Nuclear stability and radioactive decay

Introduction:
For a nucleus to be stable, the number of neutrons should in most cases be little higher than the number of
16
17
18
protons. For example, oxygen has three stable isotopes 8 O, 8 O, 8 O [ N 8,9,10] and five known
unstable (i.e. radioactive) isotopes
In the case of the isotopes
the isotopes

19
8

O,

20
8

13
8

O,

13
8
14
8

O,

O,

14
8
15
8

O,

15
8

O,

19
8

20
8

O and

[ N 5,6,7,11,12] .

[ N 5,6,7] there are not enough neutrons for stability while

O [ N 11,12] have too many neutrons.

Different radioactive decay processes:

1. Beta Decay:
15

Nuclei such as 8 O which are lacking in neutrons, undergo +-decay. In this process one of the protons in
the nucleus is transformed into a neutron and a positron and a neutrino are emitted. This transformation is
written as
15
8

O 157 N

where + signifies the emitted positron which in this context is called a -ray and denotes the neutrino.
19

By contrast, nuclei like 8 O which are excessively rich in neutron, decay by decay emitting a
negative electron and an antineutrino:
19
8

O F
19
9

It should be noted that in both +-decay and decay the atomic mass number remains the same.
2. Electron capture:
A nucleus lacking in neutrons can also increase its neutron number by electron capture. In this process, an
atomic electron interacts with one of the protons in the nucleus and a neutron is formed of the union. This
leaves a vacancy in the electron cloud which is latter filled by another electron. Usually the electron that is
captured by the nucleus is the innermost or K-electron and so this mode of decay is also called K- capture.
A classic example of K-capture is the transformation of vanadium-49 into titanium 49 :

V 10 e 49
22 Ti

49
23

3. Alpha Decay:
Another way by which some unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay is by the emission of an alpha
particle [ 24 He ]. For example
4
U 234
90 Th 2 He

238
92

Decay by -emission is comparatively rare in nuclides lighter than lead, but it is common for the heavier
nuclei.
4. Gamma Radiation:
The nucleus formed as the result of -decay (+ or -), electron capture or -decay is often left in an excited
state following the transformation. The excited nucleus then decays by the emission of one or more -rays
(photons).
An example of gamma ray production follows:
First cobalt-60 decays to excited nickel-60 by beta decay:
Then the nickel-60 drops down to the ground state by emitting a gamma ray:

Gamma rays of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV are produced.

1

Laws of radioactive decay:

There is only one law which governs all decay processes. This law states that the probability per unit time
that a nucleus will decay is a constant, independent of time. This constant is called the decay constant and
is denoted by .
Let us suppose that at time t the number of radioactive nuclei which have not yet decayed is N(t). The rate at
which these nuclei decay is therefore N (t ) disintegrations per unit time. This decay rate is called the
activity of the sample. Activity is measured in Becquerel (Bq) which is one disintegration per second.
Let us suppose that at the beginning of disintegrations i.e. at t=o, the number of radioactive nuclei present in
the sample is N0.
Since N (t ) dt nuclei decay in the time interval dt, it follows that the decrease in the number of undecayed
nuclei in the sample in time dt is

dN (t ) N (t )dt ,

[1]

This equation can be written as

dN (t )
N (t ), [ 2]
dt
From [2] we can write

dN
dt
N
N

Eq (3) shows that the number of surviving

nuclei at any time t decreases exponentially
with time.

N0

dN
dt
N
0

log e [ N / N 0 ] t
N (t ) N 0 e

From [3], we can write

[3]

N (t ) N 0 e t
or

A (t ) A e
0

[ 4]

where A(t) is the activity at time t and A0 is the activity at time t=o.

