Amanda Hall

A REVIEW OF BEGINNING HETEROGENEOUS STRING CLASS METHOD BOOKS FOR
COMPATIBILITY WITH THE BASELINE LEARNING TASKS OF THE AMERICAN STRING

TEACHERS ASSOCIATION STRING CURRICULUM
Amanda M. Hall
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green
State University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF MUSIC
August 2013
Committee:
Elaine Colprit, Advisor
Elizabeth Menard
2013
Amanda Hall
All Rights Reserved
iii
ABSTRACT
Elaine Colprit, Advisor

The purpose of this study is to review method books for beginning heterogeneous string
class in order to assess compatibility with the baseline learning tasks of the American String
Teachers Association String Curriculum. The curriculum describes recommendations for string
instruction in the areas of executive, musicianship, and artistic skills and knowledge, which are
grouped into the content areas of body format, right and left hand skills, tonal and rhythmic aural
skills, creative musicianship, music literacy, ensemble skills, expressive elements, historical and
cultural elements, and evaluation of music. Each content area is divided into specific learning
tasks at the baseline, developing, proficient, and advanced levels, and this study is limited to the
baseline level. The teacher manuals of the thirteen string methods that appear on the curriculum
resource list of the ASTA String Curriculum were analyzed and reviewed according to the
opportunities provided for teaching the baseline learning tasks of each of the eleven content areas
described in the curriculum. Each method was also analyzed for additional elements that affect
its use in the beginning string classroom including unique features, supplementary materials,
sequential books, origin and type of tunes, key signatures and time signatures used or implied,
range for each instrument, shifting or extensions, presentation, and cost and availability. The
results highlight differences between methods but suggest that a knowledgeable string teacher
could effectively use any of the methods to teach the content of the ASTA String Curriculum.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply grateful to my advisor, Dr. Elaine Colprit. Her guidance, support, and
encouragement have been invaluable to me throughout my studies at Bowling Green State
University, and especially in the preparation of this document. I appreciate the time she
dedicated to assist me in the research process and guide me toward a deeper understanding of
string pedagogy while always inspiring me to strive to become a better teacher.
I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Elizabeth Menard, whose thoughtful input was
extremely beneficial to me in writing this thesis. I am sincerely grateful for her willingness to
serve on my committee, read my drafts, and offer constructive feedback. She generously
devoted her time and expertise to help me in the research and writing processes.
I would like to thank Mr. Paul Brinkerhoff of Mars Hill Academy. He not only patiently
taught me fundamental writing skills in high school, but also agreed to edit this entire thesis.
Even though it has been several years since I have been his student, I still value and learn from
his red pen and attention to detail.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my parents and brother for their continual
support of my musical and educational endeavors. Their encouragement has been a constant
blessing to me throughout my academic career.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................
Statement of the Problem ..........................................................................................
Need for Study ..........................................................................................................
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................
History of String Orchestra Classes in the Public Schools .......................................
Twentieth-Century Developments in String Pedagogy ............................................
George Bornoff .............................................................................................
Samuel Applebaum .......................................................................................
Shinichi Suzuki ............................................................................................
Paul Rolland .................................................................................................
Review of Historical String Methods ........................................................................
10
String Curricula .........................................................................................................
14
MENC Curriculum ........................................................................................
14
ASTA String Curriculum .............................................................................
14
Summary ... . ..........................................................................................................
16
CHAPTER III. PROCEDURE .............................................................................................
17
Selection of String Class Methods ...........................................................................
17
Selection of Criteria for Evaluation .........................................................................
18
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS ...................................................................................................
22
Comparative Review of Methods .............................................................................
22
vi
Muller-Rusch String Method .........................................................................
22
All for Strings ...............................................................................................
25
Strictly Strings ...............................................................................................
31
Spotlight on Strings ......................................................................................
36
String Explorer ..............................................................................................
40
Artistry in Strings ..........................................................................................
46
Jump Right In ................................................................................................
52
Do It! Play Strings.........................................................................................
55
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings..............................................................
59
Orchestra Expressions ..................................................................................
64
New Directions for Strings ............................................................................
70
Simply Strings ................................................................................................
76
Sound Innovations for String Orchestra ......................................................
80
Summary ......................................................................................................
85
Additional Topics of Consideration ..........................................................................
85
Unique Features.............................................................................................
86
Supplementary Materials...............................................................................
87
Sequential Levels ..........................................................................................
89
Origin and Type of Tunes .............................................................................
89
Key Signatures Used or Implied ...................................................................
89
Time Signatures Used or Implied..................................................................
89
Rhythms Used ...............................................................................................
90
Range for Each Instrument ............................................................................
90
vii
Shifting and Extensions .................................................................................
90
Bowing Styles ...............................................................................................
91
Presentation ...................................................................................................
91
Cost and Availability .....................................................................................
91
CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ..............................................................................................
93
Similarities and Differences Among Methods ..........................................................
93
Suggestions for Further Research .............................................................................
96
REFERENCES .......... ...........................................................................................................
97
viii
LIST OF FIGURES/TABLES
Table
Page
List of String Class Method Books ...........................................................................
17
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Executive Skills and Knowledge Category ...........
18
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Musicianship Skills and Knowledge Category .......
19
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Artistic Skills and Knowledge Category ...............
20
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Muller Rusch String Method ..................................
23
Baseline Learning Tasks in All for Strings................................................................
26
Baseline Learning Tasks in Strictly Strings .............................................................
32
Baseline Learning Tasks in Spotlight on Strings .....................................................
37
Baseline Learning Tasks in String Explorer ............................................................
41
10
Baseline Learning Tasks in Artistry in Strings .........................................................
46
11
Baseline Learning Tasks in Jump Right In ...............................................................
52
12
Baseline Learning Tasks in Do It! Play Strings .......................................................
56
13
Baseline Learning Tasks in Essential Elements 2000 for Strings ............................
60
14
Baseline Learning Tasks in Orchestra Expressions .................................................
65
15
Baseline Learning Tasks in New Directions for Strings ..........................................
71
16
Baseline Learning Tasks in Simply Strings ..............................................................
77
17
Baseline Learning Tasks in Sound Innovations .......................................................
81
18
Supplementary Materials...........................................................................................
88
19
Cost and Availability of String Methods ..................................................................
92
1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Teaching string instruments in a class setting is a challenging endeavor. String students
demand individual attention, which is difficult to achieve in a large heterogeneous string class
consisting of students learning to play the violin, viola, cello, and bass. Each string instrument is
unique and requires distinct pedagogical focus. In many school string orchestra classes, students
do not receive adequate instruction in the technical aspects of their instruments. While the
ensemble experience is valuable, it may not meet the specific needs of each student because of
the unique properties of the violin, viola, cello, and bass.
To assist string teachers in the teaching of all string instruments, the American String
Teachers Association (ASTA) published the ASTA String Curriculum (Benham, Wagner, Aten,
Evans, Odegaard, & Lieberman, 2011). This document provides a detailed national model
curriculum covering the specific executive, musicianship, and artistic skills that string students
need to develop. The ASTA String Curriculum is a valuable resource for string teachers.
Statement of the Problem
Because of the many challenges of teaching string instruments in a class setting, string
teachers need a beginning string class method book that supports the teaching of technical and
musical skills for violin, viola, cello, and bass. Teachers need to know which beginning methods
most thoroughly address the technical and musical development of all students on each
instrument. Furthermore, string teachers who wish to use the ASTA String Curriculum need to
know which methods are most compatible with the content of the curriculum.
Need for Study
Contemporary string teachers have a plethora of method books from which to choose;
however, not all methods provide sufficient instructional support to meet the technical needs of
2
all string instruments and to develop the well-rounded musicianship described in the ASTA String
Curriculum. When selecting a method for a beginning string class, it is important that the
teacher make an informed decision, giving careful consideration to the opportunities presented
for both musical and technical development. There is a need for study on this issue because of
the lack of research concerning string class methods. Researchers have yet to offer a systematic
review of method books for beginning string class instruction in relation to the ASTA String
Curriculum.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to review method books for beginning heterogeneous string
class in order to assess compatibility with the baseline learning tasks of the ASTA String
Curriculum. This study will provide an analysis and evaluation of the 13 method books listed in
the ASTA String Curriculum, and will serve as a reference both for novice teachers with an
interest in learning about the available resources for teaching beginning heterogeneous string
classes and for experienced educators who desire to learn about using the new ASTA String
Curriculum.
3
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
History of String Orchestra Classes in the Public Schools
The history of teaching string instruments in classes in America dates back to the turn of
the twentieth century. Prior to the 1900s, school music curricula consisted primarily of vocal
instruction, which had been instituted by Lowell Mason in the Boston public schools in 1838.
The general American public was not exposed to the orchestra until the latter half of the
nineteenth century, when European orchestras began touring the country, bringing high-quality
instrumental music into all major cities (Humphreys, 1989). Theodore Thomas, a German
violinist and immigrant to the United States, formed a touring orchestra that visited large and
small American communities with the goal of creating a professional American orchestra of a
caliber similar to European orchestras (Mark & Gary, 2007).
As instrumental music slowly found a place in the academic curriculum, school
orchestras preceded school bands. The first school orchestras were composed of students who
studied with private teachers and could already play well (Hoisington, 1980). These groups,
which consisted of a conglomeration of string, wind, and brass instruments, often rehearsed after
school hours and were led by a schoolteacher who was a proficient amateur musician
(Humphreys, 1989). Early school orchestras included the grammar school orchestra formed at
the Nathan Hale School in New London, Connecticut in 1896, Jesse Clarks orchestra in
Wichita, Kansas in 1896, and an orchestra in Richmond, Indiana that was founded by Will
Earhart in 1898 and was known for its high musical standards and complete instrumentation
(Mark, 2008).
Although these early orchestras concentrated more on rehearsal than on nurturing
instrumental technique, several traditions of instrumental class teaching influenced the
4
development of the school orchestra. In Europe, students studied music in group applied music
lessons under the conservatory system, in which they took turns playing for each other and the
teacher. Rhode Island native Eben Tourje taught music in the public schools, founded the New
England Conservatory, conducted choirs of ten and twenty thousand singers for Patrick S.
Gilmores 1869 and 1872 Peace Jubilees, and organized the Music Teachers National
Association. He additionally promoted the conservatory system of music education and worked
to establish it in the United States. American conservatories adopted a modified version of the
conservatory system in which small groups of students took lessons together (Keene, 2009).
The Benjamin family also pioneered string class teaching in the late 1800s. Lewis A.
Benjamin, Sr., taught instrumental classes in a community music school using his own method
book, The Musical Academy, which contained three-part tunes for violin, cello, clarinet, flute,
and other instruments (Keene, 2009). His sons, Lewis A. Benjamin, Jr. and Frank T. Benjamin,
sold violins and taught free violin classes at the Benjamin Brothers Musical Academy in
Brooklyn during the 1880s. The Benjamin brothers taught large numbers of students, and in
1889, three hundred violin students performed at a Childrens Carnival (Keene, 2009). The
Benjamin family later brought free violin classes to New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Camden,
and Pittsburgh (Hoisington, 1980).
The Maidstone Movement, a method of group violin instruction that was popular in
England 1897-1939, was another important influence on beginning string class instruction in the
United States. The movement was supported by the Murdoch Company, which provided
instruments, teachers, and materials at an all-inclusive price (Deverich, 1987). In 1908, Charles
Farnsworth, a music educator at Columbia University, observed the Maidstone classes while on a
sabbatical in Europe, and in 1910, Albert Mitchell, a music supervisor in the Boston schools,
5
took a leave of absence to travel to England and observe the Maidstone violin classes (Mark &
Gary, 2007). Farnsworth and Mitchell were impressed by the positive results of the group
teaching method they observed, and when Mitchell returned to Boston, he successfully started
free violin classes in the Boston public schools. By 1920, he expanded the music curriculum to
include group instruction on not only strings, but also several other wind and brass instruments.
Because he could not find a pedagogically sound method, in 1912, Mitchell wrote his own violin
method book, which he titled the Public School Class Method for the Violin (Birge, 1938). The
book included photographs and explanations of violin techniques as well as musical tunes and
exercises.
As news of Mitchells success in instrumental class teaching spread, orchestras became a
common feature in American schools. As Humphreys wrote, 1900-1920 was the heyday of the
school orchestra (1989, p. 53). Early school orchestras often consisted of an assortment of
string, wind, and brass instruments. Funding from concert proceeds, school boards, and donors
provided violas, cellos, basses, and other wind and brass instruments. Violin students often
switched to a lower instrument to balance out the instrumentation of the ensemble (Hoisington,
1980).
In 1926, violist and music supervisor Joseph Maddy formed the National High School
Orchestra. Two hundred thirty-six high school music students performed in the orchestra at a
meeting of the Music Supervisors National Conference in Detroit. The following year, the
second National High School Orchestra played for the Department of Superintendence of the
National Education Association in Dallas. This performance was so successful that the audience
voted to give music and art equal consideration with other academic subjects (Mark & Gary,
2007).
6
Music educators found that teaching instruments in classes required a different approach
from the private lesson. In 1938, Birge described the situation as follows: Instead of aiming at
producing individual players, the emphasis has been on the ensemble idea ! drilling the class as
an orchestral section, strings, woodwind, or brass ! and combining them to form orchestras and
bands (p. 197). Within the context of the school orchestra, the focus was now on teaching an
ensemble as opposed to individual musicians.
Unfortunately, the heyday of the school orchestra did not last long; school orchestras
waned in the middle of the twentieth century. Turner (2001) describes several reasons for the
decrease in popularity of the school orchestra: (a) the rise of the school band as military band
retirees returned from World War I and found work as band directors, (b) band instrument
promotion by American instrument manufacturers, (c) the inadequacy of group teaching
techniques for strings, (d) elitist attitudes toward selection of string students, and (e) rivalry
among music staff.
Twentieth-Century Developments in String Pedagogy
During the twentieth century, four pedagogical figures influenced string education in the
United States. These include Samuel Applebaum, George Bornoff, Paul Rolland, and Shinichi
Suzuki. Each man was an expert violinist who developed a unique approach to string
instruction.
George Bornoff
Canadian violinist and educator George Bornoff influenced American class string
pedagogy with his finger pattern method. Bornoff believed that contemporary string classes
employed antiquated teaching methods that reduced the first several years of string playing to
dull, repetitious drills and caused many students to prefer wind or brass instruments that
7
promised rapid progress in a short time (Bornoff, 1948). In response to this problem, Bornoff
devised a new method in which students quickly learned to play a variety of bow strokes in all
positions.
In his beginning method book Bornoffs Finger Patterns: A Basic Method for Strings
(1948), Bornoff introduced five basic patterns of whole and half steps between consecutive
fingers in the left hand. The book also included a finger pattern chart that indicated which finger
pattern to use on each string in every major key, so that students only needed to consult the chart
to determine the finger positions for any given piece. Bornoff also wrote Bornoffs Patterns in
Positions (1952), which extended the use of the finger patterns to the upper positions of the
instrument, as well as Bornoffs Fun for Fiddle Fingers (1948) and Bornoffs Fiddlers Holiday
(1948), which provided supplementary repertoire for beginning string classes.
Samuel Applebaum
Another influential figure in American string class pedagogy was Samuel Applebaum. A
violin student of Leopold Auer, Applebaum studied violin playing and pedagogy extensively and
wrote The Art and Science of String Performance (1986), a detailed analysis of string technique,
and The Way They Play (1972), which featured famous twentieth-century string players. He also
promoted string education and was a prolific composer of methods and repertoire for studentlevel string orchestra. Applebaums string method books included String Builder I, II, and III
(1961), Early Etudes for Strings (1963), Second and Fourth Position Builder (1963), Third and
Fifth Position Builder (1963), First Position Etudes for Strings (1964), and Orchestral Bowing
Etudes (1965).
Published in 1961, Applebaums String Builder I featured unison tunes and exercises for
violin, viola, cello, and bass. Applebaum advocated beginning with rote exercises to allow
8
students to develop technique without having to focus on note reading. The book started with
bowing open strings and string crossings before adding the left hand. At the beginning, most
exercises were simple harmonies to be played with folk tune melodies supplied by the teacher on
violin or piano. As additional pitches were introduced, the musical exercises included more
tunes composed for pedagogical purposes and folk tunes. The method book was correlated with
a technique book, an ensemble book of duets for various instrument combinations, a concert
program book, and solo books for each instrument.
Shinichi Suzuki
Japanese violinist and pedagogue Shinichi Suzuki also influenced American string
pedagogy with his mother tongue method of talent education. Suzuki based his method on the
belief that talent is not inborn, but can be developed in any child with practice and high-quality
instruction. Suzuki called his philosophy the mother tongue method because he determined
that just as all Japanese children learned to speak the complicated Japanese language fluently,
any child could develop excellent musical abilities (Suzuki, 1981). Suzuki applied this idea to
his violin teaching to create the Suzuki violin method. The main characteristics of this method
of violin instruction were the following: (a) creating a positive environment for learning; (b)
extensive parental participation; (c) an early beginning for musical training; (d) step by step
learning; (e) a common, set repertoire; (f) learning music by ear before reading musical notation;
(g) daily listening to recordings; (h) repetition; (i) review; and (j) group and private lessons
(Suzuki, 1983).
The Suzuki method, developed shortly before World War II, did not spread to the United
States until 1958, when a video of 750 Japanese children playing the Bach Concerto for Two
Violins in D Minor was viewed at a meeting of the American String Teachers Association at
9
Oberlin College. The video sparked the curiosity of violinist John Kendall, who applied for a
grant to travel to Japan in 1959 to study with Suzuki. Kendall was fascinated by Suzukis
mother tongue method and helped to organize a tour to the United States for Suzuki and his
students in 1964 (Mark & Gary, 2007). Kendall adopted and passionately advocated the Suzuki
philosophy and taught it to others, helping to found the Suzuki Association of the Americas in
1972.
Suzuki established a graded repertoire for violin instruction in eight sequential books,
beginning with variations on Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star and progressing to advanced violin
concertos. Although Suzuki originally wrote for the violin only, his method was expanded to
include viola, cello, bass, piano, flute, recorder, guitar, and harp. Throughout the years,
American teachers have adapted the principles of the Suzuki method to public school string class
instruction. In 1972, Paul Zathilla published Suzuki in the String Class, an adaptation of the
Suzuki method and violin repertoire for heterogeneous string class in unison melody with
optional bass accompaniment. Zathilla emphasized developing good tone, technique, and
character, as well as learning by ear and playing from memory. More recently, the Suzuki
Association of the Americas has offered teacher-training courses to help public school string
teachers apply Suzuki principles in their classrooms.
Paul Rolland
Paul Rolland was another violinist and teacher who helped to shape American string
pedagogy. Born in 1911 in Hungary, where he earned a master of music degree in violin at the
Franz Liszt Academy, Rolland moved to the Unites States while playing viola in the Pro Ideale
Quartet (Fanelli, 2011). When the quartet disbanded, Rolland became the violin teacher at
Simpson College, where he began teaching string classes to children. He later accepted a
10
position at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, where he actively promoted high
quality string education and became increasingly interested in the physiology of string playing.
In 1966, Rolland began the Illinois String Research Project, in which he developed a method of
tension-free and natural violin playing. This project resulted in the 1974 publication of his book
The Teaching of Action in String Playing, which he co-authored with Marla Mutschler and which
was accompanied by demonstrative video recordings of his students. With an emphasis on
developing a natural playing technique, Rolland and Mutschlers book included detailed
instructional sequences for (a) establishing the violin hold; (b) standing and sitting positions; (c)
learning to hold the bow; (d) beginning the bow stroke; (e) left hand position; (f) left hand finger
action; (g) developing finger motion and strength; (h) bouncing the bow; (i) martel, staccato,
dtach, and sautill bowing; (j) teaching vibrato; and (k) remedial teaching.
In 1971, Rolland published a method for beginning heterogeneous string class entitled
Prelude to String Playing: Basic Materials and Motion Techniques for Individual or Class
Instruction. Reflecting his action approach to string playing, the method featured (a) total body
movement; (b) a rote beginning; (c) harmonic hearing; and (d) an early introduction to shifting,
vibrato, double stops, and spiccato bowing. In 1985, Sheila Johnson published a revised version
of the method under the title Young Strings in Action: Paul Rollands Approach to String
Playing in three sequential volumes. This method, which included new repertoire as well as
updated photographs and drawings, was widely used in beginning string classes across the
country.
Review of Historical String Methods
The rising popularity of the school orchestra during the beginning of the twentieth century
required the development of new methods for class string instruction as well as appropriate
11
repertoire for student ensembles to perform. String class teachers, such as Lewis A. Benjamin,
Sr., who wrote The Musical Academy, had to develop their own instructional materials. As
orchestras and bands became a common feature of the high school curriculum, teachers
published many new method books.
Albert Mitchells Public School Class Method for the Violin (1912) was one of the first
string class method books published in the United States. Mitchell wrote this book for his violin
classes in the Boston public schools. This violin method book included detailed technical
instructions for violin position and bowing as well as black and white photographs showing the
bow hold and a young girl playing the violin. The book began with composed exercises of
dtach quarter, half, and whole notes on the D and A strings. It progressed to cover more
complex rhythms and an expanded range of pitches used in folk songs and melodies from
orchestral repertoire.
In 1923, Maddy and Giddings published a method book, Universal Teacher for Orchestra
and Band Instruments, which was written for violin, viola, cello, and bass, as well as piccolo,
flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, bassoon, horn, trumpet, trombone, tuba, and percussion. This
method was practical for early school ensembles that often consisted of an irregular assortment
of instruments. Maddy and Giddings designed the book to make the early stages of instrumental
study interesting for the students, and so the book was composed entirely of tunes. Students
were instructed to sing the melodies, primarily folk tunes, hymns, and childrens songs, before
playing them. The book included very few pedagogical instructions for the teacher or student.
Also in 1923, Paul Herfurth wrote a heterogeneous string class method titled A Tune a
Day: A First Book for String Instruction in Group, Public School Classes, or Individual
Instruction. This book was probably the first method published specifically for heterogeneous
12
string class including violin, viola, cello, and bass. Herfurth wrote that the objective of this book
was not to cover much repertoire or skills but to provide a solid musical background and
foundation in string playing. The book gave the teacher the option of beginning with either
pizzicato quarter notes or bowed whole notes. Each page of the book was organized as a lesson
that introduced a concept at the top of the page and provided musical exercises to practice the
new skill. The musical exercises were primarily simple melodies composed for pedagogical
purposes and folk songs. The method also included a blank staff page to be used for homework
and test questions to review the lessons.
In 1938, Merle Isaac published the Merle Isaac String Class Method for beginning
heterogeneous string class. The method opened with several line drawings that illustrated correct
playing position and bow holds, as well as information concerning the care and tuning of the
instruments. The musical exercises began with quarter and half notes on the open D and A
strings before adding the left hand fingered notes, which were introduced with staff notation, a
fingerboard diagram, and a drawing of the left hand position on the fingerboard. New concepts
were introduced with a brief written description and notated musical exercises. The method
consisted mainly of composed pedagogical exercises and tunes in unison, but also contained
several short duets, trios, and quartets that were notated for each instrument to play each part.
Whistler and Nords method Beginning Strings: The Worlds Masters Method for
Stringed Instruments, Volume One was published in 1939 with the purpose of creating a practical
method for teaching a beginning string class with violin, viola, cello, and bass. After beginning
with bowed open strings, left hand fingered notes were introduced in the key of C major. The
musical exercises consisted largely of brief excerpts from the etudes of Hohmann, Wohlfahrt, De
Beriot, Dancla, and Alard.
13
Published in 1939, the Waller String Class Method was written to fulfill a perceived need
for effective instructional materials for beginning heterogeneous string class. In the foreword to
the method, Henry Sopkin, founder of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, wrote that although it
was previously thought that string instruments could only be taught privately, teachers have
demonstrated that strings could be taught effectively in classes with an appropriate method.
Author Gilbert Waller stated that his objectives were to create an efficient method for class
instruction and to simplify the group learning and teaching process. Waller accomplished these
goals by introducing new techniques with clear explanations and multiple photographs,
providing repeated disguised drills of technical problems, and using primarily folk tunes and
hymns with the addition of some composed musical exercises. Also, a short music writing
assignment was included at the end of each page.
In 1949, Helen Herman published Bow and Strings, a heterogeneous string class method in
three sequential levels that covered the fundamentals of string playing. Unlike most other
methods, the first volume of Bow and Strings included very few pedagogical instructions and did
not provide any illustrations or explanations of how to hold the instruments and bow; the third
page merely stated that, Your teacher will show you how to hold your instrument and bow
(Herman, 1949, p. 3). The tunes used were primarily composed musical exercises with several
folk songs added in the later part of the book.
Beckstaed, Gordon, and Stones Visual Method for Strings: Class or Private Instruction for
Beginners on All String Instruments (1959) aimed to make string instruction interesting to
children through the use of large font, minimal text, and frequent photographs demonstrating
each new technique. Most tunes were composed musical exercises, but the book also included
several folk songs, hymns, and patriotic songs.
14
String Curricula
String teachers continue to face the challenge of instructing a classroom full of young
students on different instruments while giving sufficient attention to the complexity of string
techniques. Due to the unique challenges of teaching string instruments in classes, teachers need
an organized, sequential plan to guide their instruction. Many string teachers and school districts
write their own curricula and have numerous educational resources with which to plan
instruction.
MENC Curriculum
In 1991, the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) published Teaching String
Instruments: A Course of Study, a curriculum for heterogeneous string classes that promotes
quality programs. This curriculum divides the fundamentals of string playing into six main
categories: (a) tone quality, (b) rhythm and bowing, (c) finger patterns and scales, (d) ear
training, (e) music reading and vocabulary, and (f) music theory and history. Each category is
separated into six levels from beginning to advanced, and a chart lists learning outcomes for each
category at each level. The next section of the book includes general teaching suggestions for
each category of string playing. Overall, MENCs Teaching String Instruments: A Course of
Study provides a set of useful but broad guidelines for planning string instruction.
ASTA String Curriculum
Although there are multifarious resources available to string teachers, many are very
general in nature. The Board of Directors of the American String Teachers Association (ASTA)
identified a need for a current, national, comprehensive, sequential, and practical curriculum for
school string classes, and in 2011, the ASTA String Curriculum Committee published the ASTA
String Curriculum (Benham, Wagner, Aten, Evans, Odegaard, & Lieberman, 2011). The
15
authors, a committee of experienced private studio, public school, and university level string
teachers, present a practical and comprehensive curriculum that provides guidelines for lesson
planning, assessment, and teacher evaluation.
The ASTA String Curriculum is organized by scope and sequence. Within the three main
categories of executive, musicianship, and artistic skills and knowledge, the curriculum presents
content areas, achievement standards, and learning tasks. For each learning task, the curriculum
provides learning sequences and indicators of success. Through the more than 200 learning
sequences, the curriculum addresses the teaching of specific technique for all string instruments
within the setting of a large-group string orchestra class.
The curriculums three general categories of executive, musicianship, and artistic skills and
knowledge are broken down into specific content areas: 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills
and Knowledge, 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge, 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training,
2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, 2D Music Literacy, 2E
Ensemble Skills, 3A Expressive Elements, 3B Historical and Cultural Elements, and 3C
Evaluation of Music and Music Performances. Benchmark standards are provided for each
content area and represent an end-of-program goal for string students. These benchmark
standards are not defined by grade level or repertoire, but are instead determined in terms of the
characteristics of fine string playing. For example, the standard for Content Area 1A Body
Format is Students perform with a lengthened and balanced posture; support instrument without
tension, demonstrate ease of motion; format is adjusted for physiological changes due to growth;
control of weight distribution, unilateral movement, bilateral movement, in sitting and standing
position (Benham, et al., 2011). Advanced string players demonstrate these attributes.
The specific skills that students must learn are called learning tasks, and are presented by
16
content area in four levels: baseline, developing, proficient, and advanced. Baseline refers to
basic beginning skills that are usually acquired during the first or second year of instruction,
developing refers to the extension of beginning skills to an early intermediate level, proficient
refers to the fluent mastery of basic and intermediate skills, and advanced refers to an artistic
level of playing that extends beyond high school (Benham, et al., 2011). For example, for
content area 1A Body Format, the baseline learning tasks of the same content area are (a)
establish posture on all instruments, (b) basic playing position for violin and viola, (c) basic
playing position for cello, (d) basic playing position for bass. The developing learning tasks are
(a) unilateral movement, (b) bilateral movement, and (c) continue baseline criteria, monitoring
and adjusting to physical characteristics of individual students. The proficient and advanced
learning tasks are to continue previous criteria, monitoring and adjusting to physical
characteristics of individual students (Benham, et al., 2011). In this way, the curriculum
analyzes each specific technical and musical element of string playing and provides detailed
learning sequences describing how to teach it at beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels.
Summary
In summary, this examination of the history of string orchestra classes in the public
schools, influential figures in string pedagogy, historical string methods, and curricula for string
classes provides the foundation for understanding contemporary string classes and methods.
Knowledge of the past enhances understanding of the present as well as the future of the
discipline. Throughout the past century, string pedagogy has evolved from primarily individual
private lessons into large-group ensemble classes, and teaching materials have developed
accordingly.
17
CHAPTER III: PROCEDURE
Selection of String Class Methods
In this study, the 13 string methods that appear on the curriculum resource list of the ASTA
String Curriculum were reviewed in order to assess compatibility with the curriculums baseline
learning tasks. The 13 methods that were evaluated are listed below in Table 1 in chronological
order by the date published. Each method is designed for beginning heterogeneous string class
including violin, viola, cello, and bass, and is currently available for purchase from a major
music publishing company.
Table 1
List of String Class Method Books
Title
Muller-Rusch String Method for Class or Individual
Instruction
All for Strings: Comprehensive String Method
Strictly Strings: A Comprehensive String Method
Spotlight on Strings
String Explorer: An Explorers Guide to Teaching
Strings
Artistry in Strings: A Comprehensive Course of Study
for Group or Private Instruction
Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series for Strings,
Revised
Do it! Play Strings!
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings: A
Comprehensive String Method
Orchestra Expressions
New Directions for Strings: A Comprehensive String
Method
Simply Strings: A Standards-Based, Comprehensive
String Method
Sound Innovations for String Orchestra: A
Revolutionary Method for Beginning Musicians
Author
Muller & Rusch
Publication Date
1961
Anderson, & Frost

