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IsThereaHypertextinthisClass?
TeachingVictorianLiteratureintheElectronic
Age
by

JonathanSmith
HumanitiesDepartment
UniversityofMichiganDearborn
Dearborn,MI481281491
Email:jonsmith@umich.edu
Abstract
Introduction
DescriptionofCourses
DescriptionofStoryspaceandLandow'sWebs
TeachingHypertextually
ReadingHypertextually
WorksCited
Abstract
Theessaydescribesandanalyzestheuseofhypertexts,inparticularGeorgeP.Landow'sTheDickens
WebandTheInMemoriamWeb,intwoundergraduateVictorianliteratureclasses.Hypertextisshown
toencourageactivestudentengagement,especiallywithcontextualmaterialtoleadtomorefocused
researchtopicsandtofacilitatestudentcollaboration.Thepotentialofhypertextisbestrealized,
however,whenitisextensivelyintegratedintoacourse.Focusisthusgiventotwopractical
questions:1)Howmustclassroommanagementandwritingassignmentsbereconceptualized?2)
Howarestudentstobetaughttoreadhypertextually?Landow'sclaimabouttheeasewithwhichthe
latteroccursisquestioned.
Introduction
InHypertext:TheConvergenceofContemporaryCriticalTheoryandTechnology,GeorgeP.
Landowarguesthattheuseofhypertextsinteachinghasthepotentialtorevolutionizewhatoccurs
bothinsideandoutsidetheclassroom.Likeotherproponentsofthevirtuesofelectronicreadingand
writingsuchasJayDavidBolterandRichardLanham,Landowcontendsthathypertexts"intrinsically
promoteanewkindofacademicfreedomandempowerment"forstudents(177).Indeed,says
Landow,thescariestfeatureofhypertextforteachersmaybethewayitactually"answers[their]...
prayersforactive,independentmindedstudentswhotakemoreresponsibilityfortheireducationand
arenotafraidtochallengeanddisagree"(163).
Landow'sclaimsforhypermediaarenotmerelytheoreticalbutarebasedonthedevelopmentanduse
ofhypertextsinhisownteachingatBrownUniversity.Twoofthesehypertexts,TheDickens
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WebandTheInMemoriamWeb,areavailablecommerciallyfromEastgateSystems,andarelated
web,TheVictorianWeb,isnowaccessibleontheWorldWideWeb.Coupledwiththepresenceof
otherWebsitesdevotedtonineteenthcenturywritersincludinghypermediaarchivesforDante
GabrielRossetti,WilliamMorris,andRobertBrowning(seeMcGann,WilliamMorris
Society,Everett)itisnowpossibleforteachersofVictorianliteraturetoincorporatesuchresources
intotheircourses,oreventobuildtheircoursesaroundthem,adaptingexistingmaterialsratherthan
investinginthetimeconsumingprocessofdevelopingthemfromscratch.SincetheseWebsites
explicitlypresentthemselvesasprovisionalandfluid,utilizingthemcanreinforceacourse's
hypertextualnatureandprovidemodelsforthecollaborativegenerationofinterrelatedknowledge
about,andinterpretationof,worksofnineteenthcenturyliterature.
Thispaperwilldescribeandcritiquemyownuseofhypertextualresourcesintwoupperlevel
undergraduatecoursesonVictorianliterature.Oneclasswastaughtfairlytraditionally,with
hypertextsandtheWorldWideWebusedoutsideofclassfordiscussionquestionsandassignments.
Theother,however,wasconductedinacomputerclassroom,andstudentswereactivelyinvolvedin
modifyingexistinghypertextsandconstructingnewones.BecauseIbelievemyexperiencesare
generalizabletoanycourseemployinghypertext,Iwillfocusmyanalysisonwhatseemtometobe
twoimportantpracticaldifficulties.Oneistheneedtoreconceptualizeclassroommanagementandthe
natureofwritingassignmentsifthepotentialofhypertextistobeexploited.Theotheristheproblem
ofhowtoteachstudentstoreadhypertextually."Empowerment"and"active,independentminded"
readingarecertainlythepromiseofhypertext,buttheydonotoccurautomaticallytheymustbe
taught.
DescriptionofCourses
IteachattheUniversityofMichiganDearborn,aregionalcommutercampuswhoseprimarymission
isundergraduateeducation.Itsstudentpopulation,asignificantpercentageofwhichisnontraditional,
isdrawnalmostexclusivelyfromthemiddleclasssuburbsofDetroit.Ipointthisoutbecause,forthe
timebeingatleast,thesuccessofcomputerinstructionisheavilydependentonmaterialandcultural
factorsthatvarywidelyfrominstitutiontoinstitution.Obviously,theabilityeventoconsiderusing
hypertextinaliteratureclasshingesonthestateoftheinstitution'sexistingcomputerresources.But
otherfactors,oftenoflimitedconcernateliteresidentialuniversitieslikeLandow's,candiminishthe
effectivenessofhypertextualinstructionevenwherecomputinginfrastructureandsupportmakeit
possible.Studentswhohavenotattendedhighschoolswherecomputersarecommon,whodonot
haveaccesstoacomputerwheretheylive,and/orwhoseschedulesleavelittletimeforextendedvisits
tothecomputerlabareatadisadvantage(seeDeLoughry).Thehighlevelofcomputeranxietyfor
manyliteraturestudents,moreover,canexacerbatetheseproblems.
