CHAPTER # 04

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
(8 @ 80 = 10%)

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Topics as per Syllabus

4.1 Introduction and Importance of Highway
Drainage System
4.2 Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil
4.3 Surface Drainage System
4.3.1 Different Types of Road Side Drain
4.3.2 Cross Drainage Structures (Culverts and
Others)
4.3.3 Different Types of Energy Dissipating
Structures
4.4 Sub-surface Drainage System
4.4.1 Drainage of Infiltered Water
4.4.2 Control of Seepage Flow
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4.4.3 Lowering of Water Table

Few Shots from Our Urban Roads: Raining on

2071/01/21 Monday Afternoon at Kathmandu

WHAT IS THE MAIN PROBLEM?

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

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4.1 Introduction and Importance

of Highway Drainage System

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4.1.1 Introduction of Highway Drainage

System
WATER is the Main Cause of Deterioration of
Highway.
Stability of Highways is Reduced by the
Increase in Moisture Contents of the Soil.
So Highways Drainage is ESSENTIAL.
DRAINAGE is an INTEGRAL PART of the ECONOMIC
HIGHWAY DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION.
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Damage of Highway by Wat

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 Three of the Most Important

Aspects of Highway Design
DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE and
DRAINAGE.

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What is Highway Drainage?

Process of Removing and Controlling the
Excess Surface and Sub-surface Water
Within the Right-of-Way (ROW).

Includes Interception and Diversion of

Water from Over, Under and the Vicinity of
the Road Surface.
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4.1.2 Importance of Highway

Drainage System

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1. Softening of Road Surface (of earthen,

gravel or WBM road) and Loosening their
Strength or Bearing Capacity.

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2. Softening of Subgrade Soil and Reducing

its Bearing Capacity.

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3. Flexible Pavements Fail by Formation of

Waves and Corrugation.

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4. Flexible Pavement Fail by Formation of

Ruts.

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5. Stripping of Bitumen from Aggregates

Loosening or Detachment of Some of the
Bituminous Layers and Formation of Pot
Holes.

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Potholes Formation

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6. Mud Pumping in Rigid Pavements

Movement of material underneath the slab or
ejection of material from underneath the slab as a
result of water pressure.
Water accumulated underneath a PCC slab will
pressurize when the slab deflects under load.

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7. Erosion of Soil from Top Surface of Roads

and Embankment Slopes Due to Surface
Water.

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8. Considerable Damage to Shoulder and Edge

of Highways.

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9. Failure of Earth Slope or Formation Slope

and Embankment Foundation

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10. Erosion of Side Slopes, Road Side Drains,

and Formation of Gullies.

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11. Highway/Road Failure because of Slips

and Landslides sue to the Flowing of Rain
or Surface Water along the Roadside for
Long Distances.

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12. Damage to Highway/Road due to Freezing

Action Due to the Presence of Water in
Subgrade
at
Places
of
Freezing
Temperature in Winter.

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13.

Failure of Highway/Road Because of

Variation in the Volume of Subgrade Due
to Variation in M/C in Expansive Soils.

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4.2 Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil

Water/Moisture enters to the subgrade from various
sources and it also losses from the subgrade.
Main Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil
a) By Free Water
Water seeping towards the subgrade soil from the
adjacent higher ground.
Water infiltrated into the subgrade soil through
pavement during rainfall.
Water penetrates from the shoulders and the pavement
edges.
b) By Ground Water
Rise and fall of WT.
Capillary rise from the lower soil level/layer.
Movement of water vapour through soil.
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4.3 Surface Drainage System

Process of interception, removal and
diversion of surface water from highway
and the adjoining land is known as
Surface Drainage System.

