mi (=Xeatelalte Handbook Fourth Edition by Dale Crane wt sae} iNBaw asa Aviation Mechanic Handbook Fourth Edition by Dale Crane Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. Newcastle, WashingtonIntroduction Your time as an aviation mechanic is too valuable to be spent looking through stacks of reference books to find a particular chart, formula or diagram you need on a particular job. The editorial staff at ASA has done this Job for you and compiled this ASA Aviation Mechanic Handbook to be a handy toolbox source of useful information. For your convenience, this handbook is arranged in 17 sections with a table of contents at the beginning of each Section, as well as a complete table of contents at the front of the book and index at the back, This information has been compiled from a large number of industry and government publications, and every effort has been made to ensure its applicability and accuracy. The ASA Aviation Mechanics Handbook is a companion volume to the ASA Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms. The two books are the core of ASA’s training materials for aircraft mechanics. ASA is dedicated to providing quality training materials for the aviation industry. Your feedback regarding our books will help us to continue to produce the materials you need. Visit the ASA website often (www.asa2fly.com) to find updates to operations and procedures due to FAA changes that may affect this publication, downloadable from ASA’s Product Update pages. ASA and the author wish to thank Greg Mellema of Abaris Training for his contribution of the material for Section 17, “Composites” for this Fourth Edition of the Aviation Mechanics Handbook. Dale Crane, Editor 2003Aviation Mechanic Handbook, Fourth Edition by Dale Crane Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. 7005 132nd Place SE Newcastle, Washington 98059-3153 Website: www.asazfly.com Email: asa@ asa2fly.com ©1992, 2002, 2003 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All rights reserved. Published 2000. Fourth Edition 2003. Acknowledgments: Greg Mellema/Abaris, Section 17; Champion Aviation Products, Appendix 2; Concorde Battery, Appendix 3; Michelin Aircraft Tire, Appendix 4. Printed in the United States of America 06 05 04 9868765432 ISBN 1-56027-518-9 ASA-MHB-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Crane, Dale. Aviation mechanic handbook / by Dale Crane p. cm. “ASA-M-HB1"—T.p. verso. ISBN 1-56027-132-9 1. Airplanes — Maintenance and repair — Handbooks, manuals, ete. |, Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. II. Title. TL671.9.C6648 1992 629.134'6 — de20 92-34331 CIPContents Introduction. Section 1: General Information .. 1 41.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents ...... 3 41.2 Conversions... 4.3 Aircraft Nomenclature Axes of an Airplane Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight ..... Types of Aircraft Structure .. Truss... Monocoque Semimonocoaue ... 1.4 —ATA-100 System of Identification 1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification ... 1.6 — Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations ......... 1.7 Standard Taxi Signals ... 1.8 Cylinder Color Code Identifiers . Section 2: Physical and Ghemical ... Periodic Table of Elements... 241 Temperature Conversion Absolute Temperature 2.2 ICAO Standard Atmosphere ... 2.3 Distribution of Electrons in the Chemical Elements .. 2.4 Density of Various Solids and Liquids . Density of Various Gases ... 2.5 Hydraulic Relationships .... 2.6 Quantity of Liquid ina Drum Estimating Quantity of Liquid in a Standard 55-Gallon DrumSection 3: Mathematics .........0csssesseeees 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 vi Measurement Systems ... The International System of Units (SI) The Metric System ... U.S. — Metric Conversion Length Weight Volume Mathematical Constants Mathematical Symbols... Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots of Numbers .... Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle Geometric Formulas Trapezoid ... Regular Pentagon Regular Hexagon Regular Octagon. Circle Ellipse . Sphere Cube Rectangular Solid Cone ... Cylinder Trigonometric Functions ... Powers of Ten... Number Systems .. Binary Equivalent of Decimal .. Octal Equivalent of Decimal. Binary Equivalent of Octal Hexadecimal Number System .... Binary Coded Decimal Equivalent of Decimal The Gray Code .... American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASGII) Special Control Functions Used in ASCII: ..Section 4: Aircraft Drawings ..... 4.1 Types of Aircraft Drawings Sketches .. Detail Drawings Assembly Drawings Installation Drawings .. Sectional Drawings Cutaway Drawing Exploded-View Drawing Schematic Diagram Block Diagram ... Repair Drawings Wiring Diagrams Pictorial Diagram: Orthographic Projections .. 4.2 Meaning of Lines .... 4.3 Material Symbols .... 4.4 Location Identification Fuselage Stations Water Lines Butt Lines... Wing and Horizontal Stabilizer Stations Section 5: ratt Electrical Systems ... 5.1 Electrical Symbols... 5.2 Alternating Current Terms and Values .. 5.3 Ohm’s Law Relationships ..... 5.4 — Electrical Formulas .... Formulas Involving Resistance Formulas Involving Capacitance Formulas Involving Inductance ....... Formulas Involving Both Capacitance and Inductance Resonant Frequency Total Reactanc Impedance .... vii5.5 Section 6: Aircraft Materials ... 6.4 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 Section 7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance .... 7A viii Electrical System Installation Selection of Wire Size... Notes on Wire Installation .. Switch Derating Factors Wire and Circuit Protectors MS Electrical Connectors .. Resistor Golor Code ......04. Aircraft Storage Batteries Lead-Acid Batteries Nickel-Cadmium Batteries Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys... Four-Digit Designation System for Wrought Aluminum Alloys ....... 122 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys.......... Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys Heat-Treatable Alloys ..... Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys Temperatures for Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys... Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum Alloy Sheet Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets .. Single-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets Double-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets .. 127 SAE Classification of Steel ..... Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness... Color of Steel for Various Temperatures ...... Color of Oxides on Steel at Various Tempering Temperatures Measuring and Layout Tools .. Steel Rule Hook Rule Combination Set Vernier Calipers .. Dividers... Outside Calipers Inside Calipers Hermaphrodite Calipers Scriber7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 How to Read the Vernier Scale .. Micrometer Caliper Dial Indicator . Feeler Gages Smail-Hole Gages Telescoping Gages Holding Tools Vises ... Bench Vise Drill Press Vise Pliers... Combination/Slip Joint Pliers .. Water Pump Pliers. Vise-Grip® Pliers Needle-Nose Pliers Safety Wiring Tools... Diagonal Cutting Pliers .. Duckbill Pliers Safety Wire Twisting Tool Bending and Forming Tools... Tools for Making Straight Bends and Curves Cornice Brake ..... Box Brake Press Brake Slip Roll Former .. Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal English Wheel..... Cutting Tools .. Shears .. Throatless Shears . Squaring Shears Scroll Shears Hand Shears Tin Snips Gompoun Saws ... Band Saw Hacksaw Wood Saws Crosscut Saw Ripsaw Compass, or Keyhole Saw .. Backsaw .. ears SESREE4SGHISEIS ws... sseseo0s Flat Chisel. Cape Chisel . Diamond Point Chisel Round Nose Chisel Files ... Hole Cutting Tools Twist Drills .... Twist Drill Sizes Drill Gage Twist Drill Sharpening Drill Point Gage Large Hole Cutters Hole Saws. Fly Cutter Countersink Reamers .. Drills for Wood and Composite Materials Auger Bits .. Forstner Bits .. Flat Wood-Boring Brad-Point Drills Spade Drill .... 7.7 Threads and Threading Tools... Unified and American Standard Thread Form Thread-Cutting Tools ... Body and Tap Drill Sizes Taps . Screw Pitch Gage ... 