Half life:
It is defined as the time interval during which one half of the total number of nuclei that were present at the
beginning of the time interval have decayed .
If N1 nuclei are present at time t 1 and one half that number N 2 N 1 / 2 have survived at time t2, we can
write
N1 N 0 e

t1

N 2 N 0e

t2

N
[t t ]
1 e
2 1 2
N
2

[t

ln 2 0.693
T
half life [t t ]

1/ 2
2
1

t ] ln 2
1

Average or mean lifetime:

If there are N0 radioactive nuclei at time =0, the number that decay in some time interval dt at t is

dN N [t ]dt N 0 e t dt
If we multiply this number by the life time t of these nuclei, sum over all the possible lifetimes from t=0 to t=
, and divide by the total number of nuclei, we get the average or mean lifetime :

1
t dN te t dt te t
N0 0
0
0
{[te

1
/ ] e t dt}
0

e t dt
0

Now, we know

t
A(t ) A0 e t A0 e
In can be seen from this equation that in one mean (average) life, the activity falls to (1/e) of its initial value.

Binding energy:
The force of electrostatic repulsion between like charges which varies inversely us the square of their
separation, would be expected to be so large that nuclei could not be formed. The fact that they do exist is
evidence that there is an even larger force of attraction. This nuclear force acts only when the nucleons are
very close to each other and binds them into a compact stable structure. To disrupt a nucleus and separate it
into its component nucleons, energy must be supplied from the outside.
A given nucleus is lighter than the sum of its separate nucleons, the difference being the binding massenergy. Let the mass of an atom including nucleus and external electrons be M and let m n and mp be the
masses of the neutron and the proton plus matching electron. Then the binding energy B is
B = Total mass of separate particles Mass of the atom
=N mn + Z mp -M
Let us calculate B for tritium, the heaviest hydrogen atom :
B = 2mn + 1mp M
=2[1.00866]+1[1.00782]-3.01702
=0.00812 amu=0.00812x931 MeV=7.56 MeV
Note that we have given the mass in amu [Atomic Mass Unit]. Atomic mass units are so defined that the
mass of a
[mass of

12
6C

12
6C

atom, the most abundant isotope of carbon, is exactly 12 amu. One amu is defined as

1
12

atom]. The value of 1 amu is

1 amu = 1.66054x10-27kg whose equivalent energy
= 1.66x10-27x(3.0x108)2 = 1.49x10-10J=

[Mass of

12
6C

atom=12 g. Therefore, 1 amu=

1.49 x10 10

1
[mass of
12

1.6 x10 19
12
6C

931MeV .

atom]=1 g.

Now, one gram atom of carbon contains 6.02x1023 atoms.

Therefore, 1 amu =

1
6.022 x10 23

=1.66054x10-27kg ]

Total binding energy B and the binding energy per nucleon B/A for
3

56
26

Fe and

238
92

U can be shown to be:

For

56
26

For

238
92

Fe , B = 492.3 MeV, B/A = 492.3/56 = 8.791 MeV

U , B = 1802 MeV,

B/A = 1802/238 = 7.571 MeV

In Figure below, we show the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.

Fig. : Binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.

The peak at A=4 corresponds to the exceptionally stable

4
2

He nucleus which is alpha particle. The

binding energy per nucleon is a maximum for nuclei of mass number A =56.
This figure suggests that we can liberate energy from the nucleus in two different ways. If we split a
heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei, energy is released because the binding energy per nucleon is
greater for the two lighter fragments than it is for the original nucleus. This process is known as
nuclear fission. For example, if the uranium nucleus is broken into two smaller nuclei, the binding
energy difference per nucleon as about 0.8 MeV. The total energy given off is therefore
[0.8 MeV/nucleon][235 nucleons]=188 MeV
Alternatively when we combine two light nuclei into a heavier nucleus, again, energy is released
when the binding energy per nucleon is greater in the final nucleus than it is in the two original
nuclei. The process is known as nuclear fusion. For instance, if two deuterium[
combine to form a

4
2

2
1

H ] nuclei

He helium nucleus, over 23 MeV is released. In fact, nuclear fusion is the

main energy source of the sun and other stars.

Nuclear Fission
4

When a nucleus fissions, it splits into several smaller fragments. These fragments, or fission products, are
about equal to half the original mass. Two or three neutrons are also emitted.

Sketch of induced nuclear fission, a neutron (n) strikes a

uranium nucleus which splits into similar products (F. P.), and
releases more neutrons to continue the process, and energy
in the form of gamma and other radiation.

