amos 3.0
(PSD tech)
AIA
(Doble TransNor )
PD-MAT400A
(PowerPD)
PD acquisition
Frequency
Range
100MHz to 1GHz
Input impedance
50 ohm
PD detection
Range
Up to100,000 pC
Up to 700mV
2-50pC(sensitivity)
Voltage class
PD signal
resolution
3.3-36kV
145-800kV
12 bit bipolar
Input channel
8 inputs for PD
Coving one or
two bay
3 channel for
OCU & Max. 300
Channel for EC
16 channel for PD
2 channel for noise
4 channels for AE
De-noising
Techniques
Gating
Windowing
Multi terminal
Measurement
Pulse shape
analysis
High pass filter
ANN, fuzzy,
genetic algorithm
Gating, Neural
Network, Filtering
Filtering
Other issues
Auto alarming
PRPD analysis
Alarm
PRPD
SCADA/SCS
Alarm as E-mail
and SMS
Web-based
PRPD, PRPS
132
Electrical sensor
Name
(Company)
PDDC-17/24
(Doble lemke)
1 nF
Coupler
(Techimp)
Type A
(Doble lemke)
UHF Sensor
drain valve
(DN50/80)
(doble lemke)
HFCT-140
(Techimp)
Flexible
Magnetic
Coupler
(Techimp)
TEV
(Techimp)
Horn Antenna
(Techimp)
TEM
(Techimp)
Rated
voltage
17.5kV/24kV
20kV
Frequency
bandwidth
20MHz
100MHz~
1GHz
200MHz~
1GHz
2MHz~
100MHz
30kHz~
200MHz
0.1MHz~
300MHz
500MHz~
3GHz
100MHz~ 3GHz
Sensor
type
Capacitive
Capacitive
inductive
UHF
Inductive
(HFCT)
Inductive
Capacitive
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
Main
application
area
Rotating Machine
Rotating
Machine
Cable
Termination
Transformer
Cable
Grounding rod
bar
Cable joint
/terminal
Switchgear
GIS
GIS/GIL
Transformer
Switchgear
Induction motor
Physical
Figure
2,5kg/7.5kg
139(H*)140(D**)
350(H)180(D)
295 (H)
187(D)
85 (H)
103(D)
3kg
310x320x40
mm/6kg
120 x 480 x 9
mm/330g
130x 70 x 25
mm/80g
70 x 100 x50
mm/260g
80 x 150 x 50 mm/
250g
Load
impedance
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
Other
issues
2nF (Capacitance)
1nF
2nF (With
integrated
capacitance)
10mV/mA
(Sensitivity)
N-type
N-type
133
Electrical sensor
Name
(Company)
MCC112/124/
205/210 (Omicron)
MCT100/110
(Omicron)
UVS 610
(DN50/80)
(Omicron)
HFCT 100/50
(IPEC Ltd)
Capacitive
Coupled TEV
Sensor
(IPEC Ltd)
Sensor/
Injector Unit
DMS PDMT
UHF
(Qualitrol)
DMS
PDMG-R
UHF
(Qualitrol)
Epoxy-mica
PDA coupler
(Irispower)
25/16/6.9kV
100 ~
3000 MHz
500~
1500MHz
UHF
UHF
Capacitive
GIS
Hydro generator
stator windings
SUI405
(KEMA)
Rated voltage
12/24/50/100kV
6-36kV
Frequency
bandwidth
80 ~ 5 MHz
150~1 GHz
50kHz~
20MHz
20~ 800MHz
200kHz-
Sensor type
Capacitive
Inductive
(HFCT)
Capacitive
TEV
Inductive
Inductive
(HFCT)
UHF
20MHz
(HFCT)
Main
application
area
Generator
MV network
Ground
connection
Transformer
Earth
conductor
Switchgear
Cable
Transformer
Reactor
Physical
Figure
140x200x140mm/
150x250x150mm/
450x575x450mm/
450x755x450mm/
3/3.5/8.2/10.5kg
115 x 120 x 65
mm/
110 x 120 x 55
mm/
3.1kg
50(internal
D)110
(external
D)mm/
0.4kg
60 (D) mm
30mm/80g
1.4kg
2.3/1.6/1.1kg
50 ohm
50 ohm
About 1nF
(Capacitance)
Split/
one piece
Split core
Magnetic
coupling
Maximum
Hatch cover
Drain valve
type
Load
impedance
Other issues
Dimensions
250x115x50
mm (L, W, D)
cable circuit
Internal or
external
80pF3pF
length (PILC,
MIND=
4km
XLPE=8km
EPR=2km)
134
Electrical sensor
Acoustic sensor
Name
Stator Slot
UHF/internal
UHF/external
Epoxy-mica
HFCT(100/50)
HFCT(75/35)
PAC D9241
(Company)
Couplers
window type
window type
capacitive
(HVPD),
(HVPD),
(HVPD)
AE sensor
(Irispower)
(psdtech)
(psdtech)
coupling DR-
portable
permanent
(Doble
EMC(dynamic
Airborne
Acoustic
Transducer
(IPEC Ltd)
TransNor)
ratings)
Rated
8/16/28kV
Max current:
Max current:
300A
300A
0.5 ~
100kHz -
500 MHz
20MHz
Capacitive
Inductive
voltage
Frequency
10-1000 MHz
0.5~1.5 GHz
0.5~1.5 GHz
bandwidth
Sensor type
Inductive
UHF
UHF
100kHz -25MHz
1MHz - 50MHz
20-60 kHz
40KHz
1KHz
Inductive (HFCT)
Capacitive TEV
Acoustic
Acoustic
(HFCT)
Main
gas or steam
application
turbine
ators and
area
generators.
switch gear
Physical
2.0 mm thick
Figure
Load
HV cable
HV cable
Switchgear
GIS
Switchgear
86/126/185(H)
0.4kg
0.5kg
60 x 50 x 25mm,
24x20mm/56
length trimmable
0.95/1.4/2.1
45mm(Internal)
40x25mm(Internal)
0.2kg
mg
120x 40mm
/75g
to 53 cm
(kg)
107mm(Externa
90x120mm(Extern
l diameter)
al dimension)
50 ohm
GIS
GIS
Motors ,gener
sensor
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
Max. sensitivity
Max.
80 pF+ 3 pF
Different size of
Different size of
Time of flight is
Resonance
< 2pC
sensitivity <
(Capacitance)
split-core type
split-core type is
possible by using
frequency:
10pC
(Sensitivity)
5pC
Sensitivity:1p
is available
available (100/50)
30kHz
(140/100,220/1
impedance
Other issues
sensors
50)
*H= Height
**D=Diameter
135