Professional Documents
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1. User mobility
2. Device portability
User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar
telecommunication services at different places, i.e., the user can be
mobile, and the services will follow him or her. Examples for mechanisms
supporting user mobility are simple call-forwarding solutions
Device portability refers to the communication device moves (with or
without a user). Many mechanisms in the network and inside the device
have to make sure that communication is still possible while the device is
moving. A typical example for systems supporting device portability is the
mobile phone system, where the system itself hands the device from one
radio transmitter (also called a base station) to the next if the signal
becomes too weak.
The term wireless is used with reference to device which means way of
accessing the network or other communication device without wire. The
wire is replaced by the transmission of electromagnetic wave through the
air.
Thus communication device thus can be:1. Fixed and wired: example of this configuration is desktop device.
The power consumption and the weight of devices do not allow for
mobile usages.
2. Mobile and wired: Device like laptops fall in this category where
the device is mobile and it can be connected to companys network
or network via telephone network and a modem.
3. Fixed and wireless: This configuration is used for installing the
networks. For example in historical buildings to avoid the damage
by installing wires.
4. Mobile and wireless: In this, a mobile device uses the wireless
network. Examples are mobiles, tablets etc.
Vehicles
Business
Emergencies
Replacement of wired network
Infotainment
Vehicle : for music, GPS etc.
Business: A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the
companys database: to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the
current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of
their travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. with wireless
access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient and
c. Network layer:
i. Routing of packets
ii. Addressing and device location
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d. Transport layer:
i. End to end connection
ii. Quality of service
iii. Flow of congestion control
e. Application layer:
i. Service location
ii. Support for multimedia location
iii. Wireless access to WWW
The figure above illustrates the frequency spectrum can be used for the
data transmission. Frequencies are:1. Very Low Frequencies
2. Low Frequencies: used in the submarines, because this can
penetrate the water and can follow the earth surface. Some radio
station still use this frequency between 148.5 kHz to283.5kHz.
3. Medium Frequencies and High Frequencies: used for
transmission of the hundred of radio station, either as the
Amplitude modulation b/w 520kHz and 1605.5kHz,as short wave
between 5.9 MHz and 26.1 MHz, or as (FM)between 87.5 MHz and
108 MHz frequency modulation.
4. Very High Frequencies and Ultra High Frequencies: used
by the TV stations, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
5. Super High Frequencies : typically used for directed
microwave links (approx. 240 GHz) and fixed satellite services in
the C-band (4 and 6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14 GHz), or Ka-band
(19 and 29 GHz).
6. Extremely High Frequencies
7. Infrared: used for direct links for example to connect two
buildings with laser links.
Signals
1. Signals are the physical representation of data.
2. Users of a communication system can only exchange data through
the transmission of signals.
3. Layer 1 (physical layer) of the ISO/OSI basic reference model is
responsible for the conversion of data, i.e., bits, into signals and vice
versa.
4. An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a
smooth fashion over time. In other words, there are no breaks or
discontinuities in the signal.
5. A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then changes to another
constant level.
6. The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the same
signal pattern repeats over time.
7. Signals are functions of time and location. A general function for the
sine wave which is a periodic signal is:
g ( t )= A t sin ( t +t )
where
phase shift.
=2 f t
is
Antennas
1. An antenna can be defined as an electrical conductor or system of
conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic energy or for
collecting electromagnetic energy.
2. For transmission of a signal, radio-frequency electrical energy
from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by
the antenna and radiated into the surrounding environment
(atmosphere, space, water).
3. For reception of a signal, electromagnetic energy contact on the
antenna is converted into radiofrequency electrical energy and
fed into the receiver.
4. A theoretical reference antenna is the isotropic radiator, a point in
space radiating equal power in all directions, i.e., all points with
equal power are located on a sphere with the antenna as its center.
The radiation pattern is symmetric in all directions.
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5. Real
Signal Propagation
1. In wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the
direction of propagation, whereas signals in wired networks only
travel along the wire.
2. In wired network signal exhibits the same characteristics at each
point as long as the wire is not damaged.
3. For wireless transmission, this predictable behaviour is only valid in
a vacuum.
4. The situation would be as follows:
Transmission range: Within a certain radius of the sender
transmission is possible, i.e., a receiver receives the signals
with low error rate to establish the communication between
sender and receiver.
Detection range: Within a second
radius, detection of the transmission
is possible, i.e., the transmitted power
is large enough to differ from
background noise. However, the error
rate is too high to establish
communication.
Interference range: Within a third
even larger radius, the sender may
interfere with other transmission by
adding to the background noise. A
receiver will not be able to detect the signals, but the signals
may disturb other signals.
Spread spectrum
1. The spread spectrum technique was developed initially for in
military and intelligence requirements.
2. The spread spectrum means to spread the information signal over a
wider bandwidth to make jamming and interception more difficult.
3. Figure below highlights the key characteristics of any spread
spectrum system.
a. Input is fed into a channel encoder that produces an analog
signal with a relatively narrow bandwidth around some center
frequency.
b. This signal is further modulated using a sequence of digits
known as a spreading code or spreading sequence.
c. Typically, but not always, the spreading code is generated by
a pseudonoise, or pseudorandom number, generator. The
effect of this modulation is to increase significantly the
bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of the signal to be
transmitted.
d. On the receiving end, the same digit sequence is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal.
e. Finally, the signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover the
data.