7.8 Torque and Torque Wrenches Click-Type Torque Wrench Deflecting-Beam Torque Wrench Torque Conversions .... Recommended Torque Values 7.9 — Pounding Tools ... Carpenter's Claw ‘Hammer Ball Peen Hammer.. Metalworking Hammers . Straight Peen and Cross Peen Hammers Body, or Planishing Hammer .... Mallets and Soft-Face Hammers Sledge Hammers ..7.40 Punches Prick Punch Center Punch Drift, or Starting Puncl Pin Punch ... Transfer Punch Automatic Center Punch 7.11 Wrenches Open End Wrenel Adjustable Open End Wrench Ratcheting Open End Wrench Box End Wrench... Ratcheting Box Wrench ...... Combination Wrench . Flare Nut Wrench Socket Wrenches Socket Wrench Handles Hand Impact Tool ... Typical Socket Wrenches Extension and Adapters. Allen Wrenches... 7.12 Screwdrivers . Slot Screwdrivers Offset Screwdriver .. Recessed-Head Screwdrivers Screw Heads for Special Structural Screws Section 8: Aircraft Hardware ..... 8.1 Standards... 8.2 Threaded Fasteners Bolts... Hex-Head Bolts Flush-Head Bolts Drilled-Head Bolt Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts Internal Wrenching Bolts...... Clevis Bolts Eye Bolts... Bolt Installation Bolt Fits .....‘Screws .. Aircraft Screw Heads Set Screws..... Self-Tapping Sheet-Metal Screws Nuts .. Nonlocking | Nuts Self-Locking Nut: Low-temperature locking nuts High-temperature lockii Wing Nuts .. Anchor Nuts. Channel Nuts .. Pressed-Steel Nuts Instrument Nuts Rivnuts..... Threaded Fastener Satetying Locking Washers ...... Cotter Pins ... Safety Wire and Safety Wire Twisting 8.3 Washers ......0 8.4 — Special Rivets Blind Rivets Friction-Lock Rivets. Mechanical-Lock Rivets CherryMax Rivets, Olympic- High-Strength Pin Rivets .. Hi-Shear Rivet .... Hi-Lok Fasteners Hi-Tigue Fasteners Lok Rivets, Huck Rivets 8.5 Cowling Fasteners ...... 8.6 = Thread Repair Hardware Helicoil Insert Acres Sleeves Section 9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication .. 9.1 Sheet Metal Layout and Forming Definitions ...... Layout Procedure 9.2 Minimum Bend Radii for 90° Bends in Aluminum Alloys .... 2119.3 9.4 3.5 Section 10: Aircraft Fabric Covering 10.1 10.2 Section 11: Corrosion Detection and Control ... 41641 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 Corrosion Control... Setback..... Setback (K) Chart Bend Allowance Chart ..... Rivets and Riveting Alternatives to Riveting Aircraft Solid Rivets ... Rivet Material . Rivet Diameter Examples of Rivet Selection Rivet Length... 223. Riveting Tools ....... 224 Rivet Sets Bucking Bars Installing Flush Rivets Blind Rivet Code ... Removal of Damaged Rivets .. Minimum Rivet Spacing and Edge Distance .. Rib Stitch Spacing Rib Stitch Knots Types Of COrrOSiOn ......:ssesssesee Oxidation... Surface and Pitting Corrosion Intergranular Corrosion ........ Exfoliation Corrosion Stress Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Concentration Cell Corrosion Fretting Corrosion .. Filiform Corrosion...Section 12: Nondestructive Inspection . 12.4 Visual Inspection......... NDI Visual Inspection... ‘Surface Visual Inspection Internal Visual Inspection .. 12.2 Tap Test 12.3 Penetrant Inspection ... 12.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection .... 12.5 Eddy Current Inspection How it works .... ‘What it is suited for ..... Method ..... Detection of corrosion 412.6 Ultrasonic Inspection ... 12.7 Radiography X-Rays Gamma Rays Inspection — Steps Considerations Safety wees Section 13: Aircraft Control Systems ... 13.1 Types of Control Systems Torque Tubes Push-Pull Rods .. 13.2 Control Cables ... 13.3 Control Cable Terminals ...... 13.4 Turnbuckles .... Turnbuckle Safetying Clip-Locking Turnbuckles. 13.5 Control Gable Tension ..... Section 14: Aircraft Fluid Lines .. 14.1 Rigid Fluid Lines .... Materials recommended for rigid fluid lines 14.2 Flexible Fluid Lines .... Types of Flexible Fluid Lines , xiv14.3 Installation of Flexible Hose... 14.4 Fluid Line Identification Section 15: Oxygen System Servicing .... 15.1 Oxygen System Servicing.... Filling Pressure for 1,850 PS! Oxygen Cylinders... Section 16: Aircraft Weight and Balance ..... 