ThetwoclassesinwhichIusedLandow'shypertextsandtheWorldWideWebwerebothupperlevel
classesoffifteentotwentystudents,almostallofthemjuniororseniorEnglishmajors.Oneclasswas
asurveyofVictorianpoetryandnonfictionprose,theotheranintensivestudyoftwoVictorian
novels,Dickens'sGreatExpectationsandEliot'sMiddlemarch.Mostofthestudentstookthecourses
tosatisfyaperiodrequirementinnineteenthcenturyliteratureratherthantouseelectronicresources
ortoexperienceanewclassroomformat.80%hadsomefamiliaritywith,andaccessto,apersonal
computer,and67%hadusedthecampus'scomputernetwork,butonly20%hadusedemailandonly
7%hadaccessedtheWorldWideWeb.(Thiswasduringthe199596academicyear.Theselatter
percentageshaveincreasedsubstantiallyinsubsequentclasses.)
Thesurveycoursewastaughtinastandardclassroom.Atthebeginningofthesemester,however,two
classsessionswereheldinacomputerclassroomtodemonstrateandallowhandsonpracticewithe
mail,Netscape,andTheInMemoriamWeb.Theseresourceswerethenutilizedthroughoutthecourse
inseveralways.Iposteddiscussionquestionsforeachweek'sreadingassignmentsviaemailtoa
classdistributionlistseveraldaysbeforethefirstclasssessionoftheweekstudentswererequiredto
postacertainnumberofrepliesoverthecourseofthesemesterbutreceivedextracreditforadditional
postings.Wheneverpossible,thesequestionsemployedmaterialfromTheInMemoriamWeb,for
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whichthecampusobtainedamultipleuserlicense.WhilethisWebisbuiltaroundTennyson'spoem,
italsocontainsinformationaboutotherpoetsandaboutVictorianculturegenerally,soonseveral
occasionsIassignedreadingsfromtheWebassupplementarycontextualmaterial.IalsousedTheIn
MemoriamWebasthebasisforthefirstpaperassignment,providingstudentswithseveraltopicsthat
allowedthemtotakeadvantageoftheabilitytonavigatehypertextuallythroughthepoem.Onthe
WorldWideWeb,theRossettiarchivewasmyprincipalresource.IemployeditinourunitonthePre
RaphaelitesinthesamewaysthatIhadalreadyusedTheInMemoriamWeb:indiscussionquestions
andasanoptionforapapertopic.
ThecourseonDickensandEliot,ontheotherhand,wastaughtinaclassroomequippedwithabout
twentyfivePCsconnectedtothecampusnetwork.Aceilingmountedprojectiondevicepermittedmy
computerscreentobedisplayedatthefrontoftheroom.Inthiscase,becausethestudentswouldbe
writingaswellasreadinginthehypertextenvironment,TheDickensWebandStoryspace,the
hypertextauthoringsysteminwhichLandow'sWebsarewritten,wereinstallednotonlyonafile
serverbutalsoontheharddrivesoftheindividualPCsintheclassroomandonmostofthePCsinthe
campus'stwoprimarycomputerlabs.Studentsthushadreadyaccesstothesoftwarebothinsideand
outsideofclasstoavoidinadvertentdeletionsonthe"common"copyontheserver,however,they
wereencouragedtousethelocalharddriveversionsuntiltheywerefamiliarandcomfortablewiththe
software.
Conductingclassinacomputerclassroompermittedmoreambitiousandaggressiveuseofhypertext.
DuringthefirsttwoweeksofthesemesterIintroducedthestudentstoemailandthecampus
network,theWorldWideWeb,Storyspace,andTheDickensWebitself.Muchofthistimewasspent
teachingthemhowtouseStoryspaceasanauthoringtooltoconstructandmodifyhypertexts.Then
wespentseveralweeksonGreatExpectations,thenovelaroundwhichTheDickensWebis
constructed.IusedtheWebtostimulateclassroomdiscussionsandforshorthomeworkassignments.
WorldWideWebsiteswereusedoccasionallyinsimilarways.Insteadofwritingatraditionalpaper,
thestudentseithercomposednewmaterialtoaddtotheWeborexpandedexistingmaterial,andthey
createdhypertextlinksbetweentheirworkandtherestoftheWeb.Thisprojectcould,andinmost
casesdid,involvesomeresearch,butthefocuswasontextualanalysisandinterpretation.Inthe
secondhalfofthecourse,theclassdiscussedMiddlemarchandthenconstructeditsownWebforthat
novel.Thiswritingprojectwaslongerthanthefirstandhadtoinvolveresearchaswellastextual
analysis.
DescriptionofStoryspaceandLandow'sWebs
ThebasicunitofthehypertextWebsconstructedfromStoryspaceiscalleda"writingspace."In
whatStoryspacereferstoasits"mapview,"awritingspaceappearsasasmallboxwithatitlebar
acrossthetop.(Otherviewsdisplaythehypertextinchart,outline,andtreemapformats.)Writing
spacesinturncancontainboth"textspaces,"inwhichactualwritingandimagesmayappear,and
otherwritingspaces.Inthelattercase,themapviewlookslikecollectionsofChineseboxes:

Materialinthewebisconnectedthroughboth"basiclinks"and"textlinks"basiclinksconnect
relatedwritingspaceswhiletextlinksconnectwordsorphrasesintextspaceseithertowritingspaces
ortootherbitsoftext.Theuseremploysasmall"toolbar"oficonstocreateandeditthewriting
spaces,textspaces,andhypertextlinks.
TheInMemoriamWebandTheDickensWebareStoryspacehypertextsandhencearereadinthesame
ways.ThematerialinbothWebsrangesfrombiographicalinformationtosocialandculturalhistory
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toliterarycriticismandliteraryhistory.Itembodiestraditionalapproachesliteraryinfluences,
themes,imagery,characterization,setting,etc.aswellasmorecontemporaryonesfeminism,post
structuralism,culturalstudies,etc.Someofthematerialprovidesfactualinformation(adefinition
ofbildungsroman,adescriptionofUtilitarianism,abriefhistoryofPuritanisminEngland)while
otherdocumentscontaininterpretivecommentary(theuseoftheProdigalSonmotif,thedepictionof
femaleaggression,thecharacteristicsoftheVictorianlongpoem).