Fig: Nuclear Fission

The sum of the masses of these fragments is less than the original mass. This 'missing' mass (about 0.1
percent of the original mass) has been converted into energy according to Einstein's equation.
Fission can occur when a nucleus of a heavy atom captures a neutron, or it can happen spontaneously.
A typical fission reaction might be
235
92 U

93
37 Rb56

141
55 Cs 86

2n

Of course, many different fission reactions are possible, with many different final products. The number of
neutrons produced in the fission process can likewise vary, but the average is about 2.5. The two neutrons
emitted in the fission process shown in the reaction above are prompt neutrons- they are emitted essentially
at the instant of fission. About 1% of the neutrons in the fission process are delayed neutrons emitted
following the decay of the heavy fragments. Delayed neutrons play significant role in the mechanical control
of thermal reactors.

Energy released from each fission:

165 MeV
7 MeV
6 MeV
7 MeV
6 MeV
9 MeV

~ kinetic energy of fission products

~ gamma rays
~ kinetic energy of the neutrons
~ energy from fission products
~ gamma rays from fission products
~ anti-neutrinos from fission products

200 MeV
Most of the energy is released as kinetic energy of the fission fragments. These relatively heavy fragments
do not travel very far through the reactor fuel element before they dissipate most of their kinetic energy
5

in collisions with the atoms of the fuel element. The energy can be extracted as heat and used to boil
water; the resulting steam can be used in a conventional way to drive a turbine to generate electricity.

Nuclear Chain Reactions

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission produce an additional fission in at
least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. The process
may be controlled (nuclear power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons).
If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then the number of fissions doubles each generation. In that
case, in 10 generations there are 1,024 fissions and in 80 generations about 6 x 10 23 (a mole) fissions.

U235 + n fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV

Controlled Nuclear Fission

To maintain a sustained controlled reaction, for every 2 or 3 neutrons released, only one must be allowed to
strike another uranium nucleus. If this ratio is less than one then the reaction will die out; if it is greater than
one it will grow uncontrolled (an atomic explosion). Nuclear reactions are controlled by a neutron-absorbing
material, such as cadmium.

Nuclear Fuels:
UO2
ThO2
MOX

:
:
:

U(235U+ 238U)O2
232
Th + O2
PuO2 + UO2

Natural uranium contains three isotopes: U-234 (0.006%), U-235 (0.7%), and U-238 (99.3%). The speed
required for a fission event vs. non-fission capture event is different for different isotopes.
Fissile Material : 235U, 233U, 239Pu, 241Pu
Fertile Material : 232Th, 238U, 240Pu,
Fertile Material + Neutron

Fissile Material
6

It may be mentioned that fissile materials like 235U, 233U, 239Pu will fission with very low energy neutrons, while
238
U requires fast neutrons of 1 to 2 MeV of energy to fission.

Natural fission reactor:

This natural fission reactor is believed to have operated in Africa two billion years ago for a period of perhaps
several hundred thousand years. This reactor used naturally occurring uranium as a fuel and naturally
occurring water as a moderator. It would not be possible to build such a reactor today, because the capture
of neutrons by the protons in water results in too few neutrons remaining to sustain a chain reaction in
uranium with only 0.7 percent of 235U. However, two billion years ago, naturally occurring uranium contained
a much larger fraction of 235U than does present-day uranium. Both 235U and 238U are radioactive, but the halflife of 235U is only about on-sixth as great as the half-life of 238U. If we go back in time about 2x10 9 y, which is
half of one half-life of 238U, there was about 40 percent more 238U than there is today, but there was 2 3=8
times as much 235U. Naturally uranium was then about 3 percent 235U, and at such enrichments, ordinary
water can serve as an effective moderator. A deposit of such uranium, in a large enough mass and with
ground water present to act as moderator, could have gone critical and began to react. The reaction could
have been controlled by the boiling of the water- when enough heat had been generated to evaporate some
of the water, the reaction would slow down and perhaps stop, because of the lack of a moderator. When the
uranium had cooled sufficiently to allow more liquid water to collect, the reactor would have started up again.
This cycle could in principle have continued indefinitely, until enough 235U were used up or until geological
changes resulted in the removal of the water.
The discovery of this reactor followed the observation of a French researcher that the uranium that was
being mined from that region in Africa contained too little 235U. The discrepancy was a very small one-the
samples contained 0.7171 percent, compared to the usual 0.7202 percent- but it was enough to stimulate the
curiosity of the French workers. They guessed that the only mechanism that could result in the consumption
of 235U was the nuclear fission process, and this guess was tested by searching in the ore for stable isotopes
that result from the radioactive decay of fission products. When such isotopes were found in abundances
very different from what would be expected from natural mineral deposits, the existence of the natural
reactor was confirmed.

