Radiation Detection

By:
Kelly Garnes
Michelle Green
Shilpa Goyal
Anand Jain
Okechukwu Nwogu

History of Radiation
Detection

The early pioneers equipped only with

crudely constructed, large scale machines,
their human senses, and classical theory
were seeking to see into into the interiors of
atoms. Were it not for the spectroscopes and
cloud chambers of their time, atomic theory
could never have advanced as rapidly as it
did.

The X-RAY
The x-ray, discovered by German physicist Wilhelm
Konrad Roentgen on November 8, 1895, was reported to the
world shortly after the first of the year 1896. Roentgen's
discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received with
extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. The X-Ray
brought harmful radiation into the scientific scope.

THE ERA
With the discovery of harmful types of radiation,
protection and detection efforts became prevalent. Here is
the early chronology of radiation protection efforts.
Pioneer Era (1895-1905), briefly described above, in which
recognition of the gross somatic hazard occurred, and
relatively simple means devised to cope. Dormant Era
(1905-1925), in which the major concern was toward
applications, but in which great gains were made in
technical and biological knowledge which were later applied
to protection. Era of Progress (1925-1945), which saw the
development of radiation protection as a science in its own
right along with the birth of health physics in the
Manhattan District.

The Progressive

Era was by far the most

important portion of the radiation protection movement.

It was the Manhattan District of U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers that the name "health physics" was born, and
great advances were made in radiation safety. From the
onset, the leaders of the Manhattan District recognized
that a new and intense source of radiation and
radioactivity would be created, and thus, in the summer of
19424, asked Ernest O. Wollan, a cosmic ray physicist at
the University of Chicago, to form a group to study and
control radiation hazards. Thus, Wollan was the first to
bear the title of health physicist. He was soon joined by
Carl G. Gamertsfelder, recently graduated physics
baccalaureate, and Herbert M. Parker, the noted
British-American medical physicist. By mid 1943, six others
had been added: Karl Z. Morgan, James C. Hart, Robert R.
Coveyou, O.G. Landsverk, L.A. Pardue and John E. Rose.

The Manhattan District

Their activities included development of appropriate
monitoring instruments, developing physical controls,
administrative procedures, monitoring areas and [personnel,
radioactive waste disposal.
It was in the Manhattan District that many of the modern
concepts of protection were born, including the rem unit, which
took into account the biological effectiveness of the radiation, and
the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) for inhaled
radioactivity.
It was in the Manhattan District that modern day radiation
protection effects, born in the early days of x-ray and radium,
realized their maturity.

Radiation Detection and the Future

Radiation detection instrumentation over the past 100 yrs
has played a significant role in ushering in the atomic age
and the numerous outreaching applications which followed.
While largely unnoticed by the public at large, radiation
detection instrumentation has revolutionized the world we
live in today and will most likely continue to go
undetected in the future as it leads us in our endeavor to
restore the environment.

Natural Radiation
There are many sources of Natural
Radiation. Randon gas exists in most parts
of US at different levels and is produced
from naturally occurring Uranimum-238 in
the soil. It can be a problem in some areas
since the gas can enter the house through
basement. Another gas called Thorium-232
also exists in the soil. Both Uranium and
Thorium decay into numerous other
radioactive isotopes before decaying into a
stable element, lead.

Types of Detectable Radiation

There are three types of radiation that may be detected with a Geiger counter:
Alpha Particles: Helium nuclei, generally emitted from heavy elements such
as uranium and thorium. Alpha particles only travel a few inches in the air, and
can be stopped by a piece of paper. Special Geiger tubes with a mica window
are necessary to detect them, as other windows will stop alpha particles.
Beta Rays: Electrons moving at extremely high (often relativistic) speeds. They
are more penetrating than alpha particles. They can pass through light elements,
such as paper and aluminum (but only small thicknesses).
Gamma Rays: Electromagnetic waves, similar to light, but at a much higher
energy. Much more penetrating than alpha or beta radiations. High-energy
gamma rays can pass through several inches of metal. Note that X-Rays and
Gamma Rays are really the same thing, the term X-Ray is used when the
radiation is produced by electrons striking a material, such as in an X-Ray tube.