Dillon, Kjelland, & OReilly
Gazda & Stoutamire
Dabczynski, Meyer, & Phillips
1986
1992
1997
2002
Frost & Fischbach
2002
Grunow, Gordon, Azzara, & Martin
2002
Froseth & Smith

Allen, Gillespie, & Tellejohn Hayes
2003
2004
Brungard, Alexander, Anderson, &

Dackow
Erwin, Horvath, McCashin, &
Mitchell
Odegaard
2004
Phillips, Boonshaft, & Sheldon
2010
2007
2007
The teacher manual of book one of each method was reviewed in this study. The teacher
manual was selected as opposed to a student book because this study is designed to be a
reference for string teachers. Teacher manuals include extra pedagogical information that can
18
benefit string teachers. Furthermore, the manual features the score for violin, viola, cello, and
bass and includes materials from the student books that represent the experience of students of
all instruments in the string class.
Selection of Criteria for Evaluation
The teacher manual of each string class method was analyzed according to the
opportunities it provides for the teaching of the 58 baseline learning tasks of the ASTA String
Curriculum. The baseline learning tasks for each content area were selected for this study
because the curriculum defines baseline skills as those typically found during the first- and/or
second-year of instruction . . . skills [which] must be mastered in order for additional techniques
to be learned. These are the basic, priority-level items for any beginning student (Benham, et
al., 2011, p. 19). For a beginning string class method book to be compatible with the ASTA
String Curriculum, it must provide opportunities for students to learn at least these baseline
fundamental skills.
The specific learning tasks in the first category, Executive Skills and Knowledge, are
described in Table 2.
Table 2
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Executive Skills and Knowledge Category
Executive Skills and Knowledge
1A Body Format
1.1 Establish posture (sitting and standing) on all instruments
1.2 Basic playing position for violin and viola
1.3 Basic playing position for cello
1.4 Basic playing position for bass
1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge
1.1 Initial left hand finger placement
1.2 Initial finger patterns
1.3 Lateral finger movement
1.4 Vertical technique
1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge
1.1 Perform pizzicato in guitar position - violin, viola
1.2 Perform pizzicato in playing position
19
1.3 Establishing initial bow hold - all instruments
1.4 Perform pre-bowing exercises
1.5 Perform with simple connected (dtach) bow strokes
1.6 Perform with simple separated (staccato) bow strokes
1.7 Direction changes
1.8 Short slurs
1.9 String crossings
1.10 Basic bow distribution
1.11 Intro to weight, angle, speed, and placement (contact point and part of bow)
Table 3 lists the baseline learning tasks in the second category, Musicianship Skills and
Knowledge.
Table 3
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Musicianship Skills and Knowledge Category
Musicianship Skills and Knowledge
2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training
1.1 Students perform, by ear, melodic tonal patterns (simple patterns and melodies within a tetrachord), in major and
minor tonalities vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco; neutral syllable, then solfege)
1.2 Students identify whether two performed melodic tonal patterns are the same or different.
1.3 Students correctly associate the words high and low with relative pitch differences (eg., with the use of Curwen
hand symbols and vocal solfege)
1.4 Students correctly identify direction of melodic motion (within a tetrachord)
1.5 Students alter melodies and harmonies (major-to-minor, minor-to-major)
1.6 Students perform, by ear, primary (tonic and dominant) harmonic tonal patterns (vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco;
neutral syllable, then solfege)
1.7 Students improvise (vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco) melodic tonal patterns (within a tetrachord; neutral syllable,
then solfege)
2B Rhythmic Skills and Ear Training
1.1 Students will maintain a steady pulse while singing or chanting rhythm patterns
1.2 Students will demonstrate a sense of meter while singing or chanting rhythm patterns
1.3 Students will maintain a steady pulse while playing rhythm patterns
1.4 Students will demonstrate a sense of meter while playing rhythm patterns
1.5 Students will perform rhythm patterns containing rests
1.6 Students will perform rhythm patterns containing ties
1.7 Students will perform rhythm patterns containing upbeats
1.8 Students will improvise rhythm patterns corresponding to Learning Tasks 1.1-1.7
2C Creative Musicianship
1.1 Rhythmic: Students derive rhythm patterns from speech and environmental sounds and link them with the
motion of the bow-hand
1.2 Tonal (Melodic and Harmonic): Students create one-note solos against a class-generated accompaniment
1.3 Textural: Students reproduce sounds effects from their environment on their instruments (exploratory focus)
1.4 Compositional: Students invent scoring techniques based on common objectives
1.5 Creative leadership: Students invent their own physical language for conducting
2D Music Literacy
1.1 Students correctly identify and perform basic music notation and symbols associated with the following skills
and understandings to each corresponding curricular level
1.2 Students sight-read basic music notation and symbols
20
1.3 Students understand chord symbols (root only)
1.4 Students correctly identify the following key signatures: C, G, D, and F Major (with their relative minors)
1.5 Students correctly identify accidentals
1.6 Students correctly identify musical forms: AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
1.1 Students match pulse and rhythm to stay together as an ensemble
1.2 Students adjust pitch within the ensemble
1.3 Demonstrates self-discipline by working cooperatively with peers to produce a quality musical performance
1.4 Display appropriate etiquette for style and venue of musical performance
1.5 Demonstrates well-disciplined personal demeanor during rehearsals and performance
The baseline learning tasks found in the third category, artistic skills and knowledge, are
listed in Table 4.
Table 4
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Artistic Skills and Knowledge Category
Artistic Skills and Knowledge
3A Expressive Elements
1.1 Students shape phrases with simple dynamic variation
1.2 Students alter tone by modifying bow technique (WASP - weight, angle, speed, point of contact)
1.3 Students perform with articulations corresponding to baseline-level right-hand technical skills
3B Historical and Cultural Elements
1.1 Students listen to selected music from diverse cultures and musical eras
1.2 Students identify, describe, and compare distinguishing characteristics of composers and styles from selected
repertoire
1.3 Students perform music from diverse styles
3C Evaluation of Music and Musical Performances
1.1 Students evaluate individual and group performance using established criteria
1.2 Students describe personal preference in music listening and group performance
The data were collected in the following manner. The teacher manual for each beginning
string class method was examined page by page for opportunities provided for teaching each of
the baseline learning tasks described in the ASTA String Curriculum. Every instance of a text
that prompted the teacher to provide instruction in any of the learning tasks was recorded in a
chart.
Other criteria for analysis were unique features, availability of supplementary materials,
availability of sequential volumes, origin and type of tunes, key signatures used or implied, time
signatures used, rhythms used, range used for each instrument, the inclusion of shifting or
21
extensions, bowing styles, presentation of the book, and cost and availability of the teacher
manual and student books. These additional criteria were selected because they represent topics
believed to affect a string teachers choice of method book.
22
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS
Comparative Review of Methods
The 13 method books for beginning heterogeneous string class appearing on the ASTA
String Curriculums resource list were reviewed according to the 58 baseline learning tasks listed
in the curriculum. For each method, a table was created that lists the learning tasks in one
column and details their explicit appearances in the method book in a second column. The
results for each book, including a written overview and the table, are presented chronologically
by the publication date of the method book.
Muller-Rusch String Method
The oldest method, Muller-Rusch String Method for Class or Individual Instruction by
Muller and Rusch (1961), contains very little text addressed to either the teacher or the student.
The conductors score has 112 pages and consists primarily of notated exercises and tunes with
occasional definitions of musical terms and symbols. The method addresses the first three
content areas, 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills
and Knowledge, with black and white photographs showing correct posture, instrument position,
finger placement, and bow hold for each instrument.
In the ASTA String Curriculums standards category two, Musicianship Skills and
Knowledge, the Muller-Rusch String Method addresses Content Areas 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills
and Ear Training and 2D Music Literacy, does not cover the learning tasks in Content Areas 2A
Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, or 2E Ensemble Skills. The
book defines common musical symbols and presents initial exercises in a modified notational
system in which pitches are represented by string name and finger number. The Muller-Rusch
String Method does not explicitly address any of the learning tasks in the third standards
23
category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge.
Table 5 indicates which ASTA String Curriculum learning tasks are addressed in the
Muller-Rusch String Method.
Table 5
Baseline Learning Tasks in the Muller-Rusch String Method
Baseline Learning Task
Muller-Rusch String Method
1A Body Format
1.1 Establish posture (sitting and standing) on all
instruments
p. 18 black and white photographs of playing position for violin/viola

p. 19 black and white photographs of playing position for cello
p. 19 black and white photographs of playing position for bass
p. 4, 6, 9, 12, 15 introduces new notes with a fingerboard diagram
for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 18-19 black and white photographs of left hand finger placement
and arm position for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 22, 27, 31, 35, 52, 63, 64, 79, 83 reviews or introduces new notes
with staff notation and a fingerboard diagram for all instruments
p. 31 instructs students to keep fingers down when crossing strings
p. 88 introduces fourth finger for violin and viola, and instructs
students to stretch the fourth finger and press the tip firmly
p. 70 introduces third position for the bass
p. 59 introduces low second finger notes for violin and viola, and
second finger for cello and bass with staff notation and a
fingerboard diagram

p. 87 introduces left hand pizzicato

p. 18-19 black and white photographs of multiple perspectives of
the bow hold and bow placement on the string for violin/viola,
cello, and bass (French and German)

1.5 Perform with simple connected (dtach) bow strokes
1.6 Perform with simple separated (staccato) bow strokes
1.8 Short slurs
1.11 Intro to weight, angle, speed, and placement (contact
point and part of bow)
p. 20 introduces down and up bow symbols

p. 45 introduces slurs
24
1.1 Students perform, by ear, melodic tonal patterns
(simple patterns and melodies within a tetrachord), in
major and minor tonalities (vocally, pizzicato, and/or
arco; neutral syllable, then solfege)
1.2 Students identify whether two performed melodic
tonal patterns are the same or different.
1.3 Students correctly associate the words high and low
with relative pitch differences (e.g., with the use of
Curwen hand symbols and vocal solfege)
1.4 Students correctly identify direction of melodic
motion (within a tetrachord)
1.5 Students alter melodies and harmonies (major-tominor, minor-to-major)
1.6 Students perform, by ear, primary (tonic and
dominant) harmonic tonal patterns (vocally, pizzicato,
and/or arco; neutral syllable, then solfege)
1.7 Students improvise (vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco)
melodic tonal patterns (within a tetrachord; neutral
syllable, then solfege)
2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training
1.1 Students will maintain a steady pulse while singing or
chanting rhythm patterns
1.2 Students will demonstrate a sense of meter while
singing or chanting rhythm patterns
1.3 Students will maintain a steady pulse while playing
rhythm patterns
playing rhythm patterns
1.5 Students will perform rhythm patterns containing rests
1.6 Students will perform rhythm patterns containing ties
1.7 Students will perform rhythm patterns containing
upbeats
1.8 Students will improvise rhythm patterns
corresponding to Learning Tasks 1.1-1.7
p. 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 23, 27, 31, 35 instructs the student to count, sing,
and play the exercises
p. 100 instructs the student to write the counts under the notes in
exercise 161
p. 43 defines 2/4 time signature

p. 3 first exercise includes rests with directives to count
p. 43 introduces ties
p. 58 introduces upbeats
1.1 Rhythmic: Students derive rhythm patterns from

speech and environmental sounds and link them with the
motion of the bow-hand
1.2 Tonal (Melodic and Harmonic): Students create onenote solos against a class-generated accompaniment
1.3 Textural: Students reproduce sounds effects from their
environment on their instruments (exploratory focus)
1.4 Compositional: Students invent scoring techniques
based on common objectives
1.5 Creative leadership: Students invent their own
physical language for conducting
2D Music Literacy
1.1 Students correctly identify and perform basic music
notation and symbols associated with the following skills
and understandings to each corresponding curricular level
1.2 Students sight-read basic music notation and symbols
the front cover identifies basic symbols of musical notation

p. 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15 notate initial exercises with string names and
finger numbers under the rhythm
p. 16 and following: all exercises are notated with standard musical
notation
25
1.4 Students correctly identify the following key
signatures: C, G, D, and F Major (with their relative
minors)
p. 39 introduces the key of D major
front cover defines sharp, flat, and natural symbols

p. 39 introduces F sharp and C sharp
1.6 Students correctly identify musical forms: AB and

ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
1.1 Students match pulse and rhythm to stay together as
an ensemble
1.3 Demonstrates self-discipline by working
cooperatively with peers to produce a quality musical
performance
1.4 Display appropriate etiquette for style and venue of
musical performance
1.5 Demonstrates well-disciplined personal demeanor
during rehearsals and performance
1.1 Students shape phrases with simple dynamic variation
1.2 Students alter tone by modifying bow technique
(WASP - weight, angle, speed, point of contact)
1.3 Students perform with articulations corresponding to
baseline-level right-hand technical skills
1.1 Students listen to selected music from diverse cultures
and musical eras
1.2 Students identify, describe, and compare
distinguishing characteristics of composers and styles
from selected repertoire
1.1 Students evaluate individual and group performance
using established criteria
1.2 Students describe personal preference in music
listening and group performance
All for Strings