16.1 Locating the Center of Gravity 46.2 Datum Forward of the Airplane —Nose Wheel Landing Gear 46.3 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Nose Wheel Landing Gear 46.4 Datum Forward of the Main Wheels — Tail Wheel Landing Gear ... 286 46.5 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Tail Wheel Landing Gear ...........287 46.6 Location of CG with Respect to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord ....288 Section 17: Composites 17.1 Resin Systems — Typical Properties . 17.2 Resin Mix Ratios. 17.3 Fiber/Resin Ratio Formulas .... 17.4 Reinforcing Fibers... 17.5 Textile and Fiber Terminology .... 17.6 Yarn Part Numbering Systems 17.7 Fabric Weave Styles ..... 17.8 Common Weave Style Numbers and Features 17.9 Ply Orientation Conventions .. 17.10 Damage Removal — Scarfing and Stepping .. 17.11 Core Materials... 17,12 Bleeder Schedules ..... xvAppendices .... 13 Hydraulic Fittings = Engines 3: Aircraft Lead-Acid Battery Theory .. 4: Aircraft Tires... IndexA aircraft drawings, types of .......... aircraft hardware standards . aircraft nationality identification aircraft nomenclature . axes of an airplane. types of aircraft structure . monocoaus .... 14 semimonocoque 15 truss 14 aircraft storage batteries lead-acid batteries ............ nickel-cadmium batteries .. alternating current ... aluminum alloys composition of .. mechanical properties of minimum bend radii for 90° bends .. aramid os area of a circle ATA-100 system ball peen hammer .. bearing strength, aluminum alloy sheet . bend allowance chart ... bending and forming tools 145 box brake ... 144 cornice brake .. 144, English wheel .. 145 press brake slip roll former 145. bleeder schedules .. blind rivets .... CherryMax rivets, Olympic-Lok rivets, huck rivet friction-lock rivets .. mechanical-lock rivets..... Index 347¢ carbon and graphite fibers .. carpenter's claw hammer center of gravity locating ....... CG datum aft of the main wheels nose wheel landing gear tail wheel landing gear CG datum forward of the airp! nose wheel landing gear ... CG datum forward of the main wheels tail wheel landing gear .... chemical elements, electron distribution 38 Chisels ...... cape chisel diamond point chisel .... flat chisel .. round nose chisel. circumference of a circle . combination set . compound curves, forming .. control cable tension control cable terminals control cables ....... control systems, types of push-pull rods torque tubes conversions .. core materials for composite applications .. corrosion exfoliation filiform . fretting galvanic intergranular SHOSS o.scceseserssrterstsssnnenssneeanseesiane surface and pitting types of .... corrosion control countersink... cowling fasteners cross-linking, resin systems cube roots of numbers .... 348 — Aviation Mechanics HandbookD decimal equivalents dial indicator . diameter of a circle .. dividers ., drill gage vee drill size, body and tap .. drills for wood and composite materials auger bits . - brad-point drills flat wood-boring bi forstner bits spade drill... eddy current inspection .. electrical formulas ... both capacitance and inductance . capacitance inductance .. resistance electrical symbols. capacitors... conductors connectors logic devices .. power sources resistors ..... Semiconductor devices switches ........ electrical system installation .. fabric weave styles... Federal Regulations, Title 14 Code of feeler gages fiber volumefluid line identification ... fraction equivalents . G geometric formulas H hand shears ..... compound shears 147 tin snips ..... 146 harness satin weaves heat treatment temperatures—aluminum alloys hermaphrodite calipers high-strength pin rivets. Hi-Lok fasteners Hi-Shear rivet ... Hi-Tigue fasteners holding tools ..... hole cutting tools .. large hole cutters fly cutter ... hole saws hook rule .... hydraulic relations ICAO standard atmosphere inside calipers K Kevlar® fiber .... L lines, meaning of .. liquids, density of location identificatior butt lines... fuselage stations water lines .... wing and horizontal stabilizer stations 350 Aviation Mechanics HandbookM magnetic particle inspection material symbols .. mathematical constants mathematical symbols ... mean aerodynamic chord measurement systems international system of units (SI) metric system ...... U.S. - metric conversion length 48 volume .. 