WebsconstructedfromStoryspaceinotherwords,becausetheyarebasedonthesamebasic
hypertextualprinciplesastheWorldWideWeb,arenavigatedinsimilarways.Linksenablethereader
tomovequicklybetweenrelatedpartsofTheDickensWeborTheInMemoriamWebbypointingand
clickingonhighlightedwordsorimages.StoryspaceWebsdifferfromtheWorldWideWeb,however,
intwoimportantways.Theyaresmallerandselfcontainedandhencecanbeviewedaswholesand
theyaredesignedtobemodifiedandexpanded.Userscaneditexistingtext,constructadditionallinks,
andincorporatecompletelynewmaterialthatinturncanbelinkedtootherpartsofaWeb.
TeachingHypertextually
Myexperienceswiththesetwocoursessuggestthathypertextcanbeincorporatedintoexisting
courseswithlittledisruption.Usingitmoreambitiously,however,requiresaconsiderableamountof
reconceptualizationofassignments,grading,andclassroommanagement.
InmyVictoriansurveycourse,Iwasablesimplytoadaptmypracticestothenewmedium.Iuse
ungradeddiscussionquestionsinmyotherclasses,forexample,toencourageinteractivereadingand
toidentifyandprovidefeedbacktothosestudentswithweakerreadingskills.Theelectronicformat
affordedtheopportunity,ineffect,toinitiatediscussionpriortoclass,soItriedtoposequestionsthat
couldstimulaterepliesfromtheotherstudents.Weakerstudentshadtheadvantageofseeinghowtheir
moresophisticatedcolleaguesreadandthought,yetIcouldstillprovidepersonalfeedbackby
replyingtoanindividualratherthantothewholelist.Forcontextualreading,Isometimesassigned
partsofTheInMemoriamWebratherthansectionsfromRobinGilmour'sTheVictorianPeriod:The
IntellectualandCulturalContextofEnglishLiterature,18301890,oneofthecourse'srequiredtexts.
Onthefirstpaperassignment,IprovidedstudentswiththreeoptionsbasedonmaterialinTheIn
MemoriamWeb.LandowarguesthatInMemoriam,composedinanonlinearfashionandfrequently
rearranged,isitselfaprotohypertext,soIencouragedthestudentstoapproachthepoemonthose
terms.OneofthepaperoptionsinvolvedreadingtheWeb'smaterialonthevariousstructuralschemes
proposedforthepoemandthenexplainingwhatwas"natural"aboutTennyson'sowndivisionofIn
Memoriaminto"ninenaturalgroups."Anotheroptioninvitedthestudentstoselectoneofthepoem's
imagepatternsandexplainhowitsusechangesoverthecourseofthepoemandhowthisisrelatedto
anoverarchinginterpretationofthework.SincethetextofthepoemispartofTheInMemoriamWeb,
readerscanfollowlinksfromthelistofcitationsforanimagedirectlytothetextofthesectionsin
whicheachcitationappears,andoftentoannotationsand/orcommentaryonthesection:

AthirdoptionaskedthemtoexploretheWeb'smaterialonthepastoralelegyandthenarguetowhat
extentTennysondrawsonordepartsfromthattradition.Forthesecondpaper,studentshadtheoption
ofwritingonthesignificanceforthedepictionofgenderinthedifferencesamongthethreepublished
versionsandtheoilpaintingofDanteRossetti's"TheBlessedDamozel,"allofwhichwereavailable
intheRossettiArchivetheywerefreetoemployotherinformationbiographical,critical,etc.
containedintheArchiveaswell.
Withintheclassroom,Iattemptedtoemphasizethereadingandthinkingskillsthathypertext
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foregrounds.Studentsstruggletomakeconnectionswhenreadinginaprintenvironment,so
hypertext'satomizationofinformationintoseeminglyrandombitscanaddtostudents'difficulties.To
givethemmorepracticeindrawingconnectionsandexploringrealtionships,Iusedanumberof
classroomactivitiesandexercises.InmostcasesthisagainmeantsimplymodifyingwhatIalreadydo
orincorporatinghypertextintoit.Toprovideamodelforhypertextualreading,duringoneoftheearly
classesheldinthecomputerclassroomIhadthestudentsexaminethematerialinTheInMemoriam
WebonrealismandempiricismandontheVictoriancrisisoffaith,thenaskedthemtoexplainwhat
thismaterialhadtodowiththepoem.Althoughquickeratseeingtheindividualconnectionsthanat
howthethreefittogether,theywereultimatelyabletosuggestTennyson'spurposeinofferinghis
experiencesasbothpersonalandrepresentative,abstractbutrootedinarealemotionalcrisisthat
couldnotbesolvedbyanappealtotraditionalargumentsaboutfaith.Iconductedsimilarexercises
throughoutthecourse.Forexample,Iaskedthestudentstoexplaintherelationshipbetween
Ruskin'sUntoThisLastandthechapteron"TheNatureofGothic"fromTheStonesofVenice,andI
putthemingroupstodescribethedepictionofwomeninaselectionofChristinaRossettipoems.Ina
discussionofArnold's"DoverBeach,"IprovidedthetextofWordsworth's"ItisaBeauteous
Evening,"towhichArnold'spoemalludes,andaskedthemtodevelopanexplanationaboutthe
relationshipbetweenthetwopoemsandabouttheeffectofArnold'sallusiononourinterpretationof
"DoverBeach."