The teacher manual for All for Strings: Comprehensive String Method by Anderson &
Frost (1986) has 180 pages and contains an abundance of pedagogical text. On nearly every
page, directions for the teacher are set apart from the rest of the text in a pink box titled
TEACHER. These boxes include reminders to check student posture and position, information
about musical exercise, or strategies for teaching new techniques.
All for Strings addresses almost all learning tasks within the three content areas of
26
standards category one, Executive Skills and Knowledge, including 1A Body Format, 1B Left
Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge. The book addresses
these areas with stepwise instructions and black and white photographs of instrument position,
left hand position, and the bow hold. In addition to left hand finger placement and patterns, All
for Strings describes the intervals formed by left hand fingers across strings and is the only
method in this study to introduce lateral finger movement.
Within the second standards category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, All for Strings
addresses some learning tasks in Content Areas 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2B
Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, and 2D Music Literacy, but does not address 2C
Creative Musicianship or 2E Ensemble Skills. The method includes the options of both a rote
and a note beginning approach. These promote the development of tonal and rhythmic aural
skills and music literacy and give the teacher the opportunity to choose whether to begin
instruction by playing by ear or with musical notation. In the third standards category, Artistic
Skills and Knowledge All for Strings only briefly addresses a few of the learning tasks in Content
Areas 3A Expressive Elements and 3B Historical and Cultural Elements.
Table 6 indicates which ASTA String Curriculum learning tasks are addressed in All for
Strings.
Table 6
Baseline Learning Tasks in All for Strings
All for Strings
1A Body Format
1.1 Establish posture (sitting and standing) on
all instruments
p. 15 instructs violin students to stand or sit with correct posture

p. 28 instructs the teacher to have all students check their instrument position
with the photographs in the book
p. 29, 45, 50, 79, 101, 122 instructs the teacher to check the students playing
positions often
p. 61 musical position game instructs teacher to check student position in a
freeze game
27

p. 93 presents a position check with a checklist of right hand, left hand, and
playing position for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 138 instructs the teacher to conduct a position check using the checklist on p.
93
p. 15 stepwise instructions for playing position for violin, including black and
white photographs
p. 17 stepwise instructions for playing position for viola, including black and
white photographs
p. 15 stepwise instructions for playing position for cello, including black and
white photographs
p. 21 stepwise instructions for playing position for bass, including black and
white photographs


p. 15 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs of left hand

position for violin
position for viola
position for cello
position for bass
p. 32, 33, 36 introduces new fingered notes with black and white photographs
of the left hand on the fingerboard and a diagram of the fingerboard for
violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 33, 36, 58, 59, 66, 67 includes directives for students to place lower fingers
on the string when playing new notes
p. 33, 36 instructs the teacher to have students place left hand fingers on the
string and take them off to set the hand position before playing
p. 36, 37, 39, 41, 64, 68, 81, 102, 110, 121 instructs the student to check left
hand position
p. 41, 42 instructs the teacher and students to prepare the left hand fingers when
going from an open string to a fingered note on an adjacent string
p. 55, 58, 66, 76, 80 (note beginning section) introduces new notes with black
and white photographs of the left hand on the fingerboard and a diagram of
the fingerboard for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 57, 63, 65 instructs the teacher to have all students keep fingers down on one
string while playing the adjacent open string in order to check the correct
position of the left hand first finger, and position of the left arm and hand
p. 59 instructs the teacher to check the students left hand position often,
including the placement of the thumb for cello and bass players
p. 59 instructs the student to keep the fingers arched above the string ready to
play
p. 60, 82 instructs the student to prepare the fingers when playing a skip
p. 108 introduces shifting to second position for the bass and includes stepwise
instructions for teaching shifting
p. 131, 139 introduces low second finger for violin and viola, and second finger
for cello and bass with fingerboard diagrams and black and white
photographs of the left hand on the fingerboard
p. 132 instructs violins and violas to stretch the third finger to create a whole
step between the second and third fingers
p. 135, 141 instructs the teacher to have the students practice sliding between
high and low second finger
p. 86 instructs students to lift and set each finger carefully across to the adjacent
string
p. 104 instructs the teacher to help students recognize the intervals created
between fingers across the string
p. 112, 141 instructs the teacher to remind students to lift and drop fingers
across strings instead of rolling the finger across strings
28
1.1 Perform pizzicato in guitar position violin, viola
1.3 Establishing initial bow hold - all
instruments
1.5 Perform with simple connected (dtach)

bow strokes
1.6 Perform with simple separated (staccato)
bow strokes
1.8 Short slurs
p. 28 defines pizzicato and describes how to play pizzicato on violin or viola in

playing position
p. 14 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs of the bow hold for
violin
viola
cello
p. 20-21 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs of the bow hold
for bass (French and German)
p. 28 instructs the teacher to check students bow grips with the photographs at
the beginning of the student book
p. 31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 48, 56, 72, 87, 103, 106, 125 instructs the student
to check the bow grip often
p. 35, 37, 47, 53 asks the student is your right thumb bent?
p. 14 stepwise instructions for bowing on violin
p. 16 stepwise instructions for bowing on viola
p. 18 stepwise instructions for bowing on cello
p. 20 stepwise instructions for bowing on bass
p. 22-23 describes eight pre-bowing exercises for all instruments
p. 33 describes soldier bowing exercise in which students shadow bow on the
shoulder (violin and viola) or on the left hand (cello and bass)
p. 33 describes the lift and set exercise in which students set the bow at the
frog and lift and set it in the middle, and then again at the tip
p. 38 instructs the teacher to have students practice bowing concepts while
rosining their bows
p. 48, 78, 101, 122 instructs the teacher to have students practice bow grip
exercises
p. 28 introduces down and up bow movement and symbols

p. 96 introduces slurs and recommends that students begin slurs by playing trills
and then slowing down the finger motion for two notes per bow
p. 98 introduces slurring across string changes in terms of the shape of the curve
of the motion in the right arm
p. 28-29 includes a diagram of the bridge for violin, viola, cello, and bass and
instructs students to adjust your arm to play on the correct string; instructs
the teacher to demonstrate the different level of each string
p. 30, 45, 46 instructs the teacher to have students make good crisp bow
preparations for string crossings and emphasize playing on the correct
string level
p. 30, 31, 46, 53 instruct the students to use fast bow preparations
p. 39, 46, 48, 86 instructs the students to roll the bow to the next string
p. 47, 48, 50, 53 instructs the teacher to have the students execute good crisp
bow preparations even when not marked with attention to the correct bow
direction
p. 48 recommends that students stop the bow at string crossings to prepare for
the next string
p. 51 instructs the student to raise and lower the arm for the correct level of
bowing
p. 73 includes a diagram of the upper, lower, and middle parts of the bow and
instructs the teacher to apply the principles of bow division in each line;
exercise 61 includes directives to play in the lower half (L.H.), the upper half
(U.H.), or use the whole bow (W.B.)
p. 88 instructs the teacher to emphasize the value of good bow division and
demonstrate appropriate bow division for half and quarter notes
p. 93 instructs the teacher to make sure that the students use the correct part of
29
1.11 Intro to weight, angle, speed, and

placement (contact point and part of bow)
the bow
p. 101 instructs the student to use a third of the bow for each note when slurring
three notes in a bow
p. 119, 122, 140 explains bow distribution for different rhythmic patterns
p. 142 instructs the student to use good bow distribution
p. 153 instructs the students to work toward the frog before a long note
p. 174 recommends bow divisions for different scale rhythms
p. 32, 75, 105, 123 instructs the students to check their bow placement
p. 45 instructs the student to move the bow slower for half notes
p. 53 instructs the students to work for straight bowing
p. 82 introduces slurred staccato and lour bowing in order to develop bow
control and distribution
p. 87 instructs the teacher to make students aware that slow bows are needed for
whole notes
p. 106 instructs the teacher to help students plan bow speed and distribution for
long slurs
p. 122 recommends playing exercises at different tempos to learn appropriate
bow division and control
p. 142 introduces dynamics in terms of altering the speed, placement, weight,
and hair of the bow
p. 148 instructs the teacher to have the bass students use more arm weight and a
slower bow when playing on the E string

1.1 Students perform, by ear, melodic tonal
patterns (simple patterns and melodies within
a tetrachord), in major and minor tonalities
(vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco; neutral
1.2 Students identify whether two performed
melodic tonal patterns are the same or
different.
1.3 Students correctly associate the words
high and low with relative pitch differences
(e.g., with the use of Curwen hand symbols
and vocal solfege)
1.4 Students correctly identify direction of
melodic motion (within a tetrachord)
1.5 Students alter melodies and harmonies
(major-to-minor, minor-to-major)
1.6 Students perform, by ear, primary (tonic
and dominant) harmonic tonal patterns
1.7 Students improvise (vocally, pizzicato,
and/or arco) melodic tonal patterns (within a
tetrachord; neutral syllable, then solfege)
2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear
Training
1.1 Students will maintain a steady pulse
while singing or chanting rhythm patterns
p. 24 recommends a rote approach to starting string students
p. 113 defines tonic and dominant and instructs the teacher to explain tonic and
dominant arpeggios
p. 151 instructs the teacher to ask the students to find tonic and dominant
arpeggios in an exercise
p. 25, 70 recommends that the teacher implement a counting system and use
each exercise as a rhythm exercise by having the students clap and count
rhythms before playing them on one pitch, open strings, and then as written
p. 34 in the starting by rote section, rhythms are introduced through rhythm
words
p. 45 in the starting by note section, the book recommends that the teacher
implement a counting system at this stage to use with every line
p. 47, 54, 87, 90, 120, 122 instructs the teacher to have students write in the
counting
p. 91 instructs the teacher to have the students count and clap correct rhythms
before playing
30
1.2 Students will demonstrate a sense of
meter while singing or chanting rhythm
patterns
while playing rhythm patterns
meter while playing rhythm patterns
1.5 Students will perform rhythm patterns
containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats
p. 91 introduces 3/4 time signature

p. 29 introduces whole rests
p. 90 introduces pick up notes and describes how to bow upbeats
p. 135 instructs the teacher to remind the students to place the bow in the lower
half of the bow to play an upbeat

1.1 Rhythmic: Students derive rhythm
patterns from speech and environmental
sounds and link them with the motion of the
bow-hand
1.2 Tonal (Melodic and Harmonic): Students
create one-note solos against a classgenerated accompaniment
1.3 Textural: Students reproduce sounds
effects from their environment on their
instruments (exploratory focus)
1.4 Compositional: Students invent scoring
techniques based on common objectives
1.5 Creative leadership: Students invent their
own physical language for conducting
2D Music Literacy
1.1 Students correctly identify and perform
basic music notation and symbols associated
with the following skills and understandings
to each corresponding curricular level
1.2 Students sight-read basic music notation

and symbols
1.3 Students understand chord symbols (root
only)
1.4 Students correctly identify the following
key signatures: C, G, D, and F Major (with
their relative minors)
1.6 Students correctly identify musical forms:

AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
1.1 Students match pulse and rhythm to stay
together as an ensemble
p. 29-42 are written for a rote approach that uses capital letters to represent note
names for the first 50 exercises
p. 44 features an alternate starting by note approach that begins with notated
exercises on open strings similar to those in the rote approach, but progress
more rapidly
p. 44 introduces musical notation symbols
p. 52, 65, 69, 77, 89, 98 theory game has students write in the note names for
pitches notated in the appropriate clef for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 109 defines key signatures and introduces the key of G major

p. 127, 128 asks the students to identify the key of a musical exercise
p. 133 introduces the key of C major
p. 134 features an exercise in D minor and instructs the teacher to introduce the
key of D minor
p. 114 instructs the teacher to explain the use of accidentals in terms of the
tonality of the piece
p. 147 theory game instructs the student to write in fingerings for notes with
accidentals
p. 88 introduces AABA form
31
cooperatively with peers to produce a quality
musical performance
1.4 Display appropriate etiquette for style and
venue of musical performance
1.5 Demonstrates well-disciplined personal
demeanor during rehearsals and performance
1.1 Students shape phrases with simple
dynamic variation
p. 142 introduces dynamics and instructs the teacher to explain how to create
dynamic changes in terms of the speed, placement, weight, and hair of the
bow
1.2 Students alter tone by modifying bow

technique (WASP - weight, angle, speed,
point of contact)
1.3 Students perform with articulations
corresponding to baseline-level right-hand
technical skills
1.1 Students listen to selected music from
diverse cultures and musical eras
distinguishing characteristics of composers
and styles from selected repertoire
1.3 Students perform music from diverse
styles
3C Evaluation of Music and Musical
Performances
1.1 Students evaluate individual and group
performance using established criteria
1.2 Students describe personal preference in
music listening and group performance
p. 133 recommends that the teacher play a recording of the Beethoven violin
concerto for the students when learning the theme from the concerto in
exercise 133
p. 170 exercise 184 jazz feature uses blues harmonies
Strictly Strings
Strictly Strings: A Comprehensive String Method by Dillon, Kjelland and OReilly (1992)
provides musical exercises and instructions for teaching a beginning heterogeneous string class.
Throughout the 216-page teacher manual, pedagogical coaching for the teacher contained in text
boxes is interspersed between the musical exercises. This method primarily focuses on the first
standards category, Executive Skills and Knowledge. The majority of the text addressed to the
teacher concerns the teaching of correct posture and instrument position, left hand skills, and
right hand skills. The method includes stepwise instructions and many drawings of instrument
position, left hand position, and the bow hold.
32
Within the second standards category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, Strictly
Strings addresses a few of the learning tasks in Content Areas 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear
Training, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, and 2D Music Literacy, but does not
address 2C Creative Musicianship or 2E Ensemble Skills. Strictly Strings only superficially
addresses two of the learning tasks in standards category three, Artistic Skills and Knowledge.
In Content Area 3A Expressive Elements, the book introduces basic dynamics, and in Content
Area 3B Historical and Cultural Elements, the book briefly describes the Baroque and Classical
styles of music.
The specific learning tasks found in Strictly Strings are indicated in Table 7.
Table 7
Baseline Learning Tasks in Strictly Strings
Strictly Strings
1A Body Format
instruments

p. 14, 15, 16, 17 instructs students to stand or sit tall

p. 33, 39, 51 instructs the teacher to stress correct playing position and
posture by continually correcting individuals while the group plays
p. 14 lists stepwise instructions and includes a line drawing of playing
position for violin
position for viola
position for cello
position for bass

p. 18 lists stepwise instructions for left hand position for violin with
line drawings of the position of each finger on the string
p. 19 lists stepwise instructions for left hand position for viola with line
drawings of the position of each finger on the string
p. 20 lists stepwise instructions for left hand position for cello with line
drawings of the position of each finger on the string
p. 33 instructs the teacher to pay attention to the correct placement of
the left thumb for cello and bass and not to allow any students to
develop a habit of squeezing the neck of the instrument with the
thumb or fingers
p. 35 emphasizes the importance of correct left hand position for
playing in tune
p. 38-39 introduce left hand finger placement with stepwise
instructions, a drawing of the left hand on the fingerboard, and a
fingerboard diagram for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 39, 93, 99 instructs the teacher to have students keep fingers down or
33
just above the string when playing

p. 45, 51, 57, 87, 92, 98, 140-141, 176-177, 188, 189 introduces and
reviews new notes with a drawing of the left hand on the fingerboard
and a fingerboard diagram for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 45, 93 instructs the teacher to have violin and viola students explore
the use of the fourth finger
p. 122 includes a drawing of the hand and a fingerboard diagram for
fourth finger position for violin and viola
p. 45 describes the spatial aspects of the finger pattern and the
importance of keeping the second and third fingers close enough to
play a half step on violin and viola
p. 110 describes shifting to third position for the bass
p. 164 introduces the low second finger pattern for violin and viola and
the second finger pattern for cello with a drawing of the hand, a
fingerboard diagram, and staff notation
p. 194-195 introduces extended left hand position for violin, viola, and
cello, and half position for bass


1.5 Perform with simple connected (dtach) bow
strokes
1.6 Perform with simple separated (staccato) bow
strokes
1.8 Short slurs
p. 33 describes banjo position, in which the instrument is held in

front of the student with the bridge centered over the heart and the
scroll near the left shoulder
p. 123 recommends that violins and violas practice setting the fourth
finger in banjo position
p. 14 stepwise instructions for pizzicato position for violin
p. 15 stepwise instructions for pizzicato position for viola
p. 20 stepwise instructions for pizzicato position for cello
p. 21 stepwise instructions for pizzicato position for cello
p. 86-87 instructs students to play pizzicato while holding the bow
p. 122-123 introduces left hand pizzicato
p. 21 line drawings and stepwise instructions for forming the French
bow hold for the bass
p. 22 line drawings and stepwise instructions for forming the bow hold
for the violin
for the viola
for the cello
p. 25 line drawings and stepwise instructions for forming the German
bow hold for the bass
p. 49, 51 instructs the teacher to introduce the bow hold on a pencil
p. 55 instructs the teacher to have student move the bow hold from a
pencil to the bow
p. 55 recommends that the teacher have students practice bowing on
rosin or through a tube
p. 67 recommends that students shadow bow before playing a line
p. 152 introduces staccato bowing by imitating pizzicato

p. 67 instructs the teacher to emphasize correct bow direction changes
p. 110 instructs the teacher to have students practice slurs by rote
p. 33 describes the importance of developing facility in string crossings
when playing pizzicato
p. 57 instructs the teacher to introduce the arco string crossing motion
by rote
p. 72 reminds the student to roll the bow to a new string during rests
34

1.11 Intro to weight, angle, speed, and placement
(contact point and part of bow)
p. 73 recommends that the teacher have students practice silent string

crossings
p. 110 describes slurred string crossings
p. 146-147 introduces the sections of the bow with a diagram and
instructs the teacher not to have cellos and basses play at the tip
p. 147 recommends bow distribution for particular rhythms
p. 73, 141, 182 instructs the teacher to make sure students understand
that thicker strings need a slower and heavier bow stroke, and
thinner strings need a faster and lighter stroke
p. 79 instructs the teacher to choose whether students should play notes
of different rhythmic durations with even or uneven bow speed
p. 110 instructs the teacher to have bass students move the bow
placement closer to the bridge when playing in higher positions
p. 116 instruct the teacher to teach students to add bow weight and play
closer to the bridge when playing with slower bow speed
p. 123 instructs the teacher to teach dynamics in terms of changing the
bow speed and weight
p. 135 instructs the teacher to remind students to use less bow on
eighth notes
p. 182 instructs the teacher to remind students to add bow weight as
they approach the tip of the bow

1.3 Students correctly associate the words high and
low with relative pitch differences (e.g., with the use
of Curwen hand symbols and vocal solfege)
dominant) harmonic tonal patterns (vocally, pizzicato,
1.7 Students improvise (vocally, pizzicato, and/or
arco) melodic tonal patterns (within a tetrachord;
p. 26-27 instructs the teacher to use a call and response technique to

teach ear training
1.1 Students will maintain a steady pulse while

p. 33, 39, 129 instructs the teacher to continue to work with the
students on being able to keep a steady beat by clapping and counting
aloud

rests
ties
upbeats
p. 26 instructs the teacher to teach high and low relative to pitch

direction
p. 27 instructs the teacher to work on establishing a steady beat by

having the group count and play at the same time
p. 146-147 introduces 2/4 time signature
p. 26-27 identifies rest symbol
p. 146-147 introduces upbeats
35
speech and environmental sounds and link them with
the motion of the bow-hand
1.2 Tonal (Melodic and Harmonic): Students create
one-note solos against a class-generated
accompaniment
1.3 Textural: Students reproduce sounds effects from
their environment on their instruments (exploratory
focus)
1.4 Compositional: Students invent scoring techniques
based on common objectives
2D Music Literacy
1.1 Students correctly identify and perform basic
music notation and symbols associated with the
following skills and understandings to each
corresponding curricular level
1.2 Students sight-read basic music notation and
symbols
p. 39 instructs the teacher to emphasize letter names instead of finger

numbers to facilitate note reading
p. 72 notates open strings for violin, viola, cello, and bass

minors)
p. 109 introduces the key signature of D major

p. 140-141 introduces the key signature of G major
p. 165 introduces the key signature of C major
p. 38, 39 identifies the sharp symbol
p. 164, 165 identify the natural symbol
p. 194, 195 identify and define the flat symbol
all musical exercises and tunes are presented in standard music notation
1.6 Students correctly identify musical forms: AB and

ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
1.1 Students match pulse and rhythm to stay together
as an ensemble
cooperatively with peers to produce a quality musical
performance
1.4 Display appropriate etiquette for style and venue
of musical performance
1.5 Demonstrates well-disciplined personal demeanor
during rehearsals and performance
1.1 Students shape phrases with simple dynamic
variation
1.3 Students perform with articulations corresponding
to baseline-level right-hand technical skills
1.1 Students listen to selected music from diverse
cultures and musical eras
p. 122-123 introduce dynamics (forte and piano)

p. 140-141 introduces playing piano and forte within one piece
p. 182 introduces mezzo forte and mezzo piano
p. 188 introduces crescendo and decrescendo
36
distinguishing characteristics of composers and styles
from selected repertoire
p. 152 brief description of the Baroque style

p. 200 brief description of the Classical style

Written by Gazda and Stoutamire in 1997, Spotlight on Strings is a compact and portable
method book with only 112 pages in the teacher edition. It is organized into twelve lessons that
introduce the fundamental aspects of string playing. Pedagogical information for the teacher is
interspersed throughout the text. In standards category one, Executive Skills and Knowledge,
Spotlight on Strings addresses Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and
Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge by introducing instrument position, left
hand finger placement, and the bow hold with instructions and photographs. In terms of the
second standards category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, the method addresses some of
the learning tasks in Content Areas 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2B Rhythmic Aural
Skills and Ear Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, and 2D Music Literacy, but does not include
2E Ensemble Skills. Of the books included in this analysis, Spotlight on Strings is
chronologically the first method to teach creative musicianship through improvisation and
composition activities. As to the third standards category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge, this
method only addresses in passing Content Areas 3A Expressive Elements and 3B Historical and
Cultural Elements, with one learning task in each. It does not cover Content Area 3C Evaluation
of Music and Musical Performances.
The particular learning tasks that appear in Spotlight on Strings are presented in table 8.
37
Table 8
Baseline Learning Tasks in Spotlight on Strings
1A Body Format
instruments
p. 6 describes preparatory exercises to develop balanced and relaxed body

position
p. 7 includes black and white photographs of students in preparation and
playing position for violin and viola
playing position for cello
playing position for bass (standing position)

p. 6 instructs the teacher to demonstrate correct left hand position

p. 19 lists stepwise instructions for the teacher to use to teach left hand
placement for violin/viola, cello, and bass; fourth finger is taught first
for all instruments
p. 20 instructs the teacher to have students keep left hand fingers close to
the string and avoid looking at the left hand while playing
p. 21-23 introduces left hand finger placement with a description and
black and white photographs for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 26-29, 33-36 introduce new fingerings with black and white
photographs of the left hand, a fingerboard diagram, staff notation, and
an explanation of intervals for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 41-44 introduce the four-note major fingering pattern with black and
white photographs of the left hand, a fingerboard diagram, staff
notation, and an explanation of intervals for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 56-59 introduce the four-note minor fingering pattern with black and
white photographs of the left hand, a fingerboard diagram, staff
notation, and an explanation of intervals for violin, viola, cello, and bass