49 weight . 48 measuring and layout tools... metalworking hammers .. body, or planishing hammer mallets and soft-face hammers sledge hammers ..... ‘straight peen and cross peen hammers metric equivalents micrometer caliper monocoque structuri nondestructive inspection .. number systems oO Ohm's law relationships .. outside calipers .. oxidation ... oxygen system servicing penetrant inspection .. plain weave ..... pliers .. combination/slip joint pliers needle-nose pliers... vise-grip pliers water pump plier ply orientation convention polymerization .. pounding tools ..automatic center punc! Genter PUNCH ven drift, or starting punch pin punch .. prick punch 167 transfer punch . 168 a quantity of liquid in a drum .... R radiography ... gamma rays .. 254 x-rays 253 reamers 187 resin mix ratios . 294 resin system .. 293 resistor color codes . 4 rib stitch knots ... 230 rib stiteh spacing . 229 rigid fluid lines 269 rivet head identification 220 rivets and riveting 218 aircraft solid rivets examples of rivet selection... 223 rivet diameter .. 219 rivet length .. 223 rivet material alternatives to riveting blind rivet code ..... installing flush rivets riveting tools 224 bucking bars 224 tivet sets . 224 rivets or bolts required 2017, 2024 . rivets or bolts required 5062 ..... s SAE classification of steel ..... safety wiring tools ... diagonal cutting pliers duckbill pliers ... safety wire twisting tool .. 352 Aviation Mechanics Handbooksaws band saw.. hacksaw wood saws . backsaw compass, or keyhole saw. crosscut saw ripsaw .. scarfing screw pitch gage screwdrivers .... offset screwdriver . tecessed-head screwdrivers .. screw heads for special structural screws slot screwdrivers screws ... aircraft screw heads . self-tapping sheet-metal screws set screws soriber ... selvage edge.. setbacl setback (K) chart shear strength of aluminum alloy rivets .. shears scroll shears squaring shears throatless shears... sheet metal layout and forming ........... definitions forming .. layout procedure small-hole gages socket wrenches extension and adaptors hand impact tool.... socket wrench handles typical socket-wrenches solids, density of square roots of numbers... standard taxi signals ..... standards, aircraft hardware steel rule stepping strength of steel related to its hardness switch derating factors ..T tap test . taps bottoming tap plug tap taper tap telescoping gages .... temper designations for aluminum alloys seve 124 heat-treatable alloys... non-heat-treatable alloys temperature conversion absolute temperature ‘tempering steel oxide color of various temperatures ... ‘thread form, Unified and American Standard thread repair hardware . acres sleeves .. helicoil insert threaded fasteners bolt fits ... bolt installation bolts .. nuts threaded fastener safetying ... cotter pins ..... locking washers safety wire and safety wire twisting threads and threading tools body and tap drill sizes screw pitch gage .. taps .. thread-cutting tools torque and torque wrenches click-type torque wrench deflecting-beam torque wrenc! recommended torque values torque conversions .... trigonometric functions ..... 354 = Aviation Mechanics Handbooktruss structure .. turnbuckles twill weave twist drill sharpening .. drill point gage... twist drill sizes . twist drills .. u ultrasonic inspection .... v vernier calipers vises bench vise drill press vise visual inspection .. w warp face .. warp yams washers. weave style numbers ... wire and circuit protectors wire size, selection of... wrenches adjustable open end wrench .. box end wrench... combination wrench .. flare nut wrench open end wrench ratcheting box wrench . ratcheting open end wrench Y yarn part numbering systems . yarns/tows .... Index 355Section 1: General Information 