Types of Radiation Detectors

The two types of radiation
detectors are: GM-10 and GM-45.
These are sensitive and affordable
ionizing radiation detectors and are
called Geiger counters. They are
capable of detecting extremely
small amounts of radiation. They
can connect to almost any personal
computer and this allows you to
measure, record, and display
radiation readings over any time
period. GM-10 and GM-45 Geiger
counters are also self powered off
the computers serial port and
therefore, are ideal for use in the
filed or any location.

The Geiger counter detects the ionization produced by a radioactive

particle. The counter records as a particle is detected each time. The
number of events recorded over a period of time indicates the amount of
radiation present. When this is done over one minute intervals, it is
called counter per minute or CPM. The higher the CPM, the higher
the radiation levels.

GM-10

The difference between the GM-10 and GM-45 is the

size of the radiation sensor. The GM-45 sensor has 24
times the surface area of that in the GM-10 making it
more sensitive, especially for alpha and beta radiation
sources. That means that it can detect weaker levels of
radiation.

The typical background levels that are detected with the GM-10
are about 10 CPM which can be higher in the basement of
homes with randon levels. A GM-10 on an airplane flight
recorded a level of over 400 CPM and this is only due to the
larger amount of cosmic radiation that is present at high
altitudes.

GM-45

Specifications of
Detectors
There is a size difference between
the GM-10 and GM-45 detectors.
The surface area of the GM-45
detector is 24 times as large. This
means that it is much more
sensitive for alpha and beta
radiation, and somewhat more
sensitive for gamma / x-ray
radiation. That is, it will be able
to detect much smaller (weaker)
levels of such radiation.

Bringin down the house

Noise and radiation detection

 Radiation detector output signals are

usually weak and require amplification
before they can be used.
The nature of the input pulse and
discriminator determines the characteristics
that the preamplifier and amplifier must
have.
Two stage amplification is usually used to
increase the signal-to-noise ratio.

One and Two stage amplification

Dad, where does noise come from?

The detector is away from the readout.
A shielded cable transmits the output to the
amplifier. The output signal may be 0.01 volts.
A gain of 1000 is needed to increase this to 10
volts (a usable output pulse voltage).
There is always a pickup of noise in the long cable
run; this noise can amount to 0.001 volts.

 If all amplification were done at the remote

amplifier, the 0.01-volt pulse signal would
be 10 volts, and the 0.001 noise signal
would be 1 volt, for a signal-to-noise ratio
of 10.
Dividing the total gain between two stages
of amplification will reduce the ratio.
A preamplifier near the detector eliminates
cable noise because of the short cable
length.

Dad, where does noise come from?

Radiation impinges on a sensor and creates an
electrical signal.
The signal level is low and must be amplified to
allow digitization and storage.
Both the sensor and amplifiers cause noise.
1. Fluctuations in signal introduced by sensor
2. Noise from electronics
The detection limit and measurement accuracy are
determined by the signal-to-noise ratio.

Sure sounds good, but does it do?

Electronic noise affects all measurements:
1. Detect presence of hit:
Noise level determines minimum threshold, so
that if the threshold is too low, the output signal is
dominated by noise hits.
2. Energy measurement:
Noise smears signal amplitude.
3. Time measurement
Noise alters time dependence of signal pulse

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
How to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio?
1. Increase signal (amplification) and reduce
noise
2. For a given sensor and signal: reduce
electronic noise

Its noise to you, but fluctuations

within a power spectrum to me.
All signals exhibit undesirable fluctuations
that are called noise the frequency of
noise is a power spectrum.
Noise can be periodic or nonperiodic.
- Periodic noise is high frequency
- Nonperiodic noise is low frequency and
white noise

So many to choose from!