Itwasthecourseonthetwonovels,withitsmoreextensiveintegrationofhypertext,thatposedthe
greaterchallengeformeinbothdesignandimplementation.AsIconstructedmysyllabusand
developedassignments,Iencounteredanumberofbasicproblemsthatunderscoredhowradically
hypertextcanalterteachingandlearning.WhatshouldIcallthemajorwritingassignments?Were
they"papers"?"researchpapers"?howmany"pages"shouldtheybe?shouldIrequirethe
constructionoflinks,andifso,howshouldtheybegraded?towhatextentshouldIallowand
encouragecollaboration,andhowwouldIassessindividualcontributionstoacollaborativeeffort?
Similarproblemsaroseforparticularclasssessions.HowcouldIuseclassdiscussionstomodelthe
hypertextualreadingandthinkingIwantedthestudentstodisplayintheirwriting?
UltimatelyIdecidedtocallthetwomajorwritingassignments"WebWritingProjects."Thestudents
couldworkinpairsorgroupsonatopicaslongastheircontributionswereseparatedintoindividual
partsratherthancollectivelyauthored.Thestudentsexchangedandsubmittedprintedcopiesoftheir
workforthesakeofsimplicityandfamiliarity.Thisenabledmetosetpagerequirementswhilestill
enablingthemtouseStoryspace's"import"functiontotransfertheirfilesdirectlyintotheWebs.
Despitetherelianceonsuchtraditionaltrappingsoftheliteraturepaperaspagerequirementsand
workscitedlists,Iencouragedthemtoapproachtheirworkhypertextuallyandtopresentitin
whateverwaytheythoughtwouldbemosteffectiveintheWeb.Theycould,iftheychose,dividetheir
projectintomultipletextspaces.Forexample,theycouldplacehistoricalinformationinonespace
andcriticalanalysisinanother,orlengthypassagesfromvariouscriticsandtheirresponsetothose
passagesinseparatespaces.Forthefirstproject,Irequiredthemtoconstructbothbasiclinksandtext
linkstoconnecttheirmaterialtotheexistingpartsoftheTheDickensWeb,andtoexplainwhata
futurereaderoftheWebwouldgain,intermsofunderstandingGreatExpectations,fromfollowing
thoselinks.Suchexplanationswouldnot,ofcourse,becomepartoftheWeb,butImadeitclearthat
thegradefortheoverallprojectwouldbebasedinpartontherationaleforthelinks.
TheprojectforTheMiddlemarchWebhadsimilarrequirements,butsincethisWebwasconstructed
fromscratch,therewereseveraldifferences.TheclassmembersfirstdiscussedwhatthisnewWeb
shouldcontain,agreeingonitsbasicparameters.WithnoexistinginformationonEliottoguidethem,
theyweremoredependentontheirpeers,andtheyhadtolearnaboutthenatureofotherpeople's
projectstodeterminewhattheirownprojectcouldandshouldbelinkedto.Forthegroupofstudents
interestedinEliot'slifeandthenovel'sdepictionofwomenherrelationshipwithLewes,herviews
on"theWomanQuestion,"theassessmentsofMiddlemarchbymodernfeministcritics,etc.such
interactionwasespeciallyfruitfulandtheidentificationofpotentiallinkseasy.Somestudents,
however,likeoneworkingonEliot'schapterepigraphs,hadtoremaincontentwithconstructinglinks
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withintheirownmaterial.
Sincethestudentsinthisclasswereexpectedtowriteaswellasreadinahypertextenvironment,I
devotedmuchmoreattentiontotheWebsearlyinthetermthanIhadinthesurveycourse.Inplaceof
discussionquestions,Iassignedmoreextensivehomeworkexercises.Althoughtheseexerciseswere
designedtoinitiatethoughtaboutvariousaspectsofGreatExpectations,theirprimarypurposewasto
providepracticeatnavigatingthroughtheWebandconstructinghypertextlinks.OnoneoccasionI
modifiedanexistingassignmentintheWeb,askingthestudentstoreadthematerialon"Public
Health"and"RaceandClass"andthentolocateapassagefromthenovelthatwasilluminatedbythe
Webmaterial,andtoexplainhow.OnanotheroccasionIaskedthemtoreadthematerialinthe
"Religion"writingspaceandthentoconstructtwolinkstootherpartsoftheWeb,explainingwhat
theyhadlearnedfromdoingso,howtheirunderstandingofthenovelhadchanged.Inathird
assignmentIaskedthemtostartanywhereintheWebandfollowaseriesofthreelinks,again
explainingwhatthelinkshadrevealedtothem.
Teachinginacomputerclassroommadeiteasierthaninthesurveycoursetoreinforcethesereading
andthinkingskillsbyadaptingTheDickensWebforclassdiscussions.Typically,IusedtheWebto
initiateorcomplicateadiscussion.Insteadofdefiningthebildungsromanmyself,forexample,Ihad
thestudentsreadthematerialintheWebandthendiscussinsmallgroupsthespecificwaysin
whichGreatExpectationsfulfilledthecriteriaofferedthere,particularlyintermsofeducationand
vocation.Aftercomparingthegroups'conclusions,IinvitedthemtoreadthebriefessayintheWeb
onUtilitarianismandDickens'soppositiontoit.IaskedthemifandhowDickens'sviewof
Utilitarianismcouldbereconciledwithhisemphasisonworkandvocation,whichinturnfacilitateda
discussionofthenovel'sviewoftheindividualinrelationtothesociety.