1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents Page 3 1.2 Conversions Page 4 1.3 Aircraft Nomenclature Page 13 1.4 ATA-100 System of Identification Page 16 1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification Page 21 1.6 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations Page 24 1.7 Standard Taxi Signals Page 27 1.8 Cylinder Color Code Identifiers Page 28 4: General Information1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents Fraction Fraction Decimal 1/64 1182 3/64 1/16 5/64 3/32 7164 9/64 5/32 11/64 36 13/64 732 15/64 V4 17/64 9/32 19/64 SIG 21/64 11/32 23/64 3/8 25/64 13/32 27/64 716 29/64 15/32 31/64 V2 33/64, 17/32 35/64. 9/16 37/64 19/32 39/64. 5/8 41/64 21/32 43/64 116 45/64 23/32 47/64 a4 49/64 25/32 51/64 13/16 53/64 27/32 55/64 718 57/64 29/32 59/64 15/16 61/64 31/32 63/64 1 0.5156 0.5313 0.5469 0.5625 0.5781 0.5938 0.6094 0.6250 0.6406 0.6563 0.6719 0.6875 0.7031 0.7188 0.7344 0.7500 0.7656 0.7813 0.7968 0.8125 0.8281 0.8438 0.8594 0.8750 0.8906 0.9063 0.9219 0.9375 0.9531 0.9688 0.9844 1.0000 4: General Information 341.2 Conversions Multiply By To Get ACES vse . square feet acres . . square meters acre feet . gallons. amperes / sq. cm. amperes / sq. inch .. ampere hours . ampere hours .. ampere turns ampere turns / cm. . amperes / sq. inch . amperes / sq. cm. . coulombs . faradays . gilberts . ampere turns / inch ampere turns / cm. . gilberts / cm. ampere turns / inch gilberts / centimeter ampere turns / meter . gilberts / centimeter atmospheres ...... . centimeters of mercury atmospheres, feet of water atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres barrels of oil dynes / sq. centimeter gram-calories joules kilogram-meters Buu .. kilowatt-hours Btu / hour foot-pounds / second Btu / hour horsepower-hours Btu / hour watts Btu / minute Btu / minute Btu / minute bushels..... bushels bushels bushels bushels foot-pounds / second 4 ~~ Aviation Mechanics HandbookMultiply By To Get 3.281 x 107 feat 0.3937 . inches 1.020 x 10° centimeter-grams 7.376 x 10% pound-feet centimeter-dynes pound-feet atmospheres feet of water kilograms / sq. meter pounds / sq. foot centimeters centimeters centimeter-dynes centimeter-dynes centimeter-grams centimeter-grams cm of mercury ... om of mercury cm of mercury cm of mercury .. cm of mercury em/ second cm/ second cm / second cm / second .. cm / second / second . em / second / second . circular mils circular mils circular mils coulombs... cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters .. cubic centimeters .. cubic centimeters . cubic feet iy bushels cubic feet cubic centimeters cubic feet cubic inches cubic feet cubic meters cubic feet gallons (U.S.) cubic feet liters cubic feet / minute cubic feet / minute cubic feet / second feet / second / second miles / hour / second square centimeters gallons / minute cubic inches ubic centimeters cubic inches subic feet cubic inches . cubic meters cubic inches .. cubic yards cubic inches .. se gallons (U.S.) 1: General Information 5Multiply To Get cubic inches liters cubic meters bushels cubic meters . cubic feet cubic meters. cubic inches cubic meters . cubic yards cubic meters .. gallons (U.S.) cubic yards cubic feet cubic yards cubic inches cubic yards cubic meters cubic yards gallons (U.S.) cubic yards liters gallons / second liters / second cubic yards / minute cubic yards / minute hours minutes seconds minutes quadrants radians seconds radians / second revolutions / minute revolutions / second grams days days days degrees (angular) degrees (angular) degrees (angular) degrees (angular) degrees / second degrees / second degrees / second drams . drams . ounces dynes . 1.020 x 10° grams dynes. . 107 joules / centimeter dynes . 10° joules / meter (newtons) dynes . 7.233 x 10° poundals dynes . 2.248 x 10° dynes / sq. centimeter......10°%..... pounds + bars 9.480 x 107", 1.0... 7.367 x 10° 0.2389 x 107 3.7250 x 104 10" os 0.2778 x 103 5.688 x 10° .. Btu dyne-centimeters. foot-pounds gram-calories horsepower-hours joules kilowatt-hours .. Btu / minute ergs / second .... ‘6 Aviation Mechanics Handbook