1.1 Perform pizzicato in guitar position - violin,
viola
p. 7 introduces pizzicato with instructions and black and white

photographs of students playing pizzicato for violin, viola, cello, and
bass
p. 9 instructs students to strum the open strings by plucking a giant circle
motion without the right thumb touching the fingerboard
p. 9 reminds students to anchor the right thumb on the edge of the
fingerboard and use the flesh pad of the finger to pluck the string
p. 11 stepwise instructions for the teacher to give while introducing and
demonstrating the bow hold; the bow hold is formed at the balance
point and moved to the frog
p. 12 introduces the bow hold for violin with black and white photographs
of the bow hold from four perspectives
p. 13 introduces the bow hold for viola with black and white photographs
p. 14 introduces the bow hold for cello with black and white photographs
p. 15 introduces the bow hold for bass with black and white photographs
of the bow hold from four perspectives (French bow hold only)
p. 12, 13, 14, 15 describes pre-bowing exercises for violin, viola, cello, and
38
bass
strokes
strokes
1.8 Short slurs

p. 17 instructs the teacher to have students play with detached bow strokes
p. 64 introduces staccato bowing
p. 16 introduces down and up bow symbols
p. 64, 74 introduces slurs
p. 12, 13, 14, 15 describe a silent string crossing exercise for violin, viola,
cello, and bass
p. 16 reminds students to change bow levels when changing strings and to
prepare the arm for the next string
p. 17 instructs the teacher to have students expand their bow use by
playing rhythmic patterns in the upper half and lower half of the bow
p. 62 instructs the student to use the whole bow
p. 66 instructs the teacher to have students adjust bowing so that they use
more bow on long notes
p. 47, 83 instructs the students to adjust bow speed according to the
duration of the note

patterns (simple patterns and melodies within a
tetrachord), in major and minor tonalities (vocally,
pizzicato, and/or arco; neutral syllable, then
solfege)
melodic tonal patterns are the same or different.
low with relative pitch differences (e.g., with the
use of Curwen hand symbols and vocal solfege)
1.5 Students alter melodies and harmonies (majorto-minor, minor-to-major)
dominant) harmonic tonal patterns (vocally,
solfege)
1.2 Students will demonstrate a sense of meter
containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats
p. 11 instructs the teacher to introduce initial bowing exercises by ear

p. 19 instructs the teacher to introduce initial left hand exercises by ear
through demonstration and imitation
p. 32, 39, 86, 92 instructs students to improvise a short melody within

specific guidelines
p. 7 instructs the students to play open strings with a steady beat

p. 8 defines quarter rests
p. 52 introduces pickups
p. 25 instructs students to improvise a short rhythm on an open string and
play it arco and pizzicato with each left hand finger down
39
p. 48, 52, 74 instructs the students to improvise by changing the rhythm of
a notated piece
1.1 Rhythmic: Students derive rhythm patterns
from speech and environmental sounds and link
them with the motion of the bow-hand
create one-note solos against a class-generated
accompaniment
1.3 Textural: Students reproduce sounds effects
from their environment on their instruments
(exploratory focus)
p. 7 instructs students to pluck open strings so that it sounds like their

names
p. 12, 13, 14, 15 instruct the students to improvise on an open string to tell
a story
p. 7 instructs students to pluck open strings to create sound effects for a

story
p. 40 instructs the teacher to teach about writing music before teaching
composition
p. 105-112 writing music worksheets that instructs students to compose
a short melodies according to specific guidelines

2D Music Literacy
symbols
p. 3 describes a procedure for learning music reading

p. 7 introduces musical notation symbols
p. 8 notates open strings for violin, viola, cello, and bass and includes a
musical symbol writing exercise

signatures: C, G, D, and F Major (with their
relative minors)
p. 71 defines key signature and introduces the key of D major

p. 87 introduces the key signature of G major
p. 26-29 introduces sharps
p. 33-36 introduces naturals
1.6 Students correctly identify musical forms: AB

and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
musical performance
variation
technique (WASP - weight, angle, speed, point of
contact)
technical skills
p. 52 introduces dynamics
40
distinguishing characteristics of composers and
styles from selected repertoire
p. 32 instructs the teacher to discuss the blues and the birth of jazz music

Performances
String Explorer
The teacher manual for String Explorer: An Explorers Guide to Teaching Strings by
Dabczynski, Meyer and Phillips (2002) is organized into fourteen instructional units and has 288
pages. Each unit isolates new right and left hand objectives before putting new skills together at
the end of a lesson. The method includes a large amount of text addressed to the teacher
explaining right hand and left hand skills in each lesson.
String Explorer covers almost all learning tasks in each of the content areas in the first
standards category, Executive Skills and Knowledge. The method includes instructions,
photographs, and teaching strategies related to 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and
Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge. Concerning the second standards
category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, String Explorer addresses some of the learning
tasks in Content Areas 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and
Ear Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, and 2D Music Literacy, but does not include 2E
Ensemble Skills. The learning tasks in the three content areas within the category Artistic Skills
and Knowledge are covered more thoroughly in String Explorer than in any of the preceding
methods. The method includes information concerning the music of numerous composers such
as Mozart, Beethoven, Dvorak and that of diverse cultures, including Polish, Chinese, and Native
American. The book instructs the teacher to play recordings of many types of music for the
41
students.
Table 9 details the specific learning tasks that are addressed in String Explorer.
Table 9
Baseline Learning Tasks in String Explorer
String Explorer
1A Body Format
all instruments
p. 20 recommends that violins and violas stand while learning to hold the
instruments in order to promote good posture and freedom of motion
p. 43 emphasizes the importance of playing with good position for accurate
intonation
p. 228 describes the importance of balanced and relaxed posture
p. 20 recommends that violins and violas start in guitar position
p. 25 describes playing position for violin and viola
p. 27 introduces banjo position for violin with stepwise instructions and black
and white photographs
p. 27 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs for placing the
left hand for violin
p. 29 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs for holding the
violin on the shoulder
p. 30 introduces banjo position for viola with stepwise instructions and black
and white photographs
left hand for viola
viola on the shoulder
p. 192 instructs the teacher to check the left hand position of violin students
p. 25 reviews playing position for the cello
p. 33, 35 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs for holding
the cello in playing position
left hand
p. 25 describes sitting playing position for the bass
bass in standing playing position
left hand for the bass
bass in sitting playing position
p. 135 instructs the teacher to review bass position

p. 21 describes left hand placement and teaching strategies

left fingers for violin
left fingers for viola
left fingers for cello
left fingers for bass
p. 42 introduces left hand finger placement of the D ladder (first tetrachord
of the D major scale) with black and white photographs and fingerboard
diagrams for violin, viola, cello, and bass
42
p. 49 introduces the left hand finger placement of the A ladder (first
tetrachord of the A major scale) with black and white photographs and
fingerboard diagrams for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 50 describes bass shifting to third position
p. 72, 85 reviews the notes on the D string with black and white photographs,
fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 97, 135 reviews the notes on the A string with black and white
photographs, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation for violin, viola, and
cello, and the notes in third position on the G string for the bass
p. 110, 112 introduces bass shifting to second and a half position
p. 135, 136 introduces the fourth finger for violin and viola with black and
white photographs, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
p. 138, 174 introduces second position for the bass
p. 146 introduces notes on the G string for violin, viola, and cello and notes
on the E string for bass with black and white photographs, fingerboard
diagrams, and staff notation
p. 147, 151, 216 instructs the teacher to have students adjust the left arm
position to play on the lower strings
p. 173 introduces low second finger pattern for violin and viola, and second
finger for cello and bass with black and white photographs, fingerboard
p. 187 introduces notes on the E string for violin and bass with black and
white photographs, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
p. 192 introduces second position for cello
p. 215 introduces low first finger (backward extension) for violin with black
and white photographs, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
p. 227, 228 introduces the backward extension for violin, viola, and cello and
half position for bass with black and white photographs, fingerboard
p. 270-271 introduce high third finger for violin and viola and forward
extensions for cello with black and white photographs, fingerboard
viola
instruments

bow strokes
bow strokes
1.8 Short slurs
p. 27, 30 introduces pizzicato in banjo position for violin, viola

p. 33, 36 introduces pizzicato in playing position for cello, bass
p. 24 recommends that students form the initial bow hold at the balance point
p. 28 stepwise instructions and black and white photographs for establishing
the bow hold (at the frog) for violin
the bow hold (at the frog) for viola
the bow hold (at the frog) for cello
the bow hold for bass (French and German)
p. 81 describes the importance of developing right hand finger flexibility
p. 90 reminds students to check their bow holds
p. 24-25 list and describe several exercises to aid bow hold development
p. 114 instructs the teacher to have students air bow before playing slurs
p. 39 describes dtach bowing
p. 224 instructs the teacher to help students understand the musical effects of
down and up bows
p. 29 instructs the student to place the bow on each open string by adjusting
the level of the right elbow
43

p. 45 instructs the teacher to pay attention to the bass string crossings

p. 55 describes string crossings and instructs the teacher to have students
explore the relationship between string crossings and right arm level
p. 59 describes the challenge of physically coordinating the right and left
hand to play string crossings
p. 45 instructs the teacher to have students pay attention to how much bow
they use for quarter and eighth notes
p. 143 instructs the teacher to help students plan bow distribution for dotted
quarter notes
p. 39 recommends that the teacher establish an arm weight scale of 1 to 10
p. 94 describes the distinction between arm weight and arm pressure and how
to use arm weight to create dynamic changes
p. 101 instructs students to notice the different bow speed needed for notes of
different rhythmic durations
p. 132 instructs the teacher to help students understand the combination of
slow bow speed and arm weight needed to bow longer notes
p. 169 instructs the teacher to help students understand the combination of
slow bow speed and bow placement needed to bow longer notes
p. 169, 178 introduces crescendo and decrescendo in terms of altering the
arm weight, bow speed, and bow placement
p. 216 instructs the teacher to help students understand the amount of arm
weight needed to play on lower strings

tetrachord), in major and minor tonalities
(vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco; neutral syllable,
then solfege)
1.3 Students correctly associate the words high
and low with relative pitch differences (e.g.,
with the use of Curwen hand symbols and vocal
solfege)
solfege)
p. 21, 41, 43-44, 48, 51, 56 instructs the teacher to play rhythmic and melodic
patterns have the students echo
p. 174 instructs the teacher to play melodic patterns using F sharp and F
natural and C sharp and C natural and have students identify which note is
played
p. 86 instructs the teacher to establish a sense of the tonic by asking students

to complete a melody in F major
p. 126, 163 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a melody using
notes of the D pentatonic scale and given rhythms
p. 207 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a melody using the
first five notes of the D minor scale
p. 258 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a melody using the
blues scale

p. 132 introduces 3/4 time signature and instructs the teacher to help students
feel the down beat as the strong beat in each measure when clapping and
chanting rhythms
p. 183 introduces 2/4 time signature and instructs the teacher to help students
feel the down beat as the strong beat in each measure when clapping and
chanting rhythms
44
containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats
p. 39 defines rests
p. 132 describes ties
p. 143 introduces pickup notes and instructs the teacher to explain pickup
notes and have students air bow them
p. 67 instructs the teacher to have students improvise on one pitch using
familiar rhythm patterns
p. 224 instructs the teacher to have students improvise using syncopated
rhythms
accompaniment
(exploratory focus)

2D Music Literacy
with the following skills and understandings to
each corresponding curricular level
symbols
only)
key signatures: C, G, D, and F Major (with their
relative minors)

AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
musical performance
p. 67 instructs the teacher to have students compose a short piece by selecting

from a menu of rhythms and pitches
p. 126 instructs the teacher to have students compose a harmony line to use
with a printed melody using parallel thirds
p. 163 instructs the teacher to have students compose a harmony line to use
with a printed melody using contrary motion
p. 207 instructs the teacher to have students compose a melody by adding
passing tones to an existing melody
p. 119, 156, 198 encourages the teacher to teach basic conducting patterns
and have a student lead the group
initial exercises (1-41) are notated with the letter name and rhythms, line 42 is
the first to use standard staff notation
p. 72 instructs the teacher to review musical symbols and introduce staff
notation
p. 106 introduces the key signature of D major

p. 147 introduces naturals for bass students
p. 174 introduces naturals for all instruments
p. 228 introduces flats
45
variation
p. 94 introduces dynamics (forte and piano)

p. 101 instructs the teacher to have students change dynamics within a piece
p. 169 introduces crescendo and decrescendo
p. 211 introduces mezzo piano and mezzo forte

technique (WASP - weight, angle, speed, point
of contact)
technical skills

p. 150 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to a recording of the
theme from the second movement of Dvoraks New World Symphony
p. 178, 192, 219, 232 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to a
recording of the music they are playing
p. 61 brief description of Mozarts variations on Twinkle
p. 67-68 describes Polish Tatra music in detail
p. 75 brief description of the history of staff notation
p. 89 instructs the teacher to discuss the nature of folk music
p. 89 instructs the teacher to discuss Beethoven
p. 93 brief description of Beethoven
p. 103 brief description of fiddle music
p. 116 brief description of William Billings
p. 119, 122, 123, 124, 125 describes the Baroque era
p. 126-127 describes Mariachi music in detail
p. 138, 219 instructs the teacher to discuss Bach
p. 141 brief description of Bach
p. 151 instructs the teacher to discuss Dvorak
p. 151 instructs the teacher to discuss Handel and the story of Judas
Maccabaeus
p. 151 instructs the teacher to discuss Stephen Foster
p. 152 brief description of Handel
p. 156, 159, 160, 161, 162 describes music of the Classical era
p. 163-164 describes Chinese erhu music in detail
p. 178 instructs the teacher to discuss Purcell
p. 180 brief description of the folk tune Simple Gifts
p. 192 instructs the teacher to discuss the folk song The Erie Canal
p. 192, 219 instructs the teacher to discuss Tchaikovsky
p. 192 instructs the teacher to discuss Korean folk songs
p. 192 instructs the teacher to discuss Haydn and chorales
p. 193 instructs the teacher to discuss the origins of the folk song Shepherds
Hey
p. 196 brief description of Haydn
p. 198, 201, 202, 203, 204 describes the Romantic era
p. 205 describes Native American Apache music in detail
p. 211 instructs the teacher to discuss Rossini
p. 219 brief description of Tchaikovsky
p. 232 instructs the teacher to discuss African American music
p. 232 instructs the teacher to discuss tango music
p. 232 instructs the teacher to discuss Handel
p. 234 brief description of African American fiddle music
p. 238, 245, 247, 249, 251 describes music of the contemporary era
p. 261 instructs the teacher to discuss Handel, Telemann, and Bach
p. 282 detailed information on the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras of
46
music
Performances
p. 89 instructs the teacher to have students play a tune that uses minor
tonality and describe how it makes them feel
p. 114 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to a recording of a tune
and describe what they hear
p. 114 instructs the teacher to have students play melody and harmony parts
of a duet and compare and contrast them

Artistry in Strings
Artistry in Strings: A Comprehensive Course of Study for Group or Private Instruction by
Frost and Fischbach (2002) is a substantial book with 539 pages in the teacher edition.
Instructions to the teacher occur frequently either in the normal text or in grey text boxes labeled
Artistry Advice. The method addresses one or more of the learning tasks in every content area
except 2E Ensemble Skills. Artistry in Strings covers the Executive Skills and Knowledge
Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills
and Knowledge with many instructional sequences, photographs, and pedagogical exercises.
Within the second standards category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, the method teaches
ear training through echo exercises, promotes creative musicianship by often featuring
improvisation games and composition exercises, and encourages music literacy by explaining
musical notation. Concerning the third standards category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge, the
method regularly instructs the teacher to have the students listen to and discuss the music and
culture of numerous composers and countries around the world.
The particular learning tasks included in Artistry in Strings are presented in Table 10.
Table 10
Baseline Learning Tasks in Artistry in Strings
Artistry in Strings
47
1A Body Format
instruments
p. 80, 84 reminds the teacher to check that students are using good
instrument posture and movement skills
p. 26-27 introduces playing position for violin and viola with stepwise
instructions and black and white photographs
p. 30-31, 55 instructs the teacher to have students do the Swingstrum
exercise, which promotes freedom of movement in the left arm by
having students strum the open strings with the left pinky and includes
stepwise instructions and photographs
p. 199 instructs the teacher to check left elbow position for violin and
viola
p. 27 introduces playing position for cello with stepwise instructions and
black and white photographs
p. 199 instructs the teacher to check left arm position for cello
p. 28-29 introduces standing and sitting playing position for bass with
stepwise instructions and black and white photographs
p. 199 instructs the teacher to check left arm position for bass

p. 57-58 left hand finger placement is introduced with a harmonic

p. 63-65 includes stepwise instructions and a photo for placing the hand
in first position for violin, viola, cello, and bass as well as the middle
position for bass
p. 69 introduces a string polishing exercise in which the left hand slides
up and down the strings with instructions and a photograph
p. 110, 124 pinkypluck left hand pizzicato exercise strengthens the
fourth finger
p. 120, 131 instructs the teacher to have violin and viola students play on
the inside corner of the finger when leaving a finger down on one
string and bowing on another
p. 120, 131 encourages cello and bass student to leave fingers on the
string as much as possible
p. 76-79 introduces D string finger patterns including both F sharp and F
natural with photographs of the left hand, fingerboard diagrams, and
staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 88 instructs the student to move the left hand fingers to create an
exaggerated difference between F sharp and F natural
p. 150-151 introduces A string finger patterns including both C sharp and
C natural with photographs of the left hand, fingerboard diagrams, and
staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass (low position)
p. 152 introduces left hand pivots and notes on the D string for bass in
middle position
p. 195-197 introduces the G string finger patterns including both B
natural and B flat with photographs of the left hand, fingerboard
diagrams, and staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass (includes
pivoting for low position bass)
p. 198 introduces new notes on the D string for middle position bass,
including pivots
p. 231-232 introduces the notes on the E string for violin and bass and the
C string for viola and cello with photographs of the left hand,
fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
p. 266 introduces high and low fourth finger for violin and viola with
photographs of the left hand, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
48
p. 267 introduces third position for cello with photographs of the left
hand, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
p. 268-269 low and middle position bass books merge: the low position
book introduces middle position, and the middle position book
introduces low position with photographs of the left hand, fingerboard
p. 277 reminds violins and violas to adjust the balance of the hand from
first finger to fourth finger
viola

bow strokes
strokes
1.8 Short slurs

p. 76 defines pizzicato
p. 91-92 introduces the boomerang pizzicato exercise, in which the
right hand plucks the string and makes a large circular motion that
traces the path of the down bow stroke and emphasizes bilateral motion
as the body moves the opposite direction; describes pizzicato technique
p. 128 introduces anchored pizzicato with the thumb on the fingerboard
p. 35-37 lists exercises for forming the bow hold for violin, viola, cello,
and bass (French and German) with stepwise instructions and black and
white photographs
p. 37-38 introduces place and lift exercise in which students on all
instruments place the bow on the string, tap each finger, and lift the
bow off the string with stepwise instructions and black and white
photographs
p. 39 introduces travelin place and lift exercise, which repeats the
procedure of the previous exercise at the frog, middle, and tip of the
bow
p. 220 includes two pre-bowing exercises: The Elevator and The
Paintbrush
p. 299 features stickwalk bow exercise
p. 349 features skywriting bow exercise
p. 93, 99, 157, 161 instructs the teacher to have students do smooth,
connected, slow bows
p. 40, 45, 50, 54, 68, 113, 130 initial exercises should be played with
short, crisp bow strokes
p. 181 introduces (but does not use the label) staccato symbol
p. 39 introduces bow directions
p. 248 introduces slurs across strings and describes the shape of the right
arm as rainbows or smiles
p. 250 introduces slurs on the same string
p. 52 instructs students to pay attention to the bow arm levels on each
string as students perform string crossings
p. 93 instructs the teacher to encourage the students to make arcs, not
angles in string crossings and to initiate the motion with the upper arm
p. 117-118 introduce Rock n Roll string crossing exercise
p. 258 instructs the student to practice smooth slurred string crossings
p. 155 introduces zig-zag bowing in which bow unequal distribution is
planned to allow for enough bow on a long note
p. 177, 256, 304 instructs students to play in a specific part of the bow
p. 284 introduces bow division
p. 98, 169, 211 describes bow speed for longer notes and includes
teaching strategies
p. 285 introduces bow speed
p. 343 describes the interdependent variables of speed, pressure, and
sounding point that affect dynamics
49
then solfege)
melodic tonal patterns are the same or different

and low with relative pitch differences (e.g., with
the use of Curwen hand symbols and vocal
solfege)
solfege)
p. 39, 51, 52, 84, 101, 111, 137, 153, 159, 198, 320, 347 instructs the
teacher to lead an echo game in which the teacher plays a short pattern
and the students echo
p. 89, 338 instructs the teacher to play two phrases and have the students
decide if they are the same or different
p. 97 instructs the teacher to play two phrases and have the students
decide if they use F sharp or F natural
p. 75 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a melody using

open strings and harmonics
p. 135 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a melody using D,
E, and F sharp
p. 149, 230, 341 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a melody
using familiar rhythm patterns and notes
p. 313 instructs the teacher to have students improvise over an ostinato
created by the class
p. 323 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a musical
conversation in pairs
p. 374 instructs the teacher to have students improvise within a scale or
song, and do a call and response improvisation activity

containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats

p. 146-148 instructs the teacher to have students play an open string
exercise that changes from 4/4 to 3/4 to 2/4 to 1/4
p. 25 introduces rests
p. 174 introduces pick-up notes
p. 75, 149, 230 instructs the teacher to lead students in a call and response
rhythmic improvisation exercise
p. 185 instructs the teacher to have the students improvise a hand
clapping accompaniment in 3/4 meter
p. 43, 46 instructs the teacher to have students match word phrases to

rhythms
p. 52, 75, 109 includes a rhythm writing exercise in which students add
missing words or rhythms
50
p. 133 encourages the teacher to have students create rhythmic variations
by changing the words of a song they are playing
accompaniment
(exploratory focus)
p. 107 instructs the teacher to have students create and notate the sound of
a bird on their instrument
p. 141 instructs students to compose a song using pictorial representations
of musical sound effects
p. 225, 308, 363 instructs students to compose a short song using familiar
notes and rhythms