Removal of rain water from road surface

and road side ground is called Surface
Drainage.
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Classification of Drainage Works

Surface Drainage Surface Water is
Intercepted and Diverted to a Natural
Channel or Depression.
Sub-surface or Sub-soil Drainage
Seeping or Sub-surface Water is Intercepted
and Removed to a Safe Place.
Cross Drainage Works Water of Natural
Drainage Under the Highway is Intercepted
and Disposed Off.
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Categorization of Surface
Drainage
1. Drainage in Rural Highway
2. Drainage in Urban Streets
3. Drainage in Hill Roads

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Drainage in Rural Highway

Water has to be Drained Off Both from Pavement with
sufficient cambering and Shoulder.
So Shoulders are Constructed with Suitable Cross
Slopes so that the Water is Drained Off to the Side
Drains.
Usually Side Drains are Open Unlined of Trapezoidal
Shape Cut to Suitable Cross Section and Longitudinal
Slopes and are Provided Parallel to the Road Alignment.
In Embankment, the Longitudinal Drains are Provided
on One or Both Sides Beyond the Foot of Formation.
In Cuttings, Drains are Provided on Either Sides of the
Road Just Adjacent to the Shoulder Width.
In Places where Deep Open Drains are Undesirable Due
to Restriction of Space (in cutting) a Covered Drain
Properly Filled with Layers of Sand and Gravel may be
Used.
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Camber

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Transverse slope

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Longitudinal slope

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Longitudinal channel

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Drainage in Urban Streets

Underground Drains are More Preferred Because of
the Limitations of the Land and Presence of Foot
paths, Driving Islands and Road Side Developments.
Water Drained from the Pavement Surface can be
Carried Forward in the Longitudinal Direction
Between the Kerb and the Pavement for Short
Distances.
This Water May be Collected in the Catch Pits and
Lead through Underground Drainage Pipes.
Street inlets are used to drain-off the surface water.
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Drainage in Hill Roads

Catch Drains are Provided Running Parallel to the
Roadway from which Water is Diverted by Sloping
Drains and Across the Road Pavement by Means of
Culverts.
Side Drains are Provided Only on the Hill Sides of the
Roads not on the Both Sides.
Due to Limitations in the Formation Width, the Side
Drains are Constructed to such a Slope that at
Emergency the Vehicles could Utilize this Space for
Crossing or Parking.
Usual Types of Side Drains are Angle, Saucer, Kerb
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and Channel Drains.

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Design of Surface Drainage

Into 2 Phases1. Hydrological Analysis

2. Hydraulic Analysis

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Hydrological Analysis
Main
Objectives:
To
Estimate
the
Maximum Quantity of Water Expected to
Reach the Element of Drainage System
Under Consideration.
Various Factors Affecting the Run-off
are
Rate of Rainfall,
Type of Soil and Moisture Condition,
Topography of the Area,
Type of Ground Cover Like Vegetation, etc.
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Rational Formula
Used to estimate the peak run-off water for highway
drainage:
Q = C i Ad
Where, Q = run-off,
C = run-off coefficient (ratio of run-off to rate of
rainfall)
i = rainfall intensity mm/s
Ad = drainage area in 1000
C depends mainly on the type of surface and its slope.
Ad consists of several types of surface run-off coefficients
C1, C2, C3, with their respective areas A 1, A2, A3, .
The weighted value of C =
Design value of i is to be determined for the expected
duration of storm and frequency of occurrence.
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 The inlet time for the storm water to flow

from the remotest point in the drainage
area to the drain inlet is estimated using
chart.

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 The time for water to flow through the drain

between the inlet and outlet points is
determined based on the allowable velocity
(general range from 0.3 to 1.5 m/s depending
on the type of soil) of flow in the drain.
The frequency of occurrence of the storm or
the return period may be 5, 10, 25 or 50 years.
The drainage area from which the surface
water is expected to flow to a side drain is
determined with the help of contour map or by
studying the topography of the drainage area.
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Hydraulic Analysis
After determining the design run-off Q, the next
step is the hydraulic design of drains.
Side drains and partially filled culverts are
designed based on the principles of flow through
open channels.
If Q is the quantity of surface water to be
removed by side drain and V is the allowable
velocity of flow on the side drain, the area of
cross section A of the channel is found from the
relation:
Q = AV
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uniform and steady flow through