ReadingHypertextually
Myexperienceswiththesetwocoursessuggestthathypertextdoeshavethepotentialtomake
studentsmoreactivereaderswhocanconnectandsynthesizeevendisparatematerial.Butthis
potentialismoreeasilyreachedthemorehypertextisintegratedintoacourse,andsuchintegrationin
turnrequiresnotjustpedagogicalreconceptualizationbutalsothedevelopmentofmaterialsthat
reinforcewhatitmeanstoreadhypertextually.Likeanynewwritingmedium,hypertext,asLandow
andothershavestressed,redefineswhatitmeanstoreadandwrite.Formoststudents,andcertainlyat
leastfortheimmediatefuture,thisredefinitionwon'toccurautomaticallyorevenrapidlyupon
exposure,asLandowcontends.Itwillhavetobetaughtandlearned.
Thereare,tobesure,someaspectsofhypertext,andparticularlyofLandow'sWebs,that,becauseof
thevisualmodeltheyprovide,alterstudentengagementwithliterature.IteachInMemoriamin
severaldifferentcourses,butstudentsinthesurveycoursedisplayedfarmoreenthusiasmforitthan
anypreviousgroup.Onthesecondpapertheoverwhelmingmajoritychosethehypertextualoption
thatutilizedtheRossettiArchiveratherthantwomoretraditionalassignments.Inthecourseonthe
novel,TheDickensWeb,bymakingsucharangeofinformationavailableinanunusualformat,
exposedthestudentstomorecontextualmaterialthantheyareusuallyinterestedinreadingastriking
confirmationofwhatLandowregardsasoneofhypertext'sgreateststrengths(Hypertext126,187).
Whereasinmyexperiencemoststudentsfailtoutilizeadequatelytheeditorialandcriticalapparatus
designedtobridgethegapbetweenpastandpresent,inthisclassalmosthalfspecificallyremarkedon
theircourseevaluationsthatTheDickensWebhadintroducedthemtoawiderarrayofmaterialsand
approachesthantheywereusedto.Theysawmoreclearlywhytextualdetailsmatterandhowthese
detailscanbeconnectedtoawork'sbroaderthemes.
Theexposuretothisrangeofinterconnectedmaterialalsogeneratedmorefocusedandinteresting
topicsforthewritingprojects.OneofthedilemmasIconsistentlyfaceinacoursethatrequiresa
researchprojectishowtoprovidestudentsthefreedomtochooseatopicthatintereststhemwhile
avoidingthevagueandsweepingproposalsthatunlimitedpossibilitiesofteninvite.Becausestudents
tendtoencounteronlytheresultsofresearch,nottheprocessofit,theylackmodelsbothforthekinds
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ofresearchquestionstheycanaskandforwaystoanswerthem.ThediversityofmaterialinThe
DickensWeb,however,providesthemwithjustthiskindofmodel.Anumberofstudentschose
historicalprojects,usuallylinkedinsomewaywithGreatExpectations'sthemes:NewgatePrisonand
confinement,Australiaandthefunctionofempire,sanitationanddiseaseinVictorianLondonasboth
factandmetaphor.ApaperonDickensandHarrietBeecherStowethatcouldhavebeenarather
pedestriancomparisonoftheirsympathyforthedowntroddenbecameinstead,thankstotheWeb's
materialonsocialclass,adiscussionofthelimitsofDickens'ssympathiesfortheworkingclassesin
contrasttoStowe'smoreradicalideology.AnotherpaperonPip'srelationshipswithEstella,Biddy,
andMissHavishambecame,withthepromptingofsomeoftheWeb'smaterialonwomenand
economicsandSusanWalsh'sessayontheuseofthefemalebodyforfiguringthecirculationof
capital,amuchmoresophisticatedanalysisofthenovel'smessagesaboutwomen'sroles.Evenamore
traditionalexerciseinclosereadinglikeonestudent'sexaminationofthenovel'sallusions
toHamletwasenrichedbylinkstoinformationelsewhereintheWebonliteraryhistoryandthe
fathersonrelationship.Again,nearlyhalfofthestudentssaidintheirevaluationsthattheyfoundtheir
researchprojectsmoreinterestingthaninothercourses.
Offsettingsuchbenefitstoaconsiderabledegree,however,wasresistancetothenewmedium,some
ofitrootedincomputeranxietyandsomeinthemundaneinconveniencesoflifeatacommuter
institution.About20%ofthestudentsinthecourseonDickensandEliotfeltthattheirdiscomfort
withcomputersandthedifficultiesassociatedwithworkinginthecomputerlabimpededtheir
learningexperience.Inthesurveycourse,somestudentsavoidedtheemaildiscussionquestionsfor
thesamereasons,andthosewhocontributedregularlyonlygotintothespiritofthoughtfulbutcasual
andconversationalexchangeonrelativelyrareoccasions.
Thisfailureofthediscussionlistunderscoresthevalueofthethoroughintegration,andextensive
modelling,ofhypertextualreadingandwriting.WhileIdiscussedtheconventionsofdiscussionlists
andtriedtomodelsuchconventionsinmyownpostings,thestudentstendedtoapproachthisactivity
astheywouldinatraditionalformat.Theywrotefairlyformalrepliesclearlyintendedformyeyes
ratherthanforagroupdiscussion,andtheyrespondedtothecommentsofothersveryinfrequently.
(Inonecase,astudentpostedaplausiblebutdeliberatelyprovocativecommenttotheeffectthatthe
portraitoftheBishopinRobertBrowning's"TheBishopOrdersHisTomb"issympathetic,butnoone
responded.)Therewereseveralcausesforthis.Atthepracticallevel,mostofthestudents,lacking
remoteaccesstothecampusnetwork,hadtogotooneofthecomputerlabstoposttheircomments.