2D Music Literacy
symbols
only)
relative minors)

AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
p. 39 introduces musical symbols

p. 148, 225, 373 includes a short quiz in which students must write
musical notation symbols
p. 186 introduces the D chord with staff notation for all instruments
p. 218 instructs students to listen to blues song they are playing and
decide if the printed chord changes match their music
p. 166 defines key signatures and introduces the key signatures for G
major and D major with staff notation and a fingerboard diagram for all
instruments
p. 242, 245, 261, 290, 332 instructs students to identify the name of the
key of the exercise
p. 76 introduces naturals and sharps
p. 150-152 introduces C sharp and natural with staff notation and a
fingerboard diagram for all instruments
p. 286 instructs the teacher to have students listen to a piece of music and
identify ABA form

musical performance
variation
contact)
technical skills
51
p. 51, 350 instructs the teacher to have students listen to an

accompaniment, which is in an Australian style, and to discuss the
culture and wildlife
p. 90, 281 instructs the teacher to locate Japan on a map and discuss
Japanese culture before having the students listen to a Japanese song
p. 95, 156, 213, 263, 294, 329 instructs the teacher to locate England on a
map, discuss English culture, and listen to English music
p. 97, 169 instructs the teacher to locate France on a map, discuss French
culture, and listen to French music
p. 100, 190 instructs the teacher to locate Norway on a map, discuss
Norwegian culture, and listen to Norwegian dance music
p. 107, 122, 142, 289 instructs the teacher to locate Germany on a map
and discuss German culture
p. 108 instructs the teacher to have students listen to and discuss
American fiddle music
p. 113 describes the history of Hot Cross Buns
p. 125 instructs the teacher to discuss Verdi and have the students listen
to his music
p. 131 instructs the teacher to discuss Dvorak and listen to the theme from
the second movement of the New World Symphony
p. 137 instructs the teacher to locate Egypt on a map, discuss Egyptian
culture, and listen to Egyptian music
p. 140 describes the origins of Jingle Bells
p. 171, 257, 291 instructs the teacher to locate the Czech Republic on a
map and discuss Czech culture
p. 175 instructs the teacher to locate the Netherlands on a map and
discuss Netherlandish culture
p. 175 describes the composer George Root
p. 203 instructs the teacher to discuss Bach and his music
p. 216 describes composer Cornelius Gurlitt
p. 222 instructs the teacher to locate Mexico on a map, discuss Mexican
culture, and listen to Mexican music
p. 240 instructs the teacher to locate Poland on a map, discuss Polish
culture, and listen to Polish music
p. 243 describes Stephen Foster
p. 253, 334 instructs the teacher to discuss Offenbach and have the
students listen to the Can-Can
p. 261 instructs the teacher to discuss Grieg
p. 262 instructs the teacher to locate Hungary on a map, discuss p.
Hungarian culture, and listen to Hungarian music
p. 280 instructs the teacher to locate Jordan on a map and discuss
Jordanian culture
p. 282 describes composer Thomas Hynes Bayly
p. 295 describes Haydn
p. 297 instructs the teacher to discuss Beethoven
p. 298 instructs the teacher to discuss Iroquois culture and listen to
Iroquois music
p. 300 instructs the teacher to locate Israel in a map, discuss Israeli
culture, and listen to Israeli music
p. 301 instructs the teacher to locate Spain in a map, discuss Spanish
culture, and listen to Spanish music
p. 310 describes Brahms
p. 332 instructs the teacher to discuss Rossini and have the students listen
to his music
p. 335 instructs the teacher to discuss Mahler and have the students listen
to his music
p. 339 instructs the teacher to locate Italy on a map and discuss Italian
culture
p. 346 instructs the teacher to locate Scotland on a map, discuss Scottish
culture, and have the students listen to Scottish music
52
p. 369 describes Mussorgsky
Performances
p. 71, 83, 88, 90, 97, 100, 134, 155, 202, 236 instructs the teacher to have
students listen to the recording of the accompaniment CD and describe
what they hear

Jump Right In
Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series for Strings, Revised by Grunow, Gordon, Azzara,
and Martin (2002) is perhaps the most unique of the method books included in this analysis. As
an instrumental method designed for developing audiation skills and executive skills, this
method focuses primarily on the development of aural skills. It includes relatively little technical
information about playing the instruments beyond establishing basic position. The teacher
edition is a substantial volume of 522 pages containing both book one and book two. Jump Right
In covers most of the learning tasks of Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and
Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge within the standards category Executive
Skills and Knowledge. Concerning the second standards category, Musicianship Skills and
Knowledge, this method emphasizes learning to sing and play melodies and rhythms by ear,
improvising, and reading musical notation. The book does not cover any of the learning tasks of
the content areas within the third category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge.
Table 11 indicates which learning tasks are found in Jump Right In.
Table 11
Baseline Learning Tasks in Jump Right In
Jump Right In
1A Body Format
instruments
p. 38 instructs the teacher to demonstrate steps for developing correct

posture
p. 43 instructs the teacher to guide the students in establishing correct
posture and instrument position
53
p. 285, 290 includes stepwise instructions and line drawings for playing
position for violin and viola
p. 295 includes stepwise instructions and line drawings for playing
position for cello
p. 300 includes stepwise instructions and line drawings for standing and
sitting playing position for bass


p. 47 instructs the teacher to teach left hand placement

p. 53 instructs the teacher to teach the basses to shift to second position
p. 285-289 line drawings demonstrates correct left hand position for
violin
p. 290-294 line drawing demonstrates correct left hand position for viola
p. 295-299 line drawing demonstrates correct left hand position for cello
p. 300-304 line drawing demonstrates correct left hand position for bass
p. 53 students practice major tetrachords on D, A, and G


strokes

strokes
p. 43 instructs the teacher to teach right hand pizzicato

p. 285 line drawing demonstrates right hand pizzicato position for violin
p. 290 line drawing demonstrates right hand pizzicato position for viola
p. 295 line drawing demonstrates right hand pizzicato position for cello
p. 300 line drawing demonstrates right hand pizzicato position for bass
p. 47 instructs the teacher to teach the bow hold
p. 285 includes stepwise instructions and line drawings for forming the
violin bow hold
viola bow hold
cello bow hold
bass bow hold (French and German)
p. 44 instructs teacher to have students to bow through a tube
p. 38, 43 instructs the teacher to demonstrate connected bow strokes
without the bow
p. 44 instructs the teacher to demonstrate and have students imitate
connected bow strokes through a tube
connected bow strokes on the instrument
p. 38, 43 instructs the teacher to demonstrate separated bow strokes
without the bow
separated bow strokes through a tube
separated bow strokes on the instrument

1.8 Short slurs
p. 107 instructs the teacher to teach slurs

p. 50 instructs the teacher to teach students to roll the bow over to the
next string for string crossings

p. 37, 42, 46, 52, 58, 66, 73, 79, 86, 90, 95, 104, 111, 121, 128, 133
54

pizzicato, and/or arco; neutral syllable, then solfege)

rests
ties
upbeats
accompaniment
focus)
2D Music Literacy
instructs the teacher to teach a song and bass line by rote (vocally)
p. 48, 49, 59, 60, 61, 62, 96, 112, 124-125, 129-131 instructs the teacher
to teach melodic patterns by ear vocally and with solfege
p. 50, 54, 63, 64, 68, 69, 70, 71, 76, 77, 80-83, 87-88, 97-99, 101-102,
113-115, 116-119, 155, 170-171 instructs the teacher to have students
echo rhythmic and melodic patterns on the instrument
p. 64, 84, 93, 100, 107 instructs the teacher to have students learn to play
a tune by rote
p. 65, 71, 94 instructs the teacher to have students transpose tunes and
patterns to a new key
p. 111 instructs the teacher to teach Minor Aunt Rhody
p. 87, 99, 127, 132, 134, 138, 156, 163, 172, 189, 197, 223 instructs the
teacher to teach tonal improvisation by singing, chanting, and playing
on the instrument
p. 55, 68, 80, 91-92, 106, 108-109, 123, 126, 135-37 instructs the
teacher to have students echo and chant rhythm patterns
p. 67 instructs the teacher to have students chant rhythm patterns and
keep the macrobeats in the feet and the microbeats in the hands
p. 69 instructs the teacher to teach the difference between duple and
triple meter
p. 105, 108, 122, 135-136 instructs the teacher to have students echo
rhythmic patterns on the instrument
p. 107, 126, 181 instructs the teacher to teach rhythmic improvisation
55
p. 130-131, 139, 149-152, 165-167, 173, 183-184, 215-216, 219-222

students read notated tonal patterns
p. 141, 157, 160, 164, 178, 190-192, 198-199, 207-208, 217-218
students read rhythm patterns
p. 142-148, 153-154, 158-159, 161-162, 168-169, 174-177, 179-181,
185-188, 193-196, 200-205, 209-214 students read tunes

symbols
minors)
and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
as an ensemble
musical performance
variation
corresponding to baseline-level right-hand technical
skills
Performances
Do It! Play Strings

Do It! Play Strings by Froseth and Smith (2003) also emphasizes ear training and creative
56
musicianship in its 389-page teacher manual. Within the first standards category, Executive
Skills and Knowledge, the method covers some of the learning tasks in Content Areas 1A Body
Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge. In the
second standards category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, Do It! Play Strings promotes the
development of aural skills by teaching melodies by ear, and encourages creative musicianship
with numerous improvisation and composition exercises. Concerning the third standards
category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge, the method describes many different musical styles and
provides a companion CD featuring familiar tunes with a variety of styles of accompaniment.
Table 12 identifies the learning tasks found in Do It! Play Strings.
Table 12
Baseline Learning Tasks in Do It! Play Strings
Do It! Play strings
1A Body Format
instruments
p. 2-A, 2-B, 2-C, and 2-D introduces seated and standing posture for violin,
viola, cello, and bass with instructions and line drawings of children
demonstrating correct posture
p. 2-A, 2-B illustrate violin and viola playing position with a line drawing
p. 2-C illustrates cello playing position with a line drawing
p. 2-D illustrates bass playing position with a line drawing
p. 3-A, 3-B, 3-C, and 3-D include instructions and line drawings of left hand
position for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 6-G, 9-D, 13-C, 15-A, 18-D, 20-B, 22-C, 22-D, 23-B, 24-D, 27-G, 36,
37-C, 37-E, 38-A introduces new fingerings with a black and white
photograph of the left hand, a fingerboard diagram, and staff notation for
p. 13-A, 24-A instructs violins, violas, and cellos to use fourth finger instead
of an open string; reminder to leave the left fingers down and form a
tunnel while bowing a higher string

viola
p. 5-A initial exercises are presented for either pizzicato or arco beginning
p. 3-A, 3-B, 3-C, and 3-D include instructions and line drawings of the bow
hold for violin, viola, cello, and bass (French and German)
57
bow strokes
strokes
p. 8-D instructs students to do shadow bowing through tubes

p. 5-C introduces connected and separated bow articulation with instructions
to listen to both styles on the accompanying CD
p. 7, 7-D defines legato and dtach bow styles
p. 5-C introduces connected and separated bow articulation with instructions
to listen to both styles on the accompanying CD
p. 10, 10-C defines staccato

1.8 Short slurs
p. 20 defines slurs
p. 13-A instructs students to make the string change part of a large curve in
the right hand
p. 19 defines upper half, lower half, and whole bow

then solfege)

and low with relative pitch differences (e.g., with
the use of Curwen hand symbols and vocal
solfege)
solfege)

p. 5-A-5-E, 6-A-6-D, 8-C, 20-A, 26-A, 26-E listen and play exercises: call
and response exercises in which the teacher or the CD recording play a
pattern and the students play it back
p. 6-E, 23-E, 23-F, 28-L, 29-E, 31-G, 32-B, 32-D, 33-C, 38-B, 38-D
instructs students to transpose familiar songs by ear
p. 7-7-D instructs students to practice variations on a melody by ear
p. 14, 14-D, 17, 17-D, 23, 27-H songs for students to play by ear
p. 18-C, 27-A vocal call and response exercise
p. 28-A instructs students to harmonize tonic and dominant patterns by ear
p. 8-B lists procedures for creating a safe environment for spontaneous

music making
p. 9-C, 10-B, 11-B, 12-A-12-B, 13-B, 14-B, 16-A, 22-A-22-B, 26-C, 31-A31-B, describes a procedure for teaching improvisation on particular
tunes
p. 10-A, 10-B instructions for creating a fiddle tune and bass line by ear
p. 17-A, 22-E, 26-H, 27-H-27-I instructs students to improvise harmony and
variations on a familiar melody or scale
p. 17-B, 18-C, 24-B, 26-B, 27-A-27-C, 27-F, 28-D-28-F, 29-D present other
spontaneous music making activities
p. 26-E, 27-D-27-E, 28-G-28-H, 29-B, 29-C, 31-C, 37-A call and response
improvisation exercise
p. 30-E improvised musical dialogue
p. 36-A-36-C reviews strategies for creating music improvisations
58
containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats
accompaniment
(exploratory focus)
p. 19 defines pick-up notes
p. 10-D defines rhythmic improvisation
p. 11-A instructs the students to compose a rhythmic round

p. 21-A, 30-D, 37-B instructs the students to compose a tune from a single
musical idea using repetition and variation
p. 26-D instructs the students to compose a tune by notating and combining
improvised riffs
p. 30-C instructs the students to compose a tune based on an original motif

2D Music Literacy
symbols
only)
relative minors)
AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
musical performance
p. 4-5 dictionary of musical signs and symbols
p. 29 defines naturals
59
variation
contact)
technical skills
p. 6-H defines folk song, honky tonk, and rock and roll
p. 6-I defines bluegrass and reggae
p. 8 defines jazz
p. 11 defines lullaby, waltz, branle
p. 12 defines polka
p. 13 defines ballad, march, hymn
p. 14 defines country swing and Dixieland jazz
p. 16 defines jazz ballad style
p. 21 defines jazz waltz
p. 25 defines bouffons
p. 27 defines sea chanty
p. 31 defines ostinato, folk hymn, and gospel music
Tunes are introduced with several different accompaniment styles
p. viii-ix lists the numerous different musical styles that are included in the
book

Performances
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings

Essential Elements 2000 for Strings: A Comprehensive String Method by Allen, Gillespie,
and Tellejohn Hayes (2004) covers one or more learning tasks from almost every content area in
the 272-page teacher manual. In the first standards category, the method includes stepwise
instructions and drawings to illustrate Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and
Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge. As to the second standards category,
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings addresses Content Area 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear
Training with echo exercises, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training with explanations of
rhythmic concepts, 2C Creative Musicianship with improvisation and composition exercises, 2D
Music Literacy by notating initial exercises with the name of the note in the note head, and 2E
60
Ensemble Skills with instructions concerning rehearsal and performance etiquette. In the third
standards category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge, the method covers Content Area 3B
Historical and Cultural Elements by providing descriptions of the historical and cultural origins
of some pieces.
The specific learning tasks that are covered in Essential Elements 2000 for Strings are
presented in table 13.
Table 13
Baseline Learning Tasks in Essential Elements 2000 for Strings
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings
1A Body Format
all instruments
p. 37-38 includes directives for violin and viola to stand with feet about a
shoulders width apart or sit on the front part of the chair, for cello sit
on the front half of your chair with your feet positioned underneath your
knees, and for bass sit squarely on the front half of the stool with your
right foot on the floor and your left foot on a rung of the stool
p. 47 teacher checkpoint includes body position and feet position
p. 37 introduces playing position for violin and viola (guitar and shoulder
position) with stepwise instructions and line drawings
p. 53 illustrates unacceptable and acceptable position of the left wrist
p. 60 instructs the teacher to review holding position for violin and viola
p. 60 workouts box features exercises for finger taps, pull aways, and
fourth finger strumming in play position
p. 95 directs teacher to check left hand position while bowing; left hand is
positioned on the upper bout while bowing open strings
p. 140 directs the teacher to instruct violin and viola students to bring the left
elbow under the instrument when playing on the G string
p. 38 introduces playing position for cello with stepwise instructions and line
drawings
p. 60 workouts exercises for finger taps, and fourth finger strumming in
play position
p. 38 introduces playing position for bass (standing and sitting) with stepwise
instructions and line drawings

p. 46-47 higher number fingers (third finger for violin and viola and fourth
for cello and bass) are introduced before lower fingers in order to develop
hand shape and establish accurate intonation; includes line drawings and
descriptions of the left hand position for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 46-47 includes a diagram of the finger placement on the fingerboard for all
instruments
p. 51 instructs student to keep fingers down on the string and prompts the
teacher and students to check left hand position
p. 64 introduces C sharp and D in third position for the bass with a
fingerboard diagram and line drawings of the hand on the fingerboard
p. 123 directs the teacher to introduce fourth finger for violin/viola
p. 125 includes a fingerboard diagram and drawing of finger placement for
violin and viola
61
p. 142 directs the teacher to check that violin and viola students are forming a
square with the first finger on the fingerboard
p. 145 directs violins and violas to check the pitch of fourth finger D on the G
string with the open D string
p. 71 introduces shifting between first and third position for the bass
p. 138 introduces the notes on the G string with fingerboard diagrams and
drawings of the hand position for violin, viola, and cello
p. 139 introduces the notes on the A and E string for the bass with a
fingerboard diagram and drawings of the hand position
p. 152 introduces second and a half position for the bass
p. 172 introduces low second finger pattern for violin and viola and second
finger position for cello and bass with a description, fingerboard diagram,
and drawing of the hand
p. 183 introduces second position for the bass
p. 190 alert warns students that the following example mixes finger
patterns to play both C natural and F sharp in the same piece
p. 195 introduces notes on the C string for viola and cello with fingerboard
diagram and drawing of the left hand position
p. 206 introduces the notes on the E string for violin with a fingerboard
diagram and drawing of the left hand position

viola
instruments

bow strokes
bow strokes
1.8 Short slurs
p. 39 tells the teacher to demonstrate how to pluck open strings by using the
thumb in guitar position
p. 39 tells the teacher to demonstrate how to pluck open strings by using the
first finger
p. 52 instructs students to shape the bow hold on a pencil in five steps with
line drawings of each step; directives to practice bow hold daily
p. 56-57 features exercises to develop finger flexibility and correct position:
wave wrist, thumb flexes, finger taps, check thumb
p. 75 features five steps to shaping the bow hold on the bow; an early bow
hold is used for violin and viola that forms the bow hold at the balance
point; line drawings are included of the bow hold from two angles for
violin/viola, cello, and bass (French and German bow holds)
p. 82 instructs the teacher to allow violin and viola students to move the bow
hold from the balance point to the frog once students demonstrate
acceptable bow hand shape in rosin raps
p. 93 features line drawings of the bow hold with the bow on the string for
violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 56-57 introduces bowing motion exercise for the right arm without the bow
for each instrument
p. 81 introduces a shadow bowing exercise in which students bow on rosin or
through a PVC or paper tube away from the instrument; line drawings are
included for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 82 Rosin Raps three notated rhythmic exercises in which students are
directed to bow on rosin away from the instrument
p. 94 features drawings and instructions for bowing on the instrument with a
straw in the F hole, and through a tube attached to the strings
p. 218 defines staccato and describes how to play staccato bow strokes
p. 223 introduces hooked bowing as two staccato notes in the same direction
p. 82 bow direction changes are introduced in the pre-bowing Rosin Rap
exercises in which students say down and up as they bow on rosin
p. 156 defines slurs, describes two methods to teach slurring from trills and
slurred staccato; the next several exercises use slurs
p. 160 features slurs across string changes
p. 98 introduces string crossings with drawings and instructions for raising
62
and lowering the right elbow for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 201 directs students to use a slow bow when playing whole notes

then solfege)

with the use of Curwen hand symbols and vocal
solfege)
solfege)


containing rests
p. 48 features four-beat echo pattern for teacher to play and students to echo
using D major tetrachord pizzicato
p. 65 features patterns for the teacher to play and students to echo using the
notes of the D major scale pizzicato
p. 95 provides sample open string patterns for teacher to play and students to
echo using the D and A strings
p. 139 provides sample patterns of notes on the G string for teacher to play
and students to echo
p. 173 provides sample patterns of F sharp and F natural for the teacher to
play and students to echo
p. 179 provides sample patterns using the notes of the D major scale as well
as F natural and C natural for the teacher to play and students to echo
p. 196 provides sample patterns for the teacher to play and students to echo
using notes on the C string for viola and cello
p. 207 provides sample patterns using the notes on the violin E string for the
teacher to play and students to echo
p. 215 provides sample patterns using the fourth finger B on the violin E
string for the teacher to play and students to echo
p. 255 instructs students to improvise and later notate a melody using the D
major pentatonic scale
p. 44 addresses counting and encourages the teacher to count, sing, and clap
all exercises with the students before playing them; line 8 Count
Carefully is preceded by the directive to keep a steady beat when playing
and resting
p. 68 reminds the teacher to continually review the counting system and
recommends that students count aloud each exercise while they play
p. 107 directs teacher to introduce eighth notes counting exercise

p. 146 introduces common time and instructs the students to practice
conducting in 4/4 time to reinforce the feeling of the time signature
p. 39 defines rest symbol
63
containing ties
containing upbeats
accompaniment
(exploratory focus)
p. 155 defines ties

p. 162 defines upbeats
p. 254 instructs students to improvise rhythms on given pitches
p. 78 directs students to notate pitches that spell words on the staff in the
appropriate clef for the instrument
p. 255 instructs students to improvise and later notate a melody using the D
major pentatonic scale