Assuming

channel of uniform cross-sections and

slope, Mannings Formula is used for
calculating the velocity of flow or the
longitudinal slope.
V=
Where,
V = average velocity, m/s
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius, m =
S = longitudinal slope of channel
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 The roughness coefficient values depend on the

type of soil in unlined channel.
Value of C
Gravel or WBM = 0.35 to 0.7
Impervious soil = 0.4 to 0.65
Soil covered with turf = 0.3 to 0.55
Pervious soil
= 0.05 to 0.3
Ordinary earth
= 0.02
Heavy vegetation = 0.05-0.10
Concrete = 0.013
Rough rubble masonry =
0.04

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Table: Allowable Velocities For Different

Materials
Allowable
Bed Material

velocity
(m/s)

silt

0.3- 0.5

Loam

0.6- 0.9

Fine sandy or stiff clay

0.9- 1.5

Coarse gravel, rocky soil

1.2 -1.5

Soil covered with well established grass

1.5 - 1.8

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Simplified Steps for the Design of

Longitudinal Drains of a Highway
1. The frequency of return period such as 10
years, 25 years etc. is decided based on the
finances available and desired margin of
safety, for the design of drainage system.
2. The values of coefficient of run-off, C from
drainage area are found and the weighted
value is computed.
3. Inlet time T1 for the flow of storm water
from the farthest point in the drainage area
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to drain inlet along the steepest path of flow

4. Time of flow along the longitudinal

drain T2 is determined for the estimated

length of longitudinal drain L upto the nearest
cross drainage, and for the allowable velocity
of flow V in the drain i.e. T2 =.

5. The total time T for the inlet flow and along

the drain is taken as the time of
concentration or the design value of rain
fall duration, T =T1 +T2.
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6. From the rain fall intensity-durationfrequency curves, the rain fall intensity is
found in mm/sec. corresponding to duration
T and frequency of return period.

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7.
total area of drainage Ad is found in units of 1000 m2.
The

8. The run-off quantity Q is computed

using Rational
Formula Q = C i Ad.
9. The cross sectional area of flow A of the drain is calculated
A = where V is the allowable speed of flow in the drain.
10. The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a
convenient bottom width and the side slope of the drain.
The actual depth of the open channel drain may be
increased slightly to give a free board. The hydraulic mean
radius of flow R is determined.
11. The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is
calculated using mannings formula adopting suitable
value of roughness coefficient n.
V = (Mannings Formula)
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Numerical Examples
1. The distance between the turf covered
drainage area farthest point and point of
entry to the side drain is 250 m. the average
slope of the area is 2%. The average value
of run off coefficient is 0.25. The length of
the longitudinal drain on the sandy clay is
540 m (from the inlet point to the cross
drainage).. The allowable velocity in the
drain is assumed to be 0.6 m/sec ands 0.02
Mannings roughness coefficient . Design the
cross-section and longitudinal slope of
trapezoidal drain assuming the bottom width
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of the trapezoidal section to be 30 cm, free

Solution Hints
Inlet
Time () (for turf with 2% slope for 250 m

corresponding distance from the chart)

= 33 min
250 m

33

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 Time
taken () by the storm water to flow

through the drain upto the cross drainage

@ 0.6 m/sec or, 0.6 x 60 m/min
=
= 15 min

Total Duration of Time or Time of

Concentration
(T) = = 33 + 15 = 48 min
Drainage Area
() = 540 x 250 = 1,35,000 or, 135 (1000
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units)

the Rainfall-Intensity-Duration Curve,

From

Corresponding Rainfall Intensity (i) for a

10 year period for 48 min
= 70 mm/hr or = mm/sec

70

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 C
= 0.25 (Given)
Q = C = 0.25 x x 135 = -------- /sec
Cross-sectional Area of the Drain (A) = = = -------- --(1)
(0.3 + 2d)
Since, For the Trapezoidal Section of Drain,
0.3 m
d
d
Bottom Width of the Drain = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Side Slopes = 1:1
d
1
1
d
1
1
Let, the Depth of Flow = d m,
0.3 m
then the Top Width = (0.3 + 2d) and the
Cross-sectional Area of the Drain = {0.3 + (0.3 + 2d)} x
= (0.6 + 2d) x = (0.3d + ) --- (2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2),
(0.3d + ) = ------- or, + 0.3d = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for d,
d = ------- m
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 Calculation
of Slope of Drain