6. Each user bit has a duration tb. The chipping sequence consists of
the smaller pulse called chips, with a duration tc.
7. If the chipping sequence generated properly than it appears as a
random noise. This sequence sometimes also code pseudo noise.
8. The spreading factor s=tb/tc determine the bandwidth of the
resulting signal.
9. If original signal need the bandwidth w, the resulting signal will
need s.w bandwidth after the spreading.
10.
Civil applications need the spreading factor between 10 to 100
and military applications need up to 10,000.
11.
DSSS need additional components for transmitting and
receiving.
12.
The DSSS transmitter spread the user data with the
chipping sequence (digital modulation). The spread signal then
modulates with radio carrier.
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13.
DSSS
FSSS
Spreading is complex
Use total bandwidth
available.
More resistant to fading
and the multipath
propagation.
DSSS signal are much
harder to detect
Spreading is simpler
Use a portion of band
at any time.
Less resistant to
fading and multipath
propagation.
FSS signal can easily
be detected.
IEEE802.11
1. The IEEE standard 802.11 (IEEE, 1999) specifies the most famous
family of WLANs in which many products are available.
2. As the standards number indicates, this standard belongs to the
group of 802.x LAN standards, e.g., 802.3 Ethernet or 802.5 Token
Ring.
3. This means that the standard specifies the physical and medium
access layer adapted to the special requirements of wireless LANs,
but offers the same interface as the others to higher layers to
maintain interoperability.
4. The primary goal of the standard was the specification of a simple
and robust WLAN which offers time-bounded and asynchronous
services.
5. Additional features of the WLAN should include:
a. The support of power management to save battery power
b. The handling of hidden nodes.
c. The ability to operate worldwide.
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System architecture
12.
The
association between a station and a BSS is dynamic. Stations may
turn off, come within range, and go out of range.
13.
An
extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic service
sets interconnected by a distribution system.
14.
Typically,
the distribution system is a wired backbone LAN but can be any
communications network.
15.
The
extended service set appears as a single logical LAN to the logical
link control (LLC) level.
16.
Figure
indicates that an access point (AP) is implemented as part of a
station; the AP is the logic within a station that provides access to
the DS by providing DS services in addition to acting as a station.
17.
To
integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a traditional wired LAN,
a portal is used. The portal logic is implemented in a device, such
as a bridge or router, that is part of the wired LAN and that is
attached to the DS.
Protocol architecture
Figure shows the most common scenario:
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c. Controls
authentication
mechanisms,
encryption,
synchronization of a station with regard to an access point,
d. Power management to save battery power.
e. MAC management also maintains the MAC management
information base (MIB).
11.
The main tasks of the PHY management include channel
tuning and PHY MIB maintenance.
12.
Station management interacts with both management
layers and is responsible for additional higher layer functions (e.g.,
control of bridging and interaction with the distribution system in
the case of an access point).
Bluetooth
The concept behind Bluetooth is to provide a universal short-range
wireless capability. Using the 2.4-GHz band, available globally for
unlicensed low-power uses, two Bluetooth devices within 10 m of each
other can share up to 720 kbps of capacity.
Bluetooth is intended to support an open-ended list of applications,
including data (e.g., schedules and telephone numbers), audio, graphics,
and even video. For example, audio devices can include headsets,
cordless and standard I hones, home stereos, and digital MP3 players. The
following are examples of some the capability Bluetooth can provide
consumers:
1. Make calls from a wireless headset connected remotely to a cell
phone.
2. Eliminate cables linking computers to printers, keyboards, and the
mouse.
3. Hook up MP3 players wirelessly to other machines to download
music.
4. Set up home networks so that a couch potato can remotely monitor
air conditioning, the oven, and childrens' Internet surfing.
5. Call home from a remote location to turn appliances on and off, set
the alarm, and monitor activity.
Bluetooth provides support for three general application areas using shortrange wireless connectivity:
Data and voice access points: Bluetooth facilitates real-time
voice and data transmissions by providing effortless wireless
connection of portable and stationary communications devices.
Cable replacement: Bluetooth eliminates the need for numerous,
often proprietary, cable attachments for connection of practically
any kind of communication device. Connections are instant and are
maintained even when devices are not within line of sight. The
range of each radio is approximately 10m but can be extended to
100 m with an optional amplifier.
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Protocol architecture
1. Bluetooth is defined as a layered protocol architecture consisting of
core protocols, cable replacement and telephony control protocol, and
adopted protocols. The core protocols form a five-layer stack consisting
of the following elements:
a. Radio: Specifies details of the air interface, including frequency,
the use of frequency hopping, modulation scheme, and transmit
power.
b. Baseband: Concerned with connection establishment within a
piconet (WPAN), addressing, packet format, timing, and power
control.
c. Link manager protocol (LMP): Responsible for Iink setup
between Bluetooth devices and ongoing link management. This
includes security aspects such as authentication and encryption,
plus the control and negotiation of baseband packet sizes.
d. Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP):
Adapts upper-layer protocols to the baseband layer. L2CAP
provides both connectionless and connection-oriented services.
e. Service discovery protocol (SDP): Device information,
services, and the characteristics of the services can be queried
to enable the establishment of a connection between two or
more Bluetooth devices.
2. RFCOMM is the cable replacement protocol included in the
Bluetooth specification. RFCOMM presents a virtual serial port that is
designed to make replacement of cable technologies as transparent as
possible.
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