2D Music Literacy
symbols
only)
key signatures: C, G, D, and F Major (with their
relative minors)
p. 39-80 the first 36 exercises feature the note names in the note head; new
symbols are introduced in orange boxes before appearing in an exercise
p. 144 instructs students to write in the note names of the G major scale
before playing it
p. 103 details a four-step process for combining right and left hand skills
while reading music
p. 132 defines chord
p. 90 introduces the D major key signature
p. 140 introduces the G major key signature
p. 183 box introduces the C major key signature
p. 49 introduces sharp symbol and defines natural
p. 174 introduces and defines natural symbol

AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
musical performance

p. 196 includes a message to violin and bass students about the importance of
team work and encourages patience while the viola and cello students learn
the notes on the C string
p. 207 includes a message to viola and cello students to promote team work
while violin and bass students learn the notes on the E string
p. 130 instructs the teacher to discuss appropriate concert etiquette
variation
64
of contact)
technical skills
p. 88 briefly describes the life and music of Mozart and directs the teacher to
play recorded examples of Mozarts work
p. 128 briefly describes life and music of Beethoven and directs the teacher to
play recorded examples of Beethovens work
p. 136 briefly describes life and music of Jacques Offenbach and directs the
teacher to discuss similarities between European operettas and Broadway
musicals
p. 191 briefly describes life and music of Thomas Tallis
p. 217 directs the teacher tore play recorded examples of the music of
Brahms for the students before playing exercise 166 Academic Festival
Overture Theme
p. 190 briefly describes the life and music of Rossini and directs the teacher
to play recorded examples of Rossinis music
p. 163 describes Latin American music; exercise 117 is a Caribbean folk song
p. 117 describes Far Eastern music and exercise 125 is a Far Eastern folk
song
p. 188 describes Russian folk songs and exercise 139 is a Russian folk song
p. 236 describes African music, and exercise 189 is a Kenyan warrior song

Performances
Orchestra Expressions (2004) by DeBerry Brungard, Alexander, Anderson, and Dackow
has a very detailed teachers manual with 969 pages divided into four volumes. The teachers
manual consists of scripted lesson plans for teaching a beginning string class and contains more
pedagogical text addressed to the teacher than any other method in this study. Orchestra
Expressions covers most of the baseline learning tasks in Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B
Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge, the content areas of
the Executive Skills and Knowledge category. Within the second category, Musicianship Skills
and Knowledge, the method addresses at least one learning task in each content area, including
2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2C
Creative Musicianship, 2D Music Literacy, and 2E Ensemble Skills. In the third category,
65
Artistic Skills and Knowledge, the method covers Content Areas 3B Historical and Cultural
Elements and 3B Evaluation of Music and Music Performances, but does not address 3A
Expressive Elements.
Table 14 identifies the specific learning tasks that appear in Orchestra Expressions.
Table 14
Baseline Learning Tasks in Orchestra Expressions
1A Body Format
1.1 Establish posture (sitting and standing)
on all instruments
1.2 Basic playing position for violin and
viola
p. 4 introduces perfect posture warm-up exercise

p. 8-10 instructs students to practice perfect posture in rest position as illustrated
in color photographs
p. 31 introduces playing position warm-ups
p. 20-21 introduces playing position for violin/viola with stepwise instructions
and color photographs
p. 22 introduces playing position for cello with stepwise instructions and color
photographs
p. 23 introduces sitting and standing playing position for bass with stepwise
instructions and color photographs

p. 4-5, 16, 19, 28, 36, 37, 43, 46, 47, 56, 62, 80, 86, 98, 106, 112, 126, 134, 142,
154, 166, 172, 178, 188, 196, 204, 214, 224, 232, 244, 256, 262, 268, 278,
288, 298, 304, 314, 324, 334, 346, 364, 370, 382, 392, 400, 408, 416, 422,
442, 448, 454, 460, 474, 484, 492, 502, 508, 520, 530, 540, 548, 560, 574,
588, 602, 612, 620, 636, 648, 654, 670, 680, 688, 694, 700, 714, 722, 742,
752, 758, 772, 780, 786, 798, 806, 812, 826, 838, 844, 854, 862, 868, 874,
884, 890, 902, 910, 918, 930, 934, 946, 952, 958, 964, 968 instructs the
teacher to have students perform left hand shaping warm-up exercises with and
without instruments
p. 41-42 introduces left hand playing position with stepwise instructions and
color photographs for violin/viola and cello/bass
p. 110-111, 132-133 instructs the teacher to have students play with the tips of
the left hand fingers to create a tunnel effect so that the higher adjacent
string will sound when four fingers are on the D string
p. 113-116 introduces initial left hand finger placement on the D string with
stepwise instructions, color photographs, a fingerboard diagram, and staff
notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 119, 127, 206, 237, 238, 249, 338, 350 instructs the teacher to make sure that
students are pressing firmly into the string to make a clear sound
p. 126, 346 instructs the teacher to review left hand finger placement
p. 135-136 provides color photographs and instructions for the teacher to assess
left hand finger placement
p. 155, 156, 166, 172 instructs the teacher to assess left hand position and finger
placement
p. 29, 36, 62, 73, 86, 98, 106, 112, 126, 188, 196, 232, 256, 262, 334, 370, 392,
400, 408, 484, 602, 620, 648, 654, 670, 680, 688, 694, 806, 812, 826, 838
instructs the teacher to have students do left hand finger pattern drill without
instruments
p. 142-145 introduces the 2-3 finger pattern for violin/viola and the open finger
pattern for cello with stepwise instructions, color photographs, a fingerboard
66
diagram, and staff notation
p. 179 introduces shifting from third position to first position for the bass
p. 234-236, 245-248, 335-337, 347-349, 729-730, 813-814 introduces finger
patterns on a new string for violin, viola, cello, and bass with stepwise
instructions, color photographs, a fingerboard diagram, and staff notation
p. 622-623, 655-657 introduces the low second finger pattern for violin/viola and
the second finger pattern for cello and bass with stepwise instructions, color
photographs, a fingerboard diagram, and staff notation
p. 618-619, 634-635, 658-659, 668-669, 678-679, 686-687 reminds the teacher
about the finger pattern required for F/C natural
p. 631 instructs the teacher to address finger pattern differences for bass in first
and third positions
p. 701, 705 introduces fourth position for the cello with a color photograph, a
fingerboard diagram, and staff notation
p. 820 introduces second position for the bass
instruments
1.5 Perform with simple connected

(dtach) bow strokes
bow strokes
1.8 Short slurs

p. 11-12 instructs students to play pizzicato in rest position

p. 38-39 introduces pizzicato in playing position with stepwise instructions and
color photographs for violin/viola and cello/bass
p. 90-91 introduce the bow hold with stepwise instructions and color photographs
for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 101, 107, 120, 127, 137 instructs the teacher to review the bow hold
p. 148 instructs the student to check the bow hold
p. 175 instructs the teacher to assess student bow holds
p. 17, 28, 36, 46, 51, 56, 62, 72, 80, 86, 98, 106, 112, 126, 134, 142, 154, 172,
178, 188, 196, 204, 214, 224, 232, 244, 256, 262, 268, 278, 288, 298, 304,
314, 324, 334, 346, 364, 370, 382, 392, 400, 408, 416, 422, 442, 448, 454,
460, 474, 484, 492, 502, 508, 520, 530, 540, 548, 560, 574, 588, 602, 612,
620, 636, 648, 654, 670, 680, 688, 694, 700, 714, 722, 742, 752, 758, 772,
780, 786, 798, 806, 812, 826, 838, 844, 854, 862, 868, 875, 884, 890, 902,
910, 918, 930, 934, 946, 952, 958, 964, 968 instructs the teacher to have
students do right hand shaping warm-up exercises
p. 47-50 introduce the bow hold on a pencil with stepwise instructions and color
photographs for violin/viola and cello/bass; German bass bow hold is
introduced on the bow only
p. 92, 102, 108, 120 students perform rhythmic shadow bowing exercises
p. 787, 789, 798, 799 instructs the teacher to have students shadow bow a tune
p. 589, 602 introduces staccato bow strokes

p. 92 introduces down and up bow movement and symbols
p. 128-130 introduces bow levels for different strings on each instrument with
color photographs for each instrument
p. 147, 158 instructs the teacher to review and assess bow levels of string
crossings
p. 477 instructs the teacher to explain and demonstrate bow division
p. 520, 531 instructs the teacher to explain planning bow division when slurring
two notes
p. 551, 560, instructs the teacher to explain appropriate bow division in specific
tunes
p. 727, 741 instructs the teacher to have bass students alter the speed and weight
of the bow to achieve a good tone quality on the E string
p. 810-811, 814, 824-825, 826, 836-837, 838 instructs violas and cellos to use a
slower bow stroke on the low C string
67
patterns (simple patterns and melodies
within a tetrachord), in major and minor
tonalities (vocally, pizzicato, and/or arco;
1.2 Students identify whether two
performed melodic tonal patterns are the
same or different.
1.3 Students correctly associate the words
high and low with relative pitch differences
(e.g., with the use of Curwen hand symbols
and vocal solfege)
2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear
Training
meter while singing or chanting rhythm
patterns
meter while playing rhythm patterns
containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats
1.1 Rhythmic: Students derive rhythm
patterns from speech and environmental
sounds and link them with the motion of the
bow-hand
1.2 Tonal (Melodic and Harmonic):
Students create one-note solos against a
class-generated accompaniment
1.5 Creative leadership: Students invent
their own physical language for conducting
p. 184, 503-504, 583, 822 instructs the teacher to have students improvise a
simple melody within specific guidelines
p. 24, 40 instructs students to count, clap, sing, and play rhythmic patterns with a
steady beat
p. 47, 57, 64 instructs the teacher to have students play a rhythmic exercises
pizzicato
p. 63 introduces quarter rests

p. 508-509 introduces ties
p. 561 introduces upbeats and anacrusis
p. 31, 58 instructs the teacher to have students improvise rhythmic patterns on
open strings
p. 101 instructs students to improvise pizzicato using their names
p. 138, 162, 168, 172, 252, 284, 354, 378, 455, 466, 684, 864, 953, 965 provide
composition worksheets for students to complete
68
2D Music Literacy
with the following skills and understandings
to each corresponding curricular level
p. 63 introduces bar line, clef sign, music staff, quarter note, rest, repeat
p. 65 initial exercises indicate the note name in the note head
p. 87 introduces ledger lines

and symbols
only)
All exercises and tunes appear in standard musical notation; initial exercises have
the note letter name in the note head.
1.6 Students correctly identify musical

forms: AB and ABA
p. 475 instructs the teacher to explain the key signature of D Major

p. 828-829 introduces C Major
p. 146 introduces sharps
p. 621 introduces naturals
p. 82 introduces ABA form with music listening and visual art examples
p. 228, 328, 615, 724, 885 instructs the teacher to have students complete a
listening map and analyze the form of a piece of music
2E Ensemble Skills
1.2 Students adjust pitch within the
ensemble
cooperatively with peers to produce a
quality musical performance
1.4 Display appropriate etiquette for style
and venue of musical performance
demeanor during rehearsals and
performance
p. 416, 930 instructs the teacher to discuss appropriate concert etiquette

p. 930 provides a concert etiquette worksheet
dynamic variation
technique (WASP - weight, angle, speed,
point of contact)
technical skills
p. 4-83 instructs the teacher to have students listen to Les Toreadors from
Carmen by Georges Bizet as the opening and closing music for each lesson in
units 1-3
p. 86-229 instructs the teacher to have students listen to Ode to Joy from
Symphony No. 9 by Ludwig van Beethoven as the opening and closing music
for each lesson in units 4-8
p. 232-330 instructs the teacher to have students listen to Hoedown from
Rodeo by Aaron Copland as the opening and closing music for each lesson in
units 9-11
p. 334-463 instructs the teacher to have students listen to Brandenburg Concerto
No. 5 by Johann Sebastian Bach as the opening and closing music for each
lesson in units 12-16
p. 466-471 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to a current
masterwork as the opening and closing music for each lesson in units 17-18
p. 474-616 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to On the Beautiful
Blue Danube by Johann Strauss, II as the opening and closing music for each
69
p. 620-725 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to Danse Infernale
from The Firebird by Igor Stravinsky as the opening and closing music for
each lesson in units 23-25
p. 728-809 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to Spring from The
Four Seasons by Antonio Vivaldi as the opening and closing music for each
p. 812-887 instructs the teacher to have students listen to the Academic Festival
Overture by Johannes Brahms as the opening and closing music for each
p. 910 instructs the teacher to have students listen to a selected masterwork as the
opening and closing music for each lesson in units 32-36
p. 920 instructs the teacher to have students listen to and discuss Handels Music
for the Royal Fireworks
1.2 Students identify, describe, and compare p. 67 instructs the teacher to discuss opera and tell the story of Carmen
p. 67 instructs the teacher to discuss the style and instruments used in Spanish
dance music
p. 68 instructs the teacher to identify Georges Bizets position on the music
history timeline and relate Les Toreadors from Carmen to Picassos painting
Bullfighting Scene
p. 76 instructs the teacher to discuss 19th century style as heard in Georges
Bizets Les Toreadors from Carmen
p. 81 instructs the teacher to have students to complete a listening map for
Bizets Les Toreadors from Carmen
p. 87, 352 instructs the teacher to discuss and show students a picture of a steel
drum
p. 118 instructs the teacher to discuss jazz music and show a picture of Louis
Armstrong
p. 189 instructs the teacher to discuss the lyrics and historical background of
Good King Wenceslas
p. 209 instructs the teacher to discuss the genre of the symphony and indicate
Beethoven on a music history timeline
p. 217 instructs the teacher to discuss Slavonic folk dance music
p. 220 instructs the teacher to discuss the life and music of Beethoven and show a
picture of Beethoven
p. 281, 290 instructs the teacher to discuss India and Hindustani music
p. 291, 642 instructs the teacher to have students listen to and discuss Blues
music
p. 308 instructs the teacher to discuss the American fiddle tune Bile em
Cabbage Down
p. 309 instructs the teacher to indicate Copland on a music history timeline
p. 310 instructs the teacher to discuss the story of the ballet Rodeo
p. 319 instructs the teacher to discuss the life and musical style of Aaron Copland
p. 376 instructs the teacher to discuss Islamic music and show the students
pictures of Middle Eastern instruments
p. 410 provides program notes for several previously learned melodies
p. 428 instructs the teacher to discuss Baroque music and instruments
p. 438 instructs the teacher to discuss the life and music of J. S. Bach
p. 480 instructs the teacher to explain the historical background of Suo Gan
p. 487 instructs the teacher to discuss Dvoraks New World Symphony
p. 525 instructs the teacher to locate Austria on a map and discuss Haydns
symphonies
p. 531 instructs the teacher to discuss the historical background of Long Long
Ago
p. 542 instructs the teacher to discuss the historical background of Jasmine
Flower
p. 556 instructs the teacher to discuss the historical background of Sweet Betsy
From Pike
p. 597 instructs the teacher to indicate Strausss On the Beautiful Blue Danube
on the music history timeline and discuss the style and history of the music
p. 608 instructs the teacher to discuss the life and music of Johann Strauss, II
p. 639 instructs the teacher to discuss Japanese koto music
p. 709-710 instructs the teacher to indicate Stravinskys The Firebird on a music
70
history timeline and discuss the work
p. 718 instructs the teacher to discuss Igor Stravinsky and his music
p. 758-759 instructs the teacher to discuss influences on Latin American musical
style
p. 773-774 instructs the teacher to discuss instruments used in latin American
music
p. 787 instructs the teacher to discuss the origin and musical characteristics of
Happy Birthday to You
p. 789 instructs the teacher to discuss Baroque music
p. 794 instructs the teacher to indicate Vivaldi on a music history timeline and
discuss his music
p. 799 instructs the teacher to have students listen to a Latin accompaniment and
describe the instruments and musical features
p. 801 instructs the teacher to discuss the life and music of Vivaldi
p. 832 instructs the teacher to discuss the music of Brahms
p. 847 instruct the teacher to discuss the musical characteristics of a Japanese
folk song
p. 856 instructs the teacher to locate Australia on a map and discuss the culture in
relation to an Australian folk song
p. 863 instructs the teacher to discuss the didjeridu
p. 869-870, 877 instructs the teacher to discuss the life and music of Johannes
Brahms and locate him on a music history timeline
p. 894 instructs the teacher to discuss Puerto Rican music
p. 911 instructs the teacher to discuss the historical background of a fiddle tune
p. 925 instructs the teacher to discuss the jaw harp
p. 935 instructs the teacher to have students write program notes for concert
repertoire
p. 936-941 provide sample program notes
p. 969 provides a listening activity worksheet for students to describe a piece of
music
styles
Performances
p. 299, 365, 394, 695, 780, 875 provides a worksheet for students to evaluate
their classmates compositions
p. 449 provides a worksheet for students to evaluate the classs performance
p. 470 provides a worksheet for students to evaluate a recorded piece of music
p. 541 provides a worksheet for students to evaluate classmates performances
p. 614, 947 provides a worksheet for students to evaluate personal and group
performances

New Directions for Strings

New Directions for Strings: A Comprehensive String Method by Erwin, Horvath,
McCashin, and Mitchell (2007) is the only method in this study that addresses one or more of the
learning tasks in every content area described in the ASTA String Curriculum. The 535-page
teacher manual is organized into eighteen units that are divided into preparation and review
skills, focus instruction, review for integration, and a skills assessment. Each unit contains a
large amount of pedagogical text addressed to the teacher, explaining specific string techniques
71
in detail and providing teaching tips. Concerning the first standards category, Executive Skills
and Knowledge, New Directions for Strings begins with a detailed analysis of posture and
instrument position for each instrument, introduces left hand position in terms of tetrachords, and
covers every learning task related to Content Area 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge. Within
the second standards category, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge, the method teaches Content
Areas 2A and 2B Tonal and Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training with melodic and rhythmic
echo exercises, 2C Creative Musicianship with composition and improvisation exercises, 2D
Music Literacy with a color-coded introduction to open strings, and 2E Ensemble Skills with
encouragement to listen to ensemble balance. As to the third standards category, Artistic Skills
and Knowledge, the book briefly addresses Content Area 3A Expressive Elements by
introducing dynamic, and more thoroughly covers Content Areas 3B Historical and Cultural
Elements and 3C Evaluation of Music and Musical Performances with instructions to discuss and
listen to music of various composers and styles such as Vivaldi, Beethoven, Sibelius, and
African American music.
Table 15 indicates the specific learning tasks that are found in New Directions for Strings.
Table 15
Baseline Learning Tasks in New Directions for Strings
New Directions for Strings
1A Body Format
all instruments
p. 26-31 provide an in-depth analysis of correct posture for string instruments

according to the I-beam model of the alignment of the shoulders, spine, and
pelvis; components of correct posture include: feet flat on the floor, I-beam
between the shoulder, spine and hips, shoulders in line with the hips, head in
line with the pine, and sitting tall
p. 65 instructs the teacher to have students demonstrate and describe the
components of good posture
p. 29 describes six steps to basic playing position on the violin and viola
p. 31 repeats stepwise instructions for playing position on violin and viola and
includes line drawings of children demonstrating good position in practice
(guitar) and playing position
p. 29-30 describes six steps to basic playing position on the cello and bass
72
p. 32 repeats stepwise instructions for playing position on cello and includes

line drawings of children demonstrating good position
p. 29 describes six steps to basic playing position for the bass
p. 32 repeats stepwise instructions for playing position on bass and includes
line drawings of children demonstrating good position

p. 37-38 provides line drawings of the hand shape, hand position on the
fingerboard, and a fingerboard diagram for fingered notes on the D string
for violin, viola, cello, and bass; D and A positions are provided for the bass
p. 66-70 provides a detailed introduction to left hand placement, including
specific physical directives for upper and lower strings, a discussion of
finger markers, teaching strategies, and line drawings of the hand shape, left
hand on the fingerboard, and a fingerboard diagram for initial fingered notes
p. 76 includes line drawings and stepwise instructions for developing the left
hand position with the correct contact points
p. 81 instructs the teacher to have the students evaluate their left hand position
with a classmate
p. 105 describes the left hand shape in detail, including block fingering, hand
shapes, finger tunnels
p. 106-107 defines tetrachord and illustrates the G down tetrachord with a
drawing of the left hand, a fingerboard diagram, and staff notation for
p. 108 instructs the teacher to explain to the students that hand shape is
responsible for determining intervals
p. 137 instructs the teacher to have students with large hands to take fingers off
the string when going between a fingered note on one string and the adjacent
open string
p. 122, 123, 132 describes left hand pivot (one finger replaces another using a
small shifting motion) for the basses with instructions for a bass pivot
exercise
p. 124 instructs the teacher to have students to set the left hand position
correctly before beginning a piece
p. 136 instructs the teacher to review pivoting with the bass students
p. 143 describes in detail the importance of the block hand frame for
intonation and recommends that students play descending tetrachord
patterns to practice correct hand shape
p. 145 illustrates the D down tetrachord with drawings of the hand shapes,
fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 159 introduces the fourth finger for violin and viola with drawings of the
hand shape, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation
p. 185-186 includes a fingerboard diagram and staff notation for the fingering
of the D major scale for violin, viola, cello, and bass (D and A positions)
p. 245-246 introduces the C down tetrachord with drawings of the hand
shapes, fingerboard diagrams, and staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and
bass
p. 316-318 describe in detail technique and teaching strategies for teaching
finger patterns that use low second finger for violin and viola, and second
finger for cello and bass
p. 320 illustrates the (low) second finger hand shape with drawings of the hand
shape and hand on the fingerboard and a fingerboard diagram
p. 323 includes fingerboard diagrams of low second finger notes for violin and
viola, and second finger notes for cello and bass on all string
p. 357-358 introduces the C down tetrachord and the F down tetrachord
with fingerboard diagrams and staff notation for violin, viola, cello, and bass

p. 33 instructs violin and viola students to pluck the strings in practice position
(guitar position)
73