Sincetheytendedtofindthinkingandcomposinginsuchanenvironmentuncongenial,theyoften
wrotetheiranswerselsewhere.Thistranslatedintolongerandmorepolishedwriting,withmuchof
theimmediacyandconjecturewrittenout.Andascommuters,theirschedulesoftenmadeit
impossibleforthemtogettothecomputerlabuntilshortlybeforeclass.Thesmallfloodofisolated
postingsthatinvariablyarrivedinthehourortwobeforeclassconfirmedthatsendingtheirown
postingsontime,notreadingandreplyingtothepostingsofothers,hadthehighestpriority.Butat
anotherlevel,lackingexperiencenotonlywithdiscussionlistsbutalsowithclassroomdiscussion
otherthanSocraticdialoguebetweenteacherandstudent,thestudentswerepoorlypreparedforand
uncomfortablewithamultivocalconversationamongthemselves.EvenwhenIgavethemthe
opportunitytorespondtopostingsandtoclassdiscussionsafterthefact,veryfewdidso.
Suchdiscomfortwithconnectingthetext,theirownvoice,andthevoicesofothersininterpretive
discussionandcommentarywasanotherversionoftheirdifficultieswithlinks,whichLandowcalls
"theessenceofhypertexttechnology"(Hypertext186).Themechanicsoflinksdidnotpose
significantproblemsforthestudentsineitherTheDickensWeborTheInMemoriamWeb.Following
alinkwasasimplematter.Forthosestudentsinthecourseonthenovel,learninghowtoconstructa
linkwasmorecumbersome,butwithpracticetheybecamereasonablyproficientatthisaswell.The
difficultywaswithwhattodowithalinkoncetheyhadfollowedorconstructedit.Inobviouscases
wherethecontentwasclearlyrelatedatagenerallevel,theyhadnotrouble.Itwaseasytoseewhy
the"DickensandDarwin"writingspace,whichlistedthematicsimilaritiesbetweenthesocialworld
ofDickens'snovelsandDarwin'svisionofnature,waslinkedtothe"Darwin'sOriginofSpecies"
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writingspace,whichdescribedthemajoraspectsofDarwin'stheoryofnaturalselection,orwhy
clickingontheterm"ReformAct"inthe"Chartism"textspacetookthemimmediatelytoatextspace
thatdescribedtheReformAct.Butwhattheyoftencouldnotsee,especiallyatfirst,washowapiece
ofinformationmatteredtothenovel,howitcouldaffectourreadingorunderstandingofGreat
Expectationsitself.PresentedwiththeknowledgethatbothDickensandDarwinareconcernedwith
issuesofkinship,inheritance,andcompetition,forexample,thestudentshaddifficultymovingfrom
theidentificationofspecificexamplesoftheseissuesinGreatExpectationstothedevelopmentofan
argumentaboutDickens'sviewofthe"naturalness"ofcompetitioninthesocialrealm.
Itwasevidentinthesurveycoursethatthevisualcomponentofseeingandfollowinglinksfacilitated
thestudents'understanding.Theydidabetterjobwiththeearlyinclassexercisesconducteddirectly
onTheInMemoriamWebthantheydidwiththethreeexercisesdescribedaboveonRuskin,Christina
Rossetti,andArnold,allofwhichwereconductedmuchlaterinthetermbutnotontheWeb.Inthe
caseof"DoverBeach"and"ItisaBeauteousEvening,"forexample,theycouldseethatArnold's
poem,whileindebtedtoWordsworth's,wasverydifferentintoneandmood,buttheycouldnot
articulatewhattheyfeltArnoldwastryingtosay.DrawingtheirattentiontopassagesfromArnold's
essayonWordsworthand"TheFunctionofCriticism"onlyincreasedtheirconfusion.Andwhenthey
workedwiththehypertextsindependentlyfortheirpapers,similardifficultiessurfaced.Theywere
verygoodatdescriptivelycataloguingthevariousappearancesoftheirimageinInMemoriamorthe
variousrevisionsin"TheBlessedDamozel,"buttheireffortstoexplainthesignificanceofsuch
individualoccurrencesandtosynthesizethemintoanargumentwasnobetterthanwhatIwould
receiveinatraditionalclass.
Thisis,ofcourse,nosurprise.Theabilitytolinkwhatisnotexplicitlyrelated,andespeciallywhat
appearsunrelated,requiresconsiderablecognitivesophistication.Landowacknowledgesthis:"
[p]erceivingpossibleconnectionsandarguingfortheirvalidity,"hewritesinHypertext,"isahigh
levelintellectualskill"(136).Asexperiencedreadersandcritics,wecanseethepossibilitiesforsuch
constructingandjustifyingconnectionsthathypertextaffords,butLandowgoesfurther,arguingthat
hypertextenables"anovicereadertolearnthehabitofnonsequentialreading"(126),to"quicklyand
easilylearnthecultureofadiscipline"(128).Althoughmanyofmystudentsbecamebetter
nonsequentialreadersofliterarytexts,fewachievedthis"quicklyandeasily."Themediumitselfdoes
notguaranteethatstudentswillmakesophisticatedconnections,evenwiththekindsofexercises
Landowdescribes.Thiswasespeciallyevidentintheunevensuccessofmymoreextensiveeffortsin
theDickensandEliotcoursetoteachthestudentshowtoreadhypertextually.