Nuclear Fusion

Fig: Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear energy can also be released by fusion of two light
elements (elements with low atomic numbers). The power
deuterium-tritium fusion reaction is considered the
that fuels the sun and the stars is nuclear fusion. In a
most promising for producing fusion power.
hydrogen bomb, two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and
tritium are fused to form a nucleus of helium and a neutron. This
fusion releases 17.6 MeV of energy. Unlike nuclear fission, there
is no limit on the amount of the fusion that can occur.

Important fusion reactions

Astrophysical reaction chains

The most important fusion process in nature is that which powers the stars. The net result is the fusion of
four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two electrons, two neutrinos, and energy, but several
individual reactions are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars of the size of the sun or
smaller, the proton-proton chain dominates. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle is more important.

Proton-proton cycle
Since the sun is composed of ordinary hydrogen, rather than deuterium, it is first necessary to convert the
hydrogen to deuterium. This is done according to the reaction
1
1

H 11H 12 H e

This process involves converting a proton to a neutron and is analogous to the beta-decay processes
discussed earlier. Once we have obtained 2H (deuterium), the next reaction that can occur is
2
1

H 11H 13He

followed by
3
1

He 13 He 24 He 2 11 H

Note that the first two reactions must occur twice in order to produce the two 3He we need for the third
reaction. We can write the net process as

311 H 23 He
6 11H 23 He 23 He 24 He 211 H 2 2 2
411 H 24 He 2e 2 2

The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two electrons, two
neutrinos, and energy, but several individual reactions are involved, depending on the mass of the star. Since
the two positrons disappear in this process, the only masses remaining are four hydrogen atoms and the one
helium atom, and so

Q ( m i m f )c 2 ( 4 x1.007825 u 4.002603 u ) (931.5 MeV / u ) 26.7 MeV

Each fusion reaction liberates about 26.7 MeV of energy. Let us now try to calculate the rate at which these
fusion reactions occur in the sun. The power output from the sun may be shown to be about 4x10 26 W, which
corresponds to about 1038 MeV/s. Thus there must be about 1038 fusion reactions per second, consuming
around 4x1038 protons per second. For stars the size of the sun or smaller, the proton-proton chain
dominates.

Carbon cycle

In heavier stars, the CNO cycle is more important. A more likely sequence of reactions in the carbon cycle is
shown below:
12

C 1H

13

13

C H

14

14

15

15
15

13

13

C e

N H
15

N e

N H

N
O

12

He

Notice that the 12C plays the role of catalyst; we neither produce nor consume any 12C in these reactions, but
the presence of the carbon permits this sequence of reactions to take place at a much greater rate than the
previously discussed proton-proton cycle. The net process is still described by 4 1H 4He, and of course the
Q value is the same. Since the coulomb repulsion between H and C is larger than the Coulomb repulsion
between two H nuclei, more thermal energy and a correspondingly higher temperature are needed for the
carbon cycle. The carbon cycle probably becomes important at a temperature of about 20 X 10 6 K, while the
Suns interior temperature is only 15 X 106 K.
When all of the hydrogen has been converted to helium, the Sun will contract and its temperature will
increase until helium burning occurs, by processes such as
34He 12C
Two He nuclei have a larger mutual Coulomb repulsion than two H nuclei, so helium fusion needs more
thermal energy than hydrogen fusion.
When the helium is used up, a still higher temperature will allow carbon fusion to make even heavier
elements, for example, 24Mg. Such processes will continue until 56Fe is reached; beyond this point no further
energy is gained by fusion.