Using Mannings Formula, the Longitudinal Slope is

calculated.
.
For the Assumed Trapezoidal Section, the
Wetted Area of Cross-section = 1.09 and the
Wetted Perimeter = x 2 + 0.3 = ------ m
= = ------ = V x = 0.6 x = ----- Slope , S = ------ Since, Free Board = 9 cm = 0.09 m
Therefore, Depth of the Side Drain may be taken as
0.9 m + 0.09 m = 0.99 m.
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4.3.1 Different Types of Road Side

Drain
Surface drain
Sub surface drain
Lined drain
Unlined drain
Roadside drain
Off-road drain

V shaped drain
Trapezoidal drain
Flat bed drain
Saucer or Tick drain
Buried drain

Earthen drain
Masonry drain
Precast Concrete drain

Open drain
Covered drain
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4.3.2 Cross Drainage Structures (Culverts and

Others)

Whenever the streams, rivers or water

courses have to cross by the roadway
facilities, cross drainage structures are to
be properly provided.

Sometimes these structures are used to

divert the waterway from the road side
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drain to a water course or valley.

Types of Cross Drainage

Structures
1. Culvert when the linear waterway 6 m
2. Bridge when the linear waterway > 6m
3. Causeways allow the water to flow over
the roadway

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Culverts
Closed
conduit
placed
under
the
embankment to carry water across the
roadway.
Culverts lead the water from the side drains
under the road to the other (lower) side.
Fitted with aprons, head and wing walls and
installed with a similar backfill.
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Culvert

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Functions of a Culvert
To collect and carry the water across the
road so as not to cause damage to road
bank or the stream bed by scouring.
To allow sufficient waterway to prevent
heading up of water above the road
surface.

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Types of Culverts
1. Pipe Culvert
2. Box Culvert
3. Slab Culvert
4. Arch Culvert

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Pipe Culverts
When the stream carries low discharge and
alignment has high embankment, pipe culverts
are considered more suitable.
Pipe is laid slightly inclined.
Minimum diameter of the pipe culvert is limited to
600 mm to facilitate cleaning and avoid blocking.
The standard length of the RCC pipe is fixed at
2.5 m, jointed by collar or tongue and groove.
Pipes may be made of stoneware, concrete, RCC,
etc.
The standard size of pipe culverts are 0.5 m, 0.75
m, 1 m, 1.25 m and 2 m in diameter.
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Box Culverts
Box culvert of square or rectangular shape is
made of RCC.
Rectangular shaped culverts referred to as box
culverts - are commonly used to cater for larger
crossings.

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Slab Culverts
RCC slab is placed over abutments made of
masonry and the span is generally limited to 3 m.

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Arch Culverts
Generally built using brick or stone masonry,
plain cement concrete may also be used.

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Aqueduct
Open or closed conduit sufficiently above the
roadway to drain water across the road.

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Inverted Siphon
Structure with lowering an invert level of conduit
across the road to desired level and both inlet and
outlet pits are provided to receive flow from and
discharge water to the downstream drain
respectively.
Inverted siphons (also called depressed sewers)
allow storm water to pass under obstructions
such as rivers.

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Causeway
Provided instead of culverts on less important
road which saves the construction cost.
Provided where the maximum depth of flow does
not exceed 1.5 m.
May be High Level (Submersible Bridge) or Low
Level (Irish Bridge)

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High Level Causeway (Submersible

Bridge)
Quite above the stream bed and is provided with
vents to allow normal floods to pass through
them.
During heavy floods, causeways may under
water.