Ontheearlyhomeworkexerciseinwhichthestudentsweretoexplainhowfollowingalinkhad
affectedtheirunderstandingofthenovel,mostprovidedatautologicalanswer:"Readingthematerial
aboutprisonshelpedmebecausethereareprisonsinthenovel,andknowingaboutthemhelpsme
understandwhytheyarethere."Ontheexerciseinwhichtheyweretoexplainhowaseriesoflinks
hadaffectedtheirunderstandingofthenovel,onlytwoorthreestudentsactuallyfollowedaseriesof
links.Therestfollowedthreedifferentlinksfromthesamestartingpoint,thussuggestingthattheir
basicconceptofalinkwaslimitedtoadirect,onestepmovement.Myhunchisthatmostofthe
studentswhodidthishadinitiallytriedtofollowaseriesoflinksbutsawnoobviouswaytorelatethe
verydifferentstartingandendingpointstoeachotherortothenovel.Thisis,Isuspect,another
manifestationoftheirdifficultywithmakingconnectionsthatareallusive,thematic,orabstract.
Whenwediscussedthisduringournextclasssession,Iaskedthestudentstoexaminesomeofthe
materialsintheWebonwomen'shistoryandfeminism.Thenwefollowedaseriesoflinksfroman
essayon"DifficultiesinChildbirth"tooneon"SanitationandDiseaseinRichandPoor"tooneon
"QueenVictoria."Iinvitedthemtobrainstormabouttheconnectionsamongthesewritingspaces
whattheyrevealedwhentakenasagroupandaboutpossibleconnectionstoGreatExpectations.
TheysimplycouldnotdevelopanyideasevenwhenIpromptedthemwithacharacterlikeMrs.Joe
onwhomtofocus."WhatconnectioncouldtherepossiblybebetweenMrs.JoeandQueenVictoria?"
askedonestudentingenuineexasperation.Thisquestionledmanyofthestudentstocomplainthat
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verylittleofthematerialintheWebseemedtobeconnectedtothenovelatall.
Thestudents'responserevealedmuchabouttheirassumptions.Forthem,TheDickensWebwasa
referencetool,notapedagogicalone.InDelanyandLandow'sterminology,theytreatedthehypertext
asa"resource"(informationprovidedbyexpertsforextractionbyindividualusers)ratherthanasan
"environment"(asharedbodyofknowledgethatuserscontinuallyreshape)(3233).Theywanteditto
providethemwithanswers,orattheveryleastwiththequestions.Theyapproacheditina
fundamentallypassivewayandhencewereannoyedratherthangratifiedbythefreedomitprovided.
Exposinganddisruptingsuchpassivityalsorequiresexplainingexplicitlytheroleofthehypertextin
thecourseandforegroundingdiscussionofhowhypertextsaretoberead.Suchselfconsciousness
demandsevenmoreinthewayofreinforcingexercisesandassignmentsthanIprovided.Afterour
classdiscussionaboutQueenVictoriaandMrs.Joe,IpreparedanexerciseinvolvingtheWorldWide
Webthatprovidesanexampleofhowstudentscanbebroughttounderstandtheprinciplesbehind
hypertextualconnections.IaskedthestudentstoaccessandexploreaWebsitedevotedtoan
exhibitionattheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley'sartmuseumon"TheNewChild:BritishArtand
theOriginsofModernChildhood,17301830."Theexhibitionarguedthatourmodernconceptionof
childhoodasaspecial,innocentperiodaroundwhichfamilyliferevolves,wasaconstructionofthe
Enlightenmentandaradicaldeparturefromtheearlierparadigminwhichchildrenwereviewed
merelyassmallversionsofadults(seeSteward).Afterreadingtheexhibition'sonlinetextand
viewingsomeofitsimages,thestudentsweretoexplainwhatrelationshipDickens'sdepictionof
Pip'schildhoodboretotheexhibition.VirtuallyeverystudentsawthatPip'schildhooddepartedfrom
thatofthe"newchild,"butmanyalsowentfurther.Somerecognizedtheimportanceofclassissues,
arguingthatsincePipcamefromaworkingclassfamilyratherthanabourgeoisone,hewaslessthe
exceptionthanhemightappear.Otherswereevenmoreperceptive,contendingthatDickensexploited
thisconceptionofthe"newchild"asastandardagainstwhichhisaudiencewouldassessPip's
experiencesand,thus,sympathizewiththem.
Whydidthisexerciseproducesuchimpressiveresponseswhensimilarexercisesthatalsoincluded
meaningfulbutinformalwritingaboutthesignificanceoflinksdidnot?Thereare,Ithink,two
reasons.First,theassignmentwasfocusedexclusivelyontheactivityofmakingconceptuallinksit
wasnotseenbythestudentsasanancillarycomponentofalargeractivity.Second,itwasdirected
thestudentsweregiventwospecificthingstolink,theexhibition'sargumentandDickens'sdepiction
ofPip'schildhood.Additionalexercisesofthistypeearlyintheterm,employingmaterialseither
withinTheDickensWeboroutsideit,couldgraduallyyieldtomoreopenendedassignmentsinwhich
studentsmaketheirownlinksanddeterminetheirownconnections.
Suchexercisesandmetadiscussionsaboutreadingdidnotfullysolvetheproblems.Thestudents'
explanationsandjustificationsofthelinksfortheirWebprojectsremainedheavilytautological.And
theprojectsthemselves,evenwhenmostinteresting,tendednottolinkcontextualmaterialandnovel
verysuccessfully.Textualanalysisremainedatagenerallevel,rarelyfocusingindetailon,or
commentingonthesignificanceof,thepassagesmostrelevanttothecontextualmaterial.Ittooktwo
draftsforthestudentwhowroteontheexperiencesofconvictsinAustraliatoactuallyanalyze
Magwitch'saccountofhisexperiences.ThepersonwhowroteonHamletinitiallydidnotdiscussthe
productionoftheplaythatPipattends,andhehadtroubleconnectingittotherestofhisthematic
analysis.ForTheMiddlemarchWeb,astudentwhoresearchedthecompetingtheoriesaboutthe
treatmentoffevershadtobecoaxedintoexaminingthepassageswhereLydgatedefendshispractices
againstthoseofhiscolleagues.