The Hydrogen Bomb: The Basics

A fission bomb, called the primary, produces a flood of radiation including a large number of neutrons. This
radiation impinges on the thermonuclear portion of the bomb, known as the secondary. The secondary
consists largely of lithium deuteride. The neutrons react with the lithium in this chemical compound,
producing tritium and helium.

This reaction produces the tritium on the spot, so there is no need to include tritium in the bomb itself. In the
extreme heat which exists in the bomb, the tritium fuses with the deuterium in the lithium deuteride.
The most interesting fusion reactions are the following:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)

D
D

+ T
+ D

D
T
3
He
3
He

+
+
+
+

D
p

He
T
3
He
T

+ Li
+ 6Li

He

T
3

He
4

He
4

He
4

He
4

He
4

He
4

He
4
2 He
4

He

(3.5 MeV)
(1.01 MeV)
(0.82 MeV)
(3.6 MeV)

+
n
+
p
+
n
+
p
+2 n
+2 p
+
p
+
D
+
n

(4.8 MeV)
(0.5 MeV)
+ 22.4 MeV
(1.7 MeV) +

(14.1 MeV)
(3.02 MeV)
(2.45 MeV)
(14.7 MeV)
+ 11.3 MeV
+ 12.9 MeV

(50%)
(50%)

+ n + 12.1 MeV
(9.5 MeV)
(1.9 MeV)

He (2.3 MeV)
9

+ p (11.9 MeV)

(51%)
(43%)
(6%)

(12)
(13)

He + 6Li 2
p + 11B 3

4
4

He
+
He + 8.7 MeV

+ 16.9 MeV

p (proton), D (deuterium), and T (tritium) are shorthand notation for the first three isotopes of hydrogen. For
reactions with two products, the energy is divided between them in inverse proportion to their masses, as
shown. In most reactions with three products, the distribution of energy varies.
Specification of the D-D reaction entails some difficulties, though. To begin with, one must average over the
two branches (2) and (3). More difficult is to decide how to treat the T and 3He products. T burns so well in a
deuterium plasma that you probably can't get it out even if you want to. The D- 3He reaction is optimized at a
much higher temperature, so the burnup at the optimum D-D temperature may be low, so it seems
reasonable to assume the T but not the 3He gets burned up and adds its energy to the net reaction. Thus we
will count the DD fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV and the energy in charged particles
as Ech = (4.03+3.5+0.82)/2 = 4.2 MeV.
Another unique aspect of the D-D reaction is that there is only one reactant, which must be taken into
account when calculating the reaction rate.
With this choice, we tabulate parameters for four of the most important reactions.
fuel

Efus [MeV]

Ech [MeV]

neutronicity

D-T

17.6

3.5

0.80

D-D

12.5

4.2

0.66

D-3He

18.3

18.3

~0.05

p-11B

8.7

8.7

~0.001

The last column is the neutronicity of the reaction, the fraction of the fusion energy released as neutrons.
This is an important indicator of the magnitude of the problems associated with neutrons like radiation
damage, biological shielding, remote handling, and safety. For the first two reactions it is calculated as (EfusEch)/Efus. For the last two reactions, where this calculation would give zero, the values quoted are rough
estimates based on side reactions that produce neutrons in a plasma in thermal equilibrium.

10

Nuclear Reactors:

A nuclear reactor is a system in which a controlled nuclear chain reaction is used to liberate energy. In a
nuclear power plant, this energy is used to generate steam, which operates a turbine and turns an electrical
generator.
Fuel: In a typical reactor, the uranium fuel is in the form of uranium oxide pellets, which are inserted end to
end into long hollow metal tubes. On an average, each fission of a 235U nucleus produces about 2.5 free
neutrons, so 40% of the neutrons are needed to sustain a chain reaction. A

235

U nucleus is much more

likely to absorb a low-energy neutron [less than 1 eV] than one of the high energy neutrons [1 MeV or so]
that are liberated during fission. The isotope

238

U can also absorb neutrons, leading to 239U * , but not with

high enough probability for it to sustain a chain reaction by itself. Thus uranium that is used in thermal
reactors is often enriched by increasing the proportion of
to 3% or so, by isotope-separation processing.