instruments

bow strokes
bow strokes
1.8 Short slurs


p. 33 instructs students to pluck the strings in playing position

p. 55-56 illustrate and instruct the teacher to explain the circular motion of the
arm while playing pizzicato
p. 68 instructs the teacher to have the students do left hand pizzicato with the
fourth finger
p. 84 describes three bow hold preparation exercises
p. 85-88 include stepwise instructions for forming the bow hold for violin,
viola, cello, and bass (French and German) with line drawings of each step
and the correct bow hold
p. 103 instructs the teacher to have students list the components of a correct
bow hold and then evaluate a classmate
p. 89, 91 instructs the students to do bowing exercises first with air bows
before bowing on the instrument
p. 297 defines dtach and legato bowing
p. 200 introduces staccato bow strokes
p. 83 describes bow direction changes in detail for the teacher
p. 86, 87, 88 identifies the symbols and defines up bow and down bow for
violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 283 pre-slurring trill exercise
p. 90 includes line drawings of the bow levels required by each string
p. 281-282 describes advanced string crossing skills in detail
p. 290 introduces string crossings with stopped and smooth slurs with colorcoded drawings of bow levels
p. 82-83 identifies the frog, middle, and tip of the bow and describes the
characteristics of playing in the lower half, middle, and upper half of the
bow
p. 168 identifies the parts of the bow and instructs the teacher to help students
plan bow distribution
p. 182 instructs the teacher to have students write in bow division markings in
a review piece
p. 209 instructs the teacher to help the students plan bow distribution for
dotted quarter notes followed by an eighth note
p. 215 written quiz of the parts of the bow (frog, tip, upper half, lower half,
middle)
p. 82 describes the variables of speed, weight, and sounding point
p. 83 describes parallel lanes between the bridge and fingerboard in which
the bow plays
p. 97 instructs the teacher to use the concepts of speed, weight, and contact
point to teach dynamics
p. 166 describes the bow placement and the importance of controlling each
part of the bow
p. 230 instructs the student to play with a good sound and big tone by
combining weight, speed, and contact point
p. 245, 252, 321 describes the slower bow speed needed to play on the bass E
string
p. 310 instructs the teacher to teach students to save bow during long notes

melodic tonal patterns are the same or
different.
p. 45, 69, 85, 105, 123, 144, 167, 184, 230, 245, 282, 334, 356, 382, 401
instructs the teacher to perform rhythmic and echo patterns in which the
teacher plays and the student echoes
74
with the use of Curwen hand symbols and
vocal solfege)
p. 316 instructs the teacher to have students change familiar tunes from D
major to D minor by altering F sharp to F natural
p. 35 instructs the teacher to have the students improvise using the open D and
A strings
p. 64, 112, 254, 363 provides a notated improvisation ostinato loop over which
students can improvise rhythmic or melodic patterns
p. 81 instructs the teacher to have the students improvise four measures in 4/4
meter quarter notes and the pitches D, E, F sharp while the class places an
ostinato
p. 103, 121, 142, 150, 165, 182, 228, 244, 263, 264, 280, 315, 333, 355, 380,
400, 425 instructs the teacher to have the students improvise within specific
guidelines

containing rests
containing ties
containing upbeats
p. 35, 39, 47, 51 instructs students to clap and count, clap and sing, and play
pizzicato for each tune
p. 79 teaches counting with a ruler

p. 51 introduces 3/4 and 4/4 time signatures
p. 313 labels upbeats
p. 81 instructs the teacher to have the students improvise four measures in 4/4
meter quarter notes and the pitches D, E, F sharp while the class places an
ostinato
p. 315 instructs the teacher to have students improvise rhythmic patterns
from speech and environmental sounds and
link them with the motion of the bow-hand
accompaniment
p. 50 includes a composition exercise in which students write compositions

using D and A in quarter notes and rests
p. 60 includes a composition exercise in which students complete partial
measures using quarter and half notes and rests on open strings
p. 65 instructs students write rhythmic compositions on the D string, as well as
a four-measure piece using the D and A strings
p. 81, 96, 103, 121, 142, 165, 182, 244, 263, 280, 315, 333, 355, 380, 400, 425
instructs the teacher to have the students write a short composition within
75
specific guidelines
2D Music Literacy

and symbols
only)
p. 33 initial exercises use color-coded letter names

p. 44 instructs the teacher to use flash cards to teach musical symbols
independently before having students read music
p. 47 includes color-coded open strings notated on the staff
p. 72 introduces the musical alphabet
p. 131 instructs students to write note names in the note head for violin, viola,
and cello
p. 141 instructs students to spell words by writing the note names
p. 228 instructs the teacher to have the students evaluate their posture
p. 185 defines key signatures and identifies the key signature for D major
p. 267 introduces the key of G major
p. 227 a written exercise in writing sharp symbols for each instrument in the
appropriate clef
p. 319 defines sharps, naturals and flats and includes an accidental writing
exercise for each instrument

AB and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
p. 382 instructs the teacher to have students listen for balance and rhythmic
precision when playing in an ensemble

musical performance
dynamic variation
of contact)
technical skills
p. 97 instructs students to change bow lanes in order to change dynamics
p. 160 includes a brief description of Ode to Joy as the theme from

Beethovens Symphony No. 9
p. 179 brief description of Vivaldis four seasons
p. 198 brief description of Offenbach
p. 211 brief description of Dvorak
p. 234 brief description of William Billings
p. 236 brief description of Stephen Foster
76
p. 238, 420 brief description of Johannes Brahms
p. 311 brief description of Jean Sibelius
p. 339 brief description of African American songs before exercise 143 Kum
Ba Yah
p. 352 brief description of My Country Tis of Thee
p. 367 brief description of African tune Funga Alafia
p. 373 brief description of fiddle tune Cripple Creek
p. 375 brief description of a minuet
p. 377 brief description of Rossini
p. 414 brief description of Bizet
p. 417 brief description of Handel
p. 423 brief description of Karl Goldmark
styles
Performances

p. 81 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to a piece of music with
rests and describe the musical impact of the pauses
p. 103 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to Haydns Surprise
Symphony and describe how dynamics are used in the symphony
p. 121 instructs the teacher to play Jingle Bells with rhythmic variation and
have the students identify which measures are altered
p. 142 instructs the teacher to have students listen to orchestral music in 3/4 or
4/4 and ask them to identify the meter
p. 165 instructs the teacher to play the D down tetrachord with various
rhythms and ask the students to describe the musical elements heard
p. 182 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to several excerpts of
orchestral music with expansive dynamic ranges and diagram the dynamic
contour of the music
p. 228 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to music that uses major
scales and identify how many major scales they hear
p. 244 instructs the teacher to have the students to listen to pieces with varied
dynamics and describe how dynamics make it more interesting
p. 263 instructs the teacher to have students play two similar pieces and
describe how they differ
p. 280 instructs the teacher to have the students listen to folk songs and
identify similarities between them
p. 315 instructs the teacher to have students listen to and discuss pieces with
staccato and legato bowing
p. 333 instructs the teacher to have students listen to a piece with chromatic
alteration and write about how it affects the musical value
p. 355 instructs the teacher to have students listen to a blues recording and
write about the character of the swing articulation
p. 380 instructs the teacher to have students listen to and write about music
with obvious syncopations
p. 400 instructs the teacher to have students listen to and describe the ensemble
skills involved in a string piece
p. 425 instructs the teacher to have students perform solos on each instrument
and have the class write about the differences between the instruments
p. 65 instructs the teacher to have students listen to a piece of music and
describe how it makes them feel
Simply Strings
Simply Strings: A Standards-Based, Comprehensive String Method was written by
Odegaard, a member of the ASTA String Curriculum authorial committee. With 104 pages in the
77
teacher edition, it is one of the more compact method books reviewed in this study and includes
notated music for only violin and bass. Pedagogical text addressed to the teacher provides
detailed descriptions of holding the instrument and bow, as well as small text boxes titled tips
that occur every few pages and contain teaching strategies and reminders. In standards category
one Executive Skills and Knowledge, the method covers Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B
Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge with stepwise
instructions and photographs. As to standards category two, Musicianship Skills and
Knowledge, the method addresses Content Areas 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2B
Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, and 2D Music Literacy, but
not 2E Ensemble Skills. In the third standards category, Artistic Skills and Knowledge, the book
cursorily covers Content Areas 3A Expressive Elements and 3B Historical and Cultural
Elements, but does not address Content Area 3B Evaluation of Music and Music Performances.
Table 16 indicates the learning tasks addressed in Simply Strings.
Table 16
Baseline Learning Tasks in Simply Strings
Simply Strings
1A Body Format
instruments
p. 8, 10 instructs the teacher to review posture/position steps

p. 19 includes reminder phrases for the teacher to use to prompt students
to check posture and position
p. 62, 90 reminds students to check the position of the left arm
p. 6 Stepwise instructions for playing position for violin and viola
p. 6 Stepwise instructions for playing position for cello
p. 6-7 Stepwise instructions for standing and sitting playing position for
bass

p. 6-7 introduces left hand position

p. 9 introduces initial fingered notes for each instrument with staff
notation and a photograph of the left hand position; all instruments
start on F sharp on the D string
p. 26 introduces A on the G string for bass with a photograph of the left
hand and staff notation
p. 38, 44, 52, 62, 66, 76, 78, 80, 88, 90 introduces new notes with staff
notation and a photograph of the left hand
78
p. 55 introduces second and a half position for bass

p. 82, 84 introduces low second finger for violin and viola, and second
finger for cello and bass with staff notation and a photograph of the
left hand
p. 97 introduces fourth finger for violin and viola

p. 9 introduces pizzicato with black and white photographs of each

instrument
p. 10 instructs the teacher to demonstrate pizzicato
p. 18-19 introduces the bow hold for violin, viola, cello, and bass
(French and German) with stepwise instructions for teaching the bow
hold
p. 20-21 includes stepwise instructions and black and white photographs
of forming the bow hold for violin, viola, cello, and bass (French and
German)
p. 28, 30, 33 reminds the student to follow all steps for making the bow
hold before playing

strokes
strokes
1.8 Short slurs

p. 25 defines down and up bow symbols

p. 18 instructs the teacher to explain that bow placement, speed, and

weight work together to produce a good tone
p. 56 instructs students to use a slower bow on longer notes

pizzicato, and/or arco; neutral syllable, then solfege)
p. 10, 12, 14, 16, 22, 23 instructs the student to name intervals and
identify if an interval goes up or down
p. 35, 38 introduces tonic and dominant and instructs the teacher to have
students identify whether they hear tonic or dominant chords while
listening to chords
p. 29 call and response improvisation exercise in which students
improvise a musical answer to a question
p. 32 instructs students to improvise and then notate a four beat ostinato
p. 42, 48, 64 instructs the students to improvise a melody using familiar
notes and rhythms
79
rests
ties
upbeats
p. 12 defines 2/4 time signature and instructs student to count aloud

p. 14 introduces quarter rests
p. 86 defines pickup note

p. 72 instructs the teacher to have students improvise rhythmic
variations

accompaniment
focus)
2D Music Literacy
p. 12-16 students learn rhythms for each tune by learning the lyrics

symbols
p. 10 students read musical notation from the beginning

minors)
and ABA
p. 14 defines key signature and introduces the key of D major

p. 64 instructs the student to check the key signature
2E Ensemble Skills
as an ensemble
musical performance
p. 23, 25, 70 includes a composition exercise that instructs students to

compose a melody using familiar notes and rhythms
p. 8 defines sharp symbol

p. 30-31 defines form and introduces AA form
p. 38 introduces AB form and AA1 form
p. 40, 42, 48 instructs students to label the form of a piece
80
variation
skills
p. 14 defines dynamics
p. 28 describes how to play piano
p. 50 brief description of Mozart

p. 99 brief description of Vivaldi

Performances
Sound Innovations for String Orchestra

Sound Innovations for String Orchestra: A Revolutionary Method for Beginning Musicians
by Phillips, Boonshaft, and Sheldon (2010) addresses one or more learning tasks in almost all of
the ASTA String Curriculum content areas in its 200-page teacher manual. In standards category
one, Executive Skills and Knowledge, the method covers Content Areas 1A Body Format, 1B
Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, and 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge with initial
instructions and drawings of correct technique and frequent reminders to check position, left
hand position, and bow hold. As to standards category two, Musicianship Skills and Knowledge,
the book addresses Content Areas 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training with aural
discrimination exercises, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training with explanations of
rhythmic concepts and reminders to keep a steady beat, 2C Creative Musicianship with
composition and conducting exercises, 2D Music Literacy with explanations of musical notation,
and 2E Ensemble Skills with rules for concert etiquette. Within the third standards category,
81
Artistic Skills and Knowledge, Content Area 3B Historical and Cultural Elements is addressed
through brief descriptions of various composers, but Content Areas 3A Expressive Elements and
3C Evaluation of Music and Musical Performances are not covered.
Table 17 indicates the learning tasks found in Sound Innovations for String Orchestra.
Table 17
Baseline Learning Tasks in Sound Innovations
Sound Innovations
1A Body Format
instruments
p. 7 encourages the student to use a good sitting or standing posture

while playing
p. 12 reminder to maintain good posture while playing
p. 20 reminder to keep feet flat on the floor
p. 28 reminder to maintain a straight back
p. 44 reminder to relax the shoulders while playing
p. 65 reminder to hold the instrument correctly for a better sound
p. 83 reminder that good tone starts with posture and playing position
p. 91 reminder to play in a relaxed manner
p. 97 reminder to keep the left wrist straight
p. 114 instructs students to evaluate their stand partners playing position
p. 155 instructs the teacher to help students position the music stand
correctly to ensure good posture, playing position, and visibility
p. 7 instructions about holding the instrument and line drawings of a child
holding the violin and viola in guitar position and shoulder position
p. 94, 148, 152, 161 reminder for violins and violas to bring the elbow
under the neck
p. 101, 162 reminder to keep violins and violas parallel to the floor
p. 153 reminder for violins to use less weight when playing on the E
string
p. 159 reminder for violas to use more left-arm weight when playing on
the C string
holding the cello
p. 159 reminder for cellos to use more left-arm weight when playing on
the C string
holding the bass in sitting and standing position
p. 151 reminder for basses to keep the left elbow up when playing F# on
the E string
p. 152 reminder for basses to use more arm weight

p. 14 features seven steps to placing the left hand fingers on the D string
for violin/viola, cello, and bass and includes a line drawing of the hand
on the fingerboard for each instrument
p. 17 reminder to place the left hand fingers firmly on the string
p. 20, 21 reminder to prepare the left hand fingers for the next note while
playing and to relax the left hand
p. 23 reminder that left hand fingers should be curved
p. 31 reminder to keep the left hand fingers down as long as possible
while ascending
82
p. 64, 95 reminder to keep the fingers close to the fingerboard

p. 96 reminder to relax the left thumb
p. 115 reminder to keep the left hand fingers down as much as possible
p. 125 reminder to keep the left hand thumb bent
p. 15 introduces G with a drawing of the left hand and staff notation
p. 24 basses play high D in third position, but no directives for shifting
p. 78-79 introduces fourth finger for violins and violas with line drawing
of the hand position
p. 78 introduces G and A in third position on the D string for bass
p. 118 introduces low second finger for violin and viola, second finger
position for cello and bass
p. 119 reminder for violins and violas not to let the third finger come back
when playing low second finger
p. 119, 120, 123, 125 instructs violin and viola students to practice sliding
the second finger between high and low positions
p. 132 reminder to check finger position

viola

strokes
strokes
1.8 Short slurs

p. 7 directs the student to pluck open strings with the right thumb in
guitar position for violin and viola
p. 7-8 direct the student to anchor the thumb on the fingerboard and pluck
the strings with the index finger
p. 37-38 four steps with drawings of each step to establishing the initial
bow hold on a pencil for violin, viola, cello, and bass (French and
German bow hold)
p. 42-43 four steps with drawings of each step to establishing the initial
bow hold on the bow for violin, viola, cello, and bass (French and
German bow hold)
p. 46-47 pre-bowing exercises in the air for all instruments and on the
shoulder for violin and viola
p. 48 rhythmic exercises for air-bowing
p. 51-52 instructions accompanied by line drawings of placing the bow on
the string in the lower, middle, and upper parts of the bow for violin,
viola, cello, and bass
p. 74 reminder to fold and unfold the elbow when playing eighth notes
p. 106 introduces staccato bowing style with instructions to stop the bow
between notes
p. 131 reminder to separate notes marked staccato
p. 124 reminder to change bow directions a smoothly as possible
p. 55-56 description and line drawings of the right arm level for each
string for violin, viola, cello, and bass
p. 57, 58 reminder to watch the level of the right arm during string
crossings
p. 93 reminder for violins and violas to raise the right arm and for cellos
to lower the right arm to play on the G string
p. 158 reminder for violas and cellos to move the arm to the right level to
play on the C string
p. 82 explains bow distribution in terms of using the upper half, lower
half, and middle part of the bow with instructions to play rhythmic
patterns in different parts of the bow for violin/viola, cello, and bass
p. 59 describes and illustrates bowing lanes (bow contact points between
the bridge and the fingerboard) and reminds students to keep the bow
parallel to the bridge
p. 60, 61, 63, 64, 145 instructs students to check bow angle
p. 66, 67 instructs students to memorize the exercise and watch the
contact point while playing
83
p. 69 defines bow speed and instructs students to move the bow more
slowly when playing half notes
p. 75 reminder to slow down the bow when going from eighth notes to
half or quarter notes
p. 113 instructs the teacher to remind students to use a faster bow speed
on quarter notes than eighth notes
p. 127 introduces dynamics in terms of contact point, weight, and speed;
diagrams illustrate bowing lanes for forte, mezzo forte, and piano
p. 128, 129, 140 reminder to bow in the appropriate dynamic lane
p. 139 reminder to move the bow slowly when playing whole notes
p. 166 reminder for violas and cellos to let the bow sink firmly into the C
string
p. 173 point out that the bow moves in half-note rhythm when playing a
dotted quarter slurred to an eighth note
(simple patterns and melodies within a tetrachord),
in major and minor tonalities (vocally, pizzicato,

low with relative pitch differences (e.g., with the
use of Curwen hand symbols and vocal solfege)
1.5 Students alter melodies and harmonies (majorto-minor, minor-to-major)
solfege)


containing rests
containing ties
p. 30, 49 instructs students to compare two similar musical exercises

p. 35 instructs students to raise a hand when a new theme is played while
listening to a recording
p. 40 directs students to identify which lines of music are similar in
Jingle Bells while listening to a recording
p. 39 asks students to identify notes that do not move in stepwise motion
p. 10 the first few exercises include instructions for the teacher to count,
clap, and pluck the piece with the students
p. 18 reminder to clap every exercise before playing it
p. 19, 25 recommends that half the group claps while the other half plays
p. 68, 69, 74, 75, 167, 168, 172 instructs the students to clap, sing, and
play the piece
p. 14, 50 reminder to play with a steady tempo

p. 9 defines time signature
p. 114 introduces common time
p. 11 exercise 3 includes rests (quarter rests are first identified on p. 9)
p. 13 reminder that the piece is not complete until the final rest is finished
p. 45 reminder to count through three rests in the last measure
p. 104 defines ties
84
containing upbeats
accompaniment
(exploratory focus)

p. 106 defines pickup notes
p. 70 features a composition exercise in which students are instructed to

compose a four-bar piece using D, E, F#, G, and A with quarter notes
and half notes
p. 138 features a composition exercise in which students are instructed to
compose a variation on Baa-Baa Black Sheep
p. 185 instructs students to improvise and later notate a melody using
notes in the pentatonic scale
p. 135 introduces basic conducting techniques and patterns for 4/4, 3/4
and 2/4
p. 136 instructs half the ensemble to play while the other half conducts
2D Music Literacy
symbols
minors)
and ABA
2E Ensemble Skills
p. 9 explains the symbols used in musical notation

p. 23, 33, 100 directs students to write in the note names before playing
the exercise
p. 15 new notes are introduced with a line drawing of the finger on the
fingerboard and the pitch notated on the appropriate staff for each
instrument
p. 89 defines chord
p. 35 defines key signature and illustrates the key signature for D major
p. 9 labels accidentals (sharp, flat, natural)
p. 118 introduces F natural
p. 143 explains sharp, flat, natural
p. 35-36 labels Twinkle Twinkle Little Star with theme A and B

musical performance
variation
p. 180 instructs the teacher to develop a list of concert etiquette rules
85
skills
p. 35 includes a brief description of Mozart

p. 73 includes a brief description of Offenbach and operettas
p. 113 instructs teacher to discuss J. S. Bach and characteristics of
Baroque music
p. 131 brief description of J. S. Bach
p. 133 brief description of Haydn
p. 140 brief description of Mussorgsky
p. 130 defines sakura (Japanese word for spring) before exercise 130,
which is a Japanese folk song