Ontheotherhand,thestudentsincreasinglyapproachedtheirwritingprojectsinwaysthatthe
hypertextualmediumfacilitated.Theytookadvantageoftheopportunitytopresenttheirworkinnon
traditionalwaysandtheirpresentationofcontextualmaterialwasalmostinvariablyeffective,
reducingcomplexarraysofinformationintoclear,concise,andrelevantminiessays,asinone
student'sessayonnineteenthcenturymedicaleducationinBritainandFrance.Theyalsosawtheir
projectsasconnectedtoother,sometimesverydifferent,partsoftheWebinseveralcasesthey
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becameinterestedinandmadelinkstotheworkofotherstudentsintheclass.Astudentworkingon
Dickens'sdepictionofJoeGargery'sworkingclassdialect,forexample,wassurprisedtofindthather
projecthadparallelswiththeprojectonDickensandStoweaswellasanotheronutilitarianismand
thenovel'streatmentofindustrialversusmercantilecapitalism.ForTheMiddlemarchWeb,astudent
workingonmedicaleducationlinkedhermaterialtoanother'sworkonthe1832ReformBilltoshow
howthetrainingofthevariousmedicalmeninMiddlemarchsignalsboththeirsocialstatusand
politicalviews.Bythatpointintheterm,manyofthestudentswereemployingtheconceptual
languageofhypertext,andthatlanguagehadinturnencouragedintellectualinteractionand
collaborationamongthem.
Theuseofhypertextthusreallydoesofferthepotentialtoexposestudentstoawiderrangeof
possibilitiesinthestudyofliterature,todeveloptheirdisciplinaryreadingskills,toenhancetheir
engagementwiththematerialandwitheachother,andtodevelopcoursematerialsthatcanbeused
andexpandedbyfutureclasses.(Foradiscussion,basedonmyexperiencesintheDickens/Eliot
course,ofthepracticalandtheoreticalimplicationsinmakingstudentcontributionspublic,
seeSmith.)Butbecauselinksaresocentraltohypertext,themoreitisusedthemoreitexposes
studentweaknessesinreadingespeciallytheinabilitytoreadnonlinearlyandtolinktextwith
context,specificdetailwithgeneraltheme,oronefacetofthetextwithanother.Andsincemost
studentshavebeentrainedtobepassivereadersratherthanactive,independent,andsubversiveones,
suchexposuretendstoincreasetheiranxieties,atleastinitially,ratherthantoliberateandexcitethem,
asLandowclaims.Thisisprobablyanecessarystep,onethat,ifbroughtintotheopen,canthenbe
incorporatedintotheprocessofteachingthestudentshowtoreadhypertextually.Itmeans,however,
ifmyexperiencesareanyguide,thatforhypertexttoliveuptoitspedagogicalpotential,itshouldbe
integratedasmuchaspossibleintothecourse.Instructorsshouldbepreparedtorevisenotjusttheir
individualclasssessionsandwritingassignmentsbuttheveryconceptionofhowtheyteach.The
rewards,however,areworththeeffort.
WorksCited
Bolter,JayDavid.WritingSpace:TheComputer,Hypertext,andtheHistoryofWriting.Hillsdale,NJ:
Erlbaum,1991.
Delany,Paul,andGeorgeP.Landow."Hypertext,Hypermedia,andLiteraryStudies:TheStateofthe
Art."HypermediaandLiteraryStudies.Ed.DelanyandLandow.CambridgeandLondon:MITP,
1991.350.
DeLoughry,ThomasJ."StudentsandCollegesWithAmpleComputerAccessFindNew
OpportunitiesOthersLagBehind."ChronicleofHigherEducation.14June1996.A1617.
Everett,Glenn,etal.,eds.TheBrowningPage.N.D.Online.27May1997.
Gilmour,Robin.TheVictorianPeriod:TheIntellectualandCulturalContextofEnglishLiterature,
18301890.LondonandNewYork:Longman,1993.
Landow,GeorgeP.,ed.TheDickensWeb.Diskette.Cambridge,MA:Eastgate,1992.
.Hypertext:TheConvergenceofContemporaryCriticalTheoryandTechnology.Baltimoreand
London:JohnsHopkinsUP,1992.
,ed.TheVictorianWeb.N.D.Online.27May1997.
,andJonLanestedt,eds.TheInMemoriamWeb.Diskette.Cambridge,MA:Eastgate,1992.
Lanham,RichardA.TheElectronicWord:Democracy,Technology,andtheArts.Chicagoand
London:UofChicagoP,1993.
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McGann,JeromeJ.TheRossettiArchive.1993.Online.27May1997.
Smith,Jonathan."What'sAllThisHypeAboutHypertext?:TeachingLiteraturewithGeorgeP.
Landow'sTheDickensWeb."ComputersandtheHumanities30(1996):12129.
Steward,James.TheNewChild:BritishArtandtheOriginsofModernChildhood,17301830.
Berkeley:UniversityArtMuseum/PacificFilmArchive,1995.Online.UniversityofCalifornia
BerkeleyArtMuseum.27May1997.
Storyspace.Vers.1.0.9forWindows.Diskette.Cambridge,MA:Eastgate,1995.
Walsh,Susan."BodiesofCapital:GreatExpectationsandtheClimactericEconomy."Victorian
Studies37(199394):7398.
WilliamMorrisSociety.WilliamMorrisHomePage.N.D.Online.27May1997.

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