11

235

U above the natural value of 0.7%, typically

Moderator: In a thermal nuclear reactor, the higher-energy neutrons are slowed down by collisions with
nuclei of a light material [like water, deuterium, graphite] surrounding the fuel, called the moderator. These
slowed down neutrons called thermal neutrons are used to initiate further fissions in a thermal reactor.
Control rod: The rate of the fission chain reaction is controlled by inserting or withdrawing control rods
made of elements [such as boron or cadmium] whose nuclei absorb neutrons without undergoing any
additional reaction.
Coolant: Heat produced in the core of the reactor is taken out by pumping the coolant [water, D 2O, CO2, etc.]
through the core and transferred to a heat exchanger to produce steam to run the generator. Before
transferring the coolant to the core it is cooled in the condenser.
Safety devices: Safety is very important in a nuclear reactor. It is shut down automatically in case of
malfunctioning. The radioactive material is never allowed to diffuse outside.

12

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Problem No. 1: Show that after 10 half-lives a radioactive material is reduced to 1/1000 part approximately.
Solution: From radioactive decay law, one can show that a radioactive material, after n half-lives, will decay
to N N 0 (1 / 2) .
n

N N 0 (1 / 2) 10 N 0 / 1024 N 0 / 1000
Problem No. 2: The half-life of radium is 1600 years. After how much time (1/16) th part of radium will remain
un-disintegrated in the sample?
4
n
Solution: Given N N 0 / 16 , therefore, N / N 0 (1 / 16) (1 / 2) (1 / 2)

n4

Therefore, time of disintegration = No. of half-lives x half-lives = 4 x 1600 = 6400 years.

Problem No. 3: Find the half-lives of a radioactive material if its activity drops to (1/16) th of its initial value in
30 years.
Solution: We know that N N 0 (1 / 2) .
n

N
1
1
1

( )4 ( )n
N 0 16
2
2

or

n4

Therefore, Half-life = Total time of disintegration / No. of half-lives = 30 years / 4 = 7.5 years.
Problem No. 4: What percentage of initial amount of a radioactive material decays during the time, equal to
mean lifetime of this material?
Solution: Number of radioactive nuclei left after one mean lifetime
t
N 0 e N 0 / e, 1 /
= N N0e

Percentage of decay

N0 N
1
1
x100 (1 ) x100 (1
) x100 63 %
N0
e
2.7

Problem No. 5: There is a stream of neutrons of kinetic energy of 0.025 eV. If the half-life of neutron is 700
seconds, what fraction of neutrons will decay, before they travel a distance 10 m?
Solution: We know that K .E

1
mv 2
2

2 xK .E

2 x.025 x1.6 x10 19

2.19 x10 3 m / s
27
1.67 x10

Time needed to travel a distance of 10 m = 10 m / (2.19 x10 3) = 4.57x10-3 seconds.

13

3
N
e t e ( 4.57 x10 / 700 ) 0.99999347
N0

fraction

decayed 1

N
6.53x10 6
N0

Problem No. 6: A sample of uranium is a mixture of three isotopes

234
92

U,

235
92

U and

238
92

U , present in the

ratio 0.006%, 0.71% and 99.284% respectively. The half-lives of these isotopes are 2.5x10 5 years, 7.1x108
years and 4.5x109 years respectively. Calculate the contribution to activity (%) of each isotope in sample.
Solution: No. of

234
92

0
U nuclei in the mixture = N 24
=

0.006 x 6.02 x10 23

(Taking total mass of 100gm)
234

0.71x6.02 x10 23
235

No. of

235
92

0
U nuclei in the mixture = N 25
=

No. of

238
92

0
U nuclei in the mixture = N 28
=

99.284 x6.02 x10 23

238

The relative contribution of the isotopes in the activity (%) would be

0
24

N 24 :

or

0
25

N 25 :