Performances
Summary
The data revealed several similarities and differences between the 13 beginning
heterogeneous string class methods. While none of the methods addressed all 58 baseline
learning tasks described in the ASTA String Curriculum, all methods covered some of the
learning tasks. All methods address at least some of the baseline learning tasks in the Content
Areas of 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, 1C Right Hand Skills and
Knowledge, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, and 2D Music Literacy. Most methods
addressed at least some of the learning tasks in the following content areas: 2A Tonal Aural
Skills and Ear Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, and 3B Historical and Cultural Elements.
The content areas that were least frequently covered were 2E Ensemble Skills, 3A Expressive
Elements, and 3B Evaluation of Music and Music Performances.
Additional Topics of Consideration
After they were reviewed for the opportunities presented for teaching the baseline learning
tasks of the ASTA String Curriculum, all 13 beginning heterogeneous string class methods were
86
reviewed according to additional topics of consideration. The additional criteria for analysis
were (a) unique features, (b) supplementary materials, (c) sequential books, (d) origin of tunes,
(e) types of tunes, (f) key signatures used or implied, (g) time signatures used, rhythms used, (h)
range for each instrument, (i) shifting or extensions, (j) bowing styles introduced, (k)
presentation, and (l) cost and availability. This additional component of the analysis revealed
more areas of similarity and difference among the methods.
Unique Features
The consideration of unique features revealed the specific purpose or distinguishing
characteristic of each method. The Muller-Rusch String Method (Muller & Rusch, 1961), the
oldest method in the study, stood out from all of the others because of the comparative lack of
pedagogical text addressed to the teacher. In fact, the teacher book is labeled a conductors
score as opposed to a teacher manual. A primary unique feature of All for Strings (Anderson &
Frost, 1986) is that the method includes options for starting by rote with play-by-ear exercises,
and for starting by note with musical notation. Strictly Strings (Dillon, Kjelland, & OReilly,
1992) uses a letter-note approach to ease the transition to sight-reading. Spotlight on Strings by
Gazda and Stoutamire (1997) introduces all open strings pizzicato and arco before adding the left
hand, and teaches students to play with all four fingers down when introducing the left hand. In
String Explorer (Dabczynski, Meyer, & Phillips, 2002), new right and left hand skills are
introduced separately at the beginning of each lesson. Artistry in Strings (Frost & Fischbach,
2002) features middle and low position options for beginning bass, contains theory and
enrichment worksheets, and emphasizes cultural and historical connections. Jump Right In
(Grunow, Gordon, Azzara, & Martin, 2002) focuses on improvisation and musicianship skills
and uses tonal and rhythmic solfege. Do it! Play Strings! (Froseth & Smith, 2003) emphasizes
87
improvisation. In Essential Elements 2000 for Strings (Allen, Gillespie, & Tellejohn Hayes,
2004), beginning exercises feature the note name in the note head. Orchestra Expressions
(Brungard, Alexander, Anderson, & Dackow, 2004) begins the bass in third position and
introduces the left hand with four fingers down for all instruments. New Directions for Strings
(Erwin, Horvath, McCashin, & Mitchell, 2007) introduces all four strings at the beginning of the
method and provides first and fourth position beginning options for bass. Simply Strings
(Odegaard, 2007) starts with the left hand fingers down on F sharp and displays only violin and
double bass parts in the teacher edition. Sound Innovations for String Orchestra (Phillips,
Boonshaft, & Sheldon, 2010) features a customizable directors choice edition of the method.
Supplementary Materials
In addition to unique features, the availability of supplementary materials was considered.
All methods except Spotlight on Strings (Gazda & Stoutamire, 1997) have at least one type of
supplementary material such as an accompaniment CD, correlated ensemble arrangements,
technique books, interactive technology, pedagogical DVDs, teacher resource kits, and other
instructional resources.
Several methods have supplementary technology. String Explorer, Essential Elements
2000, Orchestra Expressions, New Directions for Strings, and Sounds Innovations are
compatible with the SmartMusic, an interactive music software program with which students can
practice with a computerized accompaniment, receive immediate assessment, and send a
recording to the teacher. Also, two methods have correlating websites; String Explorer has a
website at http://www.stringexplorer.com that offers information for parents, free downloads,
and puzzles and games for string students, and Essential Elements 2000 has an interactive
website at http://www.essentialelementsinteractive.com that offers multiple options for
88
accompaniment tracks, practice tools, and teacher assessment for the tunes and exercises in book
one. Furthermore, Essential Elements 2000 and Sound Innovations come with an instructional
DVD that features beginning level master classes and lesson demonstrations.
The particular supplementary materials offered by each string method are indicated below
in Table 18.
Table 18
Supplementary Materials
Method Book
Accompaniment
CD
Muller-Rusch
String Method
All for Strings
Correlated
Ensemble
Arrangements
X
Technique
Book
Technology
Teacher
Resource
Kit
Other
X
theory
workbook;
flash cards
Strictly Strings
Spotlight on
Strings
String Explorer
SmartMusic;
interactive
website
Artistry in
Strings
Jump Right In
Do It! Play
Strings
Essential
Elements 2000
for Strings
Orchestra
Expressions
SmartMusic;
interactive
website;
DVD
SmartMusic
New Directions
for Strings
SmartMusic
Simply Strings
Sound
Innovations
SmartMusic;
DVD
interactive
practice
CD
parent
guide to
strings
89
Sequential Levels
Another topic of consideration was the availability of sequential books. The majority of
the methods have two sequential books that cover beginning and intermediate string techniques.
Exceptions are the Muller-Rusch String Method, which consists of five sequential levels, Strictly
Strings and All for Strings which each have three levels, Artistry in Strings, which has an
introductory book, book one, and book two, and Simply Strings, which has only one book.
Origin and Type of Tunes
The origin and type of tunes was considered, and it was found that almost all methods
incorporate a combination of composed pedagogical exercises, folk songs from various cultures,
and melodies from Western art music repertoire. Unison tunes and exercises predominate, but
most methods include at least a few ensemble arrangements that would be suitable for a firstyear concert. Jump Right In and Simply Strings contain only unison musical material.
Key Signatures Used or Implied
The key signatures used or implied in each method were also examined. Every method
covers the keys of D, G, and C major. Strictly Strings also uses the keys of A and E-flat major
and E minor, String Explorer additionally include the keys of F and B-flat major, Jump Right In
adds G minor, and Do It! Play Strings uses A, F, B-flat, and E-flat major.
Time Signatures Used
An investigation of the time signatures used in each method found that all methods include
the time signatures 4/4, 3/4, and 2/4 with the exception of New Directions for Strings, which
only uses 4/4 and 3/4. Artistry in Strings also introduces 1/4, and Jump Right In is the only
method to introduce compound meter in book one. Jump Right In uses 6/8 and 3/8 time
signatures.
90
Rhythms Used
Excepting Jump Right In, which starts with the eighth note, all methods begin with the
quarter note as the first rhythmic value to be introduced. Every method uses the quarter note,
half note, whole note, eighth note, and dotted half note. String Explorer, Jump Right In, Do It!
Play Strings, and Sound Innovations also introduce the dotted quarter note. Jump Right In is the
only method to introduce sixteenth notes and dotted eighth notes in book one.
Range for Each Instrument
The range of pitches introduced for each instrument is similar among the methods. Every
method covers the pitches accessible in first position on each instrument, with the addition of the
pitches in second, third, or fourth position on the bass. For violin, the range is most often G3 to
B5, with the exception of All for Strings, Spotlight on Strings, Artistry in Strings, and Do It! Play
Strings, which only go up to A5. The range for viola is generally C3 to E5, with the exception of
All for Strings, Spotlight on Strings, Artistry in Strings, Do It! Play Strings and Simply Strings,
which only go up to D5. The range for cello is C2 to D4, with the exception of Orchestra
Expressions, in which the cello shifts to G4 in fourth position on the cello. The range for bass is
most commonly E2 to D4 (written pitch), with the exception of All for Strings and Spotlight on
Strings, in which the bass only goes up to C4.
Shifting and Extensions
In every method except Orchestra Expressions, which introduces shifting to fourth position
for the cello, and String Explorer, in which the cello shifts to second position, the violin, viola,
and cello remain in first position. For the bass, all methods cover shifting to second, second and
one-half, and/or third position. String Explorer is the only method that introduces forward and
backward extensions for violin, viola, and cello.
91
Bowing Styles
An examination of the bowing styles introduced in the methods revealed that all methods
teach slurs and staccato bowing styles. Several methods also teach slurred staccato or hooked
bowing: All for Strings, Strictly Strings, String Explorer, Jump Right In, Essential Elements
2000, Orchestra Expressions, and Sound Innovations. Spotlight on Strings, String Explorer,
Orchestra Expressions, and New Directions for Strings introduce legato bowing. Other bowing
styles introduced include accents (Do It! Play Strings), lour (All for Strings), spiccato (Strictly
Strings, Spotlight on Strings, and Artistry in Strings), martel (Spotlight on Strings and Artistry
in Strings), and tenuto (Do It! Play Strings and Sound Innovations).
Presentation
Each method was also evaluated on the basis of its presentation, which includes the type
and quality of illustrations and the layout and general appearance of the pages. Each of the
methods uses either photographs or line drawings to illustrate correct instrument position, left
hand placement, and bow hold. Muller-Rusch String Method, All for Strings, Spotlight on
Strings, String Explorer, and Simply Strings use black and white photographs, and Orchestra
Expressions uses color photographs of people playing string instruments. Strictly Strings,
Artistry in Strings, Jump Right In, Do It! Play Strings, Essential Elements 2000, New Directions
for Strings, and Sound Innovations use black and white line drawings. The layouts of the pages
range from simple and uncluttered to busy multi-color pages.
Cost and Availability
The final topic of consideration was the cost and availability of the student book and
teacher edition for each string class method. The publisher, the current publisher cost of the
student book, and the current publisher cost of the teacher book are listed below in Table 19.
92
Table 19
Cost and Availability of String Methods
Title
Publisher
Student Book Cost
Teacher Book
Cost
Muller-Rusch String Method for Class

or Individual Instruction
Neil A. Kjos Music
$4.50
$8.95
All for Strings: Comprehensive String

Method
Neil A. Kjos Music
$5.50
$14.95
Strictly Strings: A Comprehensive

String Method
Alfred Publishing
$6.99
$29.95
Neil A. Kjos Music
$4.95
$9.95
String Explorer: An Explorers Guide

to Teaching Strings
Alfred Publishing
$7.95
$39.95
Artistry in Strings: A Comprehensive

Course of Study for Group or Private
Instruction
Neil A. Kjos Music
$6.95
$49.95
Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series

for Strings, Revised
GIA Publications
$6.50
$50.00
Do it! Play Strings!
GIA Publications
$7.95
$55.00
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings: A

Hal Leonard
$8.99
$34.99
Alfred Publishing
$8.99
$299.95
New Directions for Strings: A

FJH Music
$8.95
$39.95
Simply Strings: A Standards-Based,

Northeastern Music
Publications
$8.95
$25.00
Sound Innovations for String Orchestra:

A Revolutionary Method for Beginning
Musicians
Alfred Publishing
$8.99
$39.00
93
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION
Similarities and Differences Among Methods
The data revealed similarities and differences among the 13 beginning heterogeneous
string class methods. The ASTA String Curriculum baseline learning tasks that were addressed
by all 13 string methods were 1A-1.2 Basic Playing Position for Violin and Viola, 1.A.1.3 Basic
Playing Position for Cello, 1A-1.4 Basic Playing Position for Bass, 1B-1.1 Initial Left Hand
Finger Placement, 1C-1.2 Perform Pizzicato in Playing Position, 1C-1.3 Establishing Initial Bow
Hold, 2D-1.1 Students Correctly Identify and Perform Basic Music Notation and Symbols.
Learning tasks that were addressed by almost all methods (ten or more) include 1A-1.1 Establish
Posture on all Instruments, 1B-1.2 Initial Finger Patterns, 1C-1.4 Perform Pre-bowing Exercises,
1C-1.6 Perform With Simple Separated (Staccato) Bow Strokes, 1C-1.8 Short Slurs, 1C-1.9
String Crossings, 1C-1.11 Intro to Weight, Angle, Speed, and Placement (Contact Point and Part
of Bow), 2B-1.2 Students Will Demonstrate a Sense of Meter While Singing or Chanting
Rhythm Patterns, 2B-1.6 Students Will Perform Rhythm Patterns Containing Ties, 2B-1.7
Students Will Perform Rhythm Patterns Containing Upbeats, 2D-1.4 Students Correctly Identify
the Following Key Signatures: C, G, D, and F major, and 2D-1.5 Students Correctly Identify
Accidentals. In general, the content areas that were most commonly addressed were 1A Body
Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, 1C Right Hand Skills and Knowledge, 2B
Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear Training, and 2D Music Literacy.
The data revealed that none of the beginning heterogeneous string class methods addressed
all 58 of the baseline learning tasks, but each of the methods covered at least some learning
tasks. The Muller-Rusch String Class Method addressed the fewest number of learning tasks,
covering only 16. Artistry in Strings addressed the greatest number of learning tasks by covering
94
38 of the baseline learning tasks and addressing one or more of the learning tasks in all content
areas except 3A Expressive Elements. New Directions for Strings was the only method reviewed
in this study that covered one or more of the baseline learning tasks in every content area,
including 1A Body Format, 1B Left Hand Skills and Knowledge, IC Right Hand Skills and
Knowledge, 2A Tonal Aural Skills and Ear Training, 2B Rhythmic Aural Skills and Ear
Training, 2C Creative Musicianship, 2D Music Literacy, 2E Ensemble Skills, 3A Expressive
Elements, 3B Historical and Cultural Elements, and 3C Evaluation of Music and Musical
Performances.
A chronological review of the methods revealed that the content of the methods reflected
developments in American music education. In 1994, the Music Educators National
Conference, now the National Association for Music Education, published nine national
standards for music education in order to promote a comprehensive music curriculum. These
standards include singing, performing on instruments, improvising, composing, reading music,
listening, evaluating music, understanding relationships between music and other disciplines, and
understanding music in relation to history and culture. Instrumental method books reacted to the
national standards and began to incorporate opportunities for teaching musicianship, music
history, and music theory lessons in addition to performance techniques. Published in 1997,
Spotlight on Strings was chronologically the first method in this study to include composition
and improvisation exercises. Almost all of the string methods published after 1994 addressed the
ASTA String Curriculum learning tasks related to composition, improvisation, history, and
culture more thoroughly than the methods that precede the national standards for music
education.
Because all of the methods reviewed in this study pre-date the publication of the ASTA
95
String Curriculum, it is not surprising that none of the methods addressed all 58 baseline learning
tasks described there. Even the method that covered the most learning tasks neglected twenty
baseline learning tasks. However, even though no single method addressed all of the baseline
learning tasks in the curriculum, a knowledgeable and motivated teacher could use any of the
methods to teach all of the ASTA String Curriculum learning tasks. All methods contain implied
opportunities for teaching technical and musical skills. The teacher could use the musical
material in the methods to teach learning tasks such as 1C-1.5 Perform with simple, connected
(dtach) bow strokes, 2A-1.2 Students identify whether two performed melodic tonal patterns
are the same or different, 2B-1.3 Students will maintain a steady pulse while playing rhythm
patterns, and 2B-1.4 Students will demonstrate a sense of meter while playing rhythm patterns.
Although they are not explicitly addressed in every method, these and many other learning tasks
could be taught with the tunes and exercises in each method book in this study. The teacher
could also supplement the method book with instruction in the content areas that were least
frequently addressed: aural skills, creative musicianship, ensemble skills, expressive elements,
and evaluation of music and music performances.
Although the method book provides the primary instructional resource for the string class,
the success of any method in the classroom ultimately depends on the musicianship and
pedagogical skills of the teacher. The decision of which method will be most effective for the
beginning heterogeneous string class will vary depending on a number of factors, including the
experience and expertise of the teacher. One of the more salient differences between methods is
the fact that some methods provide greater pedagogical support for the teacher than others.
Whereas the Muller-Rusch String Method contains very few textual explanations, directives, and
reminders for the teacher, Orchestra Expressions provides detailed scripted lesson plans for the
96
teacher that describe how to teach every concept. While an experienced string teacher could
effectively teach with Muller-Rusch, a less experienced teacher, such as a band director who has
been assigned to teach a beginning string class, might prefer a more detailed method that offers
greater pedagogical support for teaching strings.
Suggestions for Further Research
This study has provided an overview of the content and characteristics of the teacher
manuals of 13 beginning heterogeneous string class methods in relation to the baseline learning
tasks of the ASTA String Curriculum. Although it was beyond the scope of this project, a future
study could review the student books of each string method for compatibility with the ASTA
String Curriculum. In this study, the teacher manual of each method was reviewed in order to
identify the support offered for teaching each of the baseline learning tasks of the curriculum, but
an examination of the student books would give a more accurate representation of the experience
of violin, viola, cello, and bass students in the string class.
Also, whereas this study was limited to the baseline learning tasks of the ASTA String
Curriculum and book one of each method, future research should examine books two and three
of each method for compatibility with the developing and proficient level learning tasks of the
String Curriculum. It would be beneficial for researchers to investigate how the sequential levels
of each method could be used to teach the remaining levels of the ASTA String Curriculum.
Finally, future research could include a survey of string teachers in order to identify which
methods are used most commonly, what criteria teachers use to select a beginning method, how
teachers use method books in their beginning string classes, and how teachers address the
baseline learning tasks of the ASTA String Curriculum in their beginning string classes.
97
REFERENCES
Allen, M., Gillespie, R., Tellejohn Hayes, P. (2004). Essential elements 2000 for strings: A
comprehensive string method. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.
Anderson, G. E., & Frost, R. S. (1986). All for strings: Comprehensive string method. San
Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music.
Applebaum, S. (1961). String builder. Rockville Centre, NY: Belwin.
Applebaum, S. (1963). Early etudes for strings. Rockville Centre, NY: Belwin.
Applebaum, S. (1963). Second and fourth position builder. Rockville Centre, NY: Belwin.
Applebaum, S. (1963). Third and fifth position builder. Rockville Centre, NY: Belwin.
Applebaum, S. (1964). First position etudes for strings. Rockville Centre, NY: Belwin.
Applebaum, S. (1965). Orchestral bowing etudes. Rockville Centre, NY: Belwin.
Applebaum, S. (1972). The way they play. Neptune City, NJ: Paganiniana Publications.
Applebaum, S. (1986). The art and science of string performance. Sherman Oaks, CA: Alfred.
Benham, S. J., Wagner, M. L., Aten, J. L., Evans, J. P., Odegaard, D., & Lieberman, J. L. (2011).
ASTA string curriculum: Standards, goals, and learning sequences for essential skills
and knowledge in K-12 string programs. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers
Association.
Birge, E. B. (1938). History of public school music in the United States. Philadelphia, PA: Oliver
Ditson.
Bornoff, G. (1948). Bornoffs finger patterns: A basic method for strings. Toronto: Gordon V.
Thompson.
Bornoff, G. (1948). Bornoffs fun for fiddle fingers. Toronto: Gordon V. Thompson.
Bornoff, G. (1949). Bornoffs fiddlers holiday. New York: Carl Fisher.
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Bornoff, G. (1952). Bornoffs patterns in position. Toronto: Gordon V. Thompson.
Brungard, K. D., Alexander, M. L., Anderson, G. E., & Dackow, S. (2004). Orchestra
expressions. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred.
Dabczynski, A., Meyer, R., & Phillips, B. (2002). String explorer: An explorers guide to
teaching strings. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred.
Deverich, R. K. (1987). The Maidstone movement: Influential British precursor of American
public school instrumental classes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35(1), 3955.
Dillon, J., Kjelland, J., OReilly, J. (1992). Strictly strings: A comprehensive string method.
Van Nuys, CA: Highland/Etling.
Erwin, J., Horvath, K., McCashin, R. D., & Mitchell, B. (2007). New directions for strings: A
comprehensive string method. Fort Lauderdale, FL: FJH Music.
Fanelli, M. (2011). Paul Rolland 1911-2011: A centenary celebration. American String Teacher,
61(1), 20-23.
Froseth, J. & Smith, B. (2003). Do it! Play strings! Chicago, IL: GIA.
Frost, R. S., & Fischbach, G. (2002). Artistry in strings: A comprehensive course of study for
group or private instruction. San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music.
Gazda, D., & Stoutamire, A. (1997). Spotlight on strings. San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music.
Gordon, C., Beckstead, R. & Stone, G. (1959). Visual method for strings: Class or private
instruction for beginners on all string instruments.
Grunow, R. F., Gordon, E. E., Azzara, C. D., & Martin, M. E. (2002). Jump right in: The
instrumental series for strings, revised. Chicago, IL: GIA.
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public school classes, or individual lessons. Boston, MA: The Boston Music Co.
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and orchestras to 1950. Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education, 4(4), 39.
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World War II. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 101, 50-60.
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to string playing. Farmingdale, NY: Boosey & Hawkes.
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Glenbridge.
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Cincinnati, OH: Willis Music.
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Odegaard, D. (2000). Simply strings. Northeastern Music.
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A REVIEW OF BEGINNING HETEROGENEOUS STRING CLASS METHOD BOOKS FOR

COMPATIBILITY WITH THE BASELINE LEARNING TASKS OF THE AMERICAN STRING

Elaine Colprit, Advisor

Statement of the Problem ..........................................................................................

Need for Study ..........................................................................................................

Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................

History of String Orchestra Classes in the Public Schools .......................................

Twentieth-Century Developments in String Pedagogy ............................................

George Bornoff .............................................................................................

Samuel Applebaum .......................................................................................

Shinichi Suzuki ............................................................................................

Paul Rolland .................................................................................................

Review of Historical String Methods ........................................................................

String Curricula .........................................................................................................

MENC Curriculum ........................................................................................

ASTA String Curriculum .............................................................................

Summary ... . ..........................................................................................................

CHAPTER III. PROCEDURE .............................................................................................

Selection of String Class Methods ...........................................................................

Selection of Criteria for Evaluation .........................................................................

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS ...................................................................................................

Comparative Review of Methods .............................................................................

All for Strings ...............................................................................................

Strictly Strings ...............................................................................................

Spotlight on Strings ......................................................................................

String Explorer ..............................................................................................

Artistry in Strings ..........................................................................................

Jump Right In ................................................................................................

Do It! Play Strings.........................................................................................

Essential Elements 2000 for Strings..............................................................

Orchestra Expressions ..................................................................................

New Directions for Strings ............................................................................

Simply Strings ................................................................................................

Sound Innovations for String Orchestra ......................................................

Additional Topics of Consideration ..........................................................................

Sequential Levels ..........................................................................................

Origin and Type of Tunes .............................................................................

Key Signatures Used or Implied ...................................................................

Time Signatures Used or Implied..................................................................

Rhythms Used ...............................................................................................

Range for Each Instrument ............................................................................

Bowing Styles ...............................................................................................

Cost and Availability .....................................................................................

CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ..............................................................................................

Similarities and Differences Among Methods ..........................................................

Suggestions for Further Research .............................................................................

REFERENCES .......... ...........................................................................................................

List of String Class Method Books ...........................................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in the Muller Rusch String Method ..................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in All for Strings................................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Strictly Strings .............................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Spotlight on Strings .....................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in String Explorer ............................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Artistry in Strings .........................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Jump Right In ...............................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Do It! Play Strings .......................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Essential Elements 2000 for Strings ............................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Orchestra Expressions .................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in New Directions for Strings ..........................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Simply Strings ..............................................................

Baseline Learning Tasks in Sound Innovations .......................................................

Cost and Availability of String Methods ..................................................................

Anderson, & Frost