Detector noise originates in the detector and can be
classified as:
- Thermal due to the thermal agitation of current
carriers in a resistive element.
- the most common example of noise due to velocity
fluctuations
Temperature noise is due to fluctuations of the
electric signal through heat exchange.
Generation-recombination noise due to generationrecombination processes.

 Contact noise due to current fluctuations across

electrical contacts.
Radiation noise due to statistical fluctuations in
the "arrival" of the photons.
Dark current noise due to the sum of noise
currents in the absence of a signal, including
fluctuations of thermionic emission, of leakage
current, of corona discharge charge carriers and
other physical effects.
Shot noise is the sum of the radiation noise and the
statistical component of the dark current noise.

Finding resolution
Resolution: distinguishing signal levels
- recognize structure and improve sensitivity
- signal to background ratio improves with better
resolution as signal counts compete with fewer
background counts
Signal variance is greater than baseline variance resolution is determined by signal and noise.
Baseline fluctuations can have many origins but
noise is the basic limit.

 Solution:
Tailor frequency response of measurement
system to optimize signal-to-noise ratio.
Frequency response of measurement system
affects both signal amplitude and noise.
Apply a filter to make the noise spectrum
white (constant over frequency).
Then the optimum filter has an impulse
response that is the signal pulse mirrored in
time and shifted by the measurement time.

This is an acausal filter, i.e. it must act

before the signal appears.
- only useful if the time of arrival is known
in advance.
- Not good for random events
need time delay buffer memory adds
complexity!

Hidden Detectors?
Radiation and Terrorism
A 34-year-old man was treated for Graves disease.
Twenty-four hours after treatment, his radioactive
iodine uptake was 63%. Later that week, he was
strip-searched twice at Manhattan subway stations.
Police identified him as emitting radiation and
detained him for further questioning.

Radiation Badges
NJ Company
develops radiation
badges
Laboratory has created
a small device that can
detect if someone was
exposed to radiation.
Price of $5.

Radiation Pills
Radiation Plant Workers
Offered Pill
Tiny pill known as
potassium iodide that
blocks the thyroid from
radioactive iodine.
Pills are available at
pharmacies and on the
Internet, no matter where
you live. Cost about $16
for a package of 14 pills.

Current Threat of Radiation

What is a dirty bomb?
A radiation threat or "Dirty Bomb" is the use of common explosives to
spread radioactive materials over a targeted area.
A dirty bomb, also known as a radiological weapon, is a conventional
explosive such as dynamite packaged with radioactive material that scatters
when the bomb goes off.
A dirty bomb kills or injures through the initial blast of the conventional
explosive and by airborne radiation and contaminationhence the term
dirty.
Such bombs could be miniature devices or as big as a truck bomb.

Dirty Bomb: Description

It is not a nuclear blast.
The force of the explosion and radioactive contamination
will be more localized.
While the blast will be immediately obvious, the presence
of radiation will not be clearly defined until trained
personnel with specialized equipment are on the scene.
As with any radiation, you want to try to limit exposure.

Radiation Threat

1. A radiation threat or
"Dirty Bomb" is the use of
common explosives to
spread radioactive
materials.

2. It is not a nuclear
blast. The force of the
explosion and
radioactive
contamination will be
more localized. In order
to limit the amount of
radiation you are
exposed to, think about
shielding, distance and
time.

3. Shielding: If you
have a thick shield
between yourself and the
radioactive materials
more of the radiation
will be absorbed by the
thick shield, and you
will be exposed to less.

Radiation Threat (Cont)

4. Distance: The
farther away you are
from the radiation the
lower your exposure.

5. Time: Minimizing
time spent exposed will
also reduce your risk.

6. Local authorities
may not be able to
immediately provide
information on what
is happening and
what you should do.
However, you should
watch TV, listen to
the radio, or check
the Internet often for
official news and
information as it
becomes available.

Thank you.
Hope you enjoyed it!