0
28

N 28

1.02 x10 10 : 0.0425 x10 10

Problem No. 7: The half-lives of

the isotopic abundance of

235
92

0.006 x6.02 x10 23 x 0.693 0.71x6.02 x10 23 x0.693 99.284 x6.02 x10 23 x0.
:
:
234 x 2.5 x10 5
235 x 7.1x10 8
238 x 4.5 x10 9
: 0.926 x10 10 1.02 : 0.0425 : 0.926 51.41% : 2.13% : 46.45%

235
92

U and

U and

238
92

238
92

U are 7.1x108 years and 4.5x109 years respectively. Today

U are respectively 0.72% and 99.28%. Assuming that initially

these isotopes were in equal abundance and no isotopic separation has occurred, calculate the age of these
elements on the earth.
Solution:

N 25 N e
0
25

25 t

N 28 N 280 e 28t
0
0
In the beginning, N 25 N 28 .

e 28t 99.28

137.88
0.72
e 25t
or [ 28 25 ]t ln 137.88 4.927

or
Now

t 4.927 /[ 25 28 ]
8
10
25 0.693 / T125
per year
/ 2 0.693 / 7.1x10 9.76 x10
9
10
28 0.693 / T128
per year
/ 2 0.693 / 4.5 x10 1.54 x10

t 4.927 /[9.76 1.54] x10 10 5.99 x10 9 years

14

Problem sheet on radioactivity

Problem No. 1: A radioactive source has a half-life of 1 min. At time t=0, it is placed near a detector, and the
counting rate (the number of decay particles detected per unit time) is observed to be 2000 counts/sec. Find
the counting rate at times t=1 min, 2 min, 3 min, and 10 min.
Problem No. 2: If the detection efficiency in Problem No. 1 is 20 %, (a) how many radioactive nuclei are there
at time t=0? 9b) How many nuclei decay in the first minute?
Problem No. 3: What percentage of initial amount of a radioactive element decays during the time, equal to
mean lifetime of this element?
Problem No. 4: Show that after 10 half life, the material is reduced to [1/1000] part approximately.
Problem No. 5: The half life of radium is 1600 years. After how much time [1 16] th part of radium will
remain undisintegrated in a sample?
Problem No.6: Find the number of alpha-decays that occur in a one gram sample of 232Th in one year if the
disintegration constant of 232Th is 1.58x10-18 sec-1.
Problem No. 7: Calculate the activity of one gram of 232Th using the data of Problem No. 6.
Problem No. 8: It is found that 46.3 mgm of naturally occurring potassium show a beta- activity of 1.5 dis/sec.
The isotope responsible for this activity is 40K which makes up 0.012 % of the natural mixture. Calculate the
half-life of 40K.
Problem No. 9:

226
88

one micro-gram of

Ra decays to radon gas. Calculate (a) the decay constant and (b) the initial activity of
226
88

Ra . Given half-life of

226
88

Ra = 1620 years.

Problem No. 10: Mass spectrometric analysis of potassium and argon atoms in a moon rock sample shows
that the ratio of the numbers of (stable) 40Ar atoms present to the number of (radioactive) 40K atoms is 10.3.
Assume that all the argon atoms were produced by the decay of potassium atoms, with a half-life of 1.25x10 9
years. How old is the rock?
Problem No. 11: The radioactive isotope 57Co decays by electron capture with a half-life of 272 days. (a) Find
the decay constant and the lifetime. (b) If you have a radiation source containing 57Co, with activity 2.00 Ci,
how many radioactive nuclei does it contain? (c) What will be the activity of your source after one year?
Problem No. 12: Before 1900 the activity per mass of atmospheric carbon due to the presence of 14C
averaged about 0.255 Bq per gram of carbon. (a) What fraction of carbon atoms were 14C? (b) In analyzing
an archeological specimen containing 500 mg of carbon, you observe 174 decays in one hour. What is the
age of the specimen, assuming that its activity per mass of carbon when it died was that average value of the
air?
Problem No. 13: A bone containing 200 gm of carbon has a -decay rate of 400 decays/min. How old is the
bone? (In radioactive carbon dating , 14C decays by emitting - and its half-life is 5730 years. The
radioactive 14C is produced in the upper atmosphere in nuclear reactions caused by cosmic rays. Since living
organisms continually exchange CO 2 with the atmosphere, the ratio of 14C to 12C in a living organism is the
same as the equilibrium ratio in the atmosphere, which is about 1.3x10 -12. After an organism dies, it no longer
absorbs 14C from the atmosphere, so the ratio of 14C to 12C continually decreases due to radioactive decay of
14
C. There are about 15.0 decays per minute per gram of carbon in a living organism. Using this result and
the measured number of decays per minute per gram in a nonliving sample of bone, wood or other object
containing carbon, we can determine the age of the sample.)
Problem No. 14: An old wooden piece has 25.6% of radioactive carbon as compared to ordinary wood. Find
its age, if its half life is 5760 years.
Problem No. 15: The activity of a radioactive substance is decreased to 87.5% in a course of 5 years. What
is its half life? Calculate the time in which the activity will fall by 87.5%.
15