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Low Level Causeway (Irish Bridge)

Constructed at the bed level of the stream which
remains dry for most of the time.
Also called Low Water Crossing,causewayin
Australia,Low Level CrossingorLow Water
Bridge or Irish Bridge.
Provides when water flow is low.
Under high flow conditions, water runs over the
roadway and stops the vehicular traffic.
This approach is cheaper than building a bridge to
raise the level of the road above the highest flood
stage of a river, particularly in developing countries
or in semi-arid areas with rare high-volume rain.
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Bridges
Structure constructed over water course to
carry traffic over it.
When clear span is more than 6 m, the
cross drainage structures are called
bridges.
According to Span Length:
A) Minor Bridge : Span Length upto 30 m
B) Major Bridge: Span Length > 30 m
C) Long Bridge: Span Length > 120 m
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4.3.3 Different Types of Energy Dissipating

Structures

At outlet of cross drainage structures,

there is always higher velocity than nonscouring
velocity
which
should
be
adequately controlled.

Many measures suitable at different

locations and conditions for Controlling
Energy and Erosion.
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Types of Energy Dissipating

Structures
Lining Drains

) Ditch Checks

) Fall or Drop Structures

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4.4 Sub-surface Drainage System

Change in moisture content of sub-grade are caused
by fluctuations in ground water table, seepage flow,
percolation of rain water from shoulders, pavement
edge and soil formation slopes and capillary rise of
moisture and even moisture vapour through soil.
In sub-surface drainage of highways, it is tried to keep
the variation of moisture in subgrade soil to a
minimum.
Only the gravitational water is drained by the usual
drainage systems.
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4.4.1 Drainage of Infiltered Water

By providing suitable subsoil drainage system.
Subsoil drain trenches are excavated to below
subgrade level

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Typical Subsoil Drain

159

Typical Sub-Pavement Drain

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Foundation
Drains
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4.4.2 Control of Seepage Flow

When the general ground and impervious
strata below are slopping, seepage flow is
likely to exist.
If the seepage zone is at depth less than
0.6 to 0.9 m from the sub grade level
Use Longitudinal Pipe Drain in trench filled
with filler material and clay seal may be
constructed to intercept the seepage flow.
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4.4.3 Lowering of Water Table

Highest level of water table should be below the
subgrade.
Practically 1.0 to 1.2 m below subgrade
Relatively permeable soil Longitudinal drains are mainly used
Impermeable soils Transverse drains may be necessary in addition to
longitudinal drains
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4.4.4 Control of Capillary Rise

If the water reaches the sub grade due to
capillary rise is likely to be detrimental, it
is possible to solve the problem by
arresting the capillary rise instead of
lowering the water table.
2 types of capillary cut-offs can be used.
A) Granular Capillary Cut-off
B) Impermeable Capillary Cut-off
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Design of Subsurface Drainage System

The size of spacing of subsurface drainage

system would depend on the quantity of
water to be drained off, the type of soil
and type drains.
Mostly this is decided based on experience
and other practical considerations.
However, proper filter material should be
used for back filling the drainage trenches
and also for use in all subsurface drainage
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Miscellaneous Erosion Control

Measures

Vegetation on Slopes of Embankment

Dry Stone Pitching
Gabion Crates Filled Pitching
Stone Masonry Retaining Wall
Concrete Block Lining
Retaining Wall with Gabion Crates
Bank Protection Spurs and Check Dams

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Design of Filter Material

The filter material used in subsurface drain should
be designed to have sufficient permeability
offering negligible resistance to the flow.
The filter material should also be designed to resist
the flowing of the fine foundation soil resulting in
problem like piping.
Hence the grain size distribution of filter material is
decided based on these two criteria of permeability
and piping.
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 The procedure for design of filter is briefly discussed below:1. On a grain size distribution chart plot the grain size
distribution curve for the foundation soil.
2. Find the value of D15 size of foundation material and plot a
point of particle size D15 of foundation to represent the lower
limit of D15 size of filter. This to fulfill the permeability condition
given by:- (D15 of filter / D15 of foundation ) should be > 5.
3. To fulfill the condition to prevent piping :- ( D 15 of filter / D85 of
foundation ) should be less than ( < ) 5, hence plot a point to
represent the upper limits of D 15 size of filter given by 5D85 of
foundation.
4. Find the size of perforation in the drain pipe or the gap in the
open joints pipes and let this be = D p. Plot a point to represent
D85 size of filter given by the size 2D p.
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