Problem No. 16: The ratio of U-235 to U-238 in natural uranium deposits today is 0.0072. What was this ratio
two billion years ago. The half-lives of the two isotopes are 0.704x10 9 y and 4.47x109 y, respectively.

PROBLEMS ON NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY, FISSION & FUSION ENERGY

Problem No.1. Find the average BE of

16
8

O. Given mass of

16
8

O atom=15.99051 amu.

Problem No.2. A neutron breaks into a proton, electron and neutrino. Calculate the energy released in the
process in MeV.
Problem No.3. Find the energy released in single fission of uranium-235 in the following reaction
235
92
141

92
1
U 01 n 36
Kr 141
The
56 Ba 3 0 n .

masses

of

235

U=235.0439

amu,

92

Kr=91.8973

amu

and

Ba=140.9139 amu.

Problem No.4. Calculate the amount of energy required to remove a neutron from
masses of

40
20

Ca=39.962589 amu,

39
20

40
20

Ca nucleus. Given the

Ca=38.170691 amu, mn=1.008665 amu.

Problem No.5. Deuterium and tritium interact to produce -particle and neutron. Calculate [a] total energy
released, [b] K.E of neutron and [c] K.E of -particle.
Problem No.6. A sample of sea water has

1
part of deuterons in respect of hydrogen atoms. Find the
6700

amount of energy to be released from the fusion of deuterons present in a sample of 1 m 3 of sea water at
room temperature.
Problem No.7. A deuterium nucleus fuses with tritium nucleus to produce 4He and a secondary neutron in the
following reaction
the mass of

4
2

2
1

H 13 H 24 He 01 n E . In this process 2.88x10-27J of energy is released. Calculate

He produced.

Problem No.8. Find the energy released in the reaction

Li=6.01513 amu and

2
1

6
3

Li 12 H 2 24 He . Given the masses of

6
3

H=2.01410 amu.

Problem No.9. What is the power output of a reactor fueled by uranium-235 if it takes 30 days to use up 2 Kg
of fuel and if each fission gives 185 MeV of energy.
Problem No.10. A fusion reactor uses deuterium as fuel to give 200 MW power output. Find the fuel
consumption per day if the reactor works with 25% efficiency. Given the masses of

2
1

H =2.0141 amu and

4
2

He=4.002603 amu.
Problem No.11. A power reactor can deliver 300 MW of energy. If due to fission, each atom of uranium-238
releases 170 MeV of energy, calculate the mass of uranium-238 fissioned per hour.
Problem No.12. The world annual energy consumption is about 3x10 20J. The fission of one atom of uranium235 produces 200 MeV energy. The fuel has only 1% of uranium-235. Calculate the amount of [a] uranium235 and [b] fuel used.
Problem No.13. In the interior of the sun a continuous process of 4 protons fusing into a helium nucleus and
a pair of positrons is going on. Calculate [a] the release of energy per reaction and [b] the rate of
consumption of hydrogen to produce 1 MW of power. Given mass of

m 5.5 x10 4 amu .

16

1
1

H=1.007825 amu,

Problem No.14. In a thermonuclear reaction 1x10 -3 kg hydrogen is converted into 0.993x10 -3 kg He. Caculate
the energy released. If the efficiency of the generator is 5%, calculate the electrical energy